Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.21 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 6194 122330 122215 2026-09-24T23:53:13Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122330 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chigaŵa cha masamu}} {{About||the kind of algebraic structure|Algebra over a field|other uses}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Featured article}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2024 |cs1-dates=ly }} {{multiple image |perrow=1 / 1 |total_width=350 |image1=Polynomial2.svg |alt1=Polynomial equation: 2x^2 + 4x - 6 = 0 |link1=Polynomial equation |caption1=[[Elementary algebra|Algebra ya pulayimale]] yikusambira kuti ivyakuyaniska ivi vikuzirwa na vipimo vichi, ivyo vyakupangika mwakugwiliskira nchito za masamu. |image2=Ring of integers2.svg |alt2=Signature of the ring of integers |link2=Ring of integers |caption2=[[Abstract algebra|Algebra yakudumura]] yikusambira [[algebraic structure|magulu gha algebra]], nga umo mphete ya [[integer|vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]] vikuchemeka <math>(\Z)</math> pamoza na [[Algebraic operation|nchito]] za [[addition|kusazga]] ({{tmath|1= + }}) na [[multiplication|kwandaniska]] ({{tmath|1= \times }}). }} '''Algebra''' ni chigaŵa cha [[mathematics|masamu]] icho chikukhwaskana na ndondomeko zambura kuwoneka, izo zikuchemeka [[algebraic structure|magulu gha algebra]], na kugwiriskira nchito mazgu mukati mwa ndondomeko izo (ivyo vikuchemeka [[Expression (mathematics)|viyelezgero]]). Ni kusazgirako kwa [[arithmetic|masamu ghakwamba]], icho chikwiza na [[Variable (mathematics)|vyambura-kumanyikwa]] na nchito zinyake padera pa nchito za masamu ghakwamba, nga [[addition|kusazga]] na [[multiplication|kwandaniska]]. [[Elementary algebra|Algebra ya pulayimale]] ndiyo nthowa yikuru ya algebra iyo yikusambizgika mu masukulu. Iwo ukusanda mazgu gha masamu mwakugwiliskira nchito vyakusintha vya vigaŵa vyambura kumanyikwa, na kukhumba kumanya kuti ni mikhaliro wuli iyo mazgu agha ghali ghaunenesko. Kuti ŵacite nthena, ŵakugwiriskira nchito nthowa zakupambana-pambana zakusinthira vyakuyaniska kuti ŵapature vinthu vyakusintha vya vigaŵa. [[Linear algebra|Algebra ya mzere]] ni chigaŵa chakukolerana chomene na algebra ya pulayimale, icho chikufufuza vyakuyaniska vya mzere na kunozgeka kwake, ivyo vikuchemeka ''[[system of linear equations|magulu gha vyakuyaniska vya mzere]]''. Chikupereka nthowa zakusanga vipimo ivyo vikwaniska vyakuyaniska vyose mu gulu pa nyengo yimoza, na kusambira gulu la vigaŵa ivi. <!-- paragraphs 1 and 2 are transcluded into [[Outline of algebra]] --> [[Abstract algebra|Algebra yakudumura]] yikusambira [[Algebraic structure|magulu gha algebra]], ivyo vikupangika na gulu la vinthu vya masamu pamoza na nchito yimoza panji zinandi izo zikulongosoreka pa gulu ilo. Ni kusazgirako kwa algebra ya pulayimale na ya mzere, chifukwa chikuzomerezga vinthu vinyake padera pa vipendeko na nchito zambura kuŵa za masamu ghakwamba. Chikupambaniska pakati pa mitundu yakupambana-pambana ya magulu gha algebra, nga [[Group (mathematics)|magulu]], [[Ring (mathematics)|mphete]], na [[Field (mathematics)|minda]], kuyana na unandi wa nchito izo zikugwiriskirika ntchito na madango agho ghakulondezgeka, ghakuchemeka [[axioms|madango ghakuzomerezgeka]]. [[Universal algebra|Algebra ya wonse]] na [[category theory|sambiro la mikhaliro]] vikupereka vipangiro vyakuwaneko kuti vifufuze vipimo vyambura kuwoneka ivyo vikulongosora magulu ghakupambana-pambana gha algebra. Nthowa za algebra zikasambika dankha mu [[ancient period|nyengo yakale]] kuti zithaske masuzgo ghapadera mu vigaŵa nga [[geometry]]. Ichi chikasintha mu vilimika vya m'ma 800 na [[Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]], uyo wakanozga algebra kuŵa chigaŵa chakujipeleka cha masamu, chakupambana na geometry. Ŵasandi ŵakwamba ŵakalongosoranga vyakuyaniska na vyakuvitatuza mwakugwiliskira nchito mazgu na vifupikizgo, m'paka mu vilimika vya m'ma 1500 na 1600, apo nthowa yakukhwima ya viwimbo (symbols) yikapangika. Pakati pa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, uzelu wa algebra ukasazgirapo kuluska sambiro la vyakuyaniska pera na kusazgako mitundu yakupambana-pambana ya nchito na magulu gha algebra. Algebra yikukhwaskana na vigaŵa vinandi vya masamu, nga geometry, [[topology]], [[number theory|sambiro la vipendeko]], na [[calculus]], kweniso vigaŵa vinyake, nga [[logic]] na [[empirical sciences|kasandiro kakuzenga pa vyakuwonekera]]. == Ng'anamuro na Muko wa Lizgu == Algebra ni nthambi ya masamu iyo yikusambira magulu gha algebra na nchito izo ghakugwiliskira ntchito.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA4 4]}} }}</ref> Gulu la algebra ni gulu la vinthu vya masamu ilo lilije kuŵa lambura kanthu, nga vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika, pamoza na nchito za algebra izo zikulongosoreka pa gulu ilo, nga kusazga na kwandaniska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiche|Hebuterne|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TqkckiuuXg8C&pg=PT326 326]}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and Its Connection with Other Branches of Mathematics.}} | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA4 4]}} }}</ref>{{efn|When understood in the widest sense, an algebraic operation is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] from a [[Cartesian product#n-ary Cartesian power|Cartesian power of a set into that set]], expressed formally as {{tmath|1= \omega: A^n \to A }}. The addition of real numbers is an example of an algebraic operation: it takes two numbers as input and produces one number as output. It has the form {{nowrap|<math>+: \R^2 \to \R</math>.<ref>{{harvnb|Baranovich|2023|loc=Lead section}}</ref>}}}} Algebra yikufufuza malango, mikhaliro yose, na mitundu ya magulu gha algebra. Mu magulu ghanyake gha algebra, yikuwoneseska umo vinthu vyakusintha (vyambura-kumanyikwa) vikugwiriskirika ntchito mu vyakuyaniska na umo vingachitikira kuvisintha.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 1. Elementary Algebra, § 2. Abstract Algebra, § 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and Its Connection with Other Branches of Mathematics.}} }}</ref>{{efn|Algebra is covered by division 512 in the [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]<ref>{{harvnb|Higham|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ferEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296 296]}}</ref> and subclass QA 150{{hyphen}}272.5 in the [[Library of Congress Classification]].<ref>{{harvnb|Library of Congress|p=3}}</ref> It encompasses several areas in the [[Mathematics Subject Classification]].<ref>{{harvnb|zbMATH Open|2024}}</ref>}} Kanandi algebra yikupulikiskika kuŵa kusazgirako kwa [[arithmetic|masamu ghakwamba]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=129}} | {{harvnb|Burgin|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWF2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 45]}} }}</ref> Masamu ghakwamba ghakusambira nchito nga kusazga, [[subtraction|kuwuskapo]], kwandaniska, na [[Division (mathematics)|kugaŵa]], mu chigaŵa chinyake cha vipendeko, nga vipendeko vyaunenesko.<ref name="auto1">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Romanowski|2008|pp=302–303}} | {{harvnb|HC Staff|2022}} | {{harvnb|MW Staff|2023}} | {{harvnb|Bukhshtab|Pechaev|2020}} }}</ref> [[Elementary algebra|Algebra ya pulayimale]] njiyo mlingo wakwamba wa kudumuka. Nga umo masamu ghakwamba ghakucitira, yikujikanizga ku mitundu yinyake ya vipendeko na nchito. Yikusazgirapo nchito izi mwakuzomerezga unandi wambura kumanyikwa mu mtundu wa vyambura-kumanyikwa padera pa vipendeko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=129–130}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Wagner|Kieran|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uW4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 225]}} }}</ref> Mlingo wapachanya wa kudumuka ukusangika mu [[abstract algebra|algebra yakudumura]], iyo yikumara yayi pa chigaŵa chinyake ndipo yikuwoneseska magulu gha algebra nga [[Group (mathematics)|magulu]] na [[Ring (mathematics)|mphete]]. Yikuluta kuluska nchito zamasamu ghakwamba mwakusazgaposo mitundu yinyake ya nchito.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Wagner|Kieran|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uW4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 225]}} }}</ref> [[Universal algebra|Algebra ya wonse]] njakudumura comenecomene chifukwa yikupulikira yayi magulu gha algebra ghapadera, kweni yikufufuza mikhaliro ya magulu gha algebra mwaunenesko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Grillet|2007|p=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-71568-1_15 559]}} | {{harvnb|Denecke|Wismath|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2UlZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v]}} | {{harvnb|Cohn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6tbuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii]}} }}</ref> [[File:Image-Al-Kitāb al-muḫtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala.jpg|upright=.8|thumb|alt=Title page of The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|Lizgu lakuti ''algebra'' likufuma ku mutu wa buku la [[al-Khwarizmi]] lakuti {{transliteration|ar|[[Al-Jabr]]}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cresswell|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4i3zV4vnBAC&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|OUP Staff}} | {{harvnb|Menini|Oystaeyen|2017|p=722}} }}</ref>]] Lizgu lakuti ''algebra'' nyengo zinyake likugwiriskirika ntchito mwakucepa kuti likung'anamurenge waka algebra ya pulayimale panji algebra yakudumura yekha.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=46}} | {{harvnb|Walz|2016|loc=[https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 Algebra]}} }}</ref> Para likugwiriskirika ntchito nga zina lakuŵerengeka, algebra ni mtundu unyake wa gulu la algebra uwo ukukhwaskana na malo gha [[vector space|vector]] agho ghali na mtundu unyake wa nchito ya viŵiri viŵiri, iyo yikuchemeka [[bilinear map|nchito yakuŵiriska]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=46}} | {{harvnb|Brešar|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PkvPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR33 xxxiii]}} | {{harvnb|Golan|1995|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8502-6_18 219–227]}} }}</ref> Kulingana na umo vikuyowoyekera, algebra yingayowoyaso za vigaŵa vinyake vya algebra, nga [[Lie algebra]] panji [[associative algebra|algebra yakukolerana]].<ref>{{harvnb|EoM Staff|2017}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti ''algebra'' likufuma ku lizgu la Chiarabu lakuti {{lang|ar|الجبر}} ({{transliteration|ar|al-jabr}}), ilo pakwamba likang'anamuranga opareshoni yakuchizgira viwangwa. Mu vilimika vya m'ma 800 C.E., lizgu ili likaŵa na ng'anamuro la masamu apo [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]], uyo wakasambiranga masamu ku Persia, wakagwiriskira ntchito lizgu ili kuti wazunure nthowa yakusinthira vyakuyaniska. Wakagwiriskira ntchito lizgu ili pa mutu wa buku lake, ilo mutu wake ukung'anamulika kuti {{transliteration|ar|[[Al-Jabr|al-Kitāb al-Mukhtaṣar fī Ḥisāb al-Jabr wal-Muqābalah]]}} [Buku Lakulongosora Kupenda mwa Kumalizga na Kulinganiza]. Mutu uwu ukang'anamulika mu Chilatini kuti {{lang|la|Liber Algebrae et Almucabola}}.{{efn|The exact meaning of the term {{transliteration|ar|al-jabr}} in al-Khwarizmi's work is disputed. In some passages, it expresses that a quantity diminished by subtraction is restored to its original value, similar to how a bonesetter restores broken bones by bringing them into proper alignment.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Oaks|Alkhateeb|2007|pp=45–46, 58}} | {{harvnb|Gandz|1926|p=437}} }}</ref>}} Lizgu ili likanjira mu Chingelezi mu vilimika vya m'ma 1500 kufuma ku Chiitaliya, Chisipanishi, na Chilatini cha mu nyengo ya Ŵamitundu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cresswell|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4i3zV4vnBAC&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|OUP Staff}} | {{harvnb|Menini|Oystaeyen|2017|p=722}} | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=10}} }}</ref> Pakwamba, ng'anamuro lake likaŵa waka pa fundo yakuti [[theory of equations|kufundizga vyakuyaniska]], ndikuti, uzeru wa kusintha [[polynomial equations|vyakuyaniska vyakuvinandi]] mwakukhumba kuvitatuza. Ichi chikasintha mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800{{efn|These changes were in part triggered by discoveries that solved many of the older problems of algebra. For example, the proof of the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] demonstrated the existence of complex solutions of polynomials<ref name="auto7">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=308}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra}} }}</ref> and the introduction of [[Galois theory]] characterized the polynomials that have [[solution in radicals|general solutions]].<ref name="auto2">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=314–345}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Galois Theory, § Applications of Group Theory}} }}</ref>}} apo uzelu wa algebra ukasazgirapo kuti ukwatire kusambira mitundu yakupambana-pambana ya nchito na magulu gha algebra pamoza na [[axiom|madango ghakuzomerezgeka]] ghawo, malango agho ghakulondezgeka.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Structural Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73–74]}} }}</ref> == Vigaŵa Vikuru == === Algebra ya Pulayimale === {{main|Elementary algebra}} [[File:algebraic equation notation.svg|thumb|right|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of an algebraic expression|Umo mazgu gha algebra ghakulembeka:<br />&nbsp; 1 – chikwezgo (exponent)<br />&nbsp; 2 – muwandaniso (coefficient)<br />&nbsp; 3 – chigaŵa (term)<br />&nbsp; 4 – chiwimbo cha nchito (operator)<br />&nbsp; 5 – chigaŵa cambura-kusintha (constant term)<br />&nbsp; <math>c</math> – cambura-kusintha (constant)<br />&nbsp; <math>x</math> <math>y</math> – vyambura-kumanyikwa (variables)]] Algebra ya pulayimale, iyo yikuchemekaso algebra ya sukulu, ndiyo ni algebra yakale chomene ndiposo yakuzirwa chomene.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N2R9DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} | {{harvnb|Benson|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nNbnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111–112]}} }}</ref> Ni generalization ya masamu ghakwamba iyo yikuthemba pa vyakusintha (vyambura-kumanyikwa) na kusanda umo mazgu gha masamu ghangasinthira.<ref name="auto4">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=129}} | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ 1. Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Masamu ghakwamba ni kasandiro ka nchito za manambara. Ghakufufuza umo manambara ghakusazgikira na kusinthika mwakugwiliskira ntchito kusazga, [[subtraction|kuwuskapo]], [[multiplication|kwandaniska]], [[Division (mathematics)|kugaŵa]], kuwoneska (exponentiation), kufumiska misisi (roots), na [[logarithm|logarithimu]]. Mwachiyelezgero, nchito ya kusazga yikusazga manambara ghaŵiri, ghakuchemeka vyakusazgika, kuŵa nambara yachitatu, iyo yikuchemeka [[sum|muzgoro]], nga umo <math>2 + 5 = 7</math>.<ref name="auto1"/> Algebra ya pulayimale yikuthemba pa nchito zenezo waka kweni yikuzomerezga vyambura-kumanyikwa padera pa manambara ghaŵaka. Vyambura-kumanyikwa ni viwimbo vya vinthu ivyo vindamanyikwe panji ivyo vyambura kumanyikwa. Vikupangiska kuti wanthu ŵayowoye ukoli uwo munthu wandaumanye mwakukhwima, na kuyowoya malango ghakumanyikwa agho ghali ghaunenesko, kwambura kupwelelera manambara agho ghakugwiriskirika ntchito. Mwachiyelezgero, cakuyaniska <math>2 \times 3 = 3 \times 2</math> chikuŵa cha masamu ghakwamba ndipo chikulongora kuyana kwa manambara agha ghekha. Para tikapoka manambara na vyambura-kumanyikwa, tingayowoya dango likuru ilo likulongosoreka ku kunozgeka kose kwa manambara, nga dango la kusintha malo (commutative property) la kwandaniska, ilo likulongosoreka mu cakuyaniska {{nowrap|<math>a \times b = b \times a</math>.<ref name="auto4"/>}} [[Algebraic expression|Mazgu gha algebra]] ghakupangika mwakugwiliskira nchito za masamu ghakwamba kuti akole pamoza vyambura-kumanyikwa na manambara. Mwakuyana na umo vikuŵira, vilembo vichoko nga ni <math>x</math>, <math>y</math>, na <math>z</math> vikwimira vyambura-kumanyikwa. Mu vinthu vinyake, viwimbo vyapasi (subscripts) vikusazgikako kupambaniska vyambura-kumanyikwa, nga <math>x_1</math>, <math>x_2</math>, na <math>x_3</math>. Vilembo vichoko-choko nga ni <math>a</math>, <math>b</math>, na <math>c</math> kanandi ghakugwiriskirika ntchito pa vyambura-kusintha (constants) na vyakusazgirako pa kwandaniska (coefficients).{{efn|Constants represent fixed numbers that do not change during the study of a specific problem.<ref>{{harvnb|Sobolev|2015}}</ref>}} Mazgu ghakuti <math>5x + 3</math> ni mazgu gha algebra ghakupangika mwa kuchulukizga nambara 5 na cambura-kusintha <math>x</math> na kusazgako nambara 3 ku ivyo vikusangika. Vyakuwoneska vinyake vya mazgu gha algebra ni <math>32xyz</math> na {{nowrap|<math>64x_1{}^2 + 7x_2 - c</math>.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=129–130}} | {{harvnb|Young|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=RA1-PA999 999]}} | {{harvnb|Majewski|2004|p=347}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Sorell|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EksSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}} }}</ref>}} Mazgu ghanyake gha algebra ghakuŵa nga mazgu ghakukhwaskana na mazgu ghaŵiri pamoza. [[Equation|Cakuyaniska]] ni mazgu ghakupangika mwa kuyerezgera mazgu ghaŵiri, kuyowoya kuti ghakuyana waka. Ichi chingalongoreka mwakugwiliskira nchito chiwimbo cha kuyana ({{tmath|1= = }}), nga <math>5x^2 + 6x = 3y + 4</math>. [[Inequation|Vyambura-kuyana]] vikukhwaskana na mtundu wakupambana wa kuyerezgera, kuyowoya kuti vigaŵa viŵiri ivi ni vyakupambana. Ichi chingalongoreka mwakugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo nga chiwimbo cha kuchepa ({{tmath|1= < }}), chiwimbo cha kuluska ({{tmath|1= > }}), na chiwimbo cha kupambana ({{tmath|1= \neq }}). Kupambana na mazgu ghanyake, mazgu agha ghangaŵa ghaunenesko panji ghautesi, ndipo unenesko wawo ukuthemba pa mtengo wa vinthu ivyo vikusintha. Mwachiyelezgero, mazgu ghakuti <math>x^2 = 4</math> ni ghaunenesko usange <math>x</math> ni 2 panji −2, ndipo ghautesi mwakupambanako. Ma equation ghakukhala na vyambura-kumanyikwa vingagaŵika mu ma equation ghakumanyikwa (identity equations) na ma equation ghakukhazikika (conditional equations). Ma equation ghakumanyikwa ghali ghaunenesko pa vyose ivyo vingapelekeka ku vyambura-kumanyikwa, nga cakuyaniska {{tmath|1= 2x + 5x = 7x }}. Ma equation ghakukhazikika ghakuŵa ghaunenesko waka pa vinyake vyakusintha. Mwachiyelezgero, cakuyaniska <math>x + 4 = 9</math> ni chaunenesko waka usange <math>x</math> ni 5.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Musser|Peterson|Burger|2013|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Goodman|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TvY7DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} | {{harvnb|Williams|2022}} }}</ref> Chakulinga chikuru cha algebra ya pulayimale nkhumanya mtengo uwo mazgu ghakuyowoyeka ghaunenesko. Ici cingacitika mwa kusintha na kugwiliskira nchito mazgu mwakuyana na malango ghanyake. Fundo yikuru njakuti nchito yiliyose iyo yikuchitika ku chigaŵa chimoza cha cakuyaniska yikweneraso kuchitika ku chigaŵa chinyake. Mwachiyelezgero, usange munthu wawuskako 5 ku chigaŵa cha kumaryero, wakwenerato kuwuskako 5 ku chigaŵa cha kumalyero kuti ŵalinganiske vigaŵa vyose viŵiri. Chilato cha ndondomeko izi nkhupatura chinthu icho munthu wakukhumba ku chigaŵa chimoza, ndondomeko iyo yikumanyikwa kuti nkhumazga cakuyaniska kwa chinthu icho chikusintha. Mwachiyelezgero, cakuyaniska <math>x - 7 = 4</math> chingamazgika kwa <math>x</math> mwa kusazgako 7 ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri, ivyo vikupatura <math>x</math> ku chigaŵa cha kumaryero na kusanga cakuyaniska {{tmath|1= x = 11 }}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=130}} | {{harvnb|McKeague|1986|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sq7iBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 51–54]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ 1. Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Pali nthowa zinyake zinandi izo zikugwiriskirika ntchito kumazga ma equation. [[Simplification (algebra)|Kupepuska]] kukugwiriskirika ntchito kuti chiŵike mazgu ghakusuzga na ghanyake ghakuyana kweni ghapusu. Mwachiyelezgero, mazgu ghakuti <math>7x - 3x</math> ghangaŵikika na mazgu ghakuti <math>4x</math> chifukwa <math>7x - 3x = (7-3)x = 4x</math> mwa dango la [[distributive property|kugaŵanya]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tan|Steeb|Hardy|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UDb0BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306 306]}} | {{harvnb|Lamagna|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8PSDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 150]}} }}</ref> Pa mazgu agho ghali na vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi, kuŵikirapo m'malo mwake (substitution) ni nthowa yakumanyikwa yakusinthira chinthu chimoza na mazgu ghakuyana ghambura kusazgako cambura-kusintha ico. Mwachiyelezgero, usange munthu wamanya kuti <math>y = 3x</math>, wangapepuska mazgu ghakuti <math>7xy</math> na kusanga {{tmath|1= 21x^2 }}. Munthowa yakuyana, usange munthu wamanya mtengo wa cambura-kusintha chimoza, wangagwiriskira ntchito umo kumanya mtengo wa vinyake.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Solving Systems of Algebraic Equations}} | {{harvnb|McKeague|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nI7iBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA386 386]}} | {{harvnb|McKeague|1986|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sq7iBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA148 148]}} }}</ref> [[File:Graph (y = 0.5x - 1).svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Graph of equation "y = 0.5x − 1"|Ma equation gha algebra ghangagwiriskirika ntchito kulongosora vithuzi vya geometry. Mtengo wose wa <math>x</math> na <math>y</math> uwo ukumazga cakuyaniska ukupulikiskika kuŵa songo. Vikulembeka nga mzere wa cikuwundi, wakukwera, mu giraf yakucanya.]] Ma equation gha algebra ghangamasulika mu [[geometry]] kuti ghalongosore viŵelengero vya malo mu mtundu wa [[graph of a function|giraf]]. Vinthu vyakupambana-pambana ivyo vili mu equation vikupulikikwa nga ni [[Cartesian coordinate system|maryeruzgo]], ndipo vigaŵa ivyo vikumazga equation vikung'anamulika nga ni fundo za giraf. Mwachiyelezgero, usange <math>x</math> yikuŵikika pa zero mu equation {{tmath|1= y=0.5x - 1 }}, mbwenu <math>y</math> yikwenera kuŵa negative one kuti equation yiŵe yaunenesko. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti mafupa gha <math>(x, y)</math> ghakuti <math>(0, -1)</math> ni chigaŵa cha giraf ya equation. Mafupa gha <math>(x, y)</math> ghakuti {{tmath|1= (0, 7) }}, mwakupambanako, ghakumazga yayi equation ndipo ntheura ghali yayi chigaŵa cha giraf. Grafu yikukhwaska chiŵelengero chose cha x,y paŵiri awo ŵakumazga equation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=130–131}} | {{harvnb|Rohde|Jain|Poddar|Ghosh|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vk2XbZpsBOwC&pg=PT89 89]}} | {{harvnb|Walz|2016|loc=[https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 Algebra]}}}}</ref> ==== Ma Polynomial ==== {{main|Polynomial}} [[Polynomial|Polynomial]] ni mazgu ghakuchitika na chigaŵa chimoza panji vinandi ivyo vikusazgika panji kuwuskika pakati pawo, nga {{tmath|1= x^4+3xy^2+5x^3-1 }}. Chigaŵa chilichose ni cambura-kusintha, cambura-kumanyikwa, panji muzgoro wa cambura-kusintha na vyambura-kumanyikwa. Cambura-kumanyikwa chilichose chingakwezgeka ku chikwezgo cha cipendeko cambura kupambika (positive integer). Polynomial ya chigaŵa chimoza yikuchemeka [[monomial]], apo polynomial za vigaŵa viŵiri na vitatu zikuchemeka [[binomial]] na [[trinomial]]. [[Degree of a polynomial|Digiri ya polynomial]] ni mtengo wapachanya wa muzgoro wa vikwezgo vya vyambura-kumanyikwa (pakati pa vigaŵa vyake) (4 mu chiyelezgero ichi pacanya).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bracken|Miller|2014|pp=386–387}} | {{harvnb|Kaufmann|Schwitters|2011|p=220}} | {{harvnb|Markushevich|2015}} }}</ref> Ma polynomial gha digiri yimoza ghakuchemeka ''ma polynomial gha mzere''. Algebra ya mzere yikusambira magulu gha ma polynomial gha mzere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sahai|Bist|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yjkgNYfApj4C&pg=PA21 21]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Barrera-Mora|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xmu8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix, 1–2]}} }}</ref> Polynomial yikuchemeka ''univariate'' panji ''multivariate'', kuyana na usange yikugwiriskira ntchito cambura-kumanyikwa chimoza panji vinandi.<ref>{{harvnb|Geddes|Czapor|Labahn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fOUwkkRxT4C&pg=PA46 46]}}</ref> [[Factorization|Kugaŵaniska]] ni nthowa yakugwiriskira ntchito kupepuska ma polynomial, kupangiska kuti chiŵe chapusu kuvisanda na kumanya vigaŵa ivyo vikuŵa zero. Kugaŵaniska nkhulembaso polynomial kuŵa muzgoro wa vigaŵaniso vinandi. Mwachiyelezgero, polynomial <math>x^2 - 3x - 10</math> yingagaŵaniskika kuŵa {{tmath|1= (x + 2)(x - 5) }}. Polynomial yose njizero pekha usange chimoza mwa vigaŵaniso vyake ni zero, ndikuti, usange <math>x</math> ni −2 panji 5.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lukas|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1-dvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 47–49]}} | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Algebraic Expressions, § Solving Algebraic Equations}} }}</ref> Pambere vilimika vya m'ma 1800 vindafike, vigaŵa vinandi vya algebra vikaŵanga vya equation ya polynomial, equation iyo yikasangika para munthu wakuyaniska polynomial na zero. Kuyezgayezga kwakwamba kwa kumazga ma equation gha polynomial kukaŵa kwakuti ŵalongore vyakumazga mu mazgu gha misisi ya nth. Muzgoro wa equation ya polynomial ya digiri yachiŵiri ukuperekeka na fomula ya quadratic<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Solving algebraic equations}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Classical algebra}} }}</ref> <math display="block">x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt {b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.</math> Mayankho gha madigiri ghatatu na ghanayi ghakupelekeka na mafomula gha [[cubic formula|cubic]] na [[quartic formula|quartic]]. Palije mayankho ghakumanyikwa ghakumazgira madigiri ghapachanya, nga umo vikawonekera mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800 na [[Abel–Ruffini theorem|fundo ya Abel-Ruffini]].<ref name="auto3"/> Nanga ni para mayankho ghakumanyikwa ghalipo yayi, mayankho ghakuyana waka ghangasangika mwakugwiliskira nchito vipangizo vya manambara nga [[Newton–Raphson method|nthowa ya Newton-Raphson]].<ref>{{harvnb|Igarashi|Altman|Funada|Kamiyama|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=58ySAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}}</ref> [[Fundamental theorem of algebra|Fundo yikuru ya algebra]] yikuti equation yiliyose ya univariate polynomial ya digiri yiwemi iyo yili na coefficients yeneco panji yakusuzga yili na yankho limoza lakusuzga. Ntheura, polynomial yiliyose ya digiri yiwemi yingagaŵika mu ma [[polynomial factorization|polynomial gha mzere]]. Fundo yikuzirwa iyi yikakhozgeka kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, kweni yikupereka yayi nthowa yiliyose yakusangirapo vyakumazga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Solving algebraic equations}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=308}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra}} }}</ref> === Algebra ya Mzere === {{main|Linear algebra}} Algebra ya mzere yikwamba na kusambira [[System of linear equations|ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Barrera-Mora|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xmu8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix, 1–2], }} }}</ref> [[Linear equation|Equation njakumzere]] usange yingalembeka mu njila ya {{tmath|1= a_1x_1 + a_2x_2 + ... + a_nx_n = b}}, apo {{tmath|1= a_1 }}, {{tmath|1= a_2 }}, ..., <math>a_n</math> na <math>b</math> ni vyambura-kusintha. Vyakuyelezgera ni <math>x_1 - 7x_2 + 3x_3 = 0</math> na {{tmath|1= \textstyle \frac{1}{4} x - y = 4 }}. ''Ndondomeko ya ma equation gha mzere'' ni gulu la ma equation gha mzere agho munthu wakukhumba kusanga vyakumazga vyakuyana pakati pawo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=2–3}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Voitsekhovskii|2011}} }}</ref> [[Matrix (mathematics)|Ma matrix]] ni magulu ghakuŵungana gha manambara mwakachilato (rows na columns) agho ghakambiliranga kwiziliska nga chiwimbo chakufinya na chakuyana mwakukwana cha ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Saikia|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KhM7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Lal|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FwPNDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} | {{harvnb|Mirakhor|Krichene|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G6XNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT107 107]}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, ndondomeko ya ma equation <math display="block"> \begin{align} 9x_1 + 3x_2 - 13x_3 &= 0 \\ 2.3x_1 + 7x_3 &= 9 \\ -5x_1 - 17x_2 &= -3 \end{align} </math> yingalembeka nga <math display="block">AX=B,</math> apo {{tmath|1= A }}, <math>X</math> na <math>B</math> ni ma matrix <math display="block">A=\begin{bmatrix}9 & 3 & -13 \\ 2.3 & 0 & 7 \\ -5 & -17 & 0 \end{bmatrix}, \quad X= \begin{bmatrix}x_1 \\ x_2 \\ x_3 \end{bmatrix},\quad B = \begin{bmatrix}0 \\ 9 \\ -3 \end{bmatrix}.</math> Kuyana na vinjeru vya chiŵelengero cha mizere na mizati, ma matrix ghangasazgika, ghangandaniskika, ndipo nyengo zinyake ghangapiluskika (ghangawendeskeka mwakupiluka).{{efn|Kupiluskika (inversion) nkhung'anamura kusanga matrix yinyake iyo, para yandaniskika na matrix yakwamba, yikupeleka matrix ya "identity"—iyo njakuyana na cipendeko 1 pa nkhani ya kwandaniska manambara.}} Nthowa zose zakumazgira ndondomeko za mzere zingalongosoreka nga vyakuwendeska matrix mwakugwiliskira nchito izi. Mwachiyelezgero, kumazga ndondomeko yamucanya nkhupenja matrix yakupiluskika <math>A^{-1}</math> iyo <math>A^{-1}A = I,</math> apo <math>I</math> ni [[identity matrix|matrix ya identity]]. Penepapo, kwandaniska ku mkono wamazere mbali zose ziŵiri za equation ya matrix yamucanya na <math>A^{-1},</math> munthu wakusanga muzgoro wa ndondomeko ya ma equation gha mzere nga<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brown|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=POlVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 30–31]}} | {{harvnb|Waerden|2003|pp=70–72}} }}</ref> <math display="block">X=A^{-1}B.</math> Nthowa zakumazgira ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere zikwambira ku izo zili zapafupi kumanya, nga kwiza-mu-malo-mwa (substitution)<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Young|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=PA697 697–698]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Sullivan|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NKaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–54]}} }}</ref> na kuwuskapo (elimination),<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=7–8}} | {{harvnb|Sullivan|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NKaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 55–56]}} | {{harvnb|Atanasiu|Mikusinski|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VbySDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}}}}</ref> kufika ku vipangizo vyapachanya ivyo vikugwiliskira ntchito ma matrix, nga [[Cramer's rule|dango la Cramer]], [[Gaussian elimination|kuwuskapo kwa Gauss]], na [[LU decomposition|kugaŵaniska kwa LU]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=7–8, 11, 491}} }}</ref> Ndondomeko zinyake za ma equation nizambura-kuyana (inconsistent),<ref name="auto10">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=3–7}} | {{harvnb|Mortensen|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYDrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73–74]}} | {{harvnb|Young|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pMSZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA714 714–715]}} }}</ref> ndikuti, vyakumazga vilipo yayi chifukwa ma equation ghakususkana wene.{{efn|Mwachiyelezgero, ma equation <math>x_1 - 3x_2 = 0</math> na <math>x_1 - 3x_2 = 7</math> ghakususkana wene chifukwa palije mtengo wa <math>x_1</math> na <math>x_2</math> uwo ungamazga ma equation ghaŵiri ghara pa nyengo yimoza.<ref name="auto10"/>}} Ndondomeko zakuyana zili na yankho limoza lakupambanapambana panji viŵelengero vyambura kumazgika vya vyakumazga.<ref name="auto11">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Harrison|Waldron|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_sisAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT464 464]}} | {{harvnb|Anton|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=neYGCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA255 255]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Usange ndondomeko yakuyana ya ma equation yili na yankho limoza pera, ivi vikukhozga pa chiŵelengero cha vyambura-kumanyikwa na ma [[independent equation|equation ghakujipima paŵiri]]. Ma equation ghakuti ghakujipima paŵiri usange ghakupeleka yayi mzimu umoza ndipo ghangafuma yayi kuchimoza na chinyake. Yankho limoza likuŵako usange chiŵelengero cha vyambura-kumanyikwa nchakuyana na chiŵelengero cha ma equation ghakujipima paŵiri. [[Underdetermined system|Ndondomeko zambura kumazgikirathu]], kusambazgana na izi, zili na vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi kuluska ma equation ghakujipima paŵiri ndipo zili na viŵelengero vyambura kumazgika vya vyakumazga usange nizakuyana.<ref name="auto11"/>}} Kusambira [[vector space|malo gha vector]] na [[linear map|mapu gha mzere]] nkhukuru mu algebra ya mzere. Malo gha vector ni gulu la algebra ilo likupangika na gulu (set) lino lili na kusazga uko kukupangiska kuŵa [[abelian group|gulu la abelian]] na kwandaniska na cipendeko (scalar multiplication) uko kukuyanapo na kusazga (wonani [[vector space|malo gha vector]] kuti mumanye vinandi). Mapu gha mzere ni nchito (function) pakati pa malo gha vector iyo yikuyanapo na kusazga na kwandaniska na cipendeko. Pa nkhani ya [[finite-dimensional vector space|malo gha vector ghakumalira]], ma vector na mapu gha mzere ghangayimilirika na ma matrix. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti masambiro gha ma matrix na malo gha vector ghakumalira ghakuyana waka. Comenecomene, malo gha vector ghakupereka nthowa yachitatu yakulongosolera na kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Valenza|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7x8MCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 vii]}} | {{harvnb|Chahal|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BGR8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 § 1.1 What is Linear Algebra?]}} | {{harvnb|Solomon|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BpvSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57–58, 61–62]}} | {{harvnb|Ricardo|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s7bMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA389 389]}} }}</ref> Kwiza pa mkhalidwe uwu, matrix ni chithunzithunzi cha mapu gha mzere: usange munthu wakusankha [[Basis (linear algebra)|msingi]] wanyake wakulongosolera ma vector agho ghakusinthika, mbwenu ivyo vikulembeka mu matrix vikupereka vyakufumapo vya kugwiliskira ntchito mapu gha mzere ku ma vector gha msingi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Solomon|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BpvSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} | {{harvnb|Ricardo|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s7bMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA395 395–396]}} }}</ref> [[File:Linear Function Graph.svg|thumb|alt=Graph of two linear equations|Ma equation gha mzere agho ghali na vyambura-kumanyikwa viŵiri ghangang'anamulika nga [[Line (geometry)|mizere]]. Yankho la ndondomeko ya ma equation gha mzere ni apo mizere yikukhwaskana.]] Ndondomeko za ma equation zingang'anamulika nga vithunzithunzi vya geometry. Ku ndondomeko zakuŵa na vyambura-kumanyikwa viŵiri, equation yiliyose yikwimira [[Line (geometry)|mzere]] mu [[two-dimensional space|malo gha mibaru yiŵiri]]. Apo mizere yiŵiri yikukhwaskana ndipo ni yankho la ndondomeko yose chifukwa apa ndipapera apo pakumazga equation yakwamba na yachiŵiri pamoza. Ku ndondomeko zambura-kuyana, mizere yiŵiri yikwenda mwakuyana kwambura kukhwaskana, ndikuti, palije yankho chifukwa yikukhwaskana yayi nakale. Usange ma equation ghaŵiri ngambura kujipima paŵiri, ghakulongosora mzere umoza wene, ndikuti, yankho la equation yimoza njakumazgaso equation yinyake. Vyakuyanapo ivi vikupangiska kuti munthu wasange vyakumazga mwakuwona pa giraf, kulemba ma equation na kumanya apo ghakukhwaskana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=3–5}} | {{harvnb|Young|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=PA696 696–697]}} | {{harvnb|Sneyd|Fewster|McGillivray|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 211]}} }}</ref> Fundo zenezi zikugwira ntchito so ku ndondomeko za ma equation zakuŵa na vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi, kweni kupambana nkhwakuti ma equation agha ghakulongosora yayi mizere kweni vithunzithunzi vyapachanya kuluska. Mwachiyelezgero, ma equation gha vyambura-kumanyikwa vitatu ghakuyana na [[Plane (mathematics)|mabwalo]] mu [[three-dimensional space|malo gha mibaru yitatu]], ndipo apo mabwalo ghose ghakukhwaskana ndipo pakumazga ndondomeko ya ma equation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=3–5}} | {{harvnb|Young|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=PA713 713]}} | {{harvnb|Sneyd|Fewster|McGillivray|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 211]}} }}</ref> === Algebra Yakudumura === {{main|Abstract algebra}} Algebra yakudumura, iyo yikuchemekaso algebra ya sono,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Dominich|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uEedNKV3nlUC&pg=PA19 19]}} }}</ref> njakusambira [[algebraic structures|magulu gha algebra]]. Gulu la algebra ni chiwongo cha kupulikiska [[Operation (mathematics)|nchito]] pa [[mathematical object|vinthu vya masamu]], nga kusazga kwa vipendeko. Apo algebra ya pulayimale na algebra ya mzere zikugwira ntchito pakati pa vipimo vya magulu gha algebra ghakupambanapambana, algebra yakudumura yikutora nthowa yikuru kuluska, yakuyaniska umo magulu gha algebra ghakupambanirana na mitundu yose ya magulu gha algebra iyo yiliko, nga [[Group (mathematics)|magulu]], [[Ring (mathematics)|mphete]], na [[Field (mathematics)|minda]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA1 1–3]}} | {{harvnb|Dominich|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uEedNKV3nlUC&pg=PA19 19]}} }}</ref> Kupambana kukuru pakati pa mitundu iyi ya magulu gha algebra nkhu chiŵelengero cha nchito izo zikugwiliskira ntchito na madango agho ghakuzomerezgeka.<ref name="auto9"/> Mu [[mathematics education|masambizgo gha masamu]], algebra yakudumura yikwimira kalasi yapachanya ya ku yunivesite iyo ŵakusambira masamu ŵakusambira pamanyuma pakumazga makalasi gha algebra ya mzere.<ref>{{harvnb|Hausberger|2020|loc=Abstract Algebra Teaching and Learning}}</ref> [[File:Binary operations as black box.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of binary operation|Magulu ghanandi gha algebra ghakuzirwa pa nchito zaŵiri (binary operations), izo zikutora vinthu viŵiri kuŵa vyakwiza-mu nchito ndipo vikuvikoleranga kuŵa chinthu chimoza kuŵa vyakufumamo, nga umo kusazga na kwandaniska vikuchitira.]] Pa mkhalidwe wakuzomerezgeka, gulu la algebra ni [[Set (mathematics)|gulu la vinthu]]{{efn|Gulu la vinthu ni chiŵungano cha vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vilije njila yakukhwaskana, nga vipendeko, ma vector, panji magulu ghanyake. [[Set theory|Sambiro la magulu]] likulongosora madango na mikhaliro ya magulu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=460}} | {{harvnb|Murthy|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CBc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 1.3]}} }}</ref>}} lakuzikapo, pamoza na nchito yimoza panji zinandi.{{efn|Kuyana na malongosoro ghanyake, magulu gha algebra ghakusazgapo chinthu chakupambana nga chigaŵa chinyake chakusazgikapo, nga chinthu cha identity pa nkhani ya kwandaniska.<ref name="auto5">{{harvnb|Ovchinnikov|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UMbXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27]}}</ref>}} Algebra yakudumura yikukhumbisiska comenecomene [[binary operation|nchito zaŵiri]],{{efn|Magulu ghanyake gha algebra agho ghakusambirika na algebra yakudumura ghali na [[unary operation|nchito yimoza]] kusazgikapo pa nchito zaŵiri. Mwachiyelezgero, [[normed vector space|malo gha vector ghakuŵa na muyeso]] ghali na [[Norm (mathematics)|muyeso]] (norm), uwo ni nchito yimoza iyo yikugwiliskikira comenecomene kukhwaskanya vector na utali wake.<ref>{{harvnb|Grillet|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LJtyhu8-xYwC&pg=PA247 247]}}</ref>}} izo zikutora vinthu viŵiri vilivyose mu gulu lakuzikapo kuŵa vyakwiza-mu, ndipo zikuvipeleka ku chinthu chinyake mu gulu ili kuŵa chakufumamo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Whitelaw|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f2hyf0QoB_0C&pg=PA61 61]}} | {{harvnb|Nicholson|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w-GaLpapRcEC&pg=PA70 70]}} | {{harvnb|Fiche|Hebuterne|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TqkckiuuXg8C&pg=PT326 326]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, gulu la algebra <math>\langle \N, + \rangle</math> lili na [[natural numbers|vipendeko vyakuŵelenjera]] ({{tmath|1= \N }}) kuŵa gulu lakuzikapo na kusazga ({{tmath|1= + }}) kuŵa nchito yake yaŵiri.<ref name="auto5"/> Gulu lakuzikapo lingaŵa na vinthu vinyake kupambuka vipendeko, ndipo nchito zake nizakukakikizgika yayi ku nchito zaumaliro za masamu pera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, gulu lakuzikapo la [[symmetry group|gulu la symmetry]] la chinthu cha geometry likupangika na [[geometric transformation|kusintha kwa geometry]], nga [[rotation|kuzingilizga]], apo munsi mwake chinthu chikukhalilira [[Invariant (mathematics)|chambura-kusintha]]. Nchito yake yaŵiri ni [[function composition|kukolerana kwa mapu]], iyo yikutora vyakusintha viŵiri kuŵa vyakwiza-mu ndipo yili na chakusintha icho chikufuma pa kugwiliskira ntchito chakusintha chakwamba kulondezgeka na chachiŵiri kuŵa chakufumamo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Olver|1999|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1GlHYhNRAqEC&pg=PA55 55–56]}} | {{harvnb|Abas|Salman|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5snsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58–59]}} | {{harvnb|Häberle|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=McvSa-cFZCMC&pg=PA640 640]}} }}</ref> ==== Sambiro la Magulu ==== {{main|Group theory}} Algebra yakudumura yikupatuliska magulu gha algebra kuyana na madango panji [[axiom|maxiom]] agho nchito zake zikuzomerezga na chiŵelengero cha nchito izo zikugwiliskira ntchito. Mtundu wa chiyambipo comenecomene ni gulu (group), ilo lili na nchito yimoza ndipo likukhumba kuti nchito iyi njakukolerana ([[Associative property|associative]]) ndiposo yili na [[identity element|chinthu cha identity]] na [[inverse element|vinthu vyakupiluska]]. Nchito njakukolerana usange kalongozgero ka kugwiliskira ntchito kanandi kalije mphampha, ndikuti, usange {{nowrap|<math>(a \circ b) \circ c</math>{{efn|Viwimbo <math>\circ</math> na <math>\star</math> vikugwiliskika mu nkhani iyi kwimira nchito yiliyose iyo yingayana panji yambakuyana na nchito za masamu.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref>}}}} nchakuyana na <math>a \circ (b \circ c)</math> ku vinthu vyose. Nchito yili na chinthu cha identity panji chinthu chambura-kusintha usange chinthu chimoza ''e'' chilipo icho chikusintha yayi mtengo wa chinthu chilichose chinyake, ndikuti, usange {{tmath|1= a \circ e = e \circ a = a }}. Nchito yili na vinthu vyakupiluska usange ku chinthu chilichose <math>a</math> pali chinthu chakuwelengana <math>a^{-1}</math> icho chikuwuskapo vya {{tmath|1= a }}. Usange chinthu chikugwira ntchito pa icho chakupiluska chake mbwenu muzgoro ni chinthu chambura-kusintha ''e'', chakulongosoreka mwakuzomerezgeka nga {{tmath|1= a \circ a^{-1} = a^{-1} \circ a = e }}. Gulu la algebra lililose ilo likukwaniska vikhumbikwa ivi ni gulu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kargapolov|Merzlyakov|2016|loc=§ Definition}} | {{harvnb|Khattar|Agrawal|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7-nIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4–6]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA258 258]}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, <math>\langle \Z, + \rangle</math> ni gulu ilo lapangika na gulu la [[integers|vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]] pamoza na nchito ya kusazga. Chinthu chambura-kusintha ni 0 ndipo chinthu chakupiluska cha cipendeko chilichose <math>a</math> ni {{nowrap|<math>-a</math>.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Khattar|Agrawal|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7-nIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6–7]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Adhikari|Adhikari|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lBO7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}}}}</ref>}} Vipendeko vyakuŵelenjera pamoza na kusazga, kususkana na ivi, vikupanga yayi gulu chifukwa vili pera na vipendeko vyakuzomerezgeka ndipo ntheura vikusoŵa vinthu vyakupiluska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McWeeny|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3fjIXY93TsC&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Kramer|Pippich|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nvM-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49]}} }}</ref> [[Group theory|Sambiro la magulu]] likusanda umo magulu ghaliri, pamoza na fundo za musingi nga [[fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups|fundo yikuru ya magulu gha abelian ghakumalira]] na [[Feit–Thompson theorem|fundo ya Feit-Thompson]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=242}} | {{harvnb|Bhattacharya|Jain|Nagpaul|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hiQ8e0b48swC&pg=PA141 141]}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D_XKBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1020 1020]}} }}</ref> Iyi yachiŵiri yikaŵa njira yikuru yakwambilira mu chimoza mwa vinthu vikuru comenecomene mu masamu vya vilimika vya m'ma 1900: nchito yakugwirira pamoza, iyo yikatora mapeji ghakuluska 10,000 mu majenali ndipo yikafuma comenecomene pakati pa 1960 na 2004, iyo yikafiskira ku [[classification of finite simple groups|kupatuliska magulu ghapusu ghakumalira]] kwakukwana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Elwes|2006}} | {{harvnb|Wilson|2009|p=2}} }}</ref> ==== Sambiro la Mphete na Sambiro la Munda ==== {{main|Ring theory|Field (mathematics)}} Mphete ni gulu la algebra lino lili na nchito ziŵiri izo zikugwira ntchito mwakuyana na kusazga na kwandaniska kwa vipendeko ndipo zikuchemeka na kulembeka mwakuyana. Mphete ni [[commutative group|gulu lakusinthana]] pasi pa kusazga: kusazga kwa mphete nkhwakukolerana, kwakusinthana, ndipo kuli na chinthu cha identity na vinthu vyakupiluska. Kwandaniska nkhwakukolerana ndiposo [[distributivity|kwakugaŵira]] ku kusazga; ndikuti, <math>a (b + c) = a b + a c</math> na <math>(b + c) a = b a + c a.</math> Kweniso, kwandaniska nkhwakukolerana ndipo kuli na [[identity element|chinthu cha identity]] icho chikuchemeka comenecomene {{math|1}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=2579}} | {{harvnb|Maxwell|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yD0irRUE_u4C&pg=PA73 73–74]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 2.3 Rings}} }}</ref>{{efn|Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakukhumba yayi kuŵako kwa chinthu cha identity mu kwandaniska. Mphete iyo yilije chinthu cha identity mu kwandaniska nyengo zinyake yikuchemeka {{not a typo|[[rng (algebra)|rng]].}}<ref>{{harvnb|Silverman|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PKFnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}}</ref>}} Kwandaniska nkhukhumbikwa yayi kuŵa kwakusinthana; usange nkhwakusinthana, munthu wali na [[commutative ring|mphete yakusinthana]].<ref>{{harvnb|Geddes|Czapor|Labahn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fOUwkkRxT4C&pg=PA24 24]}}</ref> [[ring of integers|Mphete ya vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]] ({{tmath|1= \Z }}) ni yimoza mwa mphete zapusu comenecomene izo zili zakusinthana.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MXu9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}}</ref> ''[[field (mathematics)|Munda]]'' ni mphete yakusinthana iyo {{tmath|1\ne 0}}{{efn|Ichi chikung'anamura kuti kwandaniska na kusazga vikugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Moh|1992|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=maK3sbTVhsoC&pg=PA102 102–103]}}</ref>}} ndipo chinthu chilichose ichi mbura kuŵa zero chili na [[multiplicative inverse|chakupiluska cha kwandaniska]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geddes|Czapor|Labahn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fOUwkkRxT4C&pg=PA24 24]}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=1047, 2579}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 2.4 Fields}} }}</ref> Mphete ya vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika njambura kupanga munda chifukwa yikusoŵa vyakupiluska vya kwandaniska. Mwachiyelezgero, chakupiluska cha kwandaniska cha <math>7</math> ni {{tmath|1= \tfrac{1}{7} }}, icho ndi cipendeko cambura kugaŵika yayi. [[rational numbers|Vipendeko vyakugaŵikika]], [[real numbers|vipendeko vyeneco]], na [[complex numbers|vipendeko vyakusuzga]] vilivyose vikupanga munda na nchito za kusazga na kwandaniska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Irving|2004|pp=77, 236}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=1047, 2579}} | {{harvnb|Hohn|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9XlFu4XQ6nUC&pg=PA83 83–84]}} }}</ref> [[Ring theory|Sambiro la mphete]] ni kusambira mphete, kupenja vinthu nga [[subring|mphete zamunsi]], [[quotient ring|mphete za mgaŵano]], [[polynomial ring|mphete za polynomial]], na [[Ideal (ring theory)|ma ideal]] pamoza na fundo nga [[Hilbert's basis theorem|fundo ya msingi ya Hilbert]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Serovajsky|2020|loc=§ Room 4B.5 Rings}} | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA63 63]}} | {{harvnb|Kline|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8YaBuGcmLb0C&pg=PA1153 1153]}} }}</ref> Sambiro la munda likukhwaskana na minda, kupenja [[field extension|kutandarizga kwa munda]], [[algebraic closure|kujara kwa algebra]], na [[finite fields|minda yakumalira]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Waerden|2003|pp=110–114, 231, 246}} | {{harvnb|Karpilovsky|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-2WR0fw9gLMC&pg=PA45 45]}} | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA63 63]}} }}</ref> [[Galois theory|Sambiro la Galois]] likupenja uzeru pakati pa sambiro la munda na sambiro la magulu, likujizika pa [[fundamental theorem of Galois theory|fundo yikuru ya sambiro la Galois]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lang|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fge-BwqhqIYC&pg=PA261 261–262]}} | {{harvnb|Cox|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vBKrOch1AkYC&pg=PA161 161–162]}} }}</ref> ==== Sambiro la Kukhwaskana Pakati pa Magulu gha Algebra ==== [[File:Magma to group2.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of relations between some algebraic structures|Chithunzithunzi cha ukhwaskano pakati pa magulu ghanyake gha algebra. Mwachiyelezgero, mbali yake yapachanya kumalyo yikulongora kuti [[Magma (algebra)|magma]] yikuŵa [[semigroup|semigroup]] usange nchito yake njakukolerana.]] Kupambuka magulu, mphete, na minda, kuli magulu ghanandi ghanyake gha algebra agho ghakusambirika na algebra. Ghakusazgamo [[Magma (algebra)|ma magma]], [[semigroup|ma semigroup]], [[monoid|ma monoid]], [[abelian group|magulu gha abelian]], [[commutative ring|mphete zakusinthana]], [[Module (mathematics)|ma module]], [[Lattice (order)|ma lattice]], [[vector space|malo gha vector]], [[Algebra over a field|algebra pa munda]], na magulu [[associative|ghakukolerana]] na [[non-associative algebras|ghambura kukolerana]]. Ghakupambana pakati pawo pa mtundu wa vinthu ivyo ghakulongosora na vikhumbikwa ivyo nchito zawo zikufiska. Ghanandi ghakukhwaskana wene pakati pawo mu ntchito yakuti gulu la musingi lingasinthika kuŵa gulu lakuzikirapo comenecomene mwakusazgirapo vikakiro.<ref name="auto9">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and Its Connection with Other Branches of Mathematics.}} | {{harvnb|Bourbaki|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=STS9aZ6F204C&pg=PA428 428–430, 446]}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, magma yikuŵa semigroup usange nchito yake njakukolerana.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooper|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fybzl6QB62gC&pg=PA60 60]}}</ref> [[Homomorphism|Ma homomorphism]] ni vipangizo vyakupenjera vinjeru vya mzimu mwakuyaniska magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rowen|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AhEPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.3 Birkhoff's Theorem}} | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|p=34}} }}</ref> Homomorphism ni mapu ghakufuma ku gulu lakuzikapo la gulu limoza la algebra kuya ku gulu lakuzikapo la gulu linyake la algebra, ghakusunga mikhaliro yinyake ya mzimu. Usange magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra ghakugwiliskira ntchito nchito zaŵiri ndipo ghali mu mtundu <math>\langle A, \circ \rangle</math> na <math>\langle B, \star \rangle</math> mbwenu mapu <math>h: A \to B</math> ni homomorphism usange ghakukwaniska ivi: {{tmath|1= h(x \circ y) = h(x) \star h(y) }}. Kuŵako kwa homomorphism kukulongora kuti nchito <math>\star</math> mu gulu lachiŵiri la algebra yikugwira ntchito yakuyana na iyo nchito <math>\circ</math> yikugwira mu gulu lakwamba la algebra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.3 Birkhoff's Theorem}} | {{harvnb|Rowen|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AhEPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA27 27–28]}} | {{harvnb|Adhikari|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MIAXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5–6]}} }}</ref> [[Isomorphisms|Ma isomorphism]] ni mtundu wapadera wa homomorphism uwo ukulongora kuyanako kukuru pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra. Isomorphism ni homomorphism [[bijective|yakwenerana pa chimoza-na-chimoza]], ndikuti, yikupanga ukhwaskano wa chimoza-na-chimoza pakati pa vinthu vya magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti chinthu chilichose cha gulu lakwamba la algebra chikuya ku chinthu chimoza chapadera mu gulu lachiŵiri, kwambura vinthu vyakusoŵa mapu mu gulu lachiŵiri.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278–279]}} | {{harvnb|Ivanova|Smirnov|2012}} | {{harvnb|Deo|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA295 295]}} | {{harvnb|Ono|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SR2nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 84]}}}}</ref> [[File:Venn A subset B.svg|thumb|alt=Venn diagram of a set and its subset|[[Subalgebra|Vigulu vyamunsi vya algebra]] vikufinyikizga nchito zake ku chigaŵa cha gulu lakuzikapo la gulu la algebra lakwamba.]] Chipangizo chinyake cha kuyaniska nkhukhwaskana pakati pa gulu la algebra na [[Subalgebra#Subalgebras in universal algebra|chigulu chamunsi cha algebra]] chake.<ref name="auto8">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Indurkhya|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=foTrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217–218]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.3 Birkhoff's Theorem}} | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|p=34}} }}</ref> Gulu la algebra na chigulu chamunsi chake vikugwiliskira ntchito nchito zakuyana,{{efn|Kuyana na malongosoro ghanyake, chigulu chamunsi chingaŵaso na nchito zichoko.<ref name="auto6">{{harvnb|Indurkhya|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=foTrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217–218]}}</ref>}} izo zikulondezga maxiom ghakuyana. Kupambana kwapera nkhwakuti gulu lakuzikapo la chigulu chamunsi ni chigaŵa cha gulu lakuzikapo la gulu la algebra.{{efn|Ichi chikung'anamura kuti vinthu vyose vya gulu lakwamba nivyaso vinthu vya gulu lachiŵiri kweni gulu lachiŵiri lingaŵa na vinthu ivyo vilipo yayi mu gulu lakwamba.<ref>{{harvnb|Efimov|2014}}</ref>}} Nchito zose mu chigulu chamunsi zikukhumbikwa kuŵa [[Closure (mathematics)|zakujara]] mu gulu lake lakuzikapo, ndikuti, zikufumiska pera vinthu ivyo vili mu gulu ili.<ref name="auto8"/> Mwachiyelezgero, gulu la [[Parity (mathematics)|vipendeko vyakwenerana]] pamoza na kusazga ni chigulu chamunsi cha gulu lose la vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika pamoza na kusazga. Ichi nchakuti chifukwa muzgoro wa vipendeko viŵiri vyakwenerana ni cipendeko cakwenerana kavili. Kweni gulu la vipendeko vyambura kwenerana pamoza na kusazga nichigulu chamunsi yayi chifukwa nichambura kujara: kusazga vipendeko viŵiri vyambura kwenerana vikufumiska cipendeko chakwenerana, icho ndi chigaŵa yayi cha gulu ilo lasankhika.<ref name="auto6"/> [[Universal algebra|Algebra ya wonse]] ni sambiro la magulu gha algebra mwaŵukuru. Nga chigaŵa cha vinjeru vyake vyakuwonera vinthu vyakuzomerezgeka, yikupwelelera yayi vinthu vyeneco ivyo vikupanga magulu ghakuzikapo ndipo yikuwona nchito izo zili na vyakwiza-mu vinandi kuluska viŵiri, nga [[ternary operation|nchito zitatu]]. Yikupereka chiwongo cha kupenja vinjeru vya mzimu ivyo magulu ghakupambanapambana gha algebra ghali navyo pamoza.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Cohn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6tbuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Nthowa yakupambanako pachoko yikupulikiska algebra ya wonse kuŵa sambiro la mtundu umoza wa magulu gha algebra ghakumanyikwa nga ma algebra ghawonse. Ma algebra ghawonse ghakulongosoreka mwakuzirwa kuti ghasazgemo magulu ghanyake ghanandi gha algebra. Mwachiyelezgero, magulu na mphete ni mitundu yapadera ya algebra ya wonse.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smirnov|2020}} | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|pp=7–8}} | {{harvnb|Bahturin|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8RbvCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA346 346]}} }}</ref>}} Chimoza mwa vinjeru vya mzimu ivi vikukhwaskana na [[Identity (mathematics)#Logic and universal algebra|vinthu vyakuyana]] (identities) ivyo nivyanadi mu magulu ghakupambanapambana gha algebra. Mu mkhalidwe uwu, chinthu chakuyana ni equation [[Universal quantification|yawonse]] panji equation iyo nyanadi ku vinthu vyose vya gulu lakuzikapo. Mwachiyelezgero, kusinthana (commutativity) ni equation yawonse iyo yikuti <math>a \circ b</math> nichakuyana na <math>b \circ a</math> ku vinthu vyose.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.2 Equational Logic}} | {{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|pp=210–211}} }}</ref> [[Variety (universal algebra)|Mtundu wakuyana]] (variety) ni gulu la magulu ghose gha algebra agho ghakukwaniska vinthu vinyake vyakuyana. Mwachiyelezgero, usange magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra ghakukwaniska kusinthana mbwenu ghose ghaŵiri ni chigaŵa cha mtundu wakuyana uwo ukuyana nawo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|pp=210–211}} | {{harvnb|Cohn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6tbuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162]}} | {{harvnb|Rosen|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-oVvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA779 779]}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA406 406]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Mtundu uliwose wa gulu la algebra ukupanga yayi mtundu wakuyana. Mwachiyelezgero, magulu na mphete vyose vikupanga mtundu wakuyana kweni minda njambura kupanga.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohn|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-4ADgUgpSMC&pg=PA8 8]}}</ref>}}{{efn|Kupambuka vinthu vyakuyana, algebra ya wonse yikukhumbikwaso na vinjeru vya mzimu ivyo vikukhwaskana na [[quasi-identity|vinthu vyakuyana pachoko]] (quasi-identities). Chinthu chakuyana pachoko ni chinthu chakuyana icho chikukhumbikwa pera pasi pa vikhumbikwa vinyake (ivyo vikuŵa mu mtundu wa [[Horn clause|chigaŵa cha Horn]]<ref>{{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|p=211}}</ref>). Ni kutandarizga kwa chinthu chakuyana mu mzimu wakuti chinthu chilichose chakuyana ni chinthu chakuyana pachoko kweni chinthu chilichose chakuyana pachoko ni yayi chinthu chakuyana. [[Quasivariety|Mtundu wakuyana pachoko]] ni gulu la magulu ghose gha algebra agho ghakukwaniska vinthu vinyake vyakuyana pachoko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|pp=210–211}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Artamonov|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sLDGY4Hk8V0C&pg=PA873 873]}} }}</ref>}} [[Category theory|Sambiro la mikhaliro]] likupenja umo vinthu vya masamu vikukhwaskirana na chinyake mwakugwiliskira ntchito mzimu wa [[Category (mathematics)|mikhaliro]] (categories). Mkhaliro ni chiŵungano cha vinthu pamoza na chiŵungano cha [[morphisms|vilongozgi]] panji "mivi" pakati pa vinthu ivi. Viŵungano ivi viŵiri vikwenera kukwaniska vikhumbikwa vinyake. Mwachiyelezgero, vilongozgi vingakolerana, panji ku ''kolerana'': usange muvi ukuŵako kufuma ku chinthu <math>a</math> kuya ku chinthu {{tmath|1= b }}, ndipo muvi unyake kufuma ku chinthu <math>b</math> kuya ku chinthu {{tmath|1= c }}, mbwenu pakwenera kuŵakoso muvi kufuma ku chinthu <math>a</math> kuya ku chinthu {{tmath|1= c }}. Kukolerana kwa vilongozgi kukukhumbikwa kuŵa kwakukolerana, ndipo pakwenera kuŵako "muvi wa identity" ku chinthu chilichose.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=347–348}} | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA6 6, 165]}} | {{harvnb|Cheng|2023|p=102}} }}</ref> Mikhaliro yikugwiliskika comenecomene mu masamu gha sono chifukwa yikupereka chiwongo chakukoleranya kuti chilongosore na kupenja vinjeru vinandi vya musingi vya masamu. Mwachiyelezgero, magulu ya vinthu ghangalongosoreka na [[category of sets|mkhaliro wa magulu]], ndipo gulu lililose lingawoneka kuŵa vilongozgi vya mkhaliro uwo uli na chinthu chimoza pera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA6 6, 165]}} | {{harvnb|Borceux|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YfzImoopB-IC&pg=PA20 20]}} | {{harvnb|Laos|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1r7dSn4ZqogC&pg=PA100 100]}} | {{harvnb|Cheng|2023|pp=128–131}} }}</ref> == Mbiri == {{main|History of algebra|Timeline of algebra}} [[File:Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.jpg|thumb|alt=Rhind Papyrus|[[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus|Papyrus ya Rhind Mathematical]] kufuma ku [[ancient Egypt|Egypt yakale]], iyo yikuŵa ya {{circa|1650 BCE}}, ni chimoza cha vyolálemba vyakale comenecomene ivyo vikudumbiskana masuzgo gha algebra.]] Chiyambi cha algebra chili mu kuyezgayezga kwakumazga masuzgo gha masamu agho ghakukhwaskana na kuŵelenga na viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa. Vyakukula ivi vikachitika mu nyengo yakale mu [[Babylonia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Ancient China|China]], na [[Ancient India|India]]. Chimoza mwa vyolálemba vyakale comenecomene pa masuzgo gha algebra ni [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus|Papyrus ya Rhind Mathematical]] kufuma ku Egypt yakale, iyo yikalembeka pafupifupi mu 1650&nbsp;BCE.{{efn|Zuŵa lenelene nkhwakususkana, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵakuti liŵe pafupifupi mu 1550&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Problem-Solving in Egypt and Babylon}} | {{harvnb|Brezinski|Meurant|Redivo-Zaglia|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4IGhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}} }}</ref>}} Yikudumbiskana vyakumazga vya [[linear equations|ma equation gha mzere]], nga umo vikulongosoreka mu masuzgo nga "Chinthu; chigaŵa chake chachinayi chikusazgikapo pa icho. Chikuŵa 15. Kasi chinthu ni chiwuli?" Mabuwe gha dongo gha ku Babylon kufuma pa nyengo yeneyiyo ghakulongosora nthowa zakumazga ma equation gha mzere na [[Quadratic equation|polynomial gha digiri yachiŵiri]], nga nthowa ya [[completing the square|kukwaniska cikwezgo]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=9}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=290}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Problem Solving in Egypt and Babylon}} }}</ref> Vinandi mwa vinjeru ivi vikafika ku Ŵagiriki ŵakale. Kwambira mu vilimika vya 6 BCE, chikhumbo chawo chikuru chikaŵa geometry m'malo mwa algebra, kweni ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kumazga masuzgo gha geometry. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵakasandanga vithunzithunzi vya geometry apo utali na malo ghake vikatoleka kuŵa viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa ivyo vikwenera kusangika, nga umo vikawonekera mu nthowa ya [[Pythagoras]] ya [[difference of two squares|mphambano wa vikwezgo viŵiri]] na munyuma mu buku la [[Euclid's Elements|Euclid's Elements]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=9}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=290}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Pythagoreans and Euclid}} }}</ref> Mu vilimika vya 3 CE, [[Diophantus]] wakapeleka malongosoro ghakuzura gha umo wangamazgira ma equation gha algebra mu magazini ghakuchemeka ''[[Arithmetica]]''. Ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kuyezgayezga kugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo (symbolic notation) kulongosora ma polynomial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Sialaros|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2PZYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 55]}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Diophantus}} }}</ref> Ntchito ya Diophantus yikakhwaskira kukula kwa algebra ku Ŵaarabu, apo nthowa zake zinandi zikawonekera mu vinjeru na vipangizo ivyo vikagwiliskika mu algebra ya Chiarabu ya nyengo za pakati.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hettle|2015|pp=139–141, 160–161}} | {{harvnb|Christianidis|Megremi|2019|pp=16–17}} }}</ref> Ku China wakale, ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]'', buku ilo likalembeka pa nyengo yakufuma ku vilimika vya 10 BCE kufika ku vilimika vya 2 CE,<ref>{{harvnb|Burgin|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWF2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}}</ref> likasandaso nthowa zakupambanapambana zakumazgira ma equation gha algebra, kusazgamo kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakuyana na matrix.<ref>{{harvnb|Higgins|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QANiCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 89]}}</ref> [[File:Al-Khwarizmi portrait.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|left|Chithunzi cha kuyezgayezga cha [[Al-Khwarizmi]], chakufuma pa sitembu ya Soviet]] Nkhwakususkana usange vyakukula ivi vyakale ni chigaŵa cha algebra panji ni vyakwambiliranji pera. Vikapeleka vyakumazga vya masuzgo gha algebra kweni vikaghanaghanira yayi mwamzimu wakudumura na wawonse, m'malo mwake vikakhalilira pa mkhalidwe pakuyowoya na kugwiliskika padera pera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=290–291}} | {{harvnb|Sialaros|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2PZYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 55]}} | {{harvnb|Boyer|Merzbach|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bR9HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} | {{harvnb|Derbyshire|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLqaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT39 31]}} }}</ref> Ichi chikasintha na msandi wa masamu wa ku Persia, [[Al-Khwarizmi]],{{efn|Ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵakumuwona kuŵa "wiske wa algebra" apo ŵanyake ŵakupeleka zina ili ku Diophantus.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Boyer|Merzbach|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bR9HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} | {{harvnb|Derbyshire|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLqaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} }}</ref> }} uyo wakafumiska buku lake ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing]]'' mu 825 CE. Al-Khwarizmi wakapeleka malongosoro ghakwamba ghakuzomerezgeka ghakumazgira ma equation mwakughaŵika mu mitundu 6 yakuzomerezgeka{{Efn|Mitundu iyi ni <math> bx = c </math>, <math> ax^2 = bx </math>, <math> ax^2 = c </math>, <math> ax^2 + bx = c </math>, <math> ax^2 + c = bx </math>, na <math> ax^2 = bx + c </math>.{{sfn|Bradley|2006|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=EIdtVPeD7GcC&pg=PA95 95]}}}} ndiposo kupereka ndondomeko zakuzomerezgeka, mwakuyila-kuyila, za vyakuvimazga. Mwakuwuskapo nthowa izi ku vithunzithunzi vyapadera vya geometry na kuwona viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa kuŵa vinthu vyawonse vya algebra, wakakhozga chiwongo cha kugwira ntchito chakuzomerezgeka. Kusintha uku, kufuma ku kumazga masuzgo ghapadera kuya ku kukhozga nthowa yawonse, nkhwakasintha algebra kuŵa sambiro lakujimira paokha.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=291–293}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Vyakukhwaskira vinyake vyakuzirwa ku algebra vikafuma ku msandi wa masamu wa Chiarabu [[Thābit ibn Qurra]] naye so mu vilimika vya 9 CE na msandi wa masamu wa ku Persia [[Omar Khayyam]] mu vilimika vya 11 na 12.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Waerden|2013|pp=3, 15–16, 24–25}} | {{harvnb|Jenkins|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=giEkCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 82]}} | {{harvnb|Pickover|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA90 90]}} }}</ref> Ku India, [[Brahmagupta]] wakasanda umo wangamazgira ma equation gha digiri yachiŵiri na ndondomeko za ma equation gha vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi mu vilimika vya 7 CE. Pakati pa vyakukula vyake vikaŵako kugwiliskira ntchito zero na vipendeko vyakusuzga (negative numbers) mu ma equation gha algebra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|pp=9–10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Equation in India and China}} }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵa ku India [[Mahāvīra (mathematician)|Mahāvīra]] mu vilimika vya 9 na [[Bhāskara II]] mu vilimika vya 12 ŵakakhozgaso nthowa na vinjeru vya Brahmagupta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Seshadri|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w_JdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 156]}} | {{harvnb|Emch|Sridharan|Srinivas|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qfJdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20]}} }}</ref> Mu 1247, msandi wa masamu wa ku China [[Qin Jiushao]] wakalemba buku la ''[[Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections]]'', ilo likusazgamo [[Horner's method|nthowa yakuŵelenga]] ya [[Polynomial evaluation|kuŵelenga mtengo wa ma polynomial]], kusazgamo ma polynomial gha madigiri ghapachanya.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smorynski|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qY657eFq7UgC&pg=PA137 137]}} | {{harvnb|Zwillinger|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gE_MBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA812 812]}} }}</ref> {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Francois Viete.jpeg | alt1 = Drawing of François Viète | image2 = Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes (cropped).jpg | alt2 = Painting of René Descartes | footer = [[François Viète]] (kumalyo) na [[René Descartes]] ŵakasanga viwimbo vyakwenerana kulongosora ma equation mwamzimu wakudumura na wachidango. }} Msandi wa masamu wa ku Italy [[Fibonacci]] wakiza na vinjeru na nthowa za Al-Khwarizmi ku Ulaya mu mabuku ghake, kusazgamo ''[[Liber Abaci]]''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Waerden|2013|pp=32–35}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=293}} }}</ref> Mu 1545, msandi wa masamu wa mitundu yinandi wa ku Italy [[Gerolamo Cardano]] wakafumiska buku lake ''[[Ars Magna (Cardano book)|Ars Magna]]'', ilo likakhwaskira vinthu vinandi mu algebra, likadumbiskana [[imaginary numbers|vipendeko vya mung'anamuro]], ndipo likaŵa lakwamba kupeleka nthowa zawonse zakumazgira ma equation gha [[Cubic equation|digiri yitatu]] na [[quartic equation|digiri yinayi]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=293}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Cardano and the Solving of Cubic and Quartic Equations}} | {{harvnb|Miyake|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G0P2BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA268 268]}} }}</ref> Mu vilimika vya 16 na 17, ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵa ku France [[François Viète]] na [[René Descartes]] ŵakiza na malembelo na viwimbo kwimira vyambura-kumanyikwa na nchito, kupangiska kuti ma equation ghalembeke mwamzimu wachidango na wakudumura. Awo ŵakaŵako panthazi pawo ŵakajighemezga pa malongosoro ghakuyowoya gha masuzgo na vyakumazga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=291–292, 297–298, 302}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Viète and the Formal Equation, § Analytic Geometry}} }}</ref> Ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵakuwona kukula uku kuŵa mzuŵa wakuzirwa mu mbiri ya algebra ndipo ŵakuwona ivyo vikaŵako pambere kuŵa mbiri-ntchakwamba ya algebra chifukwa vikasoŵanga mzimu wakudumura uwo ukujimira pa kugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73]}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Mu vilimika vya 17 na 18, kuyezgayezga kwakuluska kukachitika kupenja vyakumazga vyawonse ku ma polynomial gha digiri yankonde na yapachanya. Vyose ivi vikafiliskika.<ref name="auto3">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Impasse with Radical Methods}} }}</ref> Kumapeleko gha vilimika vya 18, msandi wa masamu wa ku Germany [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] wakalongosora fundo yikuru ya algebra, iyo yikulongosora kuŵako kwa [[Zero of a function|vizero]] vya ma polynomial gha digiri yiliyose kwambura kupeleka yankho lawonse.<ref name="auto7"/> Kwambilira kwa vilimika vya 19, msandi wa masamu wa ku Italy [[Paolo Ruffini]] na msandi wa masamu wa ku Norway [[Niels Henrik Abel]] [[Abel–Ruffini theorem|ŵakakhozga]] kuti palije yankho lawonse ilo lilipo ku ma polynomial gha digiri yankonde na yapachanya.<ref name="auto3"/> Kwiza pa na pamanyuma pachoko pa vyakusanga vyawo, msandi wa masamu wa ku France [[Évariste Galois]] wakakhozga icho pamanyuma chikachemeka [[Galois theory|sambiro la Galois]], ilo likapeleka kupenja kwakukuzura kwa vyakumazga vya ma polynomial apo so likakhozga msingi wa [[group theory|sambiro la magulu]].<ref name="auto2"/> Ŵasandi ŵa masamu paukhwakuŵa ŵakamanya kuzirwa kwa sambiro la magulu ku magulu ghanyake gha masamu ndipo ŵakaligwiliskira ntchito ku vipangizo nga geometry na sambiro la vipendeko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Applications of Group Theory}} | {{harvnb|Bueno|French|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kmZaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73–75]}} }}</ref> [[File:Garrett Birkhoff.jpeg|thumb|alt=Photo of Garrett Birkhoff|[[Garrett Birkhoff]] wakakhozga vinjeru vinandi vya msingi vya algebra ya wonse.|left|upright=0.8]] Kwambira pakati pa vilimika vya 19, chikhumbo mu algebra chikasintha kufuma ku kusambira ma polynomial ivyo vikakhwaskana na algebra ya pulayimale kuya ku kupenja kwakukuru kwa magulu gha algebra, ndipo ichi chikawoneka pakufuma kwa [[abstract algebra|algebra yakudumura]]. Nthowa iyi yikapenja msingi wa maxiom wa nchito za algebra zakupambanapambana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Structural Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73–74]}} }}</ref> Kusangika kwa ndondomeko nyifya za algebra izo zikuzirwa pa nchito na vinthu vyakupambanapambana vikalondezga kukula uku, nga [[Boolean algebra]], [[Vector space|algebra ya vector]], na [[matrix algebra|algebra ya matrix]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Matrices, § Quaternions and Vectors}} }}</ref> Vyakukula vyakuzirwa vyakwamba mu algebra yakudumura vikapangika na ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵa ku Germany [[David Hilbert]], [[Ernst Steinitz]], na [[Emmy Noether]] pamoza na msandi wa masamu wa ku Austria [[Emil Artin]]. Ŵakasanda mitundu yakupambanapambana ya magulu gha algebra ndipo ŵakaghapatuliska kuyana na maxiom ghawo ghakuzikapo kuŵa mitundu, nga magulu, mphete, na minda.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Hilbert and Steinitz, § Noether and Artin}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73–74]}} }}</ref> Mzimu wa nthowa yikuru comenecomene iyo yikukhwaskana na algebra ya wonse ukaghanaghanika na msandi wa masamu wa ku England [[Alfred North Whitehead]] mu buku lake la 1898 ''A Treatise on Universal Algebra''. Kwambira mu vya 1930, msandi wa masamu wa ku America [[Garrett Birkhoff]] wakatandarizga vinjeru ivi ndipo wakakhozga vinjeru vinandi vya msingi vya gulu ili la sambiro.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8lNkXPJas4wC&pg=PR7 vii]}} | {{harvnb|Chang|Keisler|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uiHq0EmaFp0C&pg=PA603 603]}} | {{harvnb|Knoebel|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VWS_sgO2uvgC&pg=PA5 5]}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} }}</ref> Kusangika kwa algebra ya wonse kukalongozgera ku kufuma kwa vipimo vinyake vinyifya ivyo vikang'anamuka pa kupanga algebra ya masamu ghanyake{{em dash}}ndikuti, kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra ku magulu ghanyake gha masamu. Algebra ya topology yikafuma mu vilimika vyakwamba vya 20, kusambira magulu gha algebra nga [[topological groups|magulu gha topology]] na [[Lie groups|magulu gha Lie]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA100 100]}} | {{harvnb|Carlson|2024|loc=§ History of topology}} }}</ref> Mu vya 1940 na 50, [[homological algebra|algebra ya homology]] yikafuma, kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kusambira [[Homology (mathematics)|homology]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Weibel|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UtIhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR11 xi, 4]}} }}</ref> Pafupifupi nyengo yeneyiyo, [[category theory|sambiro la mikhaliro]] likafuma ndipo lyakhala likugwira ntchito yikuru mu [[foundations of mathematics|msingi wa masamu]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Krömer|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=41bHxtHxjUAC&pg=PA61 61]}} | {{harvnb|Laos|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1r7dSn4ZqogC&pg=PA100 100]}} }}</ref> Vyakukula vinyake vikaŵa kupangika kwa [[model theory|sambiro la vimodel]] na kusambira [[free algebra|algebra zamahara]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 6. Free Algebras}} }}</ref> {{clear}} == Kugwiliskika Ntchito == {{see also|Applied mathematics}} Chikoliro cha algebra nkhutandarika comenecomene, mu masamu mwene na mu kugwiliskika kwake ku magulu ghanyake gha masamu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Houston|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&pg=PA319 319]}} | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}} | {{harvnb|Lidl|Pilz|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_49AmSWo4_AC&pg=PR7 vii–viii]}} }}</ref> Kupanga masamu ghanyake kuŵa gha algebra nkhu ndondomeko ya kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa na vinjeru vya algebra ku [[branches of mathematics|magulu ghanyake gha masamu]], nga [[geometry]], [[topology]], [[number theory|sambiro la vipendeko]], na [[calculus]]. Ichi chikuchitika mwakugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo mu mtundu wa vyambura-kumanyikwa kulongosora vinjeru vya masamu pa vipimo vikuru, kupangiska kuti ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵapange vimodel vyakuzomerezgeka ivyo vikulongosora umo vinthu vikukhwaskirana na kukolerana wene.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA100 100]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5. Algebraization of Mathematics}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=130}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5. Algebraization of Mathematics}} | {{harvnb|Mancosu|1999|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=60qaEePdqcoC&pg=PA84 84–85]}} }}</ref> [[File:Sphere Quadric.png|thumb|alt=Rendered image of a sphere|Equation ya algebra <math>x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 1</math> yikulongosora [[sphere|sphere]] ku [[Origin (mathematics)|malo ghakwambira]] ghali na radius ya 1.]] Nchito yimoza, iyo yikusangika mu geometry, ni kugwiliskira ntchito mazgu gha algebra kulongosora vithunzithunzi vya geometry. Mwachiyelezgero, equation <math>y = 3x - 7</math> yikulongosora mzere mu malo gha mibaru yiŵiri apo equation <math>x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 1</math> yikuyana na [[sphere|sphere]] mu malo gha mibaru yitatu. Vyakuzirwa comenecomene ku [[algebraic geometry|geometry ya algebra]] ni [[algebraic varieties|mitundu yakuyana ya algebra]],{{efn|Mitundu yakuyana ya algebra iyo yikusambirika mu geometry njakupambana na mitundu yakuyana yikuru iyo yikusambirika mu algebra ya wonse.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1.4 Cartesian geometry, § 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Danilov|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-QMWR-x66XUC&pg=PA174 174]}} }}</ref>}} izo ni vyakumazga vya [[systems of polynomial equations|ndondomeko za ma equation gha polynomial]] ivyo vingagwiliskika kulongosora vithunzithunzi vyapasuzgika vya geometry.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.1 Algebraic Geometry}} | {{harvnb|Danilov|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-QMWR-x66XUC&pg=PA172 172, 174]}} }}</ref> Kughanaghanira mwa algebra kungamazgaso masuzgo gha geometry. Mwachiyelezgero, munthu wangamanya usange na apo mzere wakulongosoreka na <math>y = x + 1</math> ukukhwaskana na dindi (circle) ilo likulongosoreka na <math>x^2 + y^2 = 25</math> mwakumazga ndondomeko ya ma equation ghakupangika na ma equation ghaŵiri agha.<ref>{{harvnb|Vince|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=B574tQbP6WcC&pg=PA133 133]}}</ref> Topology yikusambira vinjeru vya vithunzithunzi vya geometry panji [[topological space|malo gha topology]] ivyo vikukhalilira mwambura kusintha para vichitikirwa [[continuous deformation|kusintha kwakulutilira]]. [[Algebraic topology|Topology ya algebra]] yikuzirwa pa vinjeru vya algebra nga sambiro la magulu kupatuliska malo gha topology. Mwachiyelezgero, [[homotopy groups|magulu gha homotopy]] ghakupatuliska malo gha topology kuyana na kuŵako kwa [[Loop (topology)|majoro]] panji [[Hole#In mathematics|maenja]] mwa iwo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.3 Algebraic Topology}} | {{harvnb|Rabadan|Blumberg|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2967DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49–50]}} | {{harvnb|Nakahara|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p2C1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 121]}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=52–53}} }}</ref> Sambiro la vipendeko likukhwaskana na vinjeru na ukhwaskano pakati pa vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika. [[Algebraic number theory|Sambiro la vipendeko la algebra]] likugwiliskira ntchito nthowa na vinjeru vya algebra ku chipangizo ichi cha kupenja. Vyakuyelezgera ni kugwiliskira ntchito mazgu gha algebra kulongosora madango ghawonse, nga [[Fermat's Last Theorem|fundo yaumaliro ya Fermat]], na kugwiliskira ntchito magulu gha algebra kusanda mkhalidwe wa vipendeko, nga [[ring of integers|mphete ya vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.2 Algebraic Number Theory}} | {{harvnb|Jarvis|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0j0qBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Viterbo|Hong|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d89QRR24jbMC&pg=PA127 127]}} }}</ref> Chipangizo chakukhwaskana ichi cha [[combinatorics|combinatorics]] chikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kumazga masuzgo ghakukhwaskana na kuŵelenga, kunozga, na kukoleranya vinthu vyakupambanapambana. Chiyelezgero mu [[algebraic combinatorics|combinatorics ya algebra]] ni kugwiliskira ntchito sambiro la magulu kusanda [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|ma graph]] na symmetries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA550 550, 561]}} | {{harvnb|Godsil|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLs6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR8 viii]}} | {{harvnb|Betten|Kohnert|Laue|Wassermann|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G1TmCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP9 ix]}} }}</ref> Vinjeru vya algebra vikuzirwaso ku calculus, iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito mazgu gha masamu kupenja [[rates of change|liŵiro la kusintha]] na [[Integral|kuwungana]]. Yikuzirwa pa algebra, mwachiyelezgero, kupulikiska umo mazgu agha ghangasinthika na mzimu uwo vyambura-kumanyikwa vikugwira mwa iwo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kilty|McAllister|2018|pp=x, 347, 589}} | {{harvnb|Bressoud|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkgHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}} }}</ref> [[Algebraic logic|Logic ya algebra]] yikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kulongosora na kusanda magulu na vinjeru ivyo vili musingi wa [[logical reasoning|kughanaghanira kwa logic]],<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Halmos|1956|p=363}} | {{harvnb|Burris|Legris|2021|loc=§ 1. Introduction}} }}</ref> kupenja vyose viŵiri, magulu ghenegho gha masamu na kugwiliskika kwawo ku masuzgo ghakuwoneka gha logic.<ref>{{harvnb|Andréka|Németi|Sain|2001|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-0452-6_3 133–134]}}</ref> Yikusazgamo kusambira [[Boolean algebra]] kulongosora [[propositional logic]]<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Andréka|Madarász|Németi|2020|loc=§ Concrete Algebraic Logic}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.4 Algebraic Logic}} | {{harvnb|Plotkin|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-v3xCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 155–156]}} | {{harvnb|Jansana|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> pamoza na kupanga na kusanda magulu gha algebra ghakuyana na [[Logic#Systems_of_logic|ndondomeko za logic]] zapasuzgika kuluska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Andréka|Madarász|Németi|2020|loc=§ Abstract Algebraic Logic}} | {{harvnb|Jansana|2022|loc=§ 4. Algebras}} }}</ref> [[File:Rubik's cube.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Picture of Rubik's cube|Mbali za [[Rubik's Cube]] zingazingilizgika kusintha kunozgeka kwa vipande vyakupambanapambana mitundu (colored patches). Vipimo ivyo vikufuma pamanyuma (permutations) vikupanga gulu ilo likuchemeka [[Rubik's Cube group|gulu la Rubik's Cube]].<ref>{{harvnb|Joyner|2008|p=92}}</ref>]] Nthowa za algebra zikugwiliskikaso comenecomene mu magulu ghanyake, nga sayansi za chilengechilenge. Mwachiyelezgero, zikugwiliskika kulongosora [[scientific laws|madango gha kasandiro]] na kumazga ma equation mu [[physics]], [[chemistry]], na [[biology]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Houston|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&pg=PA319 319]}} | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}} | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1PJ-WHepeBsC&pg=PA327 327]}} }}</ref> Kugwiliskika kwakuyana kukusangikaso mu magulu nga [[economics]], [[geography]], [[engineering]] (kusazgamo [[electronics]] na [[robotics]]), na [[computer science]] kulongosora ukhwaskano, kumazga masuzgo, na kupanga vimodel vya ndondomeko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}} | {{harvnb|Aleskerov|Ersel|Piontkovski|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ipcSD8ZGB8cC&pg=PA1 1–9]}} | {{harvnb|Straffin|1980|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2689388 269]}} | {{harvnb|Menini|Oystaeyen|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3mlQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v]}} | {{harvnb|Lovett|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jRUqCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} | {{harvnb|Lidl|Pilz|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_49AmSWo4_AC&pg=PR7 vii–viii]}} }}</ref> Algebra ya mzere yikugwira ntchito yikuru mu [[artificial intelligence]] na [[machine learning]], mwachiyelezgero, mwakukhozgera kuwendeska na kusanda [[dataset|masetu gha data]] ghakuru mwakuzomerezgeka.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wheeler|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IqQIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29, 36–37]}} | {{harvnb|Gallier|Quaintance|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jWLcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> Magulu ghakupambanapambana ghakuzirwa pa magulu gha algebra ghakusambirika na algebra yakudumura. Mwachiyelezgero, sayansi za vinthu nga [[crystallography]] na [[quantum mechanics]] zikugwiliskira ntchito comenecomene sambiro la magulu,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Klimov|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DZK3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} | {{harvnb|Bengtsson|Życzkowski|2017|pp=313–353}} }}</ref> ilo likugwiliskikaso kusambira ma puzzle nga [[Sudoku]] na [[Rubik's Cube]],<ref>{{harvnb|Terras|2019|pp=63–64, 142}}</ref> na [[Mathematics of paper folding|origami]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hull|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LdX7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 180]}}</ref> Vyose viŵiri [[coding theory|sambiro la ma code]] na [[cryptology]] zikuzirwa pa algebra yakudumura kumazga masuzgo ghakukhwaskana na [[data transmission|kutuma data]], nga kujiwezga na vikwaskiro (noise) na kukhozgera [[data security|chitetezo cha data]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lidl|Pilz|1997|pp=183–184, 239–240}} | {{harvnb|Carstensen|Fine|Rosenberger|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xo6iSxRfXz0C&pg=PA326 326–327]}} }}</ref> == Masambizgo == {{See also|Mathematics education}} [[File:Balance scale.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of a balance scale|[[Balance scales|Vipimiro vyakulinganya]] vikugwiliskika mu masambizgo gha algebra kovwira ŵasambiri kupulikiska umo ma equation ghangasinthika kuti ghamanye viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kieran|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OTCsKu0BZ0kC&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Kaput|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1GUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 186]}} |{{harvnb|Gardella|DeLucia|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HBXFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19–22]}} }}</ref>]] Masambizgo gha algebra ghakuzirwa comenecomene pa algebra ya pulayimale, chimoza mwa vifukwa ivyo algebra ya pulayimale yikuchemekaso "algebra ya sukulu". Comenecomene, yikwambiskika yayi kwambira mu [[secondary education|masambizgo ghapachanya]] chifukwa yikukhumba kumanya makora masamu ghakwamba apo yikwizaso na vyakusuzga vinyake vipya ivyo vikukhwaskana na kughanaghanira kwakudumura na kwawonse.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|p=xiii}} | {{harvnb|Dekker|Dolk|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7sVFaMhwackC&pg=PA69 69]}} }}</ref> Yikukhumba kuzgoŵeska ŵasambiri na mbali yakuzomerezgeka ya masamu mwakuŵawovwira kupulikiska viwimbo vya masamu, mwachiyelezgero, umo vyambura-kumanyikwa vingagwiliskika kwimira viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa. Kususka kwinyake ku ŵasambiri nkhwakuti, kupambana na kuŵelenga kwaumaliro, mazgu gha algebra ghakusuzga comenecomene kumazgika mwakwenderana. M'malo mwake, ŵasambiri ŵakukhumbikwa kusambira umo ŵangaghasinthira kuyana na madango ghanyake, kanandi kuti ŵamanye chiŵelengero chambura kumanyikwa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|pp=2–5}} | {{harvnb|Drijvers|Goddijn|Kindt|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7sVFaMhwackC&pg=PA8 8–10, 16–18]}} }}</ref> Vipangizo vinyake vyakwiziska ŵasambiri ku mbali yakudumura ya algebra vikuzirwa pa vimodel vyakuwoneka na kulongora ma equation, kusazgamo vyakuyelezgera vya geometry, vipangizo vyakugwira nawo nchito nga vikoli panji makapu, na "makina gha nchito" (function machines) ivyo vikulongora ma equation kuŵa [[flow diagram|maonekero gha kuluta patsogolo]]. Nthowa yimoza yikugwiliskira ntchito [[balance scales|vipimiro vyakulinganya]] kuŵa nthowa yakuwoneka yakovwira ŵasambiri kupulikiska masuzgo ghakwamba gha algebra. Uzito wa vinthu vinyake pa chipimiro nchambura kumanyikwa ndipo ukwimira vyambura-kumanyikwa. Kumazga equation kukuyana na kusazga na kuwuskapo vinthu ku mbali zose ziŵiri mwakuti mbali zikhalilire mu ulinganyi mpaka chinthu chimoza pera icho chikhala pa mbali yimoza ni chinthu chambura kumanyikwa uzito wake.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kieran|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OTCsKu0BZ0kC&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Kaput|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1GUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 186]}} |{{harvnb|Gardella|DeLucia|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HBXFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19–22]}} | {{harvnb|Star|Foegen|Larson|McCallum|2015|pp=16–17}} }}</ref> [[Word problem (mathematics education)|Masuzgo gha mazgu]] ni chipangizo chinyake chakulongora umo algebra yikugwiliskika ku vinthu vyaunenesko vya moyo. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵasambiri ŵangapika mu mkhalidwe uwo mbale wa Naomi wali na machiyembe ghakuŵirapo kuŵiri kuluska Naomi. Pakuti ŵaŵiri wose pamoza ŵali na machiyembe 12, ŵasambiri ŵakupikika kuti ŵasange equation ya algebra iyo yikulongosora mkhalidwe uwu ({{tmath|1= 2x + x = 12 }}) na kumanya machiyembe ghaŵi agho Naomi wali nagho {{nowrap|({{tmath|1= x = 4 }}).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|pp=58–59}} | {{harvnb|Drijvers|Goddijn|Kindt|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7sVFaMhwackC&pg=PA13 13]}} }}</ref>}} Pa vipimo vya yunivesite, ŵasambiri ŵa masamu ŵakukhwaskana na mitu yapachanya ya algebra kufuma ku algebra ya mzere na algebra yakudumura. Makalasi ghakwamba gha [[undergraduate|digiri yakwamba]] mu algebra ya mzere ghakuzirwa pa ma matrix, malo gha vector, na mapu gha mzere. Para ŵamalizga, ŵasambiri comenecomene ŵakwiziskika ku algebra yakudumura, uko ŵakusambira magulu gha algebra nga magulu, mphete, na minda, pamoza na ukhwaskano pakati pawo. Masambiro (curriculum) ghakuzirwa comenecomene ghakukhwaskaso vithuzi vyapadera vya magulu gha algebra, nga ndondomeko za vipendeko vyakugaŵikika, vipendeko vyeneco, na ma polynomial.<ref>{{harvnb|Hausberger|Zandieh|Fleischmann|2021|pp=147–148}}</ref> == Vinyake Vyakukhwaskana == {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * {{annotated link|Commutative algebra}} * {{annotated link|Computer algebra}} * {{annotated link|Exterior algebra}} * {{annotated link|F-algebra}} * {{annotated link|Geometric algebra}} * {{annotated link|Non-associative algebra}} * {{annotated link|Outline of algebra}} * {{annotated link|Representation theory}} * {{annotated link|Tensor}} {{div col end}} == References == === Notes === {{notelist}} === Citations === {{reflist}} === Sources === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last1=Abas |first1=Syed Jan |last2=Salman |first2=Amer Shaker |title=Symmetries Of Islamic Geometrical Patterns |date=1994 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-4502-21-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5snsCgAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=March 12, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mahima Ranjan |title=Basic Algebraic Topology and its Applications |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-2843-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MIAXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |language=en |date=2016 |access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mahima Ranjan |last2=Adhikari |first2=Avishek |title=Basic Modern Algebra with Applications |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-1599-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBO7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 |language=en |date=2013 |access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Aleskerov |first1=Fuad |last2=Ersel |first2=Hasan |last3=Piontkovski |first3=Dmitri |title=Linear Algebra for Economists |date=2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-20570-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ipcSD8ZGB8cC&pg=PA1 |language=en |access-date=March 11, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |last1=Andréka |first1=H. |last2=Madarász |first2=J. 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I. |title=Linear Equation |url=https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Linear_equation |website=Encyclopedia of Mathematics |publisher=Springer |access-date=January 10, 2024 |date=2011 |archive-date=November 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123235759/https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Linear_equation |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Waerden |first1=Bartel L. van der |author-link=Bartel Leendert van der Waerden |title=Algebra |publisher=Springer |isbn=0-387-40624-7 |volume=1 |date=2003}} * {{cite book |last1=Waerden |first1=Bartel L. van der |title=A History of Algebra: From al-Khwārizmī to Emmy Noether |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-51599-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6DwCAAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=January 27, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Wagner |first1=Sigrid |last2=Kieran |first2=Carolyn |title=Research Issues in the Learning and Teaching of Algebra: The Research Agenda for Mathematics Education |volume=4 |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-43421-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uW4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 |language=en |access-date=January 13, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Walz |first1=Guido |title=Lexikon der Mathematik: Band 1: A bis Eif |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53498-4 |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 |language=de |chapter=Algebra |access-date=January 13, 2024 |archive-date=January 12, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112171819/https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 |url-status=live |trans-title=Encyclopedia of Mathematics: Volume 1: A to Eif}} * {{cite book |last1=Weibel |first1=Charles A. |author-link=Charles Weibel |title=An Introduction to Homological Algebra |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-64307-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtIhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR11 |language=en |date=1995}} * {{cite book |last1=Weisstein |first1=Eric W. |title=CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics |date=2003 |publisher=Chapman & Hall/CRC |isbn=978-1-58488-347-0 |edition=2nd}} * {{cite book |last1=Wheeler |first1=Jeffrey Paul |title=An Introduction to Optimization with Applications in Machine Learning and Data Analytics |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-003-80359-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IqQIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |language=en |date=2023}} * {{cite book |last1=Whitelaw |first1=T. A. |title=Introduction to Abstract Algebra, Third Edition |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-7514-0147-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2hyf0QoB_0C&pg=PA61 |language=en |date=1995}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=G. Arnell |title=Algebra the Beautiful: An Ode to Math's Least-Loved Subject |date=2022 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-1-5416-0070-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=581CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |language=en |access-date=March 11, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Robert A. |author-link=Robert Arnott Wilson |title=The Finite Simple Groups |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |series=[[Graduate Texts in Mathematics]] |isbn=978-1-84800-987-5 |doi=10.1007/978-1-84800-988-2 |year=2009 |zbl=1203.20012 |volume=251}} * {{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Cynthia Y. |title=Precalculus |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-75684-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=RA1-PA999 |language=en |access-date=January 16, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Cynthia Y. |title=Precalculus |date=2023 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-86940-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pMSZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA714 |language=en |access-date=January 18, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |author1=zbMATH Open |title=Classification |url=https://zbmath.org/classification/ |website=zbMATH Open |publisher=Mathematical Reviews and zbMATH Open |access-date=March 17, 2024 |language=en |date=2024 |archive-date=July 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719184539/https://zbmath.org/classification/ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Zwillinger |first1=Daniel |title=CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae |date=2002 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-3534-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE_MBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA812 |language=en |access-date=January 27, 2024}}{{cbignore}} {{Refend}} == External links == {{Wikiquote}} {{Wiktionary|algebra}} {{Wikibooks|Algebra}} {{EB1911 poster|Algebra}} {{Algebra}} {{Polynomials}} {{Areas of mathematics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Algebra| ]] eqs8j1anul0b9a1f11a6uxfoa3w5z4e 0 6233 122360 120531 2026-09-25T01:54:34Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122360 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Makina yakulongozgeka iyo yikunozga uthenga}} {{Other uses|Mrangura (disambiguation)}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Pp-move}} {{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=300 | image1 = ENIAC-changing a tube (cropped).jpg | alt1 = Black-and-white image of a man replacing one vacuum tube out of hundreds in early computer | image2 = IBM System360 Mainframe.jpg | alt2 = Computer room with multiple computer cabinets and operating panel | image3 = LYF WATER 2 Smartphone.JPG | alt3 = Smartphone with rainbow-like display held in a hand | image4 = ThinkCentre S50.jpg | alt4 = Black desktop computer with monitor on top and keyboard in front | image5 = Gamecube-console.jpg | alt5 = Purple video game console with attached controller | image6 = Summit (supercomputer).jpg | alt6 = Rows of large, dark computer cabinets in warehouse-like room | footer = Computers and computing devices from different eras—left to right, top to bottom: {{bulleted list |Early vacuum tube computer ([[ENIAC]]) |[[Mainframe]] computer ([[IBM System/360]]) |[[Smartphone]] ([[LYF]] Water 2) |[[Desktop computer]] (IBM [[ThinkCentre#S50|ThinkCentre S50]] with monitor) |[[Video game console]] (Nintendo [[GameCube]]) |[[Supercomputer]] (IBM [[Summit (supercomputer)|Summit]]) }} }} '''Mrangura''' ni [[makina]]. Iwo ungaŵa [[Kupanga mapulogalamu gha pa mrangura|kupanga mapulogalamu]]. Iwo mwaŵene [[Kupha (kuŵerengera)|kuchita]] ndondomeko. Ndondomeko izi ni za [[masamu]] panji [[mapulogalamu ghakumanyikwa]]. Ichi chikuchemeka ''[[kupenda]]''. Mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano [[gha pa mrangura]] ghakuchita vinthu vyakupambanapambana. Ntchito izi zikumanyikwa kuti [[Pulogalamu ya mrangura|''mapulogalamu'']]. Mapulogiramu ghakovwira mamrangura kuti ghachitenge milimo yinandi. Lizgu lakuti '''dongosolo la mrangura''' lingayowoya za mrangura yose. Ivi vikusazgapo [[Vipangizo vya pa mrangura|vipangizo vya pa mrangura]], [[vipangizo vyakugwiliskira ntchito]], [[vipangizo]], na [[vipangizo vyakuzungulira]]. Vinthu ivi vikukhumbikwa kuti vigwirenge ntchito mwakukwana. Mwakuyana waka, likung’anamura gulu la mamrangura. Mamrangura agha ghakukolerana. Ŵakugwira ntchito pamoza. Viyelezgero ivi ni [[netiweki ya mrangura]] panji [[gulu la mrangura]]. Vinthu vinandi vikugwiriskira ncito mamrangura. Ivi vikusazgapo [[Mulongozgi wa mapulogalamu|mafakitale]] na [[Vinthu vya magesi vyakuguliska|vinthu vyakuguliska]]. Ŵakugwiriskira ncito mamrangura nga ni [[ndondomeko yakulongozgera]]s. Viyelezgero ni vipangizo vipusu nga ni [[uvuni wa microwave]] na [[kulongozgera patali]]. Vipangizo vya mafakitale nga ni [[roboti ya mafakitale]]s navyo vikuvigwiriskira ncito. Mamrangura ni ghakuzirwa chomene pa vipangizo vyakugwiriskira ntchito ŵanthu wose. Vinthu ivi vikusazgapo [[mrangura]] na [[chipangizo cha pa foni]] nga ni [[foni yamakono]]. Mamrangura ghakupereka nkhongono ku [[Intaneti]]. Intaneti yikukoleska mamrangura mabiliyoni ghanandi na ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito Intaneti. Mamrangura ghakale ghakaŵanga ghakugwiliskirika nchito waka pa [[kupenda]]. Vipangizo vyambura kusuzga vyakulembeka vikawovwiranga pa mawerengero. [[Abacus]] nchiyelezgero. Ŵanthu ŵali kugwiliskira ntchito kufuma waka pa nyengo yakale. Mu nyengo ya [[Kusintha kwa Mafakitale]], ŵakapanga vipangizo vya makina. Ŵakachitanga ntchito zitali ndiposo zakutondeska. Chiyelezgero ni ndondomeko yakulongozga ya [[loom]]s. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1900, ŵakapanga makina ghapachanya chomene gha magesi. Ŵakachitanga mawerengero ghapadera [[Vinthu vya magesi vya analogue|analog]]. Mu nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], ŵakapanga makina ghakwamba ghakupenda ndalama gha pa mrangura [[Digital data|digital]]. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa makina gha [[mrangura ya makina|makina gha magesi]]. Ŵakagwiliskirangaso ntchito [[vavu ya thermionic]]s. Kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m’ma 1940, [[semikondakita]] [[transistor]]s yikawonekera. Mu vilimika vya kumanyuma vya m’ma 1950, vipangizo vya [[silicon]]-vyakupangika na [[MOSFET]] (transistor ya MOS) na [[dera lakuphatikizgika la monolithic]] vikalondezgapo. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe [[maikroprosesa]]. Ŵakapangiskaso kuti paŵe [[kusintha kwa mamrangura ghachokoghachoko]] mu vilimika vya m’ma 1970. Kufuma nyengo iyi, luŵiro lwa mrangura, nkhongono, na kugwira ntchito zinandi vyasazgikira chomene. [[Chiŵerengero cha ma transistor]]s chakwera mwaluŵiro. [[Dango la Moore]] likayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵazganga kaŵiri pa vilimika viŵiri vyose. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe [[Kusintha kwa Digito]]. Likachitika kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m’ma 1900 na kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m’ma 1900. Mwakuyana waka, mrangura ya mazuŵa ghano yili na [[chinthu chakupangira vinthu]] chimoza. Ichi chikuŵa [[chigaŵa chapakati cha kupanga vinthu]] (CPU). CPU kanandi yikuŵa [[maikroprosesa]]. Kweniso likusazgapo mtundu unyake wa [[memory ya mrangura]]. Ichi chikuŵa [[kukumbukira kwa semiconductor]] vipangizo. Chinthu chakunozga chikuchita ntchito za masamu. Iwo ukuchitaso ntchito zakupulikikwa. Unit yakulongozgera na kulaŵilira yikusazgapo. Unit iyi ingasintha ndondomeko ya ntchito. Ikuzgora ku [[data|uthenga]] wakusungika. Vipangizo vyakuzungulira ndiwo chigaŵa cha ndondomeko. Iwo ŵakusazgapo vipangizo vyakunjilirapo. Viyelezgero ni [[Tekinoloje ya kiyibodi|makiyibodi]], [[Mbeŵa ya pa mrangura|mbeŵa]], na [[joysticks]]. Iwo ŵakusazgaposo vipangizo vyakufumiskiramo. Viyelezgero ni [[Kuwonelera mrangura|kuwonelera]] na [[Kusindikizga (kusindikizga)|kusindikizga]]. Pali [[Vipangizo vyakunjilirapo na vyakufumamo|vipangizo vyakunjilirapo/vyakufumiska]] navyo. Ivi vikuchita milimo yose yiŵiri. Chiyelezgero ni [[kukhwaska|kukhwaska]]. Vipangizo vyakuzungulira vikuzomerezga kusanga uthenga. Vimanyikwiro ivi vikufuma ku malo gha kuwaro. Iwo ŵakovwiraso kusunga vyakusangikamo. Ivyo vikufuma mu opareshoni vingasangikaso. {{TOC limit|3}} == Mbiri ya zina == [[File:X-4 with Female Computer - GPN-2000-001932.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Munthu-mrangura]], iyo yili na microscope na calculator, 1952|alt=A human computer.]] Pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1900 ndipo lizgu ili likamba kumanyikwa makora mazuŵa ghano; kuyana na ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]'', kugwiriskira ncito kwakwamba kwakumanyikwa kwa lizgu lakuti ''mrangura'' kukaŵa mu ng'anamuro lakupambana, mu buku la 1613 lakuchemeka ''The Yong Mans Gleanings'' la mulembi wa Chingelezi [[Richard Brathwait]]: "Ine {{sic}} kuŵazga mrangura yaunenesko ya Times, ndipo Nkhwantha ya Masamu yiwemi chomene iyo euer {{sic|nolink=y}} kupuma, ndipo wakuchepeskako mazuŵa ghako kuŵa nambara yifupi." Kugwiriskira ncito lizgu ili kukayowoyanga za [[mrangura ya munthu]], munthu uyo ​​wakacitanga mawerengero panji [[mawerengero]]s. Lizgu ili likalutilira kuŵa na ng’anamuro limoza mpaka pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1900. Mu nyengo ya umaliro wa nyengo iyi, ŵanakazi ŵakaŵanga nga ni mrangura yawo. ŵanyawo.{{Sfn|Evans|2018|p=23}} Mu 1943, mamrangura ghanandi gha ŵanthu ghakaŵa gha ŵanakazi ..{{Sfn|Smith|2013|p=6}} ''[[Dikishonale ya Etymology pa Intaneti]]'' yikupereka ukaboni wakwamba wakugwiriskira ncito ''mrangura'' mu vilimika vya m'ma 1640, kung'anamura 'uyo wakupenda'; iyi ni "zina la wovwiri kufuma ku compute (v.)". "Dikishonale ya Etymology ya pa intaneti" yikuti kugwiriskira ncito lizgu ili kukung'anamura {{" '}}makina ghakuŵerengera' (gha mtundu uliwose) kufuma mu 1897." "Online Etymology Dictionary" yikulongora kuti "kugwiriskira ncito kwa mazuŵa ghano" kwa lizgu ili, kung'anamura 'mrangura ya digito yakupangika' yikafuma mu "1945 pasi pa zina ili; [mu] fundo [yakusambizga] kufuma mu 1937, nga ni ''[[makina gha Turing]]''".<ref>{{cite web |title=computer (n.) |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=computer |url-status=live |access-date=2021-08-19 |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |language=en-US |archive-date=16 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116065135/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=computer }}</ref> The name has remained, although modern computers are capable of many higher-level functions. == Mbiri == {{Main|Mbiri ya mrangura|Mbiri ya vipangizo vya mrangura}} {{For timeline|Timeline of computing}} === Pre-20th century === [[File:Os d'Ishango IRSNB.JPG|thumb|upright=0.65|[[Chiwangwa cha Ishango]], [[chida cha fupa]] icho chikapangika mu nyengo ya [[Africa pambere mbiri yindambe]]]] Vipangizo vyagwiriskirika ncito kuti viwovwire pa kupenda kwa virimika vikwi vinandi, comenecomene vikugwiriskira ncito [[kulemberana kwa yumoza na yumoza]] na [[kupenda kwa minwe|minwe]]. Chipangizo chakwamba chakuŵerengera chikwenera kuti chikaŵa mtundu wa [[tally stick]]. Pamanyuma pake vyakovwira kusunga vyakulembeka mu [[Fertile Crescent]] yose vikaŵa na calculi (vigaŵa vya dongo, makoni, na vinyake) ivyo vikayimiranga viŵelengero vya vinthu, vikwenera kuti vikaŵa viŵeto panji mbewu, ivyo vikajalirika mu viŵiya vya dongo vyambura kuphika. vimanyikwiro, vyose pamoza vikaŵa chiŵelengero cha vinthu ivyo vikasamuskikanga. Mwantheura viŵiya ivi vikaŵanga nga ni [[bill of lading]] panji buku la akaunti. Kuti ŵaleke kuphyora viŵiya ivi, cakwamba ŵakaŵikanga vithuzithuzi vya dongo vya vimanyikwiro kuwaro kwa viŵiya ivi, kuti ŵaŵerengerenge; mawonekero gha vithuzithuzi vikafumiskikapo mu vimanyikwiro vyakupangika; paumaliro, vimanyikwiro vyambura kumanyikwa vikagwiriskirika ncito mwandondomeko nga ni manambara; manambala agha pamanyuma ghakazomerezgeka kuŵa manambara.<br />Paumaliro vimanyikwiro ivyo vikaŵa kuwaro kwa viŵiya ndivyo vikakhumbikwanga kuti vilongosore unandi, ndipo viŵiya vya dongo vikasintha na kuŵa viphapha vya dongo ivyo vikaŵa na vimanyikwiro vya unandi. {{harvnb|Schmandt-Besserat|1999}} estimates it took 4000 years.}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robson |first=Eleanor |title=Mathematics in Ancient Iraq |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-691-09182-2 |page=5 |author-link=Eleanor Robson}}: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a [[sexagesimal number system]] was in use 2350–2000 BCE.</ref> Kugwiriskira ncito [[ndodo zakuŵerengera]] nchiyelezgero cimoza. [[File:Abacus 6.png|thumb|upright=1.15|left|The Chinese [[suanpan]] ({{lang|zh|算盘}}). The number represented on this [[abacus]] is 6,302,715,408.]] Pakwamba ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito [[abacus]] pa ntchito za masamu. [[Abacus wa Ŵaroma]] wakapangika kufuma ku vipangizo ivyo vikagwiliskirikanga nchito ku [[Babuloni]] kufuma waka mu 2400 B.C.E. Kufuma nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵali kupanga mitundu yinyake yinandi ya matabwa panji matebulo ghakuŵerengera. Mu nyengo ya ŵamitundu ŵa ku Europe [[nyumba yakupenda ndalama]], ŵakaŵikanga pa thebulu salu yakupangika na vithuzithuzi, ndipo vimanyikwiro vikazungulirazungulira pa thebulu ilo mwakuyana na malango ghanyake, nga ni wovwiri pakupenda ndalama.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Flegg, Graham. |title=Numbers through the ages |date=1989 |publisher=Macmillan Education|isbn=0-333-49130-0|location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire |language=en-US |oclc=24660570}}</ref> [[File:Antikythera Fragment A (Front).webp|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Nthowa ya Antikythera]], iyo yikapangika mu [[Grisi wakale]] pafupifupi mu 200–80 B.C.E., ni chipangizo chakwambilira [[chakupangira mamrangura ghakuyana waka]].] Ŵakugomezga kuti [[Nthowa ya Antikythera]] ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba chomene [[mrangura ya analog]], kuyana na [[Derek J. de Solla Price]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080428070448/http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html ''The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080428070448/http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html |date=28 April 2008 }}, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 1 July 2007.</ref> Likapangika kuti liŵerengerenge malo agho ŵasayansi ŵa mu mlengalenga ŵali. Likasangika mu 1901 mu [[chikepe cha Antikythera]] pafupi na chirwa cha [[Antikythera]] ku Greece, pakati pa [[Kythera]] na [[Krete]], ndipo ŵakuti likasangika pafupifupi mu 1900. {{circa|100 BCE}}. Vipangizo vyakuyana waka na vya Antikythera vikawonekangaso yayi m’paka mu vilimika vya m’ma 1400.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marchant |first=Jo |date=1 November 2006 |title=In search of lost time |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7119 |pages=534–538 |doi=10.1038/444534a |pmid=17136067 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..534M |s2cid=4305761 |doi-access=free | issn = 0028-0836}}</ref> Vinthu vinandi vyakovwira pa kupenda na kupima vinthu vikapangika kuti vigwiriskike nchito pa kusanda vyakuthambo na pa kwenda pa nyanja. [[Chati cha nyenyezi]] chikaŵa [[tchati cha nyenyezi]] icho chikapangika na [[Al-Biruni|Abu Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m’ma 1000.<ref name="Wiet">G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). ''History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations'', p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Limited, [[UNESCO]].</ref> Chinthu cha Astrolabe chikapangika mu charu cha Ŵagiriki mu vilimika vya m’ma 100 panji 200 B.C.E. Kusazgapo kwa planisphere na dioptra, astrolabe yikaŵa nadi mrangura ya analog iyo yingakwaniska kugwiliskira nchito mitundu yakupambanapambana ya masuzgo mu vyakuthambo vyakuzungulira. Astrolabe iyo yikusazgapo mrangura ya kalendara<ref>Fuat Sezgin. "Catalogue of the Exhibition of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science (at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University", Frankfurt, Germany), Frankfurt Book Fair 2004, pp.&nbsp;35 & 38.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=François |last=Charette |title=Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7119 |pages=551–552 |year=2006 |doi=10.1038/444551a|pmid=17136077 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..551C |s2cid=33513516 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ndipo matayala gha magiya ghakapangika na Abi Bakr wa ku Isfahan, Peresiya mu 1235.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Silvio A.|last1=Bedini|first2=Francis R.|last2=Maddison|year=1966|title=Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi|journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society|volume=56|issue=5|pages=1–69|jstor=1006002|doi=10.2307/1006002}}</ref> Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī wakapanga kalendara yakwamba ya nyenyezi,<ref>{{cite journal|first=Derek de S.|last=Price|author-link=Derek J. de Solla Price|year=1984|title=A History of Calculating Machines|url=https://archive.org/details/ieee-micro_1984-02_4_1/page/22|journal=IEEE Micro|volume=4|number=1|pages=22–52|doi=10.1109/MM.1984.291305}}</ref> makina ghakale ghakukhazikika ghakupanga umanyi<ref name=Oren>{{cite journal|first=Tuncer|last=Őren|author-link=Tuncer Őren|year=2001|title=Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents|url=http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~oren/pubs/pubs-2001-02-Tubitak.pdf|journal=Turk J Elec Engin|volume=9|number=1|pages=63–70|access-date=21 April 2016|archive-date=15 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090915033859/http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~oren/pubs/pubs-2001-02-Tubitak.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> na sitima ya magiya na matayala ya magiya,<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '''42''', pp.&nbsp;139–163.</ref> {{circa|1000 AD}}. Chigaŵa ichi, chipangizo chakuŵerengera icho chikugwiriskirika nchito pa kumazga masuzgo mu chiŵelengero, trigonometry, kuchulukizga na kugaŵa, ndiposo pa milimo yakupambanapambana, nga ni makwerero na mizu ya cube, chikapangika kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m’ma 1500 ndipo chikasangika kuti chikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga mfuti, kupenda na kulongozga pa nyanja. Planimeter yikaŵa chipangizo cha mawoko chakupenda malo gha chithuzithuzi chakujalika mwa kuchilembapo na chinthu chakukolerana. [[File:Sliderule 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.25|left|A [[slide rule]]]] Rulala la slide likapangika pafupifupi 1620–1630, na msambizgi wa Chingelezi William Oughtred, nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo fundo ya logarithm yikasindikizgikira. Ni mrangura ya analog iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito na mawoko kuti yichitenge kuchulukizga na kugaŵa. Apo malango gha slide ghakalutanga panthazi, masikelo ghakusazgikira ghakapereka vimanyikwiro vyakuyana waka, makwerero na mizu ya makwerero, ma cube na mizu ya ma cube, ndiposo milimo yakujumpha nga ni logarithms na exponentials, circular na hyperbolic trigonometry na milimo yinyake. Malango ghakulongora vithuzithuzi agho ghali na masikelo ghapadera ghachali kugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ŵachitenge mwaluŵiro mawerengero gha nyengo zose, nga ni dango la E6B lakuzungulira ilo likugwiriskirika nchito pa nyengo na mtunda . calculations on light aircraft. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1770, Pierre Jaquet-Droz, uyo wakapanga mawotchi ku Switzerland, wakapanga chidole cha makina (automaton) icho chingalemba uku chikukora bolopointi ya quill. Pakusintha nambara na ndondomeko ya matayala ghake gha mukati, vilembo vyakupambanapambana, ndipo ntheura uthenga wakupambanapambana, ungapangika. Mukuyowoya mwakudumura, yingaŵa "yakupangika" kuti yiŵerenge malango. Pamoza na makina ghanyake ghaŵiri ghakusuzga, chidole ichi chili ku Nyumba Yakusungiramo Vinthu vya Kale ya ku Neuchâtel, ku Switzerland, ndipo chikugwira ntchito m’paka sono.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 July 2013 |title=The Writer Automaton, Switzerland |url=http://www.chonday.com/Videos/the-writer-automaton |publisher=chonday.com |access-date=28 January 2015 |archive-date=20 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220154407/http://www.chonday.com/Videos/the-writer-automaton }}</ref> Mu 1831–1835, nkhwantha ya masamu na injiniya [[Giovanni Plana]] wakapanga [[Cappella dei Mercanti (Turin)#Perpetual calendar|Perpetual Calendar machine]], iyo kwizira mu ndondomeko ya mapulley na masilinda yikamanyiska [[perpetual calendar]] ya chaka chilichose kufuma mu 0 CE (ndiko kuti, 1 BCE) m'paka 4000 CE, kusunga utali wa vyaka vyakujumphapo na vyakupambanapambana vya zuŵa. [[tide-predicting machine]] iyo yikapangika na wasayansi wa ku Scotland [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Sir William Thomson]] mu 1872 yikaŵa yakovwira chomene pa kwenda mu maji ghambura kunyang'amira. Likagwiliskiranga ntchito ndondomeko ya mapulley na mawaya kuti liŵerengerenge yekha unandi wa maji agho ghakuyowoyeka kuti ghazamuŵapo pa nyengo yinyake pa malo ghanyake. [[differential analyser]], mrangura ya makina ya analog iyo yikapangika kuti yimazge [[differential equation]]s na [[integral|integration]], yikagwiliskira nchito nthowa za matayala na diski kuti yiphatikizge vinthu ivi. Mu 1876, Sir William Thomson wakadumbiskana kale za umo vingaŵira vyakuzenga vyakuŵerengera vyanthena ivi, kweni wakatondeka na nkhongono yichoko yakufumiramo ya [[ball-and-disk integrator]]s.<ref name="scientific-computing.com">Ray Girvan, [https://web.archive.org/web/20121103094710/http://www.scientific-computing.com/scwmayjun03computingmachines.html "The revealed grace of the mechanism: computing after Babbage"], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103094710/http://www.scientific-computing.com/scwmayjun03computingmachines.html|date=3 November 2012}}, ''Scientific Computing World'', May/June 2003.</ref> Mu chipangizo chakuwonera vyakupambana, ivyo vikafumanga ku integrator yimoza vikapangiskanga kuti integrator yakulondezgapo yinjiremo, panji kuti graphing output. [[torque amplifier]] ndiyo yikaŵa nthowa iyo yikapangiska kuti makina agha ghagwirenge ntchito. Kufuma mu 1920s, [[Vannevar Bush]] na ŵanyake ŵakapanga makina ghakuwonera mphambano. Mu 1890s, injiniya wa ku Spain [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]] wakamba kupanga mndandanda wa [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo#Analogue calculating machines|analog machines]] wakupambanapambana uwo ungamazga misisi yeneco na yakusuzga ya [[polynomial]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Torres |first=Leonardo |author-link=Leonardo Torres Quevedo |date=1895-10-10 |title=Memória sobre las Máquinas Algébricas |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/pdf/publico/1895/1895_tomoI_28_01.pdf |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |issue=28 |pages=217–222}}</ref><ref name="MaquinasAlgebricasLTQ">Leonardo Torres. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Eo0NAQAAIAAJ Memoria sobre las máquinas algébricas: con un informe de la Real academia de ciencias exactas, fisicas y naturales]'', Misericordia, 1895.</ref><ref name="Thomas2008">{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Federico |date=2008-08-01 |title=A short account on Leonardo Torres' endless spindle |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094114X07001231 |journal=[[Mechanism and Machine Theory]] |publisher=[[International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science|IFToMM]] |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=1055–1063 |doi=10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2007.07.003 |issn=0094-114X|hdl=10261/30460 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Gomez-JaureguiGutierrez-GarciaGonzález-RedondoIglesiasManchadoOtero2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Gomez-Jauregui |first1=Valentin |last2=Gutierrez-Garcia |first2=Andres |last3=González-Redondo |first3=Francisco A. |last4=Iglesias |first4=Miguel |last5=Manchado |first5=Cristina |last6=Otero |first6=Cesar |date=2022-06-01 |title=Torres Quevedo's mechanical calculator for second-degree equations with complex coefficients|journal=[[Mechanism and Machine Theory]] |publisher=[[International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science|IFToMM]] |volume=172 |issue=8|page=104830 |doi=10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2022.104830|s2cid=247503677 |doi-access=free |hdl=10902/24391 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> iyo yikasindikizgika mu 1901 na [[French Academy of Sciences|Paris Academy of Sciences]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=1901|first=Leonardo|language=fr|last=Torres Quevedo|publisher=Impr. nationale (París)|title=Machines á calculer|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k840139b?rk=21459;2 |journal=Mémoires Présentés par Divers Savants à l'Académie des Scienes de l'Institut de France |volume=XXXII}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> === mrangura yakwamba === [[File:Charles Babbage. Wood engraving, 1871. Wellcome V0000259.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Charles Babbage]] {{multiple image |direction = vertical |footer = |align = right |image1 = Difference engine plate 1853.jpg |caption1 = A diagram of a portion of Babbage's [[Difference engine]] |image2 = Differenceengine.jpg|width=165 |caption2 = The Difference Engine Number 2 at the [[Intellectual Ventures]] laboratory in Seattle }} [[Charles Babbage]], injiniya wa makina wa ku England ndipo [[polymath]], ndiyo wakambiska fundo yakuti paŵe mrangura iyo yingaŵikika mu mapulogiramu. Kuwona kuti "[[computer pioneer|father of the computer]]",<ref>{{cite book |author=Halacy, Daniel Stephen |title=Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer |url=https://archive.org/details/charlesbabbagefa00hala |url-access=registration |year=1970 |publisher=Crowell-Collier Press |isbn=978-0-02-741370-0 }}</ref> iyo wakaghanaghana na kupanga [[mechanical computer]] wakwamba mu vilimika vya m'ma 19th century. Pamanyuma pakugwira ntchito pa [[difference engine]] yake wakapharazga ivyo wakapanga mu 1822, mu pepala ilo wakalemba ku [[Royal Astronomical Society]], ilo likaŵa na mutu wakuti "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables".<ref>{{cite web |last1=O'Connor |first1=John J. |last2=Robertson |first2=Edmund F. |author-link2=Edmund F. Robertson |date=1998 |url=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html |title=Charles Babbage |work=MacTutor History of Mathematics archive |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland |access-date=2006-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616002258/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html |archive-date=2006-06-16 }}</ref> Kuŵika mapulogalamu na data kukaŵa kuti kupelekeka ku makina kwizira mu [[punched card]]s, nthowa iyo yikagwiriskirika ncito pa nyengo iyo kuti yilongozge [[loom]]s ya makina nga ni [[Jacquard loom]]. Kuti yifumemo, makina ghaŵenge na [[Printer (computing)|printer]], curve plotter na belu. Makina agha ghakaŵangaso na mazaza ghakulemba manambara pa makadi kuti ŵaŵazgenge pamanyuma. Injini iyi yizamuŵa na [[arithmetic logic unit]], [[control flow]] mu kawonekero ka [[conditional branching]] na [[program loop#Loops|loops]], ndiposo [[computer memory|memory]] yakusazgako, ndipo yizamuŵa yakwamba kupanga mrangura yakugwiriskira ncito vinthu vyose iyo yingalongosoreka mu mazgu gha mazuŵa ghano kuti [[Turing-complete]].<ref name="babbageonline">{{cite web |date=19 January 2007 |title=Babbage |url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/stories/babbage.aspx?page=5 |access-date=1 August 2012 |work=Online stuff |publisher=Science Museum |archive-date=7 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807185334/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/stories/babbage.aspx?page=5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Graham-Cumming |first=John |date=23 December 2010 |title=Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827915.500-lets-build-babbages-ultimate-mechanical-computer.html |url-status=live |access-date=1 August 2012 |work=opinion |publisher=New Scientist |language=en-US |archive-date=5 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805050111/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827915.500-lets-build-babbages-ultimate-mechanical-computer.html }}</ref> . Makina agha ghakaŵa pafupifupi vyaka zana limoza pambere nyengo yake yindakwane. Vigaŵa vyose vya makina ghake vikakhumbikwiranga kupangika na mawoko – ili likaŵa suzgo likuru ku chipangizo icho chikaŵa na vigaŵa vikwi vinandi. Paumaliro, ntchito iyi yikamara apo ŵa [[British Government]] ŵakadumura kuti ŵaleke kupeleka ndalama. Kutondeka kwa Babbage kumalizga injini yakusanda vinthu kungacitika comene cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali na gha ndalama ndiposo cifukwa cakuti wakakhumbanga kupanga mrangura iyo yikaŵa yakunozga comene ndiposo kuti walutilire kwenda mwaluŵiro kuluska umo munthu waliyose wangacitira. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, mwana wake, [[Henry Babbage]], wakamalizga mtundu wakupepuka wa injini yakusanda ('' mphero'') mu 1888. Wakalongora makora umo yikugwiriskikira nchito pa matebulo gha mrangura mu 1906. === Makina ghakuŵerengera gha magesi === [[File:Aritmómetro_Electromecánico.jpg|thumb|left|Electro-mechanical calculator (1920) by [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]].]] Mu buku lake lakuti ''Essays on Automatics'' ilo likalembeka mu 1914, [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]] wakalemba mbiri yichoko waka ya umo Babbage wakayezgera kupanga injini yakupambana ya makina na injini yakusanda. Pepala ili lili na ndondomeko ya makina agho ghangapenda mafomula nga ni <math>a^x(y - z)^2</math>, gha ndondomeko ya vigaŵa vyakuzirwa. Makina ghose ghakeneranga kulaŵilirika na [[Read-only memory|read-only]] program, agho ghakaŵa ghakukwana na vyakukhumbikwa vya [[conditional branching]]. Wakambiskaso fundo yakuti [[floating-point arithmetic]].<ref name="LTQ1914es">L. Torres Quevedo. ''Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definicion. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones,'' Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta, Revista 12, pp. 391–418, 1914.</ref><ref>Torres Quevedo, Leonardo. [https://quickclick.es/rop/pdf/publico/1914/1914_tomoI_2043_01.pdf Automática: Complemento de la Teoría de las Máquinas, (pdf)], pp. 575–583, Revista de Obras Públicas, 19 November 1914.</ref><ref>Ronald T. Kneusel. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eq4ZDgAAQBAJ&dq=leonardo+torres+quevedo++electromechanical+machine+essays&pg=PA84 Numbers and Computers],'' Springer, pp. 84–85, 2017. {{ISBN|978-3-319-50508-4}}</ref> Mu 1920, kuti ŵakondwelere vyaka 100 vya kupangika kwa [[arithmometer]], Torriro the Elect a . [[Keyboard layout|keyboard]], ndipo wakapenda na kusindikizga ivyo vikasangika,{{Sfn|Randell|1982|p=6, 11–13}}<ref name="Randell1982p109">B. Randell. ''Electromechanical Calculating Machine,'' The Origins of Digital Computers, pp.109–120, 1982.</ref>{{sfn|Bromley|1990}}<ref>Cristopher Moore, Stephan Mertens. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z4zMiZyAE1kC&dq=leonardo+torres+quevedo+++computing&pg=PA291 The Nature of Computation],'' Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, p. 291, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-199-23321-2}}.</ref> kulongora kuti injini yakusanda vya magesi yingachitika.<ref>Randell, Brian. [https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/1074100.1074334 Digital Computers, History of Origins, (pdf)], p. 545, Digital Computers: Origins, Encyclopedia of Computer Science, January 2003.</ref> === Analog computers === {{Main|mrangura ya Analog}} [[File:099-tpm3-sk.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Sir William Thomson]]'s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81]] Mu hafu yakwamba ya vilimika vya m’ma 1900, vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵasayansi ŵakakhumbikwiranga pakupanga mamrangura vikafiskika na mamrangura gha analog agho ghakaŵa ghakunozga comene, agho ghakagwiliskiranga nchito ciyerezgero cakudunjika ca suzgo ilo likaŵapo pa nkhani ya makina panji magesi nga ni fundo yakucitira mamrangura. Ndipouli, vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyambura kupangika ndipo kanandi vikaŵavya vinthu vinandi ndiposo vikaŵanga vyambura kwenelera nga ni mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano gha digito.<ref name="stanf">{{cite book |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computing-history/ |title=The Modern History of Computing |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2017 |language=en-US |access-date=7 January 2014 |archive-date=12 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712072148/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computing-history/ |url-status=live }}</ref> mrangura yakwamba ya mazuŵa ghano ya analog yikaŵa makina ghakumanyirathu umo maji ghakuŵira, agho ghakapangika na Sir William Thomson (uyo pamanyuma wakazgoka Lord Kelvin) mu 1872. mrangura ya analog ya makina iyo yikapangika kuti yimazge ma equation ghakupambanapambana mwa kuphatikizga vinthu mwakugwiliskira nchito nthowa za matayala na diski, yikapangika na James brotherom the more the Thmo8. Fumu William Thomson.<ref name="scientific-computing.com" /> Luso la kupanga mamrangura gha analog likafika pa msinkhu wake na chipangizo chakuwonera mphambano, icho chikapangika na H. L. Hazen na Vannevar Bush ku MIT kwamba mu 1927. Ici cikazengeka pa vipangizo vyakusazgako makina vya James Thomson na vipangizo vyakukhozga nkhongono ivyo vikapangika na H. W. Nieman. Vipangizo ivi khumi na viŵiri vikapangika pambere vindawoneke kuti vyamara nchito.[citation needed] Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950, kupambana kwa mamrangura gha magesi gha digito kukapangiska kuti makina ghanandi ghakupangika na analog ghaleke kuŵapo, kweni mamrangura gha analog ghakalutilira kugwiliskirika nchito mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950 mu vinthu vinyake vyapadera nga ni masambiro (slide rule) na ndege (control systems) ..{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}} === Mamrangura gha digito === ==== Magesi-Makina ==== Claude Shannon's 1937 master's thesis wakaŵika fawundeshoni ya mamrangura gha digito, ndipo kumanya kwake kwakugwiriskira ncito algebra ya Boolean pakusanda na kupanga ma circuit ghakusinthasintha ndiyo fundo yakuzirwa iyo yikupangiska mamrangura ghose gha digito gha digito.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=081H96F1enMC |title=A Brief History of Computing |date=2008 |publisher=Springer London |isbn=978-1-84800-083-4 |editor-last=O’Regan |editor-first=Gerard |location=London |pages=28 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-84800-084-1}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Tse |first=David |author-link=David Tse |date=2020-12-22 |title=How Claude Shannon Invented the Future |url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-claude-shannons-information-theory-invented-the-future-20201222/ |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=Quanta Magazine}}</ref> Mu 1938, ŵasilikari ŵa pa nyanja ŵa ku United States ŵakapanga mrangura ya analog ya magesi iyo yikaŵa yichoko chomene mwakuti ŵangagwiliskira ntchito pa boti la pasi pa maji. Iyi yikaŵa mrangura ya Torpedo Data, iyo yikagwiliskiranga ntchito trigonometry kuti yimazge suzgo la kuponya torpedo pa chinthu icho chikwenda. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, ŵakapangaso vipangizo vyanthena ivi mu vyaru vinyake.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}} [[File:Z3 Deutsches Museum.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|Replica of [[Konrad Zuse]]'s [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]], the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer]] Mamrangura ghakwambilira gha digito ghakaŵa gha magesi; masiwichi gha magesi ghakayendeskanga ma relay gha makina kuti ghachitenge chiŵelengero. Vipangizo ivi vikagwiranga nchito mwaluŵiro yayi ndipo paumaliro pake vikanjilirapo na mamrangura gha magesi ghose agho ghakaŵa ghaluŵiro comene, ndipo pakwamba ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito machubu gha vacuum. Z2, iyo yikapangika na injiniya wa ku [[Germany]] Konrad Zuse mu 1939 ku Berlin, yikaŵa yimoza mwa viyelezgero vyakwamba vya mrangura yakutumizga magesi.<ref name="Part 4 Zuse">{{cite web|url=http://www.epemag.com/zuse/part4a.htm|title=Part 4: Konrad Zuse's Z1 and Z3 Computers|last=Zuse|first=Horst|work=The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse|publisher=EPE Online|access-date=17 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080601210541/http://www.epemag.com/zuse/part4a.htm |archive-date=1 June 2008}}</ref> [[File:Konrad Zuse (1992).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.6|[[Konrad Zuse]], inventor of the modern computer<ref name="Bellis">{{cite web |last=Bellis |first=Mary |date=15 May 2019 |orig-date=First published 2006 at inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa050298.htm |title=Biography of Konrad Zuse, Inventor and Programmer of Early Computers |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/konrad-zuse-modern-computer-4078237 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213003237/https://www.thoughtco.com/konrad-zuse-modern-computer-4078237 |archive-date=13 December 2020 |access-date=3 February 2021 |website=thoughtco.com |publisher=Dotdash Meredith |quote=Konrad Zuse earned the semiofficial title of 'inventor of the modern computer'{{who|date=February 2023}}.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch001335.htm|title=Who is the Father of the Computer?|website=ComputerHope}}</ref>]] Mu 1941, Zuse wakalondezga makina ghake ghakale na Z3, mrangura yakwamba pa caru cose iyo yikugwira nchito na mapulogiramu gha magesi, ndiposo iyo yikugwira nchito yekha. Z3 yikapangika na 2000 relays, kukhazikiska utali wa mazgu gha 22 bit agho ghakagwiranga ntchito pa wotchi pafupipafupi pafupifupi 5-10 Hz. Khodi ya pulogiramu yikapelekekanga pa filimu yakukhoma apo data yikasungikanga mu mazgu 64 ghakukumbukika panji kupelekeka kufuma pa kiyibodi. Wakaŵa wakuyana waka na makina gha mazuŵa ghano mu vigaŵa vinyake, ndipo wakambiska vinthu vinandi nga ni manambara ghakuyandama. Mmalo mwa kugwiriskira ncito nthowa ya decimal iyo yikaŵa yakusuzga comene (iyo yikagwiriskirika ncito mu kapangilo kakwamba ka Charles Babbage), kugwiriskira ncito nthowa ya binary kukang’anamuranga kuti makina gha Zuse ghakaŵa ghambura kusuzga kupanga ndiposo ghangaŵa ghakugomezgeka comene, cifukwa ca tekinoloje iyo yikaŵapo pa nyengo iyo. Z3 iyo yekha yikaŵa mrangura ya pa caru cose yayi kweni yingasazgikirapo kuti yiŵe yakukwana ya Turing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zuse|first=Konrad|author-link=Konrad Zuse|title=The Computer – My Life ''Translated by McKenna, Patricia and Ross, J. Andrew from:'' Der Computer, mein Lebenswerk (1984)|place=Berlin/Heidelberg|publisher=Springer-Verlag|orig-date=1984|year=2010|language=en|isbn=978-3-642-08151-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Salz Trautman |first=Peggy |date=20 April 1994 |title=A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104051054/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Zuse|first=Konrad|author-link=Konrad Zuse|title=Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk.|edition=3rd|year=1993|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=Berlin|language=de|isbn=978-3-540-56292-4|page=55}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://goremotesupport.com/blog/crash-the-story-of-it-zuse|title=Crash! The Story of IT: Zuse|access-date=1 June 2016|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918203643/https://goremotesupport.com/blog/crash-the-story-of-it-zuse/|archive-date=18 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="rojas-ieee">{{cite journal|last=Rojas |first=R. |s2cid=14606587 |title=How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer |url=https://archive.org/details/ieee-annals-of-the-history-of-computing_july-september-1998_20_3/page/51 |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=51–54 |year=1998 |doi=10.1109/85.707574 |author-link=Raúl Rojas}}</ref><ref name="rojas-universal">{{cite web |last=Rojas |first=Raúl |title=How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer |url=http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/users/rojas/1997/Universal_Computer.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=2015-09-28 |website=fu-berlin.de |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809123935/http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/users/rojas/1997/Universal_Computer.pdf }}</ref> mrangura yakulondezgapo ya Zuse, Z4, yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba ya malonda pa caru cose; panyuma pa kuchedwa kwakwamba chifukwa cha Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, yikamalizgika mu 1950 na kupelekeka ku ETH Zurich. mrangura iyi yikapangika na kampani ya Zuse, Zuse KG, iyo yikakhazikiskika mu 1941 nga ni kampani yakwamba iyo yikaŵa na chilato chimoza pera cha kupanga mamrangura ku Berlin. Z4 ndiyo yikapangiska kuti ŵazenge mrangura ya ERMETH, iyo yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba ya ku Switzerland ndiposo yimoza mwa mrangura zakwamba ku [[Europe]].<ref name="OReganZuse">{{Cite book |last=O'Regan |first=Gerard |title=A Brief History of Computing |publisher=Springer Nature |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-030-66599-9 |page=65 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="OReganZuse" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruderer |first=Herbert |title=Milestones in Analog and Digital Computing |publisher=Springer |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-03040973-9 |edition=3rd |pages=1009, 1087}}</ref> ==== Machubu ghakufumiskikamo mphepo na vipata vya magesi vya dijito ==== {{Anchor|Digital computer|Digital}} Mwaluŵiro waka vinthu vyakukhwaskana na magesi pera vikanjira mu malo gha vinthu vyakuyana waka vya makina na vya magesi, pa nyengo yeneyiyo apo kupenda kwa digito kukanjira mu malo gha analog. Injiniya Tommy Flowers, uyo wakagwiranga nchito ku Post Office Research Station ku London mu vilimika vya m’ma 1930, wakamba kufufuza umo ŵangagwiliskira nchito vinthu vya magesi pakusinthana foni. Vipangizo vyakuyezga ivyo wakapanga mu 1934 vikamba kugwira ntchito pamanyuma pa vyaka vinkhondi, ndipo vikasintha chigaŵa chinyake cha foni kuti chiŵe chipangizo cha magesi chakupangira data, mwakugwiliskira ntchito vikwi vinandi vya machubu ghambura mphepo.[1] Ku US, John Vincent Atanasoff na Clifford E. Berry ŵa ku Iowa State University ŵakapanga na kuyezga mrangura ya Atanasoff-Berry (ABC) mu 1942, [2] "mrangura yakwamba ya digito ya magesi".[3] Nthowa iyi yikaŵaso ya magesi ndipo yikagwiliskiranga ntchito machubu pafupifupi 300 gha vacuum, ndipo ma capacitor ghakaŵikika mu ng’oma yakuzungulira mwamakina kuti munthu wakumbukenge vinthu.<ref name=Copeland2006>{{Cite book|last=Copeland|first=Jack|year=2006|title=Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers|url=https://archive.org/details/colossussecretso0000unse|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/colossussecretso0000unse/page/101 101]–115|isbn=978-0-19-284055-4}}</ref> [[File:Colossus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Colossus computer|Colossus]], the first [[Digital electronics|electronic digital]] programmable computing device, was used to break German ciphers during World War II. It is seen here in use at [[Bletchley Park]] in 1943.|alt=Two women are seen by the Colossus computer.]] Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caru Cose, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain awo ŵakaswa makodi ku Bletchley Park ŵakacita makora comene pakuswa makodi gha ŵasilikari ŵa Germany agho ghakaŵa ghakubisika. Makina ghakubisika gha ku Germany, Enigma, ghakawukirika chomene na wovwiri wa mabomba gha magesi agho kanandi ghakaŵanga na ŵanakazi.[1][2] Kuti ŵaphwanye makina ghakumanyikwa chomene gha ku Germany gha Lorenz SZ 40/42, agho ghakugwiriskira ntchito pa kuyowoyeskana na ŵasilikari ŵapachanya, Max Newman na ŵanyake ŵakatuma Flowers kuti wazenge Colossus.[3] Wakakhala myezi khumi na yimoza kufuma kukwambilira kwa February 1943 wakupanga na kuzenga Colossus wakwamba.[4] Pamanyuma pa kuyezgeka kwakugwira ntchito mu Disembala 1943, Colossus wakatumizgika ku Bletchley Park, uko wakapelekeka pa 18 Januwale 1944[5] ndipo wakawukira uthenga wake wakwamba pa 5 Febuluwale.[3] Colossus ndiyo yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba pa charu chose iyo yikaŵa na mapulogiramu gha pa mrangura.[6] Wakagwiliskiranga ntchito mavavu ghanandi (machubu gha vacuum). Likaŵa na pepala-tepi ndipo likaŵa lakukwaniska kukhazikiska kuti lichitenge milimo yakupambanapambana ya boolean logical pa data yake, kweni likaŵa la Turing-complete yayi. Mk II Colossi 9 ŵakazengeka (Mk I wakasinthika kuŵa Mk II kupanga makina khumi ghose pamoza). Colossus Mark I yikaŵa na mavavu gha thermionic (machubhu) 1,500, kweni Mark II iyo yikaŵa na mavavu 2,400, yikaŵa ya luwiro kaŵiri ndiposo yikaŵa yipusu kugwiliskira nchito kuluska Mark I, ndipo yikapangiska kuti nchito ya kufumiska mazgu yiŵe ya luwiro comene.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Randell|first1=Brian|author-link1=Brian Randell|last2=Fensom|first2=Harry|last3=Milne|first3=Frank A.|title=Obituary: Allen Coombs|newspaper=The Independent|date=15 March 1995|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-allen-coombs-1611270.html|access-date=18 October 2012|archive-date=3 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203042657/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-allen-coombs-1611270.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Fensom|first=Jim|title=Harry Fensom obituary|date=8 November 2010|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/08/harry-fensom-obituary|access-date=17 October 2012|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-date=17 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917220225/http://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/08/harry-fensom-obituary|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Eniac.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|[[ENIAC]] was the first [[Electronics|electronic]], Turing-complete device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the [[United States Army]].]] ENIAC[1] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) ndiyo yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba iyo yikapangika ku U.S. Nangauli ENIAC yikaŵa yakuyana waka na Colossus, kweni yikaŵa ya luwiro chomene, yikaŵa yakusinthasintha, ndipo yikaŵa yakukwana nga ni Turing. Nga ni Colossus, "pulogiramu" pa ENIAC yikalongosoreka na maboma gha makhebo ghake gha patch na masiwichi, kulira kutali chomene na makina gha magesi gha pulogiramu yakusungika agho ghakiza pamanyuma. Para ŵalemba pulogiramu, ŵakeneranga kuyiŵika mu makina na kuŵikaso mapulagi na masiwichi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakapanga pulogiramu ya ENIAC ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi 6, awo kanandi ŵakamanyikwanga kuti "ŵasungwana ŵa ENIAC".[58][59] Likasazgako luŵiro lwa vinthu vya magesi na luso lwa kuŵika mapulogiramu gha masuzgo ghanandi ghakuru. Iwo ungasazgirako panji kuwuskapo maulendo 5000 pa sekondi, mwaluŵiro maulendo chikwi kuluska makina ghanyake ghose. Kweniso likaŵa na vigaŵa vyakusazga, kugaŵa, na square root. Kukumbukira kwa liwiro likuru kukaŵa kwa mazgu 20 (pafupifupi 80 bytes). ENIAC yikazengeka pasi pa ulongozgi wa John Mauchly na J. Presper Eckert ku yunivesite ya [[Pennsylvania]], ndipo yikapangika na kuzenga ENIAC kufuma mu 1943 m’paka apo yikamba kugwira ntchito mwakukwana kuumaliro wa 1945. Makina agha ghakaŵa ghakuru chomene, ghakaŵa na uzito wa matani 30, ndipo ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito magesi ghakukwana 200 makilowati, na magesi ghakujumpha 200. 1,500 vyakupelekera, na vikwi vinandi vyakukhozga, vyakukhozga, na vyakukhozga.<ref name="Eniac">{{cite web|url=http://www.techiwarehouse.com/engine/a046ee08/Generations-of-Computer|title=Generations of Computer|publisher=techiwarehouse.com|access-date=7 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702211455/http://www.techiwarehouse.com/engine/a046ee08/Generations-of-Computer/|archive-date=2 July 2015}}</ref> == Mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano == === Fundo ya mrangura ya mazuŵa ghano === Mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano ni vipangizo vya magesi ivyo vikugwira ntchito pa data mwakugwiliskira ntchito mapulogiramu agho ghali kusungika, vikuchita mawerengero na kuchita milimo mwaŵene. === Mapulogalamu ghakusungika === mrangura iyo yili na pulogiramu yakusungika yikusunga malango mu memory, ndipo yikovwira kuti munthu waŵe na mapulogiramu ghakusinthasintha na kugwiliskira ntchito kanandi waka. === Ma transistor === Ma transistor ghakanjira mu malo gha machubu gha vacuum, ndipo ghakapangiska kuti mamrangura ghaŵe ghachoko, ghaluŵiro, ndiposo ghakugomezgeka. === Ma circuit ghakuphatikizgika === Ma circuit ghakusazgako (IC) ghakapangiska kuti ma transistor na vinyake viŵe vichoko, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe mapulogalamu gha mazuŵa ghano ghachokoghachoko. === Mamrangura gha pa foni === Vipangizo vyakunyamulika nga ni malaputopu, matabuleti, na mafoni ghamakono vikupangiska kuti munthu waŵe na mrangura paulendo. === Mitundu === ==== Mwakupanga ==== * Von Neumann wakuzenga nyumba * Kuzenga nyumba ku Harvard * Mamrangura gha Quantum ==== Mwakukura, kawonekero na chilato ==== * Mamrangura ghakurughakuru * Mafuremu ghakuru * Mamrangura gha munthu payekha * Nthowa zakuŵikika == Vipangizo == === Mbiri ya vipangizo vya mrangura === Kulondezga kusintha kwa vinthu kufuma ku ma calculator gha makina m’paka ku ma microprocessor gha mazuŵa ghano. === Mitu yinyake ya hardware === * '''Vipangizo vyakunjilirapo''': Kiyibodi, mbeŵa, sikirini yakukhwaska * '''Vipangizo vyakufumiskamo''': Monitor, printer, ma speaker * '''Chigaŵa cha kulaŵilira''': Kulaŵilira ntchito za CPU * '''Chigaŵa chapakati chakupangira vinthu (CPU)''': Chikuchita malango * '''Masamu ghakumanyikwa makora (ALU)''': Wakuchita mawerengero * '''"Kukumbukira"''': RAM, ROM, kusunga * '''Kunjilirapo/kufumamo (I/O)''': Kudumbiskana pakati pa mrangura na vipangizo vinyake * '''Kuchita vinthu vinandi''': Kuchita mapulogalamu ghanandi pa nyengo yimoza * '''Kupanga vinthu vinandi''': Kugwiliskira ntchito ma CPU ghanandi pakupanga vinthu mwakuyana == Mapulogalamu == === Viyowoyero === * '''Khodi ya makina''': Malango gha binary ghakuchitika na CPU * '''Chiyowoyero cha mapulogalamu''': Nthowa yakulembera mapulogalamu * '''Viyowoyero vyapasi''': Msonkhano, pafupi na khodi ya makina * '''"Viyowoyero vyapachanya"''': Python, Java, ivyo vikuŵazgika na ŵanthu === Mapulogalamu === * '''Mapulogalamu ghakusungika''': Mapulogalamu ghakusungika mu kukumbukira * '''Kapangidwe ka pulogiramu''': Kupangika, kulongozgeka na vinthu, na vinyakhe. * ''' Vipusikizgi''': Vyakubudika mu khodi ya mapulogalamu == Kupanga ma intaneti na intaneti == Ikukhwaska ndondomeko (TCP/IP), webusayiti ya pa charu chose, na mamrangura gha pa mtambo. == Mamrangura ghambura kumanyikwa == * Mamrangura gha Quantum * Mamrangura gha DNA * Nthowa zakupangika na wongo == Munthazi == === Viyelezgero vyakupanga mamrangura === * Kupanga mamrangura ghakuyana waka * Kupanga mamrangura gha pamphepete === Mahara ghakupangika === Makina ghakulongozgeka na AI na kusambira kwa makina. === Ntchito na mabungwe === * Ŵanthu awo ŵakupanga mapulogiramu gha mrangura * IEEE, ACM * Mabungwe gha vya tekinoloje (mwachiyelezgero, Google, Apple) == Wonaniso == {{Div col|colwidth=18em}} * [[Fundo ya kuŵerengera]] * [[Chitetezo cha pa mrangura]] * [[Mazgu ghakulongosora vya mrangura]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi ya mamrangura]] * [[Mndandanda wa mazgu gha pa mrangura agho ghakufumapo]] * [[Mndandanda wa awo ŵakupanga mamrangura]] * [[Mndandanda wa mamrangura ghakupangika waka]] * [[Mndandanda wa mafilimu ghakukhwaskana na mamrangura]] * [[Mndandanda wa ŵapayiniya ŵa sayansi ya mamrangura]] * [[Mndandanda wa mamrangura]] * [[Kuŵerengera kwa pulse]] * [[TOP500]] (mndandanda wa mamrangura ghankhongono chomene) * [[Kupanga mamrangura ghambura kumanyikwa]] {{div col end}} == maNotsi == {{notelist}} == Pobeka == {{Reflist|30em}} == Sources == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |first=B. 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|url=http://www.laits.utexas.edu/ghazal/Chap1/dsb/chapter1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130084757/http://www.laits.utexas.edu/ghazal/Chap1/dsb/chapter1.html |archive-date=30 January 2012 }} * {{Cite journal |last=Schmandt-Besserat |first=Denise |author-link=Denise Schmandt-Besserat |year=1981 |title=Decipherment of the earliest tablets |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1981-01-16_211_4479/page/283 |journal=Science |volume=211 |issue=4479 |pages=283–285 |doi=10.1126/science.211.4479.283 |pmid=17748027 |bibcode=1981Sci...211..283S}} * {{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Erika E.|date=2013|title=Recognizing a Collective Inheritance through the History of Women in Computing|journal=CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture|volume=15|issue=1|pages=1–9 |doi=10.7771/1481-4374.1972|doi-access=free}} * {{Cite conference |last1=Verma |first1=G. |last2=Mielke |first2=N. |title=Reliability performance of ETOX based flash memories |conference=IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium |year=1988 }} * {{Cite book |ref= ZUSE |last=Zuse |first=Konrad |title=The Computer – My life |url= https://archive.org/details/computermylife0000zuse |year=1993 |publisher=Pringler-Verlag |location=Berlin |isbn=978-0-387-56453-1 }} {{Refend}} == External links == * {{commons category-inline|Computers}} * {{sister-inline |project=v |links=[[v:How things work college course/Computer quiz|Wikiversity has a quiz on this article]] |short=yes}} <!--========================{{No more links}}============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | ======================={{No more links}}=====================--> {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}} {{Basic computer components}} {{digital systems}} {{Mainframes}} {{Electronic systems}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Computers| ]] [[Category:Consumer electronics]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Articles with example code]] [[Category:Electronics industry]] k45o3vnulc062cj4d24x668w4ugx0a8 0 6910 122335 119314 2026-09-25T00:01:22Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122335 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in Southern Africa}} {{distinguish|Bophuthatswana}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=December 2021}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Botswana | common_name = Botswana | native_name = {{native name|tn|Lefatshe la Botswana}} | image_flag = Flag of Botswana.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Botswana.svg | coa_size = 90 | national_motto = {{native phrase|tn|Pula|paren=no}}<br />"Rain" | national_anthem = {{native phrase|tn|[[Fatshe leno la rona]]|paren=no}}<br />"Blessed Be This Noble Land"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:United States Navy Band - Fatshe leno la rona.ogg]]}} | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File: Botswana (centered orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Botswana AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | capital = [[Gaborone]] | coordinates = {{Coord|24|39.5|S|25|54.5|E|type:city|display=inline}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[English language|English]]<ref name="gov.bw languages">{{Cite web |title=About Our Country |url=https://www.gov.bw/about-our-country |access-date=2022-04-17 |website=Gov.bw |quote=Botswana has a number of tribes across the country, collectively known as Batswana. The official language is English and Setswana is the national language, although there are other spoken languages.}}</ref> | languages_type = National language | languages = [[Tswana language|Setswana]]<ref name="gov.bw languages" /> | ethnic_groups = {{Unbulleted list|79% [[Tswana people|Tswana]] |11% [[Kalanga people|Kalanga]] |2% [[San people|San]] |8% Others (includes [[Kgalagadi language|Kgalagadi]], [[Basarwa]], [[Indians in Botswana|Indian]], and [[White people in Botswana|White]])}} | ethnic_groups_year = 2012<ref name="cia"/> | religion = {{Unbulleted list|79.1% [[Christianity in Botswana|Christianity]] |—70.2% [[Protestantism]] |—8.9% Other [[Christian]] |15.2% [[Irreligion in Botswana|No religion]] |4.1% [[Badimo]] |1.4% Others{{efn|Including [[Baháʼí Faith in Botswana|Baháʼí]], [[Hinduism in Botswana|Hindu]], and [[Islam in Botswana|Islam]].}} |0.3% Unspecified<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Botswana|date=14 September 2022|year=2022}}</ref>}} | religion_year = 2021 | demonym = {{Unbulleted list|Batswana (plural) |Motswana (singular)}} | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[List of countries by system of government#Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency|parliamentary republic with an executive presidency]]<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Botswana|access-date=17 December 2019|year=2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Selolwane |first1=Onalenna |title=Monopoly Politikos: How Botswana's Opposition Parties Have Helped Sustain One-Party Dominance |journal=African Sociological Review |date=2002 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.4314/asr.v6i1.23203 |jstor=24487673 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[President of Botswana|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Mokgweetsi Masisi]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-28/masisi-to-lead-botswana-as-khama-steps-down-after-decade-at-helm|title=Masisi to Lead Botswana as Khama Steps Down After a Decade|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=28 March 2018|access-date=31 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401010006/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-28/masisi-to-lead-botswana-as-khama-steps-down-after-decade-at-helm|archive-date=1 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Botswana|Vice-President]] | leader_name2 = [[Slumber Tsogwane]] | leader_title3 = [[Speaker of the National Assembly of Botswana|National Assembly Speaker]] | leader_name3 = [[Phandu Skelemani]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Botswana|Parliament]]<br />([[National Assembly of Botswana|National Assembly]]) | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]] | established_event1 = Established ([[Constitution of Botswana|Constitution]]) | established_date1 = 30 September 1966 | area_km2 = 581,730 | area_rank = 47th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 224,610 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | area_footnote = <ref>{{cite report|url = http://www.fao.org/3/a-az171e.pdf | publisher = United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization | website = fao.org | title = Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 – Country Report – Botswana | page = 9 | date = 2015 | quote = Total Country Area ('000)ha / 58 173 }}</ref><!-- 58,173,000 hectares is 581,730 km2 --> | percent_water = 2.7 | population_estimate = 2,384,246<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Botswana|access-date=24 September 2022|year=2022}}</ref> | population_census = 2,359,609 <ref name="Statistics Bostwana - Census 2022 - Population of cities, towns and villages">{{Cite web |title=Statistics Bostwana - Census 2022 - Population of cities, towns and villages |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Population%20of%20Cities%20Towns%20and%20Villages%20%202022.pdf}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 145th | population_census_year = 2022 | population_density_km2 = 4.1 | population_density_sq_mi = 10.62 | population_density_rank = 231st | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$47.04 billion <ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 123rd | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$19,199<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 77th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$18.00 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 127th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$7,348 <ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 87th | Gini = 53.3 | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="WBgini">{{cite web |url= https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=BW |title= GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher= World Bank |access-date= 20 April 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171213083923/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=BW |archive-date= 13 December 2017 |url-status= live}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.693<!--number only, between 0 and 1--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="2022 components">{{cite book |title=Human Development Report 2021-22: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future in a Transforming World |date=8 September 2022 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |isbn=978-9-211-26451-7 |pages=272–276 |website=hdr.undp.org |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908114232/http://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 117th | currency = [[Botswana pula|Pula]] | currency_code = BWP | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elaws.gov.bw/desplaylrpage1.php?id=1399|last=Chapter: 01:04|title=Interpretation Act 1984 (§40(1))|date=20 July 1984|access-date=11 September 2020|archive-date=28 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328201053/http://www.elaws.gov.bw/desplaylrpage1.php?id=1399|url-status=dead}}</ref> | utc_offset = +2 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = left | calling_code = [[+267]] | cctld = [[.bw]] | official_website = {{URL|http://www.gov.bw/}} | footnote_a = | today = }} '''Botswana''' ({{lang-tn|Land of the Tswana|label=[[English language|English]]}}; {{IPAc-en|audio=En-Bostwana-pronunciation.ogg|b|ɒ|t|ˈ|s|w|ɑː|n|ə}}, {{small|kweneso}} {{IPAc-en|UK|b|ʊ|t|-|,_|b|ʊ|ˈ|tʃ|w|-}}<ref name="Collins">{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/botswana|title=Botswana|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=26 July 2019}}</ref>),mwaboma, '''Charu cha Botswana''', ni chalo icho chili ku [[Southern Africa]]. Charu cha Botswana chili pa malo ghapachanya chomene, ndipo pafupifupi 70 peresenti ya chigaŵa chake ni [[mapopa gha Kalahari]]. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi na kumwera kwa [[South Africa]], kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto kwa [[Namibia]], na kumpoto kwa [[Zimbabwe]]. [[Mlonga wa Kazungula]] ndiwo ukuwovwira kuti charu cha [[Zambia]] chiŵe pa mtende.<ref>{{Cite book|url= http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Multinational%20(Zambia-Bostwana)%20-%20AR%20-%20Kazungula%20Bridge%20Project.pdf|title= Kazungula Bridge Project|last= Darwa|first= P. Opoku|publisher= African Development Fund|year= 2011|page= Appendix IV|access-date= 4 May 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121114113821/http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Multinational%20(Zambia-Bostwana)%20-%20AR%20-%20Kazungula%20Bridge%20Project.pdf|archive-date= 14 November 2012|url-status= dead}}</ref> Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2.3 miliyoni<ref>{{Cite web|title=Population, total - Botswana {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=BW|access-date=2021-06-07|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa [[Tswana]] ndiwo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref>{{Citation |title=Botswana |date=2023-03-28 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/botswana/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |access-date=2023-04-05 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}</ref>Ŵanthu pafupifupi 11.6 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakukhala mu msumba ukuru wa [[Gaborone]]. Kale yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru vikavu comene pa caru capasi, ndipo paumaliro wa m'ma 1960, GDP ya munthu yumoza yikaŵa pafupifupi madola 70 pa caka.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Consolidating Democratic Governance in Southern Africa : Botswana|url=https://www.africaportal.org/publications/consolidating-democratic-governance-in-southern-africa-botswana/|last1=Maundeni|first1=Zibani|last2=Mpabanga|first2=Dorothy|date=2007-01-01|website=Africa Portal|access-date=2020-05-28|last3=Mfundisi|first3=Adam}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakamba kukhala mu charu ichi vyaka vyakujumpha 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tswana ŵakafuma ku mafuko agho ghakalongosoranga chiyowoyero cha [[Bantu]], agho ghakasamukira kumwera kwa Africa ku Botswana cha m'ma 600 C.E., ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya vya mafuko. Mu 1885, Ŵanung'una ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi ndipo ŵakachilongora kuŵa chigaŵa chakulongozgeka na boma la [[Bechuanaland]]. Apo boma la Bechuanaland likaleka kulamulira charu ichi, likazgoka charu chakujiyimira paŵekha pa 30 Seputembala 1966. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, charu ichi chili na wanangwa wakusankha ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita makora pa nkhani ya chisopa. Vinthu vikuru chomene mu charu ichi ni migodi, viŵeto, na vyakusanguluska. Dziko la Botswana lili na GDP (purchasing power parity) pa munthu yumoza ya $18,113 pa chaka cha 2021, yimoza mwa vyaru vyapachanya chomene mu Africa. Charu cha Botswana ndicho chikupanga dayamondi zinandi chomene pa charu chose. Ndalama izo charu ichi chikusanga pa munthu yumoza (ndipo ni chachinayi pa vyaru vyose vya mu Africa) zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge makora kweniso kuti chiŵe na ndandanda ya ŵanthu awo ŵakukura chomene mu vyaru vya ku Africa (panyuma pa Gabon na South Africa).<ref>[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm Gross national income (GNI) – Nations Online Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219232439/http://nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm |date=19 February 2009 }}. Nationsonline.org. Retrieved on 27 October 2016.</ref><ref name="2022 components" />Dziko la Botswana ndilo dziko loyamba ku Africa kulandira Forbes 30 Under 30 ndi 2017 Netball World Youth Cup. Charu cha Botswana chili mu wupu wa Southern African Customs Union, Southern African Development Community, Commonwealth of Nations, na United Nations. Caru ici cikakhwaskika comene na nthenda ya [[HIV]] na [[AIDS]]. Mu 2002, charu cha Botswana ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kupeleka munkhwala wakukoma majeremusi. Nangauli pakaŵa ndondomeko zakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye makora matenda agha, kweni chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi chikakwera kufuma pa 290,000 mu 2005 kufika pa 320,000 mu 2013.:A20 Mu 2014, charu cha Botswana ndicho chikaŵa na nthenda iyi pa charu chose. Ndipouli, mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, caru ici caŵa na suzgo la HIV na AIDS.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2021/december/emtct_botswana |title=Botswana is first country with severe HIV epidemic to reach key milestone in the elimination of mother-to-child HIV transmission |publisher=UN AIDS |year=2021 |location=Brazzaville |access-date=10 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhivtb/who-we-are/success-stories/success-story-pages/partnership-for-success.html|title=Partnership for Success: CDC and Botswana Lead Progress Toward HIV Epidemic Control|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|date=30 September 2022|accessdate=29 March 2023}}</ref> ==Kwiza kwa zina== Zina la caru ici likung'anamura "Charu ca Ŵatswana". Dango la boma la Botswana likuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tswana ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana. Pakwamba ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Batswana ndiwo ŵakachemekanga Ŵatswana. Ndipouli, lizgu ili likuyowoyaso za ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Botswana.<ref>{{cite web|title=Botswanan or Batswana? It's complicated – Voices of Africa|url=http://voicesofafrica.co.za/botswanan-batswana-its-complicated/|publisher=Voices of Africa|access-date=6 January 2018|date=17 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106231817/http://voicesofafrica.co.za/botswanan-batswana-its-complicated/|archive-date=6 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Botswana}} ===Mbili yakwamba=== [[File:Two Rhino.jpg|thumb|left|The 'Two Rhino' painting at [[Tsodilo]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]] Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu charu cha Botswana vyaka pafupifupi 2 miliyoni. Viŵiya vya malibwe na vyamoyo vinyake vyalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vyose vya charu ichi vyaka pafupifupi 400,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu Okutobala 2019, ŵasayansi ŵakayowoya kuti ŵanthu wose ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakababikira ku Botswana vyaka pafupifupi 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵali kusunga, nga ni vithuzithuzi ivyo vili kupangika mu mphanji, vili kulembeka vyaka 73,000. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Africa, ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San ("Bushmen") na Khoi. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri agha ghakuyowoya viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵachoko ŵakuchemeka Khoe-Kwadi, Kx?? a, na Tuu. Apo ng'ombe zikambanga kuliskika kumwera kwa Africa vyaka pafupifupi 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha, viŵeto vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene mu caru ici cifukwa mu cigaŵa ici mukaŵa vyakumera vinandi vyambura viyuni vya tsetse. Vinyalala vya Domboshaba Vili na linga la malibwe (pachanya) na mbale ya dongo (pasi) Tikumanya makora yayi apo ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu ŵakambira kusamira ku charu ichi kufuma kumpoto, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵakafika mu 600 C.E. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu awo sono ŵakuchemeka Kalanga ŵakasamira ku vigaŵa ivyo sono vili kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya Zimbabwe kweniso vya Mapungubwe, ndipo chakuzirwa chomene pa vigaŵa ivi ni vya Domboshaba, malo agho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya Great Zimbabwe (1250-1450 C.E.), ndipo ghakaŵa na viliŵa vya malibwe vyakudika mamita 1.8. Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakuchindikika na ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ndipo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti mulongozgi uyu wakakhalanga pachanya pa phiri pamoza na ŵateŵeti ŵake. Vyaru ivi vikaŵa kuwaro kwa vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Botswana, ndipo vikuwoneka kuti vikaŵa na viŵeto vikuru comene mu malo agho sono ni Central District. Malo ghakurughakuru agha ghakakhalanga makora m'paka mu 1300 C.E. ndipo ghakawoneka kuti ghakamara apo msumba wa Mapungubwe ukaparanyikira. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga Chitswana, awo ni Bakgalagadi, ŵakasamira kumwera kwa Kalahari. Ŵanthu wose aŵa ŵakendanga mu nthowa za malonda izo zikendanga kufuma ku Limpopo River kuluta ku Indian Ocean, ndipo katundu wa ku Asia nga ni mphete wakendanga m'paka ku Botswana, panyake kuti ŵakapokeranga njovu, golide, na masengwe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Denbow|first1=James|last2=Klehm|first2=Carla|last3=Dussubieux|first3=Laure|date=April 2015|title=The glass beads of Kaitshàa and early Indian Ocean trade into the far interior of southern Africa|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/glass-beads-of-kaitshaa-and-early-indian-ocean-trade-into-the-far-interior-of-southern-africa/9BB659F4DA38A560EF64C4E8E3F49AFA|journal=Antiquity|language=en|volume=89|issue=344|pages=361–377|doi=10.15184/aqy.2014.50|s2cid=161212483|issn=0003-598X}}</ref> Ku Toutswemogala Hill Iron Age Settlement, malo agha ghakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 7 na 19 AD. Chigaŵa ichi chikapangika mu vyaka vyakujumpha 1,000. Mu 700 AD, ŵanthu ŵa Toutswe ŵakaluta kumanjiliro gha dazi ku Botswana na kwamba kupanga minda ya ulimi wa ku malo gha pa ng'ombe. Malo agha ghakaŵa pakati pa chigaŵa chikuru cha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu cha Botswana. Ŵakasanga vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵa na viŵeto vya viŵeto, ndipo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ivi vikaŵa viŵeto vya viŵeto ndipo chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa pakati pa viŵeto vinandi. Ndipouli, kulima ndiko kukawovwira kuti chigaŵa cha Toutswemogala chikhale nyengo yitali. Ŵanyake ŵakukhala mu nyumba zakupambanapambana kwa vyaka vinandi. Nyengo iyo ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chitswana ŵakambira kulamulira chigaŵa ichi, yikumanyikwa makora yayi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bakwena, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na mulongozgi wakumanyikwa chomene zina lake Kgabo II, ŵakanjira kumwera kwa Kalahari mu 1500 C.E., ndipo ŵanthu ŵake ŵakachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa Bakgalagadi kumanjiliro gha dazi mu mapopa. Pakati pajumpha vyaka, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Bakwena ŵakasamira mu vigaŵa vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bangwaketse ŵakakhalanga kumanjiliro gha dazi, apo ŵa ku Bangwato ŵakasamira kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi mu vigaŵa ivyo kale vikaŵa vya Kalanga. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bangwato awo ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Batawana ŵakasamukira ku Okavango Delta, panyake mu ma 1790.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tlou|first=T.|date=1974|title=The Nature of Batswana States: Towards a Theory of Batswana Traditional Government – The Batawana Case|journal=Botswana Notes and Records|volume=6|pages=57–75|jstor=40959210|issn=0525-5090}}</ref> ===Effects of the Mfecane and Batswana-Boer Wars=== {{main|Mfecane}} [[File:Kapstaaten 1905.png|thumb|left|German map of 1905 still showing the undivided Bechuanaland area]] Mabuku ghakwambilira ghakulongosora vya charu cha Botswana ghakalembeka mu 1824. Ivyo vikalembeka apa vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bangwaketse ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene mu cigaŵa ici. Mu muwuso wa Makaba II, ŵanthu ŵa ku Bangwaketse ŵakasunganga viŵeto vinandi mu malo gha mu mapopa agho ghakaŵa ghakuvikilirika. Pa nyengo iyi, mafumu ghanyake gha mu chigaŵa ichi ghakaŵa na ŵanthu 10,000 ndipo ghakaŵa na vinthu vinandi. Mu nyengo ya Mfecane, mu 1823-1843, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakanjira mu charu ichi. Nangauli Ŵangwaketse ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Bakololo mu 1826, kweni nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Botswana ŵakaŵawukira, ŵakaŵatimbanizga, na kuŵasuzga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakololo na AmaNdebele ŵakaŵawukiranga kanandi waka na kutora ng'ombe zinandi, ŵanakazi, na ŵana kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Kweni pamanyuma pa 1843, apo Ŵamandebele ŵakasamukira kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zimbabwe, suzgo ili likamara.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morton |first=Barry|date=2009-01-14|title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880|journal=South African Historical Journal|volume=36|pages=220–239|language=en|doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> [[File:Sechele Gustav Fritsch 1865.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sechele I]] who led a Batswana Merafe Coalition against [[Boers]] in 1852]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1840 na 1850, ŵamalonda awo ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kwenda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Bangwato, na Batawana ŵakagwilira lumoza ntchito yakuguliska njovu, ndipo ndalama izo ŵakaguliskanga ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakuguliska mahachi na futi. Mu 1880, vinthu vikasintha chomene, ndipo Ŵabatswana ŵakamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa ku Bushmen, Kalanga, Bakgalagadi, na mitundu yinyake. Pamanyuma pa ulendo uwu, ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kukhala ku mphaka za Botswana mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal. Mu 1852 gulu la mafumu gha ku Tswana ilo likaŵa na Sechele I, likathereska Ŵafrika pa Nkhondo ya ku Dimawe, ndipo pamanyuma pa vyaka 8, ŵakachita phangano la mtende ku Potchefstroom mu 1860. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakakolerana kuti paŵe mphaka pakati pa charu cha South Africa na Botswana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika na ŵa ku Batswana ŵakaguliskana vinthu na kukolerana. Mu 1884 Batawana, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa mtundu wa Tswana awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Kgosi Moremi, ŵakathereska Ŵandebele awo ŵakanjira mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu cha Botswana. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti ufumu wa Ndebele uparanyike mu Zimbabwe. Cifukwa ca mtende uwo ukaŵako pakati pa 1860 na 1880, malonda ghakalutilira kukura. Ŵamishonale Ŵacikhristu ŵakagwiliskira nchito mwaŵi uwu. Kuzakafika mu 1856, mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵa Lutheran na London Missionary Society. Kuzakafika mu 1880, mu muzi uliwose mukaŵa mishonale, ndipo ŵakamba kovwira ŵanthu. Khama III (1875-1923) ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kuzgora Chikhristu kuŵa chisopa cha boma. Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, Cikristu cikaŵa cisopa cakuzomerezgeka mu vyaru vyose.<ref>Landau, P. (1995) ''The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in the Southern African Kingdom''. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.</ref> ===Colonialism and the Bechuanaland Protectorate=== {{Main|Bechuanaland Protectorate}} Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Africa, ufumu wa Germany na wa Britain ukakhumbanga malo gha Botswana. Pa ungano uwo ukachitikira ku Berlin, Britain likadumura kuti liŵike charu cha Botswana mu mawoko ghake kuti livikilire nthowa yakuya kumpoto. Mu Janyuwale 1885, boma la Zimbabwe likapoka chigaŵa cha Tswana na kutuma ŵasilikari ŵa Warren kumpoto kuti ŵakhozge chigaŵa ichi na kuphalira ŵalongozgi ŵa chigaŵa ichi kuti ŵapulikire ivyo Britain yikayowoya. Nangauli ŵakaŵa na wofi, kweni ŵakazomera. Mu 1890, vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa madigiri 22 vikaŵikamo chigaŵa chiphya cha Bechuanaland. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890, chigaŵa chiphya ichi chikagaŵika mu vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri, ndipo malo ghachoko waka ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. Mu ma 1890, boma la Britain likaghanaghana vya kupeleka malo gha Bechuanaland ku British South Africa Company. Ndondomeko iyi yikaŵa pafupi kufiskika nangauli ŵalongozgi ŵa Tswana ŵakalomba kuti ŵalute ku England kuti ŵakasuske, kweni ŵakayichimbizga cifukwa ca kutondeka kwa nkhondo ya Jameson mu Janyuwale 1896.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/15645705 |title=The Invention and Perpetuation of Botswana's National Mythology, 1885–1966 |last1=Morton |first1=Barry |last2=Ramsay |first2=Jeff |access-date=13 July 2018 |via=academia.edu|pages=7–11}}</ref><ref>Parsons, N. (1998) ''King Khama, Emperor Joe, and the Great White Queen: Victorian Britain Through African Eyes''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref>[[File:1960 6d Bechuanaland Protectorate stamp.jpg|thumb|Postage stamp of British-ruled [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]] from 1960]] Mu 1910, apo charu cha South Africa chikapangika kufuma ku vyaru vikuruvikuru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Britain, vyaru ivi vikaŵamo yayi. Ndipouli, boma la Britain likamba kufumba ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici ivyo ŵakakhumbanga. Nangauli maboma gha ku South Africa ghakakhumbanga kuti malo agha ghaŵe pasi pa mazaza ghawo, kweni Britain wakalutilira kuchedwa. Boma la Britain likati lasankhika mu 1948, likambiska apartheid, ndipo charu cha South Africa chikati chafumamo mu wupu wa Commonwealth mu 1961, vikawovwira kuti charu cha Britain na vigaŵa vinyake vileke kukolerana na boma la South Africa. Mu 1920, boma la Britain likakhazikiska mawupu ghaŵiri kuti ghamwimire ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na ku Europe. Wupu wa African Council ukaŵa na ŵalongozgi 8 ŵa mafuko gha Tswana na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasankhika. Mu 1934, pakaŵa malango ghakukhwaskana na muwuso wa mafuko. Mu 1951, wupu wakupeleka ulongozgi wa vyaru vya ku Europe na ku Africa ukapangika, ndipo mu 1961, dango la vyaru vya ku Africa likakhazikiska wupu wakupeleka fundo. ===Independence=== {{see also|Independence Day (Botswana)}} Mu Juni 1964, boma la United Kingdom likapokelera fundo yakuti ku Botswana kuŵe boma lakujiwusa. Mu Febuluwale 1966, ku London kukachitika ungano wa kujithemba. Mu 1965, boma la charu ichi likasamira ku Gaborone, kufupi na mphaka ya Botswana na South Africa. Kuyana na dango la mu 1965, caru ici cikaŵa na mavoti ghakwamba ndipo cikaŵa pa mtende pa 30 Seputembala 1966. Seretse Khama, mulongozgi wa gulu lakujiyimira pawekha na uyo wakakhumbanga kuwusa kwa Ngwato, wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti wakwamba, ndipo pamanyuma wakasankhikaso kaŵiri. Fumukazi Elizabeth II, pamoza na Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh na mwana wake Prince Andrew, Duke of York, ŵakafika ku Botswana pa ulendo waciŵiri wa ku Africa pa 25-27 July 1979. Pa nyengo iyo ŵakalutanga, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuvina na kuwombera futi. Khama wakafwa mu 1980. Mubali Quett Masire ndiyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, ndipo wakasankhika mu 1984 na kuwuskikaso mu 1989 na 1994. Masire wakafumapo pa udindo wake mu 1998. Wakalongozgeka na Festus Mogae, uyo wakasankhika mu 1999 na kuwuskikaso mu 2004. Mu 2008, Ian Khama (mwana wa purezidenti wakwamba) ndiyo wakalaŵiliranga boma ili. Pa 1 Epulero 2018 Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi wakalapizga kuŵa purezidenti wachisanu wa Botswana, wakunjira mu malo mwa Ian Khama. Wakwimira chipani cha Botswana Democratic Party, icho chawina mavoti ghanandi pa mavoti ghose kufuma apo charu chikapokera wanangwa. Mathemba ghose agho ghakaŵako pamanyuma pake ghakaŵa gha chipani cimoza. Mu Disembala 1999, Khoti la pa Caru Cose likadumura mulandu uwo ukaŵa kuti wakhala nyengo yitali pa mphaka ya kumpoto na cigaŵa ca Caprivi ku Namibia. Khoti likadumura kuti cirwa ca Kasikili nchigaŵa ca Botswana. Mu ma 1970, charu cha Botswana chikaŵa na mbiri ya kuŵa cimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikupanga dayamondi zinandi pa caru cose. Mbiri iyi yikukhalilira m'paka sono, cifukwa nchito ya migodi ya dayamondi ya ku Botswana njimoza mwa nchito zikuru comene pa caru cose. Mu Botswana, migodi ya Jwaneng njakusambazi comene kuluska yose.<ref>{{cite web|last=Guest|first=Peter|url= https://www.cnn.com/2015/12/03/africa/botswana-diamonds-jwaneng/index.html|title=Inside the world's richest diamond mine |publisher=[[CNN]]|date=3 December 2015|accessdate=29 March 2023}}</ref> ==Makhalilo== {{Main|Geography of Botswana|Climate of Botswana|Climate Change in Botswana}} [[File:Botswana map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Botswana map of [[Köppen climate classification]]]] Botswana ni chalo cikuru comene pa vyaru vyose pa caru capasi. Charu ichi chili nga ni Madagascar panji France. Charu ichi chili pakati pa latitude 17° na 27° kumwera, ndipo longitude 20° na 30° kumafumiro gha dazi. Charu cha Botswana chili pa mapiri ghatali chomene. Charu cha Botswana chili na chipalamba cha Kalahari icho chili na malo ghakukwana 70 peresenti. Ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi kuli dambo la Okavango Delta. Ku mpoto kwa charu ichi kuli Makgadikgadi Pan, malo ghakurughakuru gha mchere. Mlonga wa Limpopo, uwo uli ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Africa, uli mu chigaŵa cha Botswana. Mlonga wa Notwane ukupeleka maji ku msumba wa Gaborone. Mlonga wa Chobe uli kumpoto, ndipo ndiwo mphaka pakati pa Botswana na chigaŵa cha Zambezi ku Namibia. Mlonga wa Chobe ukukumana na Mlonga wa Zambezi pa malo ghakucemeka Kazungula (kung'anamura khuni lichoko la soseji, apo Sebitwane na fuko lake la Makololo ŵakambuka Mlonga wa Zambezi na kunjira mu Zambia). ===Biodiversity and conservation=== [[File:Cebras de Burchell (Equus quagga burchellii), vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 28.jpg|thumb|Zebras roaming the Okavango Basin]] Mu charu cha Botswana muli vyamoyo vinandi. Padera pa vigaŵa vya mu mapopa, paliso vyakumera na malo ghanyake agho kuli viyuni. Kumpoto kwa charu cha Botswana kuli mtundu unyake ukuru wa ntcheŵe za ku Africa izo zili pafupi kumara. Mu chigaŵa cha Chobe, muli malo ghanandi chomene gha njovu za ku Africa. Malo agha ghali na malo ghakujumpha 11,000 km2 ndipo muli viyuni vyakukwana 350. Malo ghakucemeka Chobe National Park na Moremi Game Reserve (mu Okavango Delta) ndigho ghakwendako ŵanthu ŵanandi. Malo ghanyake ghakusungirako nyama gha Central Kalahari Game Reserve agho ghali mu mapopa gha Kalahari mu chigaŵa cha Ghanzi; Makgadikgadi Pans National Park na Nxai Pan National Park ghali mu chigaŵa cha Central mu chigaŵa cha Makgadikgadi Pan. Malo ghakusungirako vinyama gha Mashatu ni gha ŵanthu ŵekha, ndipo ghali pa malo agho mukusangika milonga ya Shashe na Limpopo kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu cha Botswana. Malo ghanyake ghakusungirako vyamoyo ni malo ghakuchemeka Mokolodi Nature Reserve kufupi na Gaborone. Paliso malo ghanyake ghakupatulika nga ni Khama Rhino Sanctuary (kwa visko) na Makgadikgadi Sanctuary (kwa visko). Vyose viŵiri vili ku Central District.{{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = | footer = | image1 = Okavango Delta, Botswana (2674364913).jpg | caption1 we = | image2 = Giraffe crossing a road in Botswana.jpg | caption2 = The [[Okavango Delta]] (top).<br />Giraffe crossing a road (bottom). }} Charu cha Botswana chili na masuzgo ghaŵiri, chilangalanga na kuzgoka mapopa. Vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵanthu na vinyama mu charu ichi vikuthemba pa maji gha pasi chifukwa cha chilangalanga. Kuzenga mabowo ghakunyang'amira na maji gha pasi pa mtunda kwachepeskako masuzgo gha chilangalanga. Mu Botswana, maji gha pa mtunda ngakusuzga chomene, ndipo kulimilira mu vyaru ivyo kuli maji ghachoko chomene. Mu vigaŵa vyakukwana 95% vya caru ici, viŵeto ndivyo vikovwira comene ŵanthu kusanga ndalama. Pafupifupi 71 peresenti ya malo gha mu caru ici ghakugwiliskirika nchito pa malo ghakuliskako viŵeto, ndipo ici ndico cikupangiska kuti caru ici ciŵe mapopa kweniso kuti dongo lileke kunangika. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Botswana ŵakusanga chandulo na viŵeto, ŵakulutilira kupwelelera viŵeto. Kufuma mu 1966 m'paka mu 1991, viŵeto vikakura kufuma pa 1.7 miliyoni kufika pa 5.5 miliyoni.:64 Mwakuyana waka, ŵanthu ŵakusazgikira kufuma pa 574,000 mu 1971 kufika pa 1.5 miliyoni mu 1995, kusazgapo 161% mu vilimika 24. Pa mabanja ghose gha ku Botswana, 50% ghali na viŵeto. Para munthu wakugwiliskira ntchito malo ghakupwanthirapo panji mapopa, wakuŵa na masuzgo ghakuru. Vinthu vikunangikirathu chifukwa cha chilangalanga na kusintha kwa nyengo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vya cilengiwa ŵakuyowoya kuti cigaŵa ca Okavango Delta cikuwomira cifukwa cakuti viŵeto vikuliska viŵeto vinandi. Deltha la Okavango ni limoza mwa malo ghakurughakuru gha nkhorongo mu charu cha Botswana. Dipatimenti yakuwona vya nkhorongo yikamba kale kufiska ndondomeko ya kuwezgerapo vyakumera mu mizi ya ku Kgalagadi South, Kweneng North na Boteti. Kuŵaso na vyakumera vya ku malo agha kukovwira kuti charu chileke kunangika. Boma la United States nalo lacita phangano na boma la Botswana, kuŵapa ndalama zakukwana madola 7 miliyoni gha ku United States kuti ŵachepeske ngongoli ya boma la Botswana na madola 8.3 miliyoni. Fundo yakuti boma la United States lichepeskeko ngongoli ya charu cha Botswana njakuti charu ichi chiŵikengepo mtima pa kuvikilira malo. Charu ichi chikaŵa pa malo gha nambara 8. Wupu wa United Nations Development Programme ukuti ukavu ndiwo ukupangiska kuti ku Botswana ŵanthu ŵagwiliskirenge nchito comene vinthu vyakuthupi. Kuti ivi visinthe, UNDP yikawovwira pa mulimo uwo ukambira ku Struizendam, kumwera kwa Botswana. Chilato cha ntchito iyi nkhusanga "vinjeru vya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha na nthowa zawo zakwendeskera malo". Awo ŵakulongozga gulu ili ŵakwenera kuŵa ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ico, kuti ŵaŵakope, na kusazgirako mwaŵi wawo wa kusanga ndalama na kuchepeska ukavu. UNDP yikayowoyaso kuti boma likwenera kufiska ndondomeko izo zikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵajilongozgenge ŵekha.<ref name="afrol1">{{cite web |url = http://www.afrol.com/articles/13090 |title = Botswana villages fighting desertification |publisher = Afrol |access-date = 4 July 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091102221242/http://www.afrol.com/articles/13090 |archive-date = 2 November 2009 |url-status = live}}</ref> == Boma na ndale == {{Main|Politics of Botswana|Government of Botswana}} [[File:Mokgweetsi E.K. Masisi, President of the Republic of Botswana.jpg|upright|thumb|The current president, [[Mokgweetsi Masisi]]]] Dziko la Botswana ndilo lili na demokilase yakale comene pa caru cose. Ndondomeko ya malango ya boma la Botswana njakuti yikovwira ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi. Ndyali za Botswana zikuchitika mu ndondomeko ya chalo cha demokilase icho chili na vipani vinandi, apo purezidenti wa Botswana ni mutu wa chalo na mutu wa boma. Boma ndilo likuŵa na mazaza pa boma. Boma na Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Botswana ndivyo vili na mazaza gha kuzenga malango. Chisankho chaposachedwapa, cha khumi ndi chimodzi, chinachitika pa 23 October 2019. Kufuma waka apo boma la Botswana likapokera wanangwa wake, chipani cha Botswana Democratic Party ndicho chili na mazaza pa ndyali. Dziko la Botswana lili pa malo 30 pa vyaru 167 mu 2021 Democracy Index (The Economist), kuluska Italy na Belgium, ndipo lili pasi pa Czech Republic. Ici cikaŵa cigaŵa caciŵiri pa vigaŵa vyose vya mu Africa, ndipo cikaŵa caciŵiri pa vigaŵa vyose vya mu Africa. Kuyana na ma V-Democracy indexes gha 2023, charu cha Botswana chili pa nambara 75 pa vyaru vyose pa charu chapasi ndipo chili pa nambara 12 pa vyaru vya mu Africa. Wupu wa Transparency International ukati, charu cha Botswana ndicho ntchakunanga chomene mu Africa.<ref>Transparency International [https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/nzl]. Retrieved 16 February 2021.</ref> ===Judiciary=== [[File:Gaborone, Botswana High Court.jpg|thumb|left|High Court of Botswana]] Ŵeruzgi ŵakujiyimira ŵekha. Likusazgapo makhoti gha ku Britain agho ghali na makhoti gha Magistrates Courts, High Court na Court of Appeal. Khoti Likuru la ku Ireland ni khoti likuru ilo lili na mazaza ghakupambanapambana ghakupulikizga milandu ya milandu ya milandu ya milandu ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu panji ya malango. Khoti la Apilu ndilo likupulikiska apilu. Mulongozgi wa khoti ili ni mulara wa ŵeruzgi. Khoti la Apilu ndilo ni khoti likuru comene mu caru ici ndipo likupeleka vyeruzgo ku khoti likuru na ku khoti la vyamalonda. Mulongozgi wa khoti la apilu ni mulara wa khoti. Ŵeruzgi ŵakwimikika na pulezidenti wa Botswana mwakuyana na ulongozgi wa komiti ya vya malango. Nangauli wupu wa mawoko wa ku Botswana waŵako kufuma mu 1997, kweni palije ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵanyake nga mbanakazi ŵali kuchita makora pa nkhani ya malango.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lssa.org.za/upload/SADCLA-2017.pdf|title=18th Annual SADC Lawyers' Association Conference and General Meeting|date=August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110005020/http://www.lssa.org.za/upload/SADCLA-2017.pdf|archive-date=10 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> '''List of chief justices of Botswana'''<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.olddailynews.gov.bw/cgi-bin/news.cgi?d=20120927|title= Efficient judicial system ensures justice|newspaper= Daily News|access-date= 4 March 2016|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305121224/http://www.olddailynews.gov.bw/cgi-bin/news.cgi?d=20120927|archive-date= 5 March 2016}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- !No. !Name !Tenure |- |1 |[[Dendy Young]] |1968–1971 |- |2 |[[Akinola Aguda]] |1972–1975 |- |3 |George O. L. Dyke |1975–1977 |- |4 |[[Robert John Hayfron-Benjamin]] |1977–1981 |- |5 |[[James Aiden O'Brien Quinn]] |1981–1987 |- |6 |Luke Livesey |1987–1992 |- |7 |Moleleki D. Mokama |1992–1997 |- |8 |Julian Nganunu |1997–2010 |- |9 |Maruping Dibotelo |2018–2018 |- |10 |Terrence Ronnowane |2018- ''Incumbent'' |- |} ===Foreign relations and military=== [[File:Botswanatroopsboardplane.png|thumb|left|Botswana soldiers board a [[Botswana Defence Force]] plane to Mozambique, July 2021.]] {{Main|Foreign relations of Botswana|Botswana Defence Force}} Pa nyengo iyo charu cha Botswana chikapokera wanangwa, chikaŵavya ŵasilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia na South Africa ŵakati ŵathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army na Umkhonto we Sizwe, ndipo mu 1977, ŵasilikari ŵa Botswana Defence Force (BDF) ŵakapangika. Pulezidenti ni mulara wa ŵasilikari ndipo wakusora wupu wakuvikilira ndipo sono BDF yili na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 60,000. Mu 2019, charu cha Botswana chikasaina phangano la UN lakukanizga vilwero vya nyukiliya. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa ndyali mu South Africa na mu chigaŵa ichi, maofesi gha BDF ghakovwira chomene pa nkhani ya kugega ulovi, kunozgekera masoka, na kusungilira mtende. Boma la United States ndilo likawovwira chomene kuti gulu la BDF likure. Boma la Botswana likapeleka wanangwa ku boma la United States kuti liwone usange lingakhazikiska msasa wa Africa Command (AFRICOM) mu caru ici.<ref>Pounds, Lance (14 December 2015) [http://www.africom.mil/media-room/article/27819/botswana-defence-force-u-s-army-leaders-meet-in-europe Botswana Defence Force, U.S. Army Leaders Meet in Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718193102/http://www.africom.mil/media-room/article/27819/botswana-defence-force-u-s-army-leaders-meet-in-europe |date=18 July 2017 }}. U.S. Army Africa</ref> ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Botswana}} Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa San ŵakaŵachimbizga mu malo ghawo. Kuti ŵafumemo mu malo agha, ŵakaŵakaniranga maji pa malo ghawo ndipo ŵakakakikanga para ŵacenjezga, ico cikaŵa cakurya cawo cikuru. Caru cawo cili pakati pa malo agho kuli dayamondi zinandi comene. Kweni boma likukana kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha vyaka vinandi chomene. Ku malo agha, ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika kusanga nchito, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumwa comene moŵa. Pa Ogasiti 24, 2018, Fernand de Varennes, uyo ni mulaŵiliri wapadera wa UN pa nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵachoko waka, wakalemba chikalata icho chikapempha charu cha Botswana kuti "chivikilire wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵachoko waka pa nkhani ya vinthu vya boma, malo na vinthu vinyake, kweniso viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵachoko waka pa nkhani ya masambiro na vinyake". Ku Botswana, ŵanthu ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵakaŵa ŵambura kuzomerezgeka m'paka mu Juni 2019. Pa Juni 11 wa chaka chenechicho, Khoti Likuru ku Botswana likadumura kuti malango gha mu Criminal Code ghakaŵa ghambura kuzomerezgeka. Ku Botswana, ŵanthu awo ŵakukoma munthu ŵakulangika na kukakika. Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa ku Botswana, Ditshwanelo, ukakhazikiskika mu 1993.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20180218204716/http://www.ditshwanelo.org.bw/ Ditshwanelo Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218204716/http://www.ditshwanelo.org.bw/ |date=18 February 2018 }}"</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Districts of Botswana|Sub-districts of Botswana}} <imagemap> File:Districts of Botswana (image map).svg|thumb|upright=1.1|The districts of Botswana. The appropriate article can be found by clicking over the district. City districts are not shown. poly 250 100 625 100 625 200 775 200 775 400 625 400 625 500 250 500 [[w:North-West District (Botswana)]] rect 900 75 650 200 [[w:Chobe District]] poly 800 225 900 225 1075 425 1075 600 1375 600 1075 850 900 850 650 500 650 400 800 425 [[w:Central District (Botswana)]] rect 1400 400 1075 600 [[w:North-East District (Botswana)]] poly 250 500 625 500 825 775 800 825 125 825 125 650 250 650 [[w:Ghanzi District]] rect 900 825 525 950 [[w:Kweneng District]] rect 1350 875 900 1025 [[w:Kgatleng District]] rect 550 825 100 1300 [[w:Kgalagadi District]] rect 850 1000 650 1150 [[w:Southern District (Botswana)]] rect 1110 1000 850 1150 [[w:South-East District (Botswana)]] </imagemap> Maboma 10 gha Botswana ni agha: * [[Southern District (Botswana)|Southern District]] * [[South-East District (Botswana)|South-East District]] * [[Kweneng District]] * [[Kgatleng District]] * [[Central District (Botswana)|Central District]] * [[North-East District (Botswana)|North-East District]] * [[Ngamiland District]] * [[Kgalagadi District]] * [[Chobe District]] * [[Ghanzi District]] Botswana's councils created from urban or town councils are: [[Gaborone|Gaborone City]], [[Francistown]], [[Lobatse|Lobatse Town]], [[Selebi-Phikwe|Selebi-Phikwe Town]], [[Jwaneng|Jwaneng Town]], [[Orapa|Orapa Town]] and [[Sowa, Botswana|Sowa Township]]. ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Botswana}} Kufuma apo charu cha Botswana chikapokera wanangwa wake, ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakasanganga zikakura mwaluŵiro chomene pa charu chose. Dziko la Botswana lasintha kufuma ku kuŵa limoza la vyaru vikavu comene pa caru cose kuya ku kuŵa caru ca ŵanthu awo ŵali na ndalama zinandi. GDP ya munthu yumoza yikakura kufuma pa $1,344 mu 1950 kufika pa $15,015 mu 2016. Nangauli charu cha Botswana chikaŵa na vinthu vinandi, kweni chikaŵa na ndondomeko yiwemi iyo yikawovwira kuti ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga mu charu ichi ziweleremo. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyera, charu ichi chili pa nambara 4 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ndalama zinandi chomene pa charu chose cha Africa.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kästle, Klaus |url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm |title=GNI PPP table |publisher=Nationsonline.org |date=24 July 2009 |access-date=19 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115190433/http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm |archive-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Tree map export 2009 Botswana.jpeg|thumb|Graphical depiction of Botswana's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories]] [[File:GDP per capita development of Botswana.svg|thumb|GDP per capita of Botswana, 1950 to 2018]] [[File:GDP per capita (current), % of world average, 1960-2012; Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique.png|thumb|GDP per capita (current), % of world average, 1960–2012; Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique]] Unduna wa vya Malonda na Makampani wa ku Botswana ndiwo ukukhwimiska bizinesi mu caru cose. Wupu wa International Monetary Fund ukati kufuma mu 1966 m'paka mu 1999, ciŵelengero ca cuma cikakuranga na ciŵelengero cakujumpha 9% pa caka. Kuyana na vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, charu cha Botswana chili na wanangwa wa vinthu vinandi. Boma likalutilira na ndyali yiwemi, nangauli mu 2002 na 2003, ŵakaŵavya ndalama zakukwana. Charu ichi chili na ngongoli zinandi chomene mu Africa ndipo chili na ndalama zakukwana madola ghakujumpha 7 biliyoni mu 2005/2006. Ndondomeko ya malango yikulongosora kuti makhoti ghaŵe ghakujiyimira payekha, ndipo boma likuchindika fundo iyi. Dango ili ndakukwana kuti ŵanthu ŵagwirenge makora nchito za malonda, nangauli milandu yinandi yikuŵa yakusuzga kuti ŵeruzgike. Kuvikilira wanangwa wa vinjeru kwaŵa makora comene. Charu cha Botswana chili pa malo ghaciŵiri kufuma ku South Africa mu vyaru vya ku sub-Saharan Africa mu 2014 International Property Rights Index.<ref>{{cite web|title=The International Property Rights Index 2014: Africa by Score|url=http://internationalpropertyrightsindex.org/countries?r=A&f=ipri&o=desc|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208141240/http://internationalpropertyrightsindex.org/countries?r=A&f=ipri&o=desc|archive-date=8 December 2015|access-date=23 August 2015|publisher=The International Property Rights Index}}</ref> Nangauli boma la Botswana likuzomerezga ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵachiteko vinthu vinyake mu charu ichi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuchitako yayi. Kuwonjezeka kwa ndalama zakunja kuli na nchito yikuru pa vyamalonda vya boma. Malango gha vya ndalama ghakwendera makora, ndipo ndondomeko za maburoko yikwenda makora, nangauli yikuchedwa. Ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska nga ni ndalama izo ŵakusanga, ngongoli, ndalama izo ŵakusanga, katundu uyo munthu wakuŵa nayo, malipiro agho munthu wakupeleka, na ndalama izo munthu wakulipira pakuchita malonda, zingawezgeka kwambura mphaka. Charu cha Botswana chikuguliska mafuta na magesi kufuma ku South Africa. Pali magesi ghanyake agho ghakufuma mu malasha. === Magesi === {{Excerpt|Energy in Botswana}} ===Mayendelo=== {{See also|Roads in Botswana}} Pa ungano wa SONA 2020 ŵakayowoya kuti ku Botswana kuli misewu yinandi ya makilomita 31,747 (19,727 mi). Pa mtunda uwu, makilomita 20,000 (12,000 mi) ghali na misewu. Makilomita ghakukwana 11,747 (7,299 mi) agho ghalipo ghalije misewu. Mtunda wa msewu ukuwoneka mu makilomita ndipo chiŵelengero cha msewu chikuwoneka mu makilomita pa ora (kph) panji na chimanyikwiro cha chiŵelengero cha msewu (NSL). Magulu ghanyake gha magalimoto ghali na mphaka zakusazgikira izo zikulondezgeka na mphaka za luŵiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mupimpila|first=C|date=2010-09-30|title=Internalising the Externalities of Public Transport in Botswana|journal=Botswana Journal of Economics|volume=5|issue=7|doi=10.4314/boje.v5i7.60307|issn=1810-0163|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Ndalama === Mu vyaru vinandi muli mabungwe ghanandi gha vya ndalama, ndipo ndalama za penshoni na mabanki ni vyakuzirwa comene. Mabanki ghalutilira kuŵa na phindu, ndalama zinandi, ndiposo ghakwenda makora, cifukwa cakuti ndalama za caru zikukura ndiposo msonkho ngukuru. Banki ya ku Botswana ndiyo njakovwira. Ndalama za mu charu ichi ni pula. Ndondomeko ya banki ya ku Botswana njimoza mwa ndondomeko zakupambanapambana mu Africa. Pakuti boma likulondezga fundo za pa caru cose pa nkhani ya kujilongora makora pa nkhani za ndalama na kulaŵilira mabanki, likovwira kuti ŵamalonda ŵasange ngongoli. Banki ya Capital Bank yikajulika mu 2008. Mu Ogasiti 2015, mu charu ichi mukaŵa mabanki ghanandi. Boma likucitako nchito ya banki kwizira mu mabungwe gha boma na ndondomeko yapadera yakovwira ŵanthu kusanga ndalama. Ngongoli zikupelekeka mwakuyana na umo vinthu viliri pa msika, kweni boma likupeleka ngongoli zakovwira. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, mabungwe gha vya ndalama agho ghakusanga ndalama yayi ghalutilira kunozgekera, comenecomene kwizira mu wupu umoza uwo ukuwona vya ndalama. Boma lafumiskapo malango ghakwendeskera ndalama za boma, ndipo chifukwa cha ivi, mabungwe ghanyake ghakwendeska ndalama, ndipo kampani ya Botswana Stock Exchange yikukura.<ref name="botswana-facts-figs">{{cite web | url=http://www.gov.bw/en/Business/Sub-audiences/Investors/Facts-and-Figures/ | title=Investors: Facts and Figures | publisher=Republica of Botswana | access-date=23 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905000003/http://www.gov.bw/en/Business/Sub-audiences/Investors/Facts-and-Figures/ | archive-date=5 September 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref> ===Gemstones and precious metals=== Ku Botswana, Dipatimenti ya Migodi na Vinthu Vyakuthupi (Department of Mines and Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security) iyo yikulongozgeka na Hon Sadique Kebonang ku Gaborone, yikusunga vinthu vyakukhwaskana na migodi mu caru cose. Debswana, kampani yikuru comene ya migodi ya dayamondi iyo yikugwira nchito mu Botswana, yili na ndalama 50 pa 100 za boma. Makampani gha migodi ghakupeleka ndalama pafupifupi 40% ku boma. Mu 2007, ŵanthu ŵakasanga usambazi unandi wa uranium, ndipo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti usambazi uwu wambenge kusangika mu 2010. Makampani ghakupambanapambana gha migodi gha ku vyaru vinyake ghaŵa na maofesi ghawo mu Botswana, ndipo ghakupenja dayamondi, golide, uranium, mkuwa, na mafuta. Boma la Botswana likati mu 2009, lizamukhumba kuleka kugwiliskira ntchito malibwe gha dayamondi pa vinthu vyachuma. Mu charu cha Botswana muli migodi yinandi chomene ya dayamondi. Mu 2013, ku Orapa ŵakaguliska dayamondi yakujumpha madola 1.6 biliyoni.<ref name="Kitco">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053511/http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-08-20-Ranking-Of-The-World-s-Diamond-Mines-By-Estimated-2013-Production.html "Ranking Of The World's Diamond Mines By Estimated 2013 Production"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053511/http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-08-20-Ranking-Of-The-World-s-Diamond-Mines-By-Estimated-2013-Production.html|date=21 September 2013}}, ''[[Kitco]]'', 20 August 2013.</ref> === Creative industries === Ŵakuwona kuti mulimo wa vyamasalamusi pa nkhani ya vyachuma ukuzirwa comene. Wupu wa United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) ukulembapo manambara ghakukhwaskana na katundu uyo wakuguliskika ku vyaru vinyake na katundu uyo wakunjira mu vyaru vinyake. Wupu wa World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) wawovwira kunozga kafukufuku uyo wakulongora kuti pa charu chose pali makampani ghakujumpha 50. Kuyana na umo WIPO yikupangira, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka ku vyamaseŵero vya kulenga zikupambana pakati pa 2% na 11% kuyana na caru. Pakugwiliskira nchito ndondomeko ya WIPO, wupu wa Companies and Intellectual Property Authority (CIPA) na Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis ŵakalemba kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vigaŵa vinyake mu 2019. Mu 2016, mafakitale a copyright adathandizira 5.46% ku phindu lowonjezera ndi 2.66% ku chiwerengero cha ogwira ntchito, 1.28% ku katundu ndi 3.47% ku katundu.<ref>{{Cite book|date=June 2019|title=The Economic Contribution of Copyright Industries in Botswana|url=https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/copyright/en/performance/pdf/econ_contribution_cr_bt.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/copyright/en/performance/pdf/econ_contribution_cr_bt.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|isbn=978-99968-3-063-1|access-date=29 December 2021|website=WIPO}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Botswana}} {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-right: 10px" |+ Population in Botswana{{UN_Population|ref}} |- ! scope="col" style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! scope="col" style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|0.4 |- |2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|1.7 |- |2020 ||style="text-align:right;"|2.4 |} Mu 2012, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tswana ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵanandi chomene mu charu cha Botswana, ndipo ŵakakwananga 79% ya ŵanthu wose. Ŵanyake 7 peresenti mbanthu ŵa fuko la White Batswana/European Batswana, ŵa ku India, na mafuko ghanyake gha ku Southern Africa.<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Botswana|date=10 May 2022|year=2022}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ni Bayei, Bambukushu, Basubia, Baherero, na Bakgalagadi. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku India ŵali kufuma ku Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzania, Mauritius, na South Africa. [[File:Bevölkerungspyramide Botswana 2016.png|thumb|left|Population pyramid 2016]] Since 2000, because of deteriorating economic conditions in [[Zimbabwe]], the number of [[Zimbabweans in Botswana]] has risen into the tens of thousands.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=National and international responses to the Zimbabwean exodus: implications for the refugee protection regime|publisher=Policy Development and Evaluation Service, [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]]|series=Research Papers|volume=175|last1=Betts|first1=Alexander|last2=Kaytaz|first2=Ezra|year=2009|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/retrieveattachments?openagent&shortid=MINE-7UL4R6&file=Full_Report.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵambura kukwana 10,000 ŵa mtundu wa San ŵachali na umoyo wawo. Kwambira m'ma 1990, boma la Botswana likuyezga kufumiska Ŵasani mu malo ghawo.<ref>Lovgren, Stefan (14 September 2004) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110510010233/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0914_040914_labushmen_2.html African Bushmen Tour U.S. to Fund Fight for Land] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808232807/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0914_040914_labushmen_2.html |date=8 August 2016 }}. ''National Geographic News''.</ref> [[James Anaya]], mu 2010, Mlembi Wapadera wa United Nations pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu na wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, wakalemba kuti para ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵatayika, ŵakusuzgika chomene.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Visit Central Kalahari Game Reserve In Botswana|url=https://kubwafive-safaris.com/visit-central-kalahari-game-reserve-in-botswana/|access-date=2020-10-03|website=Kubwa Five Safaris|language=en-GB}}</ref> as a special example.<ref name=Anaya/>{{rp|2}} Among Anaya's recommendations in a report to the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] was that development programs should promote, in consultation with indigenous communities such as the San and Bakgalagadi people, activities in harmony with the culture of those communities such as traditional hunting and gathering activities.<ref name=Anaya>{{cite report |author=Anaya, James |date=2 June 2010 |title=Addendum – The situation of indigenous peoples in Botswana |publisher=United Nations Human Rights Council. A/HRC/15/37/Add.2 |url=http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2010_report_botswana_en.pdf |access-date=7 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006041536/http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2010_report_botswana_en.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|19}} {{Largest cities | country = Botswana | stat_ref = Census Botswana 2022<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2022 |title=POPULATION OF CITIES, TOWNS AND VILLAGES |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Population%20of%20Cities%20Towns%20and%20Villages%20%202022.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Population%20of%20Cities%20Towns%20and%20Villages%20%202022.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS 2022 |publisher=Gaborone: Statistics Botswana.}}</ref> | list_by_pop = List of cities in Botswana | div_name = District | div_link = | city_1 = Gaborone | div_1 = South-East District (Botswana){{!}}South-East | pop_1 = 246,325 | img_1 = Gaborone, Botswana - 51207616203.jpg | city_2 = Francistown| div_2 = North-East District (Botswana){{!}}North-East| pop_2 = 103,417| img_2 = The main square in Francistown (3297095166).jpg | city_3 = Mogoditshane| div_3 = Kweneng District{{!}}Kweneng | pop_3 = 88,006 | city_4 = Maun, Botswana{{!}}Maun| div_4 = North-West District (Botswana){{!}}North-West| pop_4 = 84,993| img_4 = MaunAirport.jpg | city_5 = Molepolole| div_5 = Kweneng District{{!}}Kweneng| pop_5 = 74,674| img_5 = | city_6 = Serowe| div_6 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_6 = 55,676 | city_7 = Tlokweng| div_7 = South-East District (Botswana){{!}}South-East | pop_7 = 55,508 | city_8 = Palapye| div_8 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_8 = 52,636 | city_9 = Mochudi| div_9 = Kgatleng District{{!}}Kgatleng| pop_9 = 50,317 | city_10 = Mahalapye| div_10 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_10 = 48,431 | city_11 = Kanye, Botswana{{!}}Kanye| div_11 = Southern District (Botswana){{!}}Southern| pop_11 = 48,028 | city_12 = Selebi-Phikwe{{!}}Selibe Phikwe| div_12 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central| pop_12 = 42,488 | city_13 = Letlhakane| div_13 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_13 = 36,338 | city_14 = Ramotswa| div_14 = South-East District (Botswana){{!}}South-East | pop_14 = 33,271 | city_15 = Lobatse| div_15 = South-East District (Botswana){{!}}South-East | pop_15 = 29,772 | city_16 = Mmopane | div_16 = Kweneng District{{!}}Kweneng | pop_16 = 25,345 | city_17 = Thamaga| div_17 = Kweneng District{{!}}Kweneng | pop_17 = 25,297 | city_18 = Moshupa| div_18 = Southern District (Botswana){{!}}Southern | pop_18 = 23,858 | city_19 = Tonota| div_19 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_19 = 23,296 | city_20 = Bobonong| div_20 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_20 = 21,216 }} ===Viyowoyelo=== {{bar box |title=Languages of Botswana |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Languages |right1=Percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Setswana|darkgreen|77.3}} {{bar percent|Sekalanga|purple|7.4}} {{bar percent|Shekgalagadi|red|3.4}} {{bar percent|English|black|2.8}} {{bar percent|Sesarwa|green|1.7}} {{bar percent|Sembukushu|darkblue|1.6}} {{bar percent|Ndebele|cyan|1.0}} {{bar percent|Seherero|darkred|1.0}} {{bar percent|Afrikaans|gray|0.4}} {{bar percent|Sesubiya|tan|0.3}} {{bar percent|Seyeyi|lime|0.2}} {{bar percent|Other Asian|violet|0.4}} {{bar percent|Other European|azure|0.4}} {{bar percent|Other African|yellow|0.1}} {{bar percent|Other|brown|0.1}} }} {{Main|Languages of Botswana|Setswana}} Chiyowoyero cha boma ku Botswana ni Chingelezi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Chisetswana.<ref name="gov.bw languages" /> Mu Citswana, vilembo vyakwambilira ni vyakuzirwa comene kuluska mu viyowoyero vinyake vinandi, cifukwa Citswana ni ciyowoyero ca Bantu ndipo vili na mazina agho ghakulembeka na vilembo ivi. Zina mwa vinthu ivi ni Bo, ilo likung'anamura charu, Ba, ilo likung'anamura ŵanthu, Mo, uyo ni munthu yumoza, na Se, uyo ni chiyowoyero. Mwaciyelezgero, mtundu ukuru comene wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Botswana ni ŵa mtundu wa Tswana. Ŵanthu wose aŵa mba Batswana, munthu yumoza ni Motswana, ndipo chiyowoyero chawo ni Setswana. Viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu Botswana ni Kalanga (Sekalanga), Sarwa (Sesarwa), Ndebele, Kgalagadi, Tswapong,! Mazgu agha ni Xóõ, Yeyi, ndipo mu vigaŵa vinyake, Afrikaans. ===Chisopo=== {{Main|Religion in Botswana}} {{bar box |title=[[Religion in Botswana]] ([[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]])<ref name=pew>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131216190527/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/botswana/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=20100 Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Botswana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216190527/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/botswana/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=20100 |date=16 December 2013 }}. [[Pew Research Center]]. 2010.</ref> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=religion |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Christianity in Botswana|Protestant]]|blue|66}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion|Atheist]]|darkgrey|20}} {{bar percent|[[Roman Catholicism in Botswana|Catholic]]|purple|7}} {{bar percent|[[African traditional religion|Folk]]|red|6}} {{bar percent|[[Freedom of religion in Botswana|Other]]|gray|1}} }} Ŵanthu pafupifupi 77% ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakuti Mbakhristu. Ŵakhristu ŵanandi ŵali mu tchalitchi la Anglican, Methodist, na United Congregational Church of Southern Africa. Mu caru ici muli mipingo ya ŵa Lutheran, Baptist, Roman Catholic, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Dutch Reformed Church, Mennonites, Seventh-day Adventists, na Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2001, mu caru ici muli Ŵasilamu pafupifupi 5,000 (ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku South Asia), Ŵahindu 3,000, na 700 ŵa cisopa ca Bahá'í. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 20 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵalije chisopa. ==Mwambo== {{Main|Culture of Botswana}} Kuyana na chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya mu charu cha Botswana, lizgu lakuti Setswana likuyowoyeka kuti likulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Botswana ŵaliri. Ku Botswana, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanandi ŵakupokelerana munthowa zakupambana. Kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana ŵafwatukane makora, ŵakuyowoyeskana mazgu ghakuti "Dumelang". Pa viphikiro nga ni Dikgafela, panji viphikiro vya nthengwa, ŵanakazi ŵa ku Batswana ŵakulongora kuti mbakukondwa para ŵakulira. ===Literature and cinema=== Mabuku gha ku Botswana ghali na malo ghake mu mabuku gha ku Africa. Mabuku gha mu Africa ghakumanyikwa cifukwa ca umo ghakulembera. Kulemba kwaŵako kwa nyengo yitali ku Botswana, kufuma ku nyengo ya kupenta malibwe, comenecomene mu mapiri gha Tsodilo, agho ghakumanyikwa kuti ghakaŵa na vyaka 20,000, mpaka lero. [[File:Unity Dow - PopTech 2011 - Camden Maine USA (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Unity Dow]], author of ''Far and Beyon''', ''The Screaming of the Innocent'' and ''Heavens May Fall'']] Mazuŵa ghano, mu charu cha Botswana muli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba nkhani za mbiri, za ndyali, na zakukondweska. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ni Bessie Head, uyo wakababikira ku South Africa ndipo wakakhalanga ku Serowe; Andrew Sesinyi; Barolong Seboni (uyo milimo yake yikusazgapo Images of the Sun, Screams and Pleas, Lovesongs, Windsongs of the Kgalagadi and Lighting the Fire, na mabuku ghanyake agho ghakusazgapo seŵero lakuti Sechele I, na Setswana Riddles Translated into English); Unity Dow, Galesiti Baruti; Caitlin Davies; Lauri Kubuetsile; Albert Malikongwa; Toro Mositi; na Moteane Melamu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@africadialogue/the-history-and-future-of-literature-in-botswana-dc0120b34561|title=The History and Future of Literature in Botswana|first=Africa in|last=Dialogue|date=12 July 2017|website=Medium}}</ref> Vinthu vinandi ivyo Bessie Head wakalemba vikacitika mu msumba wa Serowe. Mufilimu ya When Rain Clouds Gather (1968), Maru (1971), na A Question of Power (1973) zose zili na nkhani iyi. Mabuku ghatatu agha ghakulongosora vya umoyo wa munthu. Mabuku agha ghakulongosora ivyo vikachitikira Maru apo wakakhalanga pa famu iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga. Head wakafumiskaso nkhani zifupi zinandi, kusazgapo buku la The Collector of Treasures (1977). Wakalemba buku lakuti Serowe: Village of the Rainwind. Buku lake laumaliro, A Bewitched Crossroad (1984), ni buku la mdauko ilo likalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Kweniso wakalemba nkhani ya ntchimi ziŵiri, yumoza musambazi ndipo munyake mukavu, zina lake Yakobe: Wasembe Wakupembuzga na Cipulikano.<ref>Mary Ellen Snodgrass, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LXyyYs2cRDcC&pg=PT141 "Head, Bessie (Bessie Amelia Emery Head)"], ''Encyclopedia of the Literature of Empire'', Infobase Publishing, 2010, pp. 131–132.</ref><ref name=SAHO>[http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/bessie-amelia-head-sa-novelist-dies "Bessie Amelia Head, SA novelist dies"], South African History Online, 17 April 1986.</ref> Mu 1981, filimu ya The Gods Must Be Crazy yikaŵa mu charu cha Botswana ndipo yikaŵa yakutchuka chomene pa charu chose. Mu 2000, filimu ya Disney ya Whispers: An Elephant's Tale yikaŵa mu charu cha Botswana. Pamanyuma, mu 2009, mabuku ghanyake gha M. Filimu ya Saravanan yakuchemeka Ayan, iyo yikaŵa mu chiyowoyero cha Tamil, yikaŵa mu charu cha Botswana. A United Kingdom (Ufumu wa United Kingdom), nkhani ya chitemwa cha Seretse Khama na Ruth Williams, yikapangika pakati pa Botswana na London.<ref name="oxfordbibliographies">{{cite web|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199846733/obo-9780199846733-0110.xml|title=Botswana (Bechuanaland) – African Studies|website=Oxford Bibliographies|access-date=2019-12-22}}</ref> ===Media=== {{main|Media of Botswana}} Ku Botswana kuli mawayilesi 6 gha TV, ndipo limoza mwa mawayilesi agha ni la boma (Botswana TV), pamoza na Now TV, Khuduga HD, Maru TV, Access TV na EBotswana. Pali mawayilesi ghankhondi (RB1, RB2, Duma FM, Gabz FM, na Yarona FM) na manyuzipepara 13 (Mmegi, Sunday Standard, The Telegraph, Business Weekly, The Botswana Gazette, The Voice, The Guardian, Echo, Botswana People's Daily, DailyNews, Tswana Times, Weekend Post, na The Monitor) agho ghakupharazga nyengo zose. ===Music=== {{Main|Music of Botswana}} {{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = | footer = | image1 = | caption1 we = | image2 = Tomeletso Seeretsi.jpg | caption2 we = | image3 = Tswana Small Basket.jpg | caption3 = Folklore Musician Sereetsi (top) & traditional basket (bottom) }} Sumu za ku Botswana zikuzunulika na ŵanthu ŵanandi, nyengo zinyake kwambura kugwiliskira ntchito viŵiya. Sumu za ŵanthu ŵa ku Botswana zili na vyakwimbira nga ni setinkane (chipinda cha piyano chichoko), segankure/segaba (chiyowoyero cha ku Botswana icho chikuyana waka na chiyowoyero cha ku China), moropa (vyakwimbira vyakupambanapambana), phala (chisulo icho chikulizgika pa viphikiro, icho chili na mitundu yakupambanapambana). Vyakwimbira vya ku Botswana vikugwiliskirika waka pa vingwe yayi. Mawoko nagho ghakugwiliskirika nchito nga ni vyakwimbira, mwa kugwiriskirana mawoko pamoza panji kugwiliskira nchito phathisi (khumba la mbuzi lakuzingilizgika mu ciŵaya, ilo likugwiriskirika nchito na ŵanalume pera) kuti lipange sumu na sumu. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, gitala yikumanyikwa kuti ni ciŵiya ca kwimba ico cikovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Tswana. Sumu ya fuko ni "Fatshe leno la rona". Buku ili likalembeka na kulemba na Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makgala|first=Christian John|date=2014-07-03|title=Neil Parsons, National Coat of Arms, and Introduction of the Pula Currency in Botswana, 1975–1976|journal=South African Historical Journal|volume=66|issue=3|pages=504–520|doi=10.1080/02582473.2014.898081|s2cid=159475736|issn=0258-2473}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Welcome to Daily News .:. General - Birth of nation|url=http://www.dailynews.gov.bw/news-details.php?nid=31255|website=www.dailynews.gov.bw|access-date=2020-05-24|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200126140631/http://www.dailynews.gov.bw/news-details.php?nid=31255|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Botswana Music|url=https://www.knowbotswana.com/botswana-music.html|website=KnowBotswana|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref> === Visual arts === Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Botswana, ŵanakazi ŵa mu mizi ya Etsha na Gumare ŵakumanyikwa cifukwa ca luso lawo la kupanga vidunga kufuma ku khuni la mkama la Mokola na vyakununkhira vya mu malo agha. Vikwama ivi vikuŵa vyakupambanapambana mu mitundu yitatu: vikuruvikuru vyakudikanya ivyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakusunga vinthu, vikuruvikuru vyambura kujara ivyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakunyamura vinthu pa mutu panji pakupwantha tirigu, na viŵiya vichoko ivyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakupwantha tirigu. Vinthu ivi vikuŵa viwemi comene cifukwa ca mitundu iyo vikuŵa nayo kweniso umo vikupangikira.{{sfn|Cunningham|Milton|1987}} Vithuzithuzi vyakale chomene vya ku Botswana na South Africa vikulongora ŵanthu ŵakuŵawuka, vinyama, na ŵanthu. Kung San/Bushmen) vyaka vyakujumpha 20,000 ivyo vyajumpha mu mapopa gha Kalahari. ===Food=== {{Main|Cuisine of Botswana}} Vyakurya vya ku Botswana vikusazgapo nyama pakuti ku Botswana kuli viŵeto vinandi. Chakurya cha fuko ili ni seswaa, nyama yakufuma ku mbuzi panji nyama ya ng'ombe, Segwapa nyama yakomira, yakufuma ku nyama ya ng'ombe m'paka nyama ya nyama ya nyama. Vyakurya vya ku Botswana vikuyana waka na vyakurya vinyake vya ku Southern Africa. Viyelezgero vya vyakurya vya ku Botswana ni: Bogobe, pap, boerewors, samp, Magwinya na mopane. Pakuphika chiŵiya ichi, munthu wakuŵika ufu wa sorghum, wa mbuto, panji wa mphoza mu maji ghakubilisa, wakuwuskamo viŵiya ivi na kuviphika pachokopachoko. Cakurya ico cikucemeka ting cikupangika para munthu wakusazgapo mkaka na shuga. Para mulije mkaka na shuga, nyengo zinyake tingaryeka pamoza na nyama panji mphangwe. Nthowa yinyake yakuphikira bogobe nkusazgako mkaka wakununkhira na mpunga. Cakurya ici cikucemeka tophi na fuko la Kalanga. Madila ni cakurya ca mkaka cakuyana na yogati panji sour cream.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbiome of madila - a southern-african fermented milk product |last1=Ohenhen |first1=Regina |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315493533 |work=International Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences |volume=2 (2) (2013) 170–175 |pages= |access-date=2023-02-26 |script-title= |publication-date=2013 |author-mask= |last2=Imarenezor |first2=E.P.K |last3=Kihuha |first3=A.N.}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakulima mphangwe zinandi, nga ni cowpeas, ditloo, na letlhodi. Vyakumera vinyake vikukura mu thengere ndipo vikusangika nyengo yiliyose, nga ni thepe na Delele (okra). Ku malo agha kuli vipasi vinandi, kusazgapo marula. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti tuyuni utu tukwiza kufuma ku Botswana. Pali mtundu unyake wa nyungu uwo ukulimikaso. Mitundu yinyake ya nyungu iyo yikusangika mu vigaŵa vya mu mapopa, njakuzirwa comene ku ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi. Boma la Kgalagadi Breweries Limited ndilo likupanga moŵa wakuchemeka St. Louis Lager, ndiyo njere yakwamba na yimoza pera ya ku Botswana iyo yikumanyikwa chomene mu charu ichi kwamba mu 1989, kweniso Keone Mooka Mageu, chakumwa chambura moŵa. ===Sports=== {{Main|Sport in Botswana}} [[File:Francistown Stadium Botswana.jpg|thumb|left|[[Francistown Stadium]]]] Bola ndilo ndakutchuka mu Botswana. Maseŵera ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa ni softball, cricket, tennis, rugby, badminton, handball, golf, na track and field. Dziko la Botswana ndi membala wa International Cricket Council. Mu 1991, charu cha Botswana chikaŵa mu wupu wa International Badminton Federation na African Badminton Federation. Wupu wa Botswana Golf Union ukupeleka maseŵero gha gofu agho ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Dziko la Botswana likapambana mendulo yakwamba ya Olimpiki mu chaka cha 2012 apo Nijel Amos wakathereska siliva mu mpikisano wa mamita 800. Mu chaka cha 2011, Amantle Montsho wakazgoka championship wa charu chose mu maseŵera gha mamita 400 ndipo wakatora mendulo yakwamba ya ku Botswana pa maseŵera gha pa charu chose. Kabelo Kgosiemang ni mulongozgi wa Africa katatu, Isaac Makwala ni mulongozgi wa mphinjika uyo wakumanya chomene maseŵero gha mamita 400, wakaŵa walongozgi wa golide pa maseŵero gha Commonwealth mu 2018, Baboloki Thebe wakaŵa walongozgi wa siliva mu maseŵero gha mamita 200 pa maseŵero gha Summer Youth Olympics mu 2014 ndipo wakafika ku semi-finals pa World Junior Championships mu 2014 pa maseŵero gha masamu, ndipo Ross Branch Ross, uyo wakwenda pa njinga, wali na nambala yimoza pa maseŵero gha South African Cross Country Championship ndipo wakathereska pa Dakar Rally. Letsile Tebogo wakimika chiphalizgano cha junior pa 100 metres na nyengo ya 9.94 pa 2022 World Athletics Championships. Pa 7 August 2021 dziko la Botswana linalandira mendulo ya bronze mu mpikisano wa 4 × 400 metres wa amuna pa Olimpiki ku Tokyo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa chomene maseŵero agha. Ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵa ku Britain awo ŵali kusamira ku vyaru vinyake, ŵakasambizganga maseŵero agha mu masukulu gha ku sekondare ku Botswana. Bungwe la Botswana Bridge Federation (BBF) likakhazikiskika mu 1988 ndipo likulutilira kunozga maseŵera agha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha kujoba, ndipo gulu ili lili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 800. Mu 2007, BBF yikapempha wupu wa English Bridge Union kuti ucitenge ungano wa sabata yimoza mu Meyi 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebu.co.uk/general/news/2008/BotswanaTrip.htm|title=English Bridge Union|publisher=English Bridge Union|access-date=1 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227184536/http://www.ebu.co.uk/general/news/2008/BotswanaTrip.htm|archive-date=27 February 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Masambilo== {{See also|Ministry of Tertiary Education, Research, Science and Technology (Botswana)}} {{Main|Education in Botswana}} [[File:Lady Physicist.jpg|thumb|Physicist in a Lab at [[Botswana International University of Science and Technology]]]] Kufuma waka apo charu cha Botswana chikapokera wanangwa mu 1966, charu ichi chaluta panthazi chomene pa nkhani ya masambiro. Pa nyengo iyo, mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵacoko comene awo ŵakamalizga masambiro gha ku sekondare. Ku Botswana, chiŵerengero cha ŵanthu ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba chikakwera kufuma pa 69% mu 1991 kufika pa 83% mu 2008. Pa vyaru vya ku Africa, charu cha Botswana ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Kuyana na buku la The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency, mu 2015, ŵanthu 88.5% ŵa vyaka 15 kuya munthazi ŵakamanyanga kuŵazga na kulemba.<ref name="ref">{{cite web |title=UNESCO Institute for Statistics |url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725065836/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/ |archive-date=25 July 2008 |access-date=21 August 2011 |publisher=Stats.uis.unesco.org}}</ref> Cifukwa ca kusanga malibwe gha daimondi na kusazgikira kwa ndalama izo boma likasanganga, masambiro ghakasazgikira comene mu caru ici. Ŵasambiri wose ŵakasambizgika kwa vyaka 10, ndipo ŵakasambiranga sukulu ya Junior Certificate. Pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusambira ŵakuluta ku sukulu za sekondare kwa vyaka viŵiri. Masambiro gha ku sekondare mu Botswana ngawanangwa yayi nesi ghakukakamizgika.<ref name="ref" /> Para ŵafuma ku sukulu, ŵakusambira ŵangasambira ku sukulu yinyake pa sukulu zinkhondi na ziŵiri izo zili mu charu ichi, panji kusambira masambiro gha kusambizga panji unesi. Ŵana ŵa sukulu aŵa ŵakasambiranga pa yunivesite ya Botswana, yunivesite ya Botswana ya Agriculture and Natural Resources, yunivesite ya Botswana International University of Science and Technology, na ku Botswana Accountancy College ku Gaborone. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku masukulu ghapachanya ghapachanya mu charu chose. Pa maunivesite agha pali Botho University, yunivesite yakwamba ya ŵanthu ŵekha mu charu ichi iyo yikupeleka masambiro gha ku sukulu ya Accounting, Business na Computing. Yunivesite yinyake ya pa caru cose ni Limkokwing University of Creative Technology iyo yikupeleka madigiri ghakupambanapambana mu vya Maluso. Masukulu ghanyake ghakusambizga vya masambiro ghapachanya ni Ba Isago, ABM University College, New Era, Gaborone Institute of Professional Studies, Gaborone University College of Law And Professional Studies etc. Ŵasambizgi ŵa sukulu za boma ŵacita vinandi comene kuti ŵasambizge makora ŵanthu. Ŵanandi mwa ŵana aŵa boma likuŵawovwira. Yunivesite yachiŵiri ya pa charu chose, ya Botswana International University of Science and Technology, yikamara ku Palapye mu 2011. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikachitika pa umoyo wa ŵanthu vikaŵa vyacilendo. Ŵasambizgi ŵa masukulu gha pulayimale ŵachalije ndalama zinandi, ndipo ŵakupokera malipiro ghambura kuyana na ŵasambizgi ŵa masukulu gha sekondare. Dipatimenti ya vya masambiro mu charu cha Botswana yikugwira ntchito yakuzenga malaibulale mu masukulu gha pulayimale pamoza na African Library Project. Boma la Botswana likugomezga kuti para lingaŵika ndalama zinandi pa masambiro, charu ichi chingaleka kuthemba chomene malibwe gha dayamondi. Vilato ivi vikulondezgeka kwizira mu ndondomeko ya masambiro gha maluso, iyo yili mu ndondomeko ya NPVET (National Policy on Vocational Education and Training). Boma la Botswana likugwiliskira nchito 21% ya ndalama zake pa masambiro.<ref name="ref" /> Mu Janyuwale 2006, boma la Botswana likapharazga kuti liwezgerengepo ndalama zakusambizgira ŵana ŵa sukulu pamanyuma pa vyaka makumi ghaŵiri vya masambiro gha wanangwa wa boma nangauli boma likulutilira kupeleka masambiro ghakukwana na ndalama zakukwana zakukhala nazo ku munthu waliyose wa ku Botswana uyo wakusambira pa yunivesite. ===Vinthu viphya na vya zeru=== {{main|Science and technology in Botswana}} [[File:SolarCharger Deaftronics.jpg|thumb|Deaftronics Solar Powered Hearing Aid]] Dziko la Botswana likukhumba kugwiliskira nchito sayansi na vyakupangapanga kuti lisinthe vinthu pa nkhani ya vyachuma na kuchepeskako kugomezgeka kwake ku migodi ya dayamondi. Pa cifukwa ici, kufuma mu 2008, boma la Russia lazenga malo ghaŵiri ghakupambanapambana mu vigaŵa vya vyakurya, daimondi, luso, mendero, umoyo na masambiro. Mu 2011, boma la Botswana likalemba ndondomeko yake ya kafukufuku, sayansi na vyakupangapanga. Ndondomeko iyi yikovwira kuti vinthu visinthe mwaluŵiro pa nkhani ya sayansi, charu chose, na kufiska vilato vya boma ivyo vili kulembeka mu mabuku ghapachanya, kusazgapo pulani ya 10 ya boma la Botswana yakukhwaskana na chitukuko m'paka mu 2016. Mu ndondomeko ya National Policy on Research, Science, Technology and Innovation (2011) muli chilato cha kukwezga ndalama zakwendeskera kafukufuku (R&D) kufuma pa 0.26% ya GDP mu 2012 kufika pa 2% ya GDP mu 2016. Chilato ichi chingafiskika mu nyengo yakutemeka pera usange boma lingasazgirako ndalama zakwendeskera kafukufuku.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|pages=546–547|access-date=20 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322210919/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:BeeSat RTM 500x500.JPG|thumb|left|Cubesat miniaturized satellite]] Nangauli ndalama izo ŵakuŵika pa kafukufuku ni zichoko, kweni mu charu ichi muli ŵasayansi ŵanandi chomene ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara. Dziko la Botswana lili pa nambala 106 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, kufuma pa nambala 93 mu 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mu 2009, kampani ya Deaftronics, iyo yikugwira ntchito ku Botswana, yikamba kupanga munkhwala wakovwira kupulika. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, Deaftronics yaguliska vinthu ivi vyakujumpha 10,000. Chiŵiya chilichose cha munkhwala uwu chikugulika pa mtengo wa madola 200 gha ku America. Vinthu ivi ni vyakudura viŵi yayi pakuyaniska na vinyake ivyo vikuŵa na mtengo wakugulira. Mu 2011, Dipatimenti Yakusanda vya Vyakumera ya ku Botswana (DAR) yikavumbura ng'ombe za Musi, izo zikapangika kuti zikondweske chomene viŵeto vya ng'ombe. Mtundu uwu wa nyama ni wa mtundu wa Tswana, Bonsmara, Brahman, Tuli, na Simmental. Chilato cha kafukufuku uyu chikaŵa chakuti ŵasange majini agho ghangaŵa nga ni mitundu iyo yikusangika kale ku Botswana, ndipo ghangaŵa ghawemi chomene kuluska mitundu ya ku Tswana.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=166&dir=2011%2FSeptember%2FThursday8%2F |title=Hardy breed named Musi at unveiling |website=mmegi.bw |date=6 August 2007 |access-date=16 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110013727/http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=166&dir=2011/September/Thursday8/ |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 2016, wupu wa Botswana Institute of Technology Research and Innovation (BITRI) ukapangiska chiyezgelero cha kufumiska nthenda ya foot and mouth mwakukolerana na wupu wa Botswana Vaccine Institute na Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Njira zakulongozgera matenda izo zilipo zikukhumbikwira ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene na vinthu vyapadera, ivyo vikupangiska kuti ndondomeko ya kucezga yilutilire.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.rapidmicromethods.com/2016/12/bitri-develops-rapid-foot-and-mouth.html?m=1 |title=BITRI Develops Rapid Foot and Mouth Disease Test Kit |website=rapidmicromethods.com |access-date=9 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110013809/http://news.rapidmicromethods.com/2016/12/bitri-develops-rapid-foot-and-mouth.html?m=1 |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{ multiple image | direction = vertical | width = | footer = | image1 = | caption1 we= | image2 = Botswana Innovation Hub Under Construction.jpg | caption2 we= | image3 = Botswana Innovation Hub Under Construction 2.jpg | caption3 =Botswana Innovation Hub Under Construction }} MeerKAT (Square Kilometre Array (SKA)) yizamuŵa na vyakupimira vikuruvikuru na ma antenna agho ghazamupambanapambana. Vyakurya vinyake vizamusangika mu vyaru vinyake 8 vya mu Africa. Charu cha Botswana chikasankhika kuti chiŵepo chifukwa chakuti chili ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa charu, ndipo chingaŵa chipusu kupokera mauthenga kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Boma la Botswana lazenga telesikopu ya SKA ku Kgale View, yakucemeka African Very Long Base Line Interferometry Network (AVN) na kutuma msambiri pa masambiro gha vya nyenyezi. Pa 18 December, 2020, charu cha Botswana chikamba ntchito yake ya vyaka vitatu yakuzenga na kwambiska satellite (CubeSat). Bungwe la Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST) ndilo lizamulongozga mulimo wa kupanga satellite iyi ndipo lizamovwira Yunivesite ya Oulu ku Finland. Satellite iyi yizamuteŵetera pakuwona caru capasi, ndipo yizamupeleka fundo zakovwira pa ulimi wavinjeru na pa vyalo vya pa caru. Kweniso vitovwirenge kumanya nyengo iyo tiryenge mbuto mwakugwiliskira ntchito ma robot na makina.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailynews.gov.bw/news-details.php?nid=60276 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415234043/http://www.dailynews.gov.bw/news-details.php?nid=60276 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |title=Satellite technology development giant leap |work=Botswana Daily News |date=20 December 2020 |access-date=2 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://africanews.space/botswana-launches-national-space-program/|title=Botswana Launches National Space Program|first=Space in|last=Africa|date=23 December 2020}}</ref> Mu 2016, kampani yinyake yakuchemeka Almaz, yikajura kampani yakwamba ya kupanga makompyuta..<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.itwebafrica.com/more-countries/botswana/237043-botswana-opens-first-tech-assembly-plant |title=Botswana opens first tech assembly plant |website=itwebafrica.com |access-date=9 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110013902/http://www.itwebafrica.com/more-countries/botswana/237043-botswana-opens-first-tech-assembly-plant |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thepatriot.co.bw/business/item/3389-almaz-enters-botswana-ict-sector.html |title=Almaz enters Botswana ICT sector |work=The Patriot |access-date=9 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109205218/http://www.thepatriot.co.bw/business/item/3389-almaz-enters-botswana-ict-sector.html |archive-date=9 January 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Pa 19 Novembala 2021 ŵasayansi ku Botswana Harvard HIV Reference Laboratory (BHHRL) ŵakasanga mtundu wa Omicron ndipo pamanyuma ŵakawuchema kuti B.1.1.529, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakawuchema kuti "Omicron" ndipo ŵakaŵa charu chakwamba pa charu chose chapasi kusanga mtundu uwu. Kwambira kuuyambiro wa chaka cha 2021, ŵasanda viŵaro vya ŵanthu pafupifupi 2,300 awo ŵali na kachilombo ka SARS-CoV-2. Kuyana na Dr. Gaseitsiwe, viŵelengero vya viŵelengero vya viŵelengero vya viŵelengero vya ŵanthu ivyo vyatumika ku GISAID ni vyapacanya comene mu caru ca Africa pa munthu yumoza. Bungwe la Botswana Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership (BHP) likakhazikiskika mu 2003, vyaka viŵiri pamanyuma pakuti wupu uwu wajura BHHRL, malo ghakwamba puzengau chose gha kafukufuku wa HIV.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2021/12/14/inside-the-botswana-lab-that-discovered-omicron |title=Inside the Botswana lab that discovered Omicron |work=Aljazeera |last=Flood |first=Zoe |date=14 December 2021 |access-date=9 January 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214111713/http://www.aljazeera.com/features/2021/12/14/inside-the-botswana-lab-that-discovered-omicron |archive-date=14 December 2021 }}</ref> ==Vyakuzenga== {{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = | footer = | image1 = | caption1 we = | image2 = PSX 20190111 022104.jpg | caption2 we = | image3 = Francistown interchange Botswana.png | caption3 = [[Sir Seretse Khama International Airport|SSKI Airport]] (top), [[Air Botswana]] (Middle) & Thapama Interchange (bottom) }} Ku Botswana kuli misewu ya makilomita 971, misewu ya makilomita 18,482, na ma eyapoti 92. Misewu iyi yili kuzengeka kufuma apo tikambira kujiyimira tekha mu 1966. Wupu wa ndege wa ku Botswana ni Air Botswana, ndipo ukwendeska ndege mu charu ichi na ku vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa. Botswana Railways ni kampani ya sitima ya ku caru cose, iyo yikovwira comene pa misewu ya ku Southern Africa. Botswana Railways yikupeleka vinthu vyakwendeskera njanji kuti ŵanthu ŵagulire vinthu vinandi mu migodi na vyamuminda, kweniso njanji za ŵanthu na madoko ghakomira.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.gov.bw/en/ministries--authorities/ministries/ministry-of-transport-and-communications/departments/department-of-roads/divisions/ |title=Ministry of Transport and Communications |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180729080321/http://www.gov.bw/en/ministries--authorities/ministries/ministry-of-transport-and-communications/departments/department-of-roads/divisions |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.botswanarailways.co.bw/profile |title=Botswana Railways |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190121232609/http://www.botswanarailways.co.bw/profile |archive-date=21 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa nkhani ya magesi, ku Botswana, ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito malasha pakupanga magesi. Sonosono apa, caru ici caŵika mtima comene pa vyakununkhira vya magesi ndipo cafiska ndondomeko yikuru ya kukopa ŵaganyu mu vyakununkhira vya magesi nga ni mphepo, zuŵa na biomass. Vipinda vya magesi vya ku Botswana ni Morupule B Power Station (600 MW), Morupule A Power Station (132 MW), Orapa Power Station (90 MW), Phakalane Power Station (1.3 MW) na Mmamabula Power Station (300 MW), ivyo vikulindizgika kuti vizamunjira pa intaneti sonosono apa. Unduna wa vya Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security, uli kunozga na kupanga sitima ya magesi ya 200 MW.<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.sundaystandard.info/unusual-tourism-ministry-solar-power-plant-tender-raises-eyebrows |title=Unusual Tourism ministry solar power plant tender raises eyebrows |work=Sunday Standard |location= Gaborone |date=3 December 2017 |access-date=8 October 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201028231344/https://www.sundaystandard.info/unusual-tourism-ministry-solar-power-plant-tender-raises-eyebrows/ |archive-date=28 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="mmegi.bw">{{cite web |url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=1253&dir=2012/June/Friday22/ |title=Botswana - energy sector overview |website=mmegi.bw |date=22 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121232514/http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=1253&dir=2012/June/Friday22/ |archive-date=21 January 2019 }}.</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{Excerpt|Health in Botswana}} ====Health industry==== [[File:Scottish Livingstone Hospital 228.jpg|thumb|Scottish Livingstone Hospital in Molepolole]] Dipatimenti ya vyaumoyo mu charu cha Botswana ndiyo yikulaŵilira umoyo wa ŵanthu mu charu chose. Kuyana na Banki ya Caru Cose, mu 2009 ŵanthu ŵakakhazganga kukhala na umoyo utali wa vilimika 55, kweni mu 1990 ukaŵa vyaka 64,1 ndipo mu 2002 ukaŵa vyaka 49. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2011, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 54,06. Wupu wa Khensa wa ku Botswana ni wupu wakujipeleka. Wupu uwu uli mu wupu wa International Union for Cancer Control. Wupu uwu ukupeleka wovwiri wakukwana ku ŵanthu awo ŵakulwara nthenda ya kansa..<ref name="UICC Cancer Association of Botswana">{{cite web |publisher=Union for International Cancer Control |url=http://www.uicc.org/membership/cancer-association-botswana |title=Cancer Association of Botswana |access-date=29 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528080003/http://www.uicc.org/membership/cancer-association-botswana |archive-date=28 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Nthenda ya HIV/AIDS ==== {{Main|HIV/AIDS in Botswana}} [[File:Life expectancy in select African countries, 1950–2019.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Life expectancy in select Southern African countries, 1950–2019. [[HIV/AIDS]] has caused a fall in life expectancy.]] Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Africa, AIDS yikupangiska masuzgo ghanandi pa vya cuma. Ndalama zakwendeskera vyachuma zikadumulika na 10 peresenti mu 2002'3 cifukwa ca kunangika kwa bajeti na kusazgikira kwa ndalama zakwendeskera vya cipatala. Ku Botswana, nthenda ya AIDS yikananga comene umoyo wa ŵanthu. Mu 2006, ŵakawona kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakubabika na nthenda iyi ŵakukhala vyaka 65 m'paka 35. Ndipouli, kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2011, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 54,06. Kweni pa chithuzithuzi apa pali vyaka vyakujumpha 65, ntheura pali mauthenga ghakupambana pa nkhani ya umoyo. Ku Botswana, ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15-49 ŵakaŵa na nthenda ya HIV/AIDS. Ivi vikupangiska kuti charu cha Botswana chiŵe chachitatu pa vyaru ivyo vili na matenda agha mu 2013, uku "chikulongozga pa nkhani ya kugega na kupwelelera matenda". Mu 2003, boma likamba ndondomeko yikuru yakusazgapo munkhwala wa HIV waulere panji wa mtengo wapasi kweniso kampeni yakupharazga kuti nthenda ya HIV yileke kuthandazgika; mu 2013, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 40% mu Botswana ŵakaŵa na nthenda ya HIV.:28 Mu gulu la vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 19, nthenda ya HIV yikamba kuthandazgika pa 6% pa ŵanakazi na 3.5% pa ŵanalume mu 2013,:33 ndipo mu gulu la vyaka vyapakati pa 20 na 24, nthenda ya HIV yikamba kuthandazgika pa 15% pa ŵanakazi na 5% pa ŵanalume.:33 Botswana ni yimoza mwa vyaru 21 ivyo gulu la UN AIDS likati vyazunulika mu 2011 mu ndondomeko ya Global Plan ya kumazga nthenda ya HIV pakati pa ŵana na kusunga ŵanyinawo ŵamoyo.:37 Kufuma mu 2009 kufika mu 2013, nthenda ya HIV yikakhira pa 50% pa ŵana.:38 Cinthu cinyake ico cikulongora kuti banthu ŵakukwaniska panji ŵakugomezga kuti nthenda ya HIV yikumara, nchakuti pa banthu ŵakukwana 10% pa banthu ŵakutora nthenda ya HIV mu 2013, banthu ŵakukwana pafupifupi 50% pa banthu ŵakukwana ŵakukwaniska na Na pulogiramu ya kuchepeska nthenda ya HIV kufuma ku amama kuya ku ŵana, caru ca Botswana cachepeska nthenda iyi kufuma pa 40% kufika pa 4%. Pa muwuso wa Festus Mogae, Boma la Botswana likapempha wovwiri wa ku vyaru vinyake pakulwera HIV/AIDS ndipo likapokera wovwiri kufuma ku Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Merck Foundation, ndipo pamoza ŵakapanga African Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Partnership (ACHAP). Ŵabali ŵanyake awo ŵakateŵeterapo pa nyengo yakwambilira ŵakaŵa ku Botswana-Harvard AIDS Institute, ku Harvard School of Public Health, na ku Botswana-UPenn Partnership of the University of Pennsylvania. Kuyana na lipoti la UNAIDS la mu 2011, ŵanthu wose mu Botswana ŵakutora munkhwala uwo ukovwira kuti ŵaleke kufwa.<ref>{{Citation |url= http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/JC2216_WorldAIDSday_report_2011_en.pdf |title= World AIDS Day Report |year= 2011 |publisher= UNAIDS |access-date= 21 February 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130601011732/http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/JC2216_WorldAIDSday_report_2011_en.pdf |archive-date= 1 June 2013 |url-status= live}}</ref> Vinyake ivyo vingapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵaŵe na HIV ku Botswana ni kugonana pa nyengo yimoza, kugonana na munthu munyake, kugonana na ŵanthu ŵa miwiro yakupambanapambana, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuluta ku vyaru vinyake kukapenja ntchito. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanandi, ŵakuŵa na suzgo linyake. === Ulendo === {{main|Tourism in Botswana}} [[File:Botswana.jpg|thumb|Tourist on a safari boat cruise]] Bungwe la Tourism Organisation la ku Botswana ndilo likwendeska vyalo mu charu ichi. Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku Gaborone chifukwa cha vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Lion Park Resort ni malo ghakwamba ghakusanguluskira ŵanthu ku Botswana. Malo ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakuluta ku Botswana ni Gaborone Yacht Club na Kalahari Fishing Club kweniso malo ghanyake ghakukondweska nga ni Gaborone Dam na Mokolodi Nature Reserve. Pali malo gha gofu agho ghakusungilizgika na bungwe la Botswana Golf Union (BGU). Phakalane Golf Estate ni nyumba yakuzirwa comene iyo yili na mahotelo kweniso malo ghakukhala gofu. Malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale mu Botswana ni:<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090808044920/http://www.botswanagolfunion.org.bw/ (BGU)]. Botswana Golf Union. Retrieved on 19 May 2017.</ref> * [[Botswana National Museum]] in Gaborone * Kgosi Bathoen II (Segopotso) Museum in Kanye * Kgosi Sechele I Museum in Molepolole * Khama III Memorial Museum in Serowe * Nhabe Museum in Maun * [[Phuthadikobo Museum]] in Mochudi * Supa Ngwano Museum Centre in Francistown ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Africa}} * [[Outline of Botswana]] * [[List of Botswana-related topics]] == Vinyake vyamubuku == {{Notelist}} == Ukaboni == === Citations === {{Reflist}} === General sources === {{Free-content attribution | title = UNESCO Science Report: Towards 2030 | author = UNESCO | publisher = UNESCO Publishing | page numbers = 546–547 | source = | documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf | license statement URL = | license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 }} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{refbegin}} * Charles, Thalefang (2016). ''Botswana's Top50 Ultimate Experiences''. Mmegi Publishing House. {{ISBN|9789996845413}}. * {{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524032732/https://economics.mit.edu/files/284 |title=An African Success Story: Botswana |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Johnson |first2=Simon |last3=Robinson |first3=James A. |date=11 July 2001 |via=mit.edu |ref=none |access-date=13 July 2018 |archive-date=18 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718075640/http://economics.mit.edu/files/284 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = Dennis L | year = 1979 | title = The Botswana Political Elite: Evidence from the 1974 General Election | url = | journal = Journal of Southern African Affairs | volume = 4 | issue = | pages = 347–370 }} * Colclough, Christopher and Stephen McCarthy. ''The Political Economy of Botswana: A Study of Growth and Income Distribution'' (Oxford University Press, 1980) * {{cite journal|first1=A.B.|last1=Cunningham|first2=S.J.|last2=Milton|title=Effects of basket-weaving industry on mokola palm and dye plants in northwestern Botswana|date=1987|publisher=Economic Botany}} * {{Cite book|last1=Denbow |first1=James |name-list-style=amp |last2=Thebe |first2=Phenyo C. |title=Culture and Customs of Botswana |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000denb |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-313-33178-7 |ref=none}} * Edge, Wayne A. and Mogopodi H. Lekorwe eds. ''Botswana: Politics and Society'' (Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik, 1998) * {{cite journal | last1 = Good | first1 = Kenneth | year = 1992 | title = Interpreting the Exceptionality of Botswana | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-african-studies_1992-03_30_1/page/69| journal = Journal of Modern African Studies | volume = 30 | issue = | pages = 69–95 | doi = 10.1017/S0022278X00007734 | s2cid = 154542272 }} * {{cite journal |last=Good |first=Kenneth |title=Corruption and Mismanagement in Botswana: A Best-Case Example? |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |date=September 1994 |volume=32 |number=3 |pages=499–521 |url=https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/gov2126/files/good.pdf |via=harvard.edu |access-date=13 July 2018 |issn=0022-278X |eissn=1469-7777 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00015202 |s2cid=153626418 |ref=none |archive-date=3 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403150659/http://projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/gov2126/files/good.pdf |url-status=dead }} * Tlou, Thomas, and Alec C. Campbell. ''History of Botswana'' (Macmillan Botswana, 1984) {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|auto=1|voy=Botswana|d=Q963}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210109202201/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/botswana Botswana]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081026035549/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/botswana.htm Botswana] from [[UCB Libraries]] GovPubs * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Botswana}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13040376 Botswana] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas|Botswana}} * {{osmrelation-inline|1889339}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BW Key Development Forecasts for Botswana] from [[International Futures]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230629130744/https://www.government.co.bw/ Government Directory for Botswana] {{Botswana topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Related articles |list = {{English official language clickable map}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{Botswana government ministries and agencies}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|24|39.5|S|25|54.5|E|display=title}} [[Category:Botswana| ]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1966]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:1966 establishments in Botswana]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former least developed countries]] fg71mnvbw12195imwtvrokb5ql09nku 0 6914 122345 119737 2026-09-25T00:38:29Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122345 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in the Horn of Africa}} {{About|the country|other uses}} {{distinguish|Ethopia (moth)}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Pp-move|small=yes}} {{Patronymic names||Naming conventions in Ethiopia and Eritrea}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}<!-- Please DO NOT enlarge the lede further by adding additional detail to it since it is already too long. Instead, add additional detail to the appropriate sub-section much further below! --> {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Etiyopiya | common_name = Ethiopia | native_name = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:85%; |title = Name in national languages |{{Infobox | subbox = yes | bodystyle = font-size:78%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Amharic]]: | data1 = {{lang|am|የኢትዮጵያ ፌዴራላዊ ዴሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ}}<br />{{lang|am-Latn|Ye-Ītyōṗṗyā Fēdēralawī Dēmokirasīyawī Rīpebilīk}} | rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3 = [[Oromo language|Oromo]]: | data3 = {{lang|om|Rippabliikii Federaalawaa Dimokraatawaa Itiyoophiyaa}} | rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = [[Somali language|Somali]]: | data4 = {{lang|so|Jamhuuriyadda Dimuqraadiga Federaalka Itoobiya}} | rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = [[Wolaitta language|Wolayta]]: | data5 = {{lang|wal|Toophphiyaa Federaale Demokiraase Ripaablike}} | rowclass6 = mergedrow | label6 = [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]: | data6 = {{lang|ti|ፌዴራላዊ ዴሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ ኢትዮጵያ}}<br />{{lang|ti-Latn| Fēdēralawī Dēmokirasīyawī Rīpebilīki Ítiyop'iya}} | rowclass7 = mergedrow | label7 = [[Afar language|Afar]]: | data7 = {{lang|aa|Itiyoppiya Federaalak Demokraatik Rippeblikih}} }} }} | image_flag = Flag of Ethiopia.svg | image_coat = Emblem of Ethiopia.svg | symbol_type = Emblem | national_anthem = <br />{{lang|am|ወደፊት ገስግሺ ፣ ውድ እናት ኢትዮጵያ|bold=yes}}<br />({{Lang-en|"[[March Forward, Dear Mother Ethiopia]]"}})<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:Wedefit Gesgeshi Widd Innat Ittyoppya.ogg]]}}</div> | image_map = Ethiopia (Africa orthographic projection).svg | capital = [[Addis Ababa]] | coordinates = {{Coord|9|1|N|38|45|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[Afar language|Afar]] <br /> [[Amharic]] <br /> [[Oromo language|Oromo]] <br /> [[Somali language|Somali]] <br /> [[Tigrinya]]<ref name="Ventures"/><ref name="Nazret"/><ref name="africanews.com">{{cite news |last1=Shaban |first1=Abdurahman |title=One to five: Ethiopia gets four new federal working languages |url=https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |agency=Africa News |access-date=23 October 2020 |archive-date=15 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215231030/https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |url-status=dead}}</ref> | languages_type = {{nowrap|'''[[Regional language]]s'''}}<ref name="africa.upenn.edu">{{Cite web | url=https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Hornet/Ethiopian_Constitution.html | title=Ethiopian Constitution}}</ref> | ethnic_groups = {{plainlist| * 34.5% [[Oromo people|Oromo]] * 26.9% [[Amhara people|Amhara]] * 6.2% [[Somalis in Ethiopia|Somali]] * 6.1% [[Tigrayans|Tigrayan]] * 4.0% [[Sidama people|Sidama]] * 2.5% [[Gurage people|Gurage]] * 2.3% [[Welayta people|Welayta]] * 1.7% [[Hadiya people|Hadiya]] * 1.7% [[Afar people|Afar]] * 1.5% [[Gamo people|Gamo]] * 12.6% [[List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia|Others]]}} | languages_sub = yes | languages = {{Flatlist| * [[Harari language|Harari]] * [[Sidamo language|Sidama]] * [[Languages of Ethiopia]] <!-- includes only languages officially recognized by a region as the working language --> }} | languages2_type = Foreign languages | languages2 = | ethnic_groups_year = 2007<ref name="CSA">{{cite web|title=Table 2.2 Percentage distribution of major ethnic groups: 2007|page=16|url=http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf|work=Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007 Population and Housing Census Results|publisher=Population Census Commission|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325050115/http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf|archive-date=25 March 2009}}</ref><ref name=2007Census /> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space; |{{Tree list}} * 67.3% [[Christianity in Ethiopia|Christianity]] ** 43.8% [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopian Orthodoxy]] ** 22.8% [[P'ent'ay]] ** 0.7% Other [[Christians|Christian]] {{Tree list/end}} |31.3% [[Islam in Ethiopia|Islam]] |0.6% [[Traditional African religion|Traditional faiths]] |0.8% [[Religion in Ethiopia|Others]] / [[Irreligion|None]] }} | religion_year = 2016<ref>{{cite web |title=Ethiopia- The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/#people-and-society |website=www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/ |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) |access-date=19 July 2021}}</ref> | demonym = [[Ethiopians|Ethiopian]] | government_type = [[Federal parliamentary republic]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalafrica.isp.msu.edu/files/5015/5916/5319/TedVestal.pdf|title=Zenawism as ethnic-federalism}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[President of Ethiopia|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Sahle-Work Zewde]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Abiy Ahmed]] | legislature = [[Federal Parliamentary Assembly]] | upper_house = [[House of Federation]] | lower_house = [[House of Peoples' Representatives]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Ethiopia|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Ethiopian Empire]] | established_date1 = 1270 | established_event2 = ''[[Zemene Mesafint]]'' | established_date2 = 7 May 1769 | established_event3 = [[Zemene Mesafint#End of Zemene Mesafint era|Reunification]] | established_date3 = 11 February 1855 | established_event4 = [[Menelik II#Centralisation|Centralisation]] | established_date4 = 1904 | established_event5 = [[Italian Ethiopia|Occupied and annexed]] into [[Italian East Africa]] | established_date5 = 9 May 1936 | established_event6 = [[Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement]] | established_date6 = 31 January 1942 | established_event7 = [[Derg]] | established_date7 = 12 September 1974 | established_event8 = [[Transitional Government of Ethiopia|Transitional government]] | established_date8 = 28 May 1991 | established_event9 = [[Constitution of Ethiopia|Current constitution]] | established_date9 = 21 August 1995 | area_km2 = 1,104,300<ref name="CIA World Factbook"/> | area_rank = 26th <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 426,371 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | percent_water = 0.7 | population_estimate = 116,462,712<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Ethiopia|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 13th | population_census = 73,750,932<ref name=2007Census>{{cite web |title=Country Level |url=http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php/census-report/census-tables/category/301-census-tables?download=655:countrylevel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208061518/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php/census-report/census-tables/category/301-census-tables?download=655:countrylevel |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 February 2019 |work=2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia |publisher=[[Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)|CSA]] |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref> | population_census_year = 2007 | population_density_km2 = 92.7 | population_density_sq_mi = 240.1 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 123rd | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $394 billion<ref name="IMFWEOET">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=644,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2021&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023|date=April 2023|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date=21 April 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 55th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $3,724<ref name="IMFWEOET"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 159th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $156 billion<ref name="IMFWEOET"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 59th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,475<ref name="IMFWEOET"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 159th | Gini = 35.0 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |title=Gini Index coefficient |publisher=CIA World Factbook |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref> | HDI = 0.498 <!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> | HDI_change = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=September 8, 2022|access-date=September 8, 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 175th | currency = [[Ethiopian birr|Birr]] | currency_code = ETB | time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] | utc_offset = +3 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+251]] | cctld = [[.et]] }} '''Ethiopia''',{{efn|{{lang-am|ኢትዮጵያ|Ītyōṗṗyā}} {{IPA-am|i.tjo.p’ja|pron}}, {{lang-om|Itiyoophiyaa}}, {{lang-so|Itoobiya}}, {{lang-ti|ኢትዮጵያ|Ítiyop'iya}}, {{lang-aa|Itiyoppiya}}}} panji kuti '''Charu cha Etiyopiya''', panji kuti '''Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia''', chili ku mpoto kwa [[Africa]]. Charu ichi chili kumpoto na Eritrea, kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Djibouti]], kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Somalia]], kumwera na [[Kenya]], kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[South Sudan]], kweniso kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[Sudan]]. Charu cha Etiyopiya chili na malo ghakukwana 1,100,000 square kilometres. Kufika mu chaka cha 2022, charu ichi chili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 113.5 miliyoni, ndipo ni charu cha nambara 13 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi.<ref name="csa2">{{cite web |title=Population Projections for Ethiopia 2007–2037 |url=http://www.csa.gov.et/census-report/population-projections/category/368-population-projection-2007-2037?download=936:population-projection-2007-2037 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803052731/http://www.csa.gov.et/census-report/population-projections/category/368-population-projection-2007-2037?download=936:population-projection-2007-2037 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |access-date=25 September 2020 |website=www.csa.gov.et}}</ref>{{UN_Population|ref}}Msumba ukuru wa [[Addis Ababa]], uli pa mtunda wa makilomita ghanandi kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa [[East African Rift]] iyo yikupatura charu ichi kuŵa vigaŵa viŵiri.<ref name="CIA2">{{cite web |title=Ethiopia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ |access-date=5 April 2021 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakafuma mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Ethiopia ndipo ŵakaluta ku [[Near East]] na kunyake mu nyengo ya Middle Paleolithic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kessler |first=David F. |title=The Falashas : a Short History of the Ethiopian Jews |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-283-70872-2 |oclc=819506475}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hopkin |first=Michael |date=16 February 2005 |title=Ethiopia is top choice for cradle of ''Homo sapiens'' |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |doi=10.1038/news050214-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=J.Z. |last2=Absher |first2=D.M. |last3=Tang |first3=H. |last4=Southwick |first4=A.M. |last5=Casto |first5=A.M. |last6=Ramachandran |first6=S. |last7=Cann |first7=H.M. |last8=Barsh |first8=G.S. |last9=Feldman |first9=M. |last10=Cavalli-Sforza |first10=L.L. |last11=Myers |first11=R.M. |year=2008 |title=Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2008-02-22_319_5866/page/1100 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=319 |issue=5866 |pages=1100–04 |bibcode=2008Sci...319.1100L |doi=10.1126/science.1153717 |pmid=18292342 |s2cid=53541133}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=21 February 2008 |title=Humans Moved From Africa Across Globe, DNA Study Says |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=awJVkvnk8KjM |url-status=dead |access-date=16 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629125652/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=awJVkvnk8KjM |archive-date=29 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kaplan |first=Karen |date=21 February 2008 |title=Around the world from Addis Ababa |url=http://www.startribune.com/world/15860017.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603122801/http://www.startribune.com/world/15860017.html |archive-date=3 June 2013 |access-date=16 March 2009 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref> Kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ethiopia ndiko ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya ku Afroasiatic. Mu 980 B.C.E., [[Ufumu wa D'mt]] ukathandazga ufumu wake pa charu cha [[Eritrea]] na kumpoto kwa Ethiopia, apo Ufumu wa Aksum ukalutilira kulamulira charu ichi vyaka 900. Ufumu uwu ukazomera Chikhristu mu 330, ndipo Chisilamu chikafika mu 615.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abbink |first=Jon |date=1998 |title=An Historical-Anthropological Approach to Islam in Ethiopia: Issues of Identity and Politics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1771876 |journal=Journal of African Cultural Studies |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=109–124 |doi=10.1080/13696819808717830 |jstor=1771876 |hdl=1887/9486 |issn=1369-6815|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti msumba wa [[Aksum]] wabwangandulika mu 960, maufumu ghakupambanapambana ghakaŵa mu charu cha Etiyopiya. Ufumu wa Zagwe ukalamuliranga kumpoto na pakati m'paka apo ukawuskikira na Yekuno Amlak mu 1270, ndipo ukayambiska ufumu wa Ethiopia na ufumu wa [[Solomonic]]. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 C.E., ufumu uwu ukakura chomene chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa vigaŵa vyawo na kulimbana na vigaŵa vinyake. Nkhondo ya Adal (1529-1543) ndiyo yikawovwira kuti ufumu uwu uŵe wakupambana. Themba [[Tewodros II]] likamalizga [[Zemene Mesafint]] mu 1855, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Etiyopiya wakolerane na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2022 |title=Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/id/1299/Vaughanphd.pdf}}</ref> Kwambira mu 1878, Themba Menelik II likapoka vigaŵa vinandi vya charu cha Ethiopia. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, charu cha Ethiopia chikajivikilira ku ŵalwani awo ŵakachitanga nkhondo na charu cha Egypt na Italy. Mu 1935, boma la [[Fascist Italy]] likapoka charu cha Ethiopia na kuwunjika pamoza na vyaru vya [[Eritrea]] na [[Somaliland]]. Mu 1941, pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ŵasilikari ŵa ku [[Britain]] ŵakamba kuwukira msumba uwu. Gulu la [[Derg]], ilo likawovwirika na Soviet Union, likamba kuwusa mu 1974 pamanyuma pa kuwuskapo Themba [[Haile Selassie]] na [[muwuso wa Solomoni]]. Pati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo Derg yikamara mu 1991, gulu la [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF)]] likamba kulamulira charu ichi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakwambana kwa nyengo yitali, ndipo ndyali zilije mtende. Kufuma mu 2018, magulu gha vigaŵa na gha mafuko ghakapanga nkhondo zinandi mu Ethiopia.<ref name=BBC1120>{{Cite news|author=BBC Staff|date=3 November 2020|title=Ethiopia attack: Dozens 'rounded up and killed' in Oromia state|language=en|work=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54787034|access-date=25 May 2021}}</ref> Charu cha Ethiopia chili na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana yakujumpha 80. Chikhristu ndicho ntchisopa chikuru chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Chisilamu. Boma ili ndilo likambiska Wupu wa United Nations, Gulu la Ŵamitundu 24, Gulu la Ŵambura Kujibatika, Gulu la Ŵamitundu 77, na Wupu wa Umoza wa ku Africa. Ku Addis Ababa ndiko kuli wupu wa African Union, Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, African Standby Force na mawupu ghanandi gha pa charu chose agho ghakuwona vya Africa. Charu cha Ethiopia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikukura comene yayi, kweni nyengo zinyake chikucemeka kuti ni caru ico cikukura comene. Ndipouli, kuyana na ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakuguliska na fundo ya Human Development Index, caru ici nchikavu comene, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi mbakavu, kweni ŵakuchindika yayi wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba ni 49%. Ntchito za ulimi ndizo zikuluzikulu kwambiri ku Ethiopia, zomwe zikuyimira 36% ya GDP ya dzikolo kuyambira 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopia: Share of economic sectors in the gross domestic product (GDP) from 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/455149/share-of-economic-sectors-in-the-gdp-in-ethiopia/#:~:text=This%20statistic%20shows%20the%20share%20of%20economic%20sectors,and%20the%20services%20sector%20contributed%20about%2036.81%20percent. |website=Statista}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Agriculture in Ethiopia: data shows for a large part Agriculture still retained its majority share of the economy. |url=https://lekreports.com/agriculture-in-ethiopia-data-shows-for-a-large-part-agriculture-still-retained-its-majority-share-of-the-economy/ |website=The Low Ethiopian Reports|date=16 June 2022 }}</ref> ==Zina== {{see also|Aethiopia}} Zina la Chigiriki lakuti Αἰθιοπία (kufuma ku Αἰθίοψ, Aithiops, "munthu wa ku Etiyopiya") ni lizgu ilo lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chigiriki lakuti α??θω na ??ψ. Kuyana na buku la Liddell-Scott Jones Greek-English Lexicon, lizgu ili likung'anamulika kuti chisko chawotcheka mu zina, ndipo mu zina la chigaŵa, chisko chawotcheka. Munthu munyake wakulemba mdauko zina lake Herodotus, wakazunuranga vigaŵa vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara. Pakuti Ŵagiriki ŵakamanyanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakaŵa "ŵabulumembe", ŵakaŵagaŵa mu vigaŵa viŵiri, ŵa ku Africa na ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kufuma ku Turkey m'paka ku India.<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 1.22–4.</ref> Zina la Chigiriki ili likalembeka mu Chiamharic kuti ኢትዮጵያ, ʾĪtyō?? yā. Panyake lizgu lakuti Αἰθιοπία likafuma ku lizgu lakuti ዕጣን (ʿəṭan, lubani), ilo ku Etiyopiya likafuma. Mu malemba gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma, zina lakuti Etiyopiya likaŵa zina la ku Nubia wakale. Mu malemba ghanyake gha mu Baibolo, zina lakuti Etiyopiya likusangikaso mu Mabaibolo ghanandi gha mu Baibolo. Malemba ghakale gha Cihebere ghakuyowoya kuti Nubia ni Kush. Ndipouli, mu Cipangano Ciphya, lizgu la Cigiriki lakuti Aithiops likuzunulika, pakuyowoya za muteŵeti wa Kandake, fumukazi ya Kush. Pakulondezga mitheto ya Ŵagiriki na Baibolo, buku la Monumentum Adulitanum, ilo lili kulembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., likulongora kuti themba la Aksum likalamuliranga chigaŵa icho chikaŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ethiopia na Sasu. Themba Ezana la ku Aksum likathereska Nubia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Mu ciyowoyero ca Ge'ez, lizgu lakuti Aἰθίοπες likuyana waka na lizgu lakuti Ḥbšt na Ḥbśt (Ḥabashat). Pamanyuma, zina liphya ili likang'anamulika kuti ḥbs ('Aḥbāsh) mu Cisaba na Ḥabasha mu Cirabu. Mu buku la Ge'ez Book of Axum ilo likalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, zina ili likulongora kuti munthu uyu wakaŵa Ityopp'is. Iyo wakaŵa mwana wa Kushi, mwana wa Hamu, uyo ŵanthu ŵakuti ndiyo wakazenga msumba wa Axum. Mu Cingelezi, na kuwaro kwa Ethiopia, caru ici cikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Abyssinia. Zina ili lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachilatini lakuti Habash.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schoff|first1=Wilfred Harvey|title=The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: travel and trade in the Indian Ocean|date=1912|publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co.|page=62|url=https://archive.org/stream/periplusoferythr00schouoft#page/62/mode/2up|access-date=28 September 2016}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Ethiopia}} {{further|Ethiopian historiography}} === Mbili yakwambilia === {{Main article|Prehistoric Ethiopia}} [[File:Homo Sapiens Idaltu.JPG|thumb|A ''[[Herto Man|Homo sapiens idaltu]]'' hominid skull]] Vinthu vinandi vyakuzirwa ivyo ŵasanga vyawovwira kuti charu cha Ethiopia na vigaŵa vyakuzingilizga viŵe pa malo ghakwamba pa nkhani ya vyamoyo. Munthu uyo wakukhala vyaka vinandi chomene uyo wasangika ku Ethiopia ni Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardi) wa vyaka 4.2 miliyoni. Wakaŵa Muzungu mu 1994. Munthu uyo wakumanyikwa chomene ni Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy). Mu 1974 Donald Johanson wakasanga chinyama ichi mu Dambo la Awash mu chigaŵa cha Afar. Zina lakuti Lucy likuyowoya za malo agho ŵakasangako vinthu ivi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti munthu uyu wakaŵako vyaka 3.2 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/human/human_evolution/mother_of_man1.shtml|title=Mother of man – 3.2&nbsp;million years ago|publisher=Bbc.co.uk|access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref><ref name="Dinkinesh">{{cite book|title=Lucy's Legacy: The Quest for Human Origins|last2=Wong|first2=Kate|date=2010|publisher=Crown Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-39640-2|pages=8–9|last1=Johanson|first1=Donald C.}}</ref><ref name="iho1">{{cite web|url=https://iho.asu.edu/about/lucys-story|title=Institute of Human Origins: Lucy's Story|date=15 June 2016|access-date=23 March 2017}}</ref> Charu cha Etiyopiya ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano, awo ŵakuchemeka Homo sapiens, ŵambe kuŵako. Vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo vikusangika pa malo agha ni ivyo vikakhalako vya Omo. Vinthu ivi vikazengeka kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Omo. Kweniso ŵakasanga viwangwa vya munthu munyake wakuchemeka Homo sapiens idaltu mu dambo la Awash. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 160,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo vingaŵa kuti vikaŵa vyamoyo vya mtundu wa Homo sapiens, panji ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano. Vinthu vyakale vya Homo sapiens ivyo vikusangika pa malo gha Jebel Irhoud ku Morocco vikulongora kuti vikaŵako vyaka 300,000 ivyo vyajumpha, apo vya Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) vya kumwera kwa Ethiopia ni viswaswa vyakale chomene vya Homo sapiens ivyo vikumanyikwa mu nyengo yasono (196 ± 5 ka). Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakafika mu chigaŵa ichi mu nyengo ya Neolithic kufuma ku malo agho ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu Dambo la Nayelo. Ŵasayansi ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Afroasiatic ŵakafuma ku kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa chifukwa chakuti mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakasanga malo ghakubisamamo malibwe agho ghakaŵako vyaka 30,000 kumanyuma pa malo gha Fincha Habera mu mapiri gha Bale. Malo agha ghali pachanya pa nyanja mamita 3,469. Para munthu wali pachanya nthena, wakuŵa na nthenda ya hypoxia kweniso nyengo yiheni. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakalembeka mu magazini ya Science, wakulongora kuti malo agha ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba pa malo ghose agho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga. Ŵakasanga viwangwa vikuruvikuru vya vinyama, vyakuyegheramo malibwe vinandi, na vyoto vyakale.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/08/science/humans-high-altitude-ethiopia.html|title=In the Ethiopian Mountains, Ancient Humans Were Living the High Life|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|date=8 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=16 August 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/found-earliest-evidence-high-altitude-home-humans-180972878/|title=Archaeologists Uncover Evidence of an Ancient High-Altitude Human Dwelling|last=Katz|first=Brigit|website=Smithsonian|language=en|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/08/ethiopia-provides-the-earliest-evidence-of-people-living-at-altitude/|title=The first people to live at high elevations snacked on giant mole rats|last=Smith|first=Kiona N.|date=9 August 2019|website=Ars Technica|language=en-us|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/earliest-evidence-human-mountaineers.html|title=Earliest Evidence of Human Mountaineers Found in Ethiopia|last=History|first=Charles Q. Choi 2019-08-09T12:59:10Z|website=livescience.com|date=9 August 2019|language=en|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/this-rock-shelter-in-ethiopia-may-be-the-earliest-evide-1837104167|title=This Rock Shelter in Ethiopia May Be the Earliest Evidence of Humans Living in the Mountains|last=Dvorsky|first=George|website=Gizmodo|date=9 August 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2019/08/09/Earliest-evidence-of-high-altitude-living-found-in-Ethiopia/9561565318908/|title=Earliest evidence of high-altitude living found in Ethiopia|website=UPI|language=en|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Miehe|first1=Georg|last2=Opgenoorth|first2=Lars|last3=Zech|first3=Wolfgang|last4=Woldu|first4=Zerihun|last5=Vogelsang|first5=Ralf|last6=Veit|first6=Heinz|last7=Nemomissa|first7=Sileshi|last8=Negash|first8=Agazi|last9=Nauss|first9=Thomas|date=9 August 2019|title=Middle Stone Age foragers resided in high elevations of the glaciated Bale Mountains, Ethiopia|url=https://archive.org/details/science_2019-08-09_365_6453/page/583|journal=Science|language=en|volume=365|issue=6453|pages=583–587|doi=10.1126/science.aaw8942|issn=0036-8075|pmid=31395781|bibcode=2019Sci...365..583O|s2cid=199505803}}</ref> Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya malibwe (vinthu ivyo vikamanyikwanga na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens) vikawoneka mu 2013 pa malo gha Gademotta ku Ethiopia. Mu 2019, ku Aduma ŵakasangaso vilwero vinyake vya mu nyengo ya malibwe, ivyo vikaŵa vyaka 100,000 na 80,000 ivyo vikaŵa nga ni mivi iyo ŵanthu ŵakuponya mikondo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="Sahle">{{Cite journal|title=Assessment of complex projectiles in the early Late Pleistocene at Aduma, Ethiopia|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=5|pages=e0216716|year=2018|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0216716|pmid=31071181|pmc=6508696|vauthors=Sahle Y, Brooks AS|doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Antiquity=== {{Main|Dʿmt|Kingdom of Aksum}} [[File:Men from Punt Carrying Gifts, Tomb of Rekhmire MET 30.4.152 EGDP013029.jpg|thumb|Men from [[Land of Punt|Punt]] carrying Gifts, Tomb of [[Rekhmire]]. Punt being located in the Northern Ethiopian, Eritrean regions.]] [[File:KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg|thumb|[[Aksumite currency]] of the [[Axumite kings|Aksumite king]] called [[Endubis]], 227–35, at the [[British Museum]]. The inscriptions in [[Ancient Greek]] read "ΑΧΩΜΙΤΩ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King of Axum") and "ΕΝΔΥΒΙΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King Endubis"), the Greek language was the [[lingua franca]] by that time so its use in coins simplified foreign trade.]] {{multiple image | align left | total_width =280 | image1 = 'The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon', oil on canvas painting by Edward Poynter, 1890, Art Gallery of New South Wales.jpg| image2 = Adulis.jpg |footer = [[King Solomon]] and the [[Queen Sheba]] are central figures in Ethiopian traditional history, as the central figures of forming the [[Solomonic dynasty]] and the Imperial line of Ethiopia (left) Ancient ruins in [[Adulis]] pertaining to Ethiopian and modern-day Eritrean civilization near the [[Red Sea]] thousands of years ago }} [[File:Contenitore di simulacro con rilievo e iscrizioni, V secolo ac ca. 06.jpg|thumb|An Axumite [[Stele|stela]]]] Mu 980 B.C.E., Dʿmt yikakhazikiskika mu Eritrea na Tigray mu Ethiopia ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ndiyo yikenda m'malo mwa Punt. Msumba uwu ukaŵa ku Yeha, kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ndiwo ŵakambiska ŵanthu aŵa, nangauli kale ŵanandi ŵakatenge ŵanthu ŵa ku Saba ndiwo ŵakambiska. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti Dʿmt ntchigaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha ku Asia awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya Cushitic na Semitic. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ciyowoyero ca Ge'ez, ico cikayowoyeka kale na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Semite ku Ethiopia, cikafuma ku Cibeya. Kale mu 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakayowoyanga ChiSemiti ŵakakhalanga mu Ethiopia na Eritrea uko chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez chikakura. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Saba ŵakakhalanga mu malo ghachoko waka, ndipo ŵakamara mu vyaka 10 panji 100. Panyake yikaŵa malo gha malonda panji gha nkhondo agho ghakaŵa pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵa Dʿmt panji ŵa mu mtundu unyake. Pamanyuma pakuti ufumu wa Dʿmt wabwangandulika mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., chigaŵa cha Ethiopia chikamba kulamulirika na maufumu ghachoko. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., Ufumu wa Aksum ukaŵa mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Tigray na Eritrea. Buku linyake likuti msumba wakwamba wa ufumu uwu ukazengeka na Itiyopis, mwana wa Kush. Pamanyuma pake, ufumu wa Aksum ukafika mu Yemen, sirya linyake la Nyanja Yiswesi. Ntchimi ya ku Peresiya, Mani, yikazunura msumba wa Axum pamoza na ufumu wa Roma, Peresiya, na China, kuti ukaŵa umoza wa maufumu ghanayi ghakuru gha mu nyengo yake, mu vyaka vya m'ma 300. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti matchalitchi gha ku Eguputo na Ethiopia ghakakolerananga. Pali ukaboni unyake wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakakolerananga na Fumukazi ya ku Sheba. Pafupifupi mu 316 C.E., Frumentius na munung'una wake Edesius ŵa ku Ture ŵakaluta na asibweni ŵawo ku Ethiopia. Apo ngaraŵa yikimilira pa dowoko la ku Nyanja Yiswesi, ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakakoma wose padera pa ŵabali ŵaŵiri awo ŵakatolekera ku nyumba ya themba nga mbazga. Ŵakapika maudindo ghakuzirwa na fumu, ndipo ŵakang'anamuska ŵanthu ŵa mu nyumba yake kuŵa Ŵakhristu. Frumentius wakaŵa bishopu wakwamba wa ku Aksum. Ndalama yinyake ya mu 324 C.E. yikulongora kuti charu cha Etiyopiya ndicho chikaŵa chachiŵiri kuzomera Chikhristu (panyuma pa Armenia mu 301). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakamanyanga makora umo charu cha Greece na Roma chikachitiranga vinthu, kweni ŵakamba kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku India na Ufumu wa Roma pa msewu wa Silk Road.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Solomonic Descent in Ethiopian History|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1875/solomonic-descent-in-ethiopian-history/|access-date=20 December 2021|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref><ref name="britishmuseum.org">{{cite web |last1=The British Museum |last2=The CarAf Centre |title=The wealth of Africa – The kingdom of Aksum – Teachers' notes |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf |website=BritishMuseum.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104191259/https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2019}}</ref>[[File:South Arabian - Fragment of a Frieze with an Ibex and Oryxes - Walters 2138.jpg|thumb|A stela with an [[Nubian ibex|ibex]] and three [[Arabian oryx]], associated with [[Astar (god)|Astar]] (ዐስተር), Semetic god of the [[Venus in culture|Morning and Evening Star]], found at Axum]] ===Middle Ages=== {{Main|Ethiopia in the Middle Ages}} [[File:Kingdom of Axum blue.png|thumb|The [[Kingdom of Aksum]] at its peak in the 6th century]] [[File:Hijra Abyssinia (Rashid ad-Din).jpg|thumb|300x300px|14th century Islamic depiction of the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]:The King of Aksum declines the [[Quraysh|Qurayshi]] request to send the Muslims back to Mecca]] Ufumu uwu ukachemekanga "Ethiopia" mu nyengo ya Ezana mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E. Ufumu wa Kush ukati wapokeka mu 330, ufumu wa Aksum ukafika paheni chomene pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 600. Nyengo iyi yikadumulizgika na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakanjira mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Arabia, kusazgapo Ŵayuda ŵa Dhu Nuwas ŵa Ufumu wa Himyarite na Nkhondo za Ŵaperesiya. Mu 575, Ŵaaksumu ŵakazingilizga na kuwuskaso Sana'a pamanyuma pakuti Sayf ibn Dhī Yazan uyo wakaŵa kazembe wa msumba uwu wakomeka. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., Ŵasilamu Ŵachiarabu ŵakapoka msumba wa Adulis, ndipo chifukwa cha kunangika kwa malo, kusintha kwa nyengo, kweniso vula izo zikalokwa pakati pa 730 na 760, ufumu uwu ukamba kuchepa nkhongono. Ufumu wa Aksum ukamara mu 960 C.E. apo Fumukazi Gudit yikathereska themba laumaliro la Aksum. Mu muwuso wa Gudit, uwo ukatora vyaka 40, wakakhumbanga kumazga Chikhristu (chisopa icho Themba Ezana la ufumu wa Axumite likazomera pakwamba) mwa kotcha matchalitchi na kukhomera ŵanthu awo ŵakalutilira kugomezgeka ku Tchalitchi la Orthodox la Tewahedo, ilo pa nyengo iyo likawonekanga nga ni chisopa cha boma. Gudit wakayezga kuchichizga ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵasinthe chisopa chawo ndipo wakaparanya vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵako mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Axumite. Chifukwa chakuti Gudit wakaparanya ŵanthu ŵanandi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakachimbilira kumwera kwa charu ichi na kukhazikiska ufumu wa Zagwe. Ufumu uwu ukawusikanga na ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Agaw kwambira mu 912, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakayowoya kuti ukaŵa mu 1137 apo Mara Takla Haymanot wakathereska themba laumaliro la Ŵaaksumite, Dil Na'od, na kutora mwana wake msungwana. Ufumu wa Zagwe ndiwo ukawovwira kuti Chikhristu chiwelerepo, ndipo m'ma 1200 C.E., Chikhristu chikafika mu chigaŵa cha Shewan. Chithunzi cha Emperor Yekuno Amlak chomwe akuti chinalembedwa m'zaka za m'ma 1700 Muwuso wa Zagwe ukamara apo Yekuno Amlak, mwanalume wa ku Amhara, wakawukira Themba Yetbarak na kukhazikiska ufumu wa Ethiopia. Iyo wakazenga nyumba ya ufumu ya Solomoni iyo yikwenera kuti yikamba na Solomoni na Fumukazi ya ku Sheba. Kuyana na buku la mdauko la ku Ethiopia lakuti Kebra Nagast, ilo likang'anamulika mu Chigez mu 1321, zina lake likaŵa Bäynä Ləḥkəm (kufuma ku Chiarabic: ابن الحكيم, Ibn Al-Hakim, "Mwana wa Wavinjeru"). Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Etiyopiya wakayezga kukolerana na maufumu gha ku Europe. Kalata iyo Henry IV wa ku England wakalembera fumu ya ku Etiyopiya yilipo. Mu 1428, Yeshaq I wakatuma mathenga ghaŵiri kwa Alfonso V wa ku Aragon, uyo wakatuma mathenga ghake agho ghakatondeka kumalizga ulendo wakuwelera ku Aragon. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukolerana na Portugal mu 1508 mu nyengo ya Dawit II.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah]], p. 25.</ref> ====Abyssinian–Adal War (1529–1543)==== {{main article|Ethiopian–Adal War}} [[File:YagbeaSionBattlingAdaSultan.JPG|thumb|The Sultan of Adal (right) and his troops battling Emperor [[Yagbea-Sion]] and his men.]] Ufumu wa Etiyopiya ukayamba kuthandazgika kufuma kwa Amda Seyon I, uyo wakathereska ufumu wakwambilira wa Chisilamu mu chigaŵa ichi, Ifat Sultanate, mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 pamanyuma pa kupoka Ufumu wa Damot mu 1317, ndipo Themba Zara Yaqob ndilo likathereska Masawa na Dahlak mu 1465. Ufumu wa Adal, uwo ukakhala pamanyuma pa Ifat, ukaŵako mu 1415 ndipo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Zelia, ku Somalia. Ŵana ŵa Adal, awo ŵakakhozgekanga na Ŵaturuki ŵa ku Ottoman, ŵakayezga kuti ŵanjire mu ufumu wa Ethiopia mu 1529, ndipo ŵakamba nkhondo ya ku Ethiopia. Al-Ghazi wakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Etiyopiya mu nkhondo ya ku Amba Sel mu 1531. Cristóvão da Gama wakawovwira comene pa nkhondo iyi, wakawovwira Ŵaetiyopiya na ŵasilikari 400 ku Massawa. Ivyo wakacita vikamovwira kuti wafwe pa nkhondo ya ku Wofla mu 1542. Mu 1543, ŵasilikari ŵa Abyssinia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Fumu Gelawdewos ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Adal pa Nkhondo ya Wayna Daga. Pamanyuma, mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Etiyopiya zina lake Azmach Calite, wakachimbizga Imam uyo wakapwetekeka. Ŵasilikari ŵa Adal ŵakati ŵamanya kuti wafwa, ŵakafumapo mwaluŵiro. Mu 1559, Gelawdewos wakadumulika mutu pa Nkhondo ya Fatagar. Pakuzgora, Ras Hamalmal wa ku Abyssinia wakapoka msumba ukuru wa Harar na kukoma Sultan Barakat ibn Umar Din. Nkhondo izi zikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ŵalute ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto mu ma 1500.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aga|first=Mark T.|title=Abyssinian-Adal War — allaboutETHIO|url=https://allaboutethio.com/hwadal.html|access-date=9 January 2022|website=allaboutethio.com|language=en}}</ref> ==== Oromo migrations (16th century) ==== {{main article|Oromo migrations}} Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ŵakaluta ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Ŵakati ŵafuma ku Guji na Borena Zone, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga. Pakwamba, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakizanga mwaluŵiro kuzakapoka viŵeto vinandi na vinthu vinyake na kuwelera kukwawo. Nthowa iyi yikalutilira m'paka pa gada wa Meslé. Abba Bahrey wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuthandazgika chomene mu nyengo ya Themba Dawit II (luba Melbah), apo ŵakanjira mu msumba wa Bale pambere ŵandanjire mu Ufumu wa Adal. Themba Sarsa Dengel likayezga kuti limare nkhondo ya kumwera, kweni likatondeka.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=287}} ==== Jesuit influence (1555–1632) ==== Kufuma mu ma 1700, charu cha Ethiopia chikamba kuyowoyeskana na charu cha Portugal, chomenechomene pa nkhani za chisopa. Kwambira mu 1555, ŵa Jesuit ŵa ku Portugal ŵakayezga kuti Cikatolika ciŵe cisopa ca boma. Ŵakati ŵatondeka kanandi waka, mu 1603 ŵakatuma ŵamishonale ŵanandi, kusazgapo Pedro Paez, uyo wakaŵa Mujeremani. Paez wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi comene pa nkhani za ndyali. Ŵasambiri ŵa Yesu, kusazgapo Manoel de Almeida, Manoel Barradas, na Jerónimo Lobo, ŵakalemba nkhani zakukhwaskana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakakumananga na ŵanthu ŵakwambilira. Ndipouli, buku lawo likamanyikwa yayi m'paka mu ma 1900, apo likalembeka. Mu 1622, Fumu Susenyos I yikati yaŵa themba, yikazomerezga kuti cisopa ca Katolika ciŵe cisopa ca boma mu Ethiopia. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox ŵakagaluka cifukwa ca ivyo ŵakacita.<ref name="berndl2005">{{Cite book|last=Berndl|first=Klaus|url=https://archive.org/details/nationalgeograph0000unse_m8x7/page/333/mode/2up|title=National Geographic Visual History of the World|publisher=National Geographic Society|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7922-3695-5|pages=333|language=en}}</ref> ===Gondarine period (1632–1769)=== {{Main article|Gondarine period}} Mu 1632, Fumu Fasilides yikamazga boma la Katolika na kuwezgerapo cisopa ca Orthodox Tewahedo. Muwuso wa Fasilides ukapangiska kuti ufumu wake ukhazikike ndipo mu 1636 wakasamuskira msumba ukuru ku Gondar. Wakacimbizga ŵa Jesuiti mwa kuwombora malo agho ŵakaŵa nagho na kuŵatuma ku Fremona. Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwake, wakazenga nyumba yikuru ya ufumu, Fasil Ghebbi. Kweniso wakazenga vipata vinkhondi na viŵiri vya malibwe pa mlonga wa Blue Nile. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Agaw awo ŵakakhalanga ku Lasta ŵakalutilira kugaluka. Fasilides wakaluta ku Lasta na kuwukira msumba uwu, ndipo wakamalizga nkhondo iyi, nga umo wakalongosolera James Bruce wa ku Scotland. Pakati pa 1642 na 1647, Fasilides wakayezga kukolerana na Imam Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il wa ku Yemen kuti ŵadumbiskane za nthowa yakwendamo malonda mu tawuni ya Massawa iyo yikaŵa mu mawoko gha Ŵaotomu. Nkhongono na lumbiri lwa Gondar vikamara mu 1706 apo Iyasu I wakafwa cifukwa mafumu ghanandi ghakatemwanga umoyo wa usambazi kuluska vya ndyali. Iyasu II wakati wafwa mu 1755, Mfumukazi Mentewab wakiza na munung'una wake Ras Wolde Leul ku Gondar ndipo wakamuzgora Ras Bitwaded. Mu 1767, Ras Mikael Sehul, uyo wakaŵa muwusi wa chigaŵa cha Tigray, wakapoka charu cha Gondar na kukoma Iyoas I mu 1769, uyo wakaŵa themba pa nyengo iyo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gondar Period |url=https://ethiopianhistory.com/Gondar_Period/ |access-date=2022-06-05 |website=ethiopianhistory.com}}</ref> ===Zemene Mesafint (1769–1889)=== {{Main|Zemene Mesafint}} Pakati pa 1769 na 1855, charu cha Etiyopiya chikaŵa mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga ŵekha. Mafumu agha ghakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene, ndipo ŵakalongozgekanga na mafumu na ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa nga ni Ras Mikael Sehul, Ras Wolde Selassie wa ku Tigray, kweniso ŵa fuko la Yejju Oromo la Wara Sheh, nga ni Ras Gugsa wa ku Yejju. Pambere Zemene Mesafint wandambe kuwusa, Themba Iyoas I likamba kuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Oromo (Afaan Oromo). Charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa kutali chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, kweni mu 1855 maufumu gha Amhara gha kumpoto kwa Ethiopia (Gondar, Gojjam, na Shewa) ghakakolerana. Tewodros II wakambiska ndondomeko ya kukolerana, kuŵika vinthu pakatikati, na kuzenga boma. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵamazaza ŵa vigaŵa ivi ŵaleke kuŵa na mazaza, ŵambeso kwendeska vinthu mu ufumu wawo, kweniso kuti paŵe ŵasilikari. Ivi vikapangiska kuti boma la Ethiopia liŵe na mazaza pa charu chose. Kweni Tewodros wakasuzgika na viwawa vinandi mu ufumu wake. Ŵasilikari ŵa kumpoto kwa charu cha Oromo, ŵakugaluka ŵa mtundu wa Tigrayan, na ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Ottoman na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Eguputo awo ŵakizanga pafupi na Nyanja Yiswesi, ŵakapangiska kuti Tewodros II waleke nkhongono. Wakajikoma mu 1868 apo wakarwa nkhondo yaumaliro na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ku Abyssinia pa Nkhondo ya Magdala. Tewodros wakati wafwa, Tekle Giyorgis II wakapharazgika kuŵa themba kweni wakatimbika ku Zulawu (21 June 1871) na Adwa (11 July 1871). Mercha Kassai uyo wakathereska ŵasilikari ŵakamuphalira kuti ni Yohannes IV pa Janyuwale 21, 1872. Mu 1875 na 1876, ŵasilikari ŵa Ottoman/Egypt, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe na America, ŵakanjira mu Abyssinia kaŵiri kose kweni pakwamba ŵakathereskeka. Pa ungano wa ku Boru Meda mu 1878, Yohannes wakapeleka dango lakuti Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakwenera kuzomera Cikristu panji ŵakanizgikenge. Awo ŵakakana ŵakakomekanga nyengo yeneyiyo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka ndipo ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵakaleka minda na katundu wawo na kuchimbilira ku Harar, Bale, Arsi, Jimma, na ku Sudan wuwo. Kufuma mu 1885 m'paka 1889, Ethiopia wakajibatika ku Nkhondo ya Mahdist iyo yikaŵa na Britain, Turkey, na Egypt kwimikana na boma la Sudan. Mu 1887, Menelik II, fumu ya Shewa, yikawukira Harar pamanyuma pa kutonda nkhondo ya Chelenqo. Pa Malichi 10, 1889, Yohannes IV wakakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Khalifa Abdullah wa ku Sudan apo wakalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵake pa Nkhondo ya Gallabat.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of African historical biography|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofafri0000mark|last=Lipschutz|first= Mark|date=1986|publisher=University of California Press|others=Rasmussen, R. Kent|isbn=978-0-520-06611-3|edition=2nd ed., expanded and updated|location=Berkeley|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofafri0000mark/page/1 1]|oclc=14069361}}</ref>[[File:Téwodros_II_-_2.jpg|thumb|upright|Emperor [[Tewodros II]] ({{reign|1855|1868}}) brought an end of ''Zemene Mesafint'']] ===From Menelik II to Adwa (1889–1913)=== {{main article|First Italo-Ethiopian War|Menelik's Expansions}} [[File:Menelik campaign map 1 3.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|The conquests of Emperor [[Yohannes IV]], ''[[Negus]]'' [[Menelik II|Menelik]] and general [[Ras Alula]] in 1879–1889]] Charu cha Etiyopiya chikamba kuwusa mu nyengo ya Menelik II, uyo wakaŵa themba kufuma mu 1889 m'paka apo wakafwira mu 1913. Kufuma ku malo ghake mu chigaŵa cha Shewa, Menelik wakamba kupoka vigaŵa vya kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi, na kumanjiliro gha dazi uko kukakhalanga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Welayta, na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Wakacita nthena na wovwiri wa gulu la Shewan Oromo la Ras Gobana Dacche, ilo likapoka malo agho ghakaŵavya kufuma pa nkhondo ya Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, kweniso malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵavya muwuso wa Ethiopia. Pa nyengo iyo ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo, ŵakawukira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakakomeka. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Dizi na ŵa mu Ufumu wa Kaffa ŵakaŵachitira nkhaza zinandi. Menelik wakathereska ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo awo ŵakakhalanga kuwaro kwa ŵasilikari ŵake chifukwa cha kugaluka kwa mtundu uwu kwa vyaka vinandi. Mu muwuso uwu mukaŵa muwuso wa fuko la Yejju, uwo ukaŵa na Aligaz wa ku Yejju na mukuru wake Ali I wa ku Yejju. Ŵakazenga tawuni ya Debre Tabor mu chigaŵa cha Amhara, iyo yikazgoka msumba ukuru wa ufumu uwu. Menelik II wakaŵa mwana wa Haile Melekot, Negus wa ku Shewa, na Ejegayehu Lema Adeyamo, muteŵeti wa nyumba yacifumu. Wakababikira ku Angolala mu chigaŵa cha Oromo ndipo wakakhala vyaka 12 na Shewan Oromos. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Menelik, mulimo wa kuzenga misewu, magesi, na masambiro ukalutilira kukura, ndipo boma likambiska msonkho. Msumba wa Finfinne ukazengekaso ndipo ukachemeka Addis Ababa; mu 1889-1891 ukazgoka msumba ukuru wa Ufumu wa Ethiopia.[[File:Menelik II in coronation garb, Emperor of Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|Menelik II in Coronation Garms and Tunic after the battle of Adwa]] Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamususkanga, kweni Menelik II wakaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose. Mu Meyi 1889, wakalembeska phangano la wuchale na Italy. Phangano ili likayowoya kuti charu cha Italy chizomerezge kuti Ethiopia ndiyo yili na mazaza pa charu chose. Pakuwezgera, caru ca Italy cikeneranga kumupa vilwero Menelik na kumovwira pakuŵa fumu. Ŵaitaliya ŵakagwiliskira nchito nyengo iyo yikajumphapo kufuma apo phangano ili likalembekera m'paka apo boma la Italy likakolerana nalo. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikamara pa Nkhondo ya ku Adwa pa 1 Malichi 1896, apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakathereskeka na Ŵaetiyopiya. Mu 1896, pakalembeka phangano la Addis Ababa, ilo likasintha phangano la Wuchale. Ŵanthu pafupifupi hafu ŵakafwa na njara yikuru ya ku Ethiopia (1888-1892).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090211211756/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,966291-3,00.html "Famine Hunger stalks Ethiopia once again – and aid groups fear the worst"]. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. 21 December 1987.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/jhmas/XXI.2.95| title = The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888–1892: A New Assessment| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-medicine-and-allied-sciences_1966-04_21_2/page/95| journal = Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences| issue = 2| pages = 95–124| year = 1966| last1 = Pankhurst | first1 = R. | volume = 21| pmid = 5326887}}</ref> ===Haile Selassie I era (1916–1974)=== {{Main|Haile Selassie|Modernization under Haile Selassie}} [[File:Addis Ababa-8e00855u.jpg|thumb|Emperor [[Haile Selassie|Haile Selassie I]] at his study in [[National Palace, Addis Ababa|Jubilee Palace]] (1942)]] Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Themba Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari) ndilo likawusa. Haile Selassie I wakababika na ŵapapi awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vitatu vya ku Ethiopia. Wakafika pa mazaza pamanyuma pakuti Lij Iyasu wakathereskeka, ndipo wakambiska kampeni ya kusinthiska vinthu mu charu chose kufuma mu 1916 apo wakapika udindo wa Ras and Regent (Inderase) kwa Empress Regnant Zewditu, ndipo wakazgoka muwusi wa Ufumu wa Ethiopia. Zewditu wakati wafwa, pa Novembala 2, 1930, iyo wakaŵa themba. Mu 1931, Haile Selassie wakapeleka dango lakwamba ku Ethiopia ilo likayananga na dango la ku Japan ilo likaŵako mu 1890.<ref>Asnake Kefale, [[Tomasz Kamusella]] and Christopher Van der Beken. 2021. ''Eurasian Empires as Blueprints for Ethiopia: From Ethnolinguistic Nation-State to Multiethnic Federation''. London: Routledge, pp 23–34.</ref> ====Fascist Italy occupation (1936–1941)==== {{main article|Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Italian Ethiopia|Italian East Africa|Arbegnoch|Black Lions}} [[File:Abyssinian-soldiers-1936-142348340618.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian cavalry during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] in 1936]] Nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikananga wanangwa wa Ethiopia. Nkhondo iyi yikamba apo caru ca Italy cikapokelereka na ŵasilikari ŵa Fascist mu Okutobala 1935, ndipo pamanyuma pake caru ca Italy cikamba kuwusa caru ici (1936-1941), pamanyuma pakuti Italy yikatonda nkhondo iyi. Pa nyengo iyi, Haile Selassie wakaluta ku caru cinyake ndipo wakapempha wupu wa League of Nations mu 1935, ndipo wakayowoya nkhani iyo yikapangiska kuti waŵe wakumanyikwa pa caru cose. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni gha ku mizi, Italy wakakumananga na ŵanthu ŵakususka na kuŵawukira mu misumba. Haile Selassie wakacimbilira ku Fairfield House, ku Bath, England. Mussolini wakamanya kuphalira ufumu wa Italy kuti ni Etiyopiya, ndipo Themba la Italy, Vittorio Emanuele III, likamba kulamulira ufumu uwu. Mu 1937, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakakomeka ku Yekatit 12, ndipo pakati pa ŵanthu 1,400 na 30,000 ŵakakomeka. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakomeka cifukwa cakuti ŵakayezga kukoma Rodolfo Graziani, muwusi wa ku Italy ku East Africa. Ŵataliyana ŵakagwiliskira nchito vilwero vyakofya vya makemikali pakunjira mu Ethiopia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakaponya mabomba mu caru cose ca Ethiopia agho ghakaŵanga na mphepo yakucemeka mustard gas, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵaleke nkhongono. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakaponya pasi matani pafupifupi 300 gha gasi kweniso futi zinandi. Kugwiliskira nchito vilwero ivi kukaŵa kwananga kukuru comene. Ŵa Italiya ŵakaŵika ndalama zinandi pa vinthu vya ku Ethiopia apo ŵakalamuliranga charu ichi. Ŵakapanga msewu wakucemeka "msewu wa ufumu" pakati pa Addis Ababa na Massaua. Ŵakazengaso misewu ya njanji ya mtunda wa makilomita ghakujumpha 900, ŵakazenga madamu na magesi, kweniso ŵakazenga makampani ghanandi gha boma na ghapadera. Boma la Italy likawuskapo wuzga, uwo ukaŵako kwa vyaka vinandi. Pamanyuma pakuti Italy wanjira mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Britain pamoza na Arbegnoch ŵakathaska Ethiopia mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku East Africa mu 1941. Nkhondo ya ŵasilikari ŵa Italy yikalutilira mpaka mu 1943. Charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Ivi vikalondezgana na kuzomerezgeka kwa ufumu wa Britain kuti charu cha Ethiopia chiŵe na mazaza ghose, kwambura wanangwa wa Britain, apo phangano la Anglo-Ethiopia likasazgikira mu Disembala 1944, nangauli vigaŵa vinyake vikalutilira kulamulirika na Britain kwa vyaka vinandi. Kuyana na phangano la mtende ilo likaŵako mu 1947, Italy yikazomera mazaza gha Ethiopia. Pa Ogasiti 26, 1942, Haile Selassie wakafumiska dango ilo likawuskapo ŵazga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, mu Ethiopia mukaŵa ŵazga pakati pa 2 na 4 miliyoni.{{sfn|Campbell|Miers|Miller|2007|p=219}} ====Post-World War II (1941–1974)==== {{main article|1960 Ethiopian coup d'état attempt|Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea|Eritrean War of Independence}} Mu 1952, Haile Selassie wakapangiska kuti charu cha Eritrea chiŵe pamoza. Mu 1962, wakawuskapo boma ili na kunjizga charu cha Eritrea. {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 280 | image1 = General-Mengistu-Neway-1919-1961.jpg | image2 = Germame Neway.jpg | footer = General [[Mengistu Neway|Mengistu]] (left) and [[Germame Neway]] (right) were the two perpetrators of the failed [[1960 Ethiopian coup d'état attempt|1960 coup d'état attempt]] against Emperor Haile Selassie | footer_align = center }} Haile Selassie wakaŵa pafupi kuwuskika pa udindo mu 1960 mu chiŵembu cha gulu lakususkana ilo likalongozgekanga na ŵabali Germame na Mengistu Neway apo Selassie wakaŵa pa ulendo wa boma ku Brazil. Pa Ciŵiri mise, pa Disembala 13, gulu linyake likapusika ŵalaŵiliri ŵa Ufumu na ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa kuti ŵanjire mu Nyumba ya Ufumu. Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, nkhondo yikamba pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain (Kebur Zebegna) na ŵakugaluka awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Jenerale Tsege na Koloneli Warqenah. Apo nkhondo iyi yikambanga, Germame na ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵakakoma ŵanthu 15 awo ŵakaŵa mu nyumba ya Genetta Leul. Pa ŵanthu aŵa pakaŵa ŵalara ŵa boma nga ni Ras Abebe Aregai, Makonnen Habte-Wolde na Major General Mulugeta.<ref>Henze, ''Layers of Time'', p. 255</ref> [[File:Elizabeth II and Haile Selassie.jpg|thumb|left|London, England [[Emperor Haile Selassie I]] seated with [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1954 while on an official state visit]] Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, Mubali Tsege wakakomeka, Col. Warqenah wakajikoma, ndipo ŵabali Mengistu na Germame Neway ŵakaŵa pafupi na Mojo pa Disembala 24. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yakofya comene kwa Haile Selassie m'paka apo kukacitikira Nkhondo ya ku Ethiopia mu 1974. Mu 1963, Haile Selassie wakawovwira chomene pakukhazikiska wupu wakuchemeka Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Ŵanthu mu Ethiopia ŵakasuska Haile Selassie cifukwa ca suzgo la mafuta ilo likacitika pa caru cose mu 1973. Mtengo wapachanya wa mafuta ukapangiska kuti ŵadokotala na ŵasambizgi ŵambe kunjira mu sitiroko pa Febuluwale 18, 1974, ndipo ŵana ŵa sukulu na ŵantchito mu Addis Ababa ŵakamba kulongora kuti ŵakususka boma pa Febuluwale 20, 1974. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe njara ya vyakurya, kusuzgika pa nkhani ya muwuso, nkhondo za pa mphaka, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakondwa yayi na vinthu ivyo vikachitika. Boma la Aklilu Habte-Wold likathereskeka, ndipo boma liphya likapangika ndipo Endelkachew Makonnen wakaŵa nduna yikuru.<ref>[[#Valdes Vivo|Valdes Vivo]], p. 21.</ref> ===The Derg era (1974–1991)=== {{see also|Ethiopian Revolution|Derg|People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia|Ethiopian Civil War|Eritrean War of Independence|1983–85 famine in Ethiopia}} [[File:EPRP.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party]] (EPRP) clashed with the [[Derg]] during the [[Red Terror (Ethiopia)|Red Terror]]]] Ufumu wa Haile Selassie ukamara pa Seputembala 12, 1974, apo wakathereskeka na Derg, komiti ya ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi iyo yikalongozgekanga na Aman Andom. Pamanyuma pa kukomeka kwa ŵalara ŵa boma na ŵasilikari ŵakwambilira 60 kusazgapo Aman mu Novembala 1974, wupu uphya wa Provisional Military Administrative Council uwo sono ukulongozgeka na Jenerale Tafari Benti ukalekeska muwuso wa ufumu mu Malichi 1975 ndipo ukakhazikiska Ethiopia kuŵa boma la Marxist-Leninist ilo likaŵa chipani chakulongozga mu boma la nyengo yeneyiyo. Kuwuskapo muwuso wa ŵasilikari, kusazgirako luso lwa kuŵazga na kulemba, kuzengaso charu, na kunozga malo ghanandi, kusazgapo kusamukira ku malo ghanyake na kuzgoka mizi kufuma ku vigaŵa vya mapiri vya Ethiopia, ndivyo vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa chomene. Pamanyuma pa kulimbana kwa mukati uko kukapangiska kuti Tafari Benti uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakamukhozganga ŵakomeke mu Febuluwale 1977, kweniso Atnafu Abate uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri wa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi mu Novembala 1977, Mengistu Halie Mariam ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi. Pa nyengo iyi, boma la Derg likawuskapo ŵanthu ŵanandi, kukaŵa chilangalanga, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachimbira kwawo. Mu 1977, Somalia, iyo pakwamba yikapokeranga wovwiri na vilwero kufuma ku USSR, yikawukira Ethiopia mu Nkhondo ya Ogaden, na kupoka cigaŵa ca Ogaden. Ethiopia wakaweleramo mu caru ici pamanyuma pakuti wambira kupokera wovwiri ukuru wa ŵasilikari kufuma ku vyaru vya Soviet Union, Cuba, South Yemen, East Germany, na North Korea. Pa ŵasilikari aŵa pakaŵa ŵasilikari 15,000 ŵa ku Cuba.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mengistu Regime and Its Impact|url=https://memory.loc.gov/frd/etsave/et_01_08.html|website=Library of Congress}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Oberdorfer|first=Don|date=March 1978|title=The Superpowers and the Ogaden War|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/03/05/the-superpowers-and-the-ogaden-war/00f60ef2-01b4-4cd3-8c5f-e545df388def/}}</ref>[[File:Derg.gif|thumb|left|Mulongozgi wa Ethiopia Mengistu Haile Mariam (kumazere) pamoza na ŵa Derg ŵanyake Tafari Benti (pakati) na Atnafu Abate (kumalyero). Mengistu wakakomeka ku Ethiopia cifukwa ca milandu iyo wakacita mu nyengo ya boma lake, iyo yikakoma ŵanthu 500,000; wakakhala mu caru ca Zimbabwe mu 2018.<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|date=22 December 1999|title=US admits helping Mengistu escape|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/575405.stm|access-date=13 December 2017|website=BBC}}</ref>]] Mu 1976-78, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 500,000 ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca wofipa, kampeni ya nkhaza ya Derg kwimikana na magulu ghakupambanapambana gha ŵakususka, comenecomene Marxist-Leninist Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP). Chitenthe ciŵisi cikacitika cifukwa ca ivyo Derg wakacema kuti 'Citenthe Cituŵa,' cinthu ico cikaŵa na nkhaza zinandi, kukoma ŵanthu, na kukoma ŵanthu. Mu 1987, Derg wakajilekeska yekha na kukhazikiska People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) pamanyuma pa kukhazikiska Constitution ya 1987 ya Ethiopia yakuyana na Constitution ya 1977 ya Soviet Union na malango ghakusintha. Njara iyo yikacitika mu Ethiopia mu 1983-85 yikasuzga ŵanthu pafupifupi 8 miliyoni, ndipo ŵanthu 1 miliyoni ŵakafwa. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kugalukira boma, chomenechomene kumpoto kwa Eritrea na Tigray. Gulu la Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) likasazgikana na magulu ghanyake ghakwimikana na boma mu 1989, ndipo likapangiska gulu lakuchemeka Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, mu nyengo ya Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet Union yikamba kuwelera nyuma kufuma ku kuzenga cikomyunizimu ca pa caru cose kuya ku visambizgo vya glasnost na perestroika, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti wovwiri wa vyaru vya Socialist Bloc ku Ethiopia ukhale ucoko comene. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe masuzgo ghanyake gha vya cuma ndiposo kuti ŵasilikari ŵathere cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku mpoto ŵakamba kuwukira. Kuwa kwa Marxism-Leninism mu vyaru vinyake, ndiposo ku Eastern Europe mu nyengo ya kusintha kwa vinthu mu 1989, kukakolerana na umo Soviet Union yikamazgira wovwiri ku Ethiopia mu 1990. Kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵamuteŵetere, Mengistu wakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu caru na kumazga muwuso wa chipani cimoza. Kweni pakaŵa kuti pajumpha nyengo kuti boma lake lipone. Mu Meyi 1991, ŵasilikari ŵa EPRDF ŵakaluta ku Addis Ababa, ndipo Soviet Union yikatondeka kuponoska boma. Mengistu wakacimbira mu caru ici ndipo wakapika wanangwa wa kuwelera ku Zimbabwe, uko wachali kukhala. Mu 2006, Khoti Likuru la ku Addis Ababa, ku Ethiopia, likati lazenga mulandu uwu vyaka 12, likasanga Mengistu na mulandu wa kukoma ŵanthu. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa boma lake nawo ŵakasangika na mulandu wa nkhondo. Mengistu na ŵanji awo ŵakacimbira mu caru ŵakeruzgika na kweruzgika kwambura kuŵapo. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵanandi ŵa boma ŵakapika cilango ca nyifwa, ndipo ŵanji ŵanandi ŵakakhala mu jere vilimika 20 pambere ŵandagowokereke cilango ca umoyo wawo wose.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 2006|title=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor 2005|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61569.htm|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2006|title=Mengistu Haile Mariam|url=https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/mengistu-haile-mariam/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022232516/https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/mengistu-haile-mariam/|archive-date=22 October 2018|access-date=22 October 2018|website=Trial International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=January 2018|title=Eshetu Alemu|url=https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/eshetu-alemu/|website=Trial International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Alemu Aneme|first=Girmachew|date=2001|title=Apology and trials: The case of the Red Terror trials in Ethiopia|url=http://www.ahrlj.up.ac.za/aneme-g-a|website=African Human Rights Law Journal}}</ref> ===<span id="AnchorFederal">Federal Democratic Republic (1991–present)</span>=== {{main article|Ethiopia under federal republic}} {{See also|Eritrean independence referendum, 1993}} Mu Julayi 1991, EPRDF yikacemera ungano wa vyaru vyose kuti uŵike boma lakwendera lumoza la Ethiopia ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu 87. Mu Juni 1992, gulu la Oromo Liberation Front likafumamo mu boma; mu Malichi 1993, ŵanthu ŵa Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition nawo ŵakafumamo mu boma. Mu Epulero 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Ethiopia. Mu 1994, ŵakalemba dango liphya ilo likapangiska kuti paŵe nyumba za malango ziŵiri na makhoti.<ref name="Constitution2">{{cite web|title=Article 5|url=http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/et/et007en.pdf|access-date=2 July 2015|work=Ethiopian Constitution|publisher=WIPO}}</ref>[[File:Meles Zenawi - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|Former Prime Minister [[Meles Zenawi]] at the 2012 [[World Economic Forum]] annual meeting]] Chisankho chakwamba cha vyaru vinandi chikachitika mu Meyi 1995, ndipo chipani cha EPRDF ndicho chikapambana. Mulongozgi wa boma la nyengo yachilendo, Meles Zenawi, ndiyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru yakwamba ya boma la Ethiopia, ndipo Negasso Gidada ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa boma ili. Mu Dango la ku Ethiopia ilo likapelekeka mu 1995, EPRDF yikapokelera waka yayi layizgo la Soviet la Derg lakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakujumpha 80 ŵa mu charu ichi ŵaŵe na wanangwa wa kusama. Mu nthowa iyi, mtundu wa Ethiopia ukaŵa na boma ilo likaŵa na vigaŵa vya ŵanthu. Mu Meyi 1998, pa mphindano iyo yikaŵa pakati pa Eritrea na Ethiopia, pakawuka Nkhondo ya ku Eritrea na Ethiopia. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu Juni 2000. Ici cikakhwaska comene cuma ca Ethiopia, kweni cikakhozga muwuso wa boma. Chisankho chachitatu cha chipani cha Ethiopia pa 15 Meyi 2005 chikaŵa chakususkana chomene, ndipo magulu ghanandi ghakwimikana nagho ghakati pakaŵa upusikizgi. Nangauli wupu wa Carter Center ukazomerezga ivyo vikachitika pambere maungano ghandambe, kweni ukakondwa yayi na ivyo vikachitika pamanyuma pa maungano. Awo ŵakulaŵilira ivyo vikuchitika pa mavoti mu vyaru vya Europe ŵakayowoya kuti boma likovwira pa kampeni ya EPRDF, kweniso kuti pakaŵa vinthu vinyake ivyo vikachitika mwambura kwenelera pakuŵerenga mavoti na kufumiska mavoti. Maphwando a chipani chakususkana nagho ghakasanga vithuzithuzi vyakujumpha 200 mu Nyumba ya Malamulo, pakuyaniska na vithuzithuzi 12 pera mu 2000 apo pakaŵa mavoti. Nangauli ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa chipani cha CUD ŵakakana kukhala mu nyumba ya malango, kweni ŵakakakika cifukwa ca kususka vivulupi ivyo vikacitika. Wupu wa Amnesty International ukaŵawona kuti ni "ŵakayidi ŵa njuŵi" ndipo pamasinda ŵakaŵafumiska. Wupu wakukolerana wa vyaru vyakususka boma na ŵanthu ŵanyake ukapangika mu 2009 kuti ufumiske boma la EPRDF mu mavoti gha 2010. Chipani cha Meles, icho chili na mazaza kwambira mu 1991, chikapharazga manifesto yake ya mapeji 65 mu Addis Ababa pa 10 Okutobala 2009. Chipani chakususka chikapokera mavoti ghanandi mu Addis Ababa, kweni EPRDF yikayimiska kupenda mavoti kwa mazuŵa ghanandi. Pamanyuma pake, likapoka mazaza pa maungano agha, uku likuyuzgika na milandu ya upusikizgi. Mu 2011, mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa mukaŵa chilangalanga chikuru chomene mu vyaka 60. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora yayi chifukwa cha chilangalanga m'paka mu 2012, ndipo boma la Japan likagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na umoyo uwemi.<ref name="Twdisyihoa">{{cite web|title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership |access-date=2 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011}}</ref>[[File:Deputy Secretary of Defense Ashton B. Carter, left, is greeted by Ethiopian Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn at his office in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on July 24, 2013 130724-M-EV637-339.jpg|thumb|Former Prime Minister of Ethiopia [[Hailemariam Desalegn]] meeting with former US Deputy Secretary of Defense [[Ash Carter]] in Addis Ababa.]] Meles wakafwa pa 20 August 2012 ku Brussels, uko wakalerekanga nthenda yambura kumanyikwa. Mubali Hailemariam Desalegn, uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa nduna yikuru, wakasankhika kuŵa nduna yikuru m'paka pa chisankho cha mu 2015, ndipo wakalutilira kuŵa nduna yikuru. Pa Ogasiti 5, 2016, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kususka ivyo boma likachita. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaleke kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kufwatura ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali, kugaŵira makora usambazi uwo ukasangika chifukwa cha kukura kwa chuma kwa vyaka 10, kweniso kuti chigaŵa cha Wolqayt chiwelere ku chigaŵa cha Amhara. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyakofya chomene pa ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga mu vigaŵa vya ku Africa kufuma apo boma la Ethiopia likakoma ŵanthu 75 pa nyengo ya viphikiro mu chigaŵa cha Oromia mu Novembala na Disembala 2015. Pa 6 Okutobala, 2016, boma la Ethiopia likapharazga kuti kuli suzgo. Mu Ogasiti 2017, boma likawuskapo dango la vyakofya. Pa 16 February, 2018, boma la Ethiopia likapharazga nyengo ya suzgo ya myezi sikisi pa charu chose pamanyuma pa kufumiska nduna yikuru Hailemariam Desalegn. Hailemariam ni fumu yakwamba mu mbiri ya Ethiopia ya mazuŵa ghano kufumapo; ŵalongozgi ŵakwambilira ŵali kufwa panji kuwuskika. Iyo wakati wakukhumba kuti vinthu visinthe. ===Abiy Ahmed and the Prosperity Party (2018–present)=== {{Anchor|Government reforms (2018–present)}} {{see also|Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present){{!}}Ethiopian civil conflict|Tigray War}} [[File:Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo 2019.jpg|thumb|Prime Minister [[Abiy Ahmed]] receiving the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in Oslo in 2019]] Nduna yikuru yiphya yikaŵa Abiy Ahmed, uyo wakaluta ku Eritrea mu 2018, ndipo wakamalizga nkhondo pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi. Chifukwa cha kuyezgayezga kwake kumazga nkhondo ya vyaka 20 pakati pa Ethiopia na Eritrea, Abiy Ahmed wakapokera chawanangwa cha Nobel cha mtende mu 2019. Pamanyuma pa kuwusa mu Epulero 2018, Abiy, wa vyaka 46, wakafwatura ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali, wakalayizga kuti mu 2019 paŵenge mavoti ghakwenelera ndipo wakapharazga vyakusintha pa vyachuma. Pa 6 June 2019, mawebusayiti ghose agho ghakaŵa kuti ghakaŵa pasi pa censure ghakazgoreka, ndipo ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali ŵakujumpha 13,000 ŵakafwatulika.<ref>{{cite news |title=Abiy's Ethiopia pardons 13,000 accused of treason or terrorism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-politics-idUSKCN1PG1IZ |work=Reuters |date=22 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ooni.torproject.org/post/ethiopia-unblocking/|title=OONI – Ethiopia: Verifying the unblocking of websites|website=ooni.torproject.org|date=29 June 2018|access-date=14 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://newbusinessethiopia.com/ethiopia-prison-administration-fires-103-individuals/|title=Ethiopia prison administration fires 103 individuals – New Business Ethiopia|language=en-US|access-date=14 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113175528/https://newbusinessethiopia.com/ethiopia-prison-administration-fires-103-individuals/|archive-date=13 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cyberethiopia.com/2013/?p=2012|title=Reflections on the Rule of Law and Ethiopia's Transition to Democratic Rule (Part I)|date=12 January 2019|website=Cyber Ethiopia|language=en-US|access-date=14 January 2019}}</ref> Nkhondo ya mitundu yikasazgikira cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali. Pakaŵa nkhondo pakati pa mtundu wa Oromo, uwo ni fuko likuru chomene mu charu ichi, na fuko la Somalia. Kuyambira mu 2019, mu nkhondo ya Metekel, nkhondo mu chigawo cha Metekel cha chigawo cha Benishangul-Gumuz ku Ethiopia zikunenedwa kuti zikuphatikizapo zigawenga kuchokera ku anthu a Gumuz motsutsana ndi Amhara ndi Agaws. Mu Malichi 2020, mulongozgi wa gulu la Amhara lakuchemeka Fano, Solomon Atanaw, wakayowoya kuti ŵafumengepo yayi vilwero m'paka apo chigaŵa cha Metekel na vigaŵa vya Welkait na Raya mu chigaŵa cha Tigray viwelerenge ku chigaŵa cha Amhara. Mu mwezi wa Seputembala 2018, ŵanthu 23 ŵakakomeka pa nkhaza za ŵanthu ŵachoko waka mu chigaŵa cha Oromia kufupi na Addis Ababa, msumba ukuru wa Ethiopia. Ŵanthu 35 ŵakakomeka pamanyuma mu Addis Ababa na mu chigaŵa chakuzingilizga cha Oromia pa nyengo ya viwawa ivyo ŵanandi ŵakawonanga kuti boma likuchitapo kanthu yayi pa nkhaza izi. Ŵanyake ŵakakomeka na ŵapolisi..<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/24/world/africa/ethiopia-ethnic-violence-arrests.html|title=Thousands Are Arrested in Ethiopia After Ethnic Violence|newspaper=The New York Times|date=24 September 2018|access-date=27 April 2019|last1=Ahmed|first1=Hadra|last2=Goldstein|first2=Joseph}}</ref> [[File:Ethiopia overall conflcit map 2020s.png|left|thumb|Map illustrating the [[Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)|Ethiopian civil conflict]] as of 2022; included are [[2022 al-Shabaab invasion of Ethiopia|al-Shabaab attacks]], the [[Tigray War]] zone, and the redeployment of federal troops from the southeast to the north. ]] Pa 22 June 2019, magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵa chigaŵa ichi ŵakayezga kutimbanizga boma la chigaŵa ichi, ndipo mu nyengo iyi, pulezidenti wa chigaŵa cha Amhara, Ambachew Mekonnen, wakakomeka. Mulinda wa boma uyo wakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha ŵasilikari ŵakususka boma wakakoma Jenerale Se'are Mekonnen   Mukuru wa ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia National Defense Force    kweniso movwiri wake, Major General Gizae Aberra. Ofesi ya Prime Minister yikaphalira Brigadier General Asaminew Tsige, mulongozgi wa mawupu ghakuvikilira chigaŵa cha Amhara, kuti ndiyo wakalongozganga chiŵembu ichi, ndipo Tsige wakakomeka na ŵapolisi kufupi na Bahir Dar pa 24 June. Gulu la Fano ni gulu la ŵawukirano la Amhara mu Ethiopia, ilo likuwoneka nga ni gulu lakususka panji gulu la ŵasilikari. Mgwirizano pakati pa Fano na Qeerroo, mtundu wawo wa Oromo, ukagwira ntchito yayikulu pakubweretsa kusintha kwa ndale ndi kayendetsedwe kogwirizana ndi utsogoleri wa Abiy Ahmed. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Tigray, Fano wakawovwira ŵasilikari ŵa boma na ŵa chigaŵa kukarwa na ŵakugaluka awo ŵakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Tigray People's Liberation Front panji TPLF. Mabungwe a Fano akuimbidwa mlandu wogwira nawo ntchito yakupha anthu, kuphatikiza 58 ya anthu a Qemant ku Metemma pa 10-11 Januware 2019, komanso zochita zankhondo ku Humera mu Novembala 2020.<ref>{{cite news | last1= Akinwotu | first1= Emmanuel | title= 'I saw people dying on the road': Tigray's traumatised war refugees | date= 2 December 2020 |newspaper= [[The Guardian]] | url= https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/02/tigray-war-refugees-ethiopia-sudan |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20201202185821/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/02/tigray-war-refugees-ethiopia-sudan |archive-date= 2 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Ethiopian Civil War (2020-present).svg|thumb|Territorial control as of March 2023:<br />{{resize|85%|(For a more detailed, up-to-date, interactive map, see [[Template:Ethiopian wars and insurgencies detailed map|here]])}}.<br /> '''Pro-federal government troops'''{{leftlegend|#fcadad|[[Government of Ethiopia|Ethiopian federal government]] and regional allies}} '''Anti-federal government rebels''' {{leftlegend|#ffff44|[[Oromo Liberation Army]]}}]] Chiwonetsero cha chionetsero chinabuka ku Ethiopia pambuyo pa kuphedwa kwa woimba wa Oromo Hachalu Hundessa pa 29 June 2020, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti anthu osachepera 239 aphedwe. Boma la feduro, pasi pa chipani cha Prosperity Party, likapempha kuti National Election Board ya Ethiopia yisinthe mavoti gha 2020 chifukwa cha umoyo na chivikiliro chifukwa cha COVID-19. Pa nyengo iyi pakaŵavya deti ilo likayowoyekerathu kuti mavoti ghaŵengepo, kweni boma likati para katemera wa COVID-19 wafika, mavoti ghaŵengepo. Chipani cha Tigrayan, cha TPLF, chikakanira kuti mavoti ghalekeske ndipo, apo pempho lawo ku boma la federal kuti mavoti ghachitike likakanika, TPLF yikalutizga mavoti pa 9 September 2020. Ŵakacitanga vinthu pamoza na magulu ghakwimikana na boma mu vigaŵa vyawo ndipo ŵakaŵapo na ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2.7 miliyoni ŵakavota. Ubwezi pakati pa boma la federal na boma la chigaŵa cha Tigray ukasuzga chomene pamanyuma pa chisankho, ndipo pa 4 November 2020, Abiy wakayamba nkhondo ya nkhondo mu chigaŵa cha Tigray pakuzgora ku vilwero vya ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhalanga mwenemumo, ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachimbire ku Sudan na kwamba nkhondo ya Tigray. Pa Novembala 9, 2020, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 600 ŵakakomeka mu tawuni ya Mai Kadra. Mu Epulero 2021, Eritrea yikati ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakurwa nkhondo mu Ethiopia. Kufika mu Malichi 2022, ŵanthu 500,000 ŵakafwa chifukwa cha vivulupi na njara mu Nkhondo ya Tigray, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakuti chiŵelengero ichi chikukwana 700,000-800,000 paumaliro wa 2022. Pamanyuma pa kufumiska malango ghanandi gha mtende na kuwoneseska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora, Ethiopia na ŵasilikari ŵa Tigrayan ŵakazomerezga kuti nkhondo yimare pa Novembala 2, 2022; kweni pakuti Eritrea yikaŵa chigaŵa cha phangano ili yayi, malo ghawo ghakaŵa ghambura kupulikikwa.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Winning |first1=Alexander |last2=Cocks |first2=Tim |date=2022-11-02 |title=Parties in Ethiopia conflict agree to cease hostilities |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/african-union-parties-ethiopia-conflict-have-agreed-cease-hostilities-2022-11-02/ |access-date=}}</ref> ==Boma na ndale== {{Main|Politics of Ethiopia|Law of Ethiopia|Judiciary of Ethiopia}}<!-- Please add new information to relevant articles of the series, not here --> {{see also|Rulers and Heads of State of Ethiopia}} [[File:Ethiopian Parliament.jpg|thumb|[[House of People's Representatives]] is the lower house of the Ethiopian [[Federal Parliamentary Assembly]]]] Charu cha Ethiopia chili na boma laparamende, ndipo nduna yikuru ndiyo ni mutu wa boma. Boma ndilo lili na mazaza ghakulongozga ndipo boma na nyumba ziŵiri za boma ndizo zili na mazaza ghakulongozga. Nyumba ya Federation ni nyumba yakudumura ya wupu wakulongozga wa vyalo viŵiri na vithuzithuzi 108, ndipo nyumba yakudumura ni Nyumba ya Wimiliri ya Ŵanthu (HoPR) na vithuzi 547. Nyumba ya Federation yikusankhika na maboma gha vigaŵa, apo ŵimiliri ŵa HoPR ŵakusankhika mwakudunjika. Makhoti gha ku Ethiopia ghali na makhoti ghaŵiri: makhoti gha boma na gha boma. Dango la FDRE likapeleka mazaza ku Khoti Likuru Chomene ilo likwenera kuwuskapo na kuwona ivyo makhoti ghanyake gha boma ghachita. Kweniso, Khoti Likuru Chomene lingeruzga milandu mu vigaŵa vinkhondi mu vigaŵa vyose vya boma panji "mu vigaŵa ivyo vili pasi pake" usange likuwona kuti "ntchakukhumbikwa kuti urunji ufiskike makora".<ref>{{Cite book |title=See Federal High Court Establishment Proclamation No.322/2003. Federal High Courts have been placed in the following states: Afar, Benshngul/Gumuz, Gambela, Somali, and SNNPR.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Federal Courts Proclamation 25/1996,as amended by Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 138/1998, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 254/2001, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 321/2003, and Federal Courts Proclamation (Reamendment) Proclamation 454/2005 (Federal Courts Proclamation), Article 24(3).}}</ref> Phangano la Wupu Wakulongozga likapeleka fundo zitatu: malango, vyaru na malo agho khoti likweruzgirenge. Kuyana na ndime 78 mu Dango la 1994, wupu wa vyeruzgo ngwakujiyimira wekha pa nkhani ya malango. Kuti ivi vicitike, ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakwimika mulaŵiliri wa khoti lakulongozga. Para munthu wasankhika, wupu wakulongozga ulije mazaza ghakuwuskirapo. Ŵeruzgi ŵanyake ŵakusoleka na Federal Judicial Administration Council (FJAC) mwakuyana na fundo zakupulikikwa makora ndiposo ulongozgi wa nduna yikuru. Mu vigaŵa vyose, ŵeruzgi ŵangafumiskika yayi pa udindo wawo pekha usange ŵafumapo, ŵaswa malango gha ndyali, ŵakukolerana yayi, panji ŵakutondeka kuchita makora milimo yawo chifukwa cha ulwari. Ŵalara ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakuzomerezga kuti ŵeruzgi ŵa boma ŵafumiskike mu maofesi ghawo. Mu 2015, lipoti la Freedom House likati fundo iyi njautesi. Mwakuyana na Democracy Index iyo yikalembeka na Economist Intelligence Unit ku United Kingdom kuumaliro wa 2010, Ethiopia ni "maufumu ghakutemwera ŵanthu", ndipo ni charu cha 118 pa vyaru 167. Charu cha Ethiopia chikakhira pa malo 13 kufuma mu 2008, ndipo lipoti la mu 2010 likati boma likakanizga ŵanthu awo ŵakususka boma, ŵapharazgi, na wupu wa ŵanthu wose pambere ŵandalute ku mavoti mu 2010.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180606141853/http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf The Economist Intelligence Unit's Index of Democracy 2010]. (PDF). p.17. Retrieved on 3 March 2012.</ref> ===Kwendeska boma=== {{Main|Government of Ethiopia}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = Abiy Ahmed with LI Yong 2018 (cropped).jpeg | width1 = 125 | caption1 = [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] [[Abiy Ahmed]] | image2 = Sahle-Work Zewde in 2016.jpg | width2 = 125 | caption2 = [[President of Ethiopia|President]] [[Sahle-Work Zewde]] }} Mu nyengo ya boma la ku Ethiopia, ndyali za mu charu ichi zikasintha chomene. Mazuŵa ghano, chuma chake chikwendera fundo zakupambanapambana. Mu Juni 1994, pakaŵa maungano ghakwamba gha vyaru 547. Ungano uwu ukazomera dango la fuko la Ethiopia mu Disembala 1994. Mu Meyi na Juni 1995, ku Ethiopia kukachitika maungano gha boma na gha chigaŵa. Maphwando ambiri a chipani chotsutsa anasankha kulekerera chisankhochi. Chipani cha Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) chikatonda chomene. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru na ŵaboma ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵa chipani cha visopa vinyake mphanyi ŵakanjilirapo. Boma lakwamba la Ethiopia ilo likalongozgeka na dango liphya likakhazikiskika mu Ogasiti 1995. Boma la Prime Minister Meles Zenawi ilo likalongozgekanga na EPRDF likakhozga fundo ya federalism ya mafuko, ndipo likapeleka mazaza ghakuru ku maboma gha vigaŵa. Mazuŵa ghano, mu Ethiopia muli vigaŵa 11 ivyo vikujiyimira vyekha. Mu nyengo ya maboma agho ghakaŵako kale, wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo wanangwa wa kupharazga, ukaŵa na mphaka. Ŵanthu ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wa kuŵazga nkhani zinyake padera pa nyuzipepara za boma. Kwambira waka pa nyengo ya maungano gha mu 2005, ŵapharazgi 18 awo ŵakalemba nkhani zakususka boma ŵakakakika chifukwa cha kusopa vikozgo. Boma likagwiliskiranga ntchito malango ghakukhwaskana na kusesa kuti liwofye ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga ivyo likakhumbanga. Boma la Meles likasankhika mu 2000 mu mavoti ghakwamba gha vyaru vinandi; kweni, mavoti agha ghakasuskika comene na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa vyaru na vyaru vinyake. Gulu la EPRDF nalo likathereska pa chisankho cha 2005 ndipo Meles wakawelera ku mazaza. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomera kuti paŵe mavoti, kweni ŵakususka na awo ŵakulaŵilira vinthu mu vyaru vya ku Europe na vyaru vinyake ŵakayowoya kuti mavoti agha ghakaŵa ghambura kukolerana na malango gha pa caru cose ghakukhwaskana na mavoti ghakwenelera ndiposo ghakufwatuka. Wapolisi wa ku Ethiopia wapha ŵanthu ŵakukwana 193, comenecomene mu msumba wa Addis Ababa, mu nkhaza izo zikacitika pamanyuma pa mavoti gha mu Meyi 2005.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ethiopian probe team criticises judge over report. |url=http://www.kilil5.com/node/4419 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120907072116/http://www.kilil5.com/node/4419 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 September 2012 |agency=Reuters |date=11 September 2006 |access-date=21 July 2007}}</ref>[[File:Secretary Kerry and Ethiopian Foreign Minister Adhanom Hold a News Conference in Addis Ababa (3).jpg|thumb|Former Foreign Minister of Ethiopia [[Tedros Adhanom]] with former U.S. Secretary of State [[John Kerry]]]] Boma likambaso kuyuzga ŵanthu mu vigaŵa; mu chigaŵa cha Oromia, boma likagwiliskira ntchito nthambuzgo, kukaka ŵanthu na nthowa zinyake kuti liŵaleke kuyowoyapo na ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga chisankho, chomenechomene awo ŵakakolerananga na chipani cha Oromo National Congress (ONC). Boma likulimbana na ŵakugaluka mu chigaŵa cha Ogaden kwamba mu 2007. Chipani chikuru chomene mu 2005 chikaŵa cha Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD). Pamanyuma pa kugaŵikana kwa mukati, ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa chipani cha CUD ŵakambiska chipani chiphya cha Unity for Democracy and Justice chakulongozgeka na Mweruzgi Birtukan Mideksa. Birtukan Mideksa, wa mtundu wa Oromo, ni mwanakazi wakwamba kulongozga chipani mu Ethiopia. Mu chaka cha 2008, maboma ghankhondi ghakwimikana nagho ghakaŵa United for Democracy and Justice (Unity for Democracy and Justice) yakulongozgeka na Judge Birtukan Mideksa, United Ethiopian Democratic Forces (United Ethiopian Democratic Forces) yakulongozgeka na Beyene Petros, Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement (Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement) yakulongozgeka na Bulcha Demeksa, Oromo People's Congress (Oromo People's Congress) yakulongozgeka na Merera Gudina, na United Ethiopian Democratic Party (Medhin Party) yakulongozgeka na Lidetu Ayalew. Pambuyo pa chisankho cha 2015, Ethiopia yataya MP yake yokhayo yotsutsa; pofika 2015 kunalibe aphungu otsutsa mu nyumba yamalamulo ya Ethiopia.<ref name = "BBC Obama trip">{{Cite news | title = Obama in Ethiopia for key talks with regional leaders | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-33671340 | website = BBC News | date = 27 July 2015 | access-date = 27 July 2015}}</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{main article|Foreign relations of Ethiopia}} [[File:The state visit of Reuven Rivlin to Ethiopia, May 2018 (4382).jpg|thumb|Ethiopian [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] [[Abiy Ahmed]] with Israeli [[President of Israel|President]] [[Reuven Rivlin]] in May 2018]] Kwambira ku Punt, Etiyopiya ni caru ico cikaguliskanga comene vinthu nga ni golide, mino gha zovu, vinyama vyakupambanapambana, na vyakununkhira. Ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakaghanaghana kuti vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pakati pa Ethiopia na ufumu wa Themba Tewodros II. Kufuma nyengo yira, vyaru ivi vikawonekanga kuti ni vyambura ntchito m'paka apo Suez Canal yikajulikira cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya Mahdist.<ref>Although Bahru Zewde, ''A History of Modern Ethiopia'', second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), believes that the Suez Canal brought strategic value to the Red Sea region (p. 73), Sven Rubenson, ''The Survival of Ethiopian Independence'' (Hollywood: Tsehai,1991) argues that only with the Mahdi War did the United Kingdom interest themselves once again in Ethiopia (pp. 283ff).</ref> [[File:Sergio Mattarella and Abiy Ahmed Ali (2).jpg|thumb|Ethiopian [[Abiy Ahmed|Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed]] with the President of Italy [[Sergio Mattarella]]]] Mazuŵa ghano, Ethiopia wali na ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru nga ni China, Israel, Mexico, Turkey, na India. Ubwezi na Sudan na Egypt uli pa mphindano chifukwa cha ntchito ya Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam iyo yikakwera mu 2020. Nangauli vyaru vinkhondi na cimoza (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, na Tanzania) vikasaina Nile Basin Initiative mu 2010, kweni Eguputo na Sudan ŵakakana phangano la kugaŵikana maji cifukwa ca kuchepeskeka kwa maji mu Nile Basin. Mu 2020, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed wakachenjezga kuti "Palije nkhongono izo zingalekeska Ethiopia kuzenga damu. Usange tingakhumbikwira kuluta ku nkhondo, tinganozga ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi". Ethiopia ni munyake wa Global War on Terrorism and African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Ku United States. Purezidenti wakale Barack Obama ndiye anali woyamba kugwira ntchito kukachezera Ethiopia mu Julayi 2015, pomwe amalankhula ku African Union, adawunikira kulimbana ndi uchigawenga wachisilamu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakuluta ku vyaru vya ku Europe, comenecomene ku Italy, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom, Canada, Sweden, na Australia. Ku Ethiopia kuli Ŵayuda pafupifupi 155,300 awo ŵali kusamira ku Israel. Ŵakucemeka kuti Beta Israel. Charu cha Ethiopia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili mu Gulu la 24 (G-24), gulu la vyaru vyambura kukolerana na G77. Mu 1963, wupu wa African Unity (OAU) uwo pamasinda ukachemeka kuti African Union, ukapangika mu Addis Ababa. Kweniso ni munthazi wa wupu wa Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, African Standby Force na mawupu ghanandi gha pa caru cose agho ghakuwona vya Africa. Ethiopia njimoza mwa vyaru vya mu Africa ndipo yikaŵa yumoza wa ŵimiliri ŵa wupu wa League of Nations (uno ni United Nations) kwamba waka mu 1923. Ntchito za UN mu Ethiopia ni za wovwiri wa ŵanthu na vya kuzenga. Mwaciyelezgero, gulu la UNCT ku Ethiopia lili na ŵimiliri ŵa mawupu 28 gha UN. Maofesi ghanyake gha wupu uwu ghakukolerana na wupu wa United Nations Economic Commission for Africa na African Union. Wupu wa UN ukuŵika mtima pa vinthu vyose vya mu Ethiopia, ukupeleka vilato viŵiri: Vilato vya Kukula kwa Vinthu Vyakukhalilira (SDGs) na vya Kukula kwa Charu. Ivi vikusazgapo kulimbana na ukavu, kukura kwa cuma, kusintha kwa nyengo, masambiro na wovwiri wa munkhwala, kusazgirako nchito na kuvikilira cilengiwa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The United Nations in Ethiopia {{!}} United Nations in Ethiopia|url=https://ethiopia.un.org/en/about/about-the-un|access-date=3 January 2022|website=ethiopia.un.org|language=en}}</ref> === Ŵankhondo === {{main|Military history of Ethiopia|Ethiopian National Defense Force}} [[File:2014 01 22 Ethiopia Welcome Ceremony 001.jpg (12086805304).jpg|thumb|Ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia National Defense Force pa chiphikiro ku Baidoa, Somalia pakukumbuka umo Ethiopia wali kunjilira mu gulu la African Union pa 22 January 2014]] Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakamba kuwusa mu nyengo yakale chomene. Cifukwa cakuti Ethiopia wali pakati pa vyaru vya ku Middle East na Africa, kwa nyengo yitali wakhala pakati pa vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu 1579, Ufumu wa Ottoman ukayezga kusazgikira kufuma ku malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja ku Massawa. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Etiyopiya ŵakathereska Ŵaeguputo mu 1876 ku Gura. Nkhondo ya ku Adwa ndiyo yikumanyikwa comene cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakathereska ŵalwani ŵawo. Chikawovwira kuti Etiyopiya walutilire kuŵa charu chakujiyimira. Nkhondo iyi yikacitika pa 1 Malichi 1896 pafupi na tawuni ya Adwa. Ŵasilikari ŵa Etiyopiya ŵakamba kuzgoka ŵaphya mu nyengo ya Tafari Mekonnen, uyo pamasinda wakaŵa Themba Haile Selassie I. Mu 1917, wakapanga gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakuvikilira ŵanthu ŵa Ufumu, la Kebur Zabagna. Gulu la ŵasilikari aŵa likasambizgika pa sukulu ya ŵasilikari ya ku France ku Saint-Cyr. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ilo likalongozgekanga na Kagnew Battalion, likachitako nkhondo ya ku Korea kwambira mu 1950. Mabuku ghanyake ghakayowoya kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakakhalako vyaka 15, kweni ghanyake ghakuti ŵakafumapo mu 1975, nga ni gulu la UN. Gulu ili likaŵa na ŵasilikari 6,037 pa nyengo ya nkhondo.<ref name="autob">{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201204260161.html |title=Ethiopia: Association to Commemorate 61st of Korean War |work=AllAfrica |date=25 April 2012 |agency=Ethiopian News Agency |access-date=5 December 2022 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>[[File:Ethiopian Soldiers Korean War.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian [[Kebur Zabagna]] soldiers seen at [[Korean War|Korean war]] siding with [[South Korea]] against [[Korean War|North Korean and communist]] backed forces in 1953]] Wupu wakuvikilira chalo cha Ethiopia (Ethiopian National Defence Force) ni wupu wakuvikilira chalo cha Ethiopia. Wupu wa ENDF uli na magulu ghaŵiri: Wupu wa Ethiopian Ground Forces na wa Ethiopian Air Force. Kufuma waka mu 1996, charu cha Ethiopia icho chilije nyanja, chilije ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo, kweni mu 2018 Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed wakayowoya pa TV ya boma kuti: "Tili kuzenga ŵasilikari ŵankhongono chomene ŵa pasi na ŵa mu mlengalenga mu Africa... tikwenera kuzenga ŵasilikari ŵithu ŵa nkhondo munthazi".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44369382|title=Why landlocked Ethiopia wants to launch a navy|last=Olewe|first=Dickens|date=14 June 2018|access-date=7 July 2019|work=BBC News}}</ref> ===Malango=== {{main article|Law enforcement in Ethiopia|Crime in Ethiopia}} {{See also|Police brutality in Ethiopia}} Ndondomeko ya chalo yikuphalira ŵapolisi ŵa boma la Ethiopia (EFP). Wupu uwu ndiwo ukuvikilira umoyo wa ŵanthu pa charu chose. Wapolisi wa boma wakapangika mu chaka cha 1995, ndipo wapolisi wa boma wakwendeskeka na kazembe wa boma kufuma mu Okutobala 2000; kazembe wa boma wakupeleka lipoti ku Unduna wa vya Mtende, kweni wakasinthika pamanyuma pa kusintha kwa ndyali mu chaka cha 2018, ndipo wakuluta ku nyumba ya malango. Mu vyaka vyakumasinda, ŵapolisi ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakapharazganga mwakudunjika. Kweniso, ŵapolisi ŵa boma ŵali na wanangwa wa kuphalira ŵapolisi ŵa vigaŵa kuti ŵaŵawovwire. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakujiyimira pawekha ŵakuvikilira ŵanthu. Mazuŵa ghano, kupeleka vimbundi nchinthu cakuzirwa comene, comenecomene ŵapolisi ŵa msewu. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵapolisi ŵacitaso nkhaza zinandi. Pa Ogasiti 26, 2019, vidiyo ya mwanalume uyo wali na nkhonyo uyo ŵapolisi ŵaŵiri ŵakamutimba apo mwanakazi munyake mulara wakanjiranga mu msumba wa Addis Ababa, yikathandazgika chomene. Ŵapolisi ŵakuti para ŵapolisi ŵacita vinthu viheni, ndikuti ŵakulondezga yayi fundo ya mu ndime 52 ya malango gha boma, iyo yikuti ŵapolisi awo ŵacita viheni ŵafumiskike pa nchito. Malango gha African Union gha Luanda na Robben Island panji chikalata cha United Nations cha Justice for Victims of Abuse of Power and their Basic Principles on the Use of Force & Firearms, chikukhumba kuti komiti ya Ethiopian Government Disciplinary Committee yikomane na nkhaza za ŵapolisi pa munthu yumoza na wose.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Woubshet|first=Ayele|date=14 August 2020|title=Our 'protectors' in blue: Police brutality and misconduct in Ethiopia|url=https://www.ethiopia-insight.com/2020/08/14/our-protectors-in-blue-police-brutality-and-misconduct-in-ethiopia/|access-date=6 January 2022|website=Ethiopia Insight|language=en-US}}</ref> === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{Main|Human rights in Ethiopia}} {{Further|War crimes in the Tigray War}} Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu chifukwa cha nkhaza izo zikuchitika pakati pa mafuko. Mu 2016, ŵanthu 100 ŵakakomeka na boma mu chigaŵa cha Oromia na Amhara. Wupu wa United Nations (UN) wapempha kuti ŵalaŵiliri ŵa wupu uwu ŵafike ku Ethiopia kuti ŵamanye ivyo vyachitika, kweni boma la Ethiopia ilo likulongozgeka na EPRDF likakana. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakususka kuti ŵanthu ŵakuwukira malo ghawo na kuŵavya wanangwa wakusankha awo ŵakuŵawimira. Gulu la EPRDF ilo likulongozgeka na TPLF ndilo likapokera 100% pa mavoti agho ghakaŵa na upusikizgi. Merera Gudina, mulongozgi wa bungwe la Oromo People's Congress, wakati caru ca East Africa cili pa "mphepete mwa nthowa". Iyo wakasazgirapo kuti: "Ŵanthu ŵakukhumba wanangwa wawo". "Ŵanthu ŵakukhuta na ivyo boma likucita kwa vilimika 25. Ŵakulimbana na vinthu nga ni kupoka malo, kuwezgera nduzga, mavoti ghakubisika, kukwera kwa mtengo wa vinthu, na vinyake vinandi. "Usange boma likulutilira kukanizga ŵanthu apo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakukhumba wanangwa wawo, (nkhondo ya pawenenawene) yingacitika".<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-landrights-violence-idUSKCN10M12X|title=Ethiopia's battle for land reforms could lead to civil war: opposition leader|date=11 August 2016|access-date=8 May 2017|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref>[[File:Omo River Valley IMG 0463.jpg|thumb|Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Karo mu vigaŵa vya kumwera]] Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2003 na wupu wa National Committee on Traditional Practices ku Ethiopia, nthengwa izo zikuchitika chifukwa cha kukora ŵanthu ni 69% ya nthengwa izo zikuchitika mu charu ichi. Ŵapharazgi na ŵanthu awo ŵakuchitapo kanthu ŵakawopeka panji kukakika chifukwa cha nkhani izo ŵakalemba za nthenda ya COVID-19 mu Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Omotic Karo na Hamer awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa Etiyopiya, ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵalara na ŵana awo ŵali na suzgo la thupi ŵakuchemeka bangi, kung'anamura "ŵambura kutowa". Ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti ŵana ŵambura kupendera ŵakukhwaska ŵanji. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Karo ŵakazomerezga yayi nkharo iyi mu Julayi 2012. Mu 2013, wupu wa Oakland Institute ukalemba lipoti ilo likati boma la Ethiopia likuchichizga "ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵa ku Gambela kuti ŵafumemo mu malo ghawo". Lipoti linyake likuti awo ŵakakana, ŵakaŵachitiranga nkhaza zakupambanapambana. Lipoti lakuyana waka la mu 2012 la wupu wa Human Rights Watch likulongosoraso ivyo boma la Ethiopia likacita mu 2010 na 2011 pa nkhani ya kuzenga mizi mu Gambela. Boma la Ethiopia likukana ivyo boma likuyowoya kuti likupoka malo gha ŵanthu ndipo likuwona kuti vinthu vikwenda makora mu charu ichi. Pa 23 Okutobala, 2019, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusuzgika chomene mu chigaŵa cha Oromia, chifukwa cha ivyo munthu munyake uyo wakugwira ntchito pa nkhani za wanangwa wa ŵanthu zina lake Jawar Mohammed wakayowoya. Kuyana na lipoti la boma, ŵanthu 86 ŵakafwa. Pa Meyi 29, 2020, wupu wa Amnesty International ukafumiska lipoti ilo likususka ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia kuti ŵakukaka ŵanthu ŵanandi na kuŵakoma kwambura mulandu. Lipoti ili likati mu 2019, ŵanthu 25 awo ŵakaghanaghanika kuti ŵakovwira gulu la Oromo Liberation Army, ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Oromia. Kweniso, pakati pa Janyuwale na Seputembala 2019, ŵanthu 10,000 ŵakakakika chifukwa cha kukayikira, ndipo ŵanandi "ŵakakomeka mwankhaza".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/78d1d784e9c7c441df4ee9632557a900|title=New report alleges killings, mass detentions in Ethiopia|access-date=29 May 2020|website=Associated Press}}</ref> ==== Wanangwa wa ŵa LGBT ==== {{Main article|LGBT rights in Ethiopia}} Ku Ethiopia, kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhukanizgika. Mwakuyana na ndime 629 ya Criminal Code, munthu uyo wakuchita vinthu vya kugonana kwa ŵanthu ŵaviŵaro vyakuyana wakulangika vyaka 15 panji umoyo wake wose. Charu cha Ethiopia nchakusuzga comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutinkha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa LGBT ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuŵatambuzga chifukwa cha chisopa chawo. Ŵanthu ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵakamba kumanyikwa mu charu ichi kufuma waka apo boma likadandawura ku wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu 2008, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu ŵakamba kukura mu misumba yikuruyikuru nga ni Addis Ababa. Mahoteli ghanyake ghakuzirwa nga ni Sheraton Addis na Hilton Hotel ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵakwendera fundo za boma. Tchalitchi la Orthodox la ku Ethiopia ndilo likususka chomene. Mwachiyelezgero, Dereje Negash, uyo ni munthu wakulimbikira ntchito za wanangwa wa ŵanthu, wakambiska gulu lakuti "Zim Anlem" mu 2014. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu 2007, ŵanthu 97 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Ethiopia ŵakugomezga kuti kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi. Pa vyaru 45 ivyo vikafumbika, ici cikaŵa cigaŵa caciŵiri pa vyaru vyose ico ŵanthu ŵakukana kusambira Baibolo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pewglobal.org/reports/pdf/258.pdf |title="Pew Global Attitudes Project", (pages 35, 81, and 117) |access-date=3 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214225525/http://pewglobal.org/reports/pdf/258.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Subdivisions of Ethiopia|Regions of Ethiopia|List of zones of Ethiopia|Districts of Ethiopia}} [[File:Map of zones of Ethiopia.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.6|Map of [[Regions of Ethiopia|regions]] and [[list of zones of Ethiopia|zones]] of Ethiopia]] Pambere chaka cha 1996 chindafike, charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa na vigaŵa 13, ndipo vinandi vikafuma ku vigaŵa vyakale. Pasono charu ichi chili na maboma gha vigaŵa vinandi, ndipo maboma agha ghakulaŵilira vigaŵa, vigaŵa, na vigaŵa. Charu cha Ethiopia chili kugaŵika mu vyaru 11 ivyo vili na mafuko (kililoch, singular kilil) na misumba yiŵiri (astedader akababiwoch, singular astedader akababi), ndipo yaumaliro ni Addis Ababa na Dire Dawa. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa 68, na vigaŵa 550 na vigaŵa vinyake. Ndondomeko iyi yikupeleka mazaza ghakuru ku vigaŵa ivyo vili na boma lawo na demokilase, kweni vikukolerana na malango gha boma. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na wupu wa chigaŵa uwo ŵanthu ŵake ŵakusankhika mwakudunjika kuti ŵimilire vigaŵa. Wupu uwu uli na mazaza gha malango na gha kuwusa. Kweniso, ndime 39 ya Dango la Ethiopia yikupereka wanangwa ku vigaŵa vyose kuti vijipature ku Ethiopia. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya umo boma likupelekera mazaza ku boma. Makonsili ghakufiska milimo yawo kwizira mu komiti yikuru na maofesi gha vigaŵa. Ndondomeko iyi yikulongosoreka makora chomene mu wupu, wupu wakulongozga na wupu wa boma. ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Ethiopia}} [[File:Wonchi Lake of Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nyanja ya Wonchi]] pa mphambano pakati pa Ambo na Waliso mu chigaŵa cha Oromia]] Charu cha Etiyopiya chili pa nambara 28 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa charu chapasi. Malo agha ghali pakati pa dera lakwamba la kumpoto na lakwamba lakwamba la kumpoto, kweniso pakati pa dera lakwamba la kumafumiro gha dazi na lakwamba la kumafumiro gha dazi. Cigaŵa cikuru ca Ethiopia cili ku mphanji ya Africa, iyo ni cigaŵa ca kumafumiro gha dazi comene ca caru ici. Vyaru ivyo vili na mphaka na Ethiopia ni Eritrea kumpoto, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan na Sudan. Mu charu cha Ethiopia muli mapiri ghanandi na malo ghakupambanapambana agho ghakupatukana na Great Rift Valley. Malo ghakupambanapambana, nyengo, dongo, vyakumera, na malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Charu cha Etiyopiya chili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Nyanja ya Tana, iyo yili kumpoto, ndiyo yikupangiska Mlonga wa Blue Nile. Kweniso kuli mitundu yinandi ya viyuni ivyo vikusangika mu charu ichi, chomenechomene chiyuni cha gelada, walia ibex, na chinkhara cha ku Ethiopia. Pakuti charu ichi chili pa mtunda utali, chili na malo ghanandi ghakupambanapambana. Charu ichi chili na vyaru vyakupambanapambana, kufuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi uko kuli nkhorongo na milonga yinandi, m'paka ku malo ghakucemeka Dallol kumpoto. Mapiri gha ku Ethiopia ndigho ni ghakuru comene pa mapiri ghose gha mu Africa, ndipo mu mphanji ya Sof Omar muli mphanji yikuru comene pa caru cose. Charu cha Ethiopia ndicho chili na malo ghaŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vili pa chiharo cha UNESCO mu Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/&search=&searchSites=&search_by_country=&search_yearinscribed=&themes=&criteria_restrication=&media=&description=&order=region|title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre – World Heritage List |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> ===Nyengo=== {{Main|Climate of Ethiopia|Climate change in Ethiopia}} {{See also|Beautifying Sheger}} [[File:Köppen climate types of Ethiopia.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Köppen climate classification]] of Ethiopia]] Nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala ni nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima iyo yikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe. Malo ghatali gha ku Etiyopiya ghakukwana chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi ndipo nyengo yake njakukhoma chomene kuluska vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vili pafupi na Ekitoriya. Misumba yinandi yikuru-yikuru ya mu caru ici yili pa mtunda wa mamita 2,500 (6,562), kusazgapo misumba yikuru ya Gondar na Axum. Msumba ukuru wa Addis Ababa uli musi mwa Phiri la Entoto, ndipo uli pa mtunda wa mamita 2400. Cikaŵa na mphepo yiwemi caka cose. Pakuti nyengo ya mu Addis Ababa njimoza caka cose, nyengo za mu msumba uwu zikuthemba pa vula. Nyengo ya chiwuvi yikwamba mu Okutobala m'paka Febuluwale, nyengo ya vula yichoko yikwamba mu Malichi m'paka Meyi, ndipo nyengo ya vula yinandi yikwamba mu Juni m'paka Seputembala. Pa avereji, pa chaka kukulokwa maji pafupifupi 1,200 millimeters. {{multiple image|align left | total_width = 360 | image1 = View on Mt Chokwe.jpg | image2 = Volcano eruption at the Danakil depression, Ethiopia..jpg | footer = Mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mapiri vyakujumpha mamita 4,000 nga ni mapiri gha Bale na Simien, chiwuvi chikuwoneka nyengo yiliyose ya chiwuvi mu Ethiopia (kumazere) Ethiopia yili na chigaŵa chimoza cha vigaŵa vyakuzizima chomene pa charu chose, chigaŵa cha Afar chili na vula yikuru chaka chose }} Pa zuŵa, zuŵa likuŵala pafupifupi maora 7. Nyengo ya chilangalanga ndiyo njakutowa comene pa caka, nangauli nyengo ya vula yikuru comene mu Julayi na Ogasiti, zuŵa likuŵala kwa maora ghanandi. Kutentha kwapakati pa chaka ku Addis Ababa ndi 16 ° C (60.8 ° F), ndipo kutentha kwa tsiku ndi tsiku kumakhala pafupifupi 20 ° C (68.0 ° F) chaka chonse, ndipo usiku wonse kumakhala 5 ° C (41.0 ° F). Misumba yinandi yikuruyikuru na malo ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakuluta kukawona vyalo ku Ethiopia ghali pachanya chomene nga ni Addis Ababa. Mu vigaŵa vyambura kukwera chomene, chomenechomene mu vigaŵa vya pasi chomene vya Ethiopia, nyengo yingaŵa yakuzizima chomene. Dallol, mu Danakil Depression mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ni malo agho kukotcha comene pa caru cose.<ref name=":0" /> Charu cha Ethiopia chili pangozi chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni kuthukira kwa maji na kusintha kwa vula. Kusintha kwa nyengo mu nthowa izi kukupangiska kuti vyakurya vileke kuŵa vyakukhumbikwa kweniso kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora mu charu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakacicizgika kuleka nyumba zawo na kuluta ku vyaru vya ku Gulf, kumwera kwa Africa na ku Europe. Kufuma mu April 2019, Prime Minister wa Ethiopia Abiy Ahmed wakwendeska ntchito ya Beautifying Sheger, iyo yikukhumba kuchepeska masuzgo gha kusintha kwa nyengo mu Addis Ababa. Mu Meyi wakulondezgapo, boma likacita "Chiphikiro ca Sheger", kuti liwovwire ŵanthu kusanga ndalama zakukwana madola 1 biliyoni. Makampani gha njanji ghaŵiri gha ku China ghakapeleka ndalama zakwendeskera misewu 12 ya makilomita 56 mu chigaŵa cha China na Ethiopia.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://addisstandard.com/news-chinas-reprieve-on-interest-free-loan-only/|title=News: China's reprieve on interest-free loan only|last=Addisstandard|date=25 April 2019|website=Addis Standard|language=en-US|access-date=23 May 2019}}</ref> ===Vyamoyo=== {{Main|Wildlife of Ethiopia}}{{see also|Environmental issues in Ethiopia|Deforestation in Ethiopia}} [[File:Mountain Nyala (M), Bale,Ethiopia (14496349688).jpg|thumb|[[Mountain nyala]]s in [[Bale Mountains National Park]], one of several wildlife reserves in Ethiopia]] Ku Ethiopia kuli vyamoyo vyakukhalapo 31. Mu nyengo yakale, ntcheŵe za ku Africa zikaŵa zakupambanapambana. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca ivyo ŵakawona ku Finicha'a, ŵakughanaghana kuti nyama iyi yili kufwa. Nkhumba ya ku Ethiopia ndiyo ŵanthu ŵakuyifufuza comene pa vinyama vyose ivyo vili pa ngozi mu Ethiopia. Charu cha Ethiopia chili na viyuni vinandi chomene. Kufika sono, mu Ethiopia muli viyuni vyakujumpha 856, ndipo 20 mwa vyuni ivi ni vyekha ivyo vikukhala mu charu ichi. Viyuni 16 vili pa ngozi panji vili pa ngozi yikuru. Viyuni vinandi vikurya viyuni vyamuthengere nga ni Bicyclus anynana. Kwamba kale, vyamoyo vyamuthengere vikumara mwaluŵiro mu Africa chifukwa cha kudumulika kwa makuni, nkhondo, kunangika kwa vinthu, kupenja nyama, na vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Nkhondo iyo yikatora vyaka 17, pamoza na chilangalanga, vikakhwaska makora yayi malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukhala makora ni kunanga malo agho ŵakukhala. Para vinthu vyasintha mwaluŵiro, vinyama vikuŵavya nyengo yakukhazikika. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita vikupangiska kuti vinyama na vinyama vinandi visuzgike. Mu 2010, charu cha Ethiopia chikapanga matani 6,494,000 gha carbon dioxide.<ref>United Nations Statistics Division, [http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/SeriesDetail.aspx?srid=749&crid= Millennium Development Goals indicators]: Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), thousand tonnes of CO2 (collected by CDIAC) Human-produced, direct emissions of carbon dioxide only. Excludes other greenhouse gases; [[land use, land-use change, and forestry]] (LULUCF); and natural background flows of CO2 (See also: Carbon cycle)</ref> Mu Ethiopia muli vyamoyo vinandi ivyo vili pangozi ya kumara. Viyuni ivyo vili pa ngozi ku Ethiopia vingagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu (kuyana na umo IUCN yikuviwonera): vyamoyo ivyo vili pa ngozi yikuru, vyamoyo ivyo vili pa ngozi, na vyamoyo ivyo vingaŵa na suzgo.<ref name="Massicot">Massicot, Paul (2005). [http://www.animalinfo.org/country/ethiopia.htm Animal Info-Ethiopia].</ref> [[File:TroupeDeGeladaSimien.JPG|thumb|right|Grazing [[gelada]]s in the [[Simien Mountains National Park|Semien Mountains]]]] Charu cha Ethiopia ntchimoza mwa vyaru vinkhondi na vitatu ivyo vyakumera vikupangika kufuma ku vyakumera vinyake.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Khoury|first1=Colin K.|last2=Achicanoy|first2=Harold A.|last3=Bjorkman|first3=Anne D.|last4=Navarro-Racines|first4=Carlos|last5=Guarino|first5=Luigi|last6=Flores-Palacios|first6=Ximena|last7=Engels|first7=Johannes M.M.|last8=Wiersema|first8=John H.|last9=Dempewolf|first9=Hannes|date=15 June 2016|title=Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide|journal=Proc. R. Soc. B|volume=283|issue=1832|pages=20160792|doi=10.1098/rspb.2016.0792|pmc=4920324}}</ref> Ndipouli, kupasura makuni ni suzgo likuru comene ku Ethiopia, cifukwa kafukufuku wakulongora kuti makuni ghakututuka ghakupangiska dongo kunangika, vyakurya vikumara, vinyama vikumara, kweniso vyamoyo vikumara. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, makilomita pafupifupi 420,000 (panji 35%) gha charu cha Ethiopia ghakaŵa na makuni, kweni kafukufuku wasono wakulongora kuti makuni ghakukwana pafupifupi 11.9% ya charu ichi. Charu ichi chikaŵa pa malo gha 50. Charu cha Ethiopia chikutaya makilomita 1,410 gha nkhorongo chaka chilichose chifukwa cha kunozga nkhuni, kuzgoka malo ghakuliskako viŵeto, kulima chomene, na kugwiliskira ntchito nkhuni za nkhorongo pakuzenga. Pakati pa 1990 na 2005, caru ici cikasoŵa makuni pafupifupi 21,000 km2. Ndondomeko za boma izo zikuchitika sono kuti zileke kuparanya makuni ni izi: kusambizga ŵanthu, kovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵambeso kukhalamo makuni, na kupeleka vinthu vinyake vyakukhumbikwa m'malo mwa makuni. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, boma likupeleka vyakurya vyambura makuni na malo ghambura makuni kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kulima kwambura kuparanya makuni. Magulu nga ni SOS na Farm Africa ghakugwira ntchito na boma na maboma gha mu vigaŵa kuti ghaŵe na ndondomeko ya kunozga nkhorongo. Boma la Ethiopia lili kupeleka ndalama zakukwana 2.3 miliyoni Euro, ndipo sonosono apa lakwamba kusambizga ŵanthu umo ŵangachepeskera kunangika kwa makuni na umo ŵangachitira kuti ŵaleke kumazga makuni. Ntchito iyi yikovwira ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 80. ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Ethiopia|Industrial sector in Ethiopia}} [[File:GDP_per_capita_development_of_Ethiopia.svg|thumb|Development of GDP per capita]] [[File:Ethiopia Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.6|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Ethiopia exports, 2019]] Charu cha Ethiopia chikakura chomene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Meles Zenawi. Kuyana na IMF, charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa na chuma icho chikukura luŵiro chomene pa charu chose, ndipo chikakura chomene pa chaka cha 2004 m'paka 2009. Mu 2007 na 2008, charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa na ndalama zinandi chomene mu Africa. Mu 2015, Banki ya Charu Chose yikayowoya kuti Ethiopia yikukura luŵiro chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma, ndipo pakati pa 2004 na 2014, chiŵelengero cha vinthu mu charu ichi chikakura na 10.9%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ethiopia/publication/ethiopia-great-run-growth-acceleration-how-to-pace-it|title=With Continued Rapid Growth, Ethiopia is Poised to Become a Middle Income Country by 2025|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> Mu 2008 na 2011, vinthu vikasintha chomene mu Ethiopia chifukwa cha kukwera kwa ndalama na suzgo la ndalama. Mu Ogasiti 2011, unandi wa ndalama ukakwera kufika pa 40 peresenti chifukwa cha ndalama zambura kujikora, malipiro gha ŵateŵeti ŵa boma ghakakwera chomene kukwambilira kwa 2011, kweniso mitengo ya vyakurya yikakwera chomene. Pa 2011 ¥12, unandi wa ndalama uwo ukaŵa paumaliro wa chaka ukaŵa wa 22%, ndipo unandi wa ndalama uwo ukaŵa pa chiŵerengero chimoza ukaŵa wa 2012 ¥13 chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya ndalama. Nangauli mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, caru cikukura comene, kweni GDP pa munthu yumoza njimoza mwa vinthu vyacoko comene pa caru cose, ndipo caru cili na masuzgo ghanandi. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca kuŵika mtima comene pa vinthu vya boma na vyakumera, ndyali ya Ethiopia yikumazga masuzgo ghake kuti yiŵe malo ghakwendeskera vinthu mu Africa. Mu chaka cha 2019 dango likapika ilo likapeleka wanangwa ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia kuti ŵagwiliskire nchito ndalama mu vyalo vya Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://w7news.com/ethiopia-to-open-banks-for-ethiopian-investors-in-the-diaspora/|title=Ethiopia to Open Banks for Ethiopian Investors in the Diaspora|last=Sze|first=Mari|website=W7 News|date=12 August 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref>[[File:Ethiopian cargo ship at Port of Djibouti.jpg|thumb|left|An Ethiopian logistics shipping cargo docked at the red sea]] Ndondomeko ya chalo ya Ethiopia yikulongosora kuti wanangwa wakuŵa na malo ngwakuti "mboma na ŵanthu", kweni ŵanthu ŵangagura malo kwa vyaka 99, kweni ŵangaguliska yayi. Kupeleka malo kwa munthu munyake nga ni renti kwa vyaka 20, kukovwira kuti munthu uyo wakugwiliskira nchito makora malo agha ndiyo wapokere. Kugaŵira na kwendeska malo kukuwoneka nga ni malo agho vimbundi vilipo, ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakukhumba kupokera vimbundi para ŵakudumbiskana nkhani zakukhwaskana na malo. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵalije malo ghakukhalamo, kanandi vinthu ivi vikuchitika kwambura kufumba awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito malo agha. Nyengo zinyake ukali na kuleka kugomezgeka vikupangiska ŵanthu kugaluka. Kweniso, vyakurya vikulutilira kuchepa mu caru ici, ndipo cichali na chilangalanga, ico cikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafumemo mu vyaru vyawo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Six_million_children_threatened_by_Ethiopia_drought_UN_999.html |title=Six million children threatened by Ethiopia drought: UN |publisher=Terradaily.com |access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref> ===Magesi=== {{see also|Energy in Ethiopia|List of power stations in Ethiopia}} Ku Ethiopia kuli milonga yikuruyikuru 14, kusazgapo Nile. Ili lili na maji ghanandi comene mu Africa. Mu 2012, maofesi gha maji ghakapanga pafupifupi 88,2% ya nkhongono zose zakupangira magesi. Magesi ghanyake ghakafuma ku mafuta (8.3%) na vyakununkhira (3.6%). Pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhalanga mu tawuni iyi, mu 2016 ŵanthu 42 ŵakaŵa na magesi. Kufumira mu 2016, magesi ghose agho ghakapangika ghakaŵa 11.15 TW⋅h ndipo ghakaŵa 9.062 TW⋅h. Magesi agho ghakafuma ku vyaru vinyake ghakaŵa 0.166 TW⋅h, ndipo ghakafuma 0 kW⋅h.<ref name="CIA2"/>[[File:Cement never sleeps (8756743123).jpg|thumb|left|A factory in [[Dire Dawa]], Ethiopia: one of Ethiopia's biggest economic cities]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira nchito mu vyaru vinyake ŵalipo pafupifupi 85 peresenti. Ndipouli, nchito ya mauteŵeti yikupangiska kuti GDP yiŵe yikuru comene. Vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo vikuchitika pa charu vikuthemba pa ulimi, kusazgapo malonda, kunozga, na kutumizga vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵalimi ŵachoko na mabungwe ndiwo ŵakupanga vyakurya ivi, ndipo vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Vyakumera vikuruvikuru ni khofi, vipasi, mafuta, tirigu, mbuto, makuni, na mphangwe. Ethiopia nayo ni malo ghakupambanapambana gha vyakumera nga ni enset, khofi na teff. Vinthu vyose ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake ni vyakurya (kupaturako golide) ndipo khofi ndilo likusangika ndalama zinandi. Ethiopia ndiyo ni caru caciŵiri pa vyakurya vikuru comene mu Africa. Kuyana na umo wupu wa United Nations ukuyowoyera, GDP ya Ethiopia pa munthu yumoza yili kufika pa $357 mu 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2015/10/power-generation-begins-at-1-870-mw-gibe-iii-hydroelectric-project-in-ethiopia.html|title=Power generation begins at 1,870-MW Gibe III hydroelectric project in Ethiopia|website=www.hydroworld.com|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> ===Ulimi=== {{Main article|Agriculture in Ethiopia}} [[File:Tef in Ethiopia 01.jpg|thumb|[[Eragrostis tef|Tef]] field near [[Mojo, Ethiopia|Mojo]]]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira nchito mu vyaru vinyake ŵalipo pafupifupi 85 peresenti. Ndipouli, nchito ya mauteŵeti yikupangiska kuti GDP yiŵe yikuru comene. Vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo vikuchitika pa charu vikuthemba pa ulimi, kusazgapo malonda, kunozga, na kutumizga vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵalimi ŵachoko na mabungwe ndiwo ŵakupanga vyakurya ivi, ndipo vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Vyakumera vikuruvikuru ni khofi, vipasi, mafuta, tirigu, mbuto, makuni, na mphangwe. Ethiopia nayo ni malo ghakupambanapambana gha vyakumera nga ni enset, khofi na teff. Vinthu vyose ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake ni vyakurya (kupaturako golide) ndipo khofi ndilo likusangika ndalama zinandi. Ethiopia ndiyo ni caru caciŵiri pa vyakurya vikuru comene mu Africa. Kuyana na umo wupu wa United Nations ukuyowoyera, GDP ya Ethiopia pa munthu yumoza yili kufika pa $357 mu 2011.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news| title = National Accounts Estimates of Main Aggregates | publisher = The United Nations Statistics Division | url = http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=SNAAMA&f=grID%3a101%3bcurrID%3aUSD%3bpcFlag%3a1 | access-date = 12 November 2013}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakulima chomene. Ŵakulimbikira chomene kulima na kuliska viyuni na vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vindazgokepo chifukwa cha chisopa na mitheto yawo. Ndipouli, vyakurya ndivyo vichali kukolerana na GDP ya charu ichi. Vyaru vya ku Ethiopia vyaŵa na nkhongono zinandi kwa vyaka vinandi, kweni sono vikumara. Charu ichi chikumanyikwa na njara iyo yikuŵapo chifukwa cha chilangalanga, masoka ghacilengiwa, vinyama vyakofya, kusoŵa kwa vula, ndiposo kupeleŵera kwa vinthu vya tekinoloje. ===Katundu wakutuma kuwalo=== {{Main|Coffee production in Ethiopia}} [[File:Treemap on exports of Ethiopia 2014 (mid detail).png|thumb|upright=1.6|Ethiopia Export Treemap from [[MIT]]–[[Harvard]] [[The Observatory of Economic Complexity|Economic Complexity Observatory]] {{As of|2014|1|17|alt=(2014)}}]] Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuti mu charu cha Ethiopia ndimo mukababikira khofi. Vinthu ivyo vyatumizgika kufuma ku Ethiopia mu caka ca ndalama ca 2009-2010 vikaŵa USD 1.4 biliyoni. Mu charu cha Ethiopia, khofi wakusangika chomene kuluska mu charu chilichose. "Khofi ndiyo yikovwira ŵanthu pafupifupi 15 miliyoni ŵa ku Ethiopia, awo ni 16 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose. Ŵalimi ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici, awo ŵakusuzgika cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mphepo, ŵakusuzgika comene mu vilimika vyasonosono apa. Ethiopia ndiyo yili na viŵeto vikuru comene vya ng'ombe pa caru cose. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska ni khat, golide, vinthu vya vikumba, na mafuta. Kukula kwa msika wa maluŵa kwa sonosono apa kukung'anamura kuti Ethiopia wali pafupi kuŵa yumoza wa vyakumera na maluŵa agho ghakwendeskeka chomene pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ethiopia's flower trade in full bloom |url=http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=264689&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__business/ |quote=Floriculture has become a flourishing business in Ethiopia in the past five years, with the industry's exports earnings set to grow to $100-million by 2007, a five-fold increase on the $20-million earned in 2005. Ethiopian flower exports could generate an estimated $300-million within two to three years, according to the head of the government export-promotion department, Melaku Legesse. |work=[[Mail & Guardian]] |date=19 February 2006 |access-date=21 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418195017/http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=264689&area=%2Fbreaking_news%2Fbreaking_news__business%2F |archive-date=18 April 2007}}</ref>[[File:Blessed Coffee brand bags.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian ''Blessed Coffee'' branded bags in the United States. Coffee is one of main exports of Ethiopia.]] Kanandi ŵaliska ŵakuchita malonda ghambura kuzomerezgeka na boma. Mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, malonda ghakujumpha 95 peresenti ghakwendera mu nthowa zinyake. Kuguliska ng'ombe, ngamila, mberere, na mbuzi za ku Ethiopia ku Somalia, Djibouti, na Kenya, pa chaka kukukwana madola 250 m'paka 300 miliyoni. Kuguliska vyakurya kukuchepeska mtengo wa vyakurya, kukovwira kuti vyakurya viŵe vyakukhora, kuchepeska mphindano pa mphaka, na kukhozga umoza wa vyaru. Kweni chifukwa chakuti malonda agha ghalije malango ndiposo maukaboni, pangaŵa ngozi, nga ni para matenda ghakuthandazgika luŵiro chomene. Kweniso boma la Ethiopia likukondwa yayi na ndalama izo likusanga chifukwa cha misonkho na ndalama izo likupeleka ku vyaru vinyake. Mu vilimika vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵayezga kulemba na kulongozga malonda agha. Chifukwa chakuti makampani ghapachekha ghakukura pachokopachoko, vyakuvwara vya makuni nga ni matumba vikuŵa vyakurya vikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Vinyake ivyo ŵakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ni vyakurya, vipasi, katoni, mkaka, mbuto, na vikumba. Pakuzenga madamu ghaphya na mapulojekiti ghakupanga magesi gha maji, Ethiopia nayo wakukhumba kutumizga magesi ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti maji ghanandi gha mu Ethiopia ni "mafuta ghatuŵa" ndipo khofi ni "golide lifipa". Kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala viŵi yayi, mu charu cha Ethiopia muli vinthu vinandi vyakututuŵa. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali mu vigaŵa ivi, vinthu vikwenda makora yayi. Mu 2008, ŵasayansi ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakasangika na mulandu wa kusaska golide. Ŵanthu ŵanayi awo ŵakumanya vya sayansi ya vinthu vya pasi na charu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakakakika cifukwa ca kuguliska golide. Ŵapolisi ŵakasanga kuti golide uyo wakatoleka ku banki ya ku Ethiopia wakaŵa wa golide, ndipo ndalama izo boma likaguliskanga zikaŵa pafupifupi madola 17 miliyoni. Mu 2011, ntchito ya kuzenga damu la Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam yikamba. Para lamara, lizamupanga nkhongono zinandi ku Ethiopia izo zingapelekeka ku vyaru vinyake. ===Mayendelo=== {{Main|Transport in Ethiopia}} [[File:Addis Ababa Light Rail vehicle, March 2015.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa Light Rail|Light rail]] in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia]] Ethiopia yili na makilomita 926 gha njanji za magetsi za 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in), makilomita 656 gha njanji ya Addis Ababa-Djibouti pakati pa Addis Ababa na Port of Djibouti (kujumpha Awash) na makilomita 270 gha njanji ya Awash-Hara Gebeya pakati pa Addis Ababa na matawuni gha Dessie/Kombolcha (nawo kujumpha Awash). Pa Ogasiti 2017, misewu yose yiŵiri iyi yikaŵa pa ntchito yakuyezgelera panji yikaŵa mu mulimo wa kuzenga. Para njanji zose ziŵiri izi zazakayamba kugwira ntchito mu 2018 na 2019, zizamovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵendenge pa mtunda wa makilomita 120 pa ora. Pakughanaghana kuti ulendo wa ŵanthu kufuma ku Addis Ababa kuluta ku Djibouti City uŵenge wa maora ghachoko waka 12 ndipo kufuma ku Addis Ababa kuya ku Dessie/Kombolcha uŵenge wa maora 6. Pamanyuma pa mtunda wakudumura wa makilomita 270 wa msewu wa Awash/Hara Gebeya Railway, mulimo waciŵiri wa kuzenga mtunda wa makilomita 120 ukukhumba kusazgirako msewu uwu kufuma ku Dessie/Kombolcha kuya ku Hara Gebeya/Woldiya. Tikumanya yayi apo chigaŵa ichi chizamupangikira na kujura. Njanji yacitatu, ya makilomita 216 ya kumpoto nayo yikuzengeka pakati pa Mek'ele na Woldiya, kweni nchambura macitiko kuti njanji iyi yizgoke pa nyengo wuli. Misewu yose ya njanji yili mu cigaŵa ca misewu ya njanji iyo yizamuŵa na mtunda wa makilomita ghakujumpha 5,000.[[File:Ethiopian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_ET-AOS_FRA_2012-10-28.png|thumb|A [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-8]] of [[Ethiopian Airlines]]]] Pakuŵa cigaŵa cakwamba ca pulogiramu ya vilimika 10 ya kuzenga misewu, pakati pa 1997 na 2002, boma la Ethiopia likamba kuyezgayezga comene kuti liŵe na misewu yiwemi. Ntheura, kwambira mu 2015, mu Ethiopia mukaŵa misewu ya makilomita 100,000 (Federal na Regional), yose yikaŵa yakwenda pa malibwe kweniso ya malibwe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ethiopia's Road Sector Dev't Becoming Proportionate to Rapid Economic Growth: WB |url=http://www.ena.gov.et/en/index.php/economy/item/386-ethiopia-s-road-sector-dev-t-becoming-proportionate-to-rapid-economic-growth-wb |website=www.ena.gov.et |access-date=23 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224055826/http://www.ena.gov.et/en/index.php/economy/item/386-ethiopia-s-road-sector-dev-t-becoming-proportionate-to-rapid-economic-growth-wb |archive-date=24 December 2015}}</ref> [[File:Ethiopia - Lake Assale.jpg|thumb|[[Afar Region|Afar]] is a tourist attraction since it has an open salt field stretching kilometers on end]] Ku Ethiopia kukaŵa ma eyapoti 58 mu 2012, ndipo 61 mu 2016. Pa malo agha, pali Bole International Airport mu Addis Ababa na Aba Tenna Dejazmach Yilma International Airport mu Dire Dawa. Ethiopian Airlines, chiŵaro cha Star Alliance, ndiyo yikwendeska ndege mu charu ichi, ndipo yikukolerana na boma la Ethiopia. Kufuma ku Bole International Airport, ndege iyi yikwendeska ndege 102 za pa charu chose, 20 za mu charu chose, na katundu 44. Kweniso ni yimoza mwa vyamaseŵera ivyo vikukura luŵiro comene mu vyaru ivi.<ref name="Ceabtdta">{{cite news |title=Ethiopian Airlines – Bringing the Dreamliner to Africa |publisher=CNN |date=3 September 2012 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/03/world/africa/ethiopian-airlines-ceo/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904002135/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/03/world/africa/ethiopian-airlines-ceo/index.html |archive-date=4 September 2012 |access-date=21 September 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Wupu wakukopa '''ŵalendo''' === {{Main article|Tourism in Ethiopia}} Charu cha Ethiopia chikutemwa chomene vyamalonda, ndipo mu 2006, vyalo ivi vikapanga 5.5% ya GDP. Mu 2015, wupu wa European Council ukati Ethiopia ni "malo ghakutowa chomene pa charu chose". Mu 2020 pera, ŵanthu 518 000 ŵakaluta ku Ethiopia, ndipo ŵakaŵa pa nambara 126 pa charu chose. Ku Ethiopia kuli malo 9 agho ghali kulembeka na UNESCO kuti ni malo ghakukumbukika na ŵanthu wose:<ref>{{cite web |title=Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List: Ethiopia |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/et/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=11 August 2021}}</ref> *[[Axum#Main sites of Axum|Ruins of Aksum]] *[[Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela]] *[[Fasil Ghebbi]], Gondar Region *[[Harar#Attractions|Harar Jugol]], the Fortified Historic Town *[[Konso|Konso Cultural Landscape]] *Lower Valley of the [[Awash River|Awash]] *Lower Valley of the [[Omo River|Omo]] *[[Tiya]] *[[Simien Mountains National Park]] == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Ethiopia}} {{see also|Ethiopians|List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia}} Charu cha Ethiopia ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakakwera kufuma pa 38.1 miliyoni mu 1983 kufika pa 109.5 miliyoni mu 2018. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa 9 miliyoni. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti pakati pa 1994 na 2007, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ku Ethiopia chikakuranga pa 2.6% pa chaka. Pasono, caru ici nchimoza mwa vyaru 10 ivyo vikukura comene pa caru cose. Kuzakafika mu 2060, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu pa charu chose chapasi chizamukwera kufika pa 210 miliyoni. Kuyana na umo wupu wa UN ukuyowoyera, mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka vinandi, ndipo vyaka ivyo ŵanalume ŵakukhala ni vyaka 56 ndipo vyaka ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakukhala ni vyaka 60.<ref name="auto"/> {{bar box |width=340px|float=right|titlebar=#ddd |title=[[Ethnic groups in Ethiopia]] |left1=Ethnic group |right1=Population |bars = {{bar percent|[[Oromo people|Oromo]]|Green|100|{{nowrap|25.4 (34.4%)}}}} {{bar percent|[[Amhara people|Amhara]]|Yellow|78.37|19.9 (27.0%)}} {{bar percent|[[Somalis in Ethiopia|Somali]] |Red|18.08|4.59 (6.2%)}} {{bar percent|[[Tigrayans]] |Blue|17.67|4.49 (6.1%)}} {{bar percent|[[Sidama people|Sidama]]|Purple|11.63|2.95 (4.0%)}} {{bar percent|[[Gurage people|Gurage]]|Brown|7.32|1.86 (2.5%)}} {{bar percent|[[Welayta people|Welayta]]|Black|6.60|1.68 (2.3%)}} {{bar percent|[[Afar people|Afar]]|Orange|5.03|1.28 (1.7%)}} {{bar percent|[[Hadiya people|Hadiya]]|Teal|5.00|1.27 (1.7%)}} {{bar percent|[[Gamo people|Gamo]]|Gray|4.33|1.10 (1.5%)}} {{bar percent|[[List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia|Others]]|Silver|36.67|9.30 (12.6%)}} |caption=Population in millions according to 2007 Census<ref name=2007Census /> }} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵali na mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ŵanthu, ndipo mitundu yinandi chomene njakuti: Oromo, Amhara, Somali, na Tigray. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2007, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ndiwo mbanandi chomene mu Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Amhara ŵalipo 27.0% pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi, apo ŵa mtundu wa Somali na Tigray ŵalipo 6.2% na 6.1% pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi. Mtundu unyake uwo ukuzunulika ni: Sidama 4.0%, Gurage 2.5%, Welayta 2.3%, Afar 1.7%, Hadiya 1.7%, Gamo 1.5% na Others 12.6%. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ca ciarabu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya ChiSemiti ŵakujichema kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Habesha. Mu Chiarabu, lizgu ili (al-Ḥabasha) ndilo lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti "Abyssinia". Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi, chomenechomene mu chigaŵa cha Gambela icho chili pafupi na South Sudan. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu iyi mbanandi chomene, chomenechomene ŵa Nuer na Anuak. Kweniso, ku Ethiopia kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 75,000 ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakakhalako kwa vyaka vinandi pamanyuma pakuti Themba Selassie laŵagowokera. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca nkhondo ya mukati mu caru ca Ethiopia mu 1974, ŵanthu pafupifupi 22,000 ŵa ku Italy na Ethiopia ŵakafumamo mu caru ici. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, makampani ghanyake gha ku Italy ghakawelera ku Ethiopia, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakugwira ntchito za mawoko na ŵantchito ŵakiza na mbumba zawo. Chigaŵa cha Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region chili na mitundu yakujumpha 56. Mu 2009, ŵanthu 135,200 awo ŵakachimbilira ku Ethiopia ŵakaŵapo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku Somalia (ŵanthu pafupifupi 64,300), Eritrea (41,700) na Sudan (25,900). Boma la Ethiopia likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu wose awo ŵachimbira kwawo ŵakhalenge mu misasa.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2009">{{cite news|title=World Refugee Survey 2008 |publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants |date=19 June 2008 |url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/ethiopia.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502073801/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/ethiopia.html |archive-date=2 May 2012}}</ref> ===Viyowoyelo=== {{Main|Languages of Ethiopia}} {{Pie chart | thumb = right | caption=[[Languages of Ethiopia]] {{As of|2007|lc=y}} Census<ref name=2007Census /> | label1 = [[Oromo language|Oromo]] | value1 = 33.8 | color1 = Green | label2 = [[Amharic]] | value2 = 29.3 | color2 = Yellow | label3 = [[Somali language|Somali]] | value3 = 6.2 | color3 = Red | label4 = [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] | value4 = 5.9 | color4 = Blue | label5 = [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] | value5 = 4.0 | color5 = Purple | label6 = [[Wolaytta language|Wolaytta]] | value6 = 2.2 | color6 = Black | label7 = [[Gurage languages|Gurage]] | value7 = 2.0 | color7 = Brown | label8 = [[Afar language|Afar]] | value8 = 1.7 | color8 = Orange | label9 = [[Hadiyya language|Hadiyya]] | value9 = 1.7 | color9 = Teal | label10 = [[Gamo-Gofa-Dawro language|Gamo]] | value10 = 1.5 | color10 = Gray | label11 = [[Languages of Ethiopia#Overview|others]] | value11 = 11.6 | color11 = white }} Buku linyake likuti ku Ethiopia kuli viyowoyero 90. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Ŵaasiriya. Chiyowoyero ichi chikusazgapo chiyowoyero cha Oromo, icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Oromo, na ChiSomali, icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia. Wose pamoza, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakukwana vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Ethiopia. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Afroasiatic ivyo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi ni Cushitic Sidamo, Afar, Hadiyya, na Agaw, kweniso viyowoyero vya ChiSemite vya Gurage, Harari, Silt'e, na Argobba. Mu vigaŵa vinyake ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Ciarabic, ico nchigaŵa ca ciyowoyero ca ku Africa na Asia. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Omotic ndiwo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero ivi. Viyowoyero ivi ni Aari, Bench, Dime, Dizin, Gamo-Gofa-Dawro, Maale, Hamer, na Wolaytta. Viyowoyero vya mu mbumba ya Nilo-Sahara vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi. Viyowoyero ivi ni Nuer, Anuak, Nyangatom, Majang, Suri, Me'en, na Mursi. Cingelezi ndico cikuyowoyeka comene pa caru cose, ndipo ndico cikusambizgika mu masukulu gha sekondare na masukulu ghose ghapacanya. Chiyowoyero cha Amharic ndicho chikasambizgikanga mu masukulu gha pulayimale, kweni mu vigaŵa vinandi chiyowoyero ichi chafumiskikapo ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake nga ni Oromo, Somali, na Tigrinya. Nangauli viyowoyero vyose vikuzomerezgeka mwakuyana waka na dango la mu 1995 la Ethiopia ndipo chiyowoyero cha Oromo ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene, kweni chiyowoyero cha Amharic ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene.[[File:Aksum, iscrizione di re ezana, in greco, sabeo e ge'ez, 330-350 dc ca. 10.jpg|thumb|[[Ezana of Axum|King Ezana]] of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Axum's]] rock inscription in the [[Geʽez|Ge'ez]] language dating back to 330-350 AD]] Vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya Ethiopia na misumba iyo yili na malango, vili na wanangwa wa kusankha viyowoyero vyawo. ChiAmharic chikumanyikwa nga chiyowoyelo cha boma mu chigaŵa cha Amhara, Benishangul-Gumuz, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, Gambela Region, Addis Ababa na Dire Dawa. Chilankhulo cha Oromo chikugwira ntchito ngati chilankhulo cha ntchito ndi chilankhulo chachikulu cha maphunziro ku Oromia, Harar ndi Dire Dawa komanso ku Oromia Zone ku Amhara Region. ChiSomali ndi chiyankhulo cha boma cha chigawo cha Somali ndi Dire Dawa, pamene Afar, Harari, ndi Tigrinya zimadziwika ngati chilankhulo cha boma m'madera awo. Sonosono apa boma la Ethiopia likapharazga kuti viyowoyero vya Afar, Amharic, Oromo, Somali, na Tigrinya ni viyowoyero vya boma vya Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachali kuyowoya Chiitaliya, chomenechomene ŵachekuru. Chiyowoyero cha Amharic na Tigrinya vili na mazgu ghanyake agho ghali kufuma ku Chiitaliya.<ref name="Yaqob">{{cite web|url=https://totalitarismo.altervista.org/italianismi-nel-somalo-e-nell-amarico/|title=Italianismi nel somalo e nell'amarico|first=Mister|last=Totalitarismo|date=2 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="altervista">''I prestiti italiani in amarico e tigrino'', Yaqob Beyene</ref> ====Malemba==== Ciyowoyero cikuru comene ca ku Ethiopia ni cilembo ca [[Ge'ez]]. Chiyowoyero ichi chikamba kugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 500 B.C.E. pakulemba chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez. Mazuŵa ghano, chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez ndicho chikuyowoyeka mu matchalitchi gha Orthodox gha ku Ethiopia na Eritrea. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya ku Ethiopia mu kompyuta. Mazuŵa ghano ntchigaŵa cha Unicode nga ni Ethiopic, Ethiopic Extended, Ethiopic Supplement na Ethiopic Extended-A. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakugwiliskiraso ntchito vilembo vinyake. Vinthu ivi ni vilembo ivyo Bakri Sapalo wakalemba vya Chi Oromo.<ref name="HH-551">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1017/S0041977X00144209|jstor=616613| title = The Oromo orthography of Shaykh Bakri Saṗalō| journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies| volume = 44| issue = 3| pages = 550| year = 2009| last1 = Hayward | first1 = R.J.| last2 = Hassan | first2 = M. |s2cid=162289324}}</ref> ===Chisopa=== {{Main|Religion in Ethiopia}} {{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Religion in Ethiopia (2016 estimate)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/#:~:text=Religions,%2C%20Catholic%200.7%25%2C%20traditional%20.|title = Ethiopia - the World Factbook| date=7 September 2022 }}</ref> |label1 = [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopian Orthodoxy]] |value1 = 43.8 |color1 = Orchid |label4 = [[Islam in Ethiopia|Islam]] |value4 = 31.3 |color4 = Green |label2 = [[P'ent'ay]] |value2 = 22.8 |color2 = Blue |label3 = Other [[Christian]] |value3 = 0.7 |color3 = Purple |label5 = [[Traditional African religion|Traditional faiths]] |value5 = 0.6 |color5 = Yellow |label6 = Other |value6 = 0.8 |color6 = Red }} Charu cha Etiyopiya chili paubwezi wakukhora na visopa vikuruvikuru vitatu vya Abrahamu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., ufumu wa Etiyopiya ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kuzomerezga Chikhristu kuŵa chisopa cha boma. Chifukwa cha ivyo likadumura pa ungano wa ku Chalcedon, mu 451 Ŵamiyaphysites, awo ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu ŵanandi chomene mu Eguputo na Etiyopiya, ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakasopanga ŵaciuta ŵamoza pera. Nangauli pasono chisopa ichi ntcha boma yayi, kweni tchalitchi la Orthodox la Tewahedo ndilo likulamulira chomene. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Ciarabu ŵakukhala mu caru ici. Charu cha Etiyopiya ndicho chikaŵa malo ghakwamba uko ŵanthu ŵakasamukira mu nyengo ya Chisilamu. Negash ni tawuni iyo yili mu chigaŵa cha Tigray, ndipo ni malo ghakale chomene agho Ŵasilamu ŵakakhalanga mu Africa.. [[File:Lalibela, san giorgio, esterno 24.jpg|thumb|upright|The subterranean rock-hewn [[Church of Saint George, Lalibela|Church of Saint George]] in [[Lalibela]] is a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]] Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2007, Ŵakhristu ŵalipo 62.8% (43.5% ŵa Ethiopia Orthodox, 19.3% ŵa visopa vinyake), Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 33.9%, awo ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo ŵalipo 2.6%, ndipo visopa vinyake vilipo 0.6%. Chiŵelengero cha Ŵakristu na Ŵasilamu chikukhalilira mwakuyana waka pakuyaniska na unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵali mu chisopa cha Sunni, ndipo Ŵasilamu awo ŵali mu chisopa chinyake ndiwo ni gulu lachiŵiri likuru chomene la Ŵasilamu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Sunni mba Shafi'i panji Salafi, ndipo ku malo agha kuli Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Sufi. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Afar ŵali kupanga gulu lakujipatura lakucemeka "Islamic State of Afaria". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakasuskanga fundo yakuti boma la Haile Selassie likapanga ndondomeko ya kupenda ŵanthu kuti charu cha Ethiopia chiwoneke nga ni charu cha Ŵakhristu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuwona vya Chisilamu na kulemba mabulogu ŵakuti Ŵasilamu mbanandi chomene ndipo ŵakukolerana yayi na maukaboni agho ghali pachanya apa. Ufumu wa Axum ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kuzomera Chikhristu, apo Frumentius wa ku Turo, uyo wakachemekanga Fremnatos panji Abba Selama ("Wiske wa Mtende") ku Ethiopia, wakang'anamuska Themba Ezana mu vyaka vya m'ma 400. Mwakuyana na Baibolo, Cikristu cikanjira mu Etiyopiya nyengo yitali comene pambere ivi vindacitike.<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+8 "Acts 8"]. ''Bible Gateway''.</ref>[[File:01 - Priests dancing for Timkat.jpg|thumb|Orthodox priests dancing during the celebration of ''[[Timkat]]'']] [[File:307771234 612238670404451 4282782264089827086okay.webm|thumb|[[Haile Selassie|Emperor Haile Selassie I]] seen celebrating the finding of the cross at [[Meskel Square]] (1971)]] Tchalitchi la Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo lili mu tchalitchi la Eastern Orthodox. Ni cisopa cikuru comene pa visopa vyose vya Cikhristu, nangauli sonosono apa matchalitchi ghanyake gha P'ent'ay (Chipulotesitanti) ghazara comene. Kwambira mu 1930, Tchalitchi la Katolika ku Ethiopia lili na ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ndipo likugwirizana comene na boma la Roma.<ref name="bx">{{Cite web |last=Abegaz |first=Berhanu |date=1 June 2005 |title=Ethiopia: A Model Nation of Minorities |url=http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf |access-date=27 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist.html |title=The History of Ethiopian Jews |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref> [[File:Mešita v Bahir Daru.jpg|thumb|A mosque in [[Bahir Dar]]]] Chisilamu mu Ethiopia chikamba mu 622 C.E. apo Muhammad wakaphalira gulu la Ŵasilamu kuti ŵaleke kutambuzgika ku Mecca. Pamanyuma ŵasambiri ŵakaluta ku Abyssinia kwizira ku Eritrea, uko pa nyengo iyo kukaŵa Ashama ibn-Abjar, themba la Ŵakhristu. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene awo ŵakaŵa Ŵasahaba ŵakaŵa Ŵaetiyopiya. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2007, ŵanthu 1,957,944 mu Ethiopia ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake 471,861 ŵali mu visopa vinyake. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa visopa vyose ŵakusangika mu vigaŵa vyose, kweni ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake vya caru ici. Ŵakhristu ŵanandi ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Amhara na Tigray, ndipo ŵanandi mwa iwo mba tchalitchi la Orthodox la Tewahedo. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa P'ent'ay ndiwo ŵakukhala chomene mu vigaŵa vya Oromia na SNNP (Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region). Ŵasilamu ku Ethiopia ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Sunni ndipo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyakutali kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, mu vigaŵa vya SNNP, Benishangul-Gumuz na Gambela.<ref name=2007Census/><ref name="Ofcansky">{{cite book |last=Thomas P. Ofcansky |first=LaVerle Berry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3M0V0VfgiMC |title=Ethiopia: A Country Study |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4191-1857-9 |pages=130–41}}</ref> M'paka m'ma 1980, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Beta Israel ŵakakhalanga ku Ethiopia. Ŵayuda pafupifupi 4,000, awo ŵakuti ni fuko lakuzgeŵa la Israyeli, ŵakukhala mu Ethiopia, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mafuko ghaŵiri, Falash Mura na Beta Abraham. Falash Mura ni Beta Israel awo, nangauli ŵakumanyikwa kuti Mbayuda, ŵakamba kugomezga Cikhristu cifukwa ca mulimo wa umishonale. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Beta Abraham ŵakuwoneka kuti mbanthu ŵa mtundu wa Beta Israyeli awo ŵali kufuma mu nyengo ya ŵapositole. Nangauli wose ŵaŵiri ŵacali kucemeka kuti Beta Israel, kweni ŵali kutali na gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mu Israyeli. Ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu la Beta Israel ŵakuzomerezga ŵanthu ŵa Falash Mura, ndipo ŵapempha kuti ŵaŵaleke kuluta ku Israel. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Beta Abraham ŵakutemweka yayi na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu matawuni na mizi yinyake ya ku Ethiopia nga ni Wolleka, kufupi na msumba wa Gondar, Ŵayuda ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵachali ŵanandi, kweni sono ku United States kuli Ŵayuda ŵanandi ŵa ku Ethiopia. Magulu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakususka boma kuti likukora ŵanthu ŵakuchitapo kanthu, ŵamutolamakani, na ŵalembi ŵa nkhani kuti ŵaleke kususka visopa vinyake. Pa Ogasiti 3, 2015, ŵanthu 17 awo ŵakachitanga vinthu vya chisopa cha Ciislamu ŵakakakika. Ŵakaŵa na mulandu wakuti ŵakakhumbanga kupanga boma la Cisilamu mu caru ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu. Ŵanthu wose awo ŵakayuzgika ŵakakana ivyo ŵakayowoya ndipo ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakachitanga viheni pera pakuvikilira wanangwa wawo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailysabah.com/africa/2015/08/04/ethiopia-hands-lengthy-prison-terms-to-muslim-activists|title=Ethiopia hands lengthy prison terms to Muslim activists|date=4 August 2015|work=DailySabah|access-date=24 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-arrests-idUSKCN0Q82AC20150803|title=Ethiopia hands lengthy prison terms to Muslim activists|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=24 October 2015|date=3 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33759946|title=Ethiopia jails Muslims convicted of terror plot|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=24 October 2015|date=3 August 2015}}</ref> ===Kukhala mu tauni=== {{Main|List of cities and towns in Ethiopia}} [[File:Addis Ababa Railway Megenagna Area.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa|Railway in Addis Ababa]] is one of the main transports people use in the city in their day-to-day activities]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo vinthu vikusintha chomene mu misumba. Mu Ethiopia, ŵanthu ŵakuluta mu misumba yinandi, ndipo nyengo ziŵiri zikulutilira kukura. Cakwamba, mu 1936-1941 mu nyengo iyo caru ca Italy cikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Mussolini, ndipo kufuma mu 1967 m'paka mu 1975 apo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni ŵakasazgikira katatu. Mu 1936, charu cha Italy chikapoka charu cha Ethiopia, ndipo chikazenga vinthu vyakovwira kuti misumba yikuruyikuru yikolerane. Ici pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy na ŵantchito ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti vinthu visinthe mwaluŵiro mu nyengo iyi. Nyengo yachiŵiri ya kukura yikaŵa kwamba mu 1967 m'paka mu 1975, apo ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakasamukira mu matawuni kupenja nchito na umoyo uwemi. Mulimo uwu ukakhora chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya boma ya kusintha malo mu 1975, iyo yikawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵakhalenge ku mizi. Ŵanthu ŵakati ŵafumako ku mizi na kuluta ku misumba, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa chomene. Dango la kunozga malo likakhumbanga kusazgirako ulimi cifukwa cakuti vyakurya vikakuranga yayi pamoza na unandi wa ŵanthu mu nyengo ya 1970-1983. Ndondomeko iyi yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na mipingo yikuruyikuru ya ŵalimi. Dango ili likapangiska kuti vyakurya vyasazgikire, nangauli pali kukwesana pa cifukwa cake. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu matawuni ŵakulutilira kukura ndipo kufuma mu 1975 m'paka mu 2000, ŵakasazgikira na 8.1%.<ref name="Accessed 5-10-08">[https://web.archive.org/web/20180313170039/http://worldbank.org/ Worldbank.org]. Retrieved 5 October 2008 {{nonspecific|date=November 2010}}</ref> {{Largest cities or towns of Ethiopia}} ====Rural and urban life==== {{Main article|Rural flight in Ethiopia}} [[File:Gonder from the Goha hotel.jpg|thumb|[[Gondar]] skyline]] Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuluta ku misumba cifukwa ca kukhumba umoyo uwemi. Mu vyaru ivyo muli ŵanthu ŵanandi, umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa ukuyana waka na kulimbana kuti munthu wapone. Pafupifupi 16% ya ŵanthu mu Ethiopia ŵakukhala na ndalama zakukwana dola limoza pa zuŵa (2008). Ŵana ŵa vyaka 5 kukhilira pasi ŵakukwana 42%. Mbumba zinandi zakusuzgika (75%) zikugona pamoza na viŵeto, ndipo 40% ya ŵana ŵakugona pasi. Mbumba ya ŵanthu 6 panji 7 yikukhala mu nyumba ya mathipa ya mamita 30, ndipo muli vigaŵa viŵiri vyambura kukura.<ref name="Crawley">Crawley, Mike. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120625131910/http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Resources/Publications/Pages/ArticleDetails.aspx?PublicationID=587 "Breaking the Cycle of Poverty in Ethiopia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625131910/http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Resources/Publications/Pages/ArticleDetails.aspx?PublicationID=587|date=25 June 2012}}. April 2003. International Development Research Centre. Retrieved on 24 May 2008</ref>[[File:On The Road To Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia (2446794591).jpg|thumb|left|Rural area in the [[Simien Mountains National Park]]]] Wupu wa ŵalimi ukusuzgika na ukavu. Pakuti malo agha ngachoko chomene, ŵalimi ŵangazomerezga yayi kuti ghaleke kupambika makora. Chifukwa cha kunangika kwa malo agha, viŵeto vikuleka kupambika vyakurya, ndipo mkaka ukuchepa. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵakotcha vyakumera m'malo mwa kuviwezgera mu dongo, mbwenu vyakurya vikumara. Kuchepa kwa vyakurya kukupangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵaleke kusanga ndalama zinandi, njara, kusoŵa chakurya na matenda. Ŵalimi ŵambura kupwelelera makora ŵakusuzgika kugwira nchito mu minda yawo ndipo vyakurya vikumara. Nangauli mu misumba vinthu vili makora comene, kweni mu Ethiopia mose muli ukavu na ukotoli uheni. Ndipouli, ukavu ku Ethiopia ukakhira kufuma pa 44% kufika pa 29.6% mu 2000-2011, kuyana na World Bank. Mu Addis Ababa, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi, ŵanthu 55% ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya vya ŵanthu ŵachoko. Kweni sono, cifukwa cakuti nchito ya kuzenga yikukura comene mu misumba yikuruyikuru, comenecomene mu Addis Ababa. Mu tawuni iyi muli nyumba zinandi za boma izo ŵanthu pafupifupi 600,000 ŵakukhala. Mu tawuni iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhumbikwira nadi maji ghawemi, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵalije malo ghakutozgera viswaswa. Ici cikupangiska kuti matenda ghasazgikire cifukwa ca maji ghaheni.<ref name="Accessed 15 May 2008">Shivley, K. "Addis Ababa, Ethiopia" [https://web.archive.org/web/20170211101151/https://www.macalester.edu/courses/geog61/kshively/index.html Macalester.edu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211101151/https://www.macalester.edu/courses/geog61/kshively/index.html|date=11 February 2017}}. Retrieved 15 May 2008.</ref>[[File:Any Day, Adigrat (12582724894).jpg|thumb|Street scene in [[Adigrat]]]] Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakukhala makora mu misumba, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Addis Ababa ŵakukhala makora kuluska ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵa viŵeto. Mwakupambana na ŵana ŵa ku mizi, ŵana 69% ŵa mu matawuni ŵakusambira pulayimale, ndipo 35 peresenti ya ŵana aŵa ŵakusambira sekondare. Msumba wa Addis Ababa uli na yunivesite yake kweniso masukulu ghanyake ghanandi gha sekondare. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ŵalipo 82%. Mabungwe ghanandi ghambura kwendera boma ghakovwira kuti suzgo ili limare. Kweni ghanandi mwa mabungwe agha ghali kutali chomene, ghakuchita vinthu mwambura kukolerana, ndipo ghakugwira ntchito mwakupambana. Wupu wa mawupu ghambura vya boma ku sub-Saharan Africa ukuyezga kwendera lumoza.<ref name="Accessed 5-10-08"/> ===Umoyo=== {{Main|Health in Ethiopia}}{{Further|Child marriage in Ethiopia|Polygamy in Ethiopia}} [[File:Child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa and Ethiopia.svg|thumb|Declining child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa and Ethiopia since 1950]] Lipoti la Wupu wa vya Umoyo pa Caru Cose la mu 2006 likulongora kuti mu 2003, kukaŵa ŵadokotala 1,936 ndipo pa ŵanthu 100,000, pakaŵa ŵadokotala 2.6 pera. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti charu cha Ethiopia chili mu suzgo chifukwa cha kusintha kwa vinthu pa charu. Vinthu vikuru ivyo vikuchitika mu charu cha Ethiopia ni matenda agho ghakuthandazgika na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 44 miliyoni (pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu wose) ŵalije maji ghawemi. Vinthu ivi vikusazgikira cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa ŵadokotala na manesi ndiposo malo gha cipatala. Umoyo wa ŵanthu mu misumba ni uwemi comene. Ŵana awo ŵakubabika, ŵana awo ŵakufwa, na awo ŵakufwa ni ŵachoko chomene mu matawuni kuluska mu mizi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu misumba kuluska ku mizi, kweni mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vinthu vyamba kwenda makora mu charu chose. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika na maji, kweni ŵakugwiliskira nchito maji ghanandi. Mu misumba, ŵanthu 81% ŵakugwiliskira nchito maji agha. Nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku misumba kuti ŵakakhalenge makora. Kukwambilira kwa 2005, wupu wa WHO ukati ku Ethiopia kukaŵa vipatala 119 (12 ku Addis Ababa) na maofesi gha munkhwala 412. Ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵababa mbachoko chomene, ndipo pa ŵanthu 1,000 awo ŵakubabika, 41 ŵakufwa. Kufuma mu 1990 m'paka mu 2012, charu cha Ethiopia chikakwaniska kuchepeska chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵandafike vyaka 5. Nangauli chiŵelengero ichi chachepa chomene, kweni ŵanakazi ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵakusuzgika na masuzgo agho ghakuŵapo para ŵababa. HIV/AIDS mu Ethiopia yikaŵa pa 1.1% mu 2014, ndipo yikakhira chomene kufuma pa 4.5% vyaka 15 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika comene ni ŵanthu ŵakavu na ŵanakazi, cifukwa ca kupeleŵera kwa masambiro gha vyaumoyo, kuŵawovwira, kuŵamanya makora ŵanthu, ndiposo kuleka kuŵa na umoyo uwemi. Boma la Ethiopia na mawupu gha vyaru vinandi nga ni World Health Organization (WHO), na United Nations, ŵakwambiska kampeni ndipo ŵakugwira nchito mwakukwana kuti ŵawovwire kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu ku Ethiopia uŵe uwemi kweniso kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora za matenda gha AIDS na matenda ghanyake agho ghakuthandazgika.<ref>(Dugassa, 2005).</ref>[[File:Bracing for a short, sharp jab.jpg|thumb|An Ethiopian girl about to receive her [[measles]] vaccine]] Charu cha Ethiopia chili na ŵana ŵanandi awo ŵakufwa pa nthumbo. Nangauli Ethiopia wakakwaniska yayi kufiska chilato cha MDG cha kuchepeska nyifwa ya ŵamama na vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu mu 2015, kweni vinthu vikwenda makora. Mwachiyelezgero, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana pambere ŵandababike chikakwera kufuma pa 8.1% mu 2000 kufika pa 41.8% mu 2014, ndipo chiŵelengero cha awo ŵakugonana pambere ŵandababike chikakwera kufuma pa 29% kufika pa 98.1% mu nyengo yeneyiyi. Mazuŵa ghano, pa ŵana 100,000, ŵanakazi 420 ndiwo ŵakufwa. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ku Ethiopia ndiwo ŵakubabikira mu vipatala, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakubabikira mu vikaya. Ŵanakazi ŵacekuru awo ŵakulindizgika kuti ŵababe pa nyumba ndiwo ŵakuŵawovwira. "Wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose ukuti para ŵanakazi ŵangababika mu maofesi gha munkhwala agho ghali na wovwiri wakukwana ndiposo awo ŵali kusambizgika makora, ŵangaleka kufwa na kulwara".<ref>(Dorman et al., 2009, p.&nbsp;622).</ref> [[File:Community Health Workers (5762479865).jpg|thumb|Community health care workers]] Cifukwa cakuti palije ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa munkhwala awo ŵakumanya vya munkhwala, kweniso palije ndalama zakovwilira ŵantchito aŵa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga yayi ŵanthu awo ŵakuchizga matenda. Chinthu chimoza icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita, kwali ŵali mu chisopa wuli panji ŵali na ndalama zinandi, nkhuswa viŵaro vya ŵanakazi (Female Genital Mutilation, panji FGM). Mu 2004, boma la Ethiopia likakanizga kugwiliskira ntchito munkhwala uwu. Kuguliska ŵanakazi ni kaluso ako kakuchitika pambere ŵandatorane ndipo kakusangika mu vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Middle East.<ref name="Rohayes">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030| title = Female genital mutilation, fertility control, women's roles, and the patrilineage in modern Sudan: A functional analysis1| journal = American Ethnologist| volume = 2| issue = 4| pages = 617–33| year = 1975| last1 = Hayes | first1 = R.O. | doi-access = free}}</ref><ref name="Bodman">Bodman, Herbert L. and Tohidi, Nayereh Esfahlani (1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=PFzdA2Hini4C Women in Muslim societies: diversity within unity], Lynne Rienner Publishers, p. 41. {{ISBN|1-55587-578-5}}</ref>Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakuchiska ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo.<ref name="Frayser">Frayser, Suzanne G. and Whitby, Thomas J. (1995) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZArPH0nFGo0C Studies in human sexuality: a selected guide], Libraries Unlimited, p. 257 {{ISBN|1-56308-131-8}}.</ref>[[File:Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital - from Flickr 159817756.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital]]]] Ku Ethiopia, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakukomeka, kweni ku ŵasungwana yayi. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na ŵanthu na umoyo wa ku Ethiopia (Ethiopia's 2005 Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS)) wakalongora kuti pa ŵanakazi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakulwara matenda agha chili pa 74%. Mu vigaŵa vya Dire Dawa, Somalia, na Afar, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita nthena. Mu vigaŵa vya Oromo na Harari, ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana ŵakujumpha 80 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakuchita opareshoni iyi. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakusuzgika na nthenda iyi mbachoko chomene mu vigaŵa vya Tigray na Gambela. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2010, ku Ethiopia, ŵanakazi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 35 na 39 ŵali na nthenda iyi pa ŵanthu 81 peresenti. Lipoti linyake la UNICEF la mu 2014 likulongora kuti pa ŵasungwana wose ŵa vyaka 14 kukhilira pasi, 24 pera ndiwo ŵakatoleka. Kweniso mu charu ichi ŵanthu ŵakukotora ŵanalume, ndipo pafupifupi 76% ya ŵanalume ŵa mu Ethiopia ŵakukotoreka. Boma la Ethiopia lili kusaina mapangano ghakupambanapambana agho ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanakazi na ŵana. Dango la caru ici likupeleka wanangwa wa ŵanakazi. Ŵakuyezga kukhozga umoyo wa ŵanakazi mwa kumazga malango na maluso ghose agho ghakutondeska ŵanakazi kuti ŵachitenge vinthu mwakuyana na wanangwa wawo. Ndondomeko ya Umoyo wa Maghanoghano iyo yikalembeka mu 2012, yikalongozga kuti paŵe ndondomeko yakovwira kuti umoyo wa maghanoghano uŵe makora mu Ethiopia. Ndondomeko iyi yikayowoya kuti umoyo wa maghanoghano ukwenera kuŵa mu ndyali. Ndipouli, ndondomeko ya umoyo wa maghanoghano ya ku caru cose yikwenda makora yayi. Mwachiyelezgero, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika maghanoghano chikasazgikira na 34.2% kufuma mu 2007 m'paka 2017. Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera, ŵakulongozga makora yayi, kweniso ŵakukolerana yayi pa nkhani ya umoyo wa maghanoghano.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Health system governance to support scale up of mental health care in Ethiopia: a qualitative study|first1=Charlotte|last1=Hanlon|first2=Tigist|last2=Eshetu|first3=Daniel|last3=Alemayehu|first4=Abebaw|last4=Fekadu|first5=Maya|last5=Semrau|first6=Graham|last6=Thornicroft|first7=Fred|last7=Kigozi|first8=Debra Leigh|last8=Marais|first9=Inge|last9=Petersen|first10=Atalay|last10=Alem|date=8 June 2017|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=11|pages = 38|doi=10.1186/s13033-017-0144-4|pmid=28603550|pmc=5465569}}</ref> ===Masambilo=== {{Main|Education in Ethiopia}} {{See also|Higher education in Ethiopia}} [[File:Addis Abeba University (Sam Effron).jpg|thumb|Entrance of [[Addis Ababa University]]]] Charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa na chisopa cha Orthodox cha Tewahedo kufuma mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Axum mu 330 C.E. Ŵaliska ndiwo ŵakasambizganga Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Etiyopiya visambizgo vyaunenesko. Para ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵamalizga masambiro ghawo, ŵakuŵa ŵasofi kweniso ŵakusambira chomene. Masambiro gha mazuŵa ghano ghakamba mu 1908 apo Fumu Menelik II yikajura sukulu yakwamba mu Addis Ababa. Kweniso, Themba Haile Selassie I likawovwira kuti paŵe yunivesite yakwamba, yunivesite ya Addis Ababa, iyo yikazengeka mu 1950. Sonosono apa, boma likunozga masukulu ghapachanya gha vigaŵa vinandi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Education in Ethiopia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ethiopia/Education |website=Britannica |access-date=5 February 2022}}</ref> [[File:Plants in a Laboratory for High School Science, Addis Ababa.jpg|thumb|Plants in a laboratory of [[Ethio-Parents' School]] in Addis Ababa]] Ndondomeko iyo yilipo sono yikukolerana na ndondomeko ya kusazgirako masukulu, iyo yikuyana comene na umo vikaŵira mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ndipo yikusazgapo kuti ŵanthu ŵa vigaŵa ivi ŵalutilire kusambizgika mu viyowoyero vyawo. Masambiro gha ku pulayimale ngambura kulipira ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira para ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 7 na 12. Masambiro gha ku sekondare mu Ethiopia ghakukhala vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza, kufuma apo vyaka vinayi vya masambiro gha ku sekondare.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Teferra|first1=Damtew|last2=Altbach|first2=Philip G.|title=African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RROdAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34186-0|pages= 316–25}}</ref> [[File:Top floor of the first science museum in Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|The [[Ethiopia Museum of Art and Science|Addis Ababa Science Museum of Art and Science]] serves as the country's biggest hub which showcases the country's newest innovations]] Masambiro gha ku Ethiopia ghakulongozgeka na Unduna wa vya masambiro ndipo ndondomeko yake ni 4+4+2+2 system; masambiro gha ku pulayimale ghakukhala vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri, ndipo gha vyaka vinayi gha masambiro gha ku sekondare ghakukhala vyaka viŵiri. Wupu wakuwona vya masambiro (National Education Assessment and Examination Agency) ndiwo ukuchita viyezgelero vya boma. Kuyambira chaka cha 2018, pali mayeso awiri a boma: Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE), omwe amadziwikanso kuti Grade 10 national exam ndi Grade 12 national exam. Mazuŵa ghano, pali masukulu gha boma 30. Pambere chaka cha 1991 chindafike, ku Ethiopia kukaŵavya masukulu gha masukulu ghapachanya, kweni sono kuli masukulu ghapachanya ghapachanya 61. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa masukulu ghapachanya na ghapachanya chikakwera chomene, kufuma pa 34,000 mu 1991 kufika pa 757,000 mu 2014. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Ethiopia ŵasambira makora. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 miliyoni ŵakasambiranga masukulu gha pulayimale mu 1994-95, kweni mu 2008-09, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakasambiranga masukulu gha pulayimale chikakwera kufika pa 15.5 miliyoni. Mu 2013-14, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga sukulu ku Ethiopia chikakwera chomene mu vigaŵa vyose. Pa caru cose, ciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵaciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵaciŵelengero ca ŵanalume cikaŵa 104.8%, ca ŵasungwana 97.8%, na 101.3%. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikakwera chomene. Mu 2007, chiŵelengero ichi chikaŵa 39% (ŵanalume 49.1% na ŵanakazi 28.9%). Lipoti la UNDP mu 2011 likulongora kuti ŵanthu 46.7% mu Ethiopia ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Lipoti lenelili likayowoyaso kuti chiŵelengero cha ŵanakazi awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikakwera kufuma pa 27 kufika pa 39 peresenti kufuma mu 2004 m'paka mu 2011, ndipo cha ŵanalume kufuma pa 49 kufika pa 59 peresenti. Mu 2015, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikakwera chomene, chikafika pa 49.1% (57.2% ŵanalume na 41.1% ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en|title=Education|last=UIS|website=data.uis.unesco.org}}</ref> ==Mwambo== {{Main|Culture of Ethiopia}} [[File:Roasting Ethiopian coffee ceremony.jpg|thumb|170px|An Ethiopian woman roasting coffee beans in a [[coffee house]]. The coffee serving ceremony is the most important course in Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 October 2019|title=Ethiopian Coffee Guide: Buying and Brewing Tips|url=https://www.homegrounds.co/ethiopian-coffee/|access-date=11 February 2022|language=en-US}}</ref>]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakakhalanga ku chigaŵa ichi, ndipo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha ChiSemiti, Chicushiti, na chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tigray na Amhara, awo ŵakalongozganga ndyali kumasinda, ŵakupambana na ŵanthu ŵanyake chifukwa cha ndondomeko yawo na umo ŵakakhalanga. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali kufuma ku Kaffa, Sidamo, na Afar.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=27 August 1976|title=The peoples and cultures of Ethiopia|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.1976.0061|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=194|issue=1114|pages=7–16|doi=10.1098/rspb.1976.0061|pmid=11482|issn=0080-4649|last1=Lewis|first1=I. M.|bibcode=1976RSPSB.194....7L|s2cid=46723065}}</ref> Cinthu ico cikumanyikwa comene pa vyakucitika vya khofi. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinandi, khofi wakupelekeka pa ungano wa mbumba, wa ŵabwezi, panji wa mu muzi. Pali mitundu yitatu ya kumwa khofi: yimoza yakuchemeka "awol", yachiŵiri "tona" (ቶና) na yachitatu "baraka" (ባርካ). Nthano ya khofi yikamba na Kaldi, muliska wa mbuzi wa ku Keffa Zone uyo wakawona kuti mbuzi yake yikamba kuŵa na nthenda ya nthenda ya kutenthema cifukwa ca kurya vivwati ivyo vikapangiska kuti yimbenge mwambura kujikora. Wakati waŵa na vipasi, ŵakamuphalira kuti wavipeleke ku ŵasembe ŵa ku nyumba ya ŵasofi. Wasembe munyake wakati Kaldi ni "muzga wa Dyabulosi". Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Kaldi wakaŵako mu 850 C.E., ndipo ŵakugomezga kuti ndiyo wakamba kulima khofi ku Ethiopia mu vyaka vya m'ma 900.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Ethiopian Coffee Culture – Legend, History and Customs|url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/ethiopian-coffee-culture-765829|access-date=25 December 2021|website=The Spruce Eats|language=en}}</ref> ===Maluso=== {{main article|Ethiopian art}} [[File:Ethiopian scribes.jpg|thumb|Illustration showing two [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] scribes]] Vinthu vya ku Ethiopia vikakhwaskika chomene na vithuzithuzi vya Ŵakhristu. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa mipukutu, vithuzithuzi, mphinjika, vikozgo, na vinthu vinyake vya visulo nga ni mphumphu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakalembako mabuku agha ŵakaŵa ŵa tchalitchi la Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo, ilo likaŵa la boma kwa vyaka vinandi. Mu nyengo ya Aksumite, ŵanthu ŵakaŵikangamo vinthu vyakuŵaja mu malibwe, nangauli palije vinthu vya Chikhristu ivyo vikusangika mu nyengo iyi. Apo Chikhristu chikambanga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Byzantium ndiwo ŵakambiska visambizgo vyake. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵako pambere nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano yindize vikabwanganduka chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa ufumu wa Adal mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya ku Ethiopia, kweni ŵakatumizgika na ŵapositole ŵa Katolika. Ŵanji ŵakamba kunjilirapo pa luso lwa ku Ethiopia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. ===Kuzenga=== {{main article|Architecture of Ethiopia}} [[File:ET Gondar asv2018-02 img03 Fasil Ghebbi.jpg|thumb|The Royal Enclosure at [[Fasil Ghebbi]], [[Gondar]]]] Panji nyumba zakutowa comene izo zikazengeka mu nyengo yakale zikazengeka mu nyengo ya Dʿmt. Kuzenga kwa Ashlar kukaŵa kwa mtundu unyake wa ku South Arabia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakalutilira kuzenga mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E. Pa malibwe agha ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito libwe limoza. Dindi la Chijaro chautesi ilo likazengera mafumu gha ku Aksumite, likaŵa la mtundu umoza. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Lalibela ŵakakhalanga ku malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum, kweni malo ghanyake ghakaŵa na malibwe panji makuni ghakupambana. Mu nyengo ya Gondarine, vyakuzengeka vya ku Ethiopia vikaŵa vya Baroque, Arabic, Turkish na Gujarati. Chiyelezgero ni linga la ufumu la Fasil Ghebbi, ilo lili na vyakuvwara viŵiri ivi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchema nyumba izi kuti Nyumba za Ufumu.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Andreu Martínez |last1=Alòs-Moner |title=Gondarine Art and Architecture (HaAh 523) – Course Syllabus |url=https://www.academia.edu/11314717}}</ref> ===Visambizgo=== {{main article|Ethiopian philosophy}} Visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya vikaŵa vyakukondweska comene mu Africa kwamba kale comene, nangauli vikaŵa vyakupambana na visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece na ku Patristic. Ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha vinjeru vya ŵanthu ŵakaŵa nga ni Zera Yacob (1599-1692) na Walda Heywat, uyo wakalemba buku lakuti Hatata mu 1667. ===Kulemba mabuku=== {{main article|Ethiopian literature}} [[File:Giyorgis MET DP367372.jpg|thumb|[[Giyorgis of Segla]], prolific religious author in the [[Late Middle Ages]]]] Mabuku gha mu Ethiopia ghakalembeka mu nyengo ya Ŵaakshumi mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E. Ghanandi mwa mabuku agha ghakulongosora vya cisopa. Mu malemba ghacifumu, ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ciyowoyero ca Ge'ez na Cigiriki. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinandi vya ku Africa, mu Ethiopia muli chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez, icho chikayowoyeka chomene pa nkhani za ndyali na masambiro. Nangauli pasono vinthu vikwenda makora yayi mu caru ici, kweni mulimo wa kuvikilira vinthu uwu wafika paheni comene. Mabuku ghanandi gha ku Ethiopia ghakalembeka na mawoko (branna, panji ብራና mu Ciamharic). Pakunozga khuni ili, ŵakuwunjika mapepara gha vikumba na kughaphaka kuti ghaŵe ghakukolerana. Utali wa mupukutu uwu ukuthemba pa umo ukalembekera. Mwachiyelezgero, buku lapakompyuta ilo likusangika mu thumba lili na utali wa masentimita 45, ndipo ndilo lizito chomene. Ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakughanaghana kuti mu Ethiopia mukaŵa mipukutu yakale. Mazuŵa ghano napo, malemba ghakale agho ghakaŵa nga ni codex ghachalipo, ndipo ghakusangika pa mapepara gha vikumba.<ref name=":4" /> Buku linyake lakumanyikwa ilo ŵanthu ŵakulemba ni mupukutu uwo ukuŵavikilira. Vinyake mwa vyakurya ivi vikaŵa vya masalamusi. Mipukutu iyo yikulembeka na ŵaliska ŵambura kusankhika awo ŵakumanya vya kufumiska viŵanda na kuchizga. Para munthu wakunyamura mpukutu wa masentimita 30, kanandi wakuwupinda na kukhomeka pa chiliŵa cha nyumba. Ŵanthu ŵakususkana chomene na mipukutu iyo yikuyana na mabuku gha ku Ethiopia. Mu viyowoyero vinyake, ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mabuku ghakulembeka pa vilembo (ghakuchemeka sensul) agho ghakalembeka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 panji 1600. Mabuku agha kanandi ghakulongosora umoyo na nyifwa ya ŵanthu ŵa chisopa..<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Nosnitsin|first=Denis|date=2012|title=Ethiopian Manuscripts and Ethiopian Manuscript Studies. A brief Overview and Evaluation|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/galim_0753-5015_2012_num_58_1_1993|journal=Gazette du livre médiéval|volume=58|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.3406/galim.2012.1993}}</ref> ====Poetry==== [[File:Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin 2.jpg|thumb|150px|Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin in 1980s]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuyowoya vya Ethiopia. Ŵaluso ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya za vinthu ivyo vikacitika kale, kusuzgika kwa ŵanthu, ukavu na njara. Qene ni cigaŵa ico cikugwiliskirika nchito comene mu sumu za ku Ethiopia. Kuti munthu waŵe na vinjeru vyaunenesko wakwenera kuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Para munthu wakuyowoya mazgu ghaŵiri ghakupambanapambana, limoza likuŵa na fundo zakupulikikwa makora ndipo linyake ndakusuzga chomene kulipulikiska. Ntheura, ici cikucemeka semena work (golide na sera).<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Aga|first=Mark T.|title=20 Of The Best Poets And Poems of Ethiopia (Qene included) — allaboutETHIO|url=https://allaboutethio.com/20-must-read-poems-of-ethiopia-best-ethiopian-poetry.html|access-date=18 December 2021|website=allaboutethio.com|language=en}}</ref> Ŵaluso ŵakumanyikwa chomene ni Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin, Kebede Michael na Mengistu Lemma. ===Calendar=== {{Main|Ethiopian calendar|Oromo calendar}} [[File:Celebrate The Return of Axum Obelisk (Detail) (3172365788).jpg|thumb|Model commemorating the [[Obelisk of Axum|Obelisk of Aksum]]'s return to Ethiopia from Italy, showing the date of its departure and return according to the [[Ethiopian calendar]]]] Ku Ethiopia kuli makalendala ghanandi. Kalendala yakumanyikwa comene ni ya ku Etiyopiya, iyo yikucemekaso Ge'ez calendar, ndipo yikulembeka na cilembo ca Ge'ez, ico nchimoza mwa vilembo vyakale comene pa caru cose. Likuthemba pa kalendara yakale ya ku Alexandria panji ya ku Coptic, iyo nayo yikafuma ku kalendara ya ku Eguputo. Nga ni kalendara ya Ŵacoptic, kalendara ya Ŵaetiyopiya nayo yili na myezi 12 ya mazuŵa 30 na mazuŵa 5 panji 6. Miyezi ya ku Ethiopia yikwamba pa zuŵa limoza na ya ku Coptic, kweni mazina ghawo ghali kulembeka mu Chigeez Nga umo vikaŵira na kalendara ya Julian, zuŵa la nambara sikisi la epagomenal, ilo ni zuŵa lakwamba, likuŵikika pa 29 Ogasiti, myezi 6 pambere zuŵa lakwamba la Julian lindafike. Ntheura, zuŵa lakwamba la chaka cha Ethiopia, 1 Mäskäräm, kwa vyaka vya pakati pa 1901 na 2099 (kuphatikizapo), kanandi ni Seputembala 11 (Gregorian), kweni likuŵa pa Seputembala 12 mu vyaka ivyo vyajumpha chaka cha Gregorian. Pa kalendara ya Gregorian, nyengo iyi yili kunthazi kwa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri na myezi yitatu cifukwa ca umo ŵanthu ŵakupima zuŵa ilo Yesu wakababikira. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ndiwo ŵakambiska kalendara yinyake cha m'ma 300 B.C.E. Kalendala iyi yikuthemba pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona pa mwezi. Miyezi ya Oromo (nyenyezi/miyezi ya mwezi) ni Bittottessa (Iangulum), Camsa (Pleiades), Bufa (Aldebarran), Waxabajjii (Belletrix), Obora Gudda (Central Orion-Saiph), Obora Dikka (Sirius), Birra (mwezi wakuzura), Cikawa (gibbous moon), Sadasaa (quarter moon), Abrasa (large crescent), Ammaji (medium crescent), and Gurrandala (small crescent).<ref>{{cite web|first=Lawrence R |last=Doyle |url=http://www.tusker.com/Archaeo/art.currentanthro.htm |title=The Borana Calendar Reinterpreted |work=tusker.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029073246/http://www.tusker.com/Archaeo/art.currentanthro.htm |archive-date=29 October 2008}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|Ethiopian cuisine}} {{multiple image | align =right | total_width = 280 | image1 = Coffee ceremony of Ethiopia and Eritrea 1.jpg | image2 = Alicha 1.jpg | image3 = Kitfo with Ayibe..JPG |footer = [[Coffee]] which was found in Ethiopia is the country's most drank beverage (left) [[Injera]] with a mix of wot's or a bayinatu is one of the country's famous foods (center) [[kitfo]] meat diced whether cooked or raw is usually presented with injera, and other foods, it its one of the country's most iconic foods (right) }} {{see also|List of Ethiopian dishes and foods}} The best-known [[Ethiopian cuisine]] consists of various types of thick meat [[stew]]s, known as ''[[wat (food)|wat]]'' in Ethiopian culture, and vegetable side dishes served on top of [[injera]], a large [[sourdough]] [[flatbread]] made of [[teff]] flour. This is not eaten with utensils, but instead the injera is used to scoop up the entrées and side dishes. Almost universally in Ethiopia, it is common to eat from the same dish in the middle of the table with a group of people. It is also a common custom to feed others within a group or own hands—a tradition referred to as "[[Ethiopian cuisine#Gursha|gursha]]".Mu vyakurya vya ku Ethiopia mulije nyama ya nkhumba panji viŵeto vya mtundu uliwose, pakuti vyose ivi ni vyakukanizgika mu visopa vya Orthodox, Chikhristu, Chisilamu na Chiyuda. Chechebsa, Marqa, Chukko, Michirra na Dhanga ni vyakurya vyakumanyikwa chomene ku Oromo. Kitfo ni cakurya ico ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Gurage ŵakutemwa comene. Kweniso, Doro Wot (ዶሮ ወጥ mu chiAmharic) na Tsebehi Derho (ጽብሒ ድርሆ mu chiTigrinya), ni vyakurya vinyake vyakumanyikwa chomene, ivyo vikufuma kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Tihlo (ጥሕሎ) ni mtundu wa cakurya ico cikupangika na ufu wa balere wakukaŵa. Tihlo sono yikumanyikwa chomene mu Amhara ndipo yikupharazgika kumwera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Culture of the people of Tigrai|url=http://www.tigraionline.com/bahlina.html|publisher=Tigrai Online|access-date=3 January 2013}}</ref> ===Holidays=== {{main article|Public holidays in Ethiopia}} [[File:Meskel-festival-in-Ethiopia 01.jpg|thumb|[[Meskel]] commemorates the discovery of [[True Cross]] by Roman queen [[Helena, mother of Constantine I|Helena]] in 326 CE]] Most holidays are belonged to the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo]], and secondly of [[Islam in Ethiopia|Islam]]. Secular holidays espouse national or historical chronicles. Secular holidays are follows with date of celebration: * [[Adwa Victory Day]] (2 March) * International Workers' Day (1 May) * [[Ethiopian Patriots' Victory Day]] (5 May) * [[Downfall of the Derg (holiday)|Downfall of the Derg]] (28 May) * [[Enkutatash]] (11 September or 12 September (leap year)) * [[Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Day]] (8 December) Ethiopian Orthodox holidays are: * [[Ethiopian Christmas]] (7 January) * [[Timkat]] (19 January) * [[Good Friday]] * [[Easter]] * [[Meskel]] (27 September or 28 September (leap year)) Islamic holidays are: * [[Ramadan]] * [[Mawlid]] * [[Eid al-Fitr]] * [[Eid al-Adha]] ===Media=== {{main|Communications in Ethiopia|Media in Ethiopia}} {{multiple image | align = left | total_width = 280 | image1 =| image2 =| image3 = Teddy Afro.jpg |footer = Actress Mekdes Tsegaye (left), [[Tilahun Gessesse]] (center) and [[Teddy Afro]] (right) are three influential Ethiopians in the music and movie industries in Ethiopia}} [[File:Ethiopian Television.JPG|thumb|The [[Ethiopian Broadcasting Corporation]] headquarter in Addis Ababa]]The [[Ethiopian Broadcasting Corporation]] (EBC), formerly known as ETV, is the [[state media]]. Radio broadcasting was commenced earlier in 1935 before the television service began in 1962 with assistance of British firm Thomson and Emperor Haile Selassie.<ref name="africanews.com"/> Since 2015, EBC has upgraded its studios with modernized transmission. [[Kana TV]] is the most popular TV channel in Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2017/12/ethiopias-new-addiction-says-media-freedom/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CKana%E2%80%9D%20translates%20as%20something%20between,of%20the%20prime%20time%20market |title=Ethiopia's New Addiction – And What It Says About Media Freedom |last=Jeffrey |first=James |work=Inter Press Service News Agency |date=21 December 2017 |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> It is mainly known for [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbing]] foreign content into [[Amharic]]. Over several decades, the state television has served as the major mass media until in the late 2000s, when [[EBS TV (Ethiopia)|EBS TV]] launched as the first private television channel. Moreover, numerous private channels were commenced in 2016, culminating in the growth of privately owned media companies in the country. As an example, [[Fana TV]] has been the largest TV network since its launch in 2017. The most widely circulated newspapers in Ethiopia are [[Addis Fortune]], [[Capital Ethiopia]], [[Ethiopian Reporter]], Addis Zemen{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} (''Amharic'') and [[Ethiopian Herald]].{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} The sole internet service provider is the national telecommunications firm [[Ethio telecom]]. A large portion of users in the country access the internet through mobile devices.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/ethiopia-internet-blocked-618806|title=Why has Ethiopia pulled its mobile internet access again?|last=Gaffey|first=Conor|date=1 June 2017|work=Newsweek|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> {{as of|2016|July}}, there are around 4.29&nbsp;million people who have internet access at their home as compared to a quarter of a million users a decade before that.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.internetlivestats.com/internet-users/ethiopia/|title=Ethiopia Internet Users|date=1 July 2016|website=Internet Live Stats|publisher=Internet Live Stats}}</ref> The Ethiopian government has at times intentionally shut down internet service in the country or restricted access to certain social media sites during periods of political unrest. In August 2016, following protest and demonstration in the Oromia Region, all access to the internet was shut down for a period of two days.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36940906|title=What is behind Ethiopia's wave of protests?|date=22 August 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> In June 2017, the government shut down access to the internet for mobile users during a period that coincided with the administration of university entrance examination. Although the reason for the restriction was not confirmed by the government,<ref name=":3" /> the move was similar to a measure taken during the same period in 2016, after a leak of test questions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/07/ethiopia-blocks-social-media-sites-exam-leak-160711183939642.html|title=Ethiopia blocks social media sites over exam leak|date=11 July 2016|website=Al Jazeera|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/ethiopia-blocks-social-media-facebook-twitter-instagram-scandal-479581|title=Ethiopia has shut down social media and here's why|last=Sharkov|first=Damien|date=12 July 2016|work=Newsweek|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> ===Science and technology=== {{Main article|Science and technology in Ethiopia}} {{see also|List of Ethiopian scientists}} {{multiple image | align =right | image1 = Portrait-aklilu-lemma-11.jpg | width1 = 125 | caption1 = Pathobiologist [[Aklilu Lemma]]. In 1964, he discovered an [[Alternative medicine|alternative]] treatment for [[schistosomiasis]], known as snail fever.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Aklilu Lemma|url=https://rightlivelihood.org/the-change-makers/find-a-laureate/aklilu-lemma/|access-date=9 January 2022|website=Right Livelihood|language=en}}</ref> | image2 = Zeresenay Alemseged (2013-01).JPG | width2 = 125 | caption2 = Paleoanthropologist [[Zeresenay Alemseged]] in 2013. He was best known for discovering fossilized [[hominin]] called ''[[Selam (Australopithecus)|Selam]]'' or "Lucy's baby" in December 2000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zeresenay Alemseged – National Geographic Society|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/find-explorers/zeresenay-alemseged|access-date=9 January 2022|website=www.nationalgeographic.org|language=en}}</ref> }} Science and technology in Ethiopia emerging as progressive due to lack of organized institutions. Manufacturing and service providers often place themselves in [[competitive programming]] in order to advance innovative and technological solutions through in-house arenas. The [[Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute|Ethiopian Space Science and Technology]] is responsible for conducting multifaceted tasks regarding space and technology. In addition, Ethiopia also launched 70&nbsp;kg ET-RSS1 multi-spectral remote sensing satellite in December 2019. The President Sahle-Work Zewde told prior in October 2019 that "the satellite will provide all the necessary data on changes in climate and weather-related phenomena that would be used for the country's key targets in agriculture, forestry as well as natural resources protection initiatives." By January 2020, satellite manufacturing, assembling, integrating and testing began. This would also incremented facility built by French company funded by European Investment Bank (EIB). The main observatory Entoto Observatory and Space Science Research Center (EORC) allocated space programmes. The Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute is a part of Scientific Research & Development Services Industry, responsible for environmental and climate conservation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Science And Technology|url=https://www.miceethiopia.com/science-and-technology/|access-date=23 December 2021|website=MICE Ethiopia|language=en-US}}</ref> Numerous profound scientists have contributed degree of honours and reputations. Some are [[Kitaw Ejigu]], [[Mulugeta Bekele]], [[Aklilu Lemma]], [[Gebisa Ejeta]] and [[Melaku Worede]]. Ethiopia is known for use of [[traditional medicine]] since millennia. The first epidemic occurred in Ethiopia was in 849, causing the Aksumite Emperor Abba Yohannes evicted from place due to "God's punishment for misdeeds". The first traditional medicine was claimed to be derived from this catastrophe, but the exact source is debated. Though differ from ethnic groups, traditional medicine often implements herbs, spiritual healing, bone-setting and minor surgical procedures in treating disease.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ethiopian Traditional Medications and their Interactions with Conventional Drugs|url=https://ethnomed.org/resource/ethiopian-traditional-and-herbal-medications-and-their-interactions-with-conventional-drugs/|access-date=31 January 2022|website=EthnoMed|language=en-US}}</ref> Others fields include conventional [[Mathematics in Ethiopia|mathematics]] used to measure astrology, calendar and unit of measurement. Ethiopia was ranked 126th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=5 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ===Music=== {{Main|Music of Ethiopia}} {{See also|Ethiopian Golden Age of music}} The [[music of Ethiopia]] is extremely diverse, with each of the country's 80 ethnic groups being associated with unique sounds. Ethiopian music uses a distinct [[Musical mode|modal system]] that is [[Pentatonic scale|pentatonic]], with characteristically long intervals between some notes. As with many other aspects of Ethiopian culture and tradition, tastes in music and lyrics are strongly linked with those in neighbouring Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, and Sudan.<ref name="Abdullahi">{{cite book |last=Abdullahi |first=Mohamed Diriye |title=Culture and Customs of Somalia |year=2001 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-31333-2 |page=170 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nu918tYMB8C&pg=PA170 |quote=Somali music, a unique kind of music that might be mistaken at first for music from nearby countries such as Ethiopia, the Sudan, or even Arabia, can be recognized by its own tunes and styles.}}</ref><ref name="Tekle">{{cite book |last=Tekle |first=Amare |title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: from conflict to cooperation |year=1994 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=978-0-932415-97-4 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC&pg=PA197 |quote=Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan have significant similarities emanating not only from culture, religion, traditions, history and aspirations&nbsp;... They appreciate similar foods and spices, beverages and sweets, fabrics and tapestry, lyrics and music, and jewellery and fragrances.}}</ref> Traditional singing in Ethiopia presents diverse styles of [[polyphony]], ([[heterophony]], [[drone (music)|drone]], imitation, and [[counterpoint]]). Traditionally, lyricism in Ethiopian song writing is strongly associated with views of patriotism or national pride, romance, friendship, and a unique type of memoire known as ''[[tizita]]''. Saint [[Yared]], a 6th-century Aksumite composer, is widely regarded as the forerunner of traditional music of Eritrea and Ethiopia, creating liturgical music of the Ethiopian and [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]. He also composed ''[[Zema]]'', subdivided into three chants: Ge'ez, Ezel and Araray. Yared life thought to have been "failure and success" where his was poor performance in education. Yared then fired from the school and went to his uncle birthplace Murade Qal. There his saw caterpillar endeavours to reach a tree's peak. He epitomized to his real life and returned to the school with good spirit, later became prominent to political sphere. During the remaining of his lifetime, he was a friend of Aksumite Emperor Gebre Meskel and the exiled [[Nine Saints]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=About St. Yared – St. Yared Ethiopian Cuisine & Coffeehaus – Indianapolis IN|url=https://www.styaredcuisine.com/about.html|access-date=25 December 2021|website=www.styaredcuisine.com}}</ref> Modern music traced back to the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, where 40 Armenian orphans called [[Arba Lijoch]] arrived from [[Jerusalem]] to Addis Ababa. By 1924, the band was almost established as orchestral; but after World War II, several similar bands emerged such as Imperial Bodyguard Band, Army Band, and Police Band.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aga|first=Mark T.|title=Music in Ethiopia — allaboutETHIO|url=https://allaboutethio.com/tmusic.html|access-date=9 January 2022|website=allaboutethio.com|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Mahmoudahmedfeature.jpg|thumb|[[Mahmoud Ahmed]] performing in 2005]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 na 1970, sumu za ku Ethiopia zikamba kwambaso. Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa ŵakafuma, nga ni Tilahun Gessesse, Alemayehu Eshete, Bizunesh Bekele, Muluken Melesse na Mahmoud Ahmed. Kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kaluso ako ŵakachemanga tizita. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Derg, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵakanizga kuchita maseŵero mu caru ici ndipo kanandi ŵakasuzgikanga kuluta ku caru ca North America na Europe, ndipo ŵakasangananga na sumu za jazz na za funk. Mwaciyelezgero, Roha Band, Walias Band, na Ethio Stars. Pa nyengo iyi, Neway Debebe wakasuskanga boma la Derg.<ref name=":9" /> Sumu za mazuŵa ghano zikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 na 2000. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga chomene ŵakaŵa Aster Aweke, Gigi na Teddy Afro. Sumu za ku Etiyopiya zikamba kuwoneka makora mu vyaka 10 vyakulondezgapo. DJ Rophnan wakaŵa wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha kupanga EDM pamanyuma pa kufumiska album yake yakwamba Reflection mu 2018.<ref name=":9" /> ===Vyakuonelela=== {{main article|Cinema of Ethiopia}} [[File:HagerFikirTheatre.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hager Fikir Theatre]] in April 2006]] Sinema yakwamba yikalongoreka mu 1898, pati pajumpha vyaka vitatu kufuma apo sinema yakwamba yikayowoyekera. Vinthu vya pa sinema ivyo vikalembeka na Federico Ciccodicola [it] uyo wakaŵa nduna ya ku Italy. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwonelera mafilimu gha nkhani za ŵanthu mu 1909. Au de Menilek ndiyo yikaŵa filimu yakwamba iyo yikalongozgeka na Charles Martel. Filimu yakwamba ya 16mm yakufipa na yituŵa yakuyowoya vya kuwuskika kwa Themba Zewditu, ndipo pamanyuma kuwuskika kwa Themba Haile Selassie. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, mafilimu gha ku Ethiopia ghakathandazgika chomene pa charu chose. Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene mu nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa Haile Gerima, Salem Mekuria, Yemane Demissie, na Teshome Gabriel. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, mafilimu ghakamba kusinthika ndipo ghakaŵa na chiyowoyero cha Chiamhari. Mafilimu agho ghakapanga ndalama zinandi pa caru cose ni Selanchi, Difret, Lamb, Prince of Love na Lambadina. Mu nyengo yasono, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakwimba, kusazgapo Selam Tesfaye, Fryat Yemane, Hanan Tarik, Mahder Assefa, Amleset Muchie na Ruth Negga.[[File:Abebe Bikila triumphant 1960.jpg|thumb|[[Abebe Bikila]] winning the [[1960 Summer Olympics|summer Olympics]] Italy, Rome in 1960: winning [[Ethiopia at the Olympics|Ethiopia's]] and Africa's first gold metal]] Yimoza mwa masambiro gha mafilimu ghakuzirwa chomene ni Gumma Film Awards agho ghakuchitikira mu Addis Ababa. Mphoto iyi yikamba kupelekeka mu 2014. Pa viphikiro vinyake, nga ni Addis International Film Festival na Ethiopian International Film Festival, ŵakuwoneska mafilimu gha ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita maseŵero ghakusanguluska. Iwo ŵakakhazikiskika mu 2007 na 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopian International Film Festival |url=https://ethiopianfilminitiative.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=470:the-ethiopian-international-film-festival&catid=68&Itemid=113 |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=ethiopianfilminitiative.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Addis International Film Festival {{!}} Human Rights Film Network |url=https://www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org/filmfestival/addis-international-film-festival |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org}}</ref> === Maseŵera === {{Main|Sport in Ethiopia}} [[File:Genzebe_Dibaba_Istanbul_2012.jpg|thumb|left|[[Genzebe Dibaba]] wakuchimbira mtunda utali na pakati. Wakawina mendulo ya golide mu mpikisano wa mita 1500 pa mpikisano wa Olimpiki wa 2016 ku Rio.]] Maseŵero ghakurughakuru mu Ethiopia ni maseŵero gha kuthamanga (makamaka kuthamanga mtunda utali) na bola. Ŵaseŵera ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵali kutora mendulo zinandi za golide pa maseŵero gha maseŵero gha ku malo ghakutali. Abebe Bikila wakazgoka wamaseŵera wakwamba kufuma ku chalo cha Sub-Saharan uyo wakatora mendulo ya golide pa maseŵero gha Olympic apo wakatchova marathon pa maseŵero gha Olympic mu 1960 ku Rome mu nyengo ya 2:15:16.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/gallery/2012/apr/25/athletics-olympics-2012|title=50 stunning Olympic moments: Abebe Bikila's 1960 marathon victory – in pictures|last=Bloor|first=Steven|date=25 April 2012|work=The Guardian|access-date=14 October 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.olympic.org/news/barefooted-bikila-steps-in-for-heroic-marathon-triumph|title=Athletics – Abebe Bikila (ETH)|date=13 October 2019|website=International Olympic Committee|language=en|access-date=14 October 2019}}</ref>[[Haile Gebrselassie,]] Kenenisa Bekele, na Tirunesh Dibaba, wose mbalwani ŵakumanyikwa pa charu chose. Letesenbet Gidey ndiyo wali na mbiri ya pa caru cose pa kuthamanga mamita 5,000 na mamita 10,000. Ŵalendo ŵanyake ŵakuzirwa ŵa ku Ethiopia ni Mamo Wolde, Miruts Yifter, Derartu Tulu, Meseret Defar, Birhane Adere, Tiki Gelana, Genzebe Dibaba, Tariku Bekele, Gelete Burka, na Yomif Kejelcha. Mu chaka cha 2012 na 2013, timu ya mpira ya ku Ethiopia (iyo yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti Walayia Antelopes) yikalemba mbiri pakunjira mu Africa Cup of Nations ya 2012 ndipo yikafika mu timu 10 zakumalizira za mpira wa ku Africa mu chigaŵa chaumaliro cha FIFA World Cup ya 2014. Ŵaseŵera ŵakumanyikwa chomene ni Adane Girma uyo wakaŵa kapitawo wa timu iyi na Saladin Said uyo wakaŵa na vilato vinandi. Charu cha Ethiopia chili na mitheto yitali chomene ya mpira wa basketball mu vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa.{{clear}} ==Wonaniso== * [[Index of Ethiopia-related articles]] * [[Outline of Ethiopia]] * [[Music and politics in Ethiopia]] ==Vyakulemba== {{notelist}} ==Ukaboni== ===Citations=== {{Reflist |refs = <!-- Not in use <ref name="Mengistu_2018_Zimb">{{cite news |title = Why a photo of Mengistu has proved so controversial |date= 2 August 2018 |website = [[BBC News]] |publisher = BBC | url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45043811 |access-date = 29 June 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190629092237/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45043811 |archive-date = 29 June 2019 |url-status = live}}</ref> --> }} === General sources=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=Abir |author=Abir, Mordechai |title = Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire (1769–1855) |location = London, England |publisher=Longmans |year= 1968}} * {{cite book |ref=Beshah |author1=Beshah, Girma |author2=Aregay, Merid Wolde |title=The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632) |location = Lisbon |publisher= Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos |year=1964}} *{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000conn |last1=Connel |first1=Dan |last2=Killion |first2=Tom |year=2011 |publisher=The Scarecrow |isbn=978-081085952-4}} * {{cite journal |last=Lyons |first=Terrence |year=1996 |title=Closing the Transition: the May 1995 Elections in Ethiopia |url=https://www.academia.edu/9622394 |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=121–42 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00055233|s2cid=155079488 }} * {{cite book |ref=Munro-Hay |author=Munro-Hay, Stuart |year=1991 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-0106-6 |access-date=3 March 2012 |archive-date=23 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |url-status=dead}} * {{Cite book |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=9780932415196 |language=en}} * {{cite book |ref=Valdes Vivo|author=Valdes Vivo, Raul |title=Ethiopia's Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/ethiopiasrevolut0000vald|publisher=International Publishers |location = New York, NY |year= 1977|isbn=978-0-7178-0556-3}} {{refend}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=Gwyn|last2=Miers|first2=Suzanne|last3=Miller|first3=Joseph|title=Women and Slavery: Africa, the Indian Ocean world, and the medieval north Atlantic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgm69dJt4DcC&pg=PA219|year=2007|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-1723-2}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Abyssinia | volume= 1 |last2= Gleichen |first2= Albert Edward Wilfred |author2-link= Lord Edward Gleichen |last1= Cana |first1= Frank Richardson |author1-link= | pages = 82&ndash;95 |short= 1 }} * Deguefé, Taffara (2006). ''Minutes of an Ethiopian Century'', Shama Books, Addis Ababa, {{ISBN|99944-0-003-7}}. * Hugues Fontaine, ''Un Train en Afrique. African Train'', Centre Français des Études Éthiopiennes / Shama Books. Édition bilingue français / anglais. Traduction : Yves-Marie Stranger. Postface : Jean-Christophe Belliard. Avec des photographies de Matthieu Germain Lambert et Pierre Javelot. Addis Abeba, 2012, {{ISBN|978-99944-867-1-7}}. English and French. [http://www.africantrain.org/ UN TRAIN EN AFRIQUE] * {{Cite book|last=Henze |first=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |year=2004 |publisher=Shama Books|isbn=978-1-931253-28-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Keller |first1=Edmond |title=Revolutionary Ethiopia From Empire to People's Republic |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryeth00edmo |date=1991 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=9780253206466}} * {{Cite book|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913 |year=1975 |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford}} Reprint, Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1995. {{ISBN|1-56902-009-4}}. * {{Cite book|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=A History of Ethiopia |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofethiopi0000marc |edition=updated |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-22479-7}} * Mauri, Arnaldo (2010). ''Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia'', Acta Universitatis Danubius Œconomica, VI, n. 1/2010, pp.&nbsp;5–16. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180844/http://journals.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/oeconomica/article/view/337-319 Monetary Developments and Decolonization in Ethiopia] and WP [http://ideas.repec.org./p/mil/wpdepa/2010-15.html Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia] * {{Cite book|last=Mockler |first=Anthony |title=Haile Selassie's War |url=https://archive.org/details/haileselassieswa0000mock |year=1984 |publisher=Random House |location=New York}} Reprint, New York: Olive Branch, 2003. {{ISBN|0-902669-53-2}}. * [[Dervla Murphy|Murphy, Dervla]] (1968). ''[[In Ethiopia with a Mule]]''. London: Century, 1984, cop. 1968. ''N.B''.: An account of the author's travels in Ethiopia. 280 p., ill. with a b&w map. {{ISBN|0-7126-3044-9}} * {{Cite book|last=Rubenson|first=Sven|title=The Survival of Ethiopian Independence|edition=4th|year=2003|publisher=Tsehai|location=Hollywood, CA |isbn=978-0-9723172-7-6}} * {{Cite book|last=Selassie I. |first=Haile |title=My Life and Ethiopia's Progress: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I |author-link=Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia |others=Translated by Edward Ullendorff |year=1999 |publisher=Frontline |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-948390-40-1}} * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2003). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 1: A–C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2005). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 2: D–Ha. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2007). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 3: He–N. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig & Alessandro Bausi, et al. (eds.) (2010). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 4: O–X. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Alessandro Bausi & S. Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2014). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 5: Y–Z and addenda, corrigenda, overview tables, maps and general index. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * {{Cite book |last=Zewde |first=Bahru |title=A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991 |edition=2nd |year=2001 |publisher=Ohio University Press |location=Athens, OH |isbn=978-0-8214-1440-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00bahr}} * {{Country study}} * {{CIA World Factbook}} {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|n=Category:Ethiopia|s=Category:Ethiopia|v=no|voy=Ethiopia|species=no|m=no|mw=no|collapsible=collapsed}} {{Scholia|topic}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210421154941/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ Ethiopia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13349398 BBC Ethiopia Profile] * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ETH/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Ethiopia Summary Trade Statistics] * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Ethiopia}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ET Key Development Forecasts for Ethiopia] from [[International Futures]]. * [https://www.state.gov/countries-areas/ethiopia Ethiopia pages – U.S. Dept. of State] (which includes current State Dept. press releases and reports on Ethiopia) {{Ethiopia topics}} {{Navboxes |list= {{World Heritage Sites in Ethiopia}} {{Ethnic groups in Ethiopia}} {{Ethiopian diaspora}} {{Medieval Horn of Africa}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|9|N|38.7|E|display=title}} [[Category:Ethiopia| ]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Federal republics]] [[Category:Horn African countries]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] gf80cejiaopdj9di4yrvdt9wqtfjs5t 0 6919 122337 120869 2026-09-25T00:04:28Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122337 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in Central Africa}} {{Revision}} {{About|the country|other uses|Cameroon (disambiguation)}} {{Featured article}} {{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{pp-pc}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Cameroon | common_name = Cameroon | native_name = {{Native name|fr|République du Cameroun}} | image_flag = Flag of Cameroon.svg | alt_flag = Vertical tricolor (green, red, yellow) with a five-pointed gold star in the center of the red | image_coat = Coat of arms of Cameroon.svg | symbol_type = Coat of arms | national_motto = <br />{{Native phrase|fr|"Paix – Travail – Patrie"|italics=off}}<br />"Peace – Work – Fatherland" | national_anthem = <br />{{Native phrase|fr|"Chant de Ralliement"|italics=off|nolink=yes}}<br />"[[The Rallying Song|Rallying Song]]"<br />{{Center| }} | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Cameroon (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Cameroon AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | alt_map = Location of Cameroon on the globe. | image_map2 = | capital = [[Yaoundé]]<ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Cameroon |section=People and Society |date=16 May 2022 }}</ref> | coordinates = {{Coord|3|51|41|N|11|31|14|E|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Douala]] | official_languages = [[French language|French]] {{*}} [[English language|English]] | regional_languages = [[Grassfields languages|Grassfields languages]] {{*}}[[Beti languages|Beti]] {{*}}[[Fula language|Fufulde]] {{*}}[[Sawabantu languages|Sawa]] {{*}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]] {{*}}[[Baka language|Baka]] {{*}}[[Basaa language|Bassa]] {{*}}[[Chadian Arabic]] {{*}}[[Bafia languages|Bafia]] {{*}}[[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]] {{*}}[[Cameroonian Pidgin English|Pidgin]] {{*}}[[Camfranglais]] {{*}}[[Biu–Mandara languages|Mandara]] | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="CIA"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/afrique/peuls-du-cameroun-pr%C3%A9server-lethos-suivre-lair-du-temps-/2888983/ |title=Peuls du Cameroun: Préserver l'ethos, suivre l'air du temps |access-date=10 July 2024 |via=Anadolu Agency-FR }}</ref> | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist | {{Nowrap | 22.2% [[Bamileke people|Bamileke]], [[Bamum people|Bamun]] }} | 16.4% [[Biu–Mandara languages|Biu-Mandara]] | 13.5% [[Baggara Arabs|Shuwa Arab]], [[Hausa people|Hausa]] and [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] | 13.1% [[Beti-Pahuin peoples|Beti]]-[[Bassa people (Cameroon)|Bassa]] | 12.0% [[Fula people|Fulani]] | 9.9% [[Tikar people|Tikar]] | 9.8% [[Adamawa–Ubangi languages|Adamawa-Ubangi]] ([[Mbum languages|Mbum]]-[[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]]) | 4.6% [[Duala people|Sawa people]] | 4.3% [[Manenguba languages|Southwest Bantu]] | 2.3% [[African Pygmies|Pygmy peoples]] | 3.8% others/foreigners }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2022 | religion = {{Ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; | {{Tree list}} * 66.3% [[Christianity]] ** 33.1% [[Catholic Church in Cameroon|Catholic]] ** 27.1% [[Protestantism|Protestant]] ** 6.1% other [[Christian]] {{Tree list/end}} | 30.6% [[Islam in Cameroon|Islam]] | 1.3% [[Traditional African religions|traditional faiths]] | 1.1% [[Irreligion|no religion]] | 0.7% other religions }} | religion_year = 2022 | religion_ref = <ref name="CIA"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://brilliantmaps.com/country-maps/map-of-cameroon/|title=Map of Cameroon Created By The CIA|access-date=March 11, 2026}}</ref> | demonym = [[Cameroonians|Cameroonian]] | government_type = Unitary [[presidential republic]] under an [[authoritarian]] dictatorship | leader_title1 = [[President of Cameroon|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Paul Biya]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Cameroon|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = ''Vacant''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Atabong |first1=Amindeh Blaise |title=Cameroon approves role of vice president to 93-year-old Biya |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/cameroon-approves-role-of-vice-president-to-93-year-old-biya/ar-AA209quQ?ocid=BingNewsVerp |agency=Reuters |date=4 April 2026}}</ref> | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Cameroon|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Joseph Ngute]] | leader_title4 = [[Senate (Cameroon)|President of Senate]] | leader_name4 = Aboubakary Abdoulaye | leader_title5 = [[List of presidents of the National Assembly of Cameroon|President of National Assembly]] | leader_name5 = Theodore Datouo | legislature = [[Parliament of Cameroon|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Senate of Cameroon|Senate]] | lower_house = [[National Assembly of Cameroon|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Cameroon|Formation]] | established_event1 = Independence of [[French Cameroons]] from [[France]] | established_date1 = 1 January 1960 | established_event2 = Independence of [[Southern Cameroons|British Southern Cameroons]] from the [[United Kingdom]] and establishment of the Federal Republic of Cameroon | established_date2 = 1 October 1961 | established_event3 = [[1972 Cameroonian constitutional referendum|Cameroonian constitutional referendum of 1972]] and establishment of the [[Unitary State]] | established_date3 = 20 May 1972 | established_event4 = Current constitution | established_date4 = 18 January 1996 | area_km2 = 475,442 | area_rank = 53rd <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] sourced from the UN--> | area_sq_mi = 183,569 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]--> | percent_water = 0.57 <ref name="CIA"/> | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 30,987,821<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Cameroon |access-date=22 June 2025 |year=2025 }}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2025 | population_estimate_rank = 51st | population_density_km2 = 39.7 | population_density_sq_mi = 102,8 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | GDP_PPP = {{Increase}} $183.320 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.CM">{{Cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/October/weo-report?c=622,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2025 Edition. (Cameroon) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=October 2025 |access-date=20 October 2025 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518180456/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=622,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2026 | GDP_PPP_rank = 86th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $5,960<ref name="IMFWEO.CM" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 147th | GDP_nominal = {{Increase}} $67.520 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.CM" /> | GDP_nominal_rank = 91st | GDP_nominal_year = 2026 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{Increase}} $2,200<ref name="IMFWEO.CM" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 152nd | Gini = 42.2<!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2021 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204222738/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 February 2021 |title=Gini Index coefficient |publisher=[[The World Factbook]] |access-date=24 September 2024 }}</ref> | HDI = 0.588 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDR2025">{{Cite report |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |date=2025 |access-date=9 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250509000000/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=9 May 2025 |url-status=live }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 155th | currency = [[Central African CFA franc]] | currency_code = XAF | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Cameroon|+237]] | cctld = [[.cm]] | footnote_a = These are the titles as given in the ''Constitution of the Republic of Cameroon'', Article X ({{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060228030033/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Cameroon.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Cameroon.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |date=28 February 2006 |title=English}} and {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060228030033/http://www.prc.cm/instit/consti.htm |date=28 February 2006 |title=French}} versions). 18 January 1996. The French version of the song is sometimes called {{Lang|fr|Chant de Ralliement}}, as in Swarovski Orchestra (2004). ''National Anthems of the World''. Koch International Classics; and the English version "O Cameroon, Cradle of Our Forefathers", as in [[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 61. }} '''Cameroon''',{{Efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-Cameroon-pronunciation.ogg|ˌ|k|æ|m|ə|ˈ|r|uː|n}} {{Respell|KAM|ə|ROON}}; {{Langx|fr|Cameroun}} {{IPA|fr|kamʁun||LL-Q150 (fra)-Mecanautes-Cameroun.wav}}.}} officially the '''Republic of Cameroon''',{{Efn|{{Langx|fr|République du Cameroun|links=no}}.}} is a country in [[Central Africa]]. It shares boundaries with [[Nigeria]] to the west and north, [[Chad]] to the northeast, the [[Central African Republic]] to the east, and [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], and the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the south. Its coastline lies on the [[Bight of Biafra]], part of the [[Gulf of Guinea]], and the Atlantic Ocean. Due to its strategic position at the crossroads between [[West Africa]] and Central Africa, it has been categorized as being in both geostrategic locations. Cameroon's population of nearly 31 million people speak 250 native languages, in addition to the national tongues of English and French. The capital city of the country is [[Yaoundé]]. Early inhabitants of the territory included the [[Sao civilisation]] around [[Lake Chad]] and the [[Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]] hunter-gatherers in the southeastern rainforest. [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese explorers]] reached the coast in the 15th century. [[Fula people|Fulani]] soldiers founded the [[Adamawa Emirate]] in the north in the 19th century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and [[Fon (title)|fondoms]]. Cameroon became a [[German Empire|German colony]] in 1884 known as [[Kamerun]]. After [[World War I]], it was divided between [[French Third Republic|France]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] as [[League of Nations mandate]]s until independence in 1960 and 1961 respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dupraz |first=Yannick |date=September 2019 |title=French and British Colonial Legacies in Education: Evidence from the Partition of Cameroon |url=https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/119359/1/WRAP-French-British-colonial-Cameroon-Dupraz-2019.pdf |journal=The Journal of Economic History |language=en |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=628–668 |doi=10.1017/S0022050719000299 |issn=0022-0507 }}</ref> The [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon]] (UPC) political party advocated independence but was outlawed by France in the 1950s, leading to a [[Bamileke War|national liberation insurgency]] between [[French Armed Forces]] and the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC) until January 1971. In 1960, the French-administered part of Cameroon became independent, as the Republic of Cameroun, under President [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]]. The [[Southern Cameroons|southern part]] of [[British Cameroon]]s federated with it in 1961 to form the [[Federal republic|Federal Republic]] of Cameroon. The federation was abandoned in 1972. The country was renamed the [[Unitary state|United Republic]] of Cameroon in 1972 and back to the Republic of Cameroon in 1984 by a presidential decree by President [[Paul Biya]]. Biya, the incumbent president, has led the country since 1982 following Ahidjo's resignation; he previously held office as prime minister from 1975 onward. Cameroon is governed as a unitary [[Presidential system|presidential republic]]. Biya is the world's longest-serving non-royal leader, having ruled for over four decades in an [[authoritarian]] manner. Consequently, his [[Cameroon People's Democratic Movement]] governs the country as a ''de facto'' [[one-party state]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Letsa |first1=Natalie Wenzell |title='The people's choice': popular (il)legitimacy in autocratic Cameroon |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |date=December 2017 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=647–679 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X17000428}}</ref> The [[official language]]s of Cameroon are French and English. Christianity is the majority [[religion in Cameroon]], with significant minorities practising [[Islam in Cameroon|Islam]] and [[Traditional African religions|traditional faiths]]. It has experienced [[Anglophone problem|tensions]] from the English-speaking territories, where politicians have advocated for greater decentralisation and even complete separation or independence (as in the [[Southern Cameroons National Council]]). In 2017, tensions over the creation of an [[Ambazonia]]n state in the English-speaking territories escalated into [[Anglophone Crisis|open warfare]]. Large numbers of Cameroonians live as [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence farmers]]. The country is often referred to as "Africa in miniature" for its geological, linguistic, and cultural diversity. Its natural features include beaches, [[desert]]s, mountains, [[rainforest]]s, and [[savanna]]s. Cameroon's highest point, at almost {{convert|4100|m|ft}}, is [[Mount Cameroon]] in the [[Southwest Region (Cameroon)|Southwest Region]]. Cameroon's most populous cities are [[Douala]] on the [[Wouri River]], its economic capital and main seaport; [[Yaoundé]], its political capital; and [[Garoua]]. [[Limbé, Cameroon|Limbé]] in the southwest has a natural seaport. Cameroon is well known for its native music styles, particularly [[Makossa]], Njang, and [[Bikutsi]], and its successful [[Cameroon national football team|national football team]]. It is a member state of the [[African Union]], the United Nations, the {{Lang|fr|[[Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie]]}} (OIF), the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]. ==Etymology== Originally, Cameroon was the [[exonym]] given by the Portuguese to the [[Wouri River]], which they called {{lang|pt|Rio dos Camarões}} meaning 'river of [[shrimps]]' or 'shrimp river', referring to the then abundant [[Cameroon ghost shrimp]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cameroon |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/Cameroon |access-date=6 February 2024 |work=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |language=en |archive-date=4 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104102318/https://www.etymonline.com/word/cameroon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Camarões: o que os crustáceos têm a ver com o país? |trans-title=Cameroon: what do the crustaceans have to do with the country? |url=https://veja.abril.com.br/blog/sobre-palavras/camaroes-o-que-os-crustaceos-tem-a-ver-com-o-pais/ |first=Sérgio |last=Rodrigues |publisher=[[Veja (magazine)|Veja]] |access-date=21 November 2020 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220050611/https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/sobre-palavras/camaroes-o-que-os-crustaceos-tem-a-ver-com-o-pais |url-status=live }}</ref> The country's name in Portuguese remains {{lang|pt|Camarões}}.<ref name="h574">{{cite book |last=Ngefac |first=Aloysius |title=Aspects of Cameroon Englishes |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |date=8 February 2022 |isbn=978-1-5275-8029-9 |page=19 }}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Cameroon}} ===Early history=== [[File:Shumom-text.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bamum script]] is a writing system developed by King Njoya in the late 19th century.]] Evidence from [[archaeological excavation]]s at [[Shum Laka]] in the [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|Northwest Region]] shows human occupation in Cameroon dating back 30,000 years.<ref name=Lavachery2001>Lavachery, Philippe (2001) The Holocene Archaeological Sequence of Shum Laka Rock Shelter (Grasslands, Western Cameroon). ''African Archaeological Review'' 18(4):213-247.</ref><ref name=Cornelissen2003>Cornelissen, Els (2003) On Microlithic Quartz Industries at the End of the Pleistocene in Central Africa: The Evidence from Shum Laka (NW Cameroon). ''African Archaeological Review'' 20(1):1-24.</ref> The longest continuous inhabitants are groups such as the [[Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]] ([[Pygmy peoples|Pygmies]]).<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 2.</ref> From there, [[Bantu expansion|Bantu migrations]] into eastern, southern and central Africa are believed to have occurred about 2,000 years ago.<ref name="history"/> The [[Sao civilisation|Sao]] culture arose around Lake Chad, {{circa|500 CE}}, and gave way to the Kanem and its successor state, the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire|Bornu Empire]]. Kingdoms, [[Fon (title)|fondoms]], and [[chiefdom]]s arose in the west.<ref name=Njung/> [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese sailors]] reached the coast in 1472. They noted an abundance of the ghost shrimp ''[[Lepidophthalmus turneranus]]'' in the [[Wouri River]] and named it {{lang|pt|Rio dos Camarões}} (''Shrimp River''), which became ''Cameroon'' in English.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pondi |first=J.E. |title=Cameroon and the Commonwealth of nations |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_round-table_1997-10_86_344/page/563 |journal=The Round Table |volume=86 |issue=344 |pages=563–570 |year=1997 |doi=10.1080/00358539708454389 |issn=0035-8533 }}</ref> Over the following few centuries, European interests regularised trade with the coastal peoples, and Christian [[missionaries]] pushed inland.<ref name=Fanso/> In 1896, Sultan [[Ibrahim Njoya]] created the [[Bamum script]], or Shu Mom, for the [[Bamum language]].<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 59</ref><ref name="NMAA">{{cite web |url=http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/inscribing/bamum.html |title=Bamum |publisher=National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution |access-date=29 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101155844/http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/inscribing/bamum.html |archive-date=1 January 2012 }}</ref> It is taught in Cameroon by the [[Bamum Scripts and Archives Project]].<ref name="NMAA"/> ===European colonisation=== ====German Empire==== {{main|Kamerun}} Germany began to establish roots in Cameroon in 1868 when the Woermann Company of Hamburg built a warehouse. It was built on the estuary of the Wouri River. Later, [[Gustav Nachtigal]] made a treaty with one of the local kings to annex the region for the German emperor.<ref name=historyworld>{{cite web |url=http://historyworld.net |title=historyworld |access-date=17 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407073336/http://historyworld.net/ |archive-date=7 April 2019 }}</ref> The [[German Empire]] claimed the territory as the colony of [[Kamerun]] in 1884 and began a steady push inland; the natives resisted in the [[Bafut Wars]] and [[Adamawa Wars]]. Under the aegis of Germany, commercial companies were local administrations. These [[Concession (contract)|concession]]s used [[Unfree labour|forced labour]] to run profitable banana, rubber, palm oil, and cocoa plantations.<ref name=historyworld/> Even infrastructure projects relied on a regimen of forced labour. This economic policy was much criticised by the other colonial powers.<ref name="DeLancey 125">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 125.</ref> ====French and British Mandates==== {{main|French Cameroon|British Cameroon}} [[File:UPC-LEADERS.jpg|thumb|right|Leaders of the pro-independence [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon|UPC]]]] With the defeat of Germany in [[World War I]], Kamerun became a [[League of Nations mandate]] territory and was split into [[French Cameroon]] ({{langx|fr|Cameroun}}) and [[British Cameroon]] in 1919. France integrated the economy of Cameroon with that of France<ref name="DeLancey 5">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 5.</ref> and improved the infrastructure with capital investments and skilled workers, modifying the colonial system of [[forced labour]].<ref name="DeLancey 125"/> Britain offered German owned plantations to the highest bidder with the intent of paying the proceeds into a [[World War I reparations]] account. But few investors were willing to buy at the London auctions. Eventually Britain sold the majority of German plantations in British Cameroon back to their original German owners and opened up African maritime ports for German trade. The British also encouraged German investment in the [[Tanganyika Territory]]. German companies built warehouses in [[Douala]] but were not allowed to purchase land.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Susan Pedersen |title=The Guardians: The League of Nations and the Crisis of Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/guardiansleagueo0000pede |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190226398 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/guardiansleagueo0000pede/page/234 234]& 236 |year=2015 }}</ref> The British administered their territory from neighbouring Nigeria. Natives complained that this made them a neglected "colony of a colony". Nigerian migrant workers flocked to Southern Cameroons, ending forced labour altogether but angering the local natives, who felt swamped.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 4.</ref> The League of Nations mandates were converted into [[United Nations Trusteeship Council|United Nations Trusteeships]] in 1946, and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroon.<ref name="DeLancey 5"/> France outlawed the pro-independence political party, the [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon]] ({{langx|fr|Union des Populations du Cameroun}}, UPC), on 13 July 1955.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Terretta |first1=M. |title=Cameroonian Nationalists Go Global: From Forest Maquis to a Pan-African Accra |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_2010_51_2/page/189 |doi=10.1017/S0021853710000253 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=189–212 |year=2010 |s2cid=154604590 }}</ref> This prompted a [[Bamileke War|long guerrilla war]] waged by the UPC and the assassination of several of the party's leaders, including [[Ruben Um Nyobè]], [[Félix-Roland Moumié]] and [[Ernest Ouandie]]. In the British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroon or join Nigeria; the British ruled out the option of independence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Takougang |first1=J. |title=Nationalism, democratisation and political opportunism in Cameroon |doi=10.1080/0258900032000142455 |journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=427–445 |year=2003 |s2cid=153564848 }}</ref> ===Republic of Cameroon=== On 1 January 1960, French Cameroun gained independence from France under President [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]] as the Republic of Cameroon. The southern part of British Cameroons federated with it in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon until 1972, when the federation was abandoned and the country renamed the United Republic of Cameroon. In 1984, President Paul Biya restored the name Republic of Cameroon via presidential decree. ====Federal Republic of Cameroon==== [[File:Flag of Cameroon (1961–1975).svg|thumb|Flag of the Federal Republic of Cameroon]] On 1 October 1961, the British [[Southern Cameroons]] gained independence from the United Kingdom by vote of the UN General Assembly and merged into the Republic of Cameroon to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The federal republic was composed of two federated states, [[East Cameroon]] and [[West Cameroon]], each with its own legislature, government, and prime minister. 1 October is now observed as [[Unification Day (Cameroon)|Unification Day]], a [[Public holidays in Cameroon|public holiday]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Diane Cook |title=Cameroon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jn7TBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT95 |date=2 September 2014 |publisher=Mason Crest |isbn=978-1-4222-9434-5 |page=95 }}</ref> Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971.<ref name="DeLancey 6">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 6.</ref> ====United Republic of Cameroon==== [[File:Ahmadou Ahidjo.jpg|thumb|Former president [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]] ruled from 1960 until 1982.]] Ahidjo's political party, the [[Cameroonian National Union|Cameroon National Union]] (CNU), became the sole legal political party on 1 September 1966, and on 20 May 1972, a [[1972 Cameroonian constitutional referendum|referendum]] was passed to abolish the [[Federation|federal system of government]] in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed from [[Yaoundé]].<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 19.</ref> This day is now the country's [[National Day (Cameroon)|National Day]], a public holiday.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.prc.cm/en/multimedia/photo-albums/37-20-may-national-day |title=20 May National Day |website=Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503164656/https://www.prc.cm/en/multimedia/photo-albums/37-20-may-national-day |url-status=live }}</ref> Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of [[planned liberalism]], prioritising [[cash crops]] and petroleum development. The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 7.</ref> The [[Flag of Cameroon|national flag]] was changed on 20 May 1975 with the two stars removed and replaced with a large central star as a symbol of national unity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Whitney |author-link=Whitney Smith |date=27 July 2011 |title=Flag of Cameroon |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-Cameroon |access-date=20 May 2026 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]}}</ref> ====Republic of Cameroon under Biya==== Ahidjo stepped down on 4 November 1982 and left power to his constitutional successor, [[Paul Biya]]. However, Ahidjo remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failed [[Cameroonian Palace Guard Revolt|coup d'état]] nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 8.</ref> Biya, the incumbent president, has led the country since 1982 following Ahidjo's resignation; he previously held office as prime minister from 1975 onward, making him the [[List of current state leaders by date of assumption of office|longest consecutively serving current non-royal national leader in the world]] and the [[Lists of state leaders by age|oldest current head of state]] in the world. In 1987, [[Dja Faunal Reserve]], Cameroon's first [[World Heritage Site]], was inscribed on the list by [[UNESCO]].<ref name="b394">{{cite web |title=Dja Faunal Reserve |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/407/ |language=rw |access-date=25 October 2024 }}</ref> An [[Cameroonian economic crisis|economic crisis]] took effect in the mid-1980s to late 1990s as a result of international economic conditions, drought, falling petroleum prices, and years of corruption, mismanagement, and [[cronyism]]. Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, and [[Privatization|privatised]] industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, the former British Southern Cameroons pressure groups called for greater autonomy, and the [[Southern Cameroons National Council]] advocated complete secession as the Republic of [[Ambazonia]].<ref name="DeLancey 9">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 9.</ref> The 1992 Labour Code of Cameroon gives workers the freedom to belong to a trade union or not to belong to any trade union at all. It is the choice of a worker to join any trade union in their occupation since there is more than one trade union in each occupation.<ref>''[https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=2268401385755685468&authuser=2 Ginna Violet Yella. "Freedom of Trade Union Membership: An Appraisal of the 1992 Labour Code of Cameroon" United International Journal for Research & Technology (UIJRT) 1.2 (2019): 18–25.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605133204/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=2268401385755685468&authuser=2 |date=5 June 2022 }}''</ref> [[File:Paul Biya 2014.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Paul Biya]] has ruled the country since 1982.]] In June 2006, talks concerning a territorial dispute over the [[Bakassi]] peninsula were resolved. The talks involved President Paul Biya of Cameroon, then President [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] of Nigeria, and then UN Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]], and resulted in Cameroonian control of the oil-rich peninsula. The northern portion of the territory was formally handed over to the Cameroonian government in August 2006, and the remainder of the peninsula was left to Cameroon two years later, in 2008.<ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/200606130612.html Cameroon: Presidents Obasanjo And Biya Shake Hands on Disputed Bakassi Peninsula] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217063651/http://allafrica.com/stories/200606130612.html |date=17 February 2017 }}, ''Allafrica'', 13 June 2006</ref> The boundary change triggered a [[Bakassi conflict|local separatist insurgency]], as many Bakassians refused to accept Cameroonian rule. While most militants laid down their arms in November 2009,<ref>[https://jamestown.org/program/cameroon-rebels-threaten-security-in-oil-rich-gulf-of-guinea/ Cameroon Rebels Threaten Security in Oil-Rich Gulf of Guinea] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829000328/https://jamestown.org/program/cameroon-rebels-threaten-security-in-oil-rich-gulf-of-guinea/ |date=29 August 2018 }}, Jamestown Foundation, 24 November 2010. Accessed 28 August 2018.</ref> some carried on fighting for years.<ref>Ngwane, George. "Preventing renewed violence through peacebuilding in the Bakassi peninsula (Cameroon)."</ref> In February 2008, Cameroon experienced its worst violence in 15 years when a transport union strike in Douala escalated into [[2008 Cameroonian anti-government protests|violent protests]] in 31 municipal areas.<ref name=Nkemngu/><ref name=Matthews/> In May 2014, in the wake of the [[Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping]], presidents Paul Biya of Cameroon and [[Idriss Déby]] of Chad announced they were waging war on [[Boko Haram]], and deployed troops to the Nigerian border.<ref> {{cite news |title=Cameroon, Chad Deploy Troops to Fight Boko Haram – Nigeria |work=[[ReliefWeb]] |access-date=10 June 2014 |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/cameroon-chad-deploy-troops-fight-boko-haram |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714173813/http://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/cameroon-chad-deploy-troops-fight-boko-haram |archive-date=14 July 2014}} </ref> Boko Haram launched several attacks into Cameroon, killing 84 civilians in a [[December 2014 Cameroon clashes|December 2014 raid]], but suffering a heavy defeat in a [[January 2015 raid on Kolofata|raid in January 2015]]. Cameroon declared victory over Boko Haram on Cameroonian territory in September 2018.<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/cameroon-boko-haram-1.4844513 Boko Haram has been repelled, Cameroon's leader declares] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514110414/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/cameroon-boko-haram-1.4844513 |date=14 May 2019 }}, CBC News, 30 September 2018. Accessed 18 June 2019.</ref> Since November 2016, [[2016–17 Cameroonian protests|protesters]] from the predominantly English-speaking [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|Northwest]] and [[Southwest Region (Cameroon)|Southwest]] regions of the country have been campaigning for continued use of the English language in schools and courts. People were killed and hundreds were jailed as a result of these protests.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/index.html |title=Rights groups call for probe into protesters' deaths in Cameroon |author=Radina Gigova |website=CNN |date=15 December 2016 |access-date=29 July 2019 |archive-date=27 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227172641/https://www.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017, Biya's government blocked the regions' access to the Internet for three months.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41468149 |title=Cameroon internet shut for separatists |date=2 October 2017 |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920084339/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41468149 |archive-date=20 September 2018 }}</ref> In September, separatists started [[Anglophone Crisis|a guerilla war]] for the independence of the Anglophone region as the Federal Republic of [[Ambazonia]]. The government responded with a military offensive, and the insurgency spread across the Northwest and Southwest regions. {{As of|2019}}, fighting between separatist guerillas and government forces continues.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44561929 |title=Burning Cameroon: Images you're not meant to see |date=25 June 2018 |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919204526/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44561929 |archive-date=19 September 2018 }}</ref> During 2020, numerous terrorist attacks—many of them carried out without claims of credit—and government reprisals have led to bloodshed throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ekonde |first1=Daniel |date=18 November 2020 |title=The world's most neglected conflict |url=https://www.newframe.com/the-worlds-most-neglected-conflict/ |access-date=27 November 2020 |website=New Frame |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130094247/https://www.newframe.com/the-worlds-most-neglected-conflict/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since 2016, more than 450,000 people have fled their homes.<ref name="humanrights">{{cite news |last1=Tisdall |first1=Simon |title=In a world full of wars, why are so many of them ignored? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/world-full-of-wars-so-many-ignored-central-africa-sudan-boko-haram |work=The Guardian |date=9 June 2019 |access-date=9 June 2019 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518180340/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/world-full-of-wars-so-many-ignored-central-africa-sudan-boko-haram |url-status=live }}</ref> The conflict indirectly led to an [[Chad Basin campaign (2018–2019)|upsurge]] in Boko Haram attacks, as the Cameroonian military largely withdrew from the north to focus on fighting the Ambazonian separatists.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190312124436/https://natimesnews.com/2019/02/25/cameroon-national-times-there-has-been-growing-insecurity-in-the-three-northern-regions-of-cameroon-as-both-the-government-and-the-military-concentrate-their-strength-and-might-in-fighting-an-endles/ Insecurity Escalates In North Region As Gov't, Military Concentrate In Anglophone Regions]}}, The National Times, 25 February 2019.Accessed 25 February 2019.</ref> More than 30,000 people in northern Cameroon fled to Chad after ethnic clashes over [[Water conflict|access to water]] between [[Musgum people|Musgum]] fishermen and ethnic [[Chadian Arabic|Arab Choa]] herders in December 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title=Thousands flee northern Cameroon after deadly intercommunal clashes |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20211209-thousands-flee-northern-cameroon-after-deadly-intercommunal-clashes |work=France 24 |date=10 December 2021 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108163838/https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20211209-thousands-flee-northern-cameroon-after-deadly-intercommunal-clashes |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Northern Cameroon bears brunt of inter-ethnic clashes, 22 dead, 30 injured |url=https://www.africanews.com/2021/12/14/northern-cameroon-bears-brunt-of-inter-ethnic-clashes-22-dead-30-injured/ |work=[[Africanews]] |date=14 December 2021 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101223009/https://www.africanews.com/2021/12/14/northern-cameroon-bears-brunt-of-inter-ethnic-clashes-22-dead-30-injured/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the aftermath of the [[2025 Cameroonian presidential election]], a [[2025 Cameroonian protests|series of protests]] broke out after allegations of electoral fraud were made by the opposition.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Corey-Boulet |first1=Robbie |title=Cameroon security forces killed 48 in election protests, UN sources say |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/cameroon-security-forces-killed-48-election-protests-un-sources-say-2025-11-04/ |access-date=4 November 2025 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=4 November 2025}}</ref> ==Politics and government== {{Main|Politics of Cameroon|Elections in Cameroon}} [[File:YaoundeUnityPalace.png|thumb|Unity Palace – Cameroon Presidency]] The [[List of presidents of Cameroon|President of Cameroon]] is elected and creates policy, administers government agencies, commands the [[Cameroon Armed Forces|armed forces]], negotiates and ratifies treaties, and declares a state of emergency.<ref name="Neba 250">[[#Neba|Neba]] 250.</ref> The president appoints government officials at all levels, from the [[Prime Minister of Cameroon|prime minister]] (considered the official head of government), to the provincial governors and divisional officers.<ref name=msu>{{cite web |url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/cameroon/government |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon: Government |publisher=Michigan State University: Broad College of Business |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507153207/http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/cameroon/government |archive-date=7 May 2013 }}</ref> The president is selected by popular vote every seven years.<ref name="CIA"/> The [[National Assembly (Cameroon)|National Assembly]] makes legislation. The body consists of 180 members who are elected for five-year terms and meet three times per year.<ref name=msu/> Laws are passed on a majority vote.<ref name="CIA"/> The 1996 constitution establishes a second house of parliament, the 100-seat [[Senate (Cameroon)|Senate]]. The government recognises the authority of traditional chiefs, fons, and [[Lamido|lamibe]] to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law.<ref name="State Dept"/><ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 252.</ref> Cameroon's legal system is a mixture of [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], [[common law]], and [[customary law]].<ref name="CIA"/> Although nominally independent, the judiciary falls under the authority of the executive's [[Ministry of Justice of Cameroon|Ministry of Justice]].<ref name="State Dept"/> The president appoints judges at all levels.<ref name=msu/> The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals, the [[Court of Appeal of Cameroon|court of appeal]], and the [[Supreme Court of Cameroon|supreme court]]. The National Assembly elects the members of a nine-member [[High Court of Justice (Cameroon)|High Court of Justice]] that judges high-ranking members of government in the event they are charged with high treason or harming national security.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/_anglais/institutionnel/cameroon.html |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon: Institutional Situation |publisher=Montesquieu University of Bordeaux |author=Abdourhamane, Boubacar Issa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100921001254/http://etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/_anglais/institutionnel/cameroon.html |archive-date=21 September 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/sectors-cameroon/government/ |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Government in Cameroon |publisher=Commonwealth of Nations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328164623/http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/sectors-cameroon/government/ |archive-date=28 March 2014 }}</ref> ===Political culture=== [[File:Statue d'un chef coutumier à Bana.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A statue of a chief in [[Bana, Cameroon|Bana]], West Region]] Cameroon [[Corruption in Cameroon|is viewed as rife with corruption]] at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational,<ref name="IRIN"/> and in 2012, [[Transparency International]] placed Cameroon at number 144 on a list of 176 countries ranked from least to most corrupt.<ref name=Corruption/> On 18 January 2006, Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under the direction of the [[National Anti-Corruption Observatory]].<ref name="IRIN"/> There are several high corruption risk areas in Cameroon, for instance, customs, public health sector and public procurement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Business Corruption in Cameroon |url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx |publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190641/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx |archive-date=24 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, the corruption has gotten worse, regardless of the existing anti-corruption bureaus, as Transparency International ranked Cameroon 152 on a list of 180 countries in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2018 |title=2018 – CPI |website=Transparency.org |date=29 January 2019 |access-date=26 July 2020 |archive-date=13 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513063746/https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> President Biya's [[Cameroon People's Democratic Movement]] (CPDM) was the only legal political party until December 1990. Numerous regional political groups have since formed. The primary opposition is the [[Social Democratic Front (Cameroon)|Social Democratic Front]] (SDF), based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed by [[John Fru Ndi]].<ref name = "lergai">[[#West|West]] 11.</ref> Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections, which rivals contend were unfair.<ref name="DeLancey 9"/> Human rights organisations allege that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations, disrupting meetings, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists.<ref name="Amnesty"/><ref name="Freedom House"/> In particular, English-speaking people are discriminated against; protests often escalate into violent clashes and killings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/ |title=Rights groups call for probe into protesters' deaths in Cameroon |author=Radina Gigova |date=15 December 2016 |publisher=CNN |access-date=17 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318083433/http://edition.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/ |archive-date=18 March 2017 }}</ref> In 2017, President Biya shut down the Internet in the English-speaking region for 94 days, at the cost of hampering five million people, including [[Silicon Mountain]] startups.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/03/africa/internet-shutdown-cameroon/ |title=Cameroon goes offline after Anglophone revolt |author=Kieron Monks |date=3 February 2017 |publisher=CNN |access-date=17 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318003526/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/03/africa/internet-shutdown-cameroon/ |archive-date=18 March 2017 }}</ref> [[Freedom House]] ranks Cameroon as "not free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties.<ref>Cameroon is rated at six in both categories on a scale of one to seven, with one being "most free" and seven being "least free". [[#House|Freedom House]].</ref> The last [[2020 Cameroonian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] were held on 9 February 2020.<ref name=Kandemeh/> ===Foreign relations=== {{Further|Foreign relations of Cameroon}} [[File:Paul Biya with Obamas 2014.jpg|thumb|President [[Paul Biya]] with U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] in 2014]] Cameroon is a member of both the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and [[Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie|La Francophonie]].<ref>Julia, Marion (December 2008). "La démocratie dans le projet politique de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie". ''[[The Round Table Journal|The Round Table]]''. '''97''' (399): 825–838. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1080/00358530802485825|10.1080/00358530802485825]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143862365 145202906].</ref> Its [[Foreign relations of Cameroon|foreign policy]] closely follows that of its main ally, France (one of its former colonial rulers).<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 126</ref><ref>Ngoh 328.</ref> Cameroon relies heavily on France for its defence,<ref name="State Dept"/> although military spending is high in comparison to other sectors of government.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 30.</ref> President Biya has engaged in a decades-long clash with the government of Nigeria over possession of the oil-rich [[Bakassi]] peninsula.<ref name="lergai" /> Cameroon and Nigeria share a 1,000-mile (1,600&nbsp;km) border and have disputed the sovereignty of the Bakassi peninsula. In 1994 Cameroon petitioned the [[International Court of Justice]] to resolve the dispute. The two countries attempted to establish a cease-fire in 1996; however, fighting continued for years. In 2002, the ICJ ruled that the [[Anglo-German Agreement of 1913]] gave sovereignty to Cameroon. The ruling called for a withdrawal by both countries and denied the request by Cameroon for compensation due to Nigeria's long-term occupation.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/11/world/court-rules-for-cameroon-in-oil-dispute-with-nigeria.html |title=Court Rules for Cameroon In Oil Dispute With Nigeria |last1=Banerjee |first2=Marc |last2=Lacey |first1= Neela |date=11 October 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=4 February 2018 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205130042/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/11/world/court-rules-for-cameroon-in-oil-dispute-with-nigeria.html |archive-date=5 February 2018 }}</ref> By 2004, Nigeria had failed to meet the deadline to hand over the peninsula. A UN-mediated summit in June 2006 facilitated an agreement for Nigeria to withdraw from the region and both leaders signed the [[Greentree Agreement]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sgsm11745.doc.htm |title=Agreement Transferring Authority over Bakassi Peninsula from Nigeria to Cameroon 'Triumph for the Rule of Law' Secretary-General Says in Message for Ceremony |website=United Nations |date=14 August 2008 |language=en |access-date=4 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131052103/http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sgsm11745.doc.htm |archive-date=31 January 2018 }}</ref> The withdrawal and handover of control was completed by August 2006.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13148483 |title=Cameroon profile - Timeline |date=1 November 2017 |work=BBC News |access-date=4 February 2018 |language=en-GB |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209213130/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13148483 |archive-date=9 February 2018 }}</ref> In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Cameroon, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's [[Xinjiang re-education camps|treatment of Uyghurs]] in the [[Xinjiang]] region.<ref>{{cite news |title=Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |date=15 July 2019 |access-date=16 July 2019 |archive-date=16 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716160658/https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Military === {{Main|Cameroonian Armed Forces}} [[File:Vehicules militaires pendant le défilé7.jpg|thumb|Military vehicles during a parade]] The Cameroon Armed Forces (French: ''Forces armées camerounaises'', FAC) consists of the country's army (''Armée de Terre''), the country's navy (''Marine Nationale de la République'' (MNR), including naval infantry), the Cameroonian Air Force (''Armée de l'Air du Cameroun'', AAC), and the [[Gendarmerie]].<ref name="CIA" /> The military is crucial in supporting Cameroon's authoritarian government since independence in 1960. The military has been involved in defeating rebellions, controlling protests for democratic reforms, combating [[Boko Haram insurgency|Boko Haram]] since 2014, and handling the Anglophone separatist movement that began in 2017.<ref name="g211">{{cite book |last=Harkness |first=Kristen A. |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics |chapter=Cameroon: The Military and Autocratic Stability |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=17 December 2020 |isbn=978-0-19-022863-7 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1800 |page= }}</ref> ===Human rights=== {{see also|Human rights in Cameroon}} Human rights organisations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects, ethnic minorities, [[LGBT rights in Cameroon|homosexuals]], and political activists.<ref name="Amnesty"/><ref name="Freedom House"/><ref name="Human Rights Report"/><ref name="EHRC"/> United Nations figures indicate that more than 21,000 people have fled to neighbouring countries, while 160,000 have been internally displaced by the violence, many reportedly hiding in forests.<ref name = "un">{{cite web |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23404&LangID=E |title=OHCHR – UN Human Rights Chief deeply alarmed by reports of serious rights breaches in Cameroon |publisher=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |access-date=2 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803014220/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23404&LangID=E |archive-date=3 August 2018 }}</ref> Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities,<ref name = "Human Rights Report"/><ref name="EHRC"/> and prisons run by traditional rulers in the north are charged with holding political opponents at the behest of the government.<ref name="Freedom House"/> However, since the first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of police and gendarmes have been prosecuted for improper conduct.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> On 25 July 2018, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights [[Zeid Raad Al Hussein|Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein]] expressed deep concern about reports of violations and abuses in the English-speaking Northwest and Southwest regions of Cameroon.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-07-25 |title=Cameroon violence needs urgent investigation, says UN rights chief Zeid |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/07/1015512 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250724215605/https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/07/1015512 |archive-date=2025-07-24 |access-date=2026-05-20 |work=UN News |language=en}}</ref> According to OCHA, more than 1.7 million people require humanitarian assistance in the northwest and southwest regions. OCHA also estimates that at least 628,000 people have been internally displaced by violence in the two regions, while more than 87,000 have fled to Nigeria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cameroon |url=https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/cameroon/ |access-date=8 June 2023 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608190445/https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/cameroon/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="un"/> [[LGBTQ rights in Cameroon|LGBTQ acts]] are banned by section 347-1 of the penal code with a penalty of from 6 months up to 5 years imprisonment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2008.pdf |title=State-sponsored Homophobia: A world survey of laws prohibiting same-sex activity between consenting adults |last=Ottosson |first=Daniel |date=May 2008 |publisher=International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA) |page=11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306021141/http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2008.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2009 }}</ref> Since December 2020, [[Human Rights Watch]] claimed that Islamist armed group Boko Haram has stepped up attacks and killed at least 80 civilians in towns and villages in the Far North region of Cameroon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/04/05/cameroon-boko-haram-attacks-escalate-far-north |title=Cameroon: Boko Haram Attacks Escalate in Far North |date=5 April 2021 |access-date=5 April 2021 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |archive-date=5 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210405134313/https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/04/05/cameroon-boko-haram-attacks-escalate-far-north |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{main|Regions of Cameroon|Departments of Cameroon}} [[File:Provinces of Cameroon EN.svg|thumb|upright|Cameroon is divided into 10 regions.]] The [[Constitution of Cameroon|constitution]] divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under the administration of an elected [[Regional Council (Cameroon)|Regional Council]]. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.<ref name="Neba 250"/> These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the regions, administering the civil service, keeping the peace, and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units. Governors have broad powers: they may order propaganda in their area and call in the army, [[Gendarmerie|gendarmes]], and police.<ref name="Neba 250"/> All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets.<ref name="history">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm |title=Cameroon |publisher=US Department of State |date=25 August 2011 |access-date=24 September 2011 |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183549/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The regions are subdivided into 58 divisions (French {{lang|fr|départements}}). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers ({{lang|fr|[[Prefect|préfets]]}}). The divisions are further split into sub-divisions ({{lang|fr|arrondissements}}), headed by assistant divisional officers ({{lang|fr|sous-prefets}}). The districts, administered by district heads ({{lang|fr|chefs de district}}), are the smallest administrative units.<ref name=unhchr>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/33bb745d595710e3c125693d0035f74b?Opendocument |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Core document forming part of the reports of States Parties: Cameroon |publisher=UNHCHR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023091521/http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/33bb745d595710e3c125693d0035f74b?Opendocument |archive-date=23 October 2015 }}</ref> The three northernmost regions are the [[Far North Region, Cameroon|Far North]] ({{lang|fr|Extrême Nord}}), [[North Region (Cameroon)|North]] ({{lang|fr|Nord}}), and [[Adamawa Region|Adamawa]] ({{lang|fr|Adamaoua}}). Directly south of them are the [[Centre Region (Cameroon)|Centre]] ({{lang|fr|Centre}}) and [[East Region (Cameroon)|East]] ({{lang|fr|Est}}). The [[South Region (Cameroon)|South Province]] ({{lang|fr|Sud}}) lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller regions: the [[Littoral Region (Cameroon)|Littoral]] ({{lang|fr|Littoral}}) and [[Southwest Region (Cameroon)|South-West]] ({{lang|fr|Sud-Ouest}}) regions are on the coast, and the [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|North-West]] ({{lang|fr|Nord-Ouest}}) and [[West Region (Cameroon)|West]] ({{lang|fr|Ouest}}) regions are in the western grassfields.<ref name=unhchr/> ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Cameroon|Geology of Cameroon}} [[File:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|[[Volcanic plugs]] dot the landscape near [[Rhumsiki]], Far North Region.]] At {{convert|475442|km2|sqmi}}, Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country.<ref name="Demographic Yearbook"/> The country is located in Central Africa and West Africa, on the [[Bight of Bonny]], part of the [[Gulf of Guinea]] and the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/africa/countries/ |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Country Profiles |publisher=UCLA African Studies Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303170914/http://www.international.ucla.edu/africa/countries/ |archive-date=3 March 2013 }}</ref> Cameroon lies between latitudes [[1st parallel north|1°]] and [[13th parallel north|13°N]], and longitudes [[8th meridian east|8°]] and [[17th meridian east|17°E]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cameroon |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Cameroon/ |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Google Maps |language=en}}</ref> Cameroon controls 12 nautical miles of the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nyuimbe |first=Gasu Gideon |last2=Endomo |first2=Herve Endomo |date=June 2023 |title=Ocean Governance Study for Cameroon |url=https://www.un.org/oceancapacity/sites/www.un.org.oceancapacity/files/files/Projects/Norad/OGS/oceangovernancestudy_cameroon_english_0.pdf |website=[[United Nations]]}}</ref> Tourist literature describes Cameroon as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all major climates and vegetation of the continent: coast, desert, mountains, rainforest, and savanna.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 16.</ref> The country's neighbours are Nigeria and the Atlantic Ocean to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo to the south.<ref name="CIA"/> Cameroon is divided into five major geographic zones distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features. The coastal plain extends {{convert|15|to|150|km|mi|0}} inland from the Gulf of Guinea<ref name=Fomensky/> and has an average elevation of {{convert|90|m|ft|0}}.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 14.</ref> Exceedingly hot and humid with a short [[dry season]], this belt is densely forested and includes some of the [[Debundscha|wettest places]] on earth, part of the [[Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests]].<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 28.</ref><ref name=Extremes/> The [[South Cameroon Plateau]] rises from the coastal plain to an average elevation of {{convert|650|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Neba 16">[[#Neba|Neba]] 16.</ref> Equatorial rainforest dominates this region, although its alternation between [[wet season|wet]] and dry seasons makes it less humid than the coast. This area is part of the [[Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests]] [[ecoregion]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/Procurement/Ahmed/16001956/16001956ZPaa_TOR_final%20Report.pdf |publisher=UNIDO |title=ICAM of Kribi Campo |access-date=12 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506165602/http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/Procurement/Ahmed/16001956/16001956ZPaa_TOR_final%20Report.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2013 }}</ref> [[File:Elephants around tree in Waza, Cameroon.jpg|thumb|Elephants in [[Waza National Park]]]] An irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus known as the [[Cameroon line|Cameroon range]] extends from [[Mount Cameroon]] on the coast—Cameroon's highest point at {{convert|4095|m|ft|0}}<ref name="Neba 17"/>—almost to Lake Chad at Cameroon's northern border at 13°05'N. This region has a mild climate, particularly on the [[Western High Plateau]], although rainfall is high. Its soils are among Cameroon's most fertile, especially around volcanic Mount Cameroon.<ref name="Neba 17">[[#Neba|Neba]] 17.</ref> Volcanism here has created [[volcanic crater lake|crater lake]]s. On 21 August 1986, one of these, [[Lake Nyos]], belched carbon dioxide and killed between 1,700 and 2,000 people.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 161 report 1,700 killed; [[#Hudgens|Hudgens and Trillo]] 1054 say "at least 2,000"; West 10 says "more than 2,000".</ref> This area has been delineated by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] as the [[Cameroonian Highlands forests]] ecoregion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/cameroon_highlands_forests.cfm |access-date=12 April 2013 |publisher=WWF |title=Cameroon Highlands Forests |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501144939/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/cameroon_highlands_forests.cfm |archive-date=1 May 2013 }}</ref> The southern plateau rises northward to the grassy, rugged [[Adamawa Plateau]]. This feature stretches from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country's north and south. Its average elevation is {{convert|1100|m|ft|0}},<ref name="Neba 16"/> and its average temperature ranges from {{convert|22|C|F|1}} to {{convert|25|C|F}} with high rainfall between April and October peaking in July and August.<ref name=Gwanfogbe/><ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 29.</ref> The [[East Sudanian savanna|northern lowland region]] extends from the edge of the Adamawa to Lake Chad with an average elevation of {{convert|300|to|350|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Neba 17"/> Its characteristic vegetation is savanna scrub and grass. This is an arid region with sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.<ref name=Green/> Cameroon has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers are the [[Ntem River|Ntem]], [[Nyong River|Nyong]], [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]], and Wouri. These flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. The [[Dja River|Dja]] and [[Kadéï River|Kadéï]] drain southeastward into the [[Congo River]]. In northern Cameroon, the [[Benue River|Bénoué River]] runs north and west and empties into the [[Niger River|Niger]]. The [[Logon River|Logone]] flows northward into Lake Chad, which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Country Files: Cameroon |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/005/T0360E/T0360E04.htm |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=3 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611075925/http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/t0360e/T0360E04.htm |archive-date=11 June 2013 }}</ref> ===Wildlife=== {{Main|Wildlife of Cameroon}} Cameroon's wildlife is composed of its [[flora]] and [[fauna]]. It is one of the wettest parts of Africa and records Africa's second-highest level of biodiversity.<ref name="Africa">{{cite web |url=https://www.wcs.org/where-we-work/africa/cameroon.aspx |title=Cameroon |access-date=14 February 2013 |publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society }}</ref><ref name="Regional">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/publications/africa/125/125/CentralAfrica.htm |title=Beyond Boundaries:Regional Overview of Transboundary Natural Resource Management in Central Africa |year=2001 |work=Table 1 World Wildlife Organization |access-date=14 February 2013 |publisher=World Wildlife Organization |last1=Wilkie |first1=D. S. |first2=E. |last2=Hakizumwami |first3=N. |last3=Gami |first4=B. |last4=Difara }}</ref> In Cameroon, [[forest cover]] is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to {{cvt|20,340,480|ha}} of forest in 2020, down from {{cvt|22,500,000|ha}} in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forests covered {{cvt|20,279,380|ha}}, and planted forests covered {{cvt|61,100|ha}}. Around 15% of the forest area was found within protected areas, for the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under [[State ownership|public ownership]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Cameroon |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/CMR/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations }}</ref> To preserve its wildlife, Cameroon has more than 20 protected reserves comprising national parks, zoos, forest reserves, and sanctuaries. The protected areas were first created in the northern region under the colonial administration in 1932; the first two reserves established were [[Mozogo Gokoro Reserve]] and the [[Bénoué National Park|Bénoué Reserve]], which was followed by the [[Waza National Park|Waza Reserve]] on 24 March 1934. The coverage of reserves was initially about 4 percent of the country's area, rising to 12 percent; the administration proposes to cover 30 percent of the land area.<ref name="Cartesia">{{cite web |url=http://www.cartesia.org/geodoc/icc2005/pdf/oral/TEMA10/Session%206/TCHINDJANG%20MESMIN%202.pdf |title=Mapping of Protected Areas Evolution in Cameroon from the Beginning to 2000: Lesson to Learn and Perspectives. |first1=Mesmin |last1=Tchindjang |first2=Clair |last2=Réné Banga |first3=Appolinaire |last3=Nankam |first4=Jean |last4=Sylvestre Makak |year=2001 |work=Table 1 World Wildlife Organization |access-date=14 February 2013 |publisher=World Wildlife Organization }}</ref> Its rich wildlife consists of 8,260 recorded plant species including 156 [[endemic species]], 409 species of [[mammals]] of which 14 are endemic, 690 species of birds which includes 8 endemic species, 250 species of reptiles, and 200 species of [[amphibians]].<ref name="Africa"/><ref name="Regional"/> The habitats of these species include the southern region comprising tropical lowland, coastline on the [[Gulf of Guinea]]. [[Mangrove]] forests, {{convert|270000|ha|acre|sp=us}} in size, are along the coast line. [[Montane forests]] and [[savannahs|savannas]] are in the northern region of the country. Important protected areas for these species are the [[Mbam Djerem National Park]], Benoue National Park, [[Korup National Park]], [[Takamanda National Park]], and the [[Kagwene Gorilla Sanctuary]].<ref name="Africa"/> Cameroon is an important breeding area for marine and freshwater species such as [[crustacean]]s, [[mollusks]], fish, and birds.<ref name="Regional"/> ==Economy and infrastructure== {{Main|Economy of Cameroon}} Cameroon's per capita GDP ([[Purchasing power parity]]) was estimated at US$5.760 in 2025. Major export markets include the Netherlands, France, China, Belgium, Italy, Algeria, and Malaysia.<ref name="CIA"/> Cameroon has its GDP growing at an average of 4% per year. During the 2004–2008 period, public debt was reduced from over 60% of GDP to 10% and official reserves quadrupled to over US$3&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfw4a.org/cameroon/cameroon-financial-sector-profile.html |title=Cameroon Financial Sector Profile |publisher=MFW4A |access-date=24 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513110637/http://www.mfw4a.org/cameroon/cameroon-financial-sector-profile.html |archive-date=13 May 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Cameroon is part of the [[Bank of Central African States]] (of which it is the dominant economy),<ref name="Musa Biya plan"/> the [[Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa]] (UDEAC) and the [[Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa]] (OHADA).<ref name="ohada.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.ohada.com/index.php |title=The business law portal in Africa |publisher=OHADA |access-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326033744/http://www.ohada.com/index.php |archive-date=26 March 2009 }}</ref> Its currency is the [[CFA franc]].<ref name="CIA"/> Unemployment was estimated at 3.38% in 2019,<ref>{{cite web |title=Cameroon Unemployment rate – data, chart |url=https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Cameroon/unemployment_rate/ |website=TheGlobalEconomy.com |access-date=19 May 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806185110/https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Cameroon/unemployment_rate/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and 23.8% of the population was living below the international [[poverty threshold]] of US$1.90 a day in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of the population) – Cameroon {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=CM |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=18 May 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806173719/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=CM |url-status=live }}</ref> Since the late 1980s, Cameroon has been following programmes advocated by the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) to reduce poverty, privatise industries, and increase economic growth.<ref name="State Dept"/> The government has taken measures to encourage [[Tourism in Cameroon|tourism]] in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nl.nabc.nl/Portals/0/docs/Country%20information%20pdf/CAMEROON%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |title=Cameroon Business Mission Fact Sheet 2010–2011 |publisher=Netherlands-African Business Council |year=2011 |access-date=3 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013032607/http://nl.nabc.nl/Portals/0/docs/Country%20information%20pdf/CAMEROON%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |archive-date=13 October 2013 }}</ref> An estimated 70% of the population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 16.7% of GDP in 2017.<ref name="CIA"/> Most agriculture is done at the subsistence scale by local farmers using simple tools. They sell their surplus produce, and some maintain separate fields for commercial use. Urban centres are particularly reliant on peasant agriculture for their foodstuffs. Soils and climate on the coast encourage extensive commercial cultivation of bananas, cocoa, oil palms, rubber, and tea. Inland on the South Cameroon Plateau, cash crops include coffee, sugar, and tobacco. Coffee is a major cash crop in the western highlands, and in the north, natural conditions favour crops such as cotton, groundnuts, and rice. Production of [[Fair trade#Textiles|Fairtrade cotton]] was initiated in Cameroon in 2004.<ref>Fairtrade International, University of Greenwich and Institute of Development Studies, [https://web.archive.org/web/20210831045046/https://files.fairtrade.net/publications/2011_FairtradeCotton_ImpactMaliSenegaCameroonIndia_Summary.pdf Fairtrade Cotton: Assessing Impact in Mali, Senegal, Cameroon and India] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831045046/https://files.fairtrade.net/publications/2011_FairtradeCotton_ImpactMaliSenegaCameroonIndia_Summary.pdf |date=31 August 2021 }}, published May 2011, accessed 31 August 2021</ref> [[File:Taureaux et vaches hollandais à wallya Cameroun.jpg|thumb|Dutch bulls and cows at Wallya community during the rainy season in Cameroon]] Livestock are raised throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/cameroon/figure10.htm |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon livestock production map |publisher=FAO |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605182824/http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/cameroon/figure10.htm |archive-date=5 June 2013 }}</ref> Fishing employs 5,000 people and provides over 100,000 tons of seafood each year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0229E/x0229e05.htm |access-date=12 April 2013 |author=Som, Julienne |title=Women's role in Cameroon fishing communities |publisher=FAO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603014448/http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0229E/x0229e05.htm |archive-date=3 June 2013 }}</ref><ref name=awf>{{cite web |url=http://www.awf.org/country/cameroon |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon |publisher=AWF |date=28 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416202141/http://www.awf.org/country/cameroon |archive-date=16 April 2013 }}</ref> [[Bushmeat]], long a staple food for rural Cameroonians, is a delicacy in the country's urban centres. The commercial bushmeat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to wildlife in Cameroon.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1920391.stm |access-date=12 April 2013 |publisher=BBC |title=UK project tackles bushmeat diet |date=10 April 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427082156/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1920391.stm |archive-date=27 April 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/cooking_in_the_danger_zone/7282187.stm |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon's bushmeat dilemma |date=14 March 2008 |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529040509/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/cooking_in_the_danger_zone/7282187.stm |archive-date=29 May 2012 }}</ref> The southern rainforest has vast timber reserves, estimated to cover 37% of Cameroon's total land area.<ref name=awf/> However, large areas of the forest are difficult to reach. Logging, largely handled by foreign-owned firms,<ref name=awf/> provides the government US$60&nbsp;million a year in taxes ({{as of|1998|lc=yes}}), and laws mandate the safe and sustainable exploitation of timber. Nevertheless, in practice, the industry is one of the least regulated in Cameroon.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/congo_basin_forests/problems/deforestation/logging/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608041738/http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/congo_basin_forests/problems/deforestation/logging/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 June 2012 |publisher=WWF |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Logging in the Green Heart of Africa }}</ref> Factory-based industry accounted for an estimated 26.5% of GDP in 2017.<ref name="CIA"/> More than 75% of Cameroon's industrial strength is located in [[Douala]] and [[Bonabéri]]. Cameroon possesses substantial mineral resources, but these are not extensively mined (see ''[[Mining in Cameroon]]'').<ref name="State Dept"/> Petroleum exploitation has fallen since 1986, but this is still a substantial sector such that dips in prices have a strong effect on the economy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/pdp/2006/pdp02.pdf |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Strengthening Transparency in the Oil Sector in Cameroon |author=Cossé, Stéphane |publisher=IMF |year=2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606061216/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/pdp/2006/pdp02.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2012 }}</ref> Rapids and waterfalls obstruct the southern rivers, but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development and supply most of Cameroon's energy. The Sanaga River powers the largest hydroelectric station, located at Edéa. The rest of Cameroon's energy comes from oil-powered thermal engines. Much of the country remains without reliable power supplies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.climateparl.net/cpcontent/pdfs/Kribi,%202010-03-27,%20Parlementarians.pdf |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Harnessing Central Africa's Hydropower Potential |author=Prevost, Yves |publisher=Climate Parliament |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427082535/http://www.climateparl.net/cpcontent/pdfs/Kribi%2C%202010-03-27%2C%20Parlementarians.pdf |archive-date=27 April 2014 }}</ref> Three trans-African automobile routes pass through Cameroon:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trans-African Highways Network Routes |url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/29736-wd-e_-_tah_annex_i_tah_network.pdf |access-date=May 25, 2026 |website=[[African Union]]}}</ref> * [[File:Schild TAH8.svg|20px]] the [[Lagos-Mombasa Highway]] * [[File:Schild TAH3.svg|20px]] the [[Tripoli-Cape Town Highway]] * [[File:Schild TAH5.svg|20px]] the [[Dakar-N'Djamena Highway]] [[Transport in Cameroon]] is often difficult. Only 6.6% of the roadways are tarred.<ref name="CIA"/> Roadblocks often serve little other purpose than to allow police and gendarmes to collect bribes from travellers.<ref>[[#Hudgens|Hudgens and Trillo]] 1036.</ref> Road banditry has long hampered transport along the eastern and western borders, and since 2005, the problem has intensified in the east as the Central African Republic has further destabilised.<ref name="Musa Gunmen"/> [[File:Bateau au port de Douala1.jpg|thumb|Douala seaport]] [[Intercity bus service]]s run by multiple private companies connect all major cities. They are the most popular means of transportation followed by the rail service ''[[Camrail]]''. Rail service runs from [[Kumba, Cameroon|Kumba]] in the west to [[Bélabo]] in the east and north to [[Ngaoundéré]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldtravelguide.net/cameroon/getting-around |access-date=12 April 2013 |publisher=World Travel Guide |title=Getting around Cameroon |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627051533/http://www.worldtravelguide.net/cameroon/getting-around |archive-date=27 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> International airports are located in [[Douala International Airport|Douala]] and [[Yaoundé Nsimalen International Airport|Yaoundé]], with a third under construction in [[Maroua]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cameroononline.org/2013/04/03/equipments-for-the-future-maroua-international-airport/ |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Equipment for the Future Maroua International Airport |publisher=Cameroon Online |date=3 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509073605/http://www.cameroononline.org/2013/04/03/equipments-for-the-future-maroua-international-airport/ |archive-date=9 May 2013 }}</ref> Douala is the country's principal seaport<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soschildrensvillages.ca/where-we-help/africa/cameroon/douala/pages/default.aspx |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=SOS Children's Village Douala |publisher=SOS Children's Villages |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615075059/http://www.soschildrensvillages.ca/where-we-help/africa/cameroon/douala/pages/default.aspx |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref> and [[Kribi Deepwater Port]] started operations in 2014. In the north, the Bénoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua across into Nigeria.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 68.</ref> Cameroon was ranked 116th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/cameroon |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Cameroon|List of municipalities of Cameroon by population}} The population of Cameroon was {{UN_Population|Cameroon}} in {{UN_Population|Year}}, up from 4,466,000 in 1950.{{UN_Population|ref}} The life expectancy was 62.3&nbsp;years (60.6&nbsp;years for males and 64&nbsp;years for females).<ref name="CIA"/> [[File:GedWomenDay.JPG|thumb|Cameroonian women on Women's Day Celebration, 2015]] Cameroon has slightly more women (50.5%) than men (49.5%). Over 60% of the population is under age 25. People over 65 years of age account for only 3.11% of the total population.<ref name="CIA" /> Cameroon's population is almost evenly divided between urban and rural dwellers.<ref name="West 3">[[#West|West]] 3.</ref> Population density is highest in the large urban centres, the western highlands, and the northeastern plain.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 109–11.</ref> Douala, Yaoundé, and [[Garoua]] are the largest cities. In contrast, the Adamawa Plateau, southeastern Bénoué depression, and most of the South Cameroon Plateau are sparsely populated.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 111.</ref> According to the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), the [[fertility rate]] was 4.8 in 2013 with a population growth rate of 2.56%.<ref name=":1" /> People from the overpopulated western highlands and the underdeveloped north are moving to the coastal plantation zone and urban centres for employment.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 105–6.</ref> Smaller movements are occurring as workers seek employment in lumber mills and plantations in the south and east.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 106.</ref> Although the national sex ratio is relatively even, these out-migrants are primarily males, which leads to unbalanced ratios in some regions.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 103–4.</ref> [[File:Maison obus.jpg|thumb|The homes of the [[Musgum dwelling units|Musgum]], in the Far North Region, made of earth and grass]] Both [[monogamy|monogamous]] and [[polygamy|polygamous]] marriage are practised, and the average Cameroonian family is large and extended.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 139.</ref> In the north, women tend to the home, and men herd cattle or work as farmers. In the south, women grow the family's food, and men provide meat and grow cash crops. Cameroonian society is male-dominated, and violence and discrimination against women are common.<ref name="Freedom House"/><ref name="Human Rights Report"/><ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 141.</ref> The number of distinct ethnic and linguistic groups in Cameroon is estimated to be between 230 and 282.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 65, 67.</ref><ref>[[#West|West]] 13.</ref> The Adamawa Plateau broadly bisects these into northern and southern divisions. The northern peoples are [[Central Sudanic languages|''Sudanic'']] groups, who live in the central highlands and the northern lowlands, and the [[Fula people|Fulani]], who are spread throughout northern Cameroon. A small number of [[Baggara|Shuwa]] Arabs live near Lake Chad. Southern Cameroon is inhabited by speakers of [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] and [[Semi-Bantu]] languages. Bantu-speaking groups inhabit the coastal and equatorial zones, while speakers of Semi-Bantu languages live in the Western grassfields. Some 5,000 Gyele and Baka [[Pygmy peoples]] roam the southeastern and coastal rainforests or live in small, roadside settlements.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 48.</ref> Nigerians make up the largest group of foreign nationals.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 108.</ref> Approximately 14,000 non-Africans live in Cameroon, including more than 6,000 [[French people]] and around 1,000 [[Americans]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/cameroon/10294.htm |title=Cameroon (12/99) }}</ref> {{Largest cities of Cameroon}} ===Refugees=== {{Main|Refugees in Cameroon}} [[File:Cameroon Complex Crisis 120625(5) v1.pdf|thumb|250x250px|Map of the [[humanitarian crisis]] in Cameroon]] As of 2025, Cameroon hosted 431,000 [[Refugee|refugees]] and [[Asylum seeker|asylum seekers]], according to [[UNHCR]] figures. Regarding the countries of origin, around 277,888 refugees were from the Central African Republic, 127,090 from Nigeria, and 1,866 from Chad. Political instability and the volatile security situation in neighbouring states, exacerbated by [[Violent non-state actor|non-state armed group]] attacks on [[Civilian|civilians]], have led to mass forced displacement.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=Cameroon |url=https://www.unhcr.org/where-we-work/countries/cameroon |access-date=11 July 2026 |website=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR) |language=en}}</ref> By comparison, Cameroon hosted approximately 97,400 refugees and asylum seekers in 2007. Of these, 49,300 were from the Central African Republic (many driven west by war),<ref name=RCross/> 41,600 from Chad, and 2,900 from Nigeria.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2008">{{cite news |title=World Refugee Survey 2008 |publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants |date=19 June 2008 |url=http://www.refugees.org/survey/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002225617/http://www.refugees.org/survey/ |archive-date=2 October 2008 }}</ref> Kidnappings of Cameroonian citizens by Central African bandits have increased since 2005.<ref name="Musa Gunmen"/> In the first months of 2014, thousands of refugees fleeing the violence in the Central African Republic arrived in Cameroon.<ref> {{cite news |title=Cameroon: Location of Refugees and Main Entry Points (as of 02 May 2014) – Cameroon |work=[[ReliefWeb]] |access-date=8 June 2014 |url=http://reliefweb.int/map/cameroon/cameroon-location-refugees-and-main-entry-points-02-may-2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714220137/http://reliefweb.int/map/cameroon/cameroon-location-refugees-and-main-entry-points-02-may-2014 |archive-date=14 July 2014}} </ref> On 4 June 2014, AlertNet reported: {{blockquote| Almost 90,000 people have fled to neighbouring Cameroon since December and up to 2,000 a week, mostly women and children, are still crossing the border, the United Nations said. "Women and children are arriving in Cameroon in a shocking state, after weeks, sometimes months, on the road, foraging for food," said [[Ertharin Cousin]], executive director of the [[World Food Programme]] (WFP).<ref> {{cite web |last=Nguyen |first=Katie |title=Cameroon: Starving, Exhausted CAR Refugees Stream Into Cameroon – UN |work=allAfrica.com |access-date=8 June 2014 |date=4 June 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201406051108.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610095552/http://allafrica.com/stories/201406051108.html |archive-date=10 June 2014}} </ref> }} ===Languages=== {{Further|Languages of Cameroon}} [[File:Nigeria Benin Cameroon languages.png|thumb|Map of the region's indigenous languages|250x250px]] The official percentage of French and English speakers by the Presidency of Cameroon is estimated to be 70% and 30% respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.prc.cm/en/cameroon/presentation |title=Presentation of Cameroon |access-date=29 March 2023 |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329093847/https://www.prc.cm/en/cameroon/presentation |url-status=live}}.</ref> German, the language of the original colonisers, has long since been displaced by French and English. [[Cameroonian Pidgin English]] is the lingua franca in the formerly British-administered territories.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 94.</ref> A mixture of English, French, and Pidgin called [[Camfranglais]] has been gaining popularity in urban centres since the mid-1970s.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 131</ref><ref name=Niba/> In addition to the official languages, there are between 250 and 280 languages spoken by nearly 20&nbsp;million Cameroonians.<ref name=":4">Kouega, Jean-Paul. 'The Language Situation in Cameroon', Current Issues in Language Planning, vol. 8/no. 1, (2007), pp. 3–94.</ref> The number of languages makes Cameroon one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world.<ref name=":5">{{cite web |url=https://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html |title=Linguistic diversity in Africa and Europe – Languages Of The World |date=16 June 2011 |website=languagesoftheworld.info |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515155945/http://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html |archive-date=15 May 2012 |access-date=4 July 2019 |last=Pereltsvaig |first=Asya }}</ref> In 2017, there were language protests by the Anglophone population against perceived oppression by francophone speakers.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |url=https://calrev.org/2019/02/11/african-powder-keg-cameroonian-conflict-and-african-security/ |title=African Powder Keg: Cameroonian Conflict and African Security |last=Genin |first=Aaron |date=11 February 2019 |website=The California Review |language=en-US |access-date=16 April 2019 }}</ref> The military was deployed against the protesters and people were killed, hundreds imprisoned and thousands fled the country.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/03/deaths-and-detentions-as-cameroon-cracks-down-on-anglophone-activists Deaths and detentions as Cameroon cracks down on anglophone activists] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103125739/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/03/deaths-and-detentions-as-cameroon-cracks-down-on-anglophone-activists |date=3 January 2018}} ''The Guardian'', 2018</ref> This culminated in the declaration of an independent [[Republic of Ambazonia]],<ref>Ani, Kelechi Johnmary, Gabriel Tiobo Wose Kinge, and Victor Ojakorotu. "Political crisis, protests and implications on nation building in Cameroon." African Renaissance 15.Special Issue 1 (2018): 121–139.</ref> which has since evolved into the [[Anglophone Crisis]].<ref name=":3" /> It is estimated that by June 2020, 740,000 people had been internally displaced as a result of this crisis.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/cameroon/cameroon-humanitarian-dashboard-january-june-2020 |title=Relief Web Humanitarian Dashboard |date=11 November 2020 |access-date=11 August 2021 |archive-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810211913/https://reliefweb.int/report/cameroon/cameroon-humanitarian-dashboard-january-june-2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Religion=== {{main|Religion in Cameroon}} {{bar box |title=[[Religion in Cameroon]] (2022 estimate by the [[The World Factbook|CIA]])<ref name="Religion">{{cite web |title=Religion |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260115101251/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 January 2026 |access-date=22 May 2024 |date=9 August 2023 }}</ref> |titlebar=#ddd |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Roman Catholicism in Cameroon|Catholic Christianity]]|#7D007D|33.1}} {{bar percent|[[Protestant Christianity]]|#BA55D3|27.1}} {{bar percent|Other [[Christians]]|#B695C0|6.1}} {{bar percent|[[Islam in Cameroon|Islam]]|green|30.6}} {{bar percent|[[African traditional religion|Folk religions]]|brown|1.3}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion|No religion]]|beige|1.2}} {{bar percent|Other religions|lightgrey|0.7}} }} Cameroon has a high level of [[Religion in Cameroon|religious freedom]] and diversity.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> The majority faith is Christianity, practised by about two-thirds of the population, while [[Islam]] is the second largest religion, adhered to by just under one-third.<ref name="Religion" /> In addition, traditional faiths are practised by many. Muslims are most concentrated in the north, while Christians are concentrated primarily in the southern and western regions, but practitioners of both faiths can be found throughout the country.<ref name=IRFR>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168393.htm |title=July–December, 2010 International Religious Freedom Report – Cameroon |publisher=US Department of State |date=8 April 2011 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105101810/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168393.htm |archive-date=5 November 2011 |url-status=live}}<!--note that this is outdated; the CIA Factbook is from 2018--></ref> Large cities have significant populations of both groups.<ref name=IRFR/> Muslims in Cameroon are divided into [[Sufis]], [[Salafi]]s,<ref name="The Economist">{{cite news |title=The veil in west Africa: Banning the burqa: Why more countries are outlawing the full-face veil |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21692902-why-more-countries-are-outlawing-full-face-veil-banning-burqa |access-date=15 February 2016 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=13 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214211305/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21692902-why-more-countries-are-outlawing-full-face-veil-banning-burqa |archive-date=14 February 2016 }}</ref> [[Shia]]s, and [[non-denominational Muslims]].<ref name="The Economist"/><ref>Pew Forum on Religious & Public life. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2013</ref> [[File:Yaoundé_Cathédrale.jpg|left|thumb|[[Our Lady of Victories Cathedral, Yaoundé|Our Lady of Victories Cathedral]], a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] Church in [[Yaoundé]]]] People from the North-West and South-West provinces, which used to be a part of [[British Cameroons]], have the highest proportion of Protestants. The French-speaking regions of the southern and western regions are largely Catholic.<ref name=IRFR/> Southern ethnic groups predominantly follow Christian or traditional African [[animist]] beliefs or a [[syncretic]] combination of the two. People widely believe in witchcraft, and the government outlaws such practices.<ref name=Geschiere/> Suspected witches are often subject to mob violence.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> The Islamist jihadist group [[Ansar ul Islam (Western Africa)|Ansar al-Islam]] has been reported as operating in North Cameroon.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22538888 Boko Haram timeline: From preachers to slave raiders] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114221630/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22538888 |date=14 November 2018}}. BBC News. 15 May 2013. retrieved 19 June 2013</ref> [[File:LamidoGrandMosque.jpg|thumb|[[Lamido Grand Mosque]] in [[Ngaoundéré]]]] In the northern regions, the locally dominant [[Fulani]] ethnic group is almost completely Muslim, but the overall population is fairly evenly divided among Muslims, Christians, and followers of indigenous religious beliefs (called ''[[Kirdi]]'' ("pagan") by the Fulani).<ref name=IRFR/> The [[Bamum people|Bamum]] ethnic group of the West Region is largely Muslim.<ref name=IRFR/> Native traditional religions are practised in rural areas throughout the country but rarely are practised publicly in cities, in part because many indigenous religious groups are intrinsically local.<ref name=IRFR/> ===Education and health=== {{main|Education in Cameroon|Health in Cameroon}} [[File:Cameroonian school children gather around U.S. Army Master Sgt. John Reid, center, for a group photo near Douala, Cameroon, March 19, 2014, during Central Accord 14 140319-A-PP104-039.jpg|thumb|School children in Cameroon in 2014]] In 2013, the total adult [[literacy]] rate in Cameroon was estimated to be 71.3%. Among youths aged 15–24, the literacy rate was 85.4% for males and 76.4% for females.<ref name=":0">{{cite news |url=https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/cameroon_statistics.html |title=Statistics |work=UNICEF |access-date=4 February 2018 |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224101348/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/cameroon_statistics.html |archive-date=24 December 2017 }}</ref> Most children have access to state-run schools that are cheaper than private and religious facilities.<ref name="Mbaku 15">[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 15.</ref> The educational system is a mixture of British and French precedents,<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 105–6.</ref> with most instruction in English or French.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 16.</ref> Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa.<ref name="Mbaku 15" /> Girls attend school less regularly than boys do because of cultural attitudes, domestic duties, early marriage, pregnancy, and sexual harassment. Although attendance rates are higher in the south,<ref name="Mbaku 15"/> a disproportionate number of teachers are stationed there, leaving northern schools chronically understaffed.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> In 2013, the primary school enrollment rate was 93.5%.<ref name=":0" /> School attendance in Cameroon is also affected by [[child labour]]. Indeed, the [[United States Department of Labor]] Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor reported that 56% of children aged 5 to 14 were working children and that almost 53% of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150303052129/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/cameroon.htm 2013 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor -Cameroon] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303052129/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/cameroon.htm |date=3 March 2015 }}. Dol.gov. Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref> In December 2014, a ''[[List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor]]'' issued by the [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]] mentioned Cameroon among the countries that resorted to child labor in the production of cocoa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180319225451/https://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/ List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610003351/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/ |date=10 June 2015}}. Dol.gov. Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref> [[File:Life expectancy of Cameroon.svg|thumb|Life expectancy in Cameroon|upright=1.2]] The quality of health care is generally low.<ref name = "yqheor">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 21.</ref> Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 56 years in 2012, with 48 healthy life years expected.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/gho/countries/cmr.pdf?ua=1 |title=Cameroon: WHO Statistical Profile |date=January 2015 |website=World Health Organization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321113025/http://www.who.int/gho/countries/cmr.pdf?ua=1 |archive-date=21 March 2017 }}</ref> Fertility rate remains high in Cameroon with an average of 4.8 births per woman and an average mother's age of 19.7 years old at first birth.<ref name=":1" /> In Cameroon, there is only one doctor for every 5,000 people, according to the WHO.<ref>{{cite news |title=3 medical marvels saving lives |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2013/11/17/health/cnnheroes-medical-marvels/index.html |access-date=18 November 2013 |newspaper=CNN |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122034216/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/11/17/health/cnnheroes-medical-marvels/index.html |archive-date=22 November 2013 }}</ref> In 2014, just 4.1% of total GDP expenditure was allocated to healthcare.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=cameroon |title=UNdata {{!}} country profile {{!}} Cameroon |website=data.un.org |access-date=4 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104003329/http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=cameroon |archive-date=4 November 2016 }}</ref> Due to financial cuts in the health care system, there are few professionals. Doctors and nurses who were trained in Cameroon emigrate because in Cameroon the payment is poor while the workload is high. Nurses are unemployed even though their help is needed. Some of them help out voluntarily so they will not lose their skills.<ref>{{cite web |title=The need is so great |author=Rose Futrih N. Njini |work=D+C |publisher=D+C Development and Cooperation/ dandc.eu |date=December 2012 |url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/cameroon-too-many-nurses-and-doctors-lack-perspective |access-date=27 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624235243/http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/cameroon-too-many-nurses-and-doctors-lack-perspective |archive-date=24 June 2013 }}</ref> Outside the major cities, facilities are often dirty and poorly equipped.<ref name="West 64">[[#West|West]] 64.</ref> In 2012, the top three deadly diseases were [[HIV/AIDS]], [[lower respiratory tract infection]], and [[diarrhea]]l diseases.<ref name=":1" /> Endemic diseases include [[dengue fever]], [[filariasis]], [[leishmaniasis]], [[malaria]], [[meningitis]], [[schistosomiasis]], and [[African trypanosomiasis|sleeping sickness]].<ref>[[#West|West]] 58–60.</ref> The HIV/AIDS prevalence rate in 2016 was estimated at 3.8% for those aged 15–49,<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/cameroon |title=Cameroon |website=www.unaids.org |access-date=4 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223042316/http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/cameroon |archive-date=23 December 2017 }}</ref> although a strong stigma against the illness keeps the number of reported cases artificially low.<ref name = "yqheor"/> 46,000 children under age 14 were estimated to be living with HIV in 2016. In Cameroon, 58% of those living with HIV know their status, and just 37% receive [[Management of HIV/AIDS|ARV]] treatment. In 2016, 29,000 deaths due to AIDS occurred in both adults and children.<ref name=":2" /> [[Breast ironing]], a traditional practice that is prevalent in Cameroon, may affect girls' health.<ref>Joe, Randy. (23 June 2006) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm Africa | Cameroon girls battle 'breast ironing'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211233459/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm |date=11 February 2007}}. BBC News. Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01pgpzf BBC World Service – Outlook, Fighting 'Breast Ironing' in Cameroon] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140120111044/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01pgpzf |date=20 January 2014}}. Bbc.co.uk (16 January 2014). Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.channel4.com/news/breast-ironing-fgm-victim-girls-chest-cameroon-uk Campaigners warn of 'breast ironing' in the UK – Channel 4 News] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820113942/http://www.channel4.com/news/breast-ironing-fgm-victim-girls-chest-cameroon-uk |date=20 August 2014 }}. Channel4.com (18 April 2014). Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>Bawe, Rosaline Ngunshi (24 August 2011) [http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf Breast Ironing: A harmful traditional practice in Cameroon] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226024853/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf |date=26 February 2015}}. Gender Empowerment and Development(GeED)</ref> [[Female genital mutilation]] (FGM), while not widespread, is practised among some populations; according to a 2013 UNICEF report,<ref name="UNICEF2013p27">[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |date=5 April 2015 }}, p. 27.</ref> 1% of women in Cameroon have undergone FGM. Also impacting women's and girls' health, the contraceptive prevalence rate is estimated to be just 34.4% in 2014. [[Traditional medicine|Traditional healers]] remain a popular alternative to [[evidence-based medicine]].<ref name="Lantum" /> In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Cameroon ranks 79th out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Cameroon's GHI score is 18.3, which is considered moderate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank |url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html |access-date=13 December 2024 |website=Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels |language=en }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Culture== {{main|Culture of Cameroon}} ===Music and dance=== {{further|Public holidays in Cameroon}} [[File:Baka dancers June 2006.jpg|thumb|upright|Dancers greet visitors to the East Region, 2006.]] [[Music of Cameroon|Music]] and [[dance in Cameroon|dance]] are integral parts of Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 189</ref><ref name="West 18"/> Traditional dances are highly choreographed with men and women often participating separately.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 204.</ref> The dances' purposes range from pure entertainment to religious devotion.<ref name="West 18">[[#West|West]] 18.</ref> Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist.<ref name="Mbaku 189">[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 189.</ref> Musical accompaniment may be as simple as clapping hands and stamping feet,<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 191.</ref> but traditional instruments include bells worn by dancers, clappers, drums, and [[talking drum]]s, flutes, horns, rattles, scrapers, stringed instruments, whistles, and xylophones; combinations of these vary by ethnic group and region. Some performers sing complete songs alone, accompanied by a harplike instrument.<ref name="Mbaku 189"/><ref>[[#West|West]] 18–9.</ref> Popular music styles include [[ambasse bey]] of the coast, [[assiko]] of the Bassa, [[mangambeu]] of the [[Bamileke|Bangangte]], and [[tsamassi]] of the Bamileke.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 184.</ref> [[Music of Nigeria|Nigerian music]] has influenced Anglophone Cameroonian performers, and [[Prince Nico Mbarga]]'s [[highlife]] hit "[[Sweet Mother]]" is the top-selling African record in history.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 200.</ref> The two most popular music styles are [[makossa]] and [[bikutsi]]. Makossa developed in Douala and mixes folk music, highlife, [[Soul music|soul]], and [[Soukous|Congo music]]. Performers such as [[Manu Dibango]], [[Francis Bebey]], [[Moni Bilé]], and [[Petit-Pays]] popularised the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s. Bikutsi originated as war music among the Ewondo. Artists such as [[Anne-Marie Nzié]] developed it into popular dance music beginning in the 1940s, and performers such as [[Mama Ohandja]] and [[Les Têtes Brulées]] popularised it internationally during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 51</ref><ref name= Nkolo/> ===Holidays=== {{further|Public holidays in Cameroon}} The most notable holiday associated with patriotism in Cameroon is [[National Day (Cameroon)|National Day]], also called Unity Day. Among the most notable religious holidays are [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption Day]], and [[Ascension Day]], which is typically 39 days after Easter. In the Northwest and Southwest provinces, collectively called [[Ambazonia]], 1 October is considered a national holiday, a date Ambazonians consider the day of their independence from Cameroon.<ref>Keke, Reginald Chikere. "Southern Cameroons/Ambazonia Conflict: A Political Economy", ''Theory & Event'' 23.2 (2020): 329–351.</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{further|Cameroonian cuisine}} [[File:Ndolè à la viande, morue et crevettes.jpg|thumb|Plantains and "Bobolo" (made from cassava) served with Ndolè (meat and shrimp)]] [[Cuisine of Cameroon|Cuisine]] varies by region, but a large, one-course, evening meal is common throughout the country. A typical dish is based on cocoyams, maize, [[cassava]] (manioc), [[millet]], [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]], potatoes, rice, or [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], often pounded into dough-like [[fufu]]. This is served with a sauce, soup, or stew made from greens, [[Peanut|groundnut]]s, [[palm oil]], or other ingredients.<ref>[[#West|West]] 84–5.</ref> Meat and fish are popular but expensive additions, with chicken often reserved for special occasions.<ref name="Mbaku 121-2">[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 121–2.</ref> Dishes are often quite spicy; common seasonings include red pepper sauce and [[maggi]] mixes.<ref>[[#Hudgens|Hudgens and Trillo]] 1047</ref><ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 122</ref><ref>[[#West|West]] 84.</ref> Cutlery is common, but food is traditionally eaten with the right hand. Breakfast consists of leftovers of bread and fruit with coffee or tea. Generally, breakfast is made from wheat flour in different ways such as puff-puff (doughnuts), accra banana, bean cakes and et cetera. Snacks are popular, especially in larger towns where they may be bought from [[street vendor]]s.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 121</ref><ref>[[#Hudgens|Hudgens and Trillo]] 1049.</ref> ===Fashion=== [[File:Camerounais en tenue traditionnelle.jpg|thumb|upright|Cameroonian fashion is varied and often mixes modern and traditional elements. Note the wearing of [[sun glasses]], [[monk shoe]]s, [[sandals]], and a [[Smartwatch]].]] Cameroon's relatively large and diverse population is likewise diverse in its fashions. Climate, religious, ethnic, and cultural beliefs, and the influences of colonialism, imperialism, and globalisation are all factors in contemporary Cameroonian dresses. Noteworthy Cameroonian dresses include [[Pagnes]], [[sarong]]s worn by Cameroon women; [[Chechia]], a traditional hat; kwa, a male handbag; and [[Gandura]], male custom attire.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cameroon-today.com/cameroon-clothing.html |title=Cameroon clothing – A description of the traditional attire of Cameroon. |website=Cameroon-Today.com |access-date=26 July 2020 |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804232108/https://www.cameroon-today.com/cameroon-clothing.html |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Wrappers and [[loincloths]] are used extensively by both women and men but their use varies by region, with influences from [[Fulani]] styles more present in the north and [[Igbo people|Igbo]] and [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] styles more often in the south and west.<ref>Culture and Customs of Cameroon, 2000, pg. 135, by, John Mukum Mbaku</ref> [[Imane Ayissi]] is one of Cameroon's most prominent fashion designers and has received international recognition.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.journalducameroun.com/en/cameroonimane-ayissi-detremined-to-project-cameroons-couture/ |title=Cameroon:Imane Ayissi {{as written|detrem|ined [sic]}} to project Cameroon's couture |work=Journal du Cameroun |date=7 April 2020 |access-date=2 May 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414150322/https://www.journalducameroun.com/en/cameroonimane-ayissi-detremined-to-project-cameroons-couture/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Local arts and crafts=== [[File:Woman weaving baskets near Lake Ossa.jpg|thumb|A woman weaves a basket near [[Lake Ossa]], Littoral Region. Cameroonians practise such handicrafts throughout the country.]] Traditional arts and crafts are practised throughout the country for commercial, decorative, and religious purposes. Woodcarvings and sculptures are especially common.<ref>[[#West|West]] 17.</ref> The high-quality clay of the western highlands is used for pottery and ceramics.<ref name="West 18"/> Other crafts include [[basket weaving]], [[beadwork]]ing, brass and bronze working, [[calabash]] carving and painting, [[embroidery]], and [[Leather crafting|leather]] working. Traditional housing styles use local materials and vary from temporary wood-and-leaf shelters of nomadic [[Wodaabe|Mbororo]] to the rectangular mud-and-thatch homes of southern peoples. Dwellings of materials such as cement and tin are increasingly common.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 110–3.</ref> [[Contemporary art]] is mainly promoted by independent cultural organisations ([[Doual'art]], [[Africréa]]) and [[artist-run initiative]]s ([[Art Wash]], [[Atelier Viking]], [[ArtBakery]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.postzambia.com/post-read_article.php?articleId=8690 |access-date=12 April 2013 |work=The Post |author=Mulenga, Andrew |date=30 April 2010 |title=Cameroon's indomitable contemporary art |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311124956/http://www.postzambia.com/post-read_article.php?articleId=8690 |archive-date=11 March 2014 }}</ref> ===Literature=== {{main|Literature of Cameroon}} Cameroonian literature has concentrated on both European and African themes. Colonial-era writers such as [[Louis-Marie Pouka]] and [[Sankie Maimo]] were educated by European missionary societies and advocated [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] into European culture to bring Cameroon into the modern world.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 80–1</ref> After [[World War II]], writers such as [[Mongo Beti]] and [[Ferdinand Oyono]] analysed and criticised colonialism and rejected assimilation.<ref name=Fitzpatrick/><ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 77, 83–4</ref><ref name=Volet/> ===Media=== {{main|Mass media in Cameroon|Freedom of Speech in Cameroon|Cameroon Radio Television}} Although press freedoms have improved since the first decade of the 21st century, the press is corrupt and beholden to special interests and political groups.<ref name="Reporters">"Cameroon – Annual Report 2007".</ref> Newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> The major radio and television stations are state-run and other [[communications in Cameroon|communications]], such as land-based telephones and telegraphs, are largely under government control.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 20.</ref> However, cell phone networks and Internet providers have increased dramatically since the first decade of the 21st century<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 20–1.</ref> and are largely unregulated.<ref name="Freedom House"/> ===Films and literature=== {{further|Cinema of Cameroon}} Shortly after independence, filmmakers such as [[Jean-Paul Ngassa]] and [[Thérèse Sita-Bella]] explored similar themes.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 119–120</ref><ref>[[#West|West]] 20.</ref> In the 1960s, [[Mongo Beti]], [[Ferdinand Léopold Oyono]] and other writers explored postcolonialism, problems of African development, and the recovery of African identity.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 85–6.</ref> In the mid-1970s, filmmakers such as [[Jean-Pierre Dikongué Pipa]] and [[Daniel Kamwa]] dealt with the conflicts between traditional and postcolonial society. Literature and films during the next two decades focused more on wholly Cameroonian themes.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 120.</ref> ===Sports=== {{main|Sport in Cameroon}} [[File:Cameroon vs Germany 2003.jpg|thumb|[[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]] facing [[Germany national football team|Germany]] at [[Zentralstadion]] in Leipzig, 17 November 2004]] National policy strongly advocates sport in all forms. Traditional sports include canoe racing and wrestling, and several hundred runners participate in the {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} [[Mount Cameroon Race of Hope]] each year.<ref>[[#West|West]] 127.</ref> Cameroon is one of the few tropical countries to have [[Cameroon at the 2002 Winter Olympics|competed]] in the [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date= |title=Isaac Menyoli Skis For A Greater Cause- Impossible Moments |url=https://www.olympics.com/en/original-series/episode/isaac-menyoli-skis-for-a-greater-cause-impossible-moments |website= |location= |publisher=International Olympic Committee |access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> Sport in Cameroon is dominated by football. Amateur football clubs abound, organised along ethnic lines or under corporate sponsors. The [[Cameroon national football team|national team]] has been one of the most successful in Africa since its strong showing in the [[1982 Football World Cup|1982]] and [[1990 FIFA World Cup]]s. Cameroon has won five [[African Cup of Nations]] titles and the gold medal at the [[Football at the 2000 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament|2000 Olympics]].<ref>[[#West|West]] 92–93, 127.</ref> Cameroon was the host country of the [[Africa Women Cup of Nations|Women Africa Cup of Nations]] in November–December 2016,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/20/africa-women-cup-of-nations-cameroon-opening-ceremony-football |title=Africa Women Cup of Nations kicks off in Cameroon |date=20 November 2016 |newspaper=The Guardian |last1=Shearlaw |first1=Maeve |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123163325/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/20/africa-women-cup-of-nations-cameroon-opening-ceremony-football |archive-date=23 November 2016 }}</ref> the [[2020 African Nations Championship]] and the [[2021 Africa Cup of Nations]]. The [[Cameroon women's national football team|women's football team]] is known as the "Indomitable Lionesses", and like their men's counterparts, are also successful on the international stage, although it has not won any major trophy.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nwiki |first=Walter |date=24 August 2023 |title=Cameroon |url=https://forgotten-heroines.com/2023/08/24/cameroon/ |website=Forgotten Heroines |location= |publisher= |access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> Cricket has also entered into Cameroon as an emerging sport with the Cameroon Cricket Federation participating in international matches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Africa Cricket Association |url=https://africacricket.com/read_more_news.php?id=118 |access-date=25 January 2022 |website=africacricket.com |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125180153/https://africacricket.com/read_more_news.php?id=118 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cameroon has produced multiple [[National Basketball Association]] players including [[Pascal Siakam]], [[Joel Embiid]], [[D. J. Strawberry]], [[Ruben Boumtje-Boumtje]], [[Christian Koloko]], and [[Luc Mbah a Moute]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://basketball.realgm.com/national/teams/18/Cameroon/nba_players |title=Cameroon NBA Players – RealGM |publisher=Basketball.realgm.com |date= |access-date=5 May 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502204345/https://basketball.realgm.com/national/teams/18/Cameroon/nba_players |url-status=live }}</ref> The former [[UFC Heavyweight Champion]], [[Francis Ngannou]], hails from Cameroon.<ref>{{cite news |last=Morgan |first=Emmanuel |date=21 January 2022 |title=The Fearsome, Quiet Champion |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/21/sports/francis-ngannou-ufc-fight.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=29 April 2022 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426072359/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/21/sports/francis-ngannou-ufc-fight.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Cameroon|Countries|Africa }} * [[Outline of Cameroon]] * [[Telephone numbers in Cameroon]] {{clear}} ==References== === Notes === {{Notelist}} ===Citations=== <references> <ref name=Fanso>Fanso, V. G. (1989). ''Cameroon History for Secondary Schools and Colleges, Vol. 1: From Prehistoric Times to the Nineteenth Century.'' Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd., p. 84, {{ISBN|0333471210}}.</ref> <ref name=Matthews>Matthews, Andy (12 March 2008). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20081206040327/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/16465 Cameroon protests in USA] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206040327/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/16465 |date=6 December 2008 }}", Africa News. Retrieved 13 March 2008.</ref> <ref name="IRIN">"[http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=57951 Cameroon: New anti-corruption drive leaves many sceptical] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070421180241/http://irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=57951 |date=21 April 2007 }}". 27 January 2006. ''IRIN''. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name=Njung>Njung, GN, Lucas Tazanu Mangula, and Emmanuel Nfor Nkwiyir (2003). ''Introduction to History: Cameroon''. ANUCAM, pp. 5–6.</ref> <ref name=Corruption>"[http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results/ Corruption Perceptions Index 2012] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129013918/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results/ |date=29 November 2013 }}". Transparency International.</ref> <ref name=Nkemngu>Nkemngu, Martin A. (11 March 2008). "[http://allafrica.com/stories/200803110765.html Facts and Figures of the Tragic Protests]", ''[[Cameroon Tribune]]''. Retrieved 12 March 2008.{{subscription required}} {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313004646/http://allafrica.com/stories/200803110765.html |date=13 March 2008 }}</ref> <ref name="Amnesty">{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol10/0001/2006/en/ |title=Cameroon |access-date=6 April 2007 |work=Amnesty International Report 2006 |date=21 May 2006 |publisher=Amnesty International |archive-date=25 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025065226/http://www.amnesty.de/umleitung/2006/deu01/025?print=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="State Dept">"[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm U.S. Relations With Cameroon] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183549/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm |date=4 June 2019 }} ". United States Department of State. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name="Freedom House">{{cite book |ref=House |chapter=Cameroon (2006) |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6935 |title=Country Report: 2006 Edition |publisher=Freedom House |access-date=6 April 2007 |date=13 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930220940/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6935 |archive-date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> <ref name="Human Rights Report">"[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78723.htm Cameroon] ". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 6 March 2007. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name="EHRC">{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/IOR41/006/2006/en/ |title=2006 Elections to the Human Rights Council: Background information on candidate countries |access-date=6 February 2007 |date=30 April 2006 |publisher=Amnesty International |archive-date=11 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311093310/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ior41/006/2006/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name=Kandemeh>Kandemeh, Emmanuel (17 July 2007). "[http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200707170411.html Journalists Warned against Declaring Election Results]", ''Cameroon Tribune''. Retrieved 18 July 2007 {{subscription required}}.</ref> <ref name=Lantum>Lantum, Daniel M., and Martin Ekeke Monono (2005). "Republic of Cameroon", ''Who Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine''. [[World Health Organization]], p. 14.</ref> <ref name="Demographic Yearbook">[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf ''Demographic Yearbook 2004''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114040712/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf |date=14 November 2012 }}. United Nations Statistics Division.</ref> <ref name=Fomensky>Fomensky, R., M. Gwanfogbe, and F. Tsala, editorial advisers (1985) ''Macmillan School Atlas for Cameroon.'' Malaysia: Macmillan Education, p. 6</ref> <ref name=Extremes>"[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html#highpre Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes] {{Webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20120525195312/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html#highpre |date=25 May 2012 }}". Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, [[National Climatic Data Center]], 9 August 2004. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name=Gwanfogbe>Gwanfogbe, Mathew; Meligui, Ambrose; Moukam, Jean and Nguoghia, Jeanette (1983). ''Geography of Cameroon.'' Hong Kong: Macmillan Education, p. 20, {{ISBN|0333366905}}.</ref> <!--<ref name=Area>"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html Rank Order – Area] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |date=9 February 2014 }}". ''The World Factbook''. United States Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref>--> <ref name=Green>Green, RH (1969). "The Economy of Cameroon Federal Republic". In Robson, Peter, and DA Lury (eds). ''The Economies of Africa'', p.&nbsp;239. Allen and Unwin.</ref> <ref name="Musa Biya plan">Musa, Tansa (8 April 2008). "[https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL08308448 Biya plan to keep power in Cameroon clears hurdle] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924132016/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/08/idUSL08308448 |date=24 September 2015 }}". Reuters. Retrieved 9 April 2008.</ref> <ref name="Musa Gunmen">Musa, Tansa (27 June 2007). "[http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L27787695.htm Gunmen kill one, kidnap 22 in Cameroon near CAR] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629170646/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L27787695.htm |date=29 June 2007 }}". Reuters. Retrieved 27 June 2007.</ref> <ref name=RCross>International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (28 May 2007). "[http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070613175522/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EKOI-73N32R?OpenDocument Cameroon: Population Movement; DREF Bulletin no. MDRCM004]". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 18 June 2007.</ref> <ref name=Niba>Niba, Francis Ngwa (20 February 2007). "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6376389.stm New language for divided Cameroon] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221172852/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6376389.stm |date=21 February 2007 }}". ''BBC News''. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name=Fitzpatrick>Fitzpatrick, Mary (2002). "Cameroon." ''Lonely Planet West Africa'', 5th ed. China: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd., p. 38</ref> <ref name=Geschiere>Geschiere, Peter (1997). ''The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa''. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, pp. 169–170, {{ISBN|0813917034}}.</ref> <ref name=Nkolo>Nkolo, Jean-Victor, and Graeme Ewens (2000). "Cameroon: Music of a Small Continent". ''World Music, Volume 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East''. London: Rough Guides Ltd., p. 43, {{ISBN|1858286352}}.</ref> <ref name=Volet>Volet, Jean-Marie (10 November 2006). "[http://aflit.arts.uwa.edu.au/CountryCameroonEN.html Cameroon Literature at a glance] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811215426/http://aflit.arts.uwa.edu.au/CountryCameroonEN.html |date=11 August 2011 }}". ''Reading women writers and African literatures''. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> </references> ===Sources=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=DeLancey |author1=DeLancey, Mark W. |author2=DeLancey, Mark Dike |year=2000 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon |edition=3rd |place=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=The Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810837751}} * {{cite book |ref=Hudgens |author1=Hudgens, Jim |author2=Trillo, Richard |year=1999 |title=West Africa: The Rough Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/westafricaroughg0000hudg |edition=3rd |place=London |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1858284682}} * {{cite book |ref=Mbaku |author=Mbaku, John Mukum |year=2005 |title=Culture and Customs of Cameroon |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000mbak |place=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0313332319}} * {{cite book |ref=Neba |author=Neba, Aaron |year=1999 |title=Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon |edition=3rd |place=Bamenda |publisher=Neba Publishers}} * {{cite book |ref=West |author=West, Ben |year=2004 |title=Cameroon: The Bradt Travel Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/cameroon0000west |place=Guilford, Connecticut |publisher=The Globe Pequot Press |isbn=978-1841620787}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=20731 |title=Cameroon – Annual Report 2007 |access-date=7 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070526152356/http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=20731 |archive-date=26 May 2007}} . Reporters without Borders. Retrieved 6 April 2007. * {{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CMR.html |title=Cameroon |access-date=6 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070113020758/http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CMR.html |archive-date=13 January 2007}} . ''Human Development Report 2006''. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 6 April 2007. * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Cameroon | volume= 5 |last= Cana |first= Frank Richardson |author-link= | pages = 110–113 |short= 1}} * Fonge, Fuabeh P. (1997). ''Modernization without Development in Africa: Patterns of Change and Continuity in Post-Independence Cameroonian Public Service''. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc. * MacDonald, Brian S. (1997). "Case Study 4: Cameroon", ''Military Spending in Developing Countries: How Much Is Too Much?'' McGill-Queen's University Press. * [[Dorothy L. Njeuma|Njeuma, Dorothy L.]] (no date). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609152111/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/inhea/profiles/Cameroon.htm Country Profiles: Cameroon]". The Boston College Center for International Higher Education. Retrieved 11 April 2008. * Rechniewski, Elizabeth. "1947: Decolonisation in the Shadow of the Cold War: the Case of French Cameroon." ''Australian & New Zealand Journal of European Studies'' 9.3 (2017). [https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/ANZJES/article/download/15186/13370 online] * Sa'ah, Randy Joe (23 June 2006). "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm Cameroon girls battle 'breast ironing'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211233459/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm |date=11 February 2007 }}". ''BBC News''. Retrieved 6 April 2007. * Tsogang Fossi, Richard. Comment « Cameroons » est devenu allemand. Histoire d'une appropriation par la manipulation et par la force. In: Collective (ed.), [https://www.static.tu.berlin/fileadmin/www/10002011/Forschungsprojekte/Aktuelle_Forschungsprojekte/Umgekehrte_Sammlungen_KAM/ATLAS_DE_L_ABSENCE_version_francaise.pdf Atlas de l'absence. Le patrimoine culturel du Cameroun en Allemagne], Berlin 2023, (English working translation [https://www.static.tu.berlin/fileadmin/www/10002011/Forschungsprojekte/Aktuelle_Forschungsprojekte/Umgekehrte_Sammlungen_KAM/ATLAS_DER_ABWESENHEIT_EN_DeepL.pdf online]) Berlin 2023, p. 31-44. * Wright, Susannah, ed. (2006). ''Cameroon''. Madrid: MTH Multimedia S.L. * "[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/02/data/index.aspx World Economic and Financial Surveys] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211102523/http://imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/02/data/index.aspx |date=11 February 2009 }}". World Economic Outlook Database, International Monetary Fund. September 2006. Retrieved 6 April 2007. {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Cameroon|Cameroon}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20260115101251/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ Cameroon]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190641/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx Cameroon Corruption Profile] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190641/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx |date=24 March 2014 }} from Business Anti-Corruption Portal * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704153516/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cameroon.htm Cameroon] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13146029 Cameroon profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas |Cameroon}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CM Key Development Forecasts for Cameroon] from [[International Futures]] '''Government''' * [https://www.prc.cm/en/ Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110715013604/http://www.spm.gov.cm/index.php?L=1 Prime Minister's Office] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805071905/http://www.assemblenationale.cm/ National Assembly of Cameroon] * [http://www.globalintegrity.org/report/Cameroon/2010/ Global Integrity Report: Cameroon] has reporting on anti-corruption in Cameroon * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081210080443/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-c/cameroon.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] '''Trade''' * [https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/CMR/Year/2012/Summary Summary Trade Statistics] from World Bank {{Cameroon topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles relating to Cameroon |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{African Union}} {{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state =collapsed}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|6|N|12|E|display=title}} [[Category:Cameroon| ]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Cameroon]] [[Category:Countries in Central Africa]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Countries and territories where French is an official language]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1960]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Africa]] 9dmggh6srrgytoq1by1xngouw5zx02w 0 6923 122344 119301 2026-09-25T00:38:00Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122344 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in the Horn of Africa}} {{Redirect|Erythrea|other uses|Erythrean (disambiguation)|and|Eritrea (disambiguation)|and|Eritrean (disambiguation)}} {{for|the Greek town|Eretria}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = State of Eritrea | common_name = Eritrea | native_name = | image_flag = Flag of Eritrea.svg | image_coat = Emblem of Eritrea (or argent azur).svg | symbol_type = Emblem | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Eritrea (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Eritrea AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | image_map2 = | national_anthem = {{native name|ti|ኤርትራ ኤርትራ ኤርትራ}}<br />"[[Eritrea, Eritrea, Eritrea]]"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Eritrea by US Navy Band.ogg|center]]}} | official_languages = ''None''<ref name="auto3">{{cite web |url=http://www.shaebia.org/constitution.html#CHAP1_ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503234856/http://www.shaebia.org/constitution.html#CHAP1_ |archive-date=3 May 2011 |title=Constitution of the State of Eritrea |publisher=Shaebia.org |access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> | national_languages = {{unbulleted list |[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] |[[Beja language|Beja]] |[[Tigre language|Tigre]] |[[Kunama language|Kunama]] |[[Saho language|Saho]] |[[Bilen language|Bilen]] |[[Nara language|Nara]] |[[Afar language|Afar]] |[[Italian language|Standard Italian]] }} | languages_type = [[Working language]]s | languages = {{unbulleted list|[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]|[[Arabic]]|[[English language|English]]<ref name="MOI Eritrea">{{cite web |url=https://shabait.com/2009/10/01/eritrea-at-a-glance/ |title=Eritrea at a Glance |date=1 October 2009 |publisher=Eritrea Ministry of Information |access-date=9 September 2020}}</ref>}} | demonym = {{Plainlist| * [[Eritreans|Eritrean]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 50% [[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya]] | 30% [[Tigre people|Tigre]] | 4% [[Saho people|Saho]] | 4% [[Afar people|Afar]] | 4% [[Kunama people|Kunama]] | 3% [[Bilen people|Bilen]] | 2% Beja | 2% [[Nara people|Nara]] | 1% [[Rashaida people|Rashaida]] }} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="Ciaethn">{{cite web | title = Eritrea | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/summaries/ER-summary.pdf | work = [[The World Factbook]] | publisher = [[Central Intelligence Agency]] | access-date = 10 June 2020 | archive-date = 27 February 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200227144113/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/summaries/ER-summary.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Eritrea |date=2022-09-23 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2022-10-03}}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2021 | capital = [[Asmara]] | coordinates = {{Coord|15|20|N|38|55|E|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Asmara]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[One-party state|one-party]] [[presidential republic]] under a [[totalitarian]] [[dictatorship]]<ref name="UNHRC">{{cite web|url= http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIEritrea/Pages/ReportCoIEritrea.aspx| title = Report of the commission of inquiry on human rights in Eritrea | website= UNHRC website | date=8 June 2015 |access-date=9 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/eritrea |title=World Report 2017: Rights Trends in Eritrea |chapter=Eritrea: Events of 2016 |date=12 January 2017 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref><ref name="Eritrea’s Silent Totalitarianism - McGill Journal of Political Studies">{{cite web |url=https://mjps.ssmu.ca/2018/02/21/eritreas-silent-totalitarianism/|title=Eritrea's Silent Totalitarianism |first=Asma |last=Saad |date=21 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44771292 |title=Making peace with 'Africa's North Korea'|first=Fergal|last=Keane|work=BBC News|date=10 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Adam |title=The brutal dictatorship the world keeps ignoring |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/06/12/the-brutal-dictatorship-the-world-keeps-ignoring/ |access-date=20 May 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=12 June 2015 |language=en}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[List of heads of state of Eritrea|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Isaias Afwerki]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Eritrea)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Eritrean War of Independence|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from [[Ethiopia]] | established_event1 = [[Eritrean War of Independence]] | established_date1 = 1 September 1961 | established_event2 = ''[[De facto]]'' | established_date2 = 24 May 1991 | established_event3 = ''[[1993 Eritrean independence referendum|De jure]]'' | established_date3 = 24 May 1993 | area_rank = 97th <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_km2 = 117,600 | area_sq_mi = 45,400 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 14.1% | population_estimate = 6,274,796<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Eritrea|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 111th | GDP_PPP = $6.88 billion<ref name="IMFWEOER">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/ERI#countrydata |title=The State of Eritrea |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2011 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,910<ref name="IMFWEOER"/> | GDP_nominal = $2.25 billion<ref name="IMFWEOER"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2011 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $626<ref name="IMFWEOER"/> | Gini_year = | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2019<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.459 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 180th | currency = [[Eritrean nakfa|Nakfa]] | currency_code = ERN | time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] | utc_offset = +3 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +3 | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+291]] | cctld = [[.er]] | footnotes = {{notelist}} | religion = See [[religion in Eritrea]] }} {{Contains special characters|Ethiopic|compact=yes}} '''Eritrea''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=Ertra.ogg|ˌ|ɛr|ᵻ|ˈ|t|r|iː|.|ə|,_|-|ˈ|t|r|eɪ|-}}),<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|Eritrea}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite Merriam-Webster|Eritrea|access-date=2010-05-02}}</ref><ref>[http://www.iso.org/iso/nl_vi-13_name_change_for_eritrea.pdf ISO 3166-1 Newsletter VI-13] International Organization for Standardization</ref> panji kuti '''Charu cha Eritrea''', ni chalo icho chili mu chigaŵa cha [[Horn of Africa]] ku [[East Africa]], na msumba wake ukuru ku [[Asmara]]. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[Ethiopia]] kumwera, [[Sudan]] kumanjiliro gha dazi, na [[Djibouti]] kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi. Kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Eritrea kuli mumphepete mwa [[Nyanja Yiswesi]]. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana pafupifupi 117,600 km2 (45,406 sq mi), ndipo chikusazgapo Dahlak Archipelago na virwa vinandi vya Hanish. Vinthu ivyo vikukhalapo vya ŵanthu ivyo vikusangika ku Eritrea ni vyaka pafupifupi 1 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Mazuŵa ghano, charu cha Eritrea chili na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu 9 ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero 9 vyakupambanapambana, ndipo chiyowoyero icho chikuyowoyeka chomene ni Chitigrinya, ndipo viyowoyero vinyake ni Tigre, Saho, Kunama, Nara, Afar, Beja, Bilen, na Chiarabic. ChiTigrinya, Chiarabic, na Cingelezi ni viyowoyero vitatu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya.<ref name="MOI Eritrea" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://shabait.com/amp/2021/05/01/national-unity-eritreas-core-value-for-peace-and-stability/|title = National Unity: Eritrea's core value for peace and stability}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://shabait.com/amp/2009/10/01/eritrea-at-a-glance/|title = Eritrea at a Glance}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/education/edurights/media/docs/fd48fdd5dc073aa0a88273489a13921296394304.pdf |title=Eritrea Constitution |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=19 August 2021 }}</ref> Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya mu banja la Afroasiatic, panji viyowoyero vya ku Etiyopiya ivyo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Semite. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tigrinyas ndiwo ŵakukhala mu vyaru ivi. Kweniso kuli mitundu yinyake ya ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu caru ici ŵakusopa Cikhristu panji Cisilamu, ndipo ŵanji ŵakusopa visopa vinyake. Ufumu wa Aksum, uwo ukaŵa mu vigaŵa vinandi ivyo sono ni Eritrea na kumpoto kwa Etiyopiya, ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 panji 200 C.E.<ref name="Munro-Hay57">{{cite book |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |date=1991 |url=http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=University Press |page=57 |isbn=0-7486-0106-6 |access-date=24 June 2012 |archive-date=23 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Paul B. Henze 2005">Henze, Paul B. (2005) ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'', {{ISBN|1-85065-522-7}}.</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mu msumba uwu ŵakamba kuŵa Ŵakhristu. Mu nyengo za pakati, chigaŵa chikuru cha Eritrea chikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Medri Bahri. Charu cha Eritrea icho sono chikuchemeka Eritrea, chikaŵako chifukwa cha kukolerana kwa maufumu ghanyake (nga ni Medri Bahri na Aussa Sultanate). Nkhondo ya ku Italy yikati yamara mu 1942, boma la Britain likamba kulamulira charu cha Eritrea m'paka mu 1952. Kuyana na ivyo Wupu wa United Nations ukadumura mu 1952, charu cha Eritrea chikeneranga kujilamulira na nyumba ya malango ya ku Eritrea, kweni pa nkhani za vyaru vya kuwaro na kuvikilira charu, chikaŵa pasi pa Ethiopia kwa vyaka 10. Ndipouli, mu 1962, boma la Ethiopia likawuskapo boma la Eritrea na kupoka charu ichi. Gulu la ŵanthu ŵakujipatura ku charu cha Eritrea likambiska gulu la Eritrean Liberation Front mu 1961 ndipo likarwa Nkhondo ya Kujiyimira palokha ya Eritrea m'paka apo charu ichi chikapokera wanangwa mu 1991. Mu 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Charu cha Eritrea nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vindafike pa msinkhu wakulera ŵana. Boma ili lili na chipani chimoza ndipo palije maungano gha vyamalamulo panji gha pulezidenti.<ref name="gi">{{cite web |title=Eritrea |url=http://www.grassrootsonline.org/what-we-do/partnerships/where-we-work/eritrea |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724164739/http://www.grassrootsonline.org/what-we-do/partnerships/where-we-work/eritrea |archive-date=24 July 2008 |access-date=2008-07-24 |work=Grassroots International}}</ref><ref name="Eritrea’s Silent Totalitarianism - McGill Journal of Political Studies" /> Isaias Afwerki wakuteŵetera nga ni purezidenti kufuma apo charu ichi chikapokera wanangwa wake mu 1993. Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (Human Rights Watch) ukuti boma la Eritrea lili na wanangwa wa ŵanthu uheni chomene pa charu chose. Boma la Eritrea likukana ivyo boma likuyowoya. Ufulu wa vyalo ku Eritrea ngwakupeleŵera comene. Kufika mu 2022, wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukuwona kuti charu ichi chili na wanangwa wakuluska wose pa charu chose. Charu cha Eritrea chili mu wupu wa African Union, United Nations, na Intergovernmental Authority on Development, ndipo chili na wupu wa Arab League pamoza na Brazil na Venezuela.<ref name="edition.cnn.com">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/30/world/meast/arab-league-fast-facts/ |title=Arab League Fast Facts |work=CNN |date=18 March 2016 |access-date=5 June 2016}}</ref> == Zina == Zina lakuti Eritrea lili kufuma ku zina lakale la Chigiriki lakuti Nyanja Yiswesi (Erythra Thalassa, kufuma ku lizgu lakuti ἐρυθρός erythros, "chiswesi"). Mu 1890, charu ichi chikachemeka kuti Italy Eritrea (Colonia Eritrea).<ref name="ConnellKillion2010">{{cite book|author1=Dan Connell|author2=Tom Killion|title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYsgpIc3mrsC&pg=PA7|date=14 October 2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7505-0|pages=7–}}</ref> Zina ili likalutilira mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwa Britain na Ethiopia, ndipo likakhazikiskikaso na referendum ya 1993 na dango la 1997.<ref>"Today, 23 May 1997, on this historic date, after active popular participation, approve and solemnly ratify, through the Constituent Assembly, this Constitution as the fundamental law of our Sovereign and Independent State of Eritrea." [https://web.archive.org/web/20161104131633/http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/government-agencies/eritrea-constitution/ The Constitution of Eritrea (eritrean-embassy.se)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104131633/http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/government-agencies/eritrea-constitution/ |date=4 November 2016 }}</ref> == Mbili == {{main|History of Eritrea}} === Prehistory === Madame Buya ni zina la cisomba ico ŵasayansi ŵa ku Italy ŵakasanga ku Eritrea. Ŵanthu ŵakuti ni visomba vyakale chomene ivyo vikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakasinthira kufuma ku vinyama vinyake, ndipo vikulongora kuti pakaŵa kukolerana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Homo erectus na ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale. Viwangwa vyake vili na vyaka pafupifupi 1 miliyoni. Ni viwangwa vyakale comene vya mtundu uwu ndipo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaŵa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti chigaŵa cha Danakil Depression ku Eritrea ndicho chikawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵasinthe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exn.ca/hominids/pleistocenepark.cfm|title=Pleistocene Park|access-date=2 October 2006|date=8 September 1999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991013050335/http://exn.ca/hominids/pleistocenepark.cfm|archive-date=13 October 1999|last1=Chang|first1=Gloria|website=Hunting Hominids|publisher=Discovery Channel Canada}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyo kukaŵa chiwuvi, ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi ku Eritrea ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti malo agha ghakaŵa pa nthowa yakufumira ku Africa iyo ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Mu 1999, gulu la ŵasayansi ŵa ku Eritrea, Canada, America, Netherlands, na France, ŵakasanga malo agho pakaŵa vinthu vya malibwe na vya obsidian vyaka vyakujumpha 125,000 kumwera kwa Massawa, mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ndiwo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo ivi pakusanga vyakurya vya mu nyanja nga ni visomba na oyisitara.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exn.ca/hominids/outofafrica.cfm|access-date=2 October 2006|title=Out of Africa|date=10 September 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Zarins, Juris |year=1990|title=Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-american-schools-of-oriental-research_1990-11_280/page/n32 |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=280 |issue=280|pages=31–65|jstor=1357309|doi=10.2307/1357309|s2cid=163491760}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1078208 | last1 = Diamond | first1 = J. | last2 = Bellwood | first2 = P. | title = Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2003-04-25_300_5619/page/597 | journal = Science | volume = 300 | issue = 5619 | pages = 597–603 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12714734|bibcode = 2003Sci...300..597D | citeseerx = 10.1.1.1013.4523 | s2cid = 13350469 }}</ref><ref name="Blench143144">{{cite book|last1=Blench|first1=R.|title=Archaeology, Language, and the African Past|date=2006|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0759104662|pages=143–144|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C}}</ref> === Antiquity === {{main|Gash Group|Land of Punt|Dʿmt}} [[File:Qohaito, Eritrea (33628113490).jpg|thumb|Viwunjiko vyamalibwe ivyo vikaŵa mu Qohaito]] [[File:Adulis.jpg|thumb|[[Adulis]] archeological site]] Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti vinthu ivyo vikusangika mu Dambo la Barka ivyo vikalembeka mu 8000 B.C.E. vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti mitundu yinandi ya ku Eritrea ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba kukhala mu malo agha. Mu charu cha Eritrea, ŵanthu awo ŵakafukura vinthu mu Agordat na kufupi na Agordat ŵakasanga vinthu ivyo vikaŵa mu charu cha Gash. Ŵakasanga vinthu vya dongo ivyo vikalembeka pakati pa 2500 na 1500 B.C.E. Pafupifupi mu 2000 B.C.E., vigaŵa vinyake vya Eritrea vikwenera kuti vikaŵa mu charu cha Punt.<ref>Najovits, Simson (2004) ''Egypt, trunk of the tree, Volume 2'', Algora Publishing, p. 258, {{ISBN|087586256X}}.</ref><ref name="independent.co.uk">{{cite news|title= Baboon mummy analysis reveals Eritrea and Ethiopia as location of land of Punt |access-date= 26 April 2010 |work= The Independent|date= 26 April 2010 |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/history/baboon-mummy-analysis-reveals-eritrea-and-ethiopia-as-location-of-land-of-punt-1954547.html|author=Jarus, Owen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=NATHANIEL J. DOMINY1 |author2=SALIMA IKRAM |author3=GILLIAN L. MORITZ |author4=JOHN N. CHRISTENSEN |author5=PATRICK V. WHEATLEY |author6=JONATHAN W. CHIPMAN |title=Mummified baboons clarify ancient Red Sea trade routes |url=http://meeting.physanth.org/program/2015/session45/dominy-2015-mummified-baboons-clarify-ancient-red-sea-trade-routes.html |publisher=American Association of Physical Anthropologists |access-date=25 June 2016 |archive-date=30 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730055118/http://meeting.physanth.org/program/2015/session45/dominy-2015-mummified-baboons-clarify-ancient-red-sea-trade-routes.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Msumba uwu ukaŵa wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha kupanga na kutumizga golide, vyakununkhira, makuni gha blackwood, ebony, mino gha zovu, na vinyama vyamuthondo. Chigaŵa ichi chikumanyikwa kufuma ku mabuku gha ku Eguputo ghakale agho ghakulongosora za maulendo gha malonda agho ghakaŵako, comenecomene ulendo wa ku Punt uwo ukacitika mu 1469 B.C.E. apo Hatshepsut wakambaso kwenda mu nthowa za malonda.<ref name="Shaw & Nicholson, p.231">Shaw & Nicholson, p.231.</ref><ref name=":210">{{Cite news|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/punt/|title=Punt|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia|access-date=2017-11-27}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Pharmacographia|first1=Friedrich August|last1=Flückiger|first2=Daniel|last2=Hanbury|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108069304|date=2014-03-20|page=136|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTTeAgAAQBAJ&q=opone+punt&pg=PA136}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=In Search of Myths & Heroes: Exploring Four Epic Legends of the World|first=Michael|last=Wood|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520247246|date=2005|page=[https://archive.org/details/insearchofmythsh00mich/page/155 155]|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofmythsh00mich|url-access=registration|quote=opone punt.}}</ref> Ku Sembel ŵakasanga ukaboni wakuti kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu Asmara. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni ya Ona ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵacekuru comene pa ŵanthu wose ŵa ku East Africa awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto na kulima. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikusangika pa malo agha vikulongora kuti vikaŵako pakati pa 800 B.C.E. na 400 B.C.E., ndipo vikaŵako nyengo yimoza na malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵako pambere Aksumite wandababike.<ref name="Schmidt">{{cite journal|last1=Schmidt|first1=Peter R.|title=The 'Ona' culture of greater Asmara: archaeology's liberation of Eritrea's ancient history from colonial paradigms|journal=Journal of Eritrean Studies|year=2002|volume=1|issue=1|pages=29–58|url=http://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=270036407&DB=p|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Avanzini">{{cite book|last1=Avanzini|first1=Alessandra|title=Profumi d'Arabia: atti del convegno|date=1997|publisher=L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER|isbn=978-8870629750|page=280|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3zOlYZmJiiAC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=270036407&DB=p|title=The 'Ona' culture of greater Asmara: archaeology's liberation of Eritrea's ancient history from colonial paradigms|first=Peter R.|last=Schmidt|date=24 May 2002|journal=Journal of Eritrean Studies (Asmara)|volume=1|issue=1|pages=29–58|via=www.africabib.org}}</ref> ==== Kingdom of D'mt ==== {{main|Dʿmt}} [[File:Leaping Ibex, Ethiopia (2130266960).jpg|thumb|Nyali ya mafuta ya mkuŵa iyo yikasangika ku Matara, ya mu Ufumu wa Dʿmt (cha m'ma 100 B.C.E. panji kumasinda)]] Dʿmt ukaŵa ufumu uwo ukaŵako kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 m'paka 500 B.C.E. mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Eritrea na kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Pakuti ku Yeha kukaŵa tempile likuru, malo agha ndigho ghakaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu uwu. Qohaito, uyo kanandi wakachemekanga msumba wa Koloe mu nyengo ya ku Nyanja ya Erythraean, kweniso Matara, ukaŵa msumba wakuzirwa wa ufumu wa Dʿmt kumwera kwa Eritrea. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na vyakumweramo maji, viŵiya vyakupwanthirapo, vyakumera, na kupanga vilwero. Pamanyuma pakuti ufumu wa Dʿmt wabwangandulika mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., chigaŵa ichi chikamba kulamulirika na maufumu ghachoko. Ivi vikalutilira m'paka mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, ufumu wa Aksum ukamba kulamulira.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard K.P. (17 January 2003) {{cite web |url=http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm |title=Let's Look Across the Red Sea I |access-date=2006-01-09 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm |archive-date=9 January 2006}}, ''Addis Tribune''</ref> ==== Kingdom of Aksum ==== {{main|Kingdom of Aksum}} Ufumu wa Aksum ukaŵa ufumu wa malonda uwo ukaŵa ku Eritrea na kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Likaŵako kwamba cha m'ma 100-940 C.E., ndipo likakura kufuma mu nyengo ya Iron Age ya mu nyengo ya Akshumi m'ma 400 C.E. m'paka mu nyengo ya 100 C.E. Buku linyake (Liber Axumae) likuti msumba wakwamba wa Aksum, Mazaber, ukazengeka na Itiyopis, mwana wa Kush. Pamanyuma, likuru la caru ici likasamukira ku Axum, kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Ufumu uwu ukamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti Etiyopiya mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakazenga vigongwe vikuruvikuru ivyo ŵakasoperangamo pambere Chikhristu chindafike. Yimoza mwa mizati iyi ni Obelisk of Aksum, iyo yili na mamita 27. Ku Ezana (fl. 320-360), pamanyuma pake Aksum wakazomera Cikristu.<ref name="Munro-Hay">{{cite book|last1=Munro-Hay|first1=Stuart C. |title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity|date=1991|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0748601066|page=77|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlRzAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Chikhristu ndicho chikaŵa chisopa chakwamba mu charu cha Eritrea, ndipo nyumba yakale chomene ya ŵasembe mu charu ichi, Debre Sina, yikazengeka m'ma 400 C.E. Ni yimoza mwa nyumba zakuluska mu Africa na caru cose. Debre Libanos, nyumba yachiŵiri yakale comene, yikwenera kuti yikazengeka kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 400 panji kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Pakwamba yikaŵa mu muzi wa Ham, kweni yikasamukira ku malo ghambura kufikako agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa jalawe. Mu chalichi lake muli Baibolo lakwengeka na visulo la Golden Gospel, ilo likalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., Ŵasilamu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Mecca, awo ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa ntchimi Muhammad, ŵakachimbilira ku ufumu wa Qurayshi kuti ŵaleke kutambuzgika. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ndiwo ŵakazenga moski wakwamba wa ku Africa, Mosque of the Companions, Massawa. Ufumu uwu ukuzunulika mu buku la Periplus of the Erythraean Sea kuti ukaŵa msika wakuzirwa wa mino gha zovu, agho ghakatumizgikanga ku vyaru vinyake. Pa nyengo iyi, msumba wa Aksum ukaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Zoskales, uyo nayo wakalamuliranga dowoko la Adulis. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Aksum ŵakaŵanga na ndalama zawo na kucitiska malonda.<ref name="Raffaele2007">{{cite journal |first=Paul |last=Raffaele |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/ark-covenant-200712.html?c=y&page=1 |title=Keepers of the Lost Ark?|journal=Smithsonian Magazine |date=December 2007 |access-date= 5 April 2011}}</ref> === Middle Ages === ==== Medri Bahri ==== {{main|Medri Bahri|Habesh Eyalet|Sultanate of Aussa| Dankali Sultanate}} [[File:Medri Bahri.png|thumb|upright|left|Medri Bahri at its height in the 1520s]] Pamanyuma pakuti Aksum wabwangandulika, chigaŵa cha Eritrea chikaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Medri Bahri, uwo ukawusikanga na Bahri Negus (panji Bahri Negash, kung'anamura "themba la nyanja"). Pakwamba malo agha ghakachemekanga Ma'ikele Bahri ("pakati pa nyanja na milonga", kung'anamura charu icho chili pakati pa Nyanja Yiswesi na mlonga wa Mereb).<ref>Tamrat, Taddesse (1972) ''Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527)''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 74.</ref> Chigaŵa chose cha mumphepete mwa nyanja cha Ma'ikele Bahri chikaŵa pasi pa Adal Sultanate mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Sultan Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din. Pamanyuma, themba la ku Ethiopia zina lake Zara Yaqob likapoka charu ichi na kuchithya kuti Medri Bahri ("Charu cha mu Nyanja" mu Chitigrinya). Msumba uwu ukaŵa na msumba wa Debarwa. [[File:Bahta Hagos.jpeg|thumb|right|upright|Bahta Hagos wakaŵa mulongozgi wakuzirwa wa ŵanthu ŵa Eritrea awo ŵakakanizganga kuwusika na vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene ŵa kumpoto kwa Ethiopia na Italy.]] Kuzakafika mu 1517, Ŵaotomu ŵakathereska msumba wa Medri Bahri. Ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa chose cha kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Eritrea, kufuma ku Massawa m'paka ku Swakin mu Sudan. Chigaŵa ichi chikazgoka chigaŵa cha Ottoman, icho chikachemekanga Habesh Eyalet. Msumba wa Massawa ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa chigaŵa chiphya ichi. Msumba uwu ukati wamba kuwoneka kuti ngwambura kuzirwa pa nkhani ya vyachuma, likuru la boma likasamukira ku Jeddah. Munthu wakwamba uyo wakafika ku Eritrea wakaŵa Francisco Alvares wa ku Portugal. Mabuku ghake ghakulongosora za ufumu wa Tigray, ufumu wa Axum na Barnagais (fumu ya vyaru vya mumphepete mwa nyanja) Mphepete mwa nyanja ya Eritrea ndiyo yikaŵawovwira kuti ŵalutilire kukolerana na chigaŵa cha Tigray uko Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaŵa na malo ghachoko waka. Mu 1541 ŵasilikari ŵa Cristóvão da Gama ŵakafika ku Massawa, ndipo ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Adal mu nkhondo ya Wayna Daga mu 1543.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pereira|first=Hugo|title=Uma força Expedicionária Portuguesa na Campanha da Etiópia de 1541-1543|url=https://comum.rcaap.pt/bitstream/10400.26/6888/1/Uma%20for%C3%A7a%20Expedicion%C3%A1ria%20Portuguesa%20na%20Campanha%20da%20Eti%C3%B3pia...pdf}}</ref> Mu 1559, Ŵaturuki ŵakayezga kuti ŵapoke chigaŵa cha Medri Bahri, kweni ŵakakanizgika. Ŵakacimbizgika na ŵasilikari ŵa Bahri Negash na ŵasilikari ŵa ku mapiri. Mu 1578, ŵakayezga kuti ŵalute ku vigaŵa vya mapiri na wovwiri wa Bahri Negash Yisehaq, uyo wakasintha ŵabwezi chifukwa cha kulimbana na ŵamazaza. Muwusi wa ku Etiyopiya, Sarsa Dengel, wakacimbizga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Turkey mu 1588 cifukwa ca kuwukira kwawo vigaŵa vya kumpoto. Paumaliro, Ŵaotomu ŵakaŵachimbizga mu cigaŵa caumaliro ca vilimika vya m'ma 1500. Ndipouli, iwo ŵakalutilira kulamulira mumphepete mwa nyanja m'paka apo charu cha Eritrea chikambira ku Italy m'ma 1800.<ref name="MB01"/><ref name="A10-4">Jonathan Miran [https://books.google.com/books?id=PMFVeWTWF0YC&dq=%22resistance+and+pushed+back+by+the+bahr+negash+and+highland+forces%22+%22the+Turks+remained+relatively+briefly+in+the+highlands%22&pg=PA38 Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa]. [[Indiana University Press]], 2009, pp. 38–39 & 91 Google Books</ref><ref name="A10-5">Jonathan Miran [https://books.google.com/books?id=PMFVeWTWF0YC&dq=allied+%22who+had+switched+alliances+due+to+power+struggles%22+%22partly+successful%2C+and+in+1589+they+were+apparently+compelled+to+withdraw+their+forces+to+the+coast.%22+abandoned+ambitions+plateau+coast&pg=PA39 Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa]. Indiana University Press, 2009, pp. 38–39 & 91</ref> Mu 1734, mulongozgi wa Afar, Kedafu, wakambiska muwuso wa Mudaito mu Ethiopia, uwo pamanyuma ukakhwaska vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Denkel ku Eritrea. Caka ca m'ma 1500 cikaŵaso nyengo iyo Ŵaotomu ŵakiza mu caru ca ku Nyanja Yiswesi.<ref name="MB01">{{cite book|author=Okbazghi Yohannes|title=A Pawn in World Politics: Eritrea|url=https://archive.org/details/eritreapawninwor00yoha/page/31|year=1991|publisher=University of Florida Press|isbn=978-0-8130-1044-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/eritreapawninwor00yoha/page/31 31–32]}}</ref><ref>Abir, Mordechai (1968) ''The era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and the re-unification of the Christian empire, 1769–1855''. London: Longmans. pp. 23–26.</ref><ref name="Pankhurstteb">{{cite book|last=Pankhurst|first=Richard|title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century|year=1997|publisher=Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0932415196|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQ1CH3-RMe0C&pg=PA391}}</ref><ref name="Aesna">{{cite book |title=In defence of the Eritrean revolution against Ethiopian social chauvinists |date=1978 |publisher=AESNA |page=38|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idUtAQAAIAAJ|quote=Later in their history, the Denkel lowlands of Eritrea were part of the Sultanate of Aussa, which came into being towards the end of the sixteenth century.}}</ref><ref>Abir, Mordechai (1968) ''The era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and the re-unification of the Christian empire, 1769–1855''. London: Longmans, p. 23 n. 1.</ref> === Mbili yasono === ==== Italian Eritrea ==== {{main|Italian Eritrea}} [[File:Raheita Incident 1898.jpg|thumb|Ascaris wa ku Eritrea, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy, pa cimati ca mu 1898]] [[File:Cartolina dei Carabinieri Reali spedita dalla Colonia Eritrea dell'Asmara (1907).jpg|thumb|Kadi la Carabinieri lakufuma ku Italy ku Eritrea mu 1907]] [[File:Asmara - Piazza Roma - Banca d'Italia.jpg|thumb|Piazza Roma in Italian Asmara]] Vyaru ivyo sono ni Eritrea vikaŵa mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Africa. Mu 1869 panji 1870, mulongozgi wa chigaŵa ichi wakaguliska malo agho ghakazingilizga nyanja ya Assab ku Rubattino Shipping Company. Malo agha ghakaŵanga malo ghakusungiramo malasha agho ghakaŵa mu nthowa za ngalaŵa izo zikaŵa mu Suez Canal. Mu nyengo iyo Themba Yohannes IV likafwa mu 1889, Gen. Oreste Baratieri wakakhalamo mu vigaŵa vya mapiri ivyo vikaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Eritrea, ndipo Italy yikapharazga kuti charu cha Eritrea, icho chikaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Italy, chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Mu phangano la Wuchale (It. Mu chaka chenechichi, Themba Menelik la Shewa, ilo likaŵa ufumu wa kumwera kwa Etiyopiya, likazomera kuti charu cha Italy chiŵe pasi pa maboma gha Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, na Serae. Nkhondo iyo wakathereska mathemba ghanyake na kukhomeka pa chitengo nga ni Fumu Menelek II (1889-1913) yikapangiska kuti phangano ili liŵe lakukhozga ŵanthu wose ŵa mu caru ici.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Abyssinia |volume=1 |page=94}}</ref> In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The [[Eritrean Railway]] was completed to Saati in 1888,<ref>Olivieri, Emilio (1888) [https://web.archive.org/web/20131012032531/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm La Ferrovia Massaua-Saati] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012032531/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm |date=12 October 2013 }} (report on the construction of the Massawa–Saati Railway). ''Ferrovia Eritrea''. {{in lang|it}}</ref> and reached [[Asmara]] in the highlands in 1911.<ref name=f1>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20080203050814/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/contenuti.htm Eritrean Railway] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413211753/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/contenuti.htm |date=13 April 2009 }}" at ''Ferrovia Eritrea''. {{in lang|it}}</ref> Msewu wa Asmara-Massawa Cableway ndiwo ukaŵa utali comene pa caru cose, kweni pamanyuma pake ukabwangandulika na ŵa ku Britain mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose. Padera pa milimo yikuru ya kuzenga vinthu, maboma ghakaŵaso na ndalama zinandi mu vyakurya. Wakapelekaso wovwiri ku ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni ya Asmara na Massawa, kweniso wakalemba ntchito ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Eritrea mu maofesi gha boma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakalembeskeka ku usilikari mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri. Mwakusazgirapo, boma la Italy ku Eritrea likajura mafakitale ghanyake agho ghakapanganga mabotolo, mafuta gha kuphikira, makaroni, vyakuzenga, nyama, hona, vikumba, na vinthu vinyake vya mu nyumba. Mu 1939, ku malo agha kukaŵa mafakitale pafupifupi 2,198 ndipo ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ku mafakitala agha ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Eritrea. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy na Eritrea ŵakamba kukhala mu matawuni. Mu vyaka vinkhondi, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi chikakwera kufuma pa 4,600 kufika pa 75,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://shabait.com/2009/11/13/italian-administration-in-eritrea/ |title=Italian administration in Eritrea |date=13 November 2009 |publisher=Eritrea Ministry of Information |access-date=9 September 2020}}</ref> Mu 1922, Benito Mussolini wakati waŵa na mazaza mu Italy, boma la ku Eritrea likasintha comene. Il Duce wakati wapharazga kuti Ufumu wa Italy wababika mu Meyi 1936, Eritrea wa ku Italy (wakasazgikira na vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa Ethiopia) na Somaliland wa ku Italy vikasazgikana na Ethiopia uyo wakaŵa kuti wapokeka waka. Mu nyengo iyi, ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukakura chomene mwakuti ukaŵa nga ni "Ufumu uphya wa Ŵaroma". Boma la Italy likasankha Eritrea kuŵa malo ghakwendeskera vyamalonda ku Italy. Asmara yikapangika makora chomene mu 1935, ndipo yikamba kuwoneka nga ni "mzinda wa Art Deco" (mu 2017 yikapharazgika kuti ni "Mzinda wa UNESCO wa Charu Chose",) uwo uli na vinthu vyakupambanapambana, malo ghakutowa, na nyumba za ŵanthu wose, nga ni mafilimu, mashopu, mabanki, visopa, maofesi gha ŵanthu wose na gha ŵanthu ŵekha, mafakitale, na nyumba za ŵanthu (kuyana na mabuku gha UNESCO). Ŵataliyana ŵakapanga nyumba zakujumpha 400 mu nyengo ya nkhondo iyo yikaŵa kuti yindachitike. Mu nyumba izi mukaŵa nyumba zikuruzikuru za ku Italy nga ni Fiat Tagliero Building na Cinema Impero. ==== British administration ==== Mu 1941, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakachimbizga Ŵaitaliya na kwamba kuwusa caru.<ref>{{cite web |last=Law |first=Gwillim |title=Regions of Eritrea |url=http://www.statoids.com/uer.html |website=Administrative Divisions of Countries ('Statoids') |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> Ŵabali ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵika charu cha Eritrea mu mawoko gha ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain m'paka apo ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakeneranga kuzomerezgera kuti charu ichi chiwelere. Pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ŵakakolerana yayi pa nkhani ya malo gha Eritrea, boma la Britain likalutilira kulamulira mpaka mu 1950. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka nkhondo yikati yamara, boma la Britain likati charu cha Eritrea chigaŵike mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Pakuti boma la Soviet Union likaghanaghananga kuti ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Italy ndiwo ŵazamutonda, pakwamba likakolerana kuti charu cha Eritrea chiwelere ku Italy. ==== Annexation with Ethiopia ==== {{main|Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea}} [[File:Eritrean Independence War Map.png|thumb|[[Eritrean War of Independence]] against Ethiopia 1961–1991]] Mu ma 1950, boma la Ethiopia ilo likalongozgekanga na Themba Haile Selassie likakhumbanga kutora charu cha Eritrea na Somaliland. Mu kalata iyo wakalembera Franklin D. Roosevelt pa ungano wa Paris Peace Conference na pa ungano wakwamba wa United Nations. Mu wupu wa United Nations, ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kudumbiskana vya vyaru ivyo kale vikaŵa pasi pa Italy. Ŵa Britain na America ŵakakhumbanga kupeleka charu chose cha Eritrea ku Ŵaetiyopiya kuti ŵaŵawovwire pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose.<ref>Top Secret Memorandum of 1949-03-05, written with the UN Third Session in view, from Mr. Rusk to the Secretary of State.</ref> Gulu la vyaru vya ku Eritrea ilo likucemeka Independence Bloc, likapempha wupu wa United Nations General Assembly kuti ucitenge referendum mwaluŵiro. Pamanyuma pakuti U.N. Mu Disembala 1950, kuyana na fundo 390A (V) ya wupu wakulongozga, charu cha Eritrea chikakolerana na Ethiopia. Pa fundo iyi, ŵakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Eritrea na Ethiopia viŵe pamoza. Eritrea wakeneranga kuŵa na boma lake na makhoti ghake, ndembera yake, na kulamulira vinthu vya mu caru, kusazgapo ŵapolisi, boma, na msonkho. Boma la ku Russia ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa nkhani za malonda, kuvikilira ŵanthu, ndalama, na mendero. Fundo iyi yikasuskana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakakhumbanga, kweni yikaŵapa wanangwa wa demokilase na kujiyimira pawekha. ==== Independence ==== {{main|Eritrean War of Independence|Flag of Eritrea|Eritrea under Isaias Afwerki}} [[File:Asmara panorama, Eritrea.jpg|thumb|right|A view over [[Asmara]] ]] Mu 1958, gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea likambiska gulu lakucemeka Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). Gulu ili likaŵa na ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea, na ŵanthu ŵavinjeru. Gulu ili likacitanga vinthu vya ndyali mwakubisilizga kuti likanizge boma la Ethiopia. Pa Seputembala 1, 1961, Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), pasi pa muwuso wa Hamid Idris Awate, yikamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari. Mu 1962, Fumu Haile Selassie yikawuskamo ŵamazaza mu charu cha Eritrea na kupoka charu ichi. Nkhondo ya wanangwa ya Eritrea yikatora vyaka 30 m'paka mu 1991, apo gulu la Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) likathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Etiyopiya mu Eritrea. Ku Eritrea, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomerezga kuti charu ichi chiŵe na wanangwa wakujiyimira paŵekha. Gulu la EPLF likapoka mazaza, likakhazikiska boma la chipani chimoza na kukanizga milimo yinyake ya ndyali. Mu 2020, pakaŵavya mavoti.<ref>{{cite news |title='Slaughtered like chickens': Eritrea heavily involved in Tigray conflict, say eyewitnesses |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/21/slaughtered-like-chickens-eritrea-heavily-involved-in-tigray-conflict-say-eyewitnesses |work=The Guardian |date=21 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="Voice of America">{{cite news |title=US Says Eritrean Forces Should Leave Tigray Immediately |url=https://www.voanews.com/africa/us-says-eritrean-forces-should-leave-tigray-immediately |work=Voice of America |date=27 January 2021}}</ref><ref name="Bloomberg">{{cite news |title=EU Accuses Eritrean Forces of Fueling Conflict in Ethiopia |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-09/eu-accuses-eritrea-forces-of-fueling-conflict-in-ethiopia-region |work=Bloomberg |date=9 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="The Washington Post">{{cite news |title=Massacre by Eritrean troops in Ethiopia's Tigray region may constitute crime against humanity, Amnesty says |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/02/25/tigray-eritrea-ethiopia-crime-against-humanity/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=26 February 2021}}</ref> Pa Meyi 28, 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikaŵa mu wupu wa United Nations. Nkhondo ya Eritrea-Ethiopia kufuma mu 1998 m'paka mu 2000 yikaŵa na nkhondo yikuru pa mphaka, chomenechomene ku Badme na Zalambessa, ndipo paumaliro yikamara mu 2018. Mu 2020, ŵasilikari ŵa Eritrea ŵakanjilirapo pa Nkhondo ya Tigray ku chigaŵa cha boma la Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eritrea heavily involved in Tigray conflict, say eyewitnesses |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/21/slaughtered-like-chickens-eritrea-heavily-involved-in-tigray-conflict-say-eyewitnesses |work=The Guardian |date=21 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="Voice of America"/><ref name="Bloomberg"/><ref name="The Washington Post"/> Mu Epulero 2021, Eritrea yikati ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakurwa nkhondo mu Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eritrea confirms its troops are fighting in Ethiopia's Tigray |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/17/eritrea-confirms-its-troops-are-fighting-ethiopias-tigray |work=Al-Jazeera |date=17 April 2021}}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{main|Geography of Eritrea}} [[File:Un-eritrea.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Eritrea]] Charu cha Eritrea chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ku mpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kuli Nyanja Yiswesi, kumanjiliro gha dazi kuli Sudan, kumwera kuli Ethiopia, ndipo kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kuli Djibouti. Charu cha Eritrea chili pakati pa latitude 12° na 18°N, ndipo longitude 36° na 44°E. Charu ichi chili pakati pa vigaŵa viŵiri vya East African Rift. Ku Eritrea, kumwera kwa Nyanja Yiswesi, ndiko kuli mphinjika. Virwa vya Dahlak na malo ghake ghakukwerapo somba vili mumphepete mwa nyanja.[[File:Dahlak reliefmap.png|thumb|The [[Dahlak Archipelago]]]] Charu cha Eritrea chili mu vigaŵa vitatu. Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri agha kuli malo ghakuthukira agho ghali mumphepete mwa nyanja. Malo ghakuthukira agho ghali na vyakumera vinandi, agho ghali pa mtunda wa mamita 3,000, ghali na malo ghakupambanapambana. Malo agho ghakukhala ŵanthu ghakupambanapambana, kufuma ku nkhorongo ya Filfil Solomona m'paka ku majalawe na madambo gha kumwera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eritrea|publisher=fatbirder.com|url=http://www.fatbirder.com/links_geo/africa/eritrea.html}}</ref> Pa malo agha pakaŵa malo ghakupambanapambana. Malo ghapachanya chomene mu charu ichi ni Emba Soira, agho ghali pakatikati pa charu cha Eritrea. Msumba ukuru wa Asmara, uwo uli ku mpoto kwa charu ichi, na tawuni ya Asseb, iyo yili ku mpoto kwa charu ichi, kweniso tawuni ya Massawa, iyo yili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Charu cha Eritrea chili mu gulu la vyaru 14 ivyo vili mu wupu wa Global Environment Facility, uwo ukukolerana na mawupu gha pa caru cose, mawupu gha wupu wa wupu wakwendakwenda, na mabungwe gha boma kuti ghasange mazgoro gha mafumbo gha pa caru cose ghakukhwaskana na cilengiwa. Vinthu vikusintha pa malo agho kukulokwa vula, ndipo maji ghakukamuka pachoko, ndipo ivi vingapangiska kuti dongo liswe, maji ghatutuke, chilangalanga, charu chivunduke, na kuzgoka mapopa. Mu 2006, charu cha Eritrea chikapharazga kuti chizamuŵa charu chakwamba pa charu chose chapasi kuŵa na malo ghakuvikilirika. Mphepete mwa nyanja ya makilomita 1,347, pamoza na makilomita ghanyake 1,946 (1,209 mi) kuzingilizga virwa vyakujumpha 350, vizamutoleka na boma.{{wide image|2006-11-01_Asmara-Massawa_01.jpg|800px|align-cap=center|Highlands between [[Asmara]] and [[Massawa]]}} {{clear}} ===Wildlife=== {{main|Wildlife of Eritrea}} {{see also|List of mammals in Eritrea|List of birds of Eritrea}} [[File:Eritrean birds - pelicans in Asmara pound.jpg|thumb|[[Pelicans]] in a pond near [[Asmara]]]] Ku Eritrea kuli vyamoyo vinandi ivyo vikwambiska nthenda iyi. Mu charu cha Eritrea muli nyama zinandi za nyama. Malango agho ghalembeka ghakovwira kuti chiŵelengero chawo chikure mu Eritrea mose. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vikuŵako mazuŵa ghano ni mbunda ya ku Abyssinia, mphaka ya ku Africa, mbunda yakuchemeka Black-backed jackal, mphumphi ya golide ya ku Africa, Genet, chiŵiya chakuchemeka Ground squirrel, pale fox, Soemmerring's gazelle, na warthog. Viyuni ivi vikusangika comene mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja na ku Gash-Barka.[[File:Eri landscape.jpg|thumb|Eritrean landscape near road to Massawa]] Ŵanyake ŵakuti nkhalamu zikukhala mu mapiri gha mu chigaŵa cha Gash-Barka. Mu vigaŵa vinandi muli viyuni vya mtundu uwu. Mbunda ya ku Africa iyo yili pafupi kumara yikusangika mu chigaŵa cha Denakalia. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vikukhala mu malo agha ni viyuni vya bushbuck, duikers, greater kudu, Klipspringer, leopards, oryx, na crocodiles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.explore-eritrea.com/Wildlife.htm |title=Wild life in Eritrea page |publisher=explore-eritrea.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112050502/http://explore-eritrea.com/Wildlife.htm |archive-date=12 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="ibis.atwebpages.com">{{cite web |url=http://ibis.atwebpages.com/birdwatching_in_eritrea/wildlife.htm |title=Wildlife of Eritrea |publisher=ibis.atwebpages.com |author=Berhane, Dawit}}</ref> Chinyama cha chimbwi ntchikuru chomene. Mu nyengo yakale, njovu za mu munda wa Afrika zikamanyikwanga kuti zikwenda mu vigaŵa vinyake vya charu. Pakati pa 1955 na 2001 pakaŵavya ŵanthu awo ŵakawona viŵeto vya njovu, kweni ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti vikapwetekeka na nkhondo ya wanangwa. Mu Disembala 2001, mu malo gha Dambo la Gash mukaŵa viŵeto pafupifupi 30, kusazgapo ŵana 10. Vikawoneka kuti njovu zikamba kuŵa na ubali wakukolerana na njovu za maolive.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=BBC Wildlife Magazine |date=July 2003 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/300feature1.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060314104912/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/300feature1.shtml |archive-date=14 March 2006 |title=The rediscovery of Eritrea's elephants |access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref> Ntcheŵe yakucemeka African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) iyo yili pa ngozi yikusangika kale mu Eritrea, kweni sono yikuwoneka kuti yili kumara mu caru cose ici. Ku Gash-Barka, njoka zinandi zikuwoneka. Viyuni ivi vikusangika mu malo ghanandi, nanga nkhu mapiri. Mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja, mukusangika visomba vya mu nyanja nga ni dolphin, dugong, whale shark, turtles, marlin, swordfish, na manta ray.<ref name="ibis.atwebpages.com"/> === Climate === Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo, charu cha Eritrea chili mu vigaŵa vitatu. Vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikuchitika mu charu cha Eritrea vikupangiska kuti charu ichi chiŵe na mphepo yiwemi. Vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikuwoneka mu malo agha vikupangiska kuti nyengo yiŵe yakupambana mu charu chose. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri ivi nyengo njakuthukira chaka chose. Vyaru vinandi vya mu vigaŵa vya mapiri ni vyakomira. Kuyana kwa vula na vyakumera vikupambana mu caru cose. Nyengo ya ku Eritrea yikupambana cifukwa ca nyengo na malo agho kuli maji. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2022, wakulongora kuti ndalama izo Eritrea yikwenera kulipira kuti yizgoŵere kusintha kwa vinthu na kugega masuzgo agho ghangaŵapo chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo ni zinandi chomene.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Laville |first=Sandra |date=2022-07-13 |title=Climate adaptation bill for African countries to dwarf health spending |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/13/climate-adaptation-bill-african-countries-dwarf-health-spending |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>{{Weather box |location = Eritrea in general, based on 14 cities |metric first = yes |single line = yes |temperature colour = pastel |Jan high C = 27.3 |Feb high C = 28.3 |Mar high C = 29.8 |Apr high C = 32.3 |May high C = 33.3 |Jun high C = 33 |Jul high C = 32 |Aug high C = 31.5 |Sep high C = 32.3 |Oct high C = 31.8 |Nov high C = 30 |Dec high C = 28.3 |year high C = 31 |Jan mean C = 20 |Feb mean C = 20.8 |Mar mean C = 22.5 |Apr mean C = 24.3 |May mean C = 25.6 |Jun mean C = 26 |Jul mean C = 25.1 |Aug mean C = 24.7 |Sep mean C = 24.4 |Oct mean C = 23.8 |Nov mean C = 22.1 |Dec mean C = 20.5 |year mean C = 23.3 |Jan low C = 17.8 |Feb low C = 17.3 |Mar low C = 18.3 |Apr low C = 21 |May low C = 23.3 |Jun low C = 24.4 |Jul low C = 24.4 |Aug low C = 24.5 |Sep low C = 23.3 |Oct low C = 22.3 |Nov low C = 20 |Dec low C = 18.3 |year low C = 20.8 |Jan precipitation mm = 6.7 |Feb precipitation mm = 6.9 |Mar precipitation mm = 9 |Apr precipitation mm = 14.8 |May precipitation mm = 20.3 |Jun precipitation mm = 26.5 |Jul precipitation mm = 100 |Aug precipitation mm = 99.7 |Sep precipitation mm = 25.4 |Oct precipitation mm = 8.6 |Nov precipitation mm = 11.9 |Dec precipitation mm = 9.4 |year precipitation mm = 347 |source 1 = weatherbase<ref name= weatherbase>{{cite web | url = http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c=ER&name=Eritrea | title = Eritrea average climate | publisher = weatherbase | access-date = 6 March 2016}}</ref> |date=March 2016 }} == Boma na ndale == {{main|Politics of Eritrea}} [[File:Defense.gov News Photo 021210-D-2987S-057.jpg|thumb|President [[Isaias Afewerki]] with U.S. Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]], December 2002]] Chipani cha People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) ndi chipani chokha chovomerezeka ku Eritrea. Magulu ghanyake gha ndyali ghakupokelereka yayi kuwungana, nangauli dango la ndyali la mu 1997 likusambizga kuti pali vyaru vinandi. Nyumba ya Malamulo yili na mipando 150. Pa nyengo na nyengo, maungano gha chigaŵa ghakuŵapo ndipo ghakuŵavya.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |date=22 September 2021 |title=Eritrea |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/ |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> Pulezidenti Isaias Afwerki wali pa udindo kufuma apo charu chikapokera wanangwa mu 1993. Mu 1993, ŵanthu 75 ŵakasankhika kuŵa mu wupu wa National Assembly. Lipoti la wupu wa United Nations Human Rights Council likati: "Kwamba nyengo iyo, palije maungano gha boma agho ghacitika, ndipo palije maungano gha pulezidenti agho ghacitika. Kufuma mu 2003-2004, paŵavya maungano gha chigaŵa panji gha chigaŵa. Mu 1993, wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (National Assembly) ukasora Isaias Afwerki kuŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa charu cha Eritrea. Afwerki wakati wasankhika, wakalutilira kulamulira boma la Eritrea". Pulezidenti Isaias Afwerki wakuyowoya kanandi waka kuti wakuyuyura demokilase iyo wakuyichema kuti "ya ku Western". Mwaciyelezgero, mu 2008 mu nkhani iyo wakapeleka ku Al Jazeera, pulezidenti wakati: "Eritrea wazamulindilira vyaka 30 panji 40, panji kujumpha apa, pambere wandacite mavoti. Ni njani wakumanya?"<ref>{{Cite conference |url=https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoIEritrea/A_HRC_32_CRP.1_read-only.pdf |title=Detailed findings of the commission of inquiry on human rights in Eritrea |publisher=Human Rights Council|conference=Thirty-second session, Human rights situations that require the Council’s attention|date=8 June 2016|id=A/HRC/32/CRP.1}}</ref> === National, regional, and local elections === {{main|Elections in Eritrea}} Pakughanaghanira kuti dango la mtende na ubwezi pakati pa Eritrea na Ethiopia lichali kuleka kufiskika, boma la Eritrea likuwona kuti phangano la mtende likufiskika yayi. Ndipouli, maungano gha chigaŵa ghakalutilira mu Eritrea. Chisankho cha boma chaposachedwapa chinachitika mu 2010 na 2011.<!-- On further elections, the President's Chief of Staff, Yemane Gebremeskel said,<ref>Interview of Mr. Brandon Edmonds, Director of the Office of the President of Eritrea, PFDJ (1 April 2004)</ref> {{cquote|The electoral commission is handling these elections this time round so that may be the new element in this process. The national assembly has also mandated the electoral commission to set the date for national elections, so whenever the electoral commission sets the date there will be national elections. It's not dependent on regional elections.}} As of 2022, no national elections have been held since independence.<ref name=CIA />--> === Military === [[File:Eritrean navy.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Eritrean Navy]], branch of the [[Eritrean Defence Forces]] during ceremony]] Ŵasilikari ŵa Eritrea sono ndiwo ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Eritrea. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Eritrea ndimoza mwa ŵasilikari ŵankhongono comene mu Africa. Mu 1995, boma likakanizga ŵanthu kunjira usilikari. Kuyana na dango, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakunjira usilikari ŵakwenera kuteŵetera kwa myezi 18. Ntheura ŵanthu pafupifupi 5% ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakukhala mu nyumba za ŵasilikari mu mapopa ndipo ŵakuzenga misewu. Dango la mu 1995 ilo likukanizga ŵanthu kugwira ntchito zausilikari likuzomerezga yayi. Kuyana na dango la ku Ethiopia ilo likakhazikiskika mu 1957 apo charu cha Eritrea chikapokera wanangwa, para munthu waleka kujilemba usilikari panji kukana kugwira ntchito zausilikari, wakujalirika mu jele kwa myezi 6 m'paka vyaka 5.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eritrea|url=https://www.wri-irg.org/en/programmes/world_survey/country_report/de/Eritrea|publisher=War Resisters' International|access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> Nyengo iyo munthu wakulembekera usilikari yingaŵa yitali para pali suzgo. Kwambira mu 1998, waliyose uyo wandafike vyaka 50 wakulembeka usilikari kwa nyengo yitali m'paka wafumiskike. Mu kafukufuku uyo wakacitikira ŵanthu 200 awo ŵakacimbira usilikari, ŵakasanga kuti ŵakateŵetera vyaka 6.5 ndipo ŵanyake ŵakateŵetera vyaka vyakujumpha 12.<ref name="National service in Eritrea">[https://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2014/03/national-service-eritrea National service in Eritrea]. ''Economist''. 10 March 2014</ref> === Foreign relations === {{main|Foreign relations of Eritrea}}<!--Please add new information to relevant articles of the series--> [[File:The 23d ICSOE Conference for East Africa in Asmara, Eritrea 2019.png|thumb|Msonkhano wa 23 wa ISCOE East Africa ku Asmara mu 2019]] [[File:Vladimir Putin and Isaias Afwerki (2023-05-31).jpg|thumb|Isaias Afwerki na President wa Russia Vladimir Putin ku Kremlin ku Moscow pa 31 May 2023]] Charu cha Eritrea chili mu wupu wa United Nations na African Union. Charu ichi chili mu wupu wa vyaru vya maarabu pamoza na Brazil, Venezuela, na Turkey. Charu ichi chili na mpando mu wupu wa United Nations Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). Charu cha Eritrea chili mu wupu wa International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Finance Corporation, International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa, na World Customs Organization. Boma la Eritrea likafumiska nthumwi yake ku African Union pakususkana na umo wupu wa African Union ukutondekera kufiska ivyo likukhumba pa m'paka wa Eritrea na Ethiopia. Kwambira mu Janyuwale 2011, boma la Eritrea lasankha thenga, Tesfa-Alem Tekle, ku AU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sudantribune.com/Eritrea-appoints-AU-envoy-in,37700 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224084832/http://www.sudantribune.com/Eritrea-appoints-AU-envoy-in,37700 |archive-date=24 February 2011 |author=Tekle, Tesfa-Alem |date= 20 January 2011|title=Eritrea appoints AU envoy in Ethiopia – ''Sudan Tribune'': Plural news and views on Sudan |work=Sudan Tribune |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> Ubwezi wawo na Djibouti na Yemen uli palipose chifukwa cha mphindano za vigaŵa vya Doumeira Islands na Hanish Islands. Pa Meyi 28, 2019, boma la United States likafumiska charu cha Eritrea pa "Chikalata cha Awo Ŵakuleka Kovwira pa Nkhani ya Kuthana na Vigeŵenga". Kweniso myezi yiŵiri kumasinda, ŵimiliri ŵa boma la United States ŵakiza ku Eritrea, ndipo aka kakaŵa kakwamba mu vyaka 14.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/first-us-congressional-delegation-in-fourteen-years-visits-eritrea/4813583.html|title=1st US Congressional Delegation in 14 Years Visits Eritrea|work=VOA News|date=4 March 2019}}</ref> Pamoza na Belarus, Syria, na North Korea, Eritrea yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru vinayi pera kwambura Russia ivyo vikavoterapo ku United Nations General Assembly kuti vikususka ivyo Russia yikacita ku Ukraine mu 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2022/03/02/1083872077/u-n-set-to-hold-vote-that-would-demand-russia-end-war-in-ukraine|title=The U.N. approves a resolution demanding that Russia end the invasion of Ukraine|work=NPR|first=Peter|last=Granitz|date=2 March 2022}}</ref> ==== Relations with Ethiopia ==== {{see also|Eritrea–Ethiopia relations|Eritrean–Ethiopian War}} {{further|Eritrean War of Independence|Eritrean independence referendum, 1993}} [[File:Independence Day of Eritrea.jpg|thumb|Zuŵa la Wanangwa ni holide yakuzirwa comene mu Eritrea.]] Mphepete mwa charu cha Eritrea na Ethiopia ndiko kuli suzgo likuru. Nkhondo ya vyaka 30 iyo yikachitika pakati pa Eritrea na Ethiopia yikati yamara, ubwezi wawo ukakhora chomene. Nkhondo ya pa mphaka yikananga ndalama zinandi. Cifukwa ca kugaŵikana uko kukacitika pamanyuma pa nkhondo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu suzgo yikuru ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵakasuzgikanga comene na nkhondo.<ref name="horntension1">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3457957.stm |title=Horn tensions trigger UN warning |publisher=BBC |date=4 February 2004 |access-date = 7 June 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4400580.stm |title=Army build-up near Horn frontier |publisher=BBC |date=2 November 2005 |access-date = 7 June 2006}}</ref><ref name="horntension3">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4555892.stm |title=Horn border tense before deadline |publisher=BBC |date=23 December 2005 |access-date = 7 June 2006}}</ref> Pa cifukwa ici, pulezidenti wa Eritrea wakaciska wupu wa UN kuti ucitengepo kanthu pa nkhani ya Ethiopia na makalata 11 agho pulezidenti wakalembera wupu wa United Nations Security Council. Vinthu vikulutilira kuhenipa cifukwa cakuti ŵalongozgi ŵa Eritrea na Ethiopia ŵakulutilira kovwirana mu vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ethiopian Prime Minster tries to undermine the arrest of 20 journalists in the country |work=The Low Ethiopian Reports |url=https://lekreports.com/ethiopian-prime-minster-tries-to-undermine-the-arrest-of-20-journalists-in-the-country/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Why are Ethiopian leaders calling Eritrea's president 'Hitler'? |work=TRT News |url=https://www.trtworld.com/africa/why-are-ethiopian-leaders-calling-eritrea-s-president-hitler-34158}}</ref> Mu 2011, Etiyopiya wakapa mulandu Eritrea kuti wakazenga mabomba pa ungano wa wupu wa African Union ku Addis Ababa. Kweni charu cha Eritrea chikakana. Pa Julayi 8, 2018, ŵakalayizga kuti ŵaŵenge pa mtende. Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, ŵakasayina chikalata chakulongosora umo nkhondo ya pa mphaka ya Eritrea na Ethiopia yikamalira.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethiopia's Abiy and Eritrea's Afewerki declare end of war |work=BBC News |date=9 July 2018 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44764597 |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ethiopia, Eritrea officially end war |url=https://www.dw.com/en/ethiopia-eritrea-officially-end-war/a-44585296 |publisher={{Lang|de|Deutsche Welle|italic=no}} |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref> === Legal profession === Kuyana na sukulu ya malango ya NYU, komiti ya malango ya Unduna wa vya Malango yikulaŵilira ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuti munthu waŵe loya mu Eritrea. Nangauli dango la 88/96 likukanizga yayi kukhazikiska wupu wakuyimira pawekha, kweni palije wupu uwu. Ŵeruzgi ŵa khoti ili ŵakusankhika na ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivyo khoti ili lili na mazaza. Pa nkhani ya ŵanakazi awo ŵakugwira nchito ya kuzenga milandu, khoti likumanya makora yayi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Eritrea1.html#LawyersandLegalProfession|title=UPDATE: Introduction to Eritrean Legal System and Research|website=[[GlobaLex]]|publisher=New York University School of Law|access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref> === Human rights === {{main|Human rights in Eritrea}} <!-- For brief summary --> [[File:Eritrea - Government building, Asmara.jpg|thumb|right|Building of regional administration in [[Asmara]]]] Eritrea ni boma la chipani cimoza ndipo maungano gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana ghakusintha nyengo zinandi. Wupu wa Human Rights Watch ukati boma ili lili na wanangwa ukuru chomene pa charu chose. Vyaru vinandi vikususka boma la Eritrea kuti likukora na kukaka ŵanthu mwambura kwenelera, kweniso kuti likujalira ŵanthu ŵanandi kwambura kuŵapa mulandu cifukwa ca ivyo ŵakucita. Mu Eritrea, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo mbambura kuzomerezgeka. Gulu lakuzirwa la ŵanthu 15 ŵa ku Eritrea, lakucemeka G-15, kusazgapo mamembala ghatatu gha nduna, ŵakakakika mu Seputembala 2001 pamanyuma pa kufumiska kalata yakupharazga ku boma na pulezidenti Isaias Afewerki yakuchema kuti paŵe kudumbiskana kwa demokilase. Gulu ili na ŵanyake ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyeka kuti ŵali mu gulu ili, ŵali mu jele kwambura mulandu, mulandu, panji cheruzgo.<ref name="guardian">{{Cite news|title='If we don't give them a voice, no one will': Eritrea's forgotten journalists, still jailed after 14 years The country is ranked worst in the world for press freedom, its writers locked in secret jails. Here, PEN Eritrea profiles the men who fought for a free press, and paid the price | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/19/eritrea-forgotten-journalists-jailed-pen-international-press-freedom |date=20 August 2015|author= Zere, Abraham Tesfalul |publisher= Guardian}}</ref><ref name="Eritrean G-15 advocacy site">{{Cite news|title= Who are the Eritrean G15? And where are they now?|url= http://www.freeourparents-eritrea.com/who-are-the-eritrean-g15-and-where-are-they-now/|date= 4 October 2014 |publisher= Eritrean G-15 advocacy site|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023043119/http://www.freeourparents-eritrea.com/who-are-the-eritrean-g15-and-where-are-they-now/|archive-date= 23 October 2015}}</ref> Kufuma waka apo Eritrea yikakumanira na Ethiopia mu 1998-2001, wupu wa United Nations ukadandawura chomene pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵakuti kanandi boma ndilo likuphwanya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Wanangwa wa kuyowoya, wa kulemba nkhani, kuwungana, na kuwungana uli na mphaka. Awo ŵali mu visopa ivyo "vindalembeke", awo ŵakukhumba kucimbira mu caru, panji awo ŵakukhumba yayi kunjira usilikari, ŵakukakika na kujalirika mu jere. Mu 2009, ciŵelengero ca ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali cikaŵa pakati pa 10,000 na 30,000, kukaŵa nthambuzgo zinandi ndiposo kukoma ŵanthu kwambura mulandu, ndipo "waliyose" pa "cifukwa cilicose panji cara", kusazgapo ŵana ŵa vyaka 8, ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyakujumpha 80, na ŵalwari, ŵakakakikanga, ndipo Eritrea wakaŵa "imoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na muwuso wankhongono comene na kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu". Pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Eritrea na Nkhondo ya ku Eritrea na Ethiopia mu 1998, boma la Ethiopia likachitira nkhaza ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambura vilwero.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/eritrea.htm |title=Eritrean and Ethiopian Civil War |author=Tracey L. Cousin |work=ICE Case Studies |access-date=2007-09-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911212032/http://american.edu/ted/ice/eritrea.htm |archive-date=11 September 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/imprimable.php3?id_article=9931|title=A critical look into the Ethiopian elections|access-date=19 February 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061129063002/http://www.sudantribune.com/imprimable.php3?id_article=9931 |archive-date = 29 November 2006}}</ref> [[File:Asmara, mai jah jah 02.JPG|thumb|[[Asmara]], Eritrea in 2015]] [[File:Gash Barkahouses.jpg|thumb|Traditional Eritrean agudo/tukul huts in a village near [[Barentu, Eritrea|Barentu]]]] Mu Juni 2016, lipoti la wupu wa United Nations Human Rights Council la mapeji 500 likati boma la Eritrea likuchita vinthu nga nkhupeleka ŵanthu ku khoti yayi, kutambuzga, kugwira ntchito ya usilikari kwa nyengo yitali (pa avereji vyaka 6.5), na kuchichizga ŵanthu kugwira ntchito.<ref name="UNHRC"/><ref name= guard>{{cite news|last= Jones | first=Sam| title= Eritrea human rights abuses may be crimes against humanity, says UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jun/08/human-rights-abuses-eritrea-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-un-report| access-date= 8 June 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian|quote=The report 'catalogues a litany of human rights violations by the "totalitarian" regime of President Isaias Afwerki "on a scope and scale seldom witnessed elsewhere"' said ''[[The Guardian]]''date=8 June 2015}}</ref> Barbara Lochbihler wa mu Komiti ya Malango gha Ŵanthu mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Europe wakati lipoti ili likulongosora "vinthu viheni comene ivyo vikucitika pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu". Unduna wa vya Kunja wa Eritrea ukazgora na kuyowoya kuti lipoti la komiti iyi ni "vinthu vyambura kupulikikwa" ivyo "ni vyambura maukaboni". Awo ŵakwimira boma la United States na China ŵakasuska umo lipoti ili likayowoyekera. Ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Eritrea awo ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 18 na 40 ŵakwenera kugwira ntchito zausilikari. Dango ili likakhazikiskika apo charu cha Eritrea chikapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufumamo mu charu ichi kuti ŵaleke kunjira usilikari.<ref name="National service in Eritrea"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://utdailybeacon.com/news/2014/nov/19/professor-lecture-african-refugees-eritrea/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20141121095314/http://utdailybeacon.com/news/2014/nov/19/professor-lecture-african-refugees-eritrea/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 November 2014 |title=Professor to lecture on African refugees of Eritrea |website=The Daily Beacon }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/06/world/africa/migrants-libya.html | title=Young African Migrants, Enticed by Smugglers, End Up Mired in Libya | work=The New York Times | date=5 May 2015 | access-date=6 May 2015 | author=Kirkpatrick, David D.}}</ref> Pakukhumba kunozga vinthu, mu 2006, ŵalara ŵa boma la Eritrea na ŵimiliri ŵa mawupu ghambura vya boma ŵakawungana na kudumbiskana. Pa maungano agha, ŵakazgoranga mafumbo ghakuzirwa nga ni agha: "Kasi wanangwa wa munthu ni vichi?", "Kasi ni njani uyo wakumanya wanangwa wa munthu?", ndiposo "Kasi wanangwa wa munthu panji wa ŵanthu wose ni vichi?" Mu 2007, boma la Eritrea likakanizga kuti ŵanakazi ŵaleke kupika minthumbo. Mu maungano gha vigaŵa na mu visopa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakususka comene ukotoli wa ŵanakazi. Para ŵakuyowoya nthena, ŵakuyowoya kuti chakuzirwa comene ni umoyo wawo ndiposo wanangwa wawo. Kweniso ŵakuŵeyelera ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi kuti ŵaleke kucita vinthu ivi. Mu 2009, gulu lakucemeka Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea likapangika kuti liŵawovwire kuti ŵaŵe paubwezi na boma. Gulu ili lili na ŵanthu bweka na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali pafupi na boma. Kufuma waka apo gulu ili likambira, boma la Eritrea lindayezgeyezgepo comene kuti liŵe na wanangwa uwu. Mu Julayi 2019, mathenga gha vyaru 37, kusazgapo Eritrea, ghakasayina kalata yakuyana na iyi ku UNHRC kuvikilira umo China yikucitira na ma Uyghur na visopo vinyake mu chigaŵa cha Xinjiang.<ref>{{cite news |title=Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |work=[[The Diplomat]] |date=15 July 2019}}</ref> ==== Media freedom ==== {{Main article|Freedom of press in Eritrea}} {{See also|Mass media in Eritrea}} Mu 2017 Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders yikati vyalo vya ku Eritrea vili pasi pa vyalo 180. Kuyana na BBC, "Eritrea ndiyo ni caru cimoza pera ca ku Africa ico cilije wayilesi", ndipo wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukayowoya za wayilesi za boma kuti, "[Ŵakucita] cinthu cilicose cara kweni kutandazga nkhani za nkhondo na za kutinkha caru za boma... Palije nanga njumoza [munyamata wakufuma ku vyaru vinyake] uyo sono wakukhala mu Asmara". Wupu wakuwona vya makani wa boma ukuŵa na mazaza pa nkhani za vinthu ivyo vikucitika kuwaro kwa caru. Ŵapharazgi ŵakujiyimira ŵekha ŵakukanizgika kwambira mu 2001. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti boma la Eritrea ndilo lili na ŵapharazgi ŵanandi chomene mu jele kuluska vyaru vinyake.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/13/world/europe/journalists-jailed-committee-to-protect-journalists.html Number of Jailed Journalists Hits Record High, Advocacy Group Says]". ''The New York Times.'' 13 December 2017.</ref> == Administrative divisions == {{main|Regions of Eritrea|Districts of Eritrea}} Charu cha Eritrea chili na vigaŵa 6. Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika vigaŵa 58. [[File:Eritrea, administrative divisions - Nmbrs - colored.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|A map of Eritrea regions. 1. Northern Red Sea, 2. Anseba, 3. Gash-Barka, 4. Central (to right), 5. Southern, 6. Southern Red Sea]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Regions of Eritrea |- ! Region ! Area (km²) ! Capital |- | [[Central Region (Eritrea)|Central]] | 1,300 | [[Asmara]] |- | [[Anseba Region|Anseba]] | 23,200 | [[Keren, Eritrea|Keren]] |- | [[Gash-Barka Region|Gash-Barka]] | 33,200 | [[Barentu, Eritrea|Barentu]] |- | [[Southern Region (Eritrea)|Southern]] | 8,000 | [[Mendefera]] |- | [[Northern Red Sea Region|Northern Red Sea]] | 27,800 | [[Massawa]] |- | [[Southern Red Sea Region|Southern Red Sea]] | 27,600 | [[Assab]] |} <br />Vyaru vya Eritrea ni vyaru ivyo boma likwendeskera. Mu vigaŵa vyose vinkhondi na cimoza, muli vigaŵa vya Maekel/Central, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Debub/Southern, Northern Red Sea na Southern Red Sea. Apo charu cha Eritrea chikamba kujiwusa chekha mu 1993, chikaŵa na vigaŵa 10. Vigaŵa ivi vikaŵa vyakuyana na vigaŵa 9 ivyo vikaŵa mu nyengo ya ukoloni. Mu 1996, vigaŵa ivi vikagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza (zobas). Malire gha vigaŵa ivi ghakukolerana na malo agho maji ghakusangika. {{clear}} == Transportation == {{main|Transport in Eritrea}} [[File:Eritrean mountai road archietcture.jpg|thumb|Eritrean mountain road]] Mu charu ichi muli misewu yikuruyikuru, maofesi gha ndege, njanji, na madoko. Misewu yikuruyikuru ya mu Eritrea yikucemeka kuyana na umo misewu yili kupangikira. Vinthu ivi ni: vyakwamba (P), vyaciŵiri (S), na vyaciŵiri (T). Msewu wapasi chomene ni wacigaŵa caciŵiri ndipo ukuteŵetera ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Kanandi misewu iyi yikuŵa yakutowa chomene ndipo nyengo zinyake yikuŵa yakutowa. Mu nyengo ya vula, misewu iyi yikuŵa yambura kwenda. Msewu wakulondezgapo uwo uli pachanya ni msewu waciŵiri ndipo kanandi ni msewu wa asphalt wa chigaŵa cimoza. Misewu iyo yikuwoneka nga ni misewu yikuru ni iyo yili kuzengeka na asphalt (mu utali wake wose) ndipo yikwendeska magalimoto pakati pa misumba yikuruyikuru na matawuni mu Eritrea.[[File:Train Asmara Eritrea.jpg|thumb|Steam train outside [[Asmara]] on the [[Eritrean Railway]]]] Mu 1999, mu Eritrea mukaŵa njanji ya mtunda wa makilomita 317. Sitima ya ku Eritrea yikazengeka pakati pa 1887 na 1932.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1KBP7QbalX0C&q=eritrean+railroad+km&pg=PA379|title=Africa South of the Sahara 2003|first=Europa Europa|last=Publications|date=31 October 2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431315|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalsteam.co.uk/trains/eritrea07.htm|title=Eritrean Railway Revival|website=www.internationalsteam.co.uk}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose na nkhondo zinyake izo zikachitika pamasinda, ŵakajara chigaŵa na chigaŵa, ndipo ŵakajara mu 1978. Ŵakati ŵafumako ku wuzga, ŵakamba kuzengaso, ndipo chigaŵa chakwamba chikajulika mu 2003. Mu 2009, chigaŵa chakufuma ku Massawa kuya ku Asmara chikazengekaso. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, viŵaro vyakukhalapo na vya magalimoto vyazengekaso. Ntchito iyo yikuchitika sono njakudumura comene cifukwa ca unandi wa vinthu vya njanji ivyo viliko sono ndiposo cifukwa cakuti vikusangika bweka yayi. Ŵakunozgekera kuzengaso. Sitima ya pa mtunda wa makilomita pafupifupi 5 iyo yikayaniskanga Agordat na Asmara na dowoko la Massawa yikaleka kugwira ntchito mu 1978. Kale njanji yikendanga kufuma ku Massawa kuluta ku Bishia kwizira ku Asmara, ndipo pasono yikuzengekaso. Nanga ni mu nyengo ya nkhondo, charu cha Eritrea chikamba kupanga misewu yiphya, kunozga madoko, na kunozga misewu iyo yikanangika na nkhondo. Ntchito yikuru comene njakuti kuzenga msewu wa makilomita ghakujumpha 500 uwo ukakolerananga Massawa na Asseb, kweniso kunozga njanji ya Eritrea. Msewu wa njanji pakati pa dowoko la Massawa na msumba wa Asmara uli kuzengekaso, kweni ŵanthu ŵakwendamo viŵi yayi. Nyengo zinyake ŵakugwiliskira nchito magalimoto gha nthukumusi. == Economy == {{main|Economy of Eritrea}} [[File:En visualize explore tree map hs92 export eri all show 2013 (4).png|thumb|upright=1.50|Eritrea's main exports, 2013]] Mu 2020, IMF yikati GDP ya Eritrea ni $2.1 billion, panji $6.4 billion pa PPP. Kufumira mu 2009, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakutumizga kufuma ku vyaru vinyake zikaŵa 32 peresenti ya GDP.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|title=The State of Eritrea and the IMF|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/ERI|access-date=2021-05-26|website=IMF|language=en}}</ref> ===Mining=== Mu 2013, chiŵelengero chikakwera chomene chifukwa chakuti kampani ya Canadian Nevsun Resources yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito migodi ya golide na siliva ya Bisha, yikamba kupanga simenti kufuma ku fakitare ya simenti ku Massawa, kweniso chifukwa cha ndalama izo makampani gha Australia na China ghakugwiliskira ntchito mu migodi ya mkuwa, zinki, na potashi ya Colluli ku Eritrea.<ref name="Bloomberg 2018">{{cite news|date=2018-08-23|title=Chinese Miner to Start Copper Output in Eritrea by Next Year|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-23/sichuan-road-bridge-to-start-copper-output-in-eritrea-by-2019|access-date=2020-05-30|newspaper=Bloomberg.com}}</ref><ref name="Mining Technology 2019">{{cite web|last=Lempriere|first=Molly|author2=Molly|date=2019-05-22|title=Mining in Eritrea: could a new potash project spur sustainable growth?|url=https://www.mining-technology.com/features/mining-in-eritrea-potash-project/|access-date=2020-05-30|website=Mining Technology &#124; Mining News and Views Updated Daily}}</ref><ref name="afdb">{{Cite web |title=Eritrea Economic Outlook – African Development Bank |url=http://www.afdb.org/en/countries/east-africa/eritrea/eritrea-economic-outlook/ |access-date=30 December 2013 |publisher=Afdb.org}}</ref> === Agriculture === {{Excerpt|Agriculture in Eritrea}} === Tourism === {{Excerpt|Tourism in Eritrea}} == Ŵanthu == {{main|Demographics of Eritrea}} Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukolerana yayi pa nkhani ya unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵali mu charu cha Eritrea. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵalipo 3.600,000 ndipo ŵanyake 6.700,000. Boma la Eritrea lindanozgepo ŵanthu.<ref name="PHS2010_full">{{cite web | title= Eritrea – Population and Health Survey 2010 | website= [[National Statistics Office (Eritrea)|National Statistics Office]], [[Fafo Institute for Applied International Studies]] |year = 2010 | url =https://www.unicef.org/eritrea/ECO_resources_populationhealthsurvey2010.pdf | access-date = 2021-03-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190606121847/https://www.unicef.org/eritrea/ECO_resources_populationhealthsurvey2010.pdf |archive-date= 2019-06-06 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="UNDESA_WPP_2019_total_population">{{cite web | title= World Population Prospects 2019 | website= [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UN DESA]] |year = 2019 | url = https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx | access-date = 2021-02-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210227235642/https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx |archive-date= 2021-02-27 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="COMESA_ERpop_2019">{{cite web | title= Eritrea – Indicators – Population (million people), 2018 | website= [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] |year = 2019 | url = https://comstat.comesa.int/lqpaqnf/comesa-in-figures-2019?tsId=1000510 | access-date = 2021-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228195303/https://comstat.comesa.int/lqpaqnf/comesa-in-figures-2019?tsId=1000510 |archive-date= 2021-02-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Largest cities | country = Eritrea | stat_ref = [http://www.geonames.org/ER/largest-cities-in-eritrea.html Geonames] | list_by_pop = | div_name = Region | div_link = | city_1 = Asmara | div_1 = Maekel Region{{!}}Maekel | pop_1 = 963,000 | img_1 = Asmara_panorama,_Eritrea.jpg | city_2 = Keren, Eritrea{{!}}Keren | div_2 = Anseba Region{{!}}Anseba | pop_2 = 120,000 | img_2 = Keren eritrea.jpg | city_3 = Dekemhare | div_3 = Debub Region{{!}}Debub | pop_3 = 120,000 | img_3 = Dekemhare-eritrea.jpg | city_4 = Massawa | div_4 = Northern Red Sea Region{{!}}Northern Red Sea | pop_4 = 54,090 | img_4 = Historic Center Massawa Panorama.JPG | city_5 = Mendefera | div_5 = Debub Region{{!}}Debub | pop_5 = 53,000 | city_6 = Assab | div_6 = Southern Red Sea Region{{!}}Southern Red Sea | pop_6 = 28,000 | city_7 = Barentu, Eritrea{{!}}Barentu | div_7 = Gash-Barka Region{{!}}Gash-Barka | pop_7 = 15,891 | city_8 = Adi Keyh | div_8 = Debub Region{{!}}Debub | pop_8 = 13,061 | city_9 = Edd, Eritrea{{!}}Edd | div_9 = Southern Red Sea Region{{!}}Southern Red Sea | pop_9 = 11,259 | city_10 = Ak'ordat | div_10 = Gash-Barka Region{{!}}Gash-Barka | pop_10 = 8,857 }} === Ethnic composition === [[File:Barentu2.jpg|thumb|right|A woman and a man in [[Barentu, Eritrea|Barentu]] wearing traditional clothes]] Ku Eritrea kuli mitundu 9 ya ŵanthu awo boma likuŵamanya makora.<ref name="CIA"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/about-eritrea/culture/ |title=Eritrean Culture " Embassy of The State of Eritrea |publisher=Eritrean-embassy.se |access-date=30 December 2013 |archive-date=13 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113175050/http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/about-eritrea/culture/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuchemeka Tigrinya. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha ku Asia. Kweniso ku Eritrea kuli mitundu yinyake ya ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Kunama na Nara. Mtundu uliwose ukuyowoya ciyowoyero cakupambana kweni kanandi ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Rashaida awo mba Cirabu ŵalipo pafupifupi 2% pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Eritrea.<ref name="Ciaethn"/> Ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyamumphepete mwa nyanja vya kumpoto kwa Eritrea na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan. Ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Rashaida ŵakiza ku Eritrea mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 kufuma ku Hejaz. Kweniso ku Asmara kuli ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Eritrea awo ŵakukhala ku Italy. Ŵakuŵa ŵenekaya yayi kwambura kutora panji kutengwa panji usange boma likuŵapa wanangwa uwu. Mu 1941, mu Eritrea mukaŵa ŵanthu pafupifupi 760,000, ndipo 70,000 ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Italy. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakafumako ku Eritrea ŵakati ŵajiyimira ŵekha. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu 100,000 ŵa ku Eritrea ŵali kufuma ku Italy.<ref>The Italian Ambassador stated at the 2008 Film Festival in Asmara [https://web.archive.org/web/20120218200229/http://www.ambberlino.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Asmara/Menu/Ambasciata/News/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218200229/http://www.ambberlino.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Asmara/Menu/Ambasciata/News/|date=18 February 2012}} that nearly 100,000 Eritreans in 2008 have Italian blood, because they have at least one grandfather or great-grandfather from Italy</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stampato C. 5634 |url=http://www.camera.it/_dati/leg13/lavori/stampati/sk6000/relazion/5634.htm |website=www.camera.it |access-date=20 May 2019 |language=it}}</ref> === Languages === {{main|Languages of Eritrea}} [[File:Population pyramid of Eritrea 2016.png|thumb|Population pyramid of Eritrea 2016]] Charu cha Eritrea chikuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi. Charu ichi chilije chiyowoyero cha boma, chifukwa Dango la charu ichi likuti "viyowoyero vyose vya ku Eritrea ni vyakuyana". Eritrea yili na viyowoyero vinkhondi na viŵiri: Tigrinya, Tigre, Afar, Beja, Bilen, Kunama, Nara, na Saho. ChiTigrinya, Chiarabu, na Chingelezi ni viyowoyero ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pa sukulu za ku yunivesite. Nangauli Chiitaliya, chiyowoyero icho kale chikaŵa pasi pa maboma, chikumanyikwa na boma yayi mu Eritrea, kweni ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero ichi.<ref name=Ethner>{{cite web|title=Eritrea – Languages|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/ER/languages|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=13 October 2016}}</ref> Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha ku Italy ndipo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha ku Italy. Viyowoyero vinandi ivyo vikuyowoyeka ku Eritrea ni vya mu banja la viyowoyero vya ku Asia. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Asia ivyo vikuzunulika mu Cushitic navyo vikuyowoyeka chomene mu charu ichi. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ni Afar, Beja, Blin, na Saho. Kweniso viyowoyero vya ku Nilo-Sahara (Kunama na Nara) vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kunama na Nara awo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Magulu ghachoko waka ghakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Afroasiatic, nga ni Dahlik na Chiarabic (viyowoyero vya Hejazi na Hadhrami ivyo Rashaida na Hadhrami ŵakuyowoya). === Religion === {{main|Religion in Eritrea}} {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ Eritrea religious groups |- ! U.S Department of State 2019<ref name="webcitation.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-report-on-international-religious-freedom/eritrea/|title=Eritrea |publisher=U.S. State Department }}</ref>!! Pew Research Center 2020<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050|date=2 April 2015|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2050/percent/all/|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026213925/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2050/percent/all/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | {{bar box |left1='''Religion''' |right1='''Percent''' |bars= {{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|purple|49}} {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|yellow|49}} {{bar percent|Others|brown|2}} }} || {{bar box |left1='''Religion''' |right1='''Percent''' |bars= {{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|purple|63}} {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|yellow|36}} {{bar percent|Others|brown|1}} }} |} Visopa vikuruvikuru mu Eritrea ni Chikhristu na Chisilamu. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵali mu cisopa cilicose. Kuyana na lipoti la Pew Research Center, mu 2010, ŵanthu 62.9% ku Eritrea ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu, 36.6% ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu, ndipo 0.4% ŵakaŵa mu visopa vya ku Africa. Ŵanyake wose ŵakasopanga vya Chiyuda, Chihindu, Chibuda, na visopa vinyake (<0.1%), panji ŵakasopanga vyautesi (0.1%). U.S. Dipatimenti ya vya Charu ya ku Eritrea yikati mu 2011, ŵanthu 50 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Eritrea ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu, 48 pa 100 ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu, ndipo 2 pa 100 ŵakaŵa ŵavisopa vinyake. Chikhristu ndicho ntchisopa chakale chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo nyumba yakwamba ya cisopa ya Debre Sina yikazengeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 300. Kwambira mu Meyi 2002, boma la Eritrea likuzomerezga tchalitchi la Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo (Oriental Orthodox), Sunni Islam, Eritrean Catholic Church (a Metropolitanate sui juris), na Evangelical Lutheran church. Visopa vinyake vyose vikwenera kulembeska. Mwaciyelezgero, boma likukhumba kuti ŵanthu awo ŵali mu cisopa cilicose ŵapeleke maukaboni gha umo ŵaliri kuti ŵaŵe ŵakwenelera kusopa.<ref name="Religious persecution in Eritrea">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3663654.stm|title=Religious persecution in Eritrea|work=BBC News|access-date=11 December 2009|date=17 September 2004|first=Jonah|last=Fisher}}</ref>{{Gallery |title= |width=200 | height=170 |align=right |File:Sheikh Hanafi Mosque (8529064326).jpg |The 15th century Sheikh Hanafi Mosque in [[Massawa]] |File:Asmara, cattedrale cattolica, 01.JPG |[[Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara|Church of Our Lady of the Rosary]] in the capital [[Asmara]] }} Boma la Eritrea likususka ivyo likuwona kuti ni visopa "vyakusintha" panji "vyakukolerana na visopa vinyake". Ntheura, visopa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuti ni visopa vya Cisilamu na Cikhristu, Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova, na visopa vinyake vinandi ivyo ni vyacipharazgi yayi, ni vyambura kuzomerezgeka kusopa. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵatatu ŵakumanyikwa kuti ŵali mu jele kwambira mu 1994 pamoza na ŵanji 51.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tdgnews.it/en/2008/10/jehovahs-witnesses%E2%80%94eritrea-country-profile/ |title=Jehovah's Witnesses — Eritrea Country Profile – October 2008 |access-date=25 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930040630/http://www.tdgnews.it/en/2008/10/jehovahs-witnesses%E2%80%94eritrea-country-profile/ |archive-date=30 September 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/eritrea/jehovahs-witnesses-unjust-imprisonment-20-years/ |title=Twenty Years of Imprisonment in Eritrea—Will It Ever End? |publisher=jw.org |access-date=25 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = UN Report on Eritrea's Human Rights Violations|url = http://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/eritrea/human-rights-violations-un-report/|website = jw.org|access-date = 21 October 2015}}</ref> Boma likuŵacitira nkhaza comene Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova, likuŵakanira makadi gha vyakurya na vikalata vya nchito. Mu Okutobala 1994, pulezidenti wakazomerezga kuti Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵaleke kuŵa ŵenekaya ŵa charu ichi. Lipoti la 2017 la U.S. Dipatimenti Yakuwona vya Vyaru yikati caru ca Eritrea nchakuzirwa comene.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report, 2017|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2017.USCIRFAnnualReport.pdf|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> === Health care === {{main|Health in Eritrea}} Eritrea yaluta panthazi comene pa nkhani ya cipatala ndipo njimoza mwa vyaru vichoko ivyo vili kufiska vilato vyake vya Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) pa nkhani ya umoyo, comenecomene umoyo wa ŵana. Umoyo wa ŵanthu ukakhira kufuma pa vyaka 39.1 mu 1960 kufika pa vyaka 66.44 mu 2020. Wupu wa vyaumoyo pa charu chose (WHO) mu 2008 ukasanga kuti munthu wakukhala vyaka vyakukwana 63, ndipo mu 2020 wakukhala vyaka 66.44. <ref name="ODI1">{{cite web |last1=Rodríguez Pose |first1=Romina |last2=Samuels |first2=Fiona |date=December 2010 |title=Progress in health in Eritrea: Cost-effective inter-sectoral interventions and a long-term perspective |url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5179&title=progress-health-eritrea-cost-effective-inter-sectoral-interventions-long-term-perspective |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228112540/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5179&title=progress-health-eritrea-cost-effective-inter-sectoral-interventions-long-term-perspective |archive-date=28 December 2010 |website=Overseas Development Institute |publisher=[[Overseas Development Institute]] |location=London}}</ref> Wupu wakuwona vya maleriya ku charu chose wa Unduna wa vya Umoyo ukawona kuti kufuma mu 1998 m'paka mu 2006, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakufwa na maleriya chikakhira kufika pa 85%. Boma la Eritrea lazomerezga yayi kuti ŵanakazi ŵakomeke, chifukwa likuyowoya kuti nkharo iyi njakupweteka ndipo yikuŵika umoyo wa ŵanakazi pangozi. Ndipouli, ku Eritrea kuli masuzgo ghanandi. Nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵadokotala chikakwera kufuma pa 0.2 mu 1993 kufika pa 0.5 mu 2004 pa ŵanthu 1,000, kweni chichali chichoko chomene. Matenda gha maleriya na chibabira ghakukata yayi. Ŵana ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49 ŵali na HIV. Pa mwanakazi yumoza, ŵakubaba ŵana pafupifupi 4.1. Kufwa kwa ŵamama kukakhira comene kufuma mu 1995 kufika mu 2002, kweni ni viŵi yayi. Mwakuyana waka, kufuma mu 1995 m'paka mu 2002, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika na ŵantchito awo ŵakumanya vya munkhwala chikakwera kaŵiri. Cinthu cimoza ico cikukoma comene ŵana awo ŵababika waka ni nthenda yikuru. Ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakugwiliskira nchito pa umoyo ni zicoko.<ref name="afro.who.int">Health profile at [http://www.afro.who.int/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1029&Itemid=2070 Eritrea WHO Country Office]. afro.who.int</ref> === Education === {{main|Education in Eritrea}} [[File:EritreaInstituteOfTechnology.jpg|thumb|The [[Eritrea Institute of Technology]]]] [[File:Eritrea 13.jpg|thumb|Ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵavwara yunifomu]] Ku Eritrea kuli masukulu gha vigaŵa vinkhondi. Ŵana ŵa sukulu pafupifupi 1,270,000 ŵakusambira mu masukulu gha pulayimale, gha sekondale, na gha sekondale. Pali masukulu pafupifupi 824, mayunivesite ghaŵiri, (Yunivesite ya Asmara na Eritrea Institute of Technology), na makoleji ghachoko na masukulu gha vyaumisiri. Ku Eritrea, sukulu njakukakamizga ŵana ŵa vyaka 6 m'paka 13.<ref name="uis.unesco.org">{{cite web |date=27 November 2016 |title=Eritrea |url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/er#slideoutmenu |website=uis.unesco.org}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="float: center; margin-center: 10px" ! scope="col" style="background:#77B5FE;" |Education system in Eritrea<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/er|title=Eritrea|date=27 November 2016|website=uis.unesco.org}}</ref> |- | Basic Education – 7 years |- | Middle – Junior High School (Years included in basic) |- | Secondary – Secondary School – 4 years |- | Post-secondary – Advanced Diploma – 3 years |- | Higher Education – Bachelor – 4/5 years |- | Higher Education – Master – 2 years |} Pa sukulu za pulayimale, ŵana 70 mpaka 90 peresenti ŵakusambira pulayimale. Ŵasambiri na ŵasambizgi ŵali palipose: 45:1 pa sukulu za pulayimale na 54:1 pa sukulu za sekondare. Ŵana ŵa kilasi limoza ŵalipo 63 na 97 pa kilasi limoza pa chigaŵa cha pulayimale na sekondare. Nyengo zinandi para munthu wakusambira pa sukulu wakuŵa na maora ghambura kukwana 6. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikutondeska ŵanthu kusambira ku Eritrea ni vyakuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa yayi kusambira, malipiro gha sukulu (ghakukwana pakulembeska na kupeleka vinthu vyakukhumbikwa pa sukulu), kweniso ndalama izo mabanja ghachoko ghalipiranga. Eritrea Institute of Technology (EIT) ni sukulu ya tekinoloje iyo yili kufupi na tawuni ya Himbrti, Mai Nefhi kufupi na Asmara. Sukulu iyi yili na makoleji ghatatu: Science, Engineering and Technology, and Education. Sukulu iyi yikamba na ŵana ŵa sukulu pafupifupi 5,500 mu chaka cha masambiro cha 2003-2004.{{Bar chart | title = Literacy rate Eritrea 2018, source: World bank, UNESCO<ref>{{cite web|url=https://databank.worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=2&country=ERI#|title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) and youth total (% of people ages 15–24)|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/> | float = right | label_type = Literacy rate | data_type = Percent (%) | bar_width = 20 | width_units = em | data_max = 100 | label1 = All Adults | data1 = 76.6 | label2 = Age: 15–24 | data2 = 93.3 | color1 = #77B5FE | color2 = #77B5FE }} EIT yikajulika pamanyuma pakuti Yunivesite ya Asmara yasinthika. Kuyana na Unduna wa vya Masambiro, sukulu iyi yikapangika kuti ŵanthu wose ŵasambirenge mwakuyana mu vigaŵa vyakutali na msumba wa Asmara. Ntheura, masukulu ghanyake ghakuyana waka ghakusangika mu vigaŵa vinyake vya caru ici. Eritrea Institute of Technology ni sukulu yikuru ya sayansi, injiniya, na masambiro. Yunivesite ya Asmara ndiyo ni yakale comene mu caru ici ndipo yikajulika mu 1958. Pa nyengo yasono yikugwira nchito yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Eritrea ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba. Pa ŵawukirano ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 24, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ni 93.3% (93.8% ku ŵanalume na 92.7% ku ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|title=World Development Indicators {{!}} DataBank|url=https://databank.worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=2&country=ERI#|access-date=2021-05-26|website=databank.worldbank.org}}</ref>{{clear}} == Mwambo == {{main|Culture of Eritrea}} One of the most recognizable parts of Eritrean culture is the [[Coffee ceremony of Ethiopia and Eritrea|coffee ceremony]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111004094605/http://www.networkafricaonline.com/eritrea-coffee-cere.htm It's coffee time] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004094605/http://www.networkafricaonline.com/eritrea-coffee-cere.htm |date=4 October 2011 }} Network Africa Online, April 2008 interview.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakumwa khofi (Ge'ez ቡን būn) para ŵaluta kukacezga na ŵabwezi ŵawo, pa viphikiro, panji pa vinthu vinyake. Pa nyengo ya ciphikiro ca khofi, ŵanthu ŵakulondezga mitheto yinyake. Khofi uyu wakupeleka mu vigaŵa vitatu: chigaŵa chakwamba chikuchemeka awel mu Chitigrinya (kung'anamura "wakwamba"), chigaŵa chachiŵiri chikuchemeka kalaay (kung'anamura "chachiŵiri"), ndipo chigaŵa chachitatu chikuchemeka bereka (kung'anamura "wakutumbikika"). Kavwaliro ka ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea kakupambana chomene. Mu matawuni ghakurughakuru, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vya ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu maofesi, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi wuwo ŵakuvwara masuti. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya Tigrinya ŵakuvwara malaya ghatuŵa ghakuchemeka zurias, ndipo ŵanalume ŵakuvwara mashati ghatuŵa. Mu vigaŵa vya ku Eritrea, uko kuli Ŵasilamu, ŵanakazi ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vya mitundu yakutowa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakutemwa chomene sumu na mazgu gha sumu, majowelo, mafuta ghakununkhira, na vyakuvwara nga umo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchitira mu charu ichi.<ref name="Tekle197">{{cite book|last=Tekle|first=Amare|title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|year=1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0932415974 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC}}</ref> === Kuphika === {{see also|Eritrean cuisine}} [[File:Eritrean Injera with stews.jpg|thumb|Injera ya ku Eritrea na vyakurya vyakupambanapambana]] Cakurya cikuru comene ca ku Eritrea ni injera, ndipo kanandi ŵakurya nyama ya ng'ombe, nkhuku, mberere, panji somba. Vyakurya vya ku Eritrea vikuyana chomene na vya ku Ethiopia, nangauli vyakurya vya ku Eritrea vikuŵa na vyakurya vya mu nyanja kuluska vya ku Ethiopia chifukwa cha malo agho ghali mumphepete mwa nyanja.<ref name="Kittler"/><ref name="Tekle142">{{cite book|last=Tekle|first=Amare|title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|year=1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0932415974 |page=142 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC}}</ref> <ref name="Kittler">{{cite book|author1=Goyan Kittler, Pamela |author2=Sucher, Kathryn P. |author3=Nahikian-Nelms, Marcia |title=Food and Culture, 6th ed|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0538734974|page=202|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R06H7WabJuMC}}</ref><ref name="Kittler" />Kweniso vyakurya vya ku Eritrea kanandi vikuŵa "vyambura kunono" kuluska vya ku Ethiopia. Kweniso ŵakugwiliskira nchito batala na vyakununkhira viŵi yayi, ndipo ŵakugwiliskira nchito tomato comene, nga umo ŵakucitira na tsebhi dorho. Kweniso chifukwa chakuti charu cha Eritrea chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵasilikari, vyakurya vya ku Eritrea vikukolerana chomene na vya ku Italy kuluska vya ku Ethiopia. Vyakurya vya ku Italy na Eritrea vikamba kupangika mu nyengo iyo Ufumu wa Italy ukalamuliranga charu ichi. Iwo ndiwo ŵakamba kugwiliskira nchito makaroni mu caru ca Eritrea, ndipo ni cakurya cikuru comene mu Asmara. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kurya vyakurya vya ku Eritrea, nga ni "pasta al sugo e berbere" (vyakurya vya ku Eritrea ivyo vili na msuzi wa tomato na vyakununkhira vya berbere), lasagna, na "cotoletta alla Milanese" (mbuzi ya ku Milan). Padera pa khofi, ŵanthu ŵakumwa moŵa. Vinyake mwa vyakurya ivi ni sowa, chakumwa chakukali icho ŵakupanga na balere wakusazgako mafuta, na mies, vinyo la uchi wakusazgako mafuta.<ref name="Mettm">{{cite book|title=Eritrea: Travel Trade Manual|year=2000|publisher=Ministry of Tourism of Eritrea|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j11zAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> === UNESCO World Heritage Site === Pa Julayi 8, 2017, msumba wose wa Asmara ukalembeka pa UNESCO World Heritage Site. Mu tawuni iyi muli nyumba zinandi za Art Deco, zamunthazi, za mazuŵa ghano, na za ku Eritrea.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1550/|title=Asmara: A Modernist African City|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/africa/1026237/eritreas-asmara-is-now-a-unesco-world-heritage-site-and-should-boost-tourism/|title=Eritrea's picturesque capital is now a World Heritage site and could help bring it in from the cold|first=Tom Gardner|last=Commentary|website=Quartz Africa|date=11 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.africanews.com/2017/07/12/eritrea-capital-asmara-makes-unesco-world-heritage-list/|title=Eritrea capital, Asmara, makes UNESCO World Heritage list &#124; Africanews|date=11 July 2017|access-date=18 December 2019|archive-date=4 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304162652/https://www.africanews.com/2017/07/12/eritrea-capital-asmara-makes-unesco-world-heritage-list//|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/eritreas-capital-added-to-unesco-world-heritage-site-list/a-39609655|title=Eritrea's capital added to UNESCO World Heritage site list &#124; DW &#124; 08.07.2017|website=DW.COM}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.apollo-magazine.com/eritrea-italy-modernist-architecture/|title=The modernist marvels of Eritrea|date=19 November 2019|website=Apollo Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/design/asmara-eritrea-art-deco-unesco-architecture-italy-little-rome-world-heritage-a8040871.html|title=Exploring Eritrea's UNESCO certified Art-Deco wonderland|date=9 November 2017|website=The Independent}}</ref> Msumba wa Asmara, uwo ukaŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ukamba kukura mwaluŵiro mu 1889. Kweniso msumba uwu ukaŵa malo ghakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupambanapambana, chomenechomene vya ku malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyamunthazi. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakapanganga mapulani gha msumba, ŵakuzenga nyumba, na mainjiniya ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Europe, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kuzenga, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Asmarino ŵakumanya kuti msumba wawo ngwakuzirwa.<ref>Jan Körting & Neysan Zölzer (2012): ''Heritage and Daily Life in the Historic Urban Core of Asmara (Original: Erbe und Alltag im historischen Stadtkern Asmaras)'' (Dissertation). Technische Universität Berlin.</ref>{{ multiple image | direction = horizontal | total_width = 250 | footer = | image1 = Asmara, museo nazionale, ingresso.JPG | caption1 = [[National Museum of Eritrea|Eritrean national museum]] in Asmara | caption2 = [[Fiat Tagliero Building|The Fiat Tagliero Building]] | image2 = Fiat tagliero, 07,0.JPG | caption4 = }} Msumba uwu uli na nyumba zinandi za m'ma 1900. Nyumba zinyake zikuwoneka nga ni tchalitchi la Our Lady of the Rosary. Mu msumba wose muli vinthu vya Art Deco. Mu Africa Pension Building na mu nyumba zinyake, muli vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora umo vinthu vikaŵira. Nyumba ya Fiat Tagliero yikulongora umo vinthu vikaŵira mu nyengo yakale. Mazuŵa ghano, nyumba zinyake zazengeka makora chomene, ndipo nyengo zinyake zikunanga umo misumba yinyake yikuwonekera. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵakazenga nyumba zinandi, nga ni mahotelo na mafilimu. Nyumba zinyake zakuzirwa ni Art Deco Cinema Impero (iyo yikajulika mu 1937 ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuyiwona kuti ni yimoza mwa nyumba zakutowa chomene pa charu chose) Cubist Africa Pension, Eritrean Orthodox Enda Mariam Cathedral na Asmara Opera, Fiat Tagliero Building, neoclassical Asmara city hall.<ref>Gianluca Rossi, ''Renzo Martinelli inviato de La Nazione'', 2009.</ref> A statement from UNESCO read: {{cquote|It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context.|200|50|[[UNESCO]]<ref name="auto1"/>}} === Music === {{main|Music of Eritrea}} [[File:Helen Meles.jpg|thumb|upright|Eritrean artist [[Helen Meles]]]] Mtundu uliwose ku Eritrea uli na sumu na kuvina kwake. Mu chiyowoyero cha Tigrinya, sumu iyo yikumanyikwa chomene ni guaila. <ref name="Blum">{{cite book|last1=Blum|first1=Bruno|title=De l'art de savoir chanter, danser et jouer la bamboula comme un éminent musicien africain: le guide des musiques africaines|date=2007|publisher=Scali|isbn=978-2350121970|page=198|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNsTAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>Vyakwimbira vya ŵanthu vya ku Eritrea ni krar, kebero, begena, masenqo na wata (mwana wa m'bale wa viyuni). Muwimbi munyake wakumanyikwa chomene wa ku Eritrea ni Helen Meles, uyo wakumanyikwa na mazgu ghake ghakuru. Ŵakwimba ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Kunama ni Dehab Faytinga, Ruth Abraha, Bereket Mengisteab, Yemane Ghebremichael na Abraham Afewerki. === Sports === {{see also|Sport in Eritrea}} [[File:Tour of Asmara Cycling race, Asmara Eritrea.jpg|upright=1.1|thumb|Tour of Asmara cycling competition in [[Asmara]], Eritrea.]] <!-- no file jamming per image policy - single file sufficient --> Mu charu cha Eritrea, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa maseŵero gha bola na njinga. ====Cycling==== Mu charu cha Eritrea, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kwenda pa njinga ndipo ŵakamba kuchita nthena mu nyengo iyo charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Eritrea.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/cyclingcentral/article/2017/07/28/cycling-isolated-eritreas-window-world|title=Cycling is isolated Eritrea's window to the world|website=Cycling|date=28 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thebestofafrica.org/content/eritrea-and-cycling-an-unlikely-relationship|title=Eritrea and cycling: An unlikely relationship|website=The Best of Africa}}</ref> Mpikisano wa njinga wa Tour of Eritrea, uwo uli na vigaŵa vinandi, ukachitika kakwamba mu 1946 ndipo ukachitika mu 2013. Magulu gha vyalo vya ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakwenda pa njinga ŵali pa malo ghakwamba mu Africa, ndipo gulu la ŵanalume lili pa malo 16 pa charu chose mu February 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cqranking.com/men/asp/gen/cqRankingCountry.asp|title=CQ Ranking|website=cqranking.com}}</ref> Gulu la ŵanthu ŵakwenda pa njinga la ku Eritrea laŵa na viwemi vinandi, ndipo vyaka vinandi laŵa pa chiphalizgano cha ku Africa. Mu chaka cha 2013, timu ya ŵanakazi yikapokera mendulo ya golide mu African Continental Cycling Championships kakwamba, ndipo kachiŵiri mu 2015 ndipo kachitatu mu 2019. Gulu la ŵanalume lawina golide kankhondi na kaŵiri mu vyaka 12 ivyo vyajumpha mu Africa continental cycling championships, pakati pa 2010 na 2022.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160609211448/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-cycling-team-wins-the-2015-african-continental-cycling-championships-ttt/ Eritrean Cycling Team Wins the 2015 African Continental Cycling Championships TTT –] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609211448/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-cycling-team-wins-the-2015-african-continental-cycling-championships-ttt/ |date=9 June 2016 }}. Raimoq.com (10 February 2015). Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/aug/17/eritrea-cycling-team-rwanda-tour-de-france 'Next wave of riders is even better' – Eritrean cycling preparing to peak]. The Guardian (17 August 2015). Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160609210517/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-national-teams-rank-first-at-the-african-cycling-championship-time-race/ Eritrean national teams rank first at the African Cycling Championship time race –] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609210517/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-national-teams-rank-first-at-the-african-cycling-championship-time-race/ |date=9 June 2016 }}. Raimoq.com (1 December 2013). Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.procyclingstats.com/race/african-cycling-championships-ttt/2019|title=African Continental Championships - TTT 2019 &#124; Results|website=www.procyclingstats.com}}</ref> {{multiple image | align = left | direction = horizontal | image1 = Professional_Eritrean_cyclist_Mosana_Debesay.jpg | caption1 = [[Mosana Debesay]] is the first female cyclist of African origin to compete in a [[2020 Summer Olympics|Olympics]], representing Eritrea in the [[2020 Summer Olympics|Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics]] | width1 = 250 | caption2 = Eritreas mens national cycling team, ranked 15th in the world rankings (2023),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cyclingranking.com/countries/2023|title=Country Ranking 2023 - CyclingRanking.com|website=www.cyclingranking.com|accessdate=4 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.procyclingstats.com/rankings/me/uci-nations | title=UCI Nation Ranking }}</ref> and ranked first on the African continent<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uci.org/discipline/road/6TBjsDD8902tud440iv1Cu?tab=rankings&discipline=ROA | title=Road }}</ref> | image2 = Eritrea_mens_national_cycling_team.jpg | width2 = 240 }} Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 6 ŵakufuma ku Eritrea ŵali kusaina mapangano na magulu gha pa caru cose, kusazgapo Natnael Berhane na Daniel Teklehaimanot. Berhane wakachemeka African Sportsman of the Year mu 2013, apo Teklehaimanot wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Eritrea kukwera Vuelta a España mu 2012. Mu 2015, Teklehaimanot wakathereska chiphalizgano cha King of the Mountains mu Critérium du Dauphiné. Teklehaimanot na Merhawi Kudus wa ku Eritrea ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwendeska njinga ŵakwamba ŵa ku Africa kuti ŵapikisane pa Tour de France, apo ŵakasoleka na timu ya Template:Ct pa mpikisano wa 2015. Mu Julayi wa chaka chenechichi, Teklehaimanot wakaŵa wakwamba kufuma ku timu ya ku Africa kuvwara malaya gha polka dot pa Tour de France. Mosana Debesay wakazgoka mwanakazi wakudanga waku Africa uyo wakwendeska njinga wakudanga kupikisana pa Olimpiki, wakwimira Eritrea pa Olimpiki ya Tokyo 2020.<ref>{{cite web | title=Mosana Debesay Biography, Olympic Medals, Records and Age | website=Olympics.com | url=https://olympics.com/en/athletes/mosana-debesay | access-date=4 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bikeaid.de/en/racing/racing_article/title-a_dream_almost_broken_mosana_debesay_on_her_way_to_the_olympics/article-60ecc1a94715b | title=A dream almost broken - Mosana Debesay on her way to the Olympics }}</ref> Ni mwanakazi uyo wakathereska ma African Continental Cycling Championships mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu chaka cha 2022, Biniam Girmay wakaŵa munthu wakudanga wa ku Africa uyo wakathereska Gent-Wevelgem na stage mu Grand Tours. Ndipouli, zuŵa lakulondezgapo wakaleka kuchimbira chifukwa wakabisama mu jiso lake..<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sport |first=Telegraph |date=2022-05-17 |title=Watch: History-making cyclist out of Giro d'Italia after firing Prosecco cork into his own eye |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2022/05/17/watch-history-making-cyclist-taken-hospital-hit-eye-cork-celebrating/ |access-date=2022-05-20 |issn=0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=MacLeary |first=John |date=2022-05-17 |title=Biniam Girmay becomes first black African to win grand tour stage with historic Giro d'Italia victory |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2022/05/17/live-giro-ditalia-2022-stage-10-updates-resultsvan-der-poel/ |access-date=2022-05-20 |issn=0307-1235}}</ref> ====Other sports==== Ŵaseŵera ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakutumbikika chomene pa maseŵero ghanyake. Zersenay Tadese wa ku Eritrea, wakaŵa na mbiri ya kucimbira mu mtunda wa mamarafoni. Ghirmay Ghebreslassie ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Eritrea kutora mendulo ya golide pa maseŵero gha ku charu chose. Charu cha Eritrea chikamba kuseŵera pa maseŵera gha Winter Olympic pa 25 February, 2018, apo chikaŵa pa maseŵera gha Winter Olympics mu Pyeongchang, South Korea. Munthu uyo wakimiranga timu ya ku Eritrea wakaŵa Shannon-Ogbnai Abeda, uyo wakathereskanga ŵanthu pa chiphalizgano ichi.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rieger|first=Sarah|date=28 December 2017|title=Calgary skier headed to Winter Olympics... but not with Team Canada |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/eritrea-skier-calgary-1.4466978|work=[[CBC News]]|location=Calgary, Alberta, Canada|access-date=31 December 2017}}</ref><ref>[http://www.iaaf.org/news/news/world-records-ratified-21 World records ratified]. Iaaf.org (8 May 2010). Retrieved 20 September 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/athletics/world-athletics-championships-2015-eritrean-teen-ghirmay-ghebreslassie-wins-mens-marathon-title-20150822-gj5a4b.html |title=World Athletics Championships 2015: Eritrean teen Ghirmay Ghebreslassie wins men's marathon title |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=22 August 2015 |website=[[smh.com.au]] |access-date=22 August 2015}}</ref> {{clear}} == Wonaniso == {{portal|Eritrea|Africa}} *[[Index of Eritrea-related articles]] *[[Outline of Eritrea]] <!-- *[[Bibliography of Eritrea]] --> <!-- *{{wikipedia books link|Eritrea}} -->{{Clear}} == Ukaboni == {{notelist}} {{reflist|refs= <ref name="EHREA_Lasting_Struggle">{{cite web | last1 = Tronvoll | first1 =Kjetil |author1-link = Kjetil Tronvoll | title= The Lasting Struggle for Freedom in Eritrea – Human Rights and Political Development, 1991–2009 | website= [[Eritrean Human Rights Electronic Archive]] |date = 2009-07-22 | url = http://www.ehrea.org/eritrearapport_2_endelig_versjon.pdf | access-date = 2021-02-13 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210213014319/http://www.ehrea.org/eritrearapport_2_endelig_versjon.pdf |archive-date= 2021-02-13 |url-status=live }}</ref> }} *Christine, Owen. "Navigating difference between [[Tigrigna]] and [[Tigrinya]]". [https://ethnomed.org/resource/navigating-differences-tigrigna-vs-tigrinya/ Navigating Differences: Tigrigna vs Tigrinya] December 16, 2010 == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{refbegin|30em}} * Beretekeab, R. (2000); ''Eritrea: The Making of a Nation 1890–1991''. Thesis. Uppsala University, Uppsala. {{ISBN|9789150613872}}. {{OCLC|632423867}}. * Cliffe, Lionel; Connell, Dan; Davidson, Basil (2005), ''Taking on the Superpowers: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1976–1982)''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-188-0}} * Cliffe, Lionel & Davidson, Basil (1988), ''The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace''. Spokesman Press, {{ISBN|0-85124-463-7}} * Connell, Dan (1997), ''Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution With a New Afterword on the Postwar Transition''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-046-9}} * Connell, Dan (2001), ''Rethinking Revolution: New Strategies for Democracy & Social Justice: The Experiences of Eritrea, South Africa, Palestine & Nicaragua''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-145-7}} * Connell, Dan (2004), ''Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-235-6}} * Connell, Dan (2005), ''Building a New Nation: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1983–2002)''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-198-8}} * Firebrace, James & Holand, Stuart (1985), ''Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development and Liberation in Eritrea''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|0-932415-00-8}} * Drudi, Emilio (2021). ''Una storia eritrea. Beyan, Adam, Amr''. Calamaro Edizioni. {{ISBN|9788894463927}} * Gebre-Medhin, Jordan (1989), ''Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|0-932415-38-5}} * Hatem Elliesie: ''Decentralisation of Higher Education in Eritrea'', Afrika Spectrum, Vol. 43 (2008) No. 1, p.&nbsp;115–120. * [[Justin Hill (writer)|Hill, Justin]] (2002), ''Ciao Asmara, A classic account of contemporary Africa''. Little, Brown, {{ISBN|978-0-349-11526-9}} * Iyob, Ruth (1997), ''The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993''. [[Cambridge University Press]], {{ISBN|0-521-59591-6}} * Jacquin-Berdal, Dominique; Plaut, Martin (2004), ''Unfinished Business: Ethiopia and Eritrea at War''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-217-8}} * Johns, Michael (1992), [https://web.archive.org/web/20130823083654/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r102:E06MY2-393: "Does Democracy Have a Chance", ''Congressional Record'', 6 May 1992] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823083654/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r102:E06MY2-393: |date=23 August 2013 }} * [[Thomas Keneally|Keneally, Thomas]] (1990), ''To Asmara'' {{ISBN|0-446-39171-9}} * Kendie, Daniel (2005), ''The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle''. Signature Book Printing, {{ISBN|1-932433-47-3}} * Killion, Tom (1998), ''Historical Dictionary of Eritrea''. Scarecrow Press, {{ISBN|0-8108-3437-5}} * Mauri, Arnaldo (2004), "Eritrea's Early Stages in Monetary and Banking Development", ''International Review of Economics'', Vol. LI, n. 4. * Mauri, Arnaldo (1998), [https://ideas.repec.org/p/mil/wpdepa/2003-28.html "The First Monetary and Banking Experiences in Eritrea"], ''African Review of Money, Finance and Banking'', n. 1–2. * Miran, Jonathan (2009), ''Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa''. Indiana University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-253-22079-0}} * Müller, Tanja R.: ''Bare life and the developmental State: the Militarization of Higher Education in Eritrea'', Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 46 (2008), No. 1, p.&nbsp;1–21. * Negash T. (1987); ''Italian Colonisation in Eritrea: Policies, Praxis and Impact'', Uppsala Univwersity, Uppsala. * {{cite web |last=Ogbaselassie |first=G |date=10 January 2006 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116081151/http://eri24.com/Article_10043.htm |title=Response to remarks by Mr. David Triesman, Britain's parliamentary under-secretary of state with responsibility for Africa |access-date=7 June 2006 |archive-date=16 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116081151/https://web.archive.org/web/20061116081151/http://eri24.com/Article_10043.htm |url-status=dead }} * Pateman, Roy (1998), ''Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-057-4}} * Phillipson, David W. (1998), ''Ancient Ethiopia''. * Reid, Richard. (2011). ''Frontiers of Violence in North-East Africa: Genealogies of Conflict Since c. 1800''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0199211883}} * Wrong, Michela (2005), ''I Didn't Do It For You: How the World Betrayed a Small African Nation''. Harper Collins. {{ISBN|0-06-078092-4}} {{refend}} {{Sister project links|Eritrea|voy=Eritrea}} {{Scholia|topic}} === Boma === *[http://www.shabait.com/index.php Ministry of Information of Eritrea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622190405/http://www.shabait.com/index.php |date=22 June 2018 }} (official government website). *[https://web.archive.org/web/20180818080840/http://eritrea-tv.net/ EriTV News, Music, Movie and Comedy from Eritrea Television] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20210121011902/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/ Eritrea]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. *{{GovPubs|eritrea}} *{{curlie|Regional/Africa/Eritrea}} *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13349078 Eritrea profile] from [[BBC News]]. *{{Wikiatlas|Eritrea}} === Others === *[http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIEritrea/Pages/ReportCoIEritrea.aspx Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea], [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] Report, 8 June 2015 *[http://hrc-eritrea.org/ HRCE – Human Rights Concern – Eritrea] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20101202062456/http://tv.oneworld.net/2008/10/09/ifad-three-sisters-part-1/ Documentary on Women's liberation in Eritrea] *[http://www.tigrinja.com/ Tigrinya online learning with numbers, alphabet and history] (Eritrea and north Ethiopia (Tigray-Province)). *[http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/ Ferrovia Eritrea Eritrean Railway] {{in lang|it}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20121015000344/http://gis.calvin.edu/atlas/eritrea.html Atlas of Eritrea] *[http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/ About Eritrea] {{in lang|it}} *[http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ER Key Development Forecasts for Eritrea] from [[International Futures]]. === Magazines === *[https://web.archive.org/web/20220815181145/https://speciali.espresso.repubblica.it/interattivi/speciale-eritrea/ Special section about Eritrea from ''Espresso'' online magazine] {{in lang|it}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20071012135549/http://geschichteinchronologie.ch/afrika/kol/Eritrea-Munzinger-fight-against-colonialism-ENGL.html History of Eritrea: First recordings – Munzinger – exploitation by colonialism and fight against colonialism (Italy, England, Ethiopia, Soviet Union, USA, Israel) – independence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012135549/http://geschichteinchronologie.ch/afrika/kol/Eritrea-Munzinger-fight-against-colonialism-ENGL.html |date=12 October 2007 }} {{Eritrea topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Related articles |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Countries bordering the Red Sea}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|15|N|39|E|display=title}} [[Category:Eritrea| ]]<!--Keep with [space] index at start of list (eponymous category) --> [[Category:1993 establishments in Eritrea|*]] [[Category:1993 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Former Italian colonies]] [[Category:Horn African countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:One-party states]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1993]] [[Category:Totalitarian states]] 7jo3ym1n65t4znqfo9sg79b1lvbd96a 0 6942 122361 122090 2026-09-25T02:04:13Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122361 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Landlocked country in West Africa}} {{About|the country|other uses|Niger (disambiguation)|the state in Nigeria|Niger State}} {{pp-move-indef}}{{Not to be confused with|Nigeria}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of the Niger | native_name = {{native name|fr|République du Niger}} | common_name = Niger | image_flag = Flag of Niger.svg | flag_size = 100 | image_coat = Coat of arms of Niger.svg | coa_size = 110 | image_map = Niger (orthographic_projection).svg | map_caption = {{map caption |countryprefix= |location_color=dark green}} | image_map2 = | national_motto = {{unbulleted list |{{native phrase|fr|"Fraternité, Travail, Progrès"|italics=off}} |{{small|"Fraternity, Work, Progress"}}}} | national_anthem = {{native phrase|fr|[[L'Honneur de la Patrie]]|nolink=yes}}<br />{{small|"The Honour of the Fatherland"}} | official_languages = [[French language|French]] | languages_type = [[National language]]s<ref name="axl.cefan.ulaval.ca">[https://web.archive.org/web/20181019123028/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/niger-loi-2001-037-LNG.htm République du Niger, "Loi n° 2001-037 du 31 décembre 2001 fixant les modalités de promotion et de développement des langues nationales." L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019123028/http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/niger-loi-2001-037-LNG.htm |date=19 October 2018 }} (accessed 21 September 2016)</ref> | languages = {{hlist |[[Arabic language|Arabic]] |[[Buduma language|Buduma]]}} {{hlist |[[Fula language|Fulfulde]] |[[Gurma language|Gourmanchéma]]}} {{hlist |[[Hausa language|Hausa]] |[[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]}} {{hlist |[[Zarma language|Zarma]] | [[Songhoyboro Ciine|Songhai]] |[[Tuareg languages|Tamasheq]] |[[Tasawaq language|Tassawaq]] |[[Tebu languages|Tebu]]}} | religion_ref = <ref name="census" /> | religion_year = 2012 | religion = {{plainlist| * 99.3% [[Islam in Niger|Islam]] * 0.3% [[Christianity]] * 0.2% [[Animism]] * 0.1% [[Irreligion]] }} | demonym = Nigerien<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/nigerien|title=Nigerien – definition of Nigerien in English from the Oxford Dictionaries|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301230120/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/nigerien|archive-date=1 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> | capital = [[Niamey]] | coordinates = {{Coord|13|32|N|2|05|E|type:city}} | largest_city = Niamey | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[List of heads of state of Niger|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Mohamed Bazoum]] | leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Niger|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Ouhoumoudou Mahamadou]] | leader_title3 = [[List of Presidents of the National Assembly of Niger|President of the National Assembly]] | leader_name3 = [[Seyni Oumarou]] | legislature = [[National Assembly of Niger|National Assembly]] | area_rank = 21st | area_km2 = 1,267,000 | area_sq_mi = 489,678 | percent_water = 0.02 | population_estimate = 25,396,840<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Niger|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 56th | population_density_km2 = 12.1 | population_density_sq_mi = 31.2 | population_density_rank = | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $29.9 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 144th | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,443<ref name="IMF.WEO.US">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April|title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2022|date=April 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date=April 19, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 188th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $14.6 billion<ref name="imf2"/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 145th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $561<ref name="imf2"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 185th | sovereignty_type = [[History of Niger|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from [[France]] | established_event1 = Republic proclaimed | established_date1 = 18 December 1958 | established_event2 = Declared | established_date2 = 3 August 1960 | Gini_year = 2014 | Gini_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = 34.0 <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = <ref>[http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ World Bank GINI index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209003326/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI |date=9 February 2015 }}, accessed on 21 January 2016.</ref> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.400 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="2020 trends">{{cite book |title=Human Development Report 2021-22 |date=8 September 2022 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |isbn=978-9-211-26442-5 |pages=275 |website=hdr.undp.org |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |access-date=8 September 2022 }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 189th | currency = [[West African CFA franc]] | currency_code = XOF | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | drives_on = right<ref>[http://www.brianlucas.ca/roadside/ Which side of the road do they drive on?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414073422/http://brianlucas.ca/roadside/ |date=14 April 2012 }} Brian Lucas. August 2005. Retrieved 28 January 2009.</ref> | calling_code = [[+227]] | cctld = [[.ne]] | footnote_a = | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="CIA-2021-Niger">{{cite web |title=Africa: Niger - The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/niger/#people-and-society|website=www.cia.gov |access-date=1 May 2021 |date=27 April 2021}}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2021 | ethnic_groups = {{plainlist| * 53.1% [[Hausa people|Hausa]] * 21.2% [[Zarma people|Zarma]] & [[Songhai proper|Songhay]] * 11.0% [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] * 6.5% [[Fula people|Fulani]] * 5.9% [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] * 0.8% [[Gurma people|Gurma]] * 0.4% [[Toubou people|Toubou]] * 0.4% [[Diffa Arabs|Arab]] * 0.9% [[Demographics of Niger|Other]] }} }} '''Niger''' panji '''ŵa Niger'''<ref name="nameISO" /><ref name="nameUNGEGN" /> <ref>[http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2003/07/how_do_you_pronounce_niger.html How Do You Pronounce "Niger"?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314184006/http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2003/07/how_do_you_pronounce_niger.html|date=14 March 2012}} from [[Slate.com]], retrieved 4 March 2012</ref><ref>"Niger." ''The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition''. 2003. Houghton Mifflin Company 22 February 2013 [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Niger thefreedictionary.com/Niger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512034128/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Niger |date=12 May 2013 }}</ref>( {{IPA-fr|niʒɛʁ|lang}}),{{efn|{{lang-ar|النيجر}}, {{lang-ff|Niiser}} {{lang-ha|Nijar}}}} mwalamulo '''Charu cha Niger'''<ref name="nameISO">{{cite web |url=https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:NE |title=ISO 3166 |publisher=ISO Online Browsing Platform |access-date=12 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617031837/https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:NE |archive-date=17 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nameUNGEGN">{{cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/geonames/ |title=UNGEGN World Geographical Names |publisher=United Nations Statisticsc Division |date=1 March 2017 |access-date=12 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728144249/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/geonames/ |archive-date=28 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> ({{lang-fr|République du Niger}}, {{lang-ha|Jamhuriyar Nijar}}), ni caru ico cili mu West Africa. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[Libya]] kumpoto, [[Chad]] kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Nigeria]] kumwera, [[Benin]] na [[Burkina Faso]] kumwera, Mali kumanjiliro gha dazi, na [[Algeria]] kumpoto. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 1,270,000 km2 (490,000 sq mi), ndipo ntchikuru chomene ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa.{{UN_Population|ref}} Vyaru vyakujumpha 80 pa 100 vya ku Africa vili mu chipalamba cha Sahara. Ŵasilamu pafupifupi 25 miliyoni ŵakukhala kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici. Msumba wa Niamey uli kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Niger. Niger njimoza mwa vyaru vikavu comene pa caru cose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nations |first=United |date=2023-07-11 |title=2023 Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/2023-global-multidimensional-poverty-index-mpi |language=en}}</ref> Vigaŵa vinyake vya caru ici ivyo vikaŵa vyambura mapopa, nyengo zinyake vikaŵanga na njara na mapopa. Chuma cha ŵanthu ŵakuzengeka pa ulimi, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakuluta ku vyaru vinyake kukaguliska vyakurya. Charu ichi chili na masuzgo ghachitukuko chifukwa cha malo ghambura maji, mapopa, ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kuŵazga viŵi yayi, ŵanthu awo ŵakulimbana na ŵasilikari, kweniso ŵanthu awo ŵali na ŵana ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakulera yayi.<ref name=EconPop>{{cite news|title=Population Explosion|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21612239-runaway-birth-rates-are-disaster-population-explosion|access-date=3 August 2015|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=16 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729151128/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21612239-runaway-birth-rates-are-disaster-population-explosion|archive-date=29 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵali na mitheto yakupambanapambana iyo yikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake na vigaŵa vinyake ŵakakhaliranga, kweniso umo ŵakakhaliranga mu caru cimoza. Kwamba kale, caru ca Niger cikupambana na vyaru vinyake. Kufuma apo caru ca Nigeria cikapokelera wanangwa wake, ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri ivyo ŵasilikari ŵakalamuliranga. Mu 2010, ŵasilikari ŵakawukira boma, ndipo pa nyengo iyi mu Niger mukaŵa vipani vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala ku mizi. ==Zina== Zina ili likufuma ku mlonga wa Niger uwo ukwenda mu chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Zina ili likufuma ku lizgu la Tuareg lakuti n'eghirren, ilo likung'anamura 'maji ghakwenda.'<ref>{{cite book | title =Atlas A-Z | publisher =Dorling Kindersley | year =2004 | location =New York City | page =289 }}</ref> Kuyowoyekera kwake ni /niːˈʒɛər/ mu Chifalansa, apo mu Chingelezi chikuyowoyeka /ˈnaɪdʒər/. ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Niger}} ===Prehistory=== [[File:1997 278-10 Sahara glyph.jpg|thumb|Rock engraving showing herds of giraffe, ibex, and other animals in the southern Sahara near Tiguidit, Niger]] Viŵiya vyamalibwe, vinyake vikaŵako kale comene mu 280,000 B.C.E., vikasangika ku Adrar Bous, Bilma na Djado kumpoto kwa Agadez Region.<ref name="Bradt">Geels, Jolijn, (2006) ''Bradt Travel Guide - Niger'', pgs. 15–22</ref> Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi vikukolerana na visopa vya Aterian na Mousterian ivyo vikaŵako mu nyengo ya Middle Paleolithic, ivyo vikaŵako ku mpoto kwa Africa cha m'ma 90,000 B.C.E.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = On the industrial attributions of the Aterian and Mousterian of the Maghreb|journal = Journal of Human Evolution|date = 1 March 2013|pages = 194–210|volume = 64|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.10.010|first1 = Harold L.|last1 = Dibble|first2 = Vera|last2 = Aldeias|first3 = Zenobia|last3 = Jacobs|first4 = Deborah I.|last4 = Olszewski|first5 = Zeljko|last5 = Rezek|first6 = Sam C.|last6 = Lin|first7 = Esteban|last7 = Alvarez-Fernández|first8 = Carolyn C.|last8 = Barshay-Szmidt|first9 = Emily|last9 = Hallett-Desguez|pmid=23399349}}</ref><ref name="Bradt"/> Ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga nga mbalovi. Mu nyengo yakale, nyengo ya mu chipalamba cha Sahara yikaŵanga yakuthukira kweniso yakupambika vyakurya vinandi, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakuyichema kuti "Chipalamba cha Green Sahara".<ref>Gwin, Peter. [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/green-sahara/gwin-text/1 "Lost Tribes of the Green Sahara"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100903071614/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/green-sahara/gwin-text/1 |date=3 September 2010 }}, ''National Geographic'', September 2008.</ref><ref>[[Roland Oliver|Oliver, Roland]] (1999), ''The African Experience: From Olduvai Gorge to the 21st Century'' (Series: History of Civilization), London: [[Weidenfeld & Nicolson|Phoenix Press]], revised edition, pg 39.</ref> Nyengo ya Neolithic yikamba mu 10,000 BC; nyengo iyi yikasintha vinthu vinandi, nga ni umo ŵakazengera viŵiya vya dongo (nga umo vikaŵira ku Tagalagal, Temet na Tin Ouffadene), kuŵeta ng'ombe, na kusunga ŵakufwa mu vibumira vya malibwe.<ref name="Bradt"/> Nyengo yikati yasintha pakati pa 4000 na 2800 B.C.E., caru ca Sahara cikamba kufota pacoko na pacoko, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kulima, kulima tirigu, na viŵiya vya dongo. Vinthu vya visulo na mkuŵa vikaŵako mu nyengo iyi. Vinthu ivyo vikasangika ku Azawagh, Takedda, Marendet na Termit Massif.<ref>Duncan E. Miller and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Early Metal Working in Sub Saharan Africa' Journal of African History 35 (1994) 1–36; Minze Stuiver and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa' Current Anthropology 1968.</ref><ref>{{citation | last=Grébénart | first=Danilo | year=1993 | url=http://siris-libraries.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!752653!0#focus | title=Azelik Takedda et le cuivre médiéval dans la région d'Agadez | journal=Le Saharien (Paris) | volume=125 | issue=2 | pages=28–33 | access-date=12 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724093526/https://siris-libraries.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!752653!0#focus | archive-date=24 July 2018 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref> [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=3432&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Iron in Africa: Revisiting the History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025192915/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D3432%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |date=25 October 2008 }} – Unesco (2002)</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kiffian (pafupifupi 8000-6000 B.C.) na ŵa ku Tenerian (pafupifupi 5000-2500 B.C.), awo ŵakakhalanga ku Adrar Bous na Gobero, uko ŵasanga viwangwa vya ŵanthu, ŵakakura comene mu nyengo iyi.<ref name="auto">[https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=5593387 Ancient cemetery found in 'green' Sahara Desert] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811115708/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=5593387 |date=11 August 2014 }}. By Randolph E. Schmid. Associated Press /ABC News.</ref><ref name="Clark & DGG">{{cite book|last1=Clark|first1=J. Desmond|last2=Gifford-Gonzalez|first2=Diane|title=Adrar Bous: archaeology of a central Saharan granitic ring complex in Niger|date=2008|publisher=Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren}}</ref><ref name="scidaily">{{cite web | url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/080815101317.htm | title = Stone Age Graveyard Reveals Lifestyles Of A 'Green Sahara' | publisher = Science Daily | date = 15 August 2008 | access-date = 15 August 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080816060031/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/080815101317.htm | archive-date = 16 August 2008 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes">{{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/science/15sahara.html | title = Graves Found From Sahara's Green Period | first = John Noble | last = Wilford | work = [[The New York Times]] | date = 14 August 2008 | access-date = 15 August 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120123154828/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/science/15sahara.html | archive-date = 23 January 2012 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Sereno PC, ((Garcea EAA)), Jousse H, Stojanowski CM, ((Saliège J-F)), Maga A|title=Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental Change|journal=PLOS ONE|date=2008|volume=3|issue=8|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002995|display-authors=etal|pmid=18701936|pmc=2515196|pages=e2995|bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2995S|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kukura mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana pa nkhani ya ulimi na malaro. Chikhalidwe cha nyengo iyi ndi Chikhalidwe cha Bura (circa 200 - 1300 AD) chotchedwa Bura archeological site. komwe manda odzaza ndi zitsulo ndi ziboliboli za ceramic adapezeka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5045/|title=Site archéologique de Bura|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=7 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210180203/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5045/|archive-date=10 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>Mu nyengo ya Neolithic, ŵanthu ŵakamba kupanga vithuzithuzi vya mu malibwe ku Sahara. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa mu mapiri gha Aïr, Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait, Iferouane, Mammanet na Dabous.<ref>{{citation|url=https://africanrockart.britishmuseum.org/country/niger/|publisher=British Museum|title=African Rock Art - Niger|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702080140/https://africanrockart.britishmuseum.org/country/niger/|archive-date=2 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=https://www.icomos.org/studies/rockart-sahara-northafrica/07sous-zone3.pdf|publisher=ICOMOS|author=Caulson, David|title=Sub-Zone 3: Niger|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212111121/https://www.icomos.org/studies/rockart-sahara-northafrica/07sous-zone3.pdf|archive-date=12 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Shillington">Shillington, Kevin (1989, 1995). ''History of Africa, Second Edition''. St. Martin's Press, New York. Page 32.</ref> ===Empires and kingdoms in pre-colonial Niger=== Mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., cigaŵa ico lero ni Niger cikaŵa cigaŵa ca malonda. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg ŵakendanga kufuma kumpoto, ndipo ŵakendanga na ngamila mu chipalamba.<ref>Lewicki, T. (1994). "The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in Relationships between North and South". In ''UNESCO General History of Africa: Volume 3.'' University of California Press, {{ISBN|92-3-601709-6}}.</ref><ref name=Masonen>Masonen, P: "[https://web.archive.org/web/20061008085939/http://www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Masonen.html Trans-Saharan Trade and the West African Discovery of the Mediterranean World.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008085939/http://www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Masonen.html |date=8 October 2006 }}"</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kusamukira ku vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa na ku vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa, ndipo Chisilamu chikamba kuthandazgika. Ŵarabu ŵakawukira caru ca North Africa mu vilimika vya m'ma 700 C.E., ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵasamire kumwera. Mu nyengo iyi, mu Sahel mukaŵa maufumu ghanandi. Nkhani yakulondezgapo yikulongosora umo maufumu ghanyake ghakaŵira. ====Mali Empire (1200s–1400s)==== {{Main|Mali Empire}} Ufumu wa Mali ukaŵa ufumu wa Mandinka uwo ukayambika na Sundiata Keita (r. 1230 ⁇ 1255) mu 1230 ndipo ukakhalako mpaka 1600. Nga umo vyayowoyekera mu buku la Sundiata, Mali yikaŵa chigaŵa cha ufumu wa Sosso, uwo ukafumako ku ufumu wa Ghana. Kufuma apo, Mali wakathereska Sosso pa nkhondo ya Kirina mu 1235 na Ghana mu 1240.<ref name="oxfordre1">{{cite web| url = https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-266| title = Mali Empire| author = Sirio Canós-Donnay| publisher = Oxford Research Encyclopedias| date = February 2019| doi = 10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.266| isbn = 978-0-19-027773-4| access-date = 13 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190730024800/https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-266| archive-date = 30 July 2019| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/| title = Mali Empire| publisher = Ancient Origins| date = 1 March 2019| access-date = 13 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190729130448/https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/| archive-date = 29 July 2019| url-status = live}}</ref> Kufumira ku chigaŵa icho chikaŵa pafupi na mphaka ya Guinea na Mali, ufumu uwu ukakuranga mu nyengo ya mathemba ghakulondezgana ndipo ukafika pa mphepete mwa msewu wa malonda wa Trans-Sahara, ndipo ukafika pa mtunda ukuru chomene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Mansa Musa (r. 1312–1337). Pa nyengo iyi, vigaŵa vinyake ivyo sono ni chigaŵa cha Tillabéri mu Niger vikaŵa pasi pa Ŵamali. Mansa Musa, uyo wakaŵa Musilamu, wakacita haji mu 1324-1325, ndipo wakawovwira kuti Chisilamu chisanuzgike mu ufumu wake. "Vikuwoneka kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalutilira kulondezga visambizgo vyawo vya chisopa chautesi m'malo mwa kusopa chisopa chautesi".<ref name="oxfordre1"/><ref name="ancient1">{{cite web| url = https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/| title = Mali Empire| publisher = World History Encyclopedia| access-date = 13 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190729130448/https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/| archive-date = 29 July 2019| url-status = live}}</ref> Ufumu ukamba "kuwelera pasi" mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, chifukwa cha kulimbana kwa awo ŵakeneranga kuŵa mafumu, mathemba ghambura nkhongono, kwendeska malonda gha ku [[Europe]] ku mphepete mwa nyanja, na kugaluka kwa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mossi, Wolof, Tuareg na Songhai.<ref name="ancient1"/> Ufumu wa ku Mali ukalutilira m'paka m'ma 1600. ==== Songhai Empire (1000s–1591) ==== [[File:SONGHAI empire map.PNG|thumb|left|Map of the Songhai Empire, overlaid over modern boundaries]] {{Main|Songhai Empire}} Ufumu wa Songhai ukacemeka kuyana na mtundu wawo, Songhai panji Sonrai, ndipo ukaŵa mu Mali, mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Niger. Songhai wakamba kukhala mu cigaŵa ici mu virimika vya m'ma 700 na vya m'ma 800; ndipo mu virimika vya m'ma 1000, Gao (uyo kale ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu wa Gao) ndiyo yikaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu uwu.<ref name="boubou-hama">Boubou Hama and M Guilhem, "L’histoire du Niger, de l’Afrique et du Monde"; Edicef, ''Les royaumes Haoussa'', pp. 104–112</ref><ref name=countrystudy>{{cite book|editor1-last=Metz|editor1-first=Helen Chapin|title=Nigeria: A Country Study|date=1991|publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress|location=Washington, DC|url=http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/9.htm|access-date=14 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103012936/http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/9.htm|archive-date=3 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Kufuma mu 1000 mpaka 1325, ufumu wa Songhai ukaŵa pa mtende na ufumu wa Mali, uwo ukaŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu 1325 Songhai wakathereskeka na Mali mpaka apo yikapokereraso wanangwa wake mu 1375. Mu nyengo ya themba Sonni Ali (r. 1464 ⁇ 1492) Songhai wakatora ndondomeko yakusazgikira iyo yikatora malo ghapachanya chomene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Askia Mohammad I (r. 1493 ⁇ 1528); pa nyengo iyi ufumu ukakura kufuma ku Niger-bend heartland, kusazgapo kumafumiro gha dazi uko vigaŵa vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Niger vikawa pasi pa muwuso wake, kusazgapo Agadez uyo wakathereskeka mu 1496.<ref name="Bradt"/><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.worldhistory.org/Songhai_Empire/| title = Songhai Empire| publisher = World History Encyclopedia| access-date = 13 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190729123752/https://www.worldhistory.org/Songhai_Empire/| archive-date = 29 July 2019| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.africankingdoms.com African Kingdoms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519102901/http://www.africankingdoms.com/ |date=19 May 2019 }} African kingdoms – The Songhai Empire</ref> Ufumu uwu ukatondeka kulimbana na kuwukira kwa ufumu wa Saadi wa ku Morocco ndipo ukathereskeka pa nkhondo ya ku Tondibi mu 1591; pamanyuma ukagaŵikana mu maufumu ghachokochoko.<ref name=countrystudy/> ====Sultanate of Aïr (1400s–1906)==== [[File:1997 277-9A Agadez mosque cropped.jpg|thumb|right|[[Agadez Mosque|The Grand Mosque of Agadez]]]] {{Main|Sultanate of Aïr}} Mu 1449 kumpoto kwa Niger, Sultanate of Aïr wakapangika na Sultan Ilisawan, uyo wakakhalanga ku Agadez. Pakwamba, msumba uwu ukaŵa waka malo ghakusungirako malonda gha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hausa na ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg. Mu 1515, Aïr wakathereskeka na Songhai, ndipo wakalutilira kuŵa cigaŵa ca ufumu uwu mpaka apo ukamalira mu 1591.<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ufumu uwu "ukwenera kuti ukayamba kuchepa" cifukwa ca nkhondo za pakati pa mafuko. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakati ŵafika pa malo agha, msumba wa Agadez ukaŵa mu mahami ndipo Ŵafalansa ndiwo ŵakamba kuwupoka.<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="H-Dictionary"/> ====Kanem–Bornu Empire (700s–1700s)==== {{Main|Kanem–Bornu Empire|Sultanate of Damagaram}} Ku mafumiro gha dazi, ufumu wa Kanem ⁇ Bornu ukaŵa na mazaza pa malo agho ghakaŵa pafupi na Nyanja ya Chad. Mzinda uwu ukasangika na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Zaghawa mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 C.E. ndipo ukaŵa ku Njimi, kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa nyanja iyi. Ufumu uwu ukakuranga pachokopachoko, kusazgapo nyengo ya muwuso wa Sayfawa uwo ukamba mu 1075 pasi pa Mai (mfumu) Hummay.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ryder|first=A.F.C.|title=General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century|year=1981|publisher=UNESCO|location=Paris|page=239|editor=D.T. Niane}}</ref><ref name="ancient2">{{cite web| url = https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Kanem/| title = Kingdom of Kanem| publisher = World History Encyclopedia| author = Cartwright, Mark| date = 23 April 2019| access-date = 13 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190508165923/https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Kanem/| archive-date = 8 May 2019| url-status = live}}</ref> Ufumu uwu ukafika pachanya chomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200, chifukwa cha kulimbikira kwa Mai Dunama Dibbalemi (r. 1210 ⁇ 1259), ndipo ukakura "wakusambazga" chifukwa cha kuwusa kwake kwa ma Trans-Saharan malonda; vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi na kumwera-kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Niger, kusazgapo Bilma na Kaouar, vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Kanem mu nyengo iyi. Ŵamalonda Ŵaarabu ndiwo ŵakiza na cisopo ca Cisilamu mu caru ici mu virimika vya m'ma 1100, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kusopa cisopo ici. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bulala ŵakasuzga Kanem kuti wafumire kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad, uko kukamanyikwanga kuti Ufumu wa Bornu. Ufumu uwu ukawusanga mu tawuni ya Ngazargamu, iyo sono ni mphaka ya Niger na Nigeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ryder|first=A.F.C.|title=General History of Africa: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century|year=1981|publisher=UNESCO|location=Paris|pages=258–65|editor=D.T. Niane}}</ref><ref name="ancient2"/><ref>{{cite book|title=The History of Islam in Africa|year=2000|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780864864543|author-link=Nehemia Levtzion|author1=Nehemia Levtzion|author2=Randall Pouwels|publisher=Ohio University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780864864543/page/81 81]}}</ref> Bornu "wakakura comene" mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Mai Idris Alooma (wakababika ca mu 1575-1610) ndipo wakathereskaso vigaŵa vinandi vya Kanem, lekani ufumu uwu ukacemekanga kuti 'Kanem ⁇ Bornu'. Kuzakafika mu vilimika vya m'ma 1600 na vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa ku Bornu ukaŵa kuti 'ukumara,' ndipo ukaweleraso ku Nyanja ya Chad.<ref name=countrystudy/><ref name="ancient2"/> Mu 1730/40, gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Kanuri likaluta kukakhala ku Kanem ndipo likambiska ufumu wa Damagaram, uwo ukaŵa ku Zinder. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Borno m'paka apo Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane wakawusira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Sokoto ŵakaŵawukira, ndipo ŵakaŵathereska mu 1899.<ref name="Bradt"/> ====The Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms (1400s–1800s)==== [[File:Photo1906 Zinder overview.jpg|thumb|Overlooking the town of [[Zinder]] and the Sultan's Palace from the French fort (1906). The arrival of the French spelled an end for precolonial states like the [[Sultanate of Damagaram]] which carried on only as ceremonial "chiefs" appointed by the colonial government.]] {{Main|Hausa Kingdoms|Dosso Kingdom|Dendi Kingdom}} Pakati pa Mlonga wa Niger na Nyanja ya Chad kukaŵa uthemba wa Hausa, uwo ukazingilizga cigaŵa ca Hausaland ico pamanyuma cikazgoka mphaka ya Niger na Nigeria. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Hausa ŵakuyowoyeka kuti ni ŵanthu awo ŵakafuma ku mpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi, ndipo ŵakamba kuŵa ŵanthu ŵakupambana mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 na 1400.<ref name="ancient3">{{cite web |author=Cartwright, Mark |date=9 May 2019 |title=Hausaland |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Hausaland/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226173321/https://www.worldhistory.org/Hausaland/ |archive-date=26 December 2019 |access-date=13 November 2019 |publisher=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web| url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter5.shtml| title = Hausa States| publisher = BBC| access-date = 13 November 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180915100345/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter5.shtml| archive-date = 15 September 2018| url-status = live}}</ref> Ŵakazomera chisopa cha Chisilamu kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ndipo nyengo zinyake visopa ivi vikaŵanga pamoza na visopa vinyake, ndipo vikapangiska kuti visopa ivi viŵe vyakupambana. Magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hausa nga ni Azna, ghakaleka kusopa chisopa cha Chisilamu. (Chigaŵa cha Dogondoutchi chikulutilira kuŵa na ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga kuti kuli vyamoyo).<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name=countrystudy/> Maufumu gha ku Hausa ghakaŵa ghakukolerana yayi, kweni ghakaŵanga na maufumu ghakupambanapambana agho ghakaŵanga ghakupambana. Ŵakaŵanga na gulu la ŵakaronga ndipo ŵakacitanga vinthu mwakuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakenderanga. Mathemba gha Ŵahausa ghakasankhikanga na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa mu caru ndipo ghakaŵanga na mazaza ghakufumiskapo. Maufumu gha ku Hausa ghakaŵa na vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri ivyo vikapangika na ŵana ŵankhondi na yumoza ŵa Bawo.<ref name="ancient3"/><ref name=countrystudy/> Bawo wakaŵa mwana yekha wa Daurama na Bayajidda (Abu Yazid kuyana na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakumanya mdauko) awo ŵakafuma ku Baghdad. Maufumu ghankhondi na ghatatu gha ku Hausa ghakaŵa Daura, Kano, Rano, Zaria, Gobir, Katsina na Biram.<ref name="boubou-hama"/><ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="autogenerated1"/> Nkhani iyi yikulongosoraso kuti Bawo wakaŵa na ŵana ŵanayi na mwanakazi munyake, ndipo ndiwo ŵakambiska mtundu wa 'Banza (wambura kuzomerezgeka) Bakwai': Zamfara, Kebbi, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Ilorin na Kwararafa. Boma linyake lichoko chomene ilo likaŵa la Konni, likaŵa la Birni-N'Konni.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> The [[Fulani]] (also called Peul, Fulbe etc.), a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s.<ref name=countrystudy/><ref name="ancient3"/> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Fulani ŵakakondwa yayi na chisopa cha Chisilamu icho chikaŵako pa malo agha. Munthu munyake wakusambira chomene wa mtundu wa Fulani, zina lake Usman Dan Fodio (wakafuma ku Gobir) wakati mu 1804 wakambiska chisopa cha Chisilamu.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref name="Bradt"/><ref name=fisher1975>H. J. Fisher. The Sahara and Central Sudan. in The Cambridge History of Africa: From C 1600 to C 179. Richard Gray, J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, eds. Cambridge University Press, (1975) {{ISBN|0-521-20413-5}} pp. 134–6</ref> Wati wathereska vigaŵa vinandi vya Hausaland (kweni ufumu wa Bornu ukaŵa kuti ngwambura kukolerana na ufumu wake yayi), mu 1809 wakapharazga ufumu wa Sokoto. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Hausa ŵakapona cifukwa cakuti ŵakacimbilira kumwera, nga ni ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Katsina awo ŵakasamira ku Maradi, kumwera kwa Niger. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi vikasuzga Caliphate ndipo nyengo ya nkhondo yikamba, vyaru vinyake (nga ni Katsina na Gobir) vikalutilira kujiyimira paŵekha, apo kunyake vikapangika vyaru viphya (nga ni Sultanate of Tessaoua). Ufumu wa Caliphate ukalutilira kukhalako mpaka apo "wakatimbanizgika comene" cifukwa ca kuwukira kwa mulongozgi wa nkhondo Rabih az-Zubayr, uyo wakakhalanga ku Chad, ndipo paumaliro ukawira mu mawoko gha Ŵabritish mu 1903, ndipo pamasinda caru cake cikagaŵikana pakati pa Britain na France. Maufumu ghanyake ghacoko mu nyengo iyi ni ufumu wa Dosso, uwo ukaŵako mu 1750, uwo ukalimbana na muwuso wa Hausa na Sokoto.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> ===Colonial (1900–58)=== {{Main|Senegambia and Niger|Upper Senegal and Niger|French West Africa|Colony of Niger}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe ŵakaluta ku malo agho ghakachemeka Niger, nga ni Mungo Park (mu 1805 ⁇ 06), Oudney-Denham-Clapperton expedition (1822 ⁇ 25), Heinrich Barth (1850 ⁇ 55; na James Richardson na Adolf Overweg), Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs (1865 ⁇ 67), Gustav Nachtigal (1869 ⁇ 74) na Parfait-Louis Monteil (1890 ⁇ 92). Vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe vikaŵa kale na virwa vinyake mu Africa, ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, vikamba kughanaghanira vyakumukati mwa caru ici. Ndondomeko iyi yikamanyikwa na zina lakuti 'Chisulo cha ku Africa' ndipo yikamara na ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Berlin mu 1885. Pa ungano uwu, vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na mazaza ghakupambanapambana vikalongosora umo vyaru vya mu Africa vikwenera kugaŵikana. Pa cifukwa ici, caru ca France cikapoka cigaŵa ico cikaŵa mu mphepete mwa Mlonga wa Niger (cigaŵa ico lero ni Mali na Niger). Kufuma apo, caru ca France cikamba kuwusa nadi caru ici. Mu 1897, msilikari wa ku France Marius Gabriel Cazemajou wakatumika ku Niger; iyo wakafika ku Sultanate of Damagaram mu 1898 ndipo wakakhala ku Zinder ku khoti la Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga ⁇ . Wakakomeka pamanyuma pakuti Daga wakawopanga kuti wangakolerana na mulongozgi wa nkhondo Rabih az-Zubayr wa ku Chad. Mu 1899-1900, France yikanozga maulendo ghatatu ghakuluta ku vyaru vya ku Africa. Maulendo agha ghakaŵa gha Ŵamitundu kufuma ku French Congo, Foureau-Lamy kufuma ku Algeria na Voulet kufuma ku Timbuktu. Ŵasilikari ŵatatu aŵa ŵakakumana ku Kousséri (kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Cameroon) ndipo ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Rabih az-Zubayr pa nkhondo ya ku Kousséri. Gulu la Voulet-Chanoine "likasuzgika na nkhaza", ndipo "likamanyikwanga chomene" chifukwa cha kupoka vinthu, kupoka, kukolelera na kukoma ŵanthu ŵa ku Niger. Pa 8 May 1899, pakuwezgera cifukwa ca kukana kwa fumukazi Sarraounia, kapitawo Voulet na ŵanalume ŵake ŵakakoma ŵanthu wose ŵa mu muzi wa Birni-N'Konni, ndipo ici cikaŵa "cinthu cakofya comene mu mbiri ya French colonial". Macitiro gha Voulet na Chanoine ghakapangiska "mbuwu" ndipo Paris wakeneranga kunjilirapo; apo Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-François Klobb wakakumana na gulu ili pafupi na Tessaoua kuti waŵafumiskeko udindo, wakakomeka. Lt. Paul Joalland, uyo kale wakaŵa mulara wa Klobb, na Lt. Paumaliro Octave Meynier ndiyo wakambiska gulu ili, pamasinda pa kugaluka uko kukakoma Voulet na Chanoine. Boma la ŵasilikari la Niger likapangika mu Disembala 1904 ku Upper Senegal na Niger (pamanyuma ku Burkina Faso, Mali na Niger) ndipo likuru lake likaŵa Niamey. Mpaka wa ku Britain na Nigeria ukamara mu 1910, pakuti vyaru viŵiri ivi vikaŵa kuti vyakolerana kale mu mapangano gha pakati pa 1898 na 1906. Msumba wa boma ili ukasamuskikira ku Zinder mu 1912 apo boma la Niger likapatukana na la Upper Senegal na la Niger, ndipo likasamuskikira ku Niamey mu 1922 apo Niger yikazgoka boma la Ŵafalansa ku West Africa. Malire gha Niger ghakaŵikika mu vigaŵa viŵiri ndipo ghakaŵikika pa malo ghake mu ma 1930. Mu nyengo iyi vinthu vikasintha mu vigaŵa vinyake. Vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa mlonga wa Niger vikapelekeka ku Niger mu 1926-1927, ndipo apo boma la Upper Volta (lero ni Burkina Faso) likamara mu 1932-1947, vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi vikasazgikira ku Niger. Ŵafalansa ŵakagwiliskira nchito muwuso wambura kulongosoka, kuti ŵalutilire kuwusa mu nyengo ya ŵakoloni, uku ŵakuzomera kuwusa kwa Ŵafalansa. Zarma wa ku ufumu wa Dosso wakazomera kuwusika na Ŵafalansa, ndipo wakaŵagwiliskiranga nchito nga mbalwani kuti ŵarwe na ŵanthu ŵa ku Hausa na ŵanyakhe awo ŵakakhalanga kufupi na iwo. Ŵakawona kuti boma la France likukhumba kuwukira, nga ni kuwukira kwa Kobkitanda mu chigaŵa cha Dosso (1905 ⁇ 06), uko wakalongozgekanga na Alfa Saibou, na kuwukira kwa Karma mu chigodobu cha Niger (December 1905 ⁇ March 1906) uko wakalongozgekanga na Oumarou Karma.<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="H-Dictionary">{{cite book |author1=Decalo, Sameul |author2=Idrissa, Abdourahmane |title=Historical Dictionary of Niger |date=1 June 2012 |isbn=9780810870901 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GFFjEMjKrWkC&pg=PA286 |access-date=25 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725153320/https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=GFFjEMjKrWkC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286 |archive-date=25 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>''UNESCO General History of Africa'', Vol. VIII: Africa Since 1935. Ali A. Mazrui, Christophe Wondji, Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa, eds. University of California Press, (1999) {{ISBN|0-520-06703-7}} pp. 70–3</ref> Nangauli Ŵafalansa ŵakakhozgeranga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga waka kumwera, kweni ŵakasuzgikanga chomene na Ŵatuwareg ku mpoto. Ŵakafika ku Agadez mu 1906. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg ŵakalutilira kulimbana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kaocen, ndipo ŵakagalukira boma. Pa nyengo iyi, Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen wakadangiliranga gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Senussi. Ŵafalansa ŵakakhazikiska boma la ŵanthu ŵambura kugomezgeka, ndipo "kuwelera pasi na kulekeka" kwa cigaŵa ca kumpoto kwa caru ici kukalutilira, ndipo kukaŵaso njara. Nangauli charu ichi chikaŵa "chambura kukhazikika", kweni vinthu vikasintha mu Niger mu nyengo ya Ufumu wa Ŵaroma. Vinthu vyakuti viwovwire ŵanthu kusanga cakurya vikapangika pamanyuma pa njara zikuru izo zikaŵako mu 1913, 1920, na 1931.<ref name="Bradt"/><ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, apo caru ca France cikaŵa mu mawoko gha Nazi, Charles de Gaulle wakalemba chikalata chakucemeka kuti Brazzaville Declaration, ico cikayowoya kuti ufumu wa France uzamumalizgika na boma la France. Boma la France, ilo likaŵako kufuma mu 1946 m'paka mu 1958, likapeleka wanangwa ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Britain kuti ŵaŵe ŵenekaya ŵa charu cha France. Pa nyengo iyi ndipo chipani cha Nigerien Progressive Party (Parti Progressiste Nigérien, panji PPN, icho pakwamba chikaŵa chigaŵa cha African Democratic Rally, panji Rassemblement Démocratique Africain  ⁇  RDA) chikapangika pasi pa ulongozgi wa msambizgi wakale Hamani Diori, nga ni chipani cha Movement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba (MSA), icho chikalongozgekanga na Djibo Bakary. Pamanyuma pa Dango la Ŵapharazgi ŵa ku vyaru vinyake (Loi Cadre) la pa 23 Julayi 1956 na kukhazikiskika kwa boma la Fifth French Republic pa 4 Disembala 1958, charu cha Niger chikamba kuŵa na mazaza ghekha mu French Community. Pa Disembala 18, 1958, boma la Niger likapangika ndipo Hamani Diori ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa boma ili. Mu 1959 boma likakanizga MSA cifukwa ca kutinkha comene ŵanthu ŵa ku France. Pa 11 July 1960, Niger yikasankha kuti yifumemo mu French Community ndipo yikamba kujiyimira payekha pa 3 August, 1960 nyengo ya pakati pa usiku. Ntheura Diori wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa charu ichi.<ref>Keesing's Contemporary Archives, page 17569.</ref><ref name="djibo03">Mamoudou Djibo. Les enjeux politiques dans la colonie du Niger (1944–1960). Autrepart no 27 (2003), pp. 41–60.</ref> ===Post-colonial (1960–)=== ====Diori years (1960–74)==== [[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F028554-0009, Niger, Staatsbesuch Bundespräsident Lübke.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|200px|right|Pulezidenti Hamani Diori na Pulezidenti wa ku Germany Heinrich Lübke ŵakutawuzga wumba pa ulendo wa boma ku Niamey, 1969. Muwuso wa Diori ukaŵa wa chipani chimoza pera ndipo ukaŵa na "ubwezi uwemi" na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi.]] Kwa vyaka 14 vyakwambilira vya ufumu wa Niger, boma likaŵa na chipani chimoza icho chikaŵa pasi pa Hamani Diori.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hamani-Diori|title=Encyclopedia Britannica - Hamni Diori|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903003241/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hamani-Diori|archive-date=3 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> M'ma 1960 ŵanthu ŵakasambira vinandi yayi pa nkhani ya masambiro, kweniso vinthu vikasintha pa nkhani ya chuma na mafakitale.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Diori wakazomerezga kuti ku France kuŵe migodi ya uranium ku Arlit ndipo wakawovwira France pa nkhondo ya ku Algeria.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Mdauko wa vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa ukaŵa "uwemi", kupaturako Dahomey (Benin), cifukwa ca mphindano ya mphaka. Mu nyengo yose iyi, boma la Niger likaŵa na chipani chimoza pera, ndipo Diori wakapona pa chiŵembu icho chikachitika mu 1963 na chiyezgo cha kumukoma mu 1965; viŵembu vinandi ivi vikachitikanga na gulu la Djibo Bakary la MSA-Sawaba ilo likambiska chigaluka mu 1964.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Jon Abbink |author2=Mirjam de Bruijn, Klaas van Walraven |title=Rethinking Resistance: revolt and violence in African history |year=2003 |url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/9606/ASC_1267345_058.pdf?sequence=1 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=90-04-12624-4 |chapter=''Sawaba's Rebellion in Niger (1964-64)'' |access-date=21 November 2019 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805010044/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/9606/ASC_1267345_058.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu ma 1970, masuzgo gha vyachuma, njara, na milandu ya vimbundi na kuleka kunozga makora vyakurya, vikapangiska kuti boma liwukirepo ndipo boma la Diori likathereskeka.. ====First military regime (1974–1991)==== Wupu uwu ukapangika na Col. Seyni Kountché na gulu la ŵasilikari lakucemeka Conseil Militaire Supreme, ndipo Kountché wakalutilira kuwusa caru mpaka apo wakafwira mu 1987.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> The first action of the military government was to address the food crisis.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20141022153822/http://perspective.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/servlet/BMEve?codeEve=574 Renversement du président Hamani Diori au Niger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022153822/http://perspective.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/servlet/BMEve?codeEve=574 |date=22 October 2014 }}. ''Perspective monde'', 15 avril 1974</ref> Nangauli boma la Diori likafwatura ŵakayidi awo ŵakakhalanga mu jele chifukwa cha ndyali, kweni wanangwa wa ŵanthu na wanangwa wa ŵanthu "ukalutilira kunangika". Pakaŵaso viyezgo vya kupoka boma (mu 1975, 1976 na 1984) ivyo vikatimbanizgika, ndipo awo ŵakavipangiska ŵakalangika.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Kountché wakakhumbanga kupanga "bungwe lakukhozga ŵanthu", ilo likasanganga ndalama zinandi kufuma ku migodi ya uranium ku Agadez Region. Makampani gha boma ghakapangika, nyumba zinandi zikapangika (kuzenga misewu, masukulu, na malo ghakusungirako umoyo), ndipo pakaŵaso vimbundi mu mawupu gha boma, ivyo Kountché wakaleka yayi kulanga. M'ma 1980, Kountché wakamba kucepeskako mazaza gha ŵasilikari, ndipo boma likamba kucepeskako mazaza gha ŵasilikari, na kuyezgayezga kuti boma liŵe nga ni ŵanthu. Chuma chikamba kukwera chomene apo mitengo ya uranium yikakhira, ndipo boma la IMF likamba kukanizga ŵanthu kugura vinthu vyawo, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu Nigeria ŵakane. Mu 1985, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg ŵakagaluka ku Tchintabaraden. Kountché wakafwa mu Novembala 1987 cifukwa ca kansa ya mu wongo, ndipo wakasinthika na mulongozgi wake wa ŵasilikari, Col. Ali Saibou uyo wakazomelezgeka kuŵa mulongozgi wa Supreme Military Council pamanyuma pa mazuŵa ghanayi. Saibou wakawuskapo vinthu vinyake ivyo vikacitikanga mu nyengo ya Kountché (nga ni polisi ya cisisi na kuŵika malango pa vinthu ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu nyuzipepara), ndipo wakambiska ndondomeko ya kusintha vinthu mu ndyali iyo yikalongozgekanga na gulu limoza (Mouvement National pour la Société du Développement, panji MNSD). Boma lakwamba likaŵa la Ŵaroma, ndipo lachiŵiri likaŵa la Ŵaroma. General Saibou wakazgoka pulezidenti wakwamba wa Second Republic pamanyuma pakutonda pa chisankho cha pulezidenti pa 10 December 1989. Mulimo wa Pulezidenti Saibou wa kuwongolera kusintha vinthu mu ndyali watondeka cifukwa ca ivyo ŵamalonda na ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakukhumba kuti paŵe demokilase ya vipani vinandi. Pa 9 February, 1990, ku Niamey kukaŵa chiwawa icho chikapangiska kuti ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵatatu ŵakomeke, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti boma na vyaru vinyake viŵachichizge kuti ŵasinthe vinthu. Kuumaliro wa 1990, boma la Saibou likazomera ivyo ŵakakhumbanga. Pa nyengo iyi, masuzgo ghakambaso mu chigaŵa cha Agadez apo gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg likalukira tawuni ya Tchintabaraden (uyo ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti ndiwo ŵakambiska kuwukira kwa mtundu wa Tuareg), ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵakome ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. (Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya yayi unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakomeka, kweni ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakwana 70 panji 1,000).<ref name="H-Dictionary"/>[[File:Ali Saibou cropped.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Ali Saibou, President 1987–93, helped oversee the transition from military to civilian rule]] ====National Conference and Third Republic (1991–1996)==== Msonkhano wa National Sovereign wa mu 1991 unabweretsa demokalase ya zipani zambiri. Kwambira pa Julayi 29 mpaka pa Novembala 3, pa ungano wa caru cose uwu pakawungana ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose kuti ŵapeleke ulongozgi wakukhwaskana na umo vinthu viŵirenge mu caru. Pa ungano uwu pakaŵa Prof. André Salifou ndipo wakapangiska pulani ya boma lakusintha vinthu; ilo likaŵikika mu Novembala 1991 kuti lilongozge vinthu vya boma mpaka apo maboma gha Third Republic ghakaŵikira mu Epulero 1993. Pamanyuma pa ungano wa National Sovereign Conference, boma la nyengo yichoko waka likalemba dango la chalo ilo likasintha dango la chipani chimoza ilo likaŵako mu 1989, ndipo likapeleka wanangwa ku ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ndondomeko yiphya ya malango yikazomerezgeka pa 26 Disembala 1992. Pamanyuma pa ichi, chisankho cha pulezidenti chikachitika ndipo Mahamane Ousmane wakaba pulezidenti wakwamba wa Third Republic pa 27 March 1993.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref name="auto1">Nohlen, D, Krennerich, M & Thibaut, B (1999) ''Elections in Africa: A data handbook'', p685 {{ISBN|0-19-829645-2}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya Ousmane, boma likasintha kankhondi na kankhondi, ndipo mu 1995 kukaŵa mavoti gha wupu wa malango. Nkhaza mu Agadez Region zikalutilira mu nyengo iyi, ivyo vikapangiska kuti boma la Niger lisayinire phangano la mtende na ŵakugaluka ŵa Tuareg mu 1992. Kweni phangano ili likaŵa lawaka chifukwa cha kususkana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Toubou ŵakakwiya na ivyo boma la Niger likacita ku vigaŵa vyawo. Iwo ŵakatenge boma la Niger likutondeka kovwira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu. Mu Epulero 1995, boma likasazga phangano la mtende na gulu la ŵanthu ŵakugaluka ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg, ndipo likazomerezga kuti ŵasilikari ŵanyake awo kale ŵakagalukiranga boma ŵaŵapokelere mu gulu la ŵasilikari, ndipo na wovwiri wa caru ca France, ŵakawovwire ŵanyake kuti ŵambeso umoyo uwemi.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Publications|first1=USA International Business|title=Niger Foreign Policy and Government Guide|date=2007|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|isbn=9781433036873|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwInUH18i8wC&q=The+niger+agreed+to+absorb+some+of+the+former+rebels+into+the+military+and%2C+with+French+assistance%2C+to+help+others+return+to+a+productive+civilian+life.&pg=PA28|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ====Second military regime and third military regime (1996–1999)==== Cifukwa cakuti boma likaŵa kuti lindambe kwendera fundo zake, ŵasilikari ŵakacitapo kanthu; pa Janyuwale 27, 1996, Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara wakadangilira kuwukira uko kukawuskapo Pulezidenti Ousmane na kumazga muwuso wa Third Republic.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/28/world/world-news-briefs-niger-s-elected-president-ousted-in-military-coup.html?pagewanted=1 Niger's Elected President Ousted in Military Coup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803195752/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/01/28/world/world-news-briefs-niger-s-elected-president-ousted-in-military-coup.html?pagewanted=1 |date=3 August 2018 }} New York Times, 28 January 1996</ref><ref name=Obit>Kaye Whiteman, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095159/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19990412/ai_n14221141 "Obituary: Ibrahim Bare Mainassara"], ''The Independent'' (London), 12 April 1999.</ref> Maïnassara wakalongozga wupu wa Conseil de Salut National (National Salvation Council) uwo ukapangika na ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵapo pa nyengo ya myezi 6, apo ŵakanozga dango la chalo ndipo likapelekeka pa 12 May 1996. Mu myezi yakulondezgapo, pakaŵaso upharazgi wapadera. Maïnassara wakanjira mu kampeni nga ni munthu wakujiyimira payekha ndipo wakathereska chisankho pa 8 Julayi 1996, chisankho ichi chikawonekanga kuti ntchiheni, chifukwa komiti ya chisankho yikasinthika pa kampeni. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, Maïnassara wakambiska pulogiramu ya privatization yakuzomerezgeka na IMF na World Bank iyo yikaŵapangiska kuŵa ŵasambazi ŵanji awo ŵakamulondezganga, kweni wupu wa ŵamalonda ukakana. Pamanyuma pa mavoti ghaupusikizgi mu 1999, gulu lakuwukira boma likati lilekerethu kukolerana na boma la Maïnassara. Mu nyengo zambura kumanyikwa (panji kuti wakakhumbanga kucimbira mu caru), Maïnassara wakakomeka pa 9 Epulero 1999 pa Airport ya Niamey.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/358644/Ibrahim-Bare-Mainassara|title=Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=9 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330145938/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/358644/Ibrahim-Bare-Mainassara|archive-date=30 March 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=1999: President of Niger 'killed in ambush'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/9/newsid_2463000/2463927.stm|access-date=9 April 2014|newspaper=BBC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415001633/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/9/newsid_2463000/2463927.stm|archive-date=15 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké wakayamba kuwusa, ndipo wakapangiska National Reconciliation Council kuti yilongozge pa kulemba dango la chalo la French-style semi-presidential. Ndondomeko iyi yikapelekeka pa Ogasiti 9, 1999, ndipo pamasinda pa Okutobala na Novembala pakachitika visankho vya pulezidenti na vya nduna. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru ŵakayowoya kuti visankho vikachitika mwawanangwa. Pamanyuma pake Wanké wakaleka nchito ya boma.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> ====Fifth Republic (1999–2009)==== [[File:Nigerien MNJ fighter technical gun.JPG|thumb|A [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] rebel fighter in northern Niger during the Second Tuareg Rebellion, 2008]] Wati wawina masankho mu Novembala 1999, Pulezidenti Tandja Mamadou wakalapa pa 22 Disembala 1999 nga ni pulezidenti wakwamba wa Fifth Republic. Mamadou wakawovwira kuti vinthu vyende makora pa nkhani ya ndyali, kweniso kuti vinthu vyende makora pa nkhani ya ndyali.<ref>{{citation|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2005/07/144962-un-world-court-decides-niger-benin-border-dispute|publisher=UN News|title=UN World Court decides Niger, Benin border dispute|date=13 July 2019|access-date=8 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108193311/https://news.un.org/en/story/2005/07/144962-un-world-court-decides-niger-benin-border-dispute|archive-date=8 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Fabio Spadi (2005) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060929032048/http://www.ljil.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?m=5&c=186 The ICJ Judgment in the Benin-Niger Border Dispute: the interplay of titles and ‘effectivités’ under the uti possidetis juris principle, ''Leiden Journal of International Law''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929032048/http://www.ljil.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?m=5&c=186 |date=29 September 2006 }} 18: 777–794</ref> Mu Ogasiti 2002, ku Niamey, Diffa, na Nguigmi kukacitika vivulupi mu misasa ya ŵasilikari, ndipo mu mazuŵa ghacoko waka boma likamazga vivulupi. Pa Julayi 24, 2004, kukacitika masankho gha boma kuti ŵasankhe ŵimiliri awo ŵakimikika na boma. Chisankho ichi chikalondezgana na chisankho cha pulezidenti, apo Mamadou wakasankhikaso kwa nyengo yachiŵiri, ntheura wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa chalo ichi kuwina visankho vyakulondezgana kwambura kuwuskika na ŵasilikari.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070622081649/http://democratie.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/NIGER_RMO1611_04122004.pdf "RAPPORT DE LA MISSION D’OBSERVATION DES ELECTIONS PRESIDENTIELLES ET LEGISLATIVES DES 16 NOVEMBRE ET 4 DECEMBRE 2004"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622081649/http://democratie.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/NIGER_RMO1611_04122004.pdf |date=22 June 2007 }}, democratie.francophonie.org {{in lang|fr}}.</ref> Wupu wakulongozga na wupu wa malango vikalutilira kuyana na umo vikaŵira mu nyengo yakwamba ya pulezidenti: Hama Amadou wakasoleka kuŵa nduna yikuru ndipo Mahamane Ousmane, mulongozgi wa chipani cha CDS, wakasoleka kuŵa mulongozgi wa wupu wa malango (parliament) na ŵanyake. Mu 2007, ubale pakati pa Pulezidenti Tandja Mamadou na nduna yake "wakatimbanizgika", ivyo vikapangiska kuti mu Juni 2007 wasinthike na Seyni Oumarou pamasinda pa voti ya kuwoneseska kuti palije chigomezgo mu Nyumba ya Malamulo. Pulezidenti Tandja Mamadou wakakhumbanga kuti nyengo ya kuwusa kwake yilute panthazi mwa kusintha dango ilo likakanizganga ŵanthu kuwusa nyengo yitali. Awo ŵakakolerana na fundo yakuti boma likhale kwa nyengo yitali, ŵakakolerana na gulu la ŵanthu ŵakucemeka kuti "Tazartche" (kufuma ku lizgu la Chihausa ilo likung'anamura "kukhala nyengo yitali"), kweni ŵakasuskika na gulu la ŵanthu ŵakucemeka kuti "anti-Tazartche" ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakulimbana na boma kweniso ŵakususka boma. Ku mpoto kwa caru ici kukawuka viwawa vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg mu 2007. Mu 2009, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakoleka ndipo ŵakamanyikwa kuti mbanthu ŵambura kugomezgeka. Vuto la "kukhazikika" kwa chitetezo m'chigawochi likuganiziridwa kuti ndilo linapangitsa kuti gulu la Al-Qaeda mu Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) likhazikike m'dzikoli.<ref name="H-Dictionary"/> ====Fourth military regime (2009–2010)==== Mu 2009, pulezidenti Tandja Mamadou wakanozga vyakuti wapange referendum kuti wawuskepo muwuso wake, kweni vipani vinyake vikakolerana navyo yayi. Pamanyuma Mamadou wakasintha na kukhazikiska dango liphya, ilo Khoti la Vyamalango likati ndambura kuzomerezgeka, ivyo vikapangiska kuti Mamadou wasankhepo Khoti ili na kupoka mazaza ghapadera.<ref name=Reutersjune26>[https://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUSLQ2439220090626 Niger president rules by decree after court snub] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629050556/http://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUSLQ2439220090626 |date=29 June 2009 }}. Reuters. Fri 26 June 2009</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8121974.stm Emergency powers for Niger leader] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116071655/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8121974.stm |date=16 November 2018 }}. BBC. 26 June 2009.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakususka ŵakakana kupulika fundo iyi, ndipo dango la chalo likapokeka na ŵanthu 92.5% ndipo ŵanthu 68% ŵakaluta ku mavoti, kuyana na ivyo vikawoneka. Ndondomeko iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe muwuso wa chalo cha 6 na boma la pulezidenti, na boma la kanyengo ka vyaka vitatu la Tandja Mamadou. Vinthu ivi vikapangiska kuti mu caru muŵe vivulupi pa ndyali na pa umoyo wa ŵanthu. Mu Febuluwale 2010, ŵasilikari ŵakakhazikiska boma la Salou Djibo, chifukwa chakuti Tandja wakakhumbanga kusazgirako nyengo iyo wakhalenge mu boma. Wupu wakulongozgeka na Djibo, ukacita ndondomeko ya kusintha kwa vinthu, ndipo ukasora dango la chalo, na kupanga mavoti mu 2011. ====Seventh Republic (2010–)==== Pamanyuma pa kupika dango la chalo mu chaka cha 2010 na kusankhika kwa pulezidenti chaka chimoza pamanyuma, Mahamadou Issoufou wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa chalo cha 7th Republic; ndipo wakasankhikaso mu chaka cha 2016.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-niger-election-idUSKCN0WO0ZN "Boycott helps Niger President Issoufou win re-election"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304072455/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-niger-election-idUSKCN0WO0ZN |date=4 March 2020 }}, Reuters, 22 March 2016.</ref><ref name="H-Dictionary"/> Ndondomeko iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe muwuso wa mulongozgi yumoza, uwo ukalekeka chaka chimoza kumanyuma. Mu 2011, boma likakhumba kumupoka, kweni likamutondeska ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵake ŵakakakika. Nyengo iyo Issoufou wakaŵa paudindo yikamanyikwa na masuzgo agho ghakaŵapo chifukwa cha nkhondo iyo yikachitikanga ku Libya na kumpoto kwa Mali, uchigaluka uwo ukachitikanga kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Niger na al-Qaeda na Islamic State, uchigaluka wa Boko Haram uwo ukachitikanga ku Nigeria uwo ukafika na kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Niger, na kugwiliskira ntchito charu cha Niger nga ni charu icho ŵanthu ŵakujumphamo kuti ŵalute ku charu chinyake. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France na America ŵakovwira Niger kulimbana na masuzgo agha..<ref>{{cite web|title=France ready to strike extremists on Libya border|url=http://asian-defence-news.blogspot.fr/2015/01/france-ready-to-strike-extremists-on.html|website=Asian Defense News|date=6 January 2015|publisher=6 January 2015|access-date=6 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031907/http://asian-defence-news.blogspot.fr/2015/01/france-ready-to-strike-extremists-on.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Pa Disembala 27, 2020, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakaluta ku mavoti pamanyuma pakuti Issoufou wapharazga kuti wafumengepo pa udindo, na kunozga nthowa kuti vinthu viŵe makora. Pakaŵavya uyo wakasangika na voti yinandi, kweni Mohamed Bazoum ndiyo wakasanga 39.33%. Kuyana na dango la chalo, pa 20 February 2021, pakachitika chisankho chachiŵiri, ndipo Bazoum wakapokera 55.75% ya mavoti ndipo uyo wakususka (ndipo kale wakaŵa pulezidenti) Mahamane Ousmane wakapokera 44.25%, kuyana na ivyo komiti ya chisankho yikayowoya. Pa 31 Malichi 2021, ŵasilikari ŵa Niger ŵakathereska chiŵembu cha ŵasilikari ku Niamey. Ŵanthu ŵakapulika kuphulika kwa futi mu nyumba ya pulezidenti. Cinthu ici cikacitika mazuŵa ghaŵiri pambere Mohamed Bazoum, uyo wakaŵa kuti wasankhika waka kuŵa pulezidenti wa caru ici, wandambe mulimo wake. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵakakora ŵanthu ŵanyake. Pa 2 April, 2021, Bazoum wakalambikwa kuŵa pulezidenti wa Niger.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/2/niger-president-to-be-sworn-in-after-attempted-coup |title=Mohamed Bazoum sworn in as Niger's president amid tensions |work=Aljazeera |first=Giacomo |last=Zandonini |date=2 April 2021 |access-date=26 August 2021 }}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Niger}} [[File:Ng-map.png|thumb|upright=1.15|A map of Niger]] {{MapLibrary|Niger sat.png|Niger}} Charu ichi chili ku West Africa ndipo chili pakati pa Sahara na vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Sahara. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nigeria na Benin, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Burkina Faso na Mali, kumpoto kwa Algeria na Libya, ndipo kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Chad. Charu ichi chili pakati pa 11° na 24°N, kweniso pakati pa 0° na 16°E. Munda wake ngwakuti 1,267,000 square kilometres (489,191 sq mi) ndipo 300 square kilometres (116 sq mi) ni maji. Ici cikung'anamura kuti ni caru cikuru comene kuluska ca France, ndipo nchigaŵa ca nambara 21 pa caru cose.<ref>{{cite web |title=Africa :: Niger — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/niger/ |website=www.cia.gov |access-date=1 September 2019 }}</ref> Charu ichi chili na mphaka na vyaru 7, ndipo chili na utali wa makilomita 5,697. Mphepete mwa nyanja iyi muli charu cha Nigeria icho chili na mtunda wa makilomita 1,497. Charu cha Chad chili kumafumiro gha dazi, ndipo chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 1,175. Charu cha Algeria chili kumpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo cha Mali chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 821. Charu cha Niger chili na mphaka na Burkina Faso pa 628 km (390 mi) na Benin pa 266 km (165 mi) na kumpoto-mpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Libya pa 354 km (220 mi). Malo gha pasi chomene ni pa Mlonga wa Niger, ndipo ghakukwera mamita 200. Malo ghapachanya chomene ni Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès mu mapiri gha Aïr. ===Climate=== [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map NER present.svg|thumb|Map of Köppen climate classification]] Ku malo ghanyake, nyengo ya kotcha na ya chipalamba yikupangiska kuti moto uŵeko kanandi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ramo|first1=Ruben|last2=Roteta|first2=Ekhi|last3=Bistinas|first3=Ioannis|last4=Wees|first4=Dave van|last5=Bastarrika|first5=Aitor|last6=Chuvieco|first6=Emilio|last7=Werf|first7=Guido R. van der|date=2021-03-02|title=African burned area and fire carbon emissions are strongly impacted by small fires undetected by coarse resolution satellite data|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=118|issue=9|doi=10.1073/pnas.2011160118|pmc=7936338|issn=0027-8424|pmid=33619088|bibcode=2021PNAS..11811160R |hdl=10810/50523 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kumwera kwa caru ici kuli malo ghakuzizima agho ghakukhala mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Niger. Malo agha ghakaŵa mapopa, ndipo kumwera kukaŵa mapiri, kumpoto kukaŵa mapiri. ===Biodiversity=== {{Further|Wildlife of Niger}} [[File:Elephant dust bath park w niger.jpg|thumb|An elephant in the [[W National Park]] ]] Charu cha Niger chili na vigaŵa vinkhondi: Savanna ya Sahelian Acacia, Savanna ya West Sudan, Savanna ya Lake Chad, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, na West Saharan montane xeric woodlands. Kumpoto kwa caru ici kuli mapopa na malo ghanyake ghambura mapopa. Vinyama vinyake ivyo vikukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ni viyuni nga ni viyuni vya addax antelope, oryx, gazelle, ndipo ku mapiri kuli mberere za mtundu wa Barbary. Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi, kuli malo ghakucemeka Aïr and Ténéré National Nature Reserve. Kumwera kwa caru ici kuli vigaŵa ivyo ni vyakupambanapambana. W National Park, iyo yili ku mphaka ya Burkina Faso na Benin, njimoza mwa "malo ghakuzirwa comene" ku vyamoyo vyamuthengere ku West Africa. Malo agha ghakucemeka WAP (W ⁇ Arli ⁇ Pendjari) Complex. Ku malo agha kuli nkharamu za ku West Africa, ndipo kuli nkharamu ya Northwest African cheetah. Vinyama vinyake vyamuthengere ni njovu, njati, mphoyo, mphoyo za mu thengere, na mphoyo za ku mphepete. Giraffe wa ku West Africa wakusangika kumpoto uko wali na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni umo ŵalimi ŵakunanga vinthu chifukwa cha kukwera kwa unandi wa ŵanthu, kuska vyakurya mwambura kuzomerezgeka, moto wa mu nkhorongo mu vigaŵa vinyake, na umo ŵanthu ŵakunjilira mu malo agho ghakuphulika na maji gha mu Mlonga wa Niger kuti ŵalimenge mpunga. Vigeŵenga ivyo vili kuzengeka pa Mlonga wa Niger mu vyaru vya Mali na Guinea, kweniso mu Niger, ndivyo vyapangiska kuti maji gha mu Mlonga wa Niger ghaleke kwenda makora, ndipo ivi vikukhwaska comene malo agho tikukhala. Cinyake ico cikupangiska kuti viŵeto viluwenge ni "kuŵavya ŵantchito ŵakukwana" kuti ŵavikilire viŵeto mu malo ghakusungirako viŵeto. Mulimi wakuŵawovwira kuti ŵaleke kusuzgika na mphepo kufuma waka mu 1983 kuti ŵapange vyakurya vinandi na makuni, kweniso kuti ŵaleke kusuzgika na mphepo.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hertsgaard|first=Mark|date=2009-11-19|title=Regreening Africa|language=en-US|journal=The Nation|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/regreening-africa/|access-date=2021-11-26|issn=0027-8378}}</ref> == Boma na ndyali == {{Main|Politics of Niger|Government of Niger}} Pa Okutobala 31, 2010, boma liphya la Niger likazomerezgeka. Likawuskaso ndondomeko ya kuwusa ya pulezidenti ya mu 1999 (Fifth Republic) apo pulezidenti wakusankhika na ŵanthu wose kwa vilimika vinkhondi, ndipo nduna yikuru iyo yikwimikika na pulezidenti ndiyo yikucita mulimo wa kuwusa. Pa 26 May 2009, Pulezidenti Tandja wakathura nyumba ya malango pamanyuma pakuti khoti la malango la boma la boma la [[Malaŵi|Malawi]] likanizga ndondomeko ya kupanga referendum pa nkhani ya kuzakazomerezga kuti waŵepo paudindo kachitatu. Mwakuyana na dango la boma, mu myezi yitatu yikeneranga kufika nyengo yakuti ŵasole nyumba ya malango yiphya. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe kulimbana pakati pa Tandja, uyo wakakhumbanga kuti wamalizge mazaza ghake agho ghakaŵa gha nyengo yichoko waka, na awo ŵakamususkanga, awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti wafumeko pa udindo wake para nyengo yake yachiŵiri yamara mu Disembala 2009. Wonani 2009 Nigerien constitutional crisis. Ŵasilikari ŵakapoka boma, ndipo Pulezidenti Tandja ŵakamujalira mu jele, ŵakamupusikizgira kuti wali na vimbundi. Ŵasilikari ŵakasunga layizgo lawo lakuti ŵazamuwezgerapo demokarase mu caru. Pakacitikaso mavoti na referendum pa nkhani ya malango gha caru cose. Chisankho cha pulezidenti chidachitika pa 31 January 2011, kweni pakuti pakaŵavya uyo wakathereskeka, chisankho chachiŵiri chikachitika pa 12 March 2011. Mahamadou Issoufou wa ku chipani cha Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pakaŵaso kusora ŵaboma.<ref>Ahmad, Romoke W. [http://allafrica.com/stories/201102030287.html "West Africa: Ecowas, EU Say Niger Elections Satisfactory"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629053302/http://allafrica.com/stories/201102030287.html |date=29 June 2011}}, ''Daily Trust'' (republished at AllAfrica.com), 3 February 2011.</ref><ref>Saidou, Djibril. [http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-02-04/niger-s-presidential-election-heads-to-march-runoff.html "Niger’s Presidential Election Heads to March Runoff"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628204008/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-02-04/niger-s-presidential-election-heads-to-march-runoff.html |date=28 June 2011}}, ''Bloomberg Businessweek'', 4 February 2011.</ref><ref>Look, Anne. [http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/Niger-Politicians-Forge-Alliances-Before-March-Election-116159734.html "Niger Politicians Forge Alliances Before March Election"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207212122/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/Niger-Politicians-Forge-Alliances-Before-March-Election-116159734.html |date=7 February 2012}}, ''Voice of America'', 14 February 2011.</ref> ===Foreign relations=== [[File:Drapeau Niger ambassade Paris.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Niger's flag waving at the embassy in Paris]] {{Main|Foreign relations of Niger}} Boma la Niger likulongozga ndyali ya pa caru cose yayi ndipo likuŵa paubwezi na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, vyaru vya Chisilamu, na vyaru ivyo vikukolerana navyo yayi. Wupu uwu uli mu UN na mabungwe ghanyake ndipo mu 1980-1981 ukaŵa mu wupu wakuwona vya chivikiliro wa UN. Niger yili paubwezi wapadera na caru ico kale cikaŵa pasi pa France, kweniso yili paubwezi na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Charu ichi chili na wanangwa wakuchita vinthu nga ni umoza wa vyaru vya Africa na Western African Monetary Union. Charu ichi chili ku Niger Basin Authority na Lake Chad Basin Commission, Economic Community of West African States, Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Niger vikukolerana na vigaŵa vya Mali na Burkina Faso pasi pa Liptako-Gourma Authority. Mu 2005, Khoti la Vyamalango la pa Charu Chose likadumura nkhani ya mphindano ya mphaka pakati pa charu cha Benin na charu cha Niger. Nkhani iyi yikakhwaska chomene chirwa cha Lété icho chili mu mlonga wa Niger. ===Military=== {{Further|Niger Armed Forces}} Ŵasilikari ŵa Niger (Forces armées nigériennes) ni ŵasilikari ŵa Niger, pasi pa pulezidenti uyo ni mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari. Vili na ŵasilikari ŵa Niger (Armée de Terre), ŵasilikari ŵa Niger Air Force (Armée de l'Air) na ŵasilikari ŵanyake, nga ni National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale) na National Guard (Garde nationale). Ŵasilikari wose ŵaŵiri ŵakusambizgika nkhondo ndipo ŵakugwira nchito zinyake za nkhondo. Mu nyengo ya mtende, ŵakucita milimo ya ŵapolisi. Ŵasilikari ŵakukwana 12,900, kusazgapo 3,700 gendarmes, 3,200 national guards, 300 air force personnel, na 6,000 army personnel. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Niger ŵali kuchitapo vinthu vinandi ivyo vingapangiska kuti boma liwe, ndipo ivyo vyachitika sonosono apa ni vya mu 2010. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Niger ŵakukolerana na ŵasilikari ŵa ku France na United States. Mu 2013, ku Niamey kukaŵa malo agho kukaŵanga ndege za ku U.S. ===Judicial system=== {{Main|Judiciary of Niger}} Khoti ili likamba kugwira ntchito mu 1999 apo boma lachinayi la Niger likapangika. Ndondomeko ya malango ya Disembala 1992 yikasinthika pa 12 May 1996 ndipo pa 18 July 1999 yikasinthikaso na kuŵa umo yiliri sono. Ndondomeko iyi yikukolerana na dango la Code Napoléon, ilo likapangika mu Niger mu nyengo ya French colonial rule na Constitution ya 1960 ya Niger. Khoti la Appeal Court likusanda nkhani zakukhwaskana na ivyo vikacitika na ivyo vili mu dango, ndipo Khoti Likuru Chomene la Supreme Court likusanda nkhani zakukhwaskana na dango na ivyo vili mu dango. Khoti Likuru la Vyamalango (HCJ) ndilo likweruzga milandu ya ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma. Boma likuŵaso na makhoti gha milandu ya ŵanthu, makhoti gha mitheto, makhoti gha ŵasilikari, na makhoti ghanyake. Makhoti gha ŵasilikari ghakupika wanangwa wakuyana waka na makhoti gha milandu yaŵanthu. Kweni makhoti gha mitheto ghalije wanangwa uwu. Khoti la ŵasilikari lingeruzga ŵanthu bweka yayi.<ref name="USHRR2008">[https://web.archive.org/web/20090226175359/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/af/119017.htm 2008 Human Rights Report: Niger] in 2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. (25 February 2009) As a publication of the United States Federal Government, this report is in the [[Public Domain]]. Portions of it may be used here verbatim.</ref><ref name=Sory>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081126022100/http://www.etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/institutionnel/niger.html#Syst%E8me%20judiciaire Niger:Système judiciaire] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081126022100/http://www.etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/institutionnel/niger.html |date=26 November 2008}}. NIGER Situation institutionnelle. Sory Baldé, CEAN, IEP-Université Montesquieu-Bordeaux IV (2007) Accessed 13 April 2009</ref> ===Law enforcement=== {{Main|Law enforcement in Niger}} Boma la Niger ndilo likwendeska nkhani za malango. Ŵapolisi ŵa ku [[Spain]] ndiwo ŵakulaŵilira kuti malango gha m'mizinda ghakulondezgeka. Kuwaro kwa misumba yikuru na ku mizi, mulimo uwu ukupelekeka ku ŵasilikari ŵa boma na ŵasilikari ŵa boma. ===Government finance=== Ndalama izo boma likupeleka zikufuma ku vyamalonda ivyo likupeleka ku vyaru vinyake (vyamalonda vya migodi, mafuta, na vyakurya ivyo vikufumiskika ku vyaru vinyake) kweniso ku misonkho iyo boma likutolera. Kale, wovwiri wakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ukaŵanga ukuru comene pa bajeti. Mu chaka cha 2013, boma la Niger likapeleka bajeti yambura kusuzga ya 1,279 trillion CFA francs ($2.53 billion) iyo yikulongosoreka kuti yikovwira kuti ndalama na ndalama viŵe pa mtende na kuchepeska bajeti na 11% kufuma mu chaka chamanyuma. Bajeti ya chaka cha 2014 yikaŵa ya CFA 1.867 trillion, iyo yikatumizgika ku: ngongole ya boma (76,703,692,000 CFA), ndalama zakwendeskera ntchito (210,979,633,960 CFA), ndalama zakwendeskera ntchito (128,988,777,711 CFA); ndalama zakwendeskera ntchito: 308,379,641,366 CFA) na ndalama zakwendeskera ntchito (1,142,513,658,712 CFA).<ref>{{in lang|fr}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20200805215851/http://nigerexpress.info/2013/11/28/niger-le-budget-2014-porte-a-1-867-milliards/ Niger : le budget 2014 porté à 1.867 milliards] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805215851/http://nigerexpress.info/2013/11/28/niger-le-budget-2014-porte-a-1-867-milliards/ |date=5 August 2020}}. ''Niger Express'', 28 November 2013.</ref> ====Foreign aid==== Kuzirwa kwa wovwiri wa ku caru ca Niger kukulongoreka na fundo yakuti pafupifupi 45% ya bajeti ya boma ya cilimika ca 2002, kusazgapo 80% ya bajeti ya ndalama, yikufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakupeleka wovwiri.<ref name=ussd2009>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm Background Notes for Niger: January 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524232128/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm |date=24 May 2019}} Bureau of African Affairs, United States State Department. Retrieved 26 February 2009. Portions of the "Economy" section are here used verbatim, as this document is in the public domain.</ref> Vinthu vyakuzirwa comene ivyo vikupeleka ndalama ku Niger ni France, European Union, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, na mawupu ghakupambanapambana gha United Nations (UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, World Food Program, na United Nations Population Fund). Vyaru vinyake vikuruvikuru ivyo vikupereka ndalama ni United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, na Saudi Arabia. Nangauli wupu wa USAID ulije ofesi ku Niger, kweni boma la United States ndilo likupeleka ndalama zinandi ku Niger. Boma la U.S. likovwiraso comene pa nkhani ya vyakurya na HIV/AIDS. ===Administrative divisions=== [[File:Niger administrative divisions.svg|thumb|upright=2.25|Administrative divisions of Niger]] {{Main|Regions of Niger|Departments of Niger|Communes of Niger}} Charu cha Niger chili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa 7 na chigaŵa chimoza. Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika mu madipatimenti 36. Mazuŵa ghano, vigaŵa vyose 36 vya ku France vili kugaŵikana mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu chaka cha 2006 mukaŵa makomomu 265, kusazgapo makomomu gha mu misumba (Urban Communes: nga ni vigaŵa vya misumba yikuruyikuru), makomomu gha ku mizi (Rural Communes), mu vigaŵa ivyo muli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka na mapositi gha mu boma (Administrative Posts) mu vigaŵa vya mapopa panji vigaŵa vya ŵasilikari. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi mungasangika vikaya na malo ghakukhalako ŵanthu, apo mu vigaŵa vya mu misumba mungasangika vigaŵa viŵiri. Mu 2002, vigaŵa vya Niger vikasinthika mazina pakulondezga ndondomeko ya kusankhana vinthu ivyo vikamba mu 1998. Pakwamba, Niger yikagaŵikana mu vigaŵa 7, vigaŵa 36, na vigaŵa vinyake. Maofesi agha ghakaŵanga na ŵalaraŵalara awo ŵakasankhika na boma. Maofesi agha muzamughasintha kuti ghaŵe na makomiti agho ghazamusankhika mwademocracy pa vigaŵa vyose. Madera agho ghakaŵako pambere chaka cha 2002 chindafike (ghakazgoka vigaŵa) ni: * [[Agadez Region]] * [[Diffa Region]] * [[Dosso Region]] * [[Maradi Region]] * [[Tahoua Region]] * [[Tillabéri Region]] * [[Zinder Region]] * [[Niamey]] {{smaller|(capital district)}} ===Largest cities and towns=== {{Further|List of cities in Niger}} {{Largest cities | country = Niger | stat_ref = According to the 2012 Census<ref>{{cite web|url=http://citypopulation.de/Niger-Cities.html|title=Niger|access-date=2019-11-06}}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = Region | div_link = | city_1 = Niamey | div_1 = Niamey <!-- Capital District --> | pop_1 = 978,029 | img_1 = Niamey from the sky.jpg | city_2 = Maradi, Niger{{!}}Maradi | div_2 = Maradi Region{{!}}Maradi | pop_2 = 267,249 | img_2 = Village maradi niger.jpg | city_3 = Zinder | div_3 = Zinder Region{{!}}Zinder | pop_3 = 235,605 | img_3 = Zinder (6328886864).jpg | city_4 = Tahoua | div_4 = Tahoua Region{{!}}Tahoua | pop_4 = 117,826 | img_4 = Femmes rurales et taches ménageres.jpg | city_5 = Agadez | div_5 = Agadez Region{{!}}Agadez | pop_5 = 110,497 | city_6 = Arlit | div_6 = Agadez Region{{!}}Agadez | pop_6 = 78,651 | city_7 = Birni-N'Konni | div_7 = Tahoua Region{{!}}Tahoua | pop_7 = 63,169 | city_8 = Dosso, Niger{{!}}Dosso | div_8 = Dosso Region{{!}}Dosso | pop_8 = 58,671 | city_9 = Gaya, Niger{{!}}Gaya | div_9 = Dosso Region{{!}}Dosso | pop_9 = 45,465 | city_10 = Tessaoua | div_10 = Maradi Region{{!}}Maradi | pop_10 = 43,409 }} ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Niger}} [[File:Niger Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Niger exports, 2019]] [[File:Niamey night.jpg|thumb|[[Niamey]], Niger's capital and economic hub]] Vyakurya ivyo vikulimika mu Niger ni vyakurya vyakukhumbikwa comene, viŵeto, na uranium, vinthu ivyo vikusangika comene mu caru. Vinthu ivi ni njara, mapopa ghasazgikira, ŵanthu ŵakusazgikira na 2.9 peresenti, kweniso ŵanthu ŵakukhumba chomene uranium pa caru cose. Charu cha Niger chili na ndalama yimoza pera, ya CFA franc, ndipo chili na banki yimoza ya ku West Africa, ya Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), pamoza na vyaru vinyake 7 vya ku West African Monetary Union. Niger nayo njimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikukolerana pa nkhani ya malango gha vyamalonda mu Africa (OHADA).<ref name="ohada.com">{{cite web | title = OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa | url = http://www.ohada.com/index.php | access-date = 22 March 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090326033744/http://www.ohada.com/index.php | archive-date = 26 March 2009 | url-status = live}}</ref>[[File:Echangeur a Niamey la Nuit.jpg|thumb|Niamey at night]] Mu Disembala 2000, chalo cha Niger chikapokera ndalama zakuwombolera ngongoli za vyaru vikavu ivyo vili na ngongoli yikuru chomene (HIPC) kufuma ku wupu wa International Monetary Fund. Kuwombora ngongoli uko kwapelekeka mu ndondomeko ya HIPC kukuchepeska ngongoli izo Niger yikugwiliskira nchito pa chaka, ndipo ndalama zikuluwika pa vinthu nga ni vyaumoyo, masambiro gha pulayimale, kulimbana na HIV/AIDS, kunozga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa ku mizi, na vinyake ivyo vikovwira kuti ukavu uchepeko. Msika wa Dolé Mu Disembala 2005, boma la Niger likapokera ndalama zakukwana madola 86 miliyoni kufuma ku IMF. Pafupifupi hafu ya ndalama izo boma likupeleka zikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kukura kwa caru kunthazi kungazengeka pa kugwiliskira nchito mafuta, golide, malasha, na visulo vinyake. Mu vilimika vyasonosono apa, mitengo ya uranium yikukwera. Mu 2005, ku Nigeria kukaŵa njara na zombe, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 2.5 miliyoni ŵakasoŵa cakurya. == Chiwerengero cha ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Niger}} [[File:1997 275-15 young Wodaabe women.jpg|thumb|[[Fula people|Fulani]] women with traditional [[face tattoo|facial tattoos]] ]] Kuzakafika mu chaka cha 2021, ŵanthu ŵa ku Niger ŵakaŵa 25,252,722{{UN_Population|ref}}. Mu 1960, mu Niger mukaŵa ŵanthu 3.4 miliyoni, kweni sono ŵanthu ŵakusazgikira mwaluŵiro chomene.<ref name="ins-demographics">{{in lang|fr}} ''Annuaires Statistiques du Niger 2007–2011''. [http://www.stat-niger.org/statistique/file/Annuaires_Statistiques/AS2007-2011STRUCTUREPOPULATION.pdf Structure de la population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726234159/http://www.stat-niger.org/statistique/file/Annuaires_Statistiques/AS2007-2011STRUCTUREPOPULATION.pdf |date=26 July 2014}} (Niger's National Statistics Institute Report)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/niger-population/ |title=Niger Population |publisher=Worldometers |access-date=14 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814061458/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/niger-population/ |archive-date=14 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kukura kwa unandi wa ŵanthu uku, nkhukuru comene pa caru cose ndipo boma na mawupu ghanyake ghakufipa mtima comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu chigaŵa ichi mbachinyamata, ndipo 49.2% ŵali na vyaka 15 kukhilira pasi, ndipo 2.7% ŵali na vyaka vyakujumpha 65. Kafukufuku wa mu 2005 [which?] likati ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 800,000 (pafupifupi 8 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose) mu Niger ŵali mu wuzga.<ref>"[https://abcnews.go.com/International/Story?id=813618&page=1 The Shackles of Slavery in Niger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219150212/https://abcnews.go.com/International/Story?id=813618&page=1 |date=19 February 2009}}". ABC News. 3 June 2005.</ref><ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4250709.stm Born to be a slave in Niger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806031036/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4250709.stm |date=6 August 2017}}". BBC News. 11 February 2005.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1357_slavery_today/page3.shtml |title=BBC World Service &#124; Slavery Today |publisher=BBC |access-date=3 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113131049/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1357_slavery_today/page3.shtml |archive-date=13 November 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> ===Urban settlements=== {| class="wikitable" |+ Cities of Niger ! rowspan="2"| Rank !! rowspan="2" | City !! colspan="2" | Population !! rowspan="2" | Region |- ! 2001 Census<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|url=http://citypopulation.de/en/niger/cities/|title=Niger: Regions, Cities & Urban Centers - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information|website=citypopulation.de|access-date=7 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321050141/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/niger/cities/|archive-date=21 March 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>!! 2012 Census<ref name="auto2"/> |- |align=right | 1. || [[Niamey]] || align=right | 690,286 || align=right | 978,029 || [[Niamey]] |- |align=right | 2. || [[Maradi, Niger|Maradi]] || align=right | 148,017 || align=right | 267,249 || [[Maradi Region]] |- |align=right | 3. || [[Zinder]] || align=right | 170,575 || align=right | 235,605 || [[Zinder Region]] |- |align=right | 4. || [[Tahoua]] || align=right | 73,002 || align=right | 117,826 || [[Tahoua Region]] |- |align=right | 5. || [[Agadez]] || align=right | 77,060 || align=right | 110,497 || [[Agadez Region]] |- |align=right | 6. || [[Arlit]] || align=right | 68,835 || align=right | 78,651 || [[Agadez Region]] |- |align=right | 7. || [[Birni N'Konni]] || align=right | 44,663 || align=right | 63,169 || [[Tahoua Region]] |- |align=right | 8. || [[Dosso, Niger|Dosso]] || align=right | 43,561 || align=right | 58,671 || [[Dosso Region]] |- |align=right | 9. || [[Gaya, Niger|Gaya]] || align=right | 28,385 || align=right | 45,465 || [[Dosso Region]] |- |align=right | 10. || [[Tessaoua]] || align=right | 31,667 || align=right | 43,409 || [[Maradi Region]] |} ===Ethnic groups=== {{bar box |title=Ethnic Groups in Niger (2001 Census)<ref name="auto3">{{cite web|url=http://www.stat-niger.org/frame/demographie.htm|title=DEMOGRAPHIE|website=www.stat-niger.org|access-date=7 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922235514/http://www.stat-niger.org/frame/demographie.htm|archive-date=22 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Ethnic Groups |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Hausa|darkgreen|55.4}} {{bar percent|Zarma & Songhai|purple|21}} {{bar percent|Tuareg|red|9.3}} {{bar percent|Fula|black|8.5}} {{bar percent|Kanuri|orange|4.7}} {{bar percent|Toubou|green|0.4}} {{bar percent|Arab|darkblue|0.4}} {{bar percent|Gurma|white|0.4}} {{bar percent|Other|darkred|0.1}} }} {{Main|Hausa people|Zarma people|Tuareg people|Fula people|Kanuri people|Tubu people|Diffa Arabs|Gurma people}} Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ku Niger nako kuli ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Mu 2001, mitundu ya ku Niger yikaŵa: Hausa (55.4%), Zarma & Songhay (21%), Tuareg (9.3%), Fula (French: Peuls; Fula: Fulɓe) (8.5%), Kanuri Manga (4.7%), Tubu (0.4%), Arab (0.4%), Gourmantche (0.4%), ŵanyake (0.1%). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zarma na Songhay ndiwo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya Dosso, Tillabéri, na Niamey, ŵanthu ŵa ku Hausa ndiwo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya Zinder, Maradi, na Tahoua, ŵanthu ŵa ku Kanuri Manga ndiwo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya Diffa, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Tuareg ndiwo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya Agadez kumpoto kwa Niger.<ref name="auto3"/><ref name="ins-demographics" /> === Viyowoyero === {{Main| Languages of Niger}} Cifrenchi, ico cikapokeka kufuma ku nyengo ya ufumu, ndico ni ciyowoyero ca boma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasambira comene ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakuyowoya Cingelezi nga ni ciyowoyero caciŵiri, kweniso ni ciyowoyero ca boma. Niger ni membala wa wupu wa Organisation internationale de la Francophonie kwambira mu 1970. Charu cha Niger chili na viyowoyero 10 ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu charu ichi. Viyowoyero ivi ni Chiarabu, Chibuduma, Chifulfulde, Chigurmanchéma, Chihausa, Chikanuri, Chizarma na Chi Songhay, Chi Tamasheq, Chi Tassawaq, Chi Tebu. Ciyowoyero cilicose cikayowoyekanga na ŵanthu ŵa fuko ilo cikakolerananga nalo.<ref>Ethologue. [https://www.ethnologue.com/country/NE/languages Niger languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727114820/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/NE/languages |date=27 July 2018}}</ref><ref>Présidence de la République du Niger. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180727090206/https://www.presidence.ne/gographie/ Le Niger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727090206/https://www.presidence.ne/gographie/ |date=27 July 2018}}</ref> Viyowoyero viŵiri ivyo vikuyowoyeka comene ni Hausa na Zarma-Songhai, ndipo ni viyowoyero vyakwamba panji viŵiri ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu caru cose ici. ===Chisopo=== {{Main|Religion in Niger}} {{bar box |title=Religion in Niger |titlebar=#ddd |left1=religion |right1=percent<ref name="census" /> |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Islam|darkgreen|99.3}} {{bar percent|Christianity|purple|0.3}} {{bar percent|Animism|blue|0.2}} {{bar percent|Irreligious|black|0.1}} }} Charu cha Niger ntchambura kukolerana na chisopa ndipo boma na chisopa vikupambana. Ufulu wa kusopa ukuvikilirika na Ndime 30 ya dango la boma lenelili. Chisopa cha Chisilamu chikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E. ndipo ndicho chikusambizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Niger umo ŵakwenera kukhalira. Chisilamu ndicho ntchisopa chakumanyikwa chomene, ndipo ŵanthu 99.3% mu chigaŵa ichi ndiwo ŵakasopanga kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2012. Visopa viŵiri vikuruvikuru vya ku Niger ni Chikhristu, icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu 0.3%, na Chikhristu (chikhristu icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi), icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu 0.2%. Ŵamishonale ndiwo ŵakambiska cisopa ca Cikhristu mu caru ici mu nyengo iyo caru cikaŵa pasi pa Ŵafalansa. Ŵakhristu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku Europe na ku West Africa nawo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha. Mu virimika vyasonosono apa, ku Niger kwambaso kutambuzgika ŵanthu ŵanandi cifukwa ca cisopa. Wupu wa Ŵakhristu wakucemeka Open Doors, ukati mu caru ca Niger, kuŵa Mkhristu ni suzgo likuru comene, ndipo ico cikulongora kuti Ŵakhristu ŵakusuzgika comene mu caru ici. Kuyana na ŵimiliri ŵa magulu gha Ŵakhristu na Ŵasilamu ku Niger, ubwezi pakati pa Ŵasilamu na Ŵakhristu ngwakuzika comene.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=June 22, 2022 |title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Niger |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/niger/ |access-date=2022-09-18 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga kuti vyamoyo ni vyamoyo. Kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, Ŵasilamu ŵakafika yayi ku vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa caru ici, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanyake ku mizi ŵakang'anamuka mtima viŵi yayi. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, visopa vya Ŵabori na Ŵatubwi na Ŵawudabe ŵakucita viphikiro na maluso gha Ŵasilamu. Ŵanthu aŵa ni awo ŵakuyowoya chiHausa, Maouri (panji Azna, lizgu la chiHausa ilo likung'anamura "ŵambura kusopa Chiuta") ku Dogondoutci, kumwera na kumwera-kumanjiliro gha dazi, na awo ŵakuyowoya chiKanuri, chakuchemeka Manga, kufupi na Zinder, ndipo wose ŵakulondezga visambizgo vya chiHausa Maguzawa, ivyo vikaŵako pambere Chisilamu chindaŵeko. Kweniso ku cigaŵa ca kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici, kuli vigaŵa vichoko waka vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boudouma na Songhay. Mu virimika 10 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria awo Mbasilamu ŵakuleka kutemwana.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="Decalo79" /> ====Islam==== {{Main|Islam in Niger}} Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ku Niger mba Sunni, 7% mba Shi'a, 5% mba Ahmadiyya ndipo 20% mbanthu ŵa visopa vinyake.<ref name="pew">{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/the-worlds-muslims-full-report.pdf |title=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity |access-date=2 June 2014 |date=9 August 2012 |publisher=Pew Forum on Religious & Public life |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024125551/http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/the-worlds-muslims-full-report.pdf |archive-date=24 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="report">[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90113.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Niger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216213927/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90113.htm|date=16 December 2019}}. United States [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] (14 September 2007). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Chisilamu chikamba mu vigaŵa ivyo lero ni Niger mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 C.E., apo ufumu wa Songhai ukakuranga kumanjiliro gha dazi, kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb na Eguputo ŵakendanga kuzingilira virwa vya Sahara. Ŵantu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg ŵakaluta kumpoto, ndipo ŵakathereska vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kufuma ku ufumu wa Kanem ⁇ Bornu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Berber ŵambe kuchita vinthu vinyake. [[File:Niger, Filingué (25), street scene with mosque.jpg|thumb|Small mosque in [[Filingue|Filingué]] ]] Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vya Zarma na Hausa vikakhwaskika comene na gulu la Ŵafula la m'ma 1700 na 1900, comene-comene gulu la Sokoto Caliphate (mu caru ico lero ni Nigeria). Mazuŵa ghano, Ŵasilamu ŵakucita vinthu mwakuyana na visambizgo vya Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Niger, ndipo kanandi ŵakuchita vinthu mwakuyana na visambizgo vya Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Tijaniya, nangauli kuli magulu gha Ŵasilamu ŵachoko waka agho ghakukolerana na visambizgo vya Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Hammallism na Nyassist.<ref name=Decalo79>Decalo, James. ''Historical Dictionary of Niger''. Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, New Jersey&nbsp;– London, 1979. {{ISBN|0-8108-1229-0}}. pp. 156–7, 193–4.</ref> Mu virimika 30 ivyo vyajumpha, mu msumba wa Maradi, mukaŵa gulu la ŵanthu ŵa cisopo ca Salafi. Magulu ghacoko agha, agho ghakukolerana na magulu ghanyake gha ku Jos, Nigeria, ghakamanyikwa comene mu vilimika vya m'ma 1990 pa nyengo ya viwawa vya cisopo.<ref>Ben Amara, Ramzi. [http://www.sharia-in-africa.net/pages/staff/amara.php "The Development of the Izala Movement in Nigeria: Its Split, Relationship to Sufis and Perception of Sharia Implementation"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228012116/http://www.sharia-in-africa.net/pages/staff/amara.php |date=28 December 2016 }}. Research Summary (n.d.)</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090113202500/http://www.conflict-prevention.net/page.php?id=40&formid=73&action=show&surveyid=1 Summary for Shedrack Best's ''Nigeria, The Islamist Challenge, the Nigerian 'Shiite' Movement'', 1999] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113202500/http://www.conflict-prevention.net/page.php?id=40&formid=73&action=show&surveyid=1 |date=13 January 2009 }}; conflict-prevention.net.</ref> Nangauli vili nthena, kweni Niger ni boma ilo likusopa yayi, ndipo likulongozgeka na dango. Ŵanthu ŵa visopa vyakupambanapambana ŵakutemwana comene, ndipo visopa vya Cisilamu ivyo vikucitika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici, vikulekelera visopa vyakupambanapambana, ndipo palije kukanizga wanangwa wa munthu waliyose. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu caru ici, ŵanthu ŵakuguliska moŵa, nga ni uwo ukupangika mu Niger. ===Masambilo=== {{Main|Education in Niger}} [[File:Niger primary school MCC3500.jpg|thumb|A primary classroom in Niger]] Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kuŵazga mu charu cha Niger ntchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili pasi chomene pa charu chose.<ref name="ilab">[https://web.archive.org/web/20081205044526/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/niger.htm "Niger"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205044526/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/niger.htm|date=5 December 2008}}. ''2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor''. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2002). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Ku Niger, sukulu ya pulayimale njakukhumbikwa kwa vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza. Ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku sukulu za pulayimale yayi.<ref name="ilab" /> Mu 1997, ciŵelengero ca ŵana awo ŵakalembeka pa sukulu iyi cikaŵa 29.3 peresenti, ndipo mu 1996, ciŵelengero ca ŵana awo ŵakalembeka pa sukulu iyi cikaŵa 24.5 peresenti.<ref name="ilab" /> Pa ŵana 100 awo ŵamalizga sukulu ya pulayimare, pafupifupi 60 ni ŵasepuka, cifukwa ŵasungwana ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku sukulu kwa vilimika vicoko waka. Kanandi ŵana ŵakugwira nchito m'malo mwa kuluta ku sukulu, comene-comene pa nyengo ya kuseŵa panji kuvuna. Kanandi ŵana ŵa ku mpoto kwa caru ici ŵakuluta ku sukulu yayi.<ref name=ilab/> ===Umoyo=== {{Main|Health in Niger}} Ŵana awo ŵakufwa ku Niger (ŵana awo ŵakufwa na vyaka vyapakati pa 1 na 4) mbanandi chomene (248 pa 1,000) cifukwa ca suzgo la ulwari na kurya vyakurya vyambura kwenelera kwa ŵana ŵanandi mu caru ici. Kuyana na wupu wa Save the Children, pa caru cose capasi ŵana ŵanandi ŵakufwa ku Niger.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jeff |last=Green |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/HEALTH/parenting/05/08/mothers.index/index.html |title=U.S. has second worst newborn death rate in modern world, report says |publisher=CNN |date=10 May 2006 |access-date=3 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209065002/http://www.cnn.com/2006/HEALTH/parenting/05/08/mothers.index/index.html |archive-date=9 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:HOPITAL DE REFERENCE DE MARADI.jpg|thumb|Maradi Reference Hospital]] Niger nayo yili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi (6,49 awo ŵakubabika na mwanakazi yumoza kuyana na ivyo vikalembeka mu 2017). Ichi chapangiska kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi hafu (49,7%) ŵa ku Niger ŵaŵe na vyaka 15 kukhilira pasi mu 2020. Pa vyaru vyose, charu cha Niger ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene awo ŵakufwa na nthenda iyi. Pa ŵanthu 100,000 awo ŵakubabika, 820 ŵakufwa. Mu 2006, pa ŵanthu 100,000, pakaŵa ŵadokotala ŵatatu na manesi 22.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angellite.org.uk/where-we-work.html|title=Niger|access-date=20 May 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123142319/http://www.angellite.org.uk/where-we-work.html|archive-date=23 November 2011}}</ref> Kuyana na umo vinthu viliri pa caru cose, maji ghakumwa ghakusoŵa, ndipo pali mphambano yikuru comene pakati pa mizi na mizi. Niger yili pa malo gha pasi chomene pa UN Human Development Index. Pafupifupi ŵanthu 92 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakukhala ku mizi mu chigaŵa cha Tillabéri, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakusoŵa maji ghakumwa, chomenechomene mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, apo nyengo zinyake maji ghakukhira chomene.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Fresh water in Niger undercuts violence, as well as offering better living conditions|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/niger-water-development|access-date=2021-05-26|website=European Investment Bank|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Water, Sanitation and Hygiene|url=https://www.unicef.org/niger/water-sanitation-and-hygiene|access-date=2021-05-26|website=www.unicef.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Delivering water and sanitation services in Niger: challenges and results|url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/water/delivering-water-and-sanitation-services-niger-challenges-and-results|access-date=2021-05-26|website=blogs.worldbank.org|language=en}}</ref> Pa ŵanthu 30,000 awo ŵakukhala mu tawuni ya Téra, kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa tawuni ya Niamey, kufupi na mphaka ya Burkina Faso, 40 pa ŵanthu 100 ndiwo ŵali na maji ghakukwana.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Niger - OECD|url=https://www.oecd.org/countries/niger/|access-date=2021-05-26|website=www.oecd.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Development Projects : Niger Basin Water Resources Development and Sustainable Ecosystems Management Project - P093806|url=https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P093806|access-date=2021-05-26|website=World Bank|language=en}}</ref> Wupu wakuwona vya maji ku Niger, wa Société de Patrimoine des Eaux du Niger (SPEN), ukazenga migodi 10 na malo ghakupwanthirapo maji mu 2018 kuti upeleke maji ghakumwa ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Téra na mu vigaŵa vyapafupi. Pakati pajumpha cilimika cimoza, maji ghakamara, ndipo ŵakakhumba kumalizga mulimo wa kunozga maji.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Niger: EIB finances drinking water supply project (EUR 21m)|url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2018-099-la-bei-finance-un-projet-dalimentation-en-eau-potable-au-niger-21-meur|access-date=2021-05-26|website=European Investment Bank|language=en}}</ref> Na wovwiri wa ndalama izo boma la Netherlands likapeleka, wupu wa European Investment Bank (EIB) na wupu wakuwona vya maji ku Niger ŵakuteŵetera lumoza kuti ŵasange nthowa zakumazgira suzgo la maji. Banki ya pa caru cose yikati Niger njimoza mwa vyaru 18 vya kumwera kwa Sahara mu Africa ivyo vikusuzgika comene. Banki ya ku Europe yikasunganga ndalama ku vigaŵa ivi. Banki ya European Investment Bank na Niger Water Authority ŵakuwona nthowa ziŵiri zakumazgira suzgo la maji ku Téra. Nthowa yakwamba njakuti ŵanozge thanki la maji ilo lili kufupi na tawuni. Nthowa yinyake njakuti maji gha mu Mlonga wa Niger, uwo uli pa mtunda wa makilomita ghakujumpha 100 kumafumiro gha dazi, ghatore na kugwiliskira nchito. Misumba iyo yili pakati pa Téra na Mlonga wa Niger nayo yiŵenge na maji ghakunyang'amira. Banki ya European Investment Bank yizamuwonaso umo ŵangaponoskera ndalama zawo pa nkhani ya magesi.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Fresh water in Niger undercuts violence, as well as offering better living conditions |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/niger-water-development |access-date=2021-05-18 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref> ==Mwambo== {{Main|Culture of Niger}} [[File:Zinder sultans horsemen festival.jpg|thumb|Horsemen at the traditional [[Ramadan]] festival at the [[Sultanate of Damagaram|Sultan's]] Palace in the [[Hausa people|Hausa]] city of [[Zinder]] ]] [[File:Ancient home zinder niger.jpg|thumb|A traditional home in [[Zinder]] ]] Chikhalidwe cha ku Niger chikupambana chomene, ndipo uwu mbukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakakolerana na Ŵafalansa. Charu icho lero ni Niger chikapangika kufuma ku vigaŵa vinayi vya mitheto iyo yikaŵako pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kukhazikiskana: Zarma na Songhai ndiwo ŵakalamuliranga chigodobu cha Mlonga wa Niger kumwera kwakumanjiliro gha dazi; chigaŵa chakumpoto cha Hausaland, icho chikaŵa na vigaŵa ivyo vikalimbananga na Sokoto Caliphate, ndipo chikazingilizga mphaka ya kumwera na Nigeria; chigaŵa cha Nyanja ya Chad na Kaouar kumanjiliro gha dazi, uko kukaŵanga ŵalimi ŵa Kanuri na ŵaliska ŵa Toubou awo kale ŵakaŵa mu Ufumu wa Kanem ⁇ Bornu; ndiposo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapiri gha Aïr na Sahara kumpoto. Wose aŵa, pamoza na mafuko ghanyake ghacoko nga ni Wodaabe Fula, ŵakiza na mitheto yawo ku Niger. Nangauli maboma ghakupambana-pambana ghayezgayezga kuti ghaŵe na mitheto yakuyana, kweni ivi vikucitika pacoko waka, cifukwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Niger ŵali na mitheto yawo na yawo, kweniso cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Niger nga ni Hausa, Tuareg na Kanuri ŵali mu mitundu yikuru iyo yikunjira mu caru caŵene. M'ma 1990, boma la Niamey na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Zarma ndiwo ŵakendeskanga vinthu mu msumba uwu. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku vigaŵa vya ku mphaka kwa Hausa pakati pa Birni-N'Konni na Maine-Soroa, kanandi ŵakutolera kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ŵa ku Hausaland mu Nigeria kuluska Niamey. Pakati pa 1996 na 2003, ŵanthu 30 pa ŵanthu 100 ndiwo ŵakasambiranga sukulu ya pulayimare, ndipo 36 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵakaŵa ŵanalume, ndipo 25 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi. Masambiro ghakusazgikira ghakucitika mu madrasa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/Niger_statistics.html |title=At a glance: Niger |access-date=22 June 2007 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130170853/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/Niger_statistics.html |archive-date=30 November 2009 }}</ref> ===Festivals and cultural events=== ====Guérewol festival==== {{Main|Guérewol}} [[File:1997 274-5 Gerewol.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Ŵanthu awo ŵakwimba Guérewol ŵakwimba dansi la Guérewol, mu 1997.]] Chikondwerero cha Guérewol ndi mwambo wachikhalidwe wa Wodaabe womwe umachitika ku Abalak m'chigawo cha Tahoua kapena In'Gall m'chigawo cha Agadez. Ni mwambo wa cilimika cilicose uwo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Wodaabe (Fula) ŵa ku Niger ŵakucita. Pa ciphikiro ici, ŵawukirano ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vyakutowa comene na kujitozga kuti ŵajitozge kuyana na mitheto yawo, ŵakwimba sumu na kuvina, ndipo ŵakukhumba kuti ŵasungwana awo ŵakukhumba kutorana nawo ŵaŵatemwenge. Ciphikiro ca Guérewol cikukondweska ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana ndipo cikaŵa mu mafilimu na mu magazini ghakumanyikwa comene nga ni National Geographic. ====Cure Salée festival==== {{Main|Cure Salee}} "La Cure salée" (Chingelezi: Salt Cure) ni chiphikiro icho chikuchitika chaka chilichose ku In'Gall mu chigaŵa cha Agadez. Kwa mazuŵa ghatatu, pa ciphikiro ici pakuŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg awo ŵakwenda pa ngamila, ndipo pamanyuma pake pakuŵa viphalizgano vya ngamila na mahaci, kwimba sumu, kuvina, na kuphalirana nkhani. ===Media=== {{Main|Media of Niger}} Kuumaliro kwa m'ma 1990, ku Niger kukaŵa nkhani zinandi. Pambere boma la Third Republic lindaŵeko, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakaŵa na mwaŵi wa kupulikizga waka nkhani za mu nyuzipepara izo zikaŵa mu mawoko gha boma. Sono mu Niamey muli manyuzipepara ghanandi na magazini; ghanyake, nga ni Le Sahel, ghakulembeka na boma, apo ghanyake ghakususka boma.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.afdevinfo.com/htmlreports/ng82.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091213180757/http://www.afdevinfo.com/htmlreports/ng82.html|url-status=dead|title=Media in Niger: the African Development Information Database|archivedate=13 December 2009}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011302/http://www.gret.org/parma/uk2/ressource/edm/pdf/niger.pdf Medias Status Report: Niger] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304011302/http://www.gret.org/parma/uk2/ressource/edm/pdf/niger.pdf |date=4 March 2009 }}. Summary document written for the African Media Partners Network. Guy-Michel Boluvi, Les Echos du Sahel Niamey, January 2001.</ref> Wayilesi ndiyo njakuzirwa comene, cifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala ku mizi ŵalije ndalama zakugulira TV, ndipo cifukwa ca kuleka kuŵazga na kuŵazga, mabuku ghakulembeka ghakutondeka kuŵa cakupharazgira ŵanthu ŵanandi. Padera pa wayilesi ya boma ya ORTN, pali wayilesi zinayi za boma izo zikupanga wayilesi zakukwana 100. Zitatu mwa izo - Anfani Group, Sarounia na Tenere - ni masiteshoni gha FM gha malonda mu misumba yikuruyikuru. Kweniso pali ma wayilesi ghakujumpha 80 agho ghakupharazga mu vigaŵa vyose 7 vya mu charu ichi. Wupu wa Comite de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité (CPRP) ndiwo ukwendeska ma wayilesi agha. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa CPRP ŵakughanaghana kuti ma wayilesi agho ghakupharazga ku vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana ghakupharazga ku ŵanthu pafupifupi 7.6 miliyoni, panji kuti 73% ya ŵanthu wose (2005). Padera pa ma wayilesi gha ku Niger, ma wayilesi gha ku Hausa gha BBC ghakupulikizgikaso mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu caru ici, comene kumwera, kufupi na mphaka na Nigeria. Radio France Internationale nayo yikupharazga mu ciyowoyero ca Cifurenci kwizira mu wayilesi ya Satellite. Tenere FM nayo yili na wayilesi ya pa caru cose ya zina leneilo. Nangauli mu caru cose muli wanangwa, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba nkhani mu caru ici ŵakuyowoya kuti kanandi ŵakucicizgika na ŵalara ŵa boma. Boma likupeleka ndalama zakwendeskera makina gha ORTN ku boma, ndipo likupeleka ndalama izi kwizira mu ndalama izo boma likulipira pa ndalama za magesi, kweniso kwizira mu ndalama izo boma likupeleka. Bungwe la Conseil Supérieur de Communications ndilo likulongozga ntchito iyi. Bungwe ili likakhazikiskika kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1990, ndipo kufuma mu 2007, Daouda Diallo ndiyo wakulilongozga. Magulu gha wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakususka boma kufuma mu chaka cha 1996 kuti likugwiliskira nchito malango na ŵapolisi kuti likhizge ŵanthu awo ŵakususka boma.<ref name=cpj2006>[http://cpj.org/2007/02/attacks-on-the-press-2006-niger.php Attacks on the press: Niger 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920053522/http://www.cpj.org/2007/02/attacks-on-the-press-2006-niger.php |date=20 September 2011 }}. Committee to Protect Journalists (2007). Retrieved 23 February 2009.</ref><ref>[http://asiapacific.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR430012007?open&of=ENG-2F5 Niger: Emergency legislation infringes non-derogable human rights] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211134003/http://asiapacific.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR430012007?open&of=ENG-2F5 |date=11 February 2009 }}. AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL Public Statement. AI Index: AFR 43/001/2007 (Public Document) Press Service Number: 181/07. 21 September 2007.</ref><ref name="issa04">[https://web.archive.org/web/20131109234423/http://www.panos-ao.org/ipao/spip.php?article39 Niger : Conseil de presse. Les journalistes refusent la mise sous tutelle] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510075744/http://www.panos-ao.org/ipao/spip.php?article39|date=10 May 2011}}. Ousseini Issa. Médi@ctions n°37, Institut PANOS Afrique de l'Ouest. March 2004.</ref><ref name="ussd9506">U.S. Department of State. Report on Human Rights Practices&nbsp;– Niger. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090616143410/http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/democracy/hrp_index.html 1993–1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616143410/http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/democracy/hrp_index.html|date=16 June 2009}} to [https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78750.htm 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421204423/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78750.htm|date=21 April 2020}}.</ref> ==Wonaniso== {{Portal|Niger}} * [[Outline of Niger]] ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} ===Notes=== {{Notelist}} ==Vyakulemba== {{Refbegin}} * Decalo, Samuel. ''Historical Dictionary of Niger'', 3rd ed. (Scarecrow Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-8108-3136-8}})&nbsp;– a comprehensive collection of Niger topics * [[CIA World Factbook]] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032003/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/niger/ entry on Niger]) * [[US State Department]] {{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm |title=Niger |publisher=State.gov |date=3 February 2010 |access-date=3 May 2010 |archive-date=22 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194527/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm |url-status=live }} ''Note: This article contains material from the State Department website.'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091130170853/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/Niger_statistics.html Unicef Niger statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130170853/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/Niger_statistics.html |date=30 November 2009 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050929053656/http://www.nsu.newschool.edu/internationalaffairs/papers/thiam.pdf Unesco manuscript on child work and schooling in Niger] {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{sisterlinks|voy=yes}} * {{Official website|http://www.presidence.ne}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032003/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/niger/ Niger]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085340/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/niger.htm Niger] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Niger}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13943662 Niger profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Niger}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=NE Key Development Forecasts for Niger] from [[International Futures]] '''Trade''' * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/NER/Year/2012/Summary 2012 Niger Trade Summary Statistics] {{Niger topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}} {{African Union}} {{La Francophonie}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|16|N|8|E|display=title}} [[Category:Niger| ]] [[Category:Saharan countries]] [[Category:West African countries]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1960]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:1960 disestablishments in France]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] t6dp7nvwxych8qqkxrdlnlsv1bo6lnj 0 6951 122365 122170 2026-09-25T02:18:35Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 36 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122365 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa}} {{Redirect|Ruanda}} {{Pp-move|small=yes}} {{Featured article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}} {{EngvarB|date=July 2022}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Rwanda | common_name = Rwanda | native_name = {{nowrap|{{native name|rw|Repubulika y'u Rwanda}}<br />{{native name|fr|République du Rwanda}}<br />{{native name|sw|Jamhuri ya Rwanda}}}} | image_flag = Flag of Rwanda.svg | alt_flag = The flag of Rwanda: blue, yellow and green stripes with a yellow sun in top right corner | image_coat = Coat of arms of Rwanda.svg | alt_coat = The seal of Rwanda: central tribal devices, surmounted on a cog wheel and encircled by a square knot | symbol_type = Coat of arms | national_motto = "Ubumwe, Umurimo, Gukunda Igihugu" <br />(English: "Unity, Work, Patriotism")<br />(French: "Unité, Travail, Patriotisme")<br />(Swahili: "Umoja, Kazi, Uzalendo") | national_anthem = "{{lang|rw|[[Rwanda Nziza]]|italic=no}}"<br />({{Lang-en|"Beautiful Rwanda"}})<br /><div style="position: relative; top:0.2em;">{{center|[[File:Hymne National du Rwanda.ogg]]}}</div> | image_map = Location Rwanda AU Africa.svg | alt_map = | map_caption = {{map caption |countryprefix= |location_color=black |region=Africa |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[African Union]] |subregion_color=light blue}} | image_map2 = | capital = [[Kigali]] | coordinates = {{Coord|1|56|38|S|30|3|34|E|type:city(1,100,000)_region:RW-01|display=inline}} | largest_city = Kigali | official_languages = {{unbulleted list |[[Kinyarwanda]] | <!--PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE FRENCH WITHOUT DISCUSSION ON THE TALK PAGE--> |[[French language|French]] |[[English language|English]] |[[Swahili language|Swahili]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{ublist |99% [[Banyarwanda]]|—85% [[Hutu]] |—14% [[Tutsi]] |—1% [[Twa]]|1% Others<ref name="UN">{{cite web|title=Rwanda: A Brief History of the Country|url=http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/education/rwandagenocide.shtml|website=United Nations|access-date=4 April 2018|archive-date=24 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224221744/http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/education/rwandagenocide.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> }} | ethnic_groups_year = | demonym = {{hlist|Rwandan|Rwandese}} | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] under an [[authoritarian government]]<ref name="Thomson2018">{{cite book | author = Susan Thomson | date = 1 January 2018 | title = [[Rwanda: From Genocide to Precarious Peace]] | publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wb1TDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189 189]– | isbn = 978-0-300-19739-6 | oclc = 1002129858}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matfess |first1=Hilary |title=Rwanda and Ethiopia: Developmental Authoritarianism and the New Politics of African Strong Men |journal=African Studies Review |date=2015 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=181–204 |doi=10.1017/asr.2015.43|s2cid=143013060 }}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of Rwanda|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Paul Kagame]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Rwanda|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Édouard Ngirente]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Rwanda|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Senate (Rwanda)|Senate]] | lower_house = {{nowrap|[[Chamber of Deputies (Rwanda)|Chamber of Deputies]]}} | sovereignty_type = [[History of Rwanda|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Kingdom of Rwanda]] | established_date1 = 15th century | established_event2 = Part of [[German East Africa]] | established_date2 = 1897–1916 | established_event3 = Part of [[Ruanda-Urundi]] | established_date3 = 1916–1962 | established_event4 = [[Rwandan Revolution]] | established_date4 = 1959–1961 | established_event5 = [[Republic of Rwanda|Republic declared]] | established_date5 = 1 July 1961 | established_event6 = Independence from [[Belgium]] | established_date6 = 1 July 1962 | established_event7 = Admitted to the [[United Nations|UN]] | established_date7 = 18 September 1962 | established_event8 = [[Constitution of Rwanda|Current constitution]] | established_date8 = 26 May 2003 | area_km2 = 26,338 | area_rank = 144th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 10,169 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 5.3 | population_estimate = | population_census = 13,246,394{{sfn|National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda|2014|p=3}} | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 76th | population_census_year = 2022 | population_density_km2 = 470 | population_density_sq_mi = 1,217 | population_density_rank = 22nd | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $37.5 billion <ref name="IMFWEORW">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 139th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $2,836<ref name="IMFWEORW"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 170th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $12.1 billion<ref name="IMFWEORW"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 148th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $912<ref name="IMFWEORW"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 172th | Gini = 43.7 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2016 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = {{sfn|World Bank (XII)}} | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.534 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 165th | currency = [[Rwandan franc]] | currency_code = RWF | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]] | utc_offset = +2 | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+250]] | cctld = [[.rw]] | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |93.8% [[Christianity]] |3.0% [[Irreligion|No religion]] |2.2% [[Islam in Rwanda|Islam]] |1.0% Others<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/rwanda#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016|title=Religions in Rwanda &#124; PEW-GRF|website=globalreligiousfutures.org}}</ref>}} }} '''Rwanda''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=Rwanda pronunciation.ogg|r|u|ˈ|ɑː|n|d|ə|,_|-|ˈ|æ|n|-}}; {{lang-rw|u Rwanda}} {{IPA-rw|u.ɾɡwaː.nda||Rwanda (rw) pronunciation.ogg}}), mwalamulo, '''Charu cha Rwanda''',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Government of Rwanda: Welcome to Rwanda|url=https://www.gov.rw/|access-date=22 February 2021|archive-date=23 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223181954/https://www.gov.rw/|url-status=live}}</ref>ntcharu icho chili ku chigaŵa cha [[Great Rift Valley]] ku Central Africa, uko chigaŵa cha [[African Great Lakes]] chikukumana na kumwera kwa [[Africa]]. Charu cha Rwanda chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Equator]], ndipo chili kufupi na [[Uganda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Burundi]], na [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]. Charu ichi chili pachanya chomene, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakucichema kuti "charu cha tumapiri 1,000". Mu charu ichi muli mphepo yakuzizima chomene, ndipo chaka chilichose kukuŵa nyengo ziŵiri za vula na nyengo ziŵiri za chilangalanga. Charu ichi ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu Africa. Msumba wake ukuru ni Kigali. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakaŵa awo ŵakalondezganga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzgoka mafuko, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakazgoka maufumu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ufumu unyake uwo ukalongozgekanga na [[Themba Gihanga]], ukakolerana na vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na charu cha Rwanda. Ufumu wa Rwanda ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza kwambira pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ndipo mafumu gha Ŵatutsi ghakatimbanizganga ŵanyawo, na kuŵika mazaza ghawo paŵekha, kweniso ŵakakanizganga Ŵahutu. Mu 1897, caru ca [[Germany]] cikamba kulamulira caru ca Rwanda, ico cikaŵa cigaŵa ca German East Africa. Vyaru vyose viŵiri vya ku Europe vikawusa kwizira mwa fumu ya ku Rwanda ndipo vikalutilira kovwira Ŵatutsi. Mu 1959, Ŵahutu ŵakagaluka. Ŵakakoma Ŵatutsi ŵanandi ndipo ŵakambiska boma lakujiyimira paŵekha la Ŵahutu mu 1962, ilo likaŵa na pulezidenti Grégoire Kayibanda. Mu 1973, ŵasilikari ŵakamuwuskapo Kayibanda na kwiza na Juvénal Habyarimana ku boma. Mu 1990, gulu la Tutsi lakucemeka Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) likambiska nkhondo. Habyarimana wakakomeka mu Epulero 1994. Nkhondo ya ku Rwanda iyo yikatora mazuŵa 100, yikapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano. Gulu la RPF likamalizga kukoma ŵanthu mwa nkhondo mu Julayi 1994. Nangauli vimbundi vikuru yayi mu charu cha Rwanda pakuyaniska na vyaru vinyake, kweni charu ichi chili na vimbundi vinandi chomene pa charu chose. Ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi mbawukirano ndipo ŵanandi ŵakukhala ku mizi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Rwanda ŵakufuma ku fuko limoza pera, Ŵarwanda. Ndipouli, mu gulu ili muli magulu ghatatu: Ŵahutu, Ŵatutsi, na Ŵatwa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Twa ŵakukhala mu nkhorongo ndipo kanandi ŵakuwoneka kuti mbana ŵa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu cha Rwanda. Chikhristu ndicho ntchisopa chikuru chomene mu charu ichi. Chiyowoyero chikuru mu charu ichi ni Chikinyarwanda. Vyaru vya ku Rwanda vikuthemba pa ulimi. Mu Rwanda, khofi na tiyi ni vyakurya vikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Ntchito ya kwendakwenda yikukura mwaluŵiro comene ndipo sono ndiyo yikupangiska ndalama zinandi mu caru ici. Charu ichi chili mu wupu wa African Union, United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, COMESA, OIF na East African Community. == Mbili == {{Main|History of Rwanda|German East Africa|Ruanda-Urundi}} Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Rwanda ŵakamba kukhala mu nyengo ya chiwuvi chaumaliro, mu nyengo ya Neolithic, kuzingilizga chaka cha 8000 B.C.E., panji mu nyengo ya nyengo ya chinyezi iyo yikalondezganga, kuzingilizga chaka cha 3000 B.C.E. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga vikulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵa ŵalovi na ŵakuwunjika viswaswa mu nyengo ya malibwe, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha mu nyengo ya Iron Age.{{sfn|Dorsey|1994|p=36}}{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=45}}Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Twa, awo ŵakukhala mu charu cha Rwanda mazuŵa ghano. Pakati pa 700 B.C.E. na 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakaluta ku Rwanda, ndipo ŵakamba kulima makuni. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Twa awo ŵakakhalanga mu nkhorongo ŵakataya malo ghanandi agho ŵakakhalanga. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵali na vigomezgo vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakasamukiranga ku vyaru vinyake. Fundo yinyake njakuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakendanga pachokopachoko ndipo ŵakendanga mwakukhazikika. Kuyana na fundo iyi, mphambano pakati pa Ŵahutu na Ŵatutsi yikaŵako pamanyuma ndipo yikaŵa ya mtundu yayi kweni ya ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake.{{sfn|Chrétien|2003|p=69}}{{sfn|Shyaka|pp=10–11}} [[File:Rwanda Nyanza Mwami Palace.jpg|thumb|left|A reconstruction of the ancient King's Palace at [[Nyanza, Rwanda|Nyanza]]]] Mtundu wakwambilira wa ŵanthu mu chigaŵa ichi ukaŵa mbumba (ubwoko). Ŵakaŵa ŵa mafuko ghanandi, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Ŵahutu, Ŵatutsi, na Ŵatwa. Kwambira mu ma 1500, mafuko ghakamba kuzgoka maufumu. Ufumu unyake, uwo ukaŵa pasi pa Themba Gihanga, ukapanga vigaŵa vinandi ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na ufumu wa Rwanda. Kuzakafika mu 1700, mu caru ico sono cikucemeka Rwanda mukaŵa maufumu pafupifupi 8. Limoza mwa maufumu agha ni Ufumu wa Rwanda, uwo ukawusikanga na mbumba ya Tutsi Nyiginya. Ufumu uwu ukafika paheni chomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo Themba Kigeli Rwabugiri likawusanga. Rwabugiri wakathereska vigaŵa vichoko waka, wakasazgirako ufumu wake kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto, ndipo wakambiska vyakusintha mu boma. Mu vigaŵa ivi mukaŵa ubuhake, umo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi ŵakapelekanga viŵeto ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hutu panji Tutsi kuti ŵaŵateŵetere. Cifukwa ca kusintha kwa Rwabugiri, pakaŵa mphindano pakati pa Ŵahutu na Ŵatutsi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Twa ŵakakhalanga makora kuluska mu nyengo iyo Ufumu ukaŵa kuti undaŵeko, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakayamba kuvina mu nyumba ya ufumu, kweni unandi wawo ukalutilira kuchepa.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=6}} Pa ungano wa ku Berlin mu 1884, ufumu wa Germany ukazomerezga kuti malo agha ghaŵe chigaŵa cha German East Africa. Mu 1894, Gustav Adolf von Götzen wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kwambuka charu chose cha Rwanda. Mu 1897, caru ca Germany cikamba kukhala mu caru ca Rwanda cifukwa ca kukolerana na fumu, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti caru ici ciŵe na mazaza pa caru ici. Ŵachijeremani ŵakasintha yayi umo vinthu vikaŵira mu charu, kweni ŵakakhozgeranga themba na ŵamazaza awo ŵakaŵapo kale. Ŵalongozgi ŵa charu cha Belgium ŵakanjilira mu vyaru vya Rwanda na Burundi mu 1916, mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ndipo mu 1922, ŵakamba kuwusa vyaru vya Rwanda na Burundi nga ni gulu la vyaru ivyo vikacemekanga Ruanda-Urundi. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany na Belgium, ŵakati ŵamba kugalukira boma la Britain, ŵakamba kuwona kuti Ŵahutu na Ŵahutu mbakupambana. Mu 1935, caru ca Belgium cikamba kupanga makadi ghakumanyikwa nagho munthu waliyose uyo ni Mututsi, Muhutu, Twa, panji munthu uyo wali na cikaya. Nangauli kale Ŵahutu awo ŵakaŵa ŵasambazi chomene ŵakazomerezgekanga kuŵa Ŵatutsi, kweni makadi agha ghakatondeskanga ŵanthu kusama.{{sfn|Gourevitch|2000|pp=56–57}} [[File:Juvénal Habyarimana (1980).jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Juvénal Habyarimana]], president from 1973 to 1994|alt=Photograph of President Juvénal Habyarimana arriving with entourage at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, USA on 25 September 1980.]] Belgium yikalutilira kuwusa Ruanda-Urundi (uko Rwanda ukaŵa kumpoto kwake) nga ni cigaŵa ca UN pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose.{{sfn|United Nations (II)}}{{sfn|United Nations (III)}}Vinthu vikasintha chomene pakati pa Ŵatutsi, awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti charu chiŵe na wanangwa, na Ŵahutu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti charu chiŵe na wanangwa. Mu 1961, ŵanthu ŵa ku Belgium awo ŵakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Ŵahutu, ŵakacita phangano la ŵanthu wose. Charu cha Rwanda chikapatukana na charu cha Burundi ndipo chikaŵa pa mtende pa Julayi 1, 1962. Kufuma apo, pakaŵaso nkhaza zinandi, ndipo Ŵakututsi awo ŵakaŵa ku wuzga ŵakaŵawukira kufuma ku vyaru vyapafupi. Mu 1973, Juvénal Habyarimana wakatora mazaza mwa kuwukira boma. Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kusankhana mitundu, kweni vinthu vikendanga makora pa nkhani ya vyachuma ndipo nkhaza izo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi ŵakachitiranga zikakwera. Ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Twa ŵakalutilira kukhala ku mizi, ndipo mu 1990 boma likaŵachimbizga mu nkhorongo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Rwanda ŵakakwera kufuma pa 1.6 miliyoni mu 1934 kufika pa 7.1 miliyoni mu 1989, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe mpikisano wa malo.{{sfn|Prunier|1995|p=4}} [[File:Nyamata Memorial Site 13.jpg|thumb|left|Human skulls at the [[Nyamata]] Genocide Memorial]] Mu 1990, gulu lakugaluka lakucemeka Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi, likapoka caru ca kumpoto kwa Rwanda kufuma ku Uganda, ndipo likambiska nkhondo ya pa cikaya. Wupu uwu ukasuska boma la Ŵahutu cifukwa ca kutondeka kusinthiska vinthu na kumazga masuzgo gha ŵanthu aŵa. Pa nkhondo iyi, palije chigaŵa icho chikaŵa na mazaza, kweni mu 1992 mazaza gha Habyarimana ghakachepa. Kulekeska nkhondo kukamara pa 6 Epulero 1994 apo ndege ya Habyarimana yikadumulika kufupi na chiŵanja cha ndege cha Kigali, ndipo wakafwa. Kuwiskira pasi ndege iyi ndiko kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Rwanda ŵakomeke. Mu mazuŵa pafupifupi 100, ŵanthu pakati pa 500,000 na 1,000,000 ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi na Ŵahutu awo ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyuyura ŵakakomeka na boma la kanyengo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Twa nawo ŵakakomeka, nangauli ŵakakomeka mwakudunjika yayi.{{sfn|UNPO|2008|loc=History}} Gulu la Tutsi la RPF likambaso nkhondo, ndipo likamba kuwusa charu chose mu mwezi wa Julayi. Vyaru vinandi vikaleka kovwirapo pa nkhondo iyi, cifukwa vyaru vikuruvikuru vikakhumbanga yayi kukhozga ŵasilikari ŵa UN. Apo RPF yikamba kuwusa, Ŵahutu pafupifupi mamiliyoni ghaŵiri ŵakacimbilira ku vyaru vyapafupi, comenecomene Zaire, cifukwa ca kopa kuwezgera nduzga. Mu charu cha Rwanda, pakaŵa mtende na urunji, ndipo khoti la International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) likakhazikiskika. Kufuma mu 2000, chuma cha ku Rwanda, unandi wa ŵalendo, na Human Development Index vikukura mwaluŵiro; pakati pa 2006 na 2011 ukavu ukakhira kufuma pa 57% kufika pa 45%, apo umoyo ukafuma pa 46.6 mu 2000 kufika pa 65.4 mu 2021.{{sfn|CIA (I)}} == Ndale na boma == {{Main|Politics of Rwanda|Foreign relations of Rwanda|Rwanda Defence Force}} [[File:Paul Kagame 2014.jpg|thumb|upright|Rwandan President [[Paul Kagame]]|alt=Photograph of Paul Kagame, taken in Busan, South Korea, in 2014]] Pulezidenti wa Rwanda ni mutu wa boma, ndipo wali na mazaza ghakupambanapambana kusazgapo kupanga ndondomeko pamoza na Kabinete ya Rwanda,{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 82}} kugwiliskira nchito mazaza gha lusungu, kulongozga ŵasilikari, kuyowoyeskana na kuzomerezga mapangano, kusaina malango gha pulezidenti, na kupharazga nkhondo panji suzgo. Pa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri vilivyose, pulezidenti wakusankhika na ŵanthu, ndipo wakwimika nduna yikuru na mamembara ghanyake ghose gha nduna{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 82}}. Pulezidenti wa sono ni Paul Kagame, uyo wakamba kuwusa apo Pasteur Bizimungu, uyo wakaŵapo pambere iyo wandawuse, wakafumapo mu 2000. Pamanyuma, Kagame wakathereska mavoti mu 2003 na 2010. Nangauli mawupu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakususka kuti pa mavoti agha "pakaŵa nkhaza zinandi za ndyali na kukanizga wanangwa wa kuyowoya". Ndime 101 ya dango la chalo iyi yikaŵa kuti yikukanizga kuti pulezidenti wangakhalanga nyengo ziŵiri pera, kweni ivi vikasinthika mu 2015 apo pakaŵa fundo ya ŵanthu wose. Kwizira mu kusintha kwa dango ili, Kagame wangalutilira kuŵa pulezidenti mpaka mu 2034. Kagame wakasankhika kachitatu mu 2017 na mavoti 98.79%.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 82}} Ndondomeko iyi yikapokelereka mu 2003, ndipo yikanjira mu malo mwa ndondomeko iyo yikaŵa mu malo mwa 1994. Ndondomeko iyi yikukhumba kuti maboma gha vipani vinandi ghaŵepo. Ndipouli, dango likukanizga kuti ŵandyali ŵachitenge vinthu vinyake. Ndime 54 yikati "magulu gha ndyali ghakukanizgika kujendera mtundu, mtundu, fuko, mbumba, chigaŵa, kugonana, cisopa panji cigaŵa cinyake ico cingapangiska kusankhana". Kweniso boma la Russia laŵika malango ghakukanizga ŵanthu kusopa vikozgo. Kuyana na wupu wa Human Rights Watch, malango agha ghakupangiska kuti caru ca Rwanda ciŵe na boma la chipani cimoza, cifukwa "pakujibisa kuti cikukhumba kukanizga kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi, boma likukana ŵanthu wose awo ŵakususka fundo za boma". Bungwe la Amnesty International nalo likususka; mu lipoti lake la mu 2014/15, likati malango agho ghakukanizga kuwukira panji kutimbanizga mtende pakati pa ŵanthu ghakugwiliskirika nchito kuti ŵanthu ŵakakike "pakuti ŵakulondezga wanangwa wawo wa kuwungana panji kuyowoya maghanoghano ghawo".{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 82}} Nyumba ya Malamulo yili na vipinda viŵiri. Likupanga malango ndipo lili na mazaza ghakuwonera milimo ya pulezidenti na nduna. Nyumba ya mafumu yili na ŵanthu 80 ndipo waliyose wakuŵa na vyaka vinkhondi. Viŵalo 24 vya mu wupu uwu ni vya ŵanakazi, ndipo ŵakusankhika pa ungano wa ŵalara ŵa boma; viŵalo vinyake vitatu ni vya ŵawukirano na ŵanthu ŵakupendera. Kufumila pa mavoti gha 2018, banthu bakusoleka mu chalo ichi bakukhalapo ŵanakazi 49, kufuma pa 51 mu chaka cha 2013. Nyumba yikuru ya malango ni Senate, iyo yili na ŵanthu 26, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakuyimilira ŵakusoleka na maboma ghakupambanapambana. Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakwenera kuŵa pa ciŵelengero ca ŵapharazgi 30 pa 100. Ŵabali ŵa mu wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵakuteŵetera vyaka 8.{{sfn|CJCR|2003|loc=article 82}} (Wonaniso [[Gender equality in Rwanda]].)[[File:RwandaParliament.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chamber of Deputies of Rwanda|Chamber of Deputies building]]|alt=Photograph of the Chamber of Deputies with highway in the foreground]] Ndondomeko ya malango ya ku Rwanda yikukolerana comene na malango gha boma la Germany na Belgium kweniso malango gha cikaya. Ŵeruzgi ŵakujiyimira ŵekha, nangauli pulezidenti na Senate ndiwo ŵakwimika ŵeruzgi ŵa Khoti Likuru Chomene. Wupu wa Human Rights Watch wawonga boma la Rwanda chifukwa cha ivyo likucita pakupeleka urunji, kusazgapo kuwuskapo cilango ca nyifwa, kweni ukuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵa boma ŵakunjilirapo pa vyeruzgo, nga ni kwimika ŵeruzgi cifukwa ca ndyali, kugwiliskira nchito uheni mazaza gha ŵeruzgi, na kuŵasuzga kuti ŵeruzgi ŵachitenge vinthu vinyake. Pa malango gha boma pali mitundu yiŵiri ya makhoti: ghacilendo na ghapadera. Makhoti ghakurughakuru ni Khoti Likuru Chomene, Khoti Likuru Chomene, na makhoti gha vigaŵa, apo makhoti ghakupambanapambana ni makhoti gha ŵasilikari kweniso makhoti gha malonda agho ghakaŵako mu 2011 kuti ghapwelelere milandu ya malonda. Pakati pa 2004 na 2012, makhoti gha Gacaca ghakaŵako. Khoti la Gacaca, ilo ni khoti la ku Rwanda ilo likwendeskeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi na vikaya, likaŵasopo kuti lichitiske luŵiro milandu ya ŵanthu awo ŵakukayikira kuti ŵakakomeka. Khoti ili likawuskapo milandu yinandi ya kukoma ŵanthu, kweni ŵanthu ŵakususka kuti likulondezga yayi malango. Mu 2014, wupu wa Transparency International ukawona kuti charu cha Rwanda ntchakutowa chomene pa vyaru 47 vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa, ndipo ntchakutowa chomene pa vyaru 55 pa vyaru 175.{{sfn|Transparency International|2014}}{{sfn|Agutamba|2014}} Ndondomeko ya boma yikupanga ombudsman, uyo wali na mulimo wa kukanizga na kulimbana na vimbundi. Ndondomeko ya boma yikukhumba kuti ŵalara ŵa boma (nga ni pulezidenti) ŵapharazge vya usambazi wawo kwa ombudsman na ku ŵanthu. Nangauli vili nthena, wupu wa Human Rights Watch ukuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusuzgika chifukwa cha ndyali mu charu chose ichi, kusazgapo kukakika mwambura kuzomerezgeka na ŵanthu ŵanyake, kuwofyeka panji kofya ŵanthu, kuzgoreka mulandu chifukwa cha ndyali, na kukoma ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga mwa mtende.<ref name=Roth>{{cite book |last1=Roth |first1=Kenneth |title=Rwanda Events of 2019 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/rwanda |website=Human Rights Watch |date=10 December 2019 |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> Gulu la Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) ndilo likulamulira chomene mu charu ichi kwambira mu 1994. RPF yasungilira mazaza gha pulezidenti na pharalamende mu mavoti gha charu chose, ndipo chiŵerengero cha mavoti gha chipani ichi chikuluta 70%. Gulu la RPF likuwoneka nga ni chipani icho ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi ndiwo ŵakulongozga, kweni likupokelera wovwiri kufuma mu vyaru vyose, ndipo likuzomerezgeka kuti likovwira kuti paŵe mtende, kukhazikika, na kukura kwa chuma. Kuyana na lipoti la wupu wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa Freedom House wa mu 2015, boma likukanizga wanangwa wa magulu ghakwimikana na boma cifukwa cakuti RPF "yikatondeska vyaru viphya kujilembeska na kukora ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵapo kale, ndipo ŵakaŵakanizga kupeleka ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kunjira mu mavoti". Bungwe la Amnesty International likuyowoyaso kuti RPF yikulongozga Rwanda "kwambura wakususka".{{sfn|Amnesty International|2015|p=310}} Charu cha Rwanda chili mu wupu wa United Nations, African Union, Francophonie, East African Community, na Commonwealth of Nations. Kwa vilimika vinandi mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Habyarimana, caru ici cikaŵa paubwezi wakukhora na caru ca France, kweniso na Belgium, caru ico kale cikaŵa pasi pa caru ici. Ndipouli, pasi pa muwuso wa RPF, caru ca Rwanda cikukhumba kukolerana comene na vyaru vyapafupi mu East African Community ndiposo caru ca ciyowoyero ca Cingelezi. Vyaru ivi vikamba kwendera lumoza na boma la France mu 2006 pamanyuma pakuti khoti la ku France lazenga mulandu ŵalara ŵa boma la Rwanda. Ubale na Democratic Republic of the Congo ukaŵa wakusuzga cifukwa cakuti Rwanda yikaŵapo pa Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya ku Congo. Mu 2010, wupu wa United Nations ukafumiska lipoti ilo likaphalira ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rwanda kuti ŵakachitanga viheni vikuruvikuru na kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu Democratic Republic of Congo mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya ku Congo. Ubwezi wawo ukakhora comene mu 2012, apo boma la Kinshasa likayowoya kuti caru ca Rwanda cikovwira gulu lakugaluka la M23, ilo lili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Congo. Kuzakafika mu 2015, mtende waŵaso ndipo vinthu vikwenda makora. Ubwezi wa Rwanda na Uganda ukaŵa wakusuzga mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya mu 1999 pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru viŵiri apo ŵakakhozgeranga magulu gha ŵakugaluka mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Congo, kweni ukakhora chomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 2010. Mu chaka cha 2019, ubwezi pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi ukasuzgika, ndipo Rwanda yikajara mphaka zake na Uganda.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-08/why-a-closed-border-has-uganda-rwanda-at-loggerheads-quicktake|title=Why a Closed Border Has Uganda, Rwanda at Loggerheads|first=David|last=Malingha|publisher=Bloomberg|date=8 March 2019|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=20 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420234647/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-08/why-a-closed-border-has-uganda-rwanda-at-loggerheads-quicktake|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-21/uganda-rwanda-hold-talks-on-security-concerns-reopening-border|title=Uganda, Rwanda Hold Talks On Security Concerns, Reopening Border|first1=Saul|last1=Butera|first2=Fred|last2=Ojambo|publisher=Bloomberg|date=21 February 2020|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=6 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306072656/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-21/uganda-rwanda-hold-talks-on-security-concerns-reopening-border|url-status=live}}</ref> == Kugawikana kwa boma == {{Further|Decentralization in Rwanda|}} [[File:RwandaGeoProvinces.png|thumb|Provinces of Rwanda|alt=Map of Rwanda showing the five provinces in various colours, as well as major cities, lakes, rivers, and areas of neighbouring countries]] Pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵandambe kulamulira charu ichi, boma la Rwanda likaŵa na ndondomeko ya ndyali.{{sfn|MINALOC|2007|p=8}} Nangauli pakaŵa ndondomeko yakukwana, kweni boma lakwamba likakhazikiskanga ndondomeko yakukolerana ya "maufumu ghakupambanapambana". Mu nyengo ya themba, mulongozgi uyo wakasankhika ndiyo wakalamuliranga chigaŵa icho chikagaŵika mu vigaŵa vinandi. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵaŵiri awo ŵakimikika na mulongozgi wa vigaŵa ŵakalongozganga vigaŵa; mulara yumoza wakapika mazaza pa malo apo munyake wakalaŵiliranga viŵeto. Themba (mwami) likaŵa na vigaŵa, vigaŵa, tumapiri, na vigaŵa. Kufumira mu 2003, malango gha charu cha Rwanda ghakagaŵa vigaŵa (intara), vigaŵa (uturere), misumba, misumba, vigaŵa (imirenge), maselo (utugari), na mizi (imidugudu); vigaŵa vikuruvikuru, na mphaka zawo, vikupangika na pharalamende. Mu Janyuwale 2006, charu cha Rwanda chikasinthika ndipo chigaŵa chimoza chikaŵa na vigaŵa 12, ndipo chigaŵa chinyake chikaŵa na vigaŵa 30. {{sfn|MINALOC|2007|p=8}}Malire agho ghalipo sono, agho ghakalembeka mu 2006, ghakukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuŵa na mazaza pa charu chose kweniso kuti ŵaleke kukolerana na ndondomeko yakale na kukoma ŵanthu. Vyaru vikuruvikuru ivyo vikaŵa na vigaŵa 12 vikaŵa na vigaŵa vinkhondi. Malo agha ni Northern Province, Southern Province, Eastern Province, Western Province, na Municipality of Kigali mu pakati.{{sfn|MINALOC|2007|p=8}} Vigaŵa vinkhondi ivi vikovwira kuti boma na vigaŵa vyawo viŵe paubwezi. Ndondomeko ya Rwanda Decentralization Strategic Framework iyo yikapangika na Unduna wa Vyaru yikuphalira vigaŵa kuti viŵe na mulimo wa "kurongozga vinthu vyakukhwaskana na muwuso mu vigaŵa, kweniso kulaŵilira na kupima". Chigaŵa chilichose chikulongozgeka na kazembe, uyo wakusankhika na pulezidenti na kuzomerezgeka na Senate. Vigaŵa ivi ni ivyo vikulaŵilira mulimo wa kupeleka mauteŵeti gha boma na kukhozga chuma. Ŵakugaŵikana mu vigaŵa, ndipo vigaŵa ivi ndivyo vikupeleka mauteŵeti gha boma. Vigaŵa na vigaŵa vikuŵa na makonsili agho ghakuwusika na ŵanthu, ndipo ghakulongozgeka na komiti iyo yikusankhika na makonsili agha. Vipinda na vikaya ni vigaŵa vichoko comene vya ndyali, ndipo vikovwira ŵanthu na vigaŵa. Ŵanthu wose ŵakukhwima awo ŵakukhala mu cigaŵa ici ŵali mu wupu wa vigaŵa vyawo, uwo ukuŵa na wupu wakulamulira. Msumba wa Kigali ni boma la chigaŵa, ilo likulaŵilira ndondomeko ya vinthu vya mu msumba.{{sfn|MINALOC|2007|p=8}} == Makhalilo gha charu == {{Main|Geography of Rwanda}} [[File:Rwanda Topography.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Topography of Rwanda]] Pa malo ghakukwana 26,338 square kilometres (10,169 sq mi), Rwanda ni chalo cha 149 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa charu chose chapasi, ndipo ndico nchigaŵa cacinayi pa vyaru vikuruvikuru mu Africa pamanyuma pa Gambia, Eswatini, na Djibouti. Charu ichi chili nga ni Burundi, Haiti, na Albania. Charu chose chili pachanya chomene. Malo ghachoko chomene ni Mlonga wa Rusizi. Charu cha Rwanda chili ku Central/Eastern Africa, ndipo chili na mphaka na Democratic Republic of Congo kumanjiliro gha dazi, Uganda kumpoto, Tanzania kumafumiro gha dazi, na Burundi kumwera. Charu ichi chili ku malo ghapacanya comene ndipo kulije maji. Msumba ukuru wa Kigali uli pafupi na pakati pa charu cha Rwanda.{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica|2010}} Malo agho ghakukolerana na maji gha mu Congo na Nile ghakwenda kufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera mu Rwanda, ndipo pafupifupi 80% ya malo gha mu charu ichi ghakukhira mu Nile na 20% mu Congo kwizira mu Mlonga wa Rusizi na Nyanja ya Tanganyika. Mlonga utali comene wa mu caru ici ni Nyabarongo, uwo ukufuma kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi, ukuyerera kumpoto, kumafumiro gha dazi, na kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi pambere undapange Kagera. Mlonga wa Nyabarongo-Kagera ukuthira mu Nyanja ya Victoria, ndipo uko ukufuma mu nkhorongo ya Nyungwe ndiko kukumanyikwa uko Nile yikufuma. Ku Rwanda kuli nyanja zinandi, ndipo yikuru comene ni Nyanja ya Kivu. Nyanja iyi yikukhala pasi pa Albertine Rift mumphepete mwa mphaka ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Rwanda, ndipo njimoza mwa nyanja zakunyang'amira chomene pa charu chapasi. Maziŵa ghanyake ghakuru ni Burera, Ruhondo, Muhazi, Rweru, na Ihema. Mu chigaŵa chapakati na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Rwanda muli mapiri, ndipo nyengo zinyake charu ichi chikuchemeka "Pays des mille collines" mu Chifurenchi. Chigaŵa ichi chili ku mapiri gha Albertine Rift Mountains, agho ghakukolerana na chigaŵa cha East African Rift, icho chikwenda kufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera kufupi na mphaka ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Rwanda. Vipiri vikuruvikuru vikusangika mu Virunga volcano chain ku northwest; ichi chikusazgapo Phiri la Karisimbi, malo ghakuru chomene mu Rwanda, pa mamita 4,507. Chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi chili mukati mwa nkhorongo ya Albertine Rift. Malo agha ghali pa mtunda wa mamita 1,500 m'paka 2,500. Pakati pa caru pali mapiri ghanandi, ndipo kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici kuli mapiri gha savanna, mapiri na vyakumera.{{sfn|Munyakazi|Ntagaramba|2005|p=18}} === Nyengo === [[File:RwandaVolcanoAndLake cropped2.jpg|thumb|Lake and volcano in the [[Virunga Mountains]]|alt=Photograph of a lake with one of the Virunga mountains behind, partially in cloud]] Charu cha Rwanda chili na mphepo yakuzizima chomene, ndipo chifukwa chakuti chili pa mtunda utali chomene, mphepo yake njakukhoma chomene. Mu msumba wa Kigali, uwo uli pakatikati pa charu ichi, zuŵa lililose kutentha kwake kukuŵa pakati pa 15 na 28 °C.{{sfn|Strategic Foresight Group|2013|p=29}} Mu vyaru vinandi, matenthedwe ghakupambana. Mu chaka muli nyengo ziŵiri za vula, yakwamba yikwamba mu Febuluwale m'paka Juni ndipo yachiŵiri yikumalira mu Seputembala m'paka Disembala. Nyengo iyi yikupambana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: nyengo yikuru yikwamba mu Juni m'paka Seputembala, ndipo kanandi kukuŵavya vula. Vikuŵa vyakupambana mu vigaŵa vya charu ichi. Pakuti charu chikusintha, nyengo ya vula yikusintha. Lipoti linyake la wupu unyake likati kusintha kwa nyengo kwachepeska mazuŵa agho kukulokwa vula pa chaka, kweniso kwachitiska kuti vula zinandi zilokenge. Vinthu ivi vyapangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵasuzgikenge, ndipo vyakhwaska vipasi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti charu cha Rwanda chikusintha mwaluŵiro, ndipo pa vyaka 50 ivyo vyajumpha, matenthedwe ghakukwera pakati pa 0.7°C na 0.9°C.{{sfn|Strategic Foresight Group|2013|p=29}} === Vyamoyo === {{Main|Wildlife of Rwanda}} [[File:Mountain gorilla from Susa Group in Karisimbi thicket of Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda. Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|left|thumb|[[Volcanoes National Park]] is the home of the largest population of [[Mountain Gorillas]] in the world.]] Mu nyengo yakale, nkhorongo ya mu mapiri yikaŵa pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya caru ca Rwanda. Sono vyakumera vikusangika mu malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵatatu pera. Nkhorongo yikuru comene ya Nyungwe, yili na mitundu 200 ya makuni, makuni gha orchids na begonias. Vyakumera mu Virwa vya Volcanoes National Park ni vikhuni vya nkhonyo na vyakumera. Kweni ku Akagera kuli nkhorongo iyo kuli makuni ghanandi gha akasiya. Ku Akagera kuli vyakumera vinandi ivyo ni vichoko panji vili pangozi ya kumara, nga ni Markhamia lutea na Eulophia guineensis.{{sfn|REMA (Chapter 5)|2009|p=3}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/rwanda_adaptation_fact_sheet_jan2012.pdf |title=Climate Change Adaption in Rwanda |publisher=USAID |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref> Viyuni vikuruvikuru vinandi vikusangika mu malo agha. Ku Akagera kuli viyuni vya ku savana nga ni zirafu na zovu, ndipo ku Volcanoes kuli viyuni vya ku mapiri ivyo vikukhala pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vitatu. Nkhorongo ya Nyungwe yili na mitundu 13 ya vinyama vyakuchemeka primates, kusazgapo vinyama vya chimpanzee na vinyama vinyake vyakuchemeka Ruwenzori colobus.{{sfn|Briggs|Booth|2006|p=140}} [[File:Talk - Flickr - askmeaks.jpg|upright|thumb|Giraffe in Akagera National Park]] Nkhalamu za ku Rwanda zikamara mu 1994, apo malo ghakusungirako nkharamu ghakazgoka misasa ya ŵanthu awo ŵakachimbira kwawo. Mu Juni 2015, malo ghaŵiri ghakusungirako nkharamu ku South Africa ghakapeleka nkharamu zinkhondi na ziŵiri ku malo ghakusungirako nkharamu gha Akagera National Park. Pakwamba nkhalamu zikaŵa mu malo ghakuzingilizgika na mpanda, ndipo pamanyuma zikakakika na kufumiskika mu ciŵaya mwezi umoza pamanyuma pake.{{sfn|The New Times|2015}} Mu 2017, nkhumba zakufipa 18 izo zili pa ngozi zikiza ku Rwanda kufuma ku South Africa. Viyuni ivi vikasintha makora chomene mwakuti mu 2019, vikoko vinyake vinkhondi vyamalibwe vikapelekeka ku malo ghakusungirako viŵeto ku Europe. Mwakuyana waka, ciŵelengero ca viyuni ivi cikukura comene mu Rwanda. Mu chaka cha 2021, Rwanda yikapokera viyuni 30 vyakuchemeka white rhinos kufuma ku South Africa na chilato chakuti Akagera yiŵe malo ghakukhora ghakubabira viyuni ivi. Ku Rwanda kuli viyuni vyamtundu wa 670 ndipo vyamoyo ivi vikupambana mu vyaru vya kumafumiro na kumanjiliro gha dazi. Nkhorongo ya Nyungwe, iyo yili kumanjiliro gha dazi, yili na mitundu ya viyuni yakujumpha 280, ndipo 26 mwa mitundu iyi yikusangika ku Albertine Rift. Kweni ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa charu cha Rwanda kuli viyuni vinandi nga ni gonolek wakuŵa na mutu wakufipa. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti mu charu ichi muli mitundu yinandi ya viyuni ivi. Mu charu cha Rwanda muli vigaŵa vitatu: nkhorongo ya Albertine Rift, nkhorongo ya Victoria Basin, na nkhorongo ya Ruwenzori-Virunga. Charu ichi chili na chiŵelengero cha 3.85/10 pa 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index, ndipo chili pa 139 pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Chuma == {{Main|Economy of Rwanda}} [[File:Rwanda Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Graphical depiction of Rwanda's product exports.]] Chuma cha charu cha Rwanda chikapwetekeka comene pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakomekeranga mu 1994, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafwa, vinthu vikaŵayendera makora yayi, vinthu vikaphyoreka, ndipo vyakurya vikasoŵa. Ici cikapangiska kuti GDP yichepe comene ndipo cikapangiska kuti caru ici cileke kukopa ndalama za boma na za caru cinyake. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, chuma cha pa caru cose caŵaso cakukhora comene, ndipo GDP ya munthu yumoza yikukwana $909.9 mu 2022, pakuyaniska na $127 mu 1994. Vyaru vikuru comene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliskira vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake ni China, Germany, na United States. Chuma chikuyang'aniridwa ndi Central National Bank of Rwanda ndipo ndalama zake ndi franc yaku Rwanda; mu Disembala 2019, mtengo wosinthira unali ma franc 910 ku dola imodzi yaku United States. Mu 2007, caru ca Rwanda cikanjira mu wupu wa East African Community, ndipo cazomerezga ndondomeko ya umoza wa ndalama pakati pa vyaru vinkhondi na viŵiri ivyo vikanjilira mu wupu uwu. Charu cha Rwanda chili na vyakurya vichoko waka, ndipo ŵalimi ŵa mu charu ichi ndiwo ŵakulima. Pafupifupi 90% ya ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu minda, ndipo vyakurya vikaŵa 32.5% ya GDP mu 2014. Ŵalimi ŵakutemwa kulima malo ghacoko waka. Kwamba m'ma 1980, viŵeto vikukura yayi kweniso vyakurya vikusangika viŵi yayi, cifukwa ca ŵanthu awo ŵakusamukira ku vyaru vinyake. Nangauli charu cha Rwanda chili na vyakurya vinandi, kweni kanandi ŵanthu ŵakukwera yayi. Kweni mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vinthu vyasintha chomene chifukwa cha kukura kwa vyakurya.<ref>{{Cite web |title=From genocide to growth: Rwanda's remarkable economic turnaround – GE63 |url=https://ge63.com/rwanda-economic-growth |access-date=2023-03-31 |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:Transporting bananas.jpg|thumb|Rwanda produced 2.6 million tonnes of banana in 2019, its largest cash crop.<ref name="Rwanda production in 2019, by FAO">{{cite web| url = http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/| title = Rwanda production in 2019, by FAO|publisher=The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations }}</ref>]] Vyakumera vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulima mu charu ichi ni matoke (banana) iyo yikukwana chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya charu ichi, mbatata, nyungu, mbatata, maniyu, tirigu na chimanga. Khofi na tiyi ni vyakurya vikuru comene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka ku vyaru vinyake. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 400,000 ŵa ku Rwanda ŵakukhala mu minda ya khofi. Cifukwa cakuti caru ca Rwanda cikuthemba comene pa vyakurya ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake, ntchipusu yayi kuti mitengo ya vyakurya ivi yisinthe. Viŵeto ivyo vikuŵako mu Rwanda ni ng'ombe, mbuzi, mberere, nkhumba, nkhuku, na mpheta. Nangauli mu vigaŵa vya Kigali muli minda yinandi ya viŵeto, kweni viŵeto vinandi vikuŵa vyachilendo. Kucepa kwa malo na maji, vyakurya vyambura kukwana na vya mtundu uheni, kweniso nthenda zakwambukira nyengo na nyengo kwambura wovwiri wakukwana wa ŵadokotala ni vinthu vikuru ivyo vikupangiska kuti mulimo wa vyakurya uleke kwenda makora. Nangauli somba zikulengeskeka mu nyanja za mu caru ici, kweni zinandi zikumara, ndipo zikwiza na somba zamoyo. Makampani gha vyamalonda ghakaŵa ghacoko comene, ghakapanga 14.8% ya GDP mu 2014. Vinthu ivi ni simenti, vyakurya, vyakumwa, sopo, vyakuvwara, skapato, vinthu vya pulasitiki, vyakuvwara na hona. Makampani gha migodi gha ku Rwanda ndigho ghakovwira chomene, ndipo mu 2008 ghakapanga ndalama zakukwana madola 93 miliyoni. Vinthu ivi ni cassiterite, wolframite, golide, na coltan, ivyo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pakupanga vinthu vya magesi na mawoko nga ni mafoni.{{sfn|Mukaaya|2009}}{{sfn|Delawala|2001}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, mu charu cha Rwanda mukaŵa suzgo la ndalama chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa ngongoli, wovwiri wa vyaru vinyake, na ndalama. Mu 2010, ntchito iyi yikalutilira makora ndipo yikaŵa yikuru chomene mu charu ichi. Vinthu vikuru ivyo vikovwira ŵanthu pa nkhani ya ndalama ni mabanki na vyamalonda, malonda gha pa wumba na ghakurughakuru, mahotelo na malo ghakurya, mendero, kusungirako vinthu, kwendeska mawoko, ma inshuwalansi, katundu, maofesi gha bizinesi na maboma, kusazgapo masambiro na umoyo. Ntchito ya kwendakwenda njimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikukura mwaluŵiro comene mu vyaru ivi. Mu 2007, ndiyo yikamba kusanga ndalama zinandi mu vyaru ivi. Nangauli charu ichi chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakomeka, kweni charu ichi chikuwoneka kuti ntchakukhora. Mu 2013, ŵanthu 864,000 ŵakiza ku malo agha. Mu 2014, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga chifukwa cha vyakusanguluska zikaŵa madola 303 miliyoni. Cinthu cikuru comene ico cikovwira kuti ndalama izi ziŵe zinandi ni ivyo vikusangika mu malo ghakucemeka Volcanoes National Park. Vinyake ivyo vikukondweska ni Nkhorongo ya Nyungwe, uko kuli tumalumba, Ruwenzori colobus, na vinyama vinyake vyakuduka mudera, malo ghakusungirako vyakumera gha mu Nyanja ya Kivu, na Akagera, malo ghacilendo agho ghali kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi.{{sfn|RDB (II)}} === Wayilesi na nthowa zakuyowoyeskelana === {{Main|Telecommunications in Rwanda}} Ma wayilesi na mawayilesi ghakurughakuru ni gha boma, ndipo manyuzipepara ghanandi nga boma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Rwanda ŵali na wayilesi; mu nyengo ya kusakaza ŵanthu mu 1994, wayilesi ya Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines yikapharazganga mu caru cose, ndipo yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakomeke kwizira mu upharazgi wakususkana na Ŵakututsi. Mu 2015, wayilesi ya boma ya Radio Rwanda ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru chomene mu charu chose. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵalije TV, ndipo nyumba zinandi zilije TV. Boma likamba kugwiliskira ntchito wayilesi ya digito mu 2014, ndipo pakati pajumpha chaka chimoza, pa charu chose pakaŵa mawayilesi 7. Ŵapharazgi ŵakuŵa na mazaza pa nkhani iyi, ndipo nyuzipepara zikujikora kuti boma lileke kuŵasuzga. Nangauli vili nthena, mabuku gha mu Cikirwanda, Cingelezi, na Cifurenci agho ghakususka boma ghalipo comene mu Kigali. Malango ghakusazgikira pambere mavoti gha pulezidenti wa ku Rwanda gha 2010 ghandambe, ndipo nyuzipepara ziŵiri zakujiyimira paŵekha, Umuseso na Umuvugizi, yikakanizgika na wupu wa High Media Council kwa myezi 6.{{sfn|Reporters Without Borders|2010}} Gulu lakale chomene la mafoni mu charu ichi, la Rwandatel, likaleka kugwira ntchito mu 2011, ndipo 80% yikaŵa ya kampani ya ku Libya yakuchemeka LAP Green. Kampani iyi yikaguliskika mu 2013 na Liquid Telecom, kampani iyo yikupanga ma telecommunications na fiber optic networks mu East na Southern Africa. Kufumira mu 2015, Liquid Telecom yikupereka ma telefoni ghakukhazikika ku ŵanthu 30,968, ndipo MTN Rwanda nayo yikupereka ma telefoni ghakukhazikika ku ŵanthu 15,497. Mafoni gha pa nyumba ghakugwiliskirika nchito comene na maboma, mabanki, mawupu ghambura vya boma, na maofesi gha ŵimiliri. Mu 2015, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mafoni mu charu ichi chikaŵa 72.6%, kufuma pa 41.6% mu 2011. MTN Rwanda ndiyo yikulongozga na ŵanthu 3,957,986, ndipo yikulondezgeka na Tigo na ŵanthu 2,887,328, na Bharti Airtel na ŵanthu 1,336,679. Rwandatel nayo wakendeskanga foni, kweni wupu wakuwona vya msonkho ukawuskapo layisensi yake mu Epulero 2011, cifukwa cakuti kampani iyi yikatondeka kufiska ivyo yikapangana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito Intaneti mbacoko, kweni ŵakukura mwaluŵiro. Mu 2015, pa ŵanthu 100, ŵanthu 12,8 ndiwo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito Intaneti. Mu 2011, ŵakamalizga kupanga telefoni ya makilomita 2,300 (ma kilomita 1,400) ya fiber-optic. Netiweki iyi yikukolerana na SEACOM, chingwe cha pasi pa nyanja icho chikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵapharazgenge mu vyaru vya kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Mu caru ca Rwanda, misewu iyi yikwenda mu misewu yikuruyikuru iyo yikukolerana na misumba gha mu caru cose. Mtundu wa MTN nawo ukupeleka Intaneti kwambura waya mu vigaŵa vinandi vya Kigali. Mu Okutobala 2019, Mara Corporation wakambiska foni yakwamba ya ku Africa ku Rwanda.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-telecoms-idUSKBN1WM1TN|title=Rwanda launches first 'Made in Africa' smartphones|date=10 October 2019|work=Reuters|access-date=10 October 2019|language=en|archive-date=9 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009161807/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-rwanda-telecoms-idUSKBN1WM1TN|url-status=live}}</ref> === Vyakuzenga === {{Main|Transport in Rwanda|Energy in Rwanda|Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda}}[[File:WaterPumpRwanda.jpg|thumb|right|Rural water pump|alt=Photograph depicting one adult and five children filling jerrycans at a rural metal water pump with concrete base, at the bottom of a steep rocky hillside]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, boma la Rwanda likaŵika pakwamba ndalama zakovwilira ŵanthu kuti ŵasange maji. Ndalama izi, pamoza na wovwiri wa awo ŵakupeleka wovwiri, vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵasange maji ghawemi{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=43}}. Mu 2015, ŵanthu 74 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakaŵa na maji ghawemi, kufuma pa 55 pa 100 mu 2005. Vinthu vya mu charu ichi vikovwira ŵanthu kusanga maji mu misumba na mu mizi. Ku malo agho kulije makina agha, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mapampu gha pa woko na visimi. Nangauli mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici, maji ghakukhira comene kuluska 750 millimeters pa caka, kweni ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito viŵi yayi maji gha vula. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito yayi vinthu vyakutowa. Wupu wa United Nations ukuti mu 2006, ŵanthu 34 pa 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakakhalanga mu misumba kweniso 20 pa 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakakhalanga ku mizi ŵakaŵa na vinthu vyakutowa. Msumba wa Kigali ngumoza mwa misumba yakutowa comene mu Africa. Maboma ghakwendera fundo zakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na umoyo uwemi waka mu misumba. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu misumba na mu mizi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito malo ghakusoperapo.{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=43}} Kufikira m'ma 2000s, magetsi a ku Rwanda anali opangidwa pafupifupi kuchokera ku magwero a hydroelectric; malo opangira magetsi pa Nyanja ya Burera ndi Ruhondo amapereka 90% ya magetsi a dziko. Kuyana na ivyo vikachitika mu 1990, maji gha mu nyanja ziŵiri izi ghakakhira chomene chifukwa cha kuthuta kwa vula na vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mu 2004 kuŵe suzgo la ndalama ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaleka ntchito. Pakuŵa cakukhumbikwa ca mwaluŵiro, boma likaŵika mageneretara gha dizilo kumpoto kwa Kigali; mu 2006 agha ghakapanga 56% ya magesi gha mu caru, kweni ghakaŵa ghakudura comene. Boma likakhazikiska nthowa zinandi zakumazgira suzgo ili, kusazgapo kuwezgerapo malo ghakututuŵa gha Rugezi, agho ghakupereka maji ku Burera na Ruhondo, na kugwiliskira nchito ndondomeko ya kupokera gasi wa methane kufuma mu Nyanja ya Kivu, iyo pakwamba yikwenera kusazgirako nkhongono za mu caru na 40%. Mu 2012, ŵanthu 18 pera ndiwo ŵakaŵa na magesi, kweni mu 2009 ŵakaŵa 10.8%. Ndondomeko ya boma ya vyachuma na kuchepeska ukavu ya 2013-18 yikukhumba kuti mu 2017 ŵanthu 70 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵaŵe na magesi.{{sfn|Baringanire|Malik|Banerjee|2014|p=1}}[[File:Rwanda electricity production.svg|thumb|Rwanda electricity production by source|upright=1.3]] Boma la Rwanda laŵikapo ndalama zinandi pa vinthu vyakwendeskera mendero kwambira waka apo ŵanthu ŵakakomekera mu 1994, na wovwiri wa United States, European Union, Japan, na vyaru vinyake. Mtundu wa magalimoto uwo ulipo ni misewu iyo yili pakati pa Kigali na misumba yinyake yikuruyikuru. Charu cha Rwanda chikukolerana na vyaru vinyake vya East African Community, nga ni Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi na Kenya, kweniso na misumba ya Goma na Bukavu ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Congo. Mtundu ukuru comene wa kwendeska ŵanthu mu caru ici ni basi, izo zikwendeska ŵanthu ŵanandi. Mabasi ghanyake, chomenechomene mu Kigali, ghakuŵa na magalimoto ghambura kutumphuskika, ndipo ghanyake ghakuŵa na magalimoto gha taxi. Mabasi ghakurughakuru ghanandi ghakukwana yayi, ndipo ghakwenda mu charu chose. Mu 2013, ku Rwanda kukaŵa magalimoto 9,609 agho ghakalembeskeka pa galimoto, ndipo magalimoto 579 pera. Pali mabasi agho ghakwendeska ŵanthu ku vyaru vinyake. Charu ichi chili na chiŵanja cha ndege ku Kigali icho chikwendako ku vyaru vinandi, ndipo nthowa zakwendako chomene ni izo zikuluta ku Nairobi na Entebbe.{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=43}} Mu 2017, mulimo wa kuzenga ndege ya Bugesera International Airport, kumwera kwa Kigali, ukayamba. Gulu la ndege ilo likwendeska ndege mu charu ichi ni RwandAir. Kufumira mu 2015 chalo ichi chilije njanji, kweni pali pulojekiti iyo yikuchitika, pamoza na Burundi na Tanzania, ya kusazgirako Tanzania Central Line mu Rwanda; vyaru vitatu ivi vyachema mabungwe ghapachanya kuti ghaŵe na chilato cha kupanga mgwirizano wa boma na wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Pa nyanja ya Kivu palije maji ghakwendeskera sitima pakati pa misumba iyo yili pa dowoko, nangauli pali nthowa zinyake izo boma likupeleka. Unduna wa vya Vipatala ukuwonaso usange vingachitika kuti charu cha Rwanda chikolerane na Nyanja ya Victoria pa mlonga wa Akagera.{{sfn|MININFRA|2013|p=43}} == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Rwanda|Youth in Rwanda}} Kufika mu 2015, National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda yikati ŵanthu ŵa ku Rwanda ŵalipo 11,262,564, apo mu 2022 ŵalipo 13,246,394. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2012, ŵanthu 10,515,973 ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mbawukirano. Mu 2012, ŵanthu 43.3% ŵakaŵa na vyaka 15 kukhilira pasi, ndipo 53.4% ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 16 na 64. Buku la CIA World Factbook likuti mu 2015, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 40.2 pa ŵanthu 1,000 awo ŵakababikanga, ndipo ŵanthu 14.9 ŵakufwa. Ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 67,67 (69,27 kwa ŵanakazi na 67,11 kwa ŵanalume). Chiŵelengero cha ŵanalume na ŵanakazi mu charu ichi chili pa 95.9 pa ŵanakazi 100.{{sfn|CIA (I)}} [[File:Rwandan children at Volcans National Park.jpg|thumb|left|Rural children|alt=Photograph depicting seven rural children, with a straw house and farmland in the background, taken in the Volcanoes National Park in 2005]] Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu 445 pa kilomita yimoza. Ŵakulemba mdauko nga ni Gérard Prunier ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka mu 1994. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala ku mizi, ndipo mu misumba ghachoko waka muli malo ghakukhala ŵanthu. Malo ghekha agho muli ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene mu charu ichi ni malo agho kale ghakaŵa chigaŵa cha Umutara, ndipo kumafumiro gha dazi kuli malo ghakuchemeka Akagera National Park. Msumba ukuru chomene wa Kigali uli na ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukwera mwaluŵiro ŵakusuzga kuti vinthu viŵe makora. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2012, msumba ukuru waciŵiri ni Gisenyi, uwo uli pafupi na Nyanja ya Kivu na msumba wa Goma ku Congo, ndipo uli na ŵanthu 126,000. misumba ghanyake ghakuru ni Ruhengeri, Butare, na Muhanga. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu misumba ŵakakwera kufuma pa 6% mu 1990 kufika pa 16.6% mu 2006; kweni mu 2011, chiŵelengero ichi chikakhira pachoko waka kufika pa 14.8%. Charu cha Rwanda chili na ŵanthu ŵa viyowoyero na mitheto yakuyana waka, ndipo ichi chikupambana na vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ivyo vili na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Rwanda ŵali na magulu ghatatu, Ŵahutu, Ŵatutsi, na Ŵatwa. Buku la CIA la World Factbook likuyowoya kuti mu 2009, Ŵahutu ŵakaŵa 84% ya ŵanthu wose mu charu ichi, Ŵatutsi 15%, na Ŵatwa 1%. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Twa mbana ŵachoko awo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu cha Rwanda. Kweni ŵasayansi ŵakukolerana yayi pa nkhani ya umo Ŵahutu na Ŵakututsi ŵakaŵirako. Nkhwantha ya vya ŵanthu, Jean Hiernaux, yikati Ŵakututsi mbanthu ŵakupambana na mitundu yinyake, ndipo ŵakutemwa kuŵa na "mitu, visko, na mphuno ziheni". Mu caru ca Rwanda pambere caru ici cindaŵeko, Ŵakututsi ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵamazaza, ndipo mafumu na ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵakafuma mwa iwo. Boma la sono likukana kupambaniska pakati pa Ŵahutu na Ŵatutsi. Kafukufuku wa mu 2002 wakaŵa wakwamba kwambira mu 1933 kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Rwanda ŵaleke kupika magulu ghatatu.{{sfn|Agence France-Presse|2002}} === Masambilo === {{Main|Education in Rwanda}} [[File:OLPC classroom teaching.JPG|thumb|right|Children in a Rwandan primary school, using laptops supplied by the [[One Laptop Per Child]] programme]] Pambere chaka cha 2012 chindafike, boma la Rwanda likapeleka masambiro ghaulere mu masukulu gha boma kwa vyaka 9.{{sfn|MINEDUC|2010|p=2}} Mu 2012, ŵakamba kusazgirako vyaka ivi kufika pa 12. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2015, wakulongora kuti nangauli sukulu za pulayimale zikunjilirapo chomene, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumalizga yayi. Nangauli sukulu njambura kulipira, kweni ŵapapi ŵakwenera kupeleka ndalama zakovwilira ŵana ŵawo kuti ŵasambire makora. Kweni boma likati ndalama izi zikwenera yayi kuŵa chifukwa chakuti ŵana ŵaleke kusambira. Mu vyaru vinandi muli masukulu ghapadera, ghanyake ghakulongozgeka na tchalitchi, agho ghakusambizga vinthu vyakuyana waka kweni ghakulipira ndalama. Kwambira mu 1994 m'paka mu 2009, masambiro gha ku sekondare ghakaŵanga mu Cifurenci panji Cingelezi. Mu caru ici muli masukulu ghanandi gha masambiro ghapacanya. Mu chaka cha 2013, Yunivesite ya ku Rwanda (UR) yikapangika kufuma ku yunivesite ya ku Rwanda iyo yikaŵa ya boma.{{sfn|Koenig|2014}}{{sfn|MacGregor|2014}}{{sfn|Rutayisire|2013}}Mu 2013, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeskanga masambiro ghapachanya ku Rwanda chikaŵa 7.9%, kufuma pa 3.6% mu 2006. Mu 2009, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba awo ŵali na vyaka 15 panji kujumphirako chikaŵa 71%, kufuma pa 38 peresenti mu 1978 na 58 peresenti mu 1991.{{sfn|World Bank (I)}} === Umoyo === {{main|Healthcare in Rwanda|Health in Rwanda}} [[File:Butaro Hospital.jpg|thumb|left|[[Butaro Hospital]] at [[Burera]], Northern Province |alt=Photograph depicting a hospital building, with Rwandan flag, viewed from the entrance pathway]] Umoyo wa ŵanthu ku Rwanda ukaŵa wambura kupwelelera chomene pambere nkhondo ya 1994 yindayambe kweniso pamanyuma pake. Mu 1998, mwana yumoza pa ŵana ŵankhondi waliwose wakafwa pambere wandakwaniske vyaka vinkhondi.{{sfn|Bowdler|2010}} Pulezidenti Kagame wapanga umoyo kuŵa cimoza mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa mu ndondomeko ya chitukuko ya Vision 2020, kukwezga ndalama zakwendeskera umoyo kufika pa 6.5% ya GDP mu 2013, pakuyaniska na 1.9% mu 1996. Boma lili kupeleka ndalama zakovwilira ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu malo agha. Mabungwe agha ghakamba kugwiliskira nchito nthowa iyi mu 1999, ndipo pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, ghakaŵa kuti ghasangika pa caru cose. Pakwamba, ndalama izo ŵakalipiranga zikaŵa madola ghaŵiri pa chaka. Kweni kufuma mu 2011, ndalama izi zikusintha, ndipo ŵakavu ŵakulipira yayi. Mu 2014, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito iyi chikajumpha 90%. Boma la Rwanda lili kukhazikiskaso masukulu gha masambiro, kusazgapo sukulu ya vyaumoyo ya Kigali Health Institute (KHI). Mu 2005, Pulezidenti Kagame nayo wakambiska pulogiramu yakucemeka The Presidents' Malaria Initiative. Cigaŵa ici cikaŵa na cilato ca kupeleka vinthu vyakukhumbikwa comene kuti nthenda ya maleriya yileke kuwira mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi comene mu Rwanda. [[File:Life expectancy development in Rwanda.svg|thumb|Historical development of life expectancy in Rwanda]] Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, caru ca Rwanda caŵa na vinthu vinandi ivyo vikovwira kuti umoyo uŵe makora. Kufuma mu 2005 m'paka mu 2013, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka vinandi, kufuma pa 55.2 kufika pa 64.0, ŵana ŵachoko chomene awo ŵakufwa ŵakukwana vyaka 5, kufuma pa 106.4 kufika pa 52.0 pa ŵanthu 1,000 awo ŵakubabika ŵamoyo. Ŵapharazgi ŵa pa caru cose na mawupu ghakovwira ŵanthu ŵakulongosora umo caru ici cikucitira pa nkhani ya cipwelelerero. Magazini ya The Atlantic yikalemba nkhani ya mutu wakuti, "Kuŵaso na Umoyo Uwemi ku Rwanda". Magazini yinyake yikulongosora umo umoyo wa ŵanthu wasinthira mu vyaka 50 ivyo vyajumpha. Ndipouli, nangauli vinthu vyasintha, kweni matenda ghakwambukira ndigho ghakulutilira kunanga umoyo wa ŵanthu mu caru ici. Wupu wa United States Agency for International Development, ukati pali "mavuto ghakuru" agho ghakukhwaska umoyo wa ŵanthu. Wupu wakuwona vya matenda ku America ukati awo ŵakuluta ku Rwanda ŵakwenera kumwa munkhwala uwo ungaŵawovwira kuti ŵaleke kulwara maleriya. Ku Rwanda nako kulije ŵadokotala, ndipo pali ŵadokotala, ŵasilikari, na ŵasungwana 0.84 pera pa ŵanthu 1,000. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) yikulaŵilira umo caru cikwendera pa nkhani ya vyaumoyo pakukwaniska vilato vya Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 4 na 6. Lipoti la UNDP la pakati pa chaka cha 2015 likati charu ichi chikukwaniska yayi chilato cha nambara 4 pa nkhani ya kufwa kwa ŵana ŵachoko, nangauli chiŵerengero ichi "chakhira chomene".{{sfn|UNDP (IV)|2015}} ===Chisopo=== {{main|Religion in Rwanda}} [[File:RwamaganaChurch.jpg|thumb|Roman Catholic church in [[Rwamagana]]|alt=Photograph depicting the Roman Catholic parish church in Rwamagana, Eastern Province, including the main entrance, façade, the separate bell tower, and dirt forecourt]] Chisopa chikuru chomene mu Rwanda ntcha Chiprotesitanti, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kugomezga chisopa cha Chikhristu, ndipo pachoko na pachoko, Chisilamu. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2012, Ŵakhristu ŵa Katolika ŵakaŵa 43.7%, Ŵaprotesitanti 37.7%, Ŵadventista 11.8%, na Ŵasilamu 2.0%. Visopa ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulondezga ni vyaunenesko, nangauli ni vya 0.1% pera. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Rwanda ŵakuwona kuti Ciuta wa Cikristu wakuyana waka na Ciuta wa ku Rwanda, Imana.{{sfn|Wiredu|Abraham|Irele|Menkiti|2006|pp=236–237}} ===Viyowoyelo=== {{main|Languages of Rwanda}} Chiyowoyero chikuru mu charu ichi ni Chikinyarwanda, icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu wose (98%). Viyowoyero vikuruvikuru vya ku Europe mu nyengo ya ŵakoloni vikaŵa Chijeremani, nangauli chikasambizgikanga yayi panji kugwiliskirika ntchito chomene, ndipo kufuma apo Chifurenchi, icho chikambiskika na Belgium mu 1916 ndipo chikalutilira kuŵa chiyowoyero cha boma na chakutemweka chomene mu 1962. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga Chidachi. Kuwelera kwa ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Rwanda awo ŵakayowoyanga Chingelezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 kukawovwira kuti chiyowoyero cha mu charu ichi chiŵe makora. Viyowoyero vya boma ni Kinyarwanda, Chingelezi, Chifurenchi, na Chiswahili. Chiyowoyero cha Kinyarwanda ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa charu chose, ndipo Chingelezi ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene pa masambiro gha sekondare na masambiro ghapachanya. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya CiSwahili, ciyowoyero ca ku East Africa, comenecomene awo ŵakawerako ku Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, na Democratic Republic of Congo. Mu 2015, chiyowoyero cha Chiswahili chikamba kusambizgika pa sukulu za sekondare. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala pa chirwa cha Nkombo ku Rwanda ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Mashi, icho chikukolerana na chiyowoyero cha Kinyarwanda. Chifalansa chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵacoko waka kujumpha 6% kuyana na kalembera wa 2012 na Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Mu 2009, ŵanthu 15% ŵakayowoyanga Cingelezi, nangauli lipoti lenelili likati ŵanthu 68% ŵakayowoyanga Cifurenci. Ŵanthu ŵacoko comene ndiwo ŵakuyowoya Ciswahili.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/RW/languages|title=''Ethnologue'' report for Rwanda}}</ref> === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{See also|Human rights in Rwanda|LGBT rights in Rwanda}} Homosexuality is generally considered a [[taboo]] topic, and there is no significant public discussion of this issue in any region of the country. Some lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) Rwandans have reported being harassed and blackmailed.{{sfn|Gmünder|2007|page=1216}}<ref name="Spartacus International Gay Guide 2007">Spartacus International Gay Guide, p. 1216. Bruno Gmunder Verlag, 2007.</ref><ref name="globalgayz">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalgayz.com/country/Rwanda/view/RWA/gay-rwanda-2008|title=Gay Rwanda 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717064516/http://www.globalgayz.com/africa/rwanda/gay-rwanda-2008|archive-date=2012-07-17|date=2009-01-01}}</ref>Ku Rwanda, kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhukanizgika yayi. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵanyake ŵa boma ŵakukhozgera wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu, kweni palije malango ghakuŵavikilira. Boma likuzomerezga yayi nthengwa za ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha, cifukwa dango la boma likuti "nthengwa za ŵanalume na ŵanakazi pera ndizo zikuzomerezgeka". Kwambira mu 2006, wupu wa Human Rights Watch walemba kuti boma la Rwanda likukora na kukaka ŵana ŵa mu misewu, ŵamalonda ŵa mu misewu, awo ŵakugwira ntchito za kugonana, ŵanthu ŵambura pakukhala, na ŵakupempheska, kweniso ŵakusuzga ŵanthu mu nyumba zakubisamamo na malo ghanyake nga ni msasa wa ŵasilikari wa Kami, Kwa Gacinya na jele la Gikondo.<ref name="hrw">{{Cite journal |date=2020-01-27 |title="As Long as We Live on the Streets, They Will Beat Us": Rwanda's Abusive Detention of Children |journal=Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/01/27/long-we-live-streets-they-will-beat-us/rwandas-abusive-detention-children |access-date=2022-10-10 |language=en}}</ref> == Mwambo == {{Main|Culture of Rwanda}} [[File:Rwanda IntoreDancers.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional Rwandan ''[[intore]]'' dancers|alt=Photograph depicting two male dancers with straw wigs, neck garments, spears and sticks]] Sumu na kuvina ni vyakuzirwa pa viphikiro, viphikiro, maungano, na vyakusanguluska vya ku Rwanda. Sumu iyi yikumanyikwa comene ndipo yili na vigaŵa vitatu: umushagiriro, panji sumu ya ng'ombe, iyo yikucitika na ŵanakazi; intore, panji sumu ya vinkhara, iyo yikucitika na ŵanalume; na kuvina kwa matambulara, uko kanandi kukucitikaso na ŵanalume. Gulu lakumanyikwa comene la kuvina ni la National Ballet. Gulu ili likakhazikiskika na Pulezidenti Habyarimana mu 1974, ndipo likucita maseŵero mu vyaru na vyaru vinyake. Sumu zikupharazgika na mulomo, ndipo mitundu yake yikupambana. Viŵiya vyakuchemeka drums vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene; ŵanthu awo ŵakimbanga viŵiya vyacifumu ŵakaŵa na udindo ukuru mu nyumba ya themba (Mwami). Ŵanthu awo ŵakulizga viŵiya ŵakwimba pamoza mu magulu ghakupambanapambana, ndipo kanandi ŵakuŵa pakati pa 7 na 9. Mu caru ici muli sumu zinandi izo zikufuma ku vyaru vya ku Africa, Congo, na America. Mtundu wakumanyikwa comene ni wa hip hop, uwo ukusanganya dancehall, rap, ragga, R&B na dance-pop.{{sfn|Mbabazi|2008}} [[File:Igiseke.jpg|thumb|upright|Rwandan woven [[agaseke]] basket|alt=Photograph depicting a bowl shaped off-white woven basket with tall conical lid and black zigzag pattern]] Vinthu vya maluso na vyakuchita vya mawoko vikuchitika mu charu chose, nangauli vinandi vikapangika kuti viwovwire ŵanthu. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikusangika chomene ni viŵiya na mabakule. Imigongo ni luso lapadera la viŵeto vya ng'ombe, ilo likupangika kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Rwanda. Viŵeto ivi ŵakuvisakaniza na dongo la mitundu yakupambanapambana na kupenta mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita ni vyakupangira viŵiya na kujoba makuni. Nyumba izo ŵanthu ŵakukhala ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu ivyo vikuŵa mu malo agha. Boma likamba ndondomeko ya kusintha vinthu ivi na vinthu vinyake vya mazuŵa ghano, nga ni visulo vyamalibwe. Mu charu cha Rwanda mulije mabuku ghakale chomene, kweni ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kulemba na kuyowoya. Vinthu vinandi vya mu caru ici ivyo vikukolerana na makhaliro gha ŵanthu na mbiri yawo, vyalembeka mu miwiro yose. Munthu wakumanyikwa chomene mu mabuku gha ku Rwanda wakaŵa Alexis Kagame (1912-1981), uyo wakalemba na kusindikizga mabuku ghakulongosora maluso gha ŵanthu. Nkhondo ya ku Rwanda yikapangiska kuti paŵe mabuku gha ŵanthu awo ŵakawona ivyo vikachitika, mabuku gha ŵanthu awo ŵakalemba nga ni Benjamin Sehene. Mavidiyo ghanandi ghakulongosora vya kukomeka kwa ŵanthu ku Rwanda ghapangika, nga ni Hotel Rwanda, 100 Days, Shake Hands with the Devil, Sometimes in April, na Shooting Dogs. Pa chaka pali maholide ghakukwana 14, ndipo nyengo zinyake boma likusazgirako ghanyake. Sabata yakulondezgapo pa Zuŵa la Kukumbukirako Ŵanandi pa Epulero 7 yikucemeka sabata ya citima. Nkhondo iyo RPF yikathereska Ŵahutu yikukondwelereka pa Julayi 4. Pa Chisulo chaumaliro cha mwezi uliwose pakuŵa umuganda, zuŵa lakwamba la mulimo wakovwira ŵanthu, kufuma pa 8 m'paka 11 koloko mulenji. Pa zuŵa ili, ŵanthu wose ŵakwenelera ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 18 na 65 ŵakuchita milimo ya mu msumba nga nkhujura misewu panji kuzenga nyumba za ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika. Maulendo ghanandi ghakujalika pa nyengo ya umuganda, ndipo magalimoto ghakwendera waka yayi.{{sfn|Rwanda Governance Board}} === Cuisine === {{Main|Cuisine of Rwanda}} [[File:Ugali and cabbage.jpg|right|thumb|A plate of ''[[ugali]]'' and [[cabbage]]]] Vyakurya vya ku Rwanda vikufuma ku vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulima mu charu ichi, nga ni nthochi, mapamba (ghakumanyikwa na zina lakuti ibitoke), mphangwe, mbatata, nyungu, na manioc. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Rwanda ŵakurya nyama kamoza pera pa mwezi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala kufupi na nyanja ŵakutemwa chomene somba za tilapia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa chomene batata, awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakiza nawo ku Rwanda kufuma ku Germany na Belgium. Ugali, uyo wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Ubugari (panji umutsima) ngwakumanyikwa chomene. Isombe yikupangika na makuni gha cassava ndipo yingapelekeka pamoza na somba zakomira, mpunga, ugali, mbatata na vinyake. Pa nyengo ya cakurya ca mise kanandi ŵanthu ŵakurya vyakurya vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kurya nyama za mbuzi para ŵakurya mise. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu ŵakuguliska mbuzi, kuziphaka na kuziphika, kweniso kuziphika na mabhanana. Mu charu chose ichi, ŵanthu ŵakumwa chomene mkaka, chomenechomene uyo uli nga ni yoghurt. Vyakumwa vinyake ni mowa wakuchemeka Ikigage uwo ukupangika kufuma ku sorgo na urwagwa, uwo ukupangika kufuma ku nthochi, na chakumwa chakuchemeka Umutobe icho ni muto wa nthochi. Vyakumwa ivi vikumanyikwa chomene pa viphikiro na viphikiro. Kampani yikuru iyo yikupanga vyakumwa mu Rwanda ni Bralirwa, iyo yikakhazikiskika mu ma 1950, ndipo yikugwira nchito na Heineken. Bralirwa yikupanga vyakurya vya The Coca-Cola Company, nga ni Coca-Cola, Fanta, na Sprite, na vyakurya vinandi nga ni Primus, Mützig, Amstel, na Turbo King. Mu 2009, ofesi yiphya yakuzenga moŵa yakuchemeka Brasseries des Mille Collines (BMC) yikajulika. Mu caru ici, muli vyakupangira moŵa vyakucemeka East African Breweries, ivyo vikuguliska moŵa nga ni Guinness, Tusker, na Bell, kweniso whisky na moŵa.{{sfn|Kezio-Musoke|2014}} === Sport === {{Main|Sport in Rwanda}} [[File:MTB cycling 2012 Olympics M cross-country RWA Adrien Niyonshuti.jpg|thumb|left|[[Adrien Niyonshuti]], "one of the most famous people in Rwanda",{{sfn|CyclingNews.com|2012}} competing in the [[cross-country mountain biking]] event at the 2012 Summer Olympics]] Boma la Rwanda, kwizira mu ndondomeko yake ya chitukuko cha maseŵero, likukwezga maseŵero nga ni nthowa yakukhora ya "kutukula na kuzenga mtende", ndipo boma lacita phangano la kukhozga kugwiliskira nchito maseŵero pa vilato vyakupambanapambana vya chitukuko, kusazgapo masambiro. Maseŵero agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa ku Rwanda ni bola, bola ya volleyball, basketball, maseŵero gha ku malo ghakupambanapambana na maseŵero gha ku malo ghakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero agha cifukwa ca ŵanthu awo ŵakawerako ku Kenya uko ŵakasambira maseŵero agha. Njinga, iyo kanandi yikuwoneka nga ni nthowa yakwendeskera vinthu mu Rwanda, yikukweleraso ku ŵanthu ŵanandi nga ni maseŵero; ndipo timu ya Rwanda yili kulembeka buku lakuti, Land of Second Chances: The Impossible Rise of Rwanda's Cycling Team na filimu yakuti, Rising from Ashes.{{sfn|Robbins|2013}}{{sfn|Willgoss|2014}} [[File:GCS Drone Shot-YT.jpg|thumb|The Gahanga Cricket Stadium]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Rwanda ŵakuchitako maseŵero gha Olimpiki kwambira mu 1984, ndipo ŵa ku Rwanda ŵakuchitako maseŵero gha Paralympic kwambira mu 2004. Charu ichi chikatumizga ŵanthu 7 ku maseŵera gha ku London mu 2012, ndipo ŵakamwimira pa maseŵera gha ku London, kusambira, kukwera njinga ya mu mapiri na judo. Charu ichi chikusangikaso pa maseŵero gha Commonwealth Games kufuma apo chikaŵamo mu 2009. Gulu la basketball la dziko lino lakhala likukula kuyambira pakati pa zaka za m'ma 2000, ndipo timu ya amuna yakhala ikuyenerera gawo lomaliza la African Basketball Championship kanayi motsatizana kuyambira 2007. Charu ichi chikaŵa na mwaŵi yayi wa kuchitiska maseŵera agha. Chikwata cha mpira cha Rwanda chawonekera pa African Cup of Nations kamodzi, mu 2004 mtundu wa mpikisano, koma mwapang'onopang'ono chinalephera kupitirira gawo la magulu. Gulu ili likutondeka kujowina pa chiphalizgano ichi kufuma apo, ndipo likutondeka kujowina pa World Cup. Mpikisano wapamwamba kwambiri wa mpira ku Rwanda ndi Rwanda National Football League; kuyambira 2015, timu yolamulira ndi APR FC ya Kigali, yomwe yapambana 13 mwa mipikisano 17 yapitayi. Magulu gha ku Rwanda ghakulondezga chiphalizgano cha Kagame Interclub Cup cha magulu gha ku Central na East Africa, icho chikulembeka kufuma mu 2002 na Pulezidenti Kagame.{{sfn|CECAFA}} == Unenesko == {{Portal|Africa}} * [[Index of Rwanda-related articles]] * [[Outline of Rwanda]]{{clear}} == Ukaboni wakuyowoyeka == {{reflist|20em}} == Ukaboni unandi == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Adekunle |first=Julius |year=2007 |title=Culture and customs of Rwanda |location=Westport, Conn. |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=978-0-313-33177-0 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=g0FC40EQujwC}} }} * {{cite web |author=African Development Bank (AfDB) |date=26 August 2011 |title=Boosting Rwanda's Energy Sector: AfDB, other Lenders Commit USD 91.25 million to Kivuwatt Project |author-link=African Development Bank |url=http://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/article/boosting-rwandas-energy-sector-afdb-other-lenders-commit-usd-91-25-million-to-kivuwatt-project-8338/ |access-date=10 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|AfDB|2011}} |archive-date=5 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105120930/http://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/article/boosting-rwandas-energy-sector-afdb-other-lenders-commit-usd-91-25-million-to-kivuwatt-project-8338/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |author1=African Development Bank (AfDB) |author2=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Development Centre |year=2006 |title=African Economic Outlook |edition=5 |location=Paris |publisher=OECD Publishing |isbn=978-92-64-02243-0 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=fpEFOR6WmfYC}}| ref = {{sfnRef|AfDB|OECD Development Centre|2006}} }} * {{cite news |author=Agence Africaine de Presse |date=24 July 2015 |title=Rwanda, DR Congo open trade talks |location=Dakar |url=http://www.apanews.net/abonnes/connection.php?id=829578&lg=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003092331/http://apanews.net/abonnes/connection.php?id=829578&lg=fr |archive-date=3 October 2015 |access-date=30 October 2015 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite news |author=Agence France-Presse |date=16 August 2002 |title=Ethnic origins ignored in Rwanda's first census since genocide |author-link=Agence France-Presse |location=Paris |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/rwanda/ethnic-origins-ignored-rwandas-first-census-genocide |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-date=3 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203195050/http://reliefweb.int/report/rwanda/ethnic-origins-ignored-rwandas-first-census-genocide |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |last=Aglietti |first=Stephanie |date=11 September 2014 |title=Rwanda cricket, growing a game of hope |agency=Agence France-Presse |location=Paris |work=[[Yahoo Sports]] |url=https://sports.yahoo.com/news/rwanda-cricket-growing-game-hope-064714133--spt.html |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=17 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017171700/https://sports.yahoo.com/news/rwanda-cricket-growing-game-hope-064714133--spt.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |last=Agutamba |first=Kenneth |date=9 August 2015 |title=BNR 'defeats' speculators but exchange rate woes continue |work=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]] |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-08-09/191405/ |access-date=31 August 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053526/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2015-08-09/191405/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |last=Agutamba |first=Kenneth |date=4 December 2014 |title=Rwanda graft index falters but ranking unaffected |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-12-04/183704/ |access-date=30 August 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010195947/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2014-12-04/183704/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |author=Al Jazeera |date=20 September 2007 |title=Rwanda blames DR Congo for violence |author-link=Al Jazeera |location=Doha |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2007/09/2008525143037439552.html |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=13 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513110341/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2007/09/2008525143037439552.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |author=Amnesty International |year=2015 |title=Amnesty International Report 2014/15: The State of the World's Human Rights |author-link=Amnesty International |url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/POL1000012015ENGLISH.PDF |access-date=3 August 2015 |archive-date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314213122/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/POL1000012015ENGLISH.PDF |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |last=Anyango |first=Gloria I. |date=4 February 2010 |title=The Barbecue Chef who masters his roast |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-02-04/93743/ |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200023/http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2010-02-04/93743/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |last2=Gates |first2=Henry Louis |year=2010 |title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 |edition=illustrated |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=A0XNvklcqbwC }} |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 }} * {{cite news |last=Asiimwe |first=Bosco R |date=28 September 2011 |title=Gov't to sanction officials who failed to declare wealth |work=The New Times |location=Kigali |url=http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/article/2011-09-27/35369/ |access-date=10 November 2015 |archive-date=10 October 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|ref={{sfnRef|USAID (III)|2015}} |archive-date=14 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814015120/https://www.usaid.gov/rwanda/global-health |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |author=United States Department of State |year=2004 |title=Background Note: Rwanda |work=Background Notes |author-link=United States Department of State |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/rwanda/40249.htm |access-date=12 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|U.S. Department of State|2004}} |archive-date=28 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328004856/https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/rwanda/40249.htm |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |title=Rwands 2016 Human Rights Report |year=2016 |publisher=U.S. Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices |url=https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/265502.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307090346/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/265502.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2017 |access-date=29 May 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|U.S. Department of State|2016}} }} * {{cite web |author=Université Laval |year=2010 |title=Rwanda: Aménagement linguistique dans le monde |language=fr |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/afrique/rwanda.htm |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=29 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329111806/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/rwanda.htm |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |author=Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) |date=25 March 2008 |title=Batwa |author-link=UNPO |url=http://www.unpo.org/members/7861 |access-date=19 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|UNPO|2008}} |archive-date=2 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402134444/http://unpo.org/members/7861 |url-status=dead}} * {{cite news |author=USA Today |date=29 October 2008 |title=Congolese army claims attack by Rwandan troops |author-link=USA Today |location=Tysons Corner, Va. |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-10-29-congo-fighting_N.htm |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-date=4 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104070524/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-10-29-congo-fighting_N.htm |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |last=Uwiringiyamana |first=Clement |date=14 July 2015 |title=Rwanda elections: MPs back move to let President Paul Kagame run for unprecedented third term |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/rwanda-elections-mps-back-move-to-let-president-paul-kagame-run-for-unprecedented-third-term-10388744.html |access-date=31 August 2015 |location=London |ref={{sfnRef|Uwiringiyamana (I)|2015}} |archive-date=10 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810233115/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/rwanda-elections-mps-back-move-to-let-president-paul-kagame-run-for-unprecedented-third-term-10388744.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite news 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technical assistance should help Rwanda in its efforts to achieve a dynamic economy |work=Trade policy review: Rwanda |author-link=World Trade Organization |url=http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/tp236_e.htm |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|WTO|2004}} |archive-date=2 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002011128/http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/tp236_e.htm |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |author=World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) |year=2001 |title=Terrestrial Ecoregions: Albertine Rift montane forests (AT0101) |author-link=World Wide Fund for Nature |url=https://secure.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at0101_full.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041222014550/https://secure.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at0101_full.html |archive-date=22 December 2004 |access-date=16 November 2015 |ref={{sfnRef|WWF|2001}} }} * {{cite news |author=Xinhua News Agency |date=26 August 2015 |title=Rwanda deplores French decision on case of genocide suspect |author-link=Xinhua News Agency |location=Beijing |url=http://www.globalpost.com/article/6636570/2015/08/26/rwanda-deplores-french-decision-case-genocide-suspect |access-date=30 October 2015 |archive-date=2 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302133257/http://www.globalpost.com/article/6636570/2015/08/26/rwanda-deplores-french-decision-case-genocide-suspect |url-status=live }} {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == <!-- ==============================({{NoMoreLinks}})============================== --> <!-- DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS --> <!-- If you think that your link might be useful, instead of placing it here, put --> <!-- it on this article's discussion page first. Links that have not been verified --> <!-- WILL BE DELETED --> <!-- ============================================================================= --> {{sister project links|Rwanda|voy=Rwanda}} '''Government''': * [http://www.gov.rw/ The Republic of Rwanda] (official government site) '''General''': * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210109091722/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/rwanda Rwanda]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14093238 Rwanda profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{cite web|title=Rwanda Convention Bureau|url=https://www.micemag.com/rwanda-convention-bureau/}} * {{GovPubs|Rwanda}} * {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/Rwanda}} * {{Osmrelation-inline|171496}} '''Tourism''': * [https://web.archive.org/web/20250803051901/https://visitrwanda.com/ Rwanda Tourism] (official Rwanda Tourism Board site) {{Rwanda topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Related articles |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Former German colonies}} {{African Union}} {{La Francophonie}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} }} {{Authority control}} {{coord|1|57|S|29|52|E|type:country_region:RW|display=title}} [[Category:Rwanda| ]] [[Category:1962 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1962]] [[Category:Swahili-speaking countries and territories]] hxgo4pqgzrbzorjbqh390dizqpshgy1 0 6955 122366 118830 2026-09-25T02:20:21Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122366 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country on the coast of West Africa}} {{distinguish|Sinegal}} {{About|charu|dambo|Mlonga wa Senegal}} {{nkhaniiwemi}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Senegal | native_name = {{native name|fr|République du Sénégal}} | common_name = Senegal | image_flag = Flag of Senegal.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Senegal.svg | image_map = Senegal (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = {{map caption|Senegal pa gilini}} | image_map2 = | national_motto = {{native phrase|fr|"Un Peuple, Un But, Une Foi"|italics=off}}<br />{{small|"One People, One Goal, One Faith"}} | national_anthem = <br />{{nowrap|"[[Le Lion rouge|Pincez Tous vos Koras, Frappez les Balafons]]"}}<br />{{small|"Everyone, strum your [[Kora (instrument)|koras]], strike the [[balafon]]s"}}{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Senegal.ogg]]}} | official_languages = [[French Language|French]] | languages_type = [[Lingua franca]] | languages = {{collapsible list|bullets=y|title={{nobold|List:}} |[[Wolof language|Wolof]]{{Efn|name=WolofStatus|Information from the University of Pennsylvania's Center for African Studies estimates that about 90% of the Senegalese population understands or speaks Wolof as a first or second language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=African Studies Center{{!}} African Languages at Penn |url=https://www.africa.upenn.edu/afl/alwolof.htm |access-date=2023-03-20 |website=Center for African Studies at [[University of Pennsylvania]]}}</ref>}} |French |Pulaar |Arabic{{Efn|name=ArabicStatus|Arabic is taught as a second language for religious reasons within the Senegalese educational system.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Falola |first=Toyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fhADwAAQBAJ&dq=Arabic+Status+in+Senegal&pg=PT190 |title=Africanizing Knowledge: African Studies Across the Disciplines |date=2017-11-30 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-32438-0 |pages=190 |language=en}}</ref>}} }} | languages2_type = National languages | languages2 = {{hlist|[[Wolof language|Wolof]]|[[Serer language|Serer]]|[[Diola language|Diola]]|[[Pulaar language|Pulaar]]|[[Soninke language|Soninke]]|[[Malinke language|Malinke]]{{Efn|name=SenegalNationalLangs|Article 1 of the 2001 Constitution of Senegal, which states that the national languages are Diola, Malinké, Pular, Sérère, Soninke and Wolof.<ref name="Languages">{{Cite web |title=Senegal's Constitution of 2001 with Amendments through 2016 |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Senegal_2016.pdf?lang=en|website=Constitute Project |language=en}}</ref>}}}} | ethnic_groups = {{ubl| 36.7% [[Wolof people|Wolof]] |30.5% [[Fula people|Fula]] |16.0% [[Serer people|Serer]] |4.9% [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] |4.2% [[Jola people|Jola]] |2.4% [[Soninke people|Soninke]] |5.4% Other }} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name=":0a">{{Citation |title=Senegal |date=2022-08-23 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/senegal/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2022-08-31}}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2019 | religion = {{ubl | 96.6% [[Islam in Senegal|Islam]] |3.3% [[Christianity in Senegal|Christianity]] |0.1% Other/None}} | religion_ref = <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/senegal#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016c | title=Religions in Senegal &#124; PEW-GRF }}</ref> | demonym = Senegalese | capital = [[Dakar]] | coordinates = {{Coord|14|40|N|17|25|W|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential republic]]<ref name = cia/> | leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of Senegal|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Macky Sall]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Senegal|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Amadou Ba (politician, born 1961)|Amadou Ba]] | leader_title3 = [[List of Presidents of the National Assembly of Senegal|President of the National Assembly]] | leader_name3 = [[Amadou Mame Diop]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Senegal)|National Assembly]] | area_rank = 86th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]--> | area_km2 = 196,712 | area_sq_mi = 76,000 | percent_water = 2.1 | population_estimate = 17,196,308<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=SN |title=Population, total - Senegal |website=[[World Bank]] Data}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2021 | population_estimate_rank = 72nd | population_census_rank = 73rd | population_census = 16,624,000<ref name = cia2018>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/senegal/ |title=Senegal |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=20 October 2018}}</ref> | population_census_year = 2016 | population_density_km2 = 68.7 | population_density_sq_mi = 208.5 | population_density_rank = 134th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$72.703 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 106th | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase }} $4,113<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 156th | GDP_nominal_rank = 111th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$27.542 billion<ref name=imf2/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/countries-by-gdp/ |title=GDP Ranked by Country 2021 |website=worldpopulationreview.com |access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase }}$1,558<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 157th | established_event1 = Republic established | established_date1 = 25 November 1958 | sovereignty_type = [[History of Senegal|Independence]] | established_event2 = from France{{efn|With [[French Sudan]], as the [[Mali Federation]].}} | established_date2 = 4 April 1960 | established_event3 = Withdrawal from<br />the [[Mali Federation]] | established_date3 = 20 August 1960 | established_event4 = from France{{efn|As the [[French Sudan|Sudanese Republic]], with Senegal as the Mali Federation.}} | established_date4 = 20 June 1960 | established_event5 = as Senegal | established_date5 = 22 September 1960 | established_event6 = dissolution of the [[Senegambia Confederation]] | established_date6 = 30 September 1989 | Gini_year = 2011 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = 40.3 <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2 March 2011}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.511 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=September 8, 2022|access-date=September 8, 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 170th | currency = [[West African CFA franc]] | currency_code = XOF | country_code = | utc_offset = {{sp}} | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+221]] | cctld = [[.sn]] | religion_year = 2020 | flag_p1 = Flag of Mali (1959–1961).svg | today = }} '''Senegal''' ({{Audio|En-us-Senegal.ogg|/ˌsɛnᵻˈɡɔːl/}})<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Senegal |title=Definition of Senegal |publisher=The Free Dictionary |access-date=6 November 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Senegal |title=Define Senegal |dictionary=Dictionary.com |access-date=6 November 2013 }}</ref> kuzunula mwaboma, '''Charu cha Sengegal''',{{efn|({{lang-fr|link=no|République du Sénégal}}; [[Wolof language|Wolof]]: ''Réewum Senegaal''; [[Pulaar language|Pulaar]] : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Renndaandi Senegaali); [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: جمهورية السنغال ''Cumhûriyye es-Sinigâl'')}} ni caru ca ku [[West Africa]], mumphepete mwa [[nyanja ya Atlantic]]. Charu cha Senegal chili kumpoto na [[Mauritania]], kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Mali]], kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Guinea-Bissau]]. Charu cha Senegal chili pafupi na charu cha [[Gambia]], ndipo chili mumphepete mwa [[Mlonga wa Gambia]]. Charu cha Senegal chili na mphaka na charu cha [[Cape Verde]]. Msumba wa [[Dakar]] ndiwo ni msumba ukuru wa vyachuma na ndyali mu Senegal. Charu cha Senegal ndicho chili kumanjiliro gha dazi comene mu caru ca Old World, panji [[Afro-Eurasia]].<ref>Janet H. Gritzner, Charles F. Gritzner – 2009, Senegal – Page 8</ref> Zina ili likwiza cifukwa ca [[mlonga wa Senegal]], uwo uli kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto. Nyengo yake ni ya ku [[Sahelian]], kweni nyengo zinyake kukuŵa vula. Charu cha Senegal chili na malo ghakukwana makilomita pafupifupi 197,000 ndipo ŵanthu ŵake ŵalipo 17 miliyoni.{{UN Population|ref}} Boma ili lili na boma la pulezidenti; kufuma waka apo likambira mu 1960, charu ichi ntchakukhora chomene mu Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/senegal/overview |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> Charu cha Senegal chili na ngongoli zinandi, ndipo chili pa nambara 170. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mumphepete mwa nyanja ndipo ŵakugwira ntchito zaulimi na vyakurya. Charu ichi chilije vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi, kweni vinthu vikwenda makora pa nkhani ya masambiro. Charu cha Senegal chili mu wupu wa [[African Union]], [[United Nations]], [[Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)]], Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], na Community of Sahel-Saharan States. Pa caru cose, Senegal ni caru ico cikumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca mpikisano wa [[Paris-Dakar Rally]].<ref name=":0b">{{cite web |title=Senegal, a Muslim Country that Can't Get Enough Christmas |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_senegal-muslim-country-cant-get-enough-christmas/6181575.html |last=Hammerschlag |first=Annika |date=24 December 2019 |access-date=30 November 2022 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> Charu cha Senegal chili na ngongoli zinandi, ndipo chili pa nambara 170. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mumphepete mwa nyanja ndipo ŵakugwira ntchito zaulimi na vyakurya. Charu ichi chilije vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi, kweni vinthu vikwenda makora pa nkhani ya masambiro. Charu cha Senegal chili mu wupu wa African Union, United Nations, [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS), [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]], Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, na Community of Sahel-Saharan States. Pa caru cose, Senegal ni caru ico cikumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca mpikisano wa Paris-Dakar Rally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guivaudon |first=Guillaume |date=2021-12-13 |title=The best destinations for family holidays |url=https://www.littleguestcollection.com/en/magazine/best-destinations-family-holidays |access-date=2022-11-30 |website=Little Guest |language=en}}</ref> == Zina == Charu cha Senegal chili na zina la Mlonga wa Senegal. Zina la mlonga uwu likwenera kuti lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chiphwitikizi ilo likung'anamura zina la [[mlonga wa Zenaga]]. Kweniso lingaŵa zina la chiuta mukuru mu cisopa ca Serer (Rog Sene) na ogal, kung'anamura maji mu ciyowoyero ca Serer. Kweniso vingachitika kuti lizgu ili likufuma ku lizgu la Chiwolophu lakuti "Sunuu Gaal", ilo likung'anamura "bwato lithu".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Holloway |first=Beetle |date=2018-05-31 |title=The Real Story Behind Senegal's Name |url=https://theculturetrip.com/africa/senegal/articles/the-real-story-behind-senegals-name/ |access-date=2022-07-19 |website=Culture Trip}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{main|History of Senegal}} === Vyaka vyakwambilira na vyakumanyuma === Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga mu chigaŵa ichi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi mu nyengo yakale chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., kukaŵa maufumu ghanyake: Takrur mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., Namandiru na Jolof Empire mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E. na 14 C.E. Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Senegal kukaŵa mu ufumu wa Ghana. Chisilamu chikamba kwizira mwa Toucouleur na Soninke awo ŵakakolerana na ufumu wa Almoravid wa ku Maghreb. Gulu ili likasuskika chomene na ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Serer.<ref>Klein, Martin A., ''Islam and Imperialism in Senegal: Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914'', p. 7, Edinburgh University Press (1968) {{ISBN|0-8047-0621-2}}</ref><ref>[[Henry Gravrand|Gravrand, Henry]], ''La civilisation Sereer, Pangool,'' p. 13. Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1990), {{ISBN|2-7236-1055-1}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 na 1400, chigaŵa ichi chikakhwaskika na maufumu gha kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu cigaŵa ca Senegambia, pakati pa 1300 na 1900, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu pafupifupi ciŵelengero cimoza ca ŵanthu ŵatatu cikaŵa ŵazga.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 "Slavery"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |date=6 October 2014 }}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ufumu wa Jolof ukaŵa wankhongono chomene, ndipo ukakolerana na maufumu gha Cayor, Baol, Siné, Saloum, Waalo, Futa Tooro, na Bambouk. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa wa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikakolerana mwakujipeleka.<ref name=charles/><ref>Ham, Anthony. ''West Africa.'' Lonely Planet. 2009. p. 670. {{ISBN|1-74104-821-4}}</ref>Ufumu uwu ukazengeka na Ndiadiane Ndiaye, uyo wakaŵa Serer na Toucouleur, ndipo wakakolerana na mitundu yinandi, kweni ukamara mu 1549 apo Amari Ngone Sobel Fall wakatimba na kukoma Lele Fouli Fak. === Nyengo ya Ŵakoloni === {{Main|Senegambia (Dutch West India Company)|French conquest of Senegal}} [[File:AMH-8133-KB Floor plan of the fort on Goeree.jpg|thumb|left|Ufumu wa Portugal ukaŵa ufumu wakwamba wa ku Europe kuwukira charu cha Senegal, ndipo ukamba na Dinis Dias mu 1444 apo wakafika pa chirwa cha Gorée.]] Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakiza ku Senegal, ndipo pamanyuma pake ŵamalonda ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, kusazgapo ŵa ku France. Kwambira mu 15th century, maboma gha ku Europe nga ni Portugal, Netherlands, na Great Britain, ghakakolerana pa nkhani ya malonda. Mu 1677, caru ca France cikamba kugura ŵazga pa cirwa ca Gorée, kufupi na Dakar, ico cikagwiranga nchito nga ni malo ghakulugulira ŵazga ku mafumu agho ghakatimbananga.<ref name="h-net.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.h-net.org/~africa/threads/goree.html |title=Goree and the Atlantic Slave Trade |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223164258/http://www.h-net.org/~africa/threads/goree.html |archive-date=23 February 2017|url-status=dead |publisher=h-net.org |access-date=23 February 2017}}</ref><ref>''Les Guides Bleus: Afrique de l'Ouest'' (1958 ed.), p. 123.</ref> Ŵamishonale ŵa ku Europe ŵakiza na Cikristu ku Senegal na ku Casamance mu ma 1800. Mu ma 1850, ŵanthu ŵa ku France ŵakamba kuthandazgikira mu charu cha Senegal, pamanyuma pakuti ŵamazga wuzga na kwamba kusambizga ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kugwiliskira ntchito vigeŵenga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku France ŵakamba kuwukira na kupoka maufumu ghose, kupaturako Siné na Saloum, pasi pa muwusi Louis Faidherbe.<ref name=charles>Charles, Eunice A. '' Precolonial Senegal: the Jolof Kingdom, 1800–1890.'' African Studies Center, Boston University, 1977. p. 3</ref><ref>Klein, Martin A. ''Islam and Imperialism in Senegal: Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914,'' Edinburgh University Press (1968). p. X {{ISBN|0-8047-0621-2}}</ref> [[File:Marchands d'esclaves de Gorée-Jacques Grasset de Saint-Sauveur mg 8526.jpg|thumb|upright|Ŵamalonda ŵa ŵazga ŵa ku France ku Gorée, m'ma 1700]] Yoro Dyao wakaŵa mulara wa chigaŵa cha Foss-Galodjina ndipo wakimikika pa Wâlo (Ouâlo) na Louis Faidherbe, uko wakateŵeteranga nga ni mulongozgi kufuma mu 1861 mpaka 1914. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Senegal awo ŵakasuskanga ŵanyawo na kuchepeskako malonda ghawo gha ŵazga ŵakalongozgekanga na Lat-Dior, Damel wa ku Cayor, na Maad a Sinig wa ku Siné. Mu 1915, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 300 ŵa ku Senegal ŵakaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Australia, pambere Ŵaustralia ŵandatore Damaseko. Ivyo vikachitikanga ku France na Britain vikapangiska kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora. Pa Novembala 25, 1958, Senegal yikazgoka charu chakujiyimira paŵekha mu French Community.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/15/travel/senegal.html|date=15 July 2004|work=[[The New York Times]]|title=Senegal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210327062010/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/15/travel/senegal.html|archive-date=27 March 2021|url-status=live|access-date=27 March 2021}}</ref> === Kujilamulila === [[File:Mali Federation in its region.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Wupu wa Mali uwo ukaŵako nyengo yicoko waka]]Mu Janyuwale 1959, Senegal na French Sudan vikasazgikana na kupanga Mali Federation, iyo yikaŵa yakujiyimira paŵekha pa 20 Juni 1960, cifukwa ca phangano la kusinthiska mazaza na France ilo likalembeka pa 4 Epulero 1960. Chifukwa cha masuzgo gha ndyali, wupu uwu ukabwanganduka pa 20 Ogasiti 1960 apo Senegal na French Sudan (ŵakazgoreka Republic of Mali) waliyose wakapharazga wanangwa wake. Mu Ogasiti 1960, Léopold Sédar Senghor, mulembi, wandale, na munthu wa boma wakumanyikwa pa caru cose, wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa Senegal. Senghor, uyo wakaŵa wakutemwa caru ca Africa, wakawoneseskanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵacitenge vinthu mwamahara.<ref>''A Critical bibliography of French literature: in three parts. The Twentieth.'' Edited by David Clark Cabeen, Richard A. Brooks, Douglas W. Alden</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti Mali yaparanyika, pulezidenti Senghor na nduna yikuru Mamadou Dia ŵakalongozganga pamoza mu nyumba za malango. Mu Disembala 1962, mphindano zawo za ndyali zikapangiska kuti Prime Minister Dia wapange boma. Chiwukirano ichi chikathereskeka kwambura kuthiska ndopa ndipo Dia ŵakamukora na kumujalira mu jele. Boma la Senegal likapeleka dango liphya ilo likakhozga mazaza gha pulezidenti. Senghor wakalekeleranga yayi ŵanthu awo ŵakamususkanga kuluska umo ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa mu Africa ŵakacitira mu ma 1960. Ndipouli, kwa nyengo yicoko waka, boma likakanizga ŵanthu kucita ndyali. Chipani cha Senghor, Senegalese Progressive Union (sono ni Socialist Party of Senegal), ndicho chikaŵa chipani pera icho chikazomerezgeka na dango kufuma mu 1965 m'paka mu 1975. Mu caka caumaliro, Senghor wakazomerezga kuti paŵe vipani viŵiri vyakususka ivyo vikamba kugwira nchito mu 1976 - chipani ca Marxist (African Independence Party) na chipani ca liberal (Senegal Democratic Party). Mu ma 1960 na kuuyambiro kwa ma 1970, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakalutilira kuswa mphaka za Senegal. Pakuzgora, Senegal wakapempha wupu wa United Nations Security Council mu 1963, 1965, 1969 (pakuzgora kuponyera mabomba ku Portugal), 1971 na 1972. === 1980 mpaka pano === Mu 1980, Pulezidenti Senghor wakaleka ndyali. Chaka chakulondezgapo, mu 1981 wakapeleka mazaza kwa Abdou Diouf. Mamadou Dia, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya boma, wakathereskeka pa viphikiro vya mu 1983. Senghor wakasamira ku France, uko wakafwira na vilimika 95. Mu ma 1980, Boubacar Lam wakasanga mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Senegal iyo yikapangika na Yoro Dyâo, uyo wakaŵa wa ku Tuculor, pambere Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yindambe.<ref name="AfrAm">{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Jane |title=A Companion to African-American Studies |date=15 April 2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |page=463 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ODmpx1fgJNIC&pg=PA463|isbn=978-1-4051-5466-6}}</ref> Pa Febuluwale 1, 1982, Senegal yikakolerana na Gambia na kupanga wupu wa Senegambia Confederation. Ndipouli, wupu uwu ukamara mu 1989. Nangauli pakaŵa maungano gha mtende, kweni gulu la ku mpoto ilo likukhumba kujipatura ku boma (Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance panji MFDC) mu chigaŵa cha Casamance, likulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa boma kwambira mu 1982. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, nkhaza zachepa ndipo Pulezidenti Macky Sall wakachezga na ŵakugaluka ku Rome mu Disembala 2012.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304222507/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=135&regionSelect=2-Southern_Africa "][[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]]<span>: Senegal: Casamance, In-depth Developments since 2005"</span> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304222507/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=135&regionSelect=2-Southern_Africa|date=4 March 2016}}, ''Conflict Encyclopedia''</ref> Abdou Diouf wakaŵa purezidenti pakati pa 1981 na 2000. Wakakhwimiska ŵanthu kuti ŵachiteko ndyali, kuchepeska umo boma likwendeskera vinthu vyachuma, kweniso kusazgirako ndyali za Senegal, comenecomene na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikukura. Nyengo zinyake vinthu vya ndyali vikapangiska kuti pa misewu paŵe vivulupi, mphindano pa mphaka, kweniso kuti mu chigaŵa cha Casamance kumwera muŵe vivulupi. Ndipouli, Senegal yikalutilira kukhozgera wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Abdou Diouf wakaŵa pulezidenti nyengo zinayi. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Gulf, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 500 ŵa ku Senegal ŵakanjilirapo pa Nkhondo ya Khafji na pa kampeni ya kuwombora Kuwait. Mu 1999, mulongozgi wa chipani chinyake, Abdoulaye Wade, wakathereska Diouf pa mavoti agho ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵakawona kuti ngawanangwa. Pa nyengo iyi, boma la Senegal likaŵa kuti laŵa na mazaza ghaŵiri, ndipo likaŵa lakwamba kufuma ku chipani chimoza kuluta ku chinyake. Pa Disembala 30, 2004, pulezidenti Wade wakapharazga kuti wazamusayinira phangano la mtende na gulu lakujipatura mu chigaŵa cha Casamance. Ndipouli, ivi vicali kunthazi. Mu 2005, pakaŵa ungano unyake wa awo ŵakadumbiskana nkhani iyi, kweni m'paka sono ŵandafikepo pa fundo. Mu Malichi 2012, pulezidenti wa sono Abdoulaye Wade wakatondeka pa chisankho cha pulezidenti ndipo Macky Sall wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti muphya wa Senegal. Pulezidenti Macky Sall wakasankhikaso mu mavoti gha 2019. Mulimo wa pulezidenti ukakhira kufuma pa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri kuya pa vinkhondi na viŵiri. Kuyambira pa 3 March 2021, Senegal yakhala ikugwedezeka ndi ziwonetsero zambiri poyankha kumangidwa kwa Ousmane Sonko chifukwa chogwidwa ndi nkhanza komanso kusagwira bwino ntchito kwa mliri wa COVID-19. Mu Juni 2023, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchita nkhaza chomene, ndipo wupu wa Amnesty International ukati ŵanthu 23 ŵakafwa, ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafwa chifukwa cha kuphulika na ŵapolisi panji awo ŵakakolerananga nawo.<ref name="police violence">{{cite news |last1=Peltier |first1=Elian |title=‘The State Killed My Brother’: Senegal in Uproar After Deadly Protests |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/12/world/africa/senegal-protests.html |access-date=12 June 2023 |publisher=New York Times |date=12 June 2023 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230612142936/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/12/world/africa/senegal-protests.html |archive-date=12 June 2023}}</ref> == Boma na ndale == {{main|Politics of Senegal}} [[File:Macky Sall - 2008.jpg|thumb|upright|Macky Sall, Pulezidenti wa Senegal (2012-paka sono)]] [[File:Abdoulaye Wade in 16-05-2007.jpg|thumb|upright|Abdoulaye Wade, Pulezidenti wa Senegal (2000~2012)]] Pulezidenti wakwamba, [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], wakaŵa mulembi na mulembi, ndipo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Africa uyo wakasankhika kuŵa mu wupu wa French Academy. Pulezidenti waciŵiri wa Senegal, Abdou Diouf, pamanyuma wakaŵa mulembi mukuru wa Organisation de la Francophonie. Pulezidenti wacitatu wakaŵa Abdoulaye Wade, loya. Pulezidenti wa sono ni Macky Sall, uyo wakasankhika mu Malichi 2012 ndipo wakasankhikaso mu February 2019.<ref>{{citation|website=BBC News|date=28 February 2019|access-date=10 August 2019|title=Senegal election: President Macky Sall wins second term|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47400711}}</ref> Mu Senegal muli vyaru vyakujumpha 80. Nyumba ya mafumu njimoza ndipo yili na mipando 150. Ku Senegal nako kuli ŵeruzgi ŵakujiyimira paŵekha. Makhoti ghapacanya comene agho ghakuwona vya bizinesi ni khoti la malango na la urunji.<ref name=cia>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |author-link=CIA |work=[[The World Factbook]]|title=Senegal |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/senegal/ |year=2009|access-date=12 October 2015}}</ref> ===Political culture=== Pasono, Senegal yili na ndyali za demokilase, yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vyacita makora comene kusintha kwa demokilase mu Africa. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakwimikika na pulezidenti. Ŵa Marabout, ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa vya visopo vyakupambanapambana mu Senegal, nawo ŵali na mazaza pa ndyali mu caru ici, comenecomene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Wade. Mu 2009, Freedom House yikasintha malo gha Senegal kufuma ku "Free" kuya ku "Partly Free", chifukwa cha kukhazikika kwa mazaza mu boma. Mu 2014, charu ichi chikaŵaso na wanangwa wakusopa. Mu 2008, charu cha Senegal chikaŵa pa malo gha nambara 12 pa Ibrahim Index of African Governance. Ndondomeko ya Ibrahim Index yikulongora umo maboma gha mu Africa ghakwendeskera vinthu (paka mu 2008 ghakaŵa mu vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa pera). Apo vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa vikasazgikako mu 2009, malo agho Senegal yikaŵa nagho mu 2008 ghakawerako na kufika pa nambara 15 (Tunisia, Eguputo, na Morocco ghakaŵa panthazi pa Senegal). Mu 2012, pa vyaru 52 vya mu Africa, charu cha Senegal chikaŵa pa nambara 16 pa vyaru vyose vya mu Africa. Pa February 22, 2011, Senegal yikadumura ubwezi na Iran, yikati yikapeleka vilwero ku ŵakugaluka ivyo vikakoma ŵasilikari ŵa Senegal mu nkhondo ya ku Casamance. Chisankho cha pulezidenti cha 2012 chikaŵa chakususka chifukwa cha kusoleka kwa pulezidenti Wade, pakuti ŵakususka ŵakayowoya kuti wangaŵa wakwenelera yayi kwimilira. Mu Juni 2011, magulu gha ŵawukirano ghakupambanapambana, kusazgapo M23 na Y'en a Marre, ghakawuka. Paumaliro, Macky Sall wa Alliance for the Republic ndiyo wakathereska, ndipo Wade wakapeleka mazaza kwa Sall. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku vyaru vinyake, nga ni ŵa EU, ŵakalumba kusintha uku. Pa Seputembala 19, 2012, ŵanthu ŵakazomerezga kuti wupu wa Senate uleke kugwira ntchito kuti usunge ndalama zakukwana madola 15 miliyoni. Mu Ogasiti 2017, chipani icho chili na mazaza pa charu chose chikatonda pa chisankho cha pa nyumba ya malango. Wupu wakulongozga wa Pulezidenti Macky Sall watora vithuzithuzi 125 pa vithuzithuzi 165. Mu 2019 purezidenti Macky Sall wakathereskeka mwambura kusuzgika mu chigaŵa chakwamba.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190228-senegal-president-macky-sall-wins-election-preliminary-results |title=Senegal's President Macky Sall easily wins re-election, opposition will not contest vote |work=France24 |date=28 February 2019 |access-date=27 June 2021 }}</ref> === Kugawikana kwa boma === {{Main|Regions of Senegal|Departments of Senegal|Arrondissements of Senegal|Communes of Senegal}} [[File:Senegal, administrative divisions in colour 2.svg|thumb|upright=2.05|Vigaŵa vya Senegal]] Charu cha Senegal chili na vigaŵa 14, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chikuwusika na Conseil Régional (Wupu wa vigaŵa) uwo ukusankhika mwakuyana na unandi wa ŵanthu. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa 45, vigaŵa 113, ndipo palije na chimoza icho chili na ntchito ya boma.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070819053719/http://www.uael.sn/article.php3?id_article=32 List of current local elected officials] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819053719/http://www.uael.sn/article.php3?id_article=32 |date=19 August 2007 }} from Union des ''Associations d' Elus Locaux (UAEL) du Sénégal''. See also the law creating current local government structures: {{in lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20110511042009/http://www.demarches.gouv.sn/collectivites-locales/pdf/code-collec-locales-sen.pdf Code des collectivités locales] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511042009/http://www.demarches.gouv.sn/collectivites-locales/pdf/code-collec-locales-sen.pdf |date=11 May 2011 }}, Loi n° 96-06 du 22 mars 1996.</ref> Misumba yikuruyikuru ya vigaŵa vikuchemeka mwakuyana na vigaŵa vyawo: {{Div col}} * [[Dakar Region|Dakar]] * [[Diourbel Region|Diourbel]] * [[Fatick Region|Fatick]] * [[Kaffrine Region|Kaffrine]] * [[Kaolack Region|Kaolack]] * [[Kédougou Region|Kédougou]] * [[Kolda Region|Kolda]] * [[Louga Region|Louga]] * [[Matam Region|Matam]] * [[Saint-Louis Region|Saint-Louis]] * [[Sédhiou Region|Sédhiou]] * [[Tambacounda Region|Tambacounda]] * [[Thiès Region|Thiès]] * [[Ziguinchor Region|Ziguinchor]] {{Div col end}} ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{Further|Foreign relations of Senegal}} Charu cha Senegal chili na maudindo ghakuru mu mawupu gha vyaru vinandi ndipo chikaŵa mu wupu wa UN Security Council mu 1988-89 na 2015-2016. Mu 1997, wakasankhika kuŵa mu Komiti ya UN ya Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu. Cifukwa cakuti Senegal njabwezi la vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, comenecomene France na United States, yikukhumba comene kuti vyaru vyakutukuka viwovwire vyaru vya caru cacitatu. Charu cha Senegal chili paubwezi uwemi na vyaru vinyake. Nangauli vinthu vyendamo makora pa nkhani zinyake na Mauritania (kuvikilira mphaka, kunozga vyakurya, kunjizga ndyali mu vyaru vinyake), kweni ŵanthu pafupifupi 35,000 ŵa ku Mauritania (pa ŵanthu pafupifupi 40,000 awo ŵakachimbizgika mu charu chawo mu 1989) ŵachali mu Senegal. Charu cha Senegal chili paubwezi uwemi na mawupu ghakurughakuru gha pa caru cose, kusazgapo wupu wa Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), African Union (AU), na wupu wa Sahel-Saharan States.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/video/africa/2014/05/mauritanian-refugees-refuse-leave-senegal-20145872721336117.html|title=Mauritanian refugees refuse to leave Senegal|date=8 May 2014|publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> === Ŵankhondo === [[File:Landmine warning sign near Ziguinchor, Senegal.jpg|thumb|Mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Casamance, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mabomba ghakwimira boma.]] Gulu la nkhondo la Senegal lili na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 17,000. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Senegal ŵakusambizgika, kupika vilwero, na wovwiri kufuma ku France na United States, kweniso ku Germany. Pakuti ŵasilikari ŵakunjilirapo yayi pa ndyali, vyawovwira kuti charu cha Senegal chiŵe chakukhora. Senegal yikawovwirapo pa ntchito zinandi zakusungilira mtende. Sonosono apa, mu 2000, Senegal yikatumizga gulu ku Democratic Republic of Congo kuti likateŵetere mu gulu la United Nations MONUC, ndipo yikakolerana kutumizga gulu linyake ku Sierra Leone. Mu 2015, Senegal yikawovwirapo pa nkhondo ya Saudi Arabia ku Yemen kwimikana na ma Houthi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Senegal to send 2,100 troops to join Saudi-led alliance|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-saudi-senegal-idUSKBN0NP1N920150504|date=4 May 2015|work=Reuters}}</ref> ===Malango=== Charu cha Senegal ni charu cha ŵanthu yayi, nga umo Dango likulongosolera. Pakukhumba kumazga vimbundi, boma likapanga ofesi yakuwona vya vimbundi (OFNAC) na komiti yakuwona vya kuwezgerapo na kuwezgerapo vinthu ivyo vyazunulika mwambura kuzomerezgeka. Kuyana na Business Anti-Corruption Portal, Pulezidenti Sall wakalenga OFNAC kuti yisinthe Commission Nationale de Lutte Contre la non Transparence, la Corruption et la Concussion (CNLCC). Ŵanyake ŵakuti OFNAC ni nthowa yiwemi comene yakumazgira vimbundi kuluska CNLCC iyo yikaŵako mu nyengo ya pulezidenti wakale Wade. Ntchito ya OFNAC nkhulimbana na vimbundi, kunanga ndalama za boma na upusikizgi. Ofnac wali na mazaza ghakupeleka mulandu (kuchita kafukufuku payekha). Wupu wa OFNAC uli na ŵanthu 12 awo ŵakwimikika na dango. Kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhwakukanizgika mu Senegal. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2013, ŵanthu 96 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Senegal ŵakugomezga kuti kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi. Anthu a gulu la LGBTQ ku Senegal akuti akumva kuti alibe chitetezo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.trust.org/item/20180927065941-onebm/|title='Fighting for survival', Senegal's gay community is on its own|website=news.trust.org|access-date=2 May 2019}}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Senegal}} [[File:Senegal map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Senegal mapu gha Köppen climate classification]] [[File:Casamance landscape.jpg|thumb|Malo gha Casamance]] Charu cha Senegal chili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Charu ichi chili pakati pa latitude 12° na 17°N, kweniso longitude 11° na 18°W. Charu cha Senegal chili na nyanja ya Atlantic kumanjiliro gha dazi, Mauritania kumpoto, Mali kumafumiro gha dazi, na Guinea na Guinea-Bissau kumwera.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary" /> Charu cha Senegal chili na vyakumera vya mchenga vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sahel. Pano paliso malo ghapachanya chomene mu Senegal, Baunez ridge agho ghali pa mtunda wa makilomita 2.7 kumwera kwa Nepen Diakha pa mamita 648. Malire gha kumpoto ni Mlonga wa Senegal. Msumba ukuru wa Dakar uli ku Cap-Vert peninsula, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary" /> Virwa vya Cape Verde vili pa mtunda wa makilomita 560 kufuma ku Senegal, kweni Cape-Vert ("Cape Green") ni malo agho ghakumanyikwa na nyanja. Malo agha ghali musi mwa "Les Mammelles", ndipo ni mtunda wa mamita 105.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary" /> Ku Senegal kuli vigaŵa vinayi: Nkhorongo ya ku Guinea, Sahelian Acacia, Western Sudan, na mangrove. Charu ichi chili na chiŵelengero cha 7.11/10, ndipo chili pa malo 56 pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Nyengo=== {{Main|Geography of Senegal#Climate}} [[File:Ngor Beach.jpg|thumb|Mphepete mwa nyanja ku N'Gor ]] Charu cha Senegal chili na mphepo zakotcha chomene, ndipo chaka chose chikuŵa na chithukivu. Mu nyengo ya chilangalanga (Disembala m'paka Epulero) kukufuma mphepo yakuzizima. Ku Dakar kukulokwa maji pafupifupi 600 mm pa chaka, kufuma mu Juni m'paka Okutobala, ndipo pa nyengo iyi kutentha kwa msumba ukuŵa pa 30 °C (86.0 °F) m'paka pa 24.2 °C (75.6 °F)..<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.senegal.climatemps.com/|title=Dakar, Senegal Climate Information&nbsp;– ClimateTemp.info, Making Sense of Average Monthly Weather & Temperature Data with Detailed Climate Graphs That Portray Average Rainfall & Sunshine Hours |publisher=ClimaTemps.com |date=22 July 2011 |access-date=29 March 2012}}</ref> Mu vigaŵa vya mukati mu charu muli mphepo zinandi kuluska mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja (Mwachiyelezgero, mu chigaŵa cha Kaolack na Tambacounda mu mwezi wa Meyi, zuŵa lililose mu charu muli mphepo zinandi chomene. Ku Tambacounda, uko kuli chigaŵa chakutali chomene, chomenechomene pa mphaka ya Mali uko chipalamba chikwamba, matenthedwe ghakufika pa 54 °C. Chigaŵa chakumpoto chomene cha charu ichi chili na mphepo yakotcha chomene, ndipo chigaŵa chapakati chili na mphepo yakotcha chomene. Charu cha Senegal chili na dazi kweniso maji ngakomira.{{excerpt|Climate change in Senegal|paragraphs=1-2|hat=no}} <!-- this takes the first and second paragraph of the lead of the sub-article and repeats it here--> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Senegal}}{{Excerpt|Economy of Senegal|hat=no|files=no}} [[File:GDP_per_capita_development_in_Senegal_and_Gambia.svg|thumb|Umo vinthu viliri mu Senegal na Gambia kwambira mu 1950]] === Malonda na ma kamupani === [[File:Senegal Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|Chiŵelengero cha malonda gha ku Senegal, 2019]] Vigaŵa vikuruvikuru ni vyakurya, migodi, simenti, vyakurya vyakupangika na ŵanthu, vyakumera, vyakuvwara, mafuta, na vyakusanguluska. Vinthu ivyo ŵakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ni somba, vyakumera, katoni, salu, phere, na calcium phosphate. Msika ukuru chomene wa vyakurya ivyo vikuguliskika ku vyaru vinyake ni Mali (20.4%), Switzerland (12.2%), na India (8.3%).<ref name="peacecorps.gov" /> Pakuŵa ciŵaro ca wupu wa West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), Senegal yikuyezgayezga kuti yikolerane na vyaru vinyake. Kweniso charu cha Senegal chili mu wupu wa African Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law. Mu 1996, charu cha Senegal chikaŵa na Intaneti, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora chomene pa nkhani ya umanyi. Pa caru ici, nchito ya ŵantu ŵekha ndiyo yikupangiska 82 peresenti ya GDP. Kweni suzgo linyake ndakuti, mu misumba ya ku Senegal muli masuzgo ghakuru nga ni unandi wa ŵanthu ŵambura nchito, kusankhana kwa vinthu pa umoyo wa ŵanthu, ucigeŵenga wa ŵawukirano, na kumwa minkhwala yakuzweteska wongo. Charu cha Senegal ndicho chikupokera wovwiri ukuru wa vyaru vinyake. Ŵanyake mwa awo ŵakupeleka ndalama ni United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Japan, France, na China. Ŵateŵeti ŵakujipeleka ŵakujumpha 4,000 ŵa Peace Corps ŵateŵetera mu Senegal kwambira mu 1963.<ref name="peacecorps.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.peacecorps.gov/senegal/ |title=Peace Corps Senegal |publisher=peacecorps.gov |access-date=2 February 2023}}</ref> === Ulimi === {{Excerpt|Agriculture in Senegal}} === Kukola somba === [[File:Yoff Beach (Dakar), Senegal 2013 (8750149526).jpg|thumb|Fishing boats in Dakar]]Senegal yili na malo gha somba gha mamayilo 12 (22 km; 14 mi) agho ghakuswa nyengo zose mu vyaka vyasonosono apa (kwambira mu 2014). Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti somba za mu charu ichi zikukoma matani 300,000 pa chaka chifukwa cha ulovi wambura kuzomerezgeka. Boma la Senegal likayezga kukanizga somba zambura kuzomerezgeka izo zikuriskika na ngaraŵa zakukolera somba. Mu Janyuwale 2014, boma la Senegal likakora boti la Oleg Naydenov kufupi na mphaka ya ku Guinea-Bissau.<ref>'Russia says factory ship was seized on Greenpeace's orders; Trawler held by Senegal over alleged illegal fishing' by John Vidal The Guardian (UK newspaper) 10 January 2014 page 23</ref> === Magesi === {{Excerpt|Energy in Senegal}} == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Senegal}} [[File:Senegal population.svg|thumb|upright=2.05|Senegal's population from 1960 to 2017]] Mu charu cha Senegal muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 16.9 miliyoni,{{UN_Population|ref}} ndipo ŵanthu 42 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakukhala ku mizi. Mu vigaŵa ivi muli ŵanthu ŵakukwana 77 pa kilomita yimoza (200/sq mi) mu chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi na pakati, ndipo mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi muli ŵanthu ŵakukwana 2. === Ŵanakazi === {{Main|Women in Senegal}} Charu cha Senegal chikatumizga chikalata ku wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanakazi. Kweniso charu cha Senegal chili kusayina chikalata cha African Charter of Human and Peoples' Rights, icho chikaŵa pa ungano wa African Union mu 2003. Ndipouli, ŵanakazi ŵakususka boma cifukwa ca kuleka kufiska ndondomeko, malango na malemba ghanyake agho ghalembeka kuti ghawovwire kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanakazi. === Mtundu wa ŵanthu === {{Main|Ethnic groups in Senegal}} Mu Senegal muli ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi. Wolof ndiwo mtundu ukuru chomene mu Senegal, ndipo uli na ŵanthu 36%. Ŵafula na Toucouleur (ŵakumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Halpulaar'en, kung'anamura kuti "ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha ku pulara") (30%) ndiwo ni mtundu ukuru chomene. (Wonaniso cigaŵa ca Bedick.) Ku Senegal kuli ŵanthu pafupifupi 50,000 ŵa ku Europe (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku France). Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakukhala mu Senegal, nga mba ku Lebanoni, Mauritania, na Morocco, ŵakukhala mu misumba na mu matawuni ghakuzingilizga Mbour. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Lebanon ŵakugwira nchito mu malonda. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Lebanon ŵakufuma ku tawuni ya Turo, iyo yikumanyikwa kuti "Little West Africa" ndipo yili na msewu ukuru wakuchemeka "Avenue du Senegal".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Shi'i Cosmopolitanisms in Africa: Lebanese Migration and Religious Conversion in Senegal|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W6-AAM-771|last=Leichtman|first=Mara|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-0253015990|location=Bloomington and Indianapolis|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_W6-AAM-771/page/26 26], 31, 51, 54, 86}}</ref> Charu ichi chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku France awo ŵakafuma mu vyaru vinyake pakati pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose na Senegal. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku France ŵakagura nyumba mu msumba wa Dakar panji mu misumba yinyake yikuruyikuru. Kweniso mu matawuni mukukhala ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Vietnam, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku China awo ŵakuguliska malonda. Kweniso ku Senegal kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku Mauritania awo ŵakuchimbilira ku vyaru vinyake. Lipoti linyake la wupu wa U.S. Komiti ya Ŵakuchimbira na Ŵakufuma mu Vyaru Vinyake, Senegal yili na ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo na awo ŵakupenja malo ghakubisamamo ŵakujumpha 23,800 mu 2007. Ŵanthu ŵanandi (20,200) ŵakufuma ku Mauritania. Ŵanthu awo ŵachimbira kwawo ŵakukhala ku N'dioum, Dodel, na ku mizi yinyake mu dambo la Mlonga wa Senegal.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2008">{{cite news|title=World Refugee Survey 2008 |publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants |date=19 June 2008 |url=http://www.refugees.org/survey |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528032724/http://www.refugees.org/survey/ |archive-date=28 May 2010 }}</ref> ===Viyowoyelo=== {{Main|Languages of Senegal}} Cifurenci ni ciyowoyero ca boma, ico cikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu wose awo ŵakhala vyaka vinandi mu masukulu, ndipo ciyowoyero ici ndico cikusambizgika. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya Cifurenci ŵazamuŵa 26 peresenti mu 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.francophonie.org/|title=Portail de l'Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF)|website=Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe vikamba kuchita malonda mu Senegal. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, caru ca France cikamba kulamulira comene Senegal, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Cifurenci cikure comene. Cifurenci cikaŵa ciyowoyero cakuzomerezgeka mu 1960 apo caru ici cikapokera wanangwa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero cawo, kweni comenecomene ku Dakar, ciyowoyero ca Wolof ndicho cikayowoyeka comene. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Fula na Toucouleur ndiwo ŵakuyowoya Chipula. Chiyowoyero cha Serer chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose (nga ni Pulezidenti Sall, uyo muwoli wake ni Serer). Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Casamance ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Jola. Pa caru cose ca Senegal pali viyowoyero 39. Viyowoyero vinyake ni Balanta-Ganja, Arabic, Jola-Fonyi, Mandinka, Mandjak, Mankanya, Noon (Serer-Noon), Pulaar, Serer, Soninke, na Wolof. Cingelezi cikusambizgika nga ni ciyowoyero cinyake mu masukulu gha ku sekondare ndiposo mu masukulu ghanandi gha ku sekondare.<ref name=warwick>{{citation|website=The Warwick ELT|title= The Status of English and Other Languages in Senegal|author=Oumar Moussa Djigo|date=31 December 2016 |url=https://thewarwickeltezine.wordpress.com/2016/12/31/77/|access-date=10 August 2019}}</ref> Ku Dakar kuli masukulu gha viyowoyero viŵiri agho 50% ya masambiro ghake ghakuŵa mu Cingelezi. Sukulu ya Senegalese American Bilingual School (SABS), Yavuz Selim, na The West African College of the Atlantic (WACA) zikusambizga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi makora mu mapulogiramu gha vyaka vinayi. Cingelezi cikugwiliskirika nchito comene mu vyasayansi na mu vyamalonda, kusazgapo ŵa Modou-Modou. Chiphwitikizi cha Creole, icho ŵanthu ŵakuchichema kuti Chiphwitikizi, ni chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene mu chigaŵa cha Ziguinchor, mu chigaŵa cha Casamance. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Verde ŵakuyowoya Chiphwitikizi chakuchemeka Creole. Chiphwitikizi chikamba kusambizgika mu sukulu za sekondare mu 1961 ku Dakar na pulezidenti wakwamba wa charu ichi, Léopold Sédar Senghor. Pasono sukulu iyi yikuchitika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya Senegal kweniso mu masukulu ghapachanya. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero ichi mu Casamance chifukwa cha umo ŵanthu ŵakukhalira.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/encarte/encarte98a.htm | title=A Língua Portuguesa no Senegal | date=12–25 April 2006 | access-date=10 December 2014 | author=José Horta | publisher=Instituto Camões | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000233/http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/encarte/encarte98a.htm | archive-date=4 March 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>[[File:Dakar Roofs - Beach & Ocean (5651584098).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of Yoff Commune, Dakar]] Ŵanthu awo ŵafuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana nga ni Chibambara (vikwi 70,000), Chimooré (vikwi 37,000), Chi Kabuverdiano (vikwi 34,000), Chikrio (vikwi 6,100), Chivietnamese (vikwi 2,500), na Chiphwitikizi (vikwi 1,700), ndipo ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero ivi mu msumba wa Dakar.<ref name=warwick /> Nangauli ciyowoyero ca ku Senegal ni Cifurenci pera, kweni ciyowoyero ca ku Senegal ico cikucemeka kuti Wolof, cikovwira kuti ciyowoyeke makora mu caru. Vigaŵa vya Senegal nga ni Dakar, Diourbel, Fatick, Kaffrine, Kaolack, Kedougou, Kolda, Louga, Matam, Saint-Louis, Sedhiou, Tambacounda, Thies na Ziguinchor ni vigaŵa vya International Association of Francophoneregions. ===Misumba ikulu=== {{See also|List of cities in Senegal}} Msumba ukuru wa Dakar ndiwo ni msumba ukuru comene mu Senegal, uli na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni.<ref name="ANSD-population">{{cite web | url = http://www.ansd.org/SES2005.pdf | title = Situation économique et sociale du Sénégal | author=Agence Nationale de la Statistique et de la Démographie | publisher=Government of Senegal | language = fr | year = 2005 | access-date =18 November 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080625002308/http://www.ansd.org/SES2005.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 25 June 2008}}</ref> The second most populous city is [[Touba, Senegal|Touba]], a ''[[de jure]] communaute rurale'' (rural community), with over half a million people.<ref name="ANSD-population"/> {{Largest cities | country = Senegal | stat_ref = Kuyana na kalembera wa 2013<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senegal |work=City Population |url= https://www.citypopulation.de/en/senegal/cities/ }}</ref> | div_name = Region | city_1 = Dakar | div_1 = Dakar Region{{!}}Dakar | pop_1 = 2,646,503 | img_1 = Dakar - Panorama urbain.jpg | city_2 = Touba | div_2 = Diourbel Region{{!}}Diourbel | pop_2 = 753,315 | img_2 = | city_3 = Pikine | div_3 = Thiès Region{{!}}Thiès | pop_3 = 317,763 | img_3 = Pikine.gif | city_4 = Kaolack | div_4 = Kaolack Region{{!}}Kaolack | pop_4 = 233,708 | img_4 = MedinaBaayMosque.jpg | city_5 = M'Bour{{!}}M'bour | div_5 = Thiès Region{{!}}Thiès | pop_5 = 232,777 | city_6 = Rufisque | div_6 = Dakar Region{{!}}Dakar | pop_6 = 221,066 | city_7 = Ziguinchor | div_7 = Ziguinchor Region{{!}}Ziguinchor | pop_7 = 205,294 | city_8 = Diourbel | div_8 = Diourbel Region{{!}}Diourbel | pop_8 = 133,705 | city_9 = Tambacounda | div_9 = Tambacounda Region{{!}}Tambacounda | pop_9 = 107,293 | city_10 = Louga | div_10 = Louga Region{{!}}Louga | pop_10 = 104,349 }} ===Chisopo=== {{main|Religion in Senegal}} {{Pie chart |thumb = left |caption = Chisopo ku Senegal (PEW estimate, 2020)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/senegal#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016 | title=Religions in Senegal &#124; PEW-GRF }}</ref> |label1 = [[Islam]] |value1 = 96.6 |color1 = Green |label2 = [[Christianity]] (mostly Catholicism) |value2 = 3.3 |color2 = DodgerBlue |label3= Other |color3= Orange |value3= 0.1 }} Charu cha Senegal chili na visopa vinandi, kweni chisopa chikuru mu charu ichi ni Chisilamu, ndipo ŵanthu 96.6% ndiwo ŵakugomezga chisopa ichi. Ŵanthu ŵacoko comene pa caru cose ndiwo ŵakugomezga kuti kuli vyamoyo, comenecomene mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa caru ici. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Serer ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Serer.<ref>Conklin, Alice L. ''A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930''. Stanford University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-8047-2999-9}}. p. 27.</ref><ref>Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. ''Ethnologue: Languages of the World'', Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International</ref> Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2012, ŵanthu 55% ŵa ku Senegal mba Sunni ŵa chisopa cha Maliki. Ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Chisilamu ku Senegal ŵakukolerana na gulu limoza ilo likuchemeka kuti tariqas, ilo likulongozgeka na khalifa (xaliifa mu Chiwofu, kufuma ku chiarabu cha khalīfa), uyo kanandi ni muzukuru wa uyo wakajintha gulu ili. Ma Tariqa gha Sufi ghaŵiri ghakurughakuru na ghakumanyikwa chomene mu Senegal ni Tijaniyya, agho magulu ghakurughakuru gha mu Senegal ghali mu matawuni gha Tivaouane na Kaolack ndipo ghali na ŵalondezgi ŵanandi mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, na Murīdiyya (Murid), awo ŵali mu tawuni ya Touba ndipo ŵali na ŵalondezgi ŵanandi mu Senegal.<ref name="Pew">{{cite web |date=August 9, 2012 |title=Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity |access-date=4 September 2013 |work=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> [[File:Dakar cathedrale.jpg|thumb|[[Our Lady of Victories Cathedral, Dakar|Our Lady of Victories Cathedral]], a [[Catholic Church|Catholic church]] in [[Dakar]]]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Halpulaar (awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Pulaar), awo ni Ŵafula, awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha Sahel kufuma ku Chad m'paka ku Senegal, kweniso ŵa mtundu wa Toucouleurs, ŵalipo 23.8 peresenti.<ref name=cia/> Mbunenesko kuti ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuŵa Ŵasilamu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Toucouleurs, panji Halpulaar awo ŵakakhalanga ku Senegal River Valley kumpoto, ŵakang'anamukira ku Chisilamu vyaka pafupifupi 1,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Wolof ŵakatonda, kweni Ŵaseri ŵakaŵatinkha. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Dambo la Senegal ŵakaŵa kuti ŵandazgoke Ŵasilamu. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Serer ndiwo ŵakamanyikwa chomene chifukwa ŵakasuska chisopa cha Chisilamu kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 1,000. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Serer Mbakhristu panji Ŵasilamu, kweni ŵakang'anamukira ku Chisilamu sonosono ndipo ŵakachita mwakujipeleka yayi.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Hans Bressers|author2=Walter A. Rosenbaum|title=Achieving Sustainable Development: The Challenge of Governance Across Social Scales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SvAGAeQNo7oC&pg=PA151|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97802-0|pages=151–}}</ref> Kusambizgika kwa visambizgo vya mu Baibolo (ivyo mu Chiwofu vikuchemeka daara) mu nyengo ya ukoloni kukakura chomene chifukwa cha mulimo wa Tidjâniyya. Mu vikaya vya Ŵamuridi, awo ŵakuŵika comene mahara pa mulimo kuluska pa mabuku gha mu Baibolo, lizgu lakuti daara kanandi likung'anamura magulu agho ghakuteŵetera mulongozgi wa cisopa. Magulu ghanyake gha Chisilamu ni gulu lakale chomene la Qādiriyya na la Laayeen la ku Senegal, ilo ndakumanyikwa chomene pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Lebu. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵana ŵanandi ŵa ku Senegal ŵakusambira pa daaras kwa vyaka vinandi, ndipo ŵakumanya makora Koran. Ŵanyake ŵakulutilira kusambira vya cisopa pa macouncil (majlis) panji ku masukulu gha Cirabu ghaŵene na ku masukulu gha Cifurenci na Cirabu agho ghali na ndalama za boma. Ŵanthu ŵachokoŵachoko ŵa Katolika ŵakusangika chomene mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja nga ni Serer, Jola, Mankanya, na Balant, kweniso ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Senegal. Ŵalendo ndiwo ŵakuluta ku matchalitchi gha Chiprotesitanti, kweni mu hafu yachiŵiri ya vyaka vya m'ma 1900, matchalitchi gha Chiprotesitanti agho ghakalongozgekanga na ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Senegal ghakafuma ku mitundu yakupambanapambana. Ku Dakar, ŵanthu ŵa ku Lebanon, Cape Verde, Europe, na America, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Africa, kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Senegal, ŵakuchita mitheto ya Chikatolika na Chiprotesitanti. Nangauli visopa vinandi mu Senegal ni vya Ciislamu, kweni pulezidenti wakwamba wa caru ici, Léopold Sédar Senghor, wakaŵa wa cisopa ca Serer. Chisopa cha Serer chikusazgapo kugomezga kuti kuli chiuta mukuru uyo wakuchemeka Roog (Koox pakati pa Cangin), kusanda vinthu vya mu mlengalenga kwa Serer, kusanda vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, na viphikiro vya kuwukwa nga ni chiphikiro cha chaka chilichose cha Xooy (panji Khoy) icho chikuchitiskika na Serer Saltigues (ŵasembe na ŵasembe ŵanakazi). Vikondwelero vya Ŵasilamu vya ku Senegambia (Senegal na Gambia) nga ni Tobaski, Gamo, Koriteh, Weri Kor, na vinyake, vyose ni mazgu ghakufuma ku cisopa ca Serer. Yikaŵa viphikiro vyakale vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Serer ivyo vikafuma mu chisopa cha Serer, mu Chisilamu yayi.<ref name="N.Diouf">Diouf, Niokhobaye, « Chronique du royaume du Sine, suivie de Notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le [[Kingdom of Sine|royaume du Sine]] par Charles Becker et Victor Martin (1972)», . (1972). Bulletin de l'IFAN, tome 34, série B, no 4, 1972, pp. 706–7 (pp. 4–5), pp. 713–14 (pp. 9–10)</ref> Chiphikiro cha Boukout nchimoza mwa viphikiro vya cisopa ca Jola. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa fuko la Bani Israel awo ŵakukhala mu chipalamba cha Senegal ŵakugomezga kuti ŵali kufuma ku mtundu wa Chiyuda. Gulu la Mahayana la cisopa ca Cibuda mu Senegal likuciskika na cigaŵa cicoko comene ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Vietnam awo ŵali ku caru ici. Cikhristu ca Bahá'í mu Senegal cikamba pamanyuma pakuti 'Abdu'l-Bahá, mwana wa uyo wakambiska cisopa ici, wakayowoya kuti ku Africa ndiko ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakwenera kuluta. Ŵabaha'i ŵakwamba kufika mu cigaŵa ca French West Africa ico cikazgoka Senegal ŵakafika mu 1953. Ungano wauzimu wakwamba wa Bahá'í mu Senegal ukasankhika mu 1966 mu Dakar. Mu 1975, ŵa Baha'i ŵakasora wupu wakwamba wa ku Senegal. Kuyana na lipoti la 2005 la wupu wakuwona vya chisopa (Association of Religion Data Archives), ŵanthu ŵa ku Senegal ŵalipo 22,000.<ref name="WCE-05">{{cite web|title=Most Baha'i Nations (2005)|work=QuickLists > Compare Nations > Religions >|publisher=The Association of Religion Data Archives|year=2005|url=http://www.thearda.com/QuickLists/QuickList_40c.asp|access-date=4 July 2009|archive-date=14 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414021730/http://www.thearda.com/QuickLists/QuickList_40c.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{Main|Health in Senegal}} [[File:Life expectancy in Senegal.svg|thumb|Development of life expectancy]] Mu 2016, vyaka ivyo ŵanthu ŵakakhaliranga kuti ŵakhalenge para ŵababa vikaŵa 66,8 (64,7 kwa ŵanalume, 68,7 kwa ŵanakazi).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aho.afro.who.int/profiles_information/images/e/e3/Senegal-Statistical_Factsheet.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903204256/http://www.aho.afro.who.int/profiles_information/images/e/e3/Senegal-Statistical_Factsheet.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 September 2014|title=Senegal Statistical Factsheet|website=Factsheet of Health Statistics 2018}}</ref> Ndalama izo boma likagwiliskira nchito pa vya umoyo zikaŵa 2.4 peresenti ya GDP mu 2004, apo ndalama izo boma likagwiliskira nchito pa vya umoyo zikaŵa 3.5 peresenti. Ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakugwiliskira nchito pa umoyo wake zikaŵa $72 (PPP) mu 2004. Kufumira mu 2005 m'paka mu 2013, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubaba chikaŵa pakati pa 5 na 5.3, ndipo mu misumba chikaŵa 4.1 ndipo ku mizi 6.3, nga umo ukawoneranga kafukufuku wa boma (6.4 mu 1986 na 5.7 mu 1997). Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 kukaŵa ŵadokotala 6 pa ŵanthu 100,000.<ref name="hdrstats.undp.org">{{cite web |title=Human Development Report 2009&nbsp;– Senegal |url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_SEN.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100715090901/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_SEN.html |archive-date=15 July 2010 |access-date=20 June 2010 |publisher=Hdrstats.undp.org}}</ref> Mu 1950, ŵana 157 pa ŵanthu 1,000 awo ŵakababika ŵamoyo ndiwo ŵakafwanga ku Senegal. Kweni kufuma nyengo iyo, chiŵerengero ichi chakhalako kankhondi pa ŵanthu 1,000 mu 2018. Mu vyaka vinkhondi ivyo vyajumpha, ŵana ŵanandi ŵakufwa na maleriya. Lipoti la wupu wa UNICEF la mu 2013 likati, pa ŵanakazi wose mu Senegal, 26 pa ŵanakazi 100 ŵaliwose ŵali kupokera nthumbo. Mu Malichi 2020, nthenda ya COVID-19 yikamba mu Senegal, ndipo yikapangiska kuti mu charu ichi muŵeko nyengo yakufikira panyumba. Mu Julayi 2021, ku Senegal kukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakalwara nthenda iyi. Mu Juni 2021, wupu wakuwona vya umoyo wa ŵanthu wose ku Senegal ukambiska sunucmu.com (SunuCMU), webusayiti iyo wupu uwu ukugomezga kuti yingawovwira kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu uŵe uwemi. Webusayiti iyi njimoza mwa vinthu ivyo Mubali Mohammad Abdallah Dionne, uyo ni nduna ya boma, wakukhumba kuti viŵe vya digito. Iyo wakukhumba kuti wovwiri wa munkhwala mu Senegal uŵe wakovwira kweniso wakukhazikika. Senegal yikukhumba kuti mu vyaka viŵiri kufuma apo yikambira ntchito ya SunuCMU, ŵanthu 75 pa 100 ŵafike pa sukulu iyi.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-06-28|title=A New Platform to Improve Health Care in Senegal|url=https://www.borgenmagazine.com/health-care-in-senegal/|access-date=2021-07-06|website=BORGEN|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Masambilo=== {{main|Education in Senegal}} [[File:Senegal students.jpg|thumb|Students in Senegal]] Ndime 21 na 22 za Dango ilo likapelekeka mu Janyuwale 2001 zikovwira kuti ŵana wose ŵasambire. Ŵana ŵa vyaka 16 ŵakusambira kwambura kulipira. Unduna wa vya Ntchito ukati masukulu gha boma ghangakwaniska yayi kusambizga ŵana awo ŵakukhumba kusambira sukulu.<ref name="ilab">"Senegal". [https://web.archive.org/web/20140109071239/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf ''2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor'']. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2006). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]]''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109071239/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf|date=9 January 2014}}</ref>Chiphwitikizi chikusambizgika mu masukulu gha sekondare, chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Verde. Ku Zinguichor na Dakar kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuyowoya Ciphwitikizi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya yayi kuŵazga, comenecomene ŵanakazi. Mu 2005, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga sukulu iyi chikaŵa 69 peresenti. Ndalama izo boma likagwiliskira nchito pa masambiro zikaŵa 5.4 peresenti ya GDP ya 2002-2005. Charu cha Senegal chili pa malo 105 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, kufuma pa malo 96 mu 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2022-03-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en}}</ref> ==Mwambo== Charu cha Senegal nchakumanyikwa cifukwa ca maluso gha ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa ghakuyowoya nkhani. Ntchito ya kuzenga njoka iyi yikwenda kufuma ku muwiro na muwiro ndipo yikukhumba kuti munthu wasambire vinandi pa nkhani ya mbumba, mbiri, na sumu. Ŵagriot ŵakovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku West Africa.<ref name="ross">Eric S. Ross, Culture and Customs of Senegal, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 2008 {{ISBN|0-313-34036-6}}</ref> Chipilala cha African Renaissance Monument, icho ŵakazenga mu 2010 ku Dakar, ndicho ntchakutowa chomene mu Africa. Ku Dakar nako kuli chiphikiro cha mafilimu chakuchemeka Recidak. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Senegal ŵakukondwelera chiphikiro cha Eid al-Fitr. Nangauli mu tawuni ya Dakar muli Ŵasilamu ŵanandi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukondweleraso Khisimasi iyo Ŵakhristu ŵakuchita.<ref name=":0b" /> ===Cuisine=== {{Further|Senegalese cuisine}} Pakuti Senegal yili pafupi na Nyanja ya Atlantic, somba njakuzirwa comene. Nkhuku, mwana wa mberere, phere, mazira, na nyama ya ng'ombe vikugwiliskirika nchito mu vyakurya vya ku Senegal, kweni nkhumba yayi, cifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi mu caru ici mba Cisilamu. Mu vyakurya vinandi vya ku Senegal, mukusangika vyakumera vyakuchemeka peanuts, couscous, mpunga utuŵa, mbatata, mankhwaŵa, viŵiya vyamawoko ghafipa, na vyakurya vinyake. Kanandi nyama na mphangwe ŵakuviphika panji kuviphika mu vyakumera na vyakununkhira, ndipo ŵakuviŵika pa mpunga panji couscous. Majusi ghakutowa ghakufuma ku bisap, ginger, buy, mango, panji vipambi vinyake panji makuni ghamuthengere. Vyakurya vyakunowa ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Senegal ŵakuphika ni vyakunowa chomene. Kanandi ŵakurya na vipambi viphya ndipo kanandi ŵakumwa khofi panji tiyi. ===Music=== {{Further|Music of Senegal}} [[File:Solo cissokho DSC 0448.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Kora (instrument)|Kora]] player from Senegal]] Senegal yikumanyikwa mu Africa yose chifukwa cha sumu zake, chifukwa cha kutchuka kwa mbalax, iyo yikamba kufuma ku Serer percussive tradition chomene chomene Njuup. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kwimba viŵeya. Kanandi ŵakugwiliskira nchito sabala pa viphikiro vyapadera nga ni maukwati. Vyakwimbira vinyake ni tama, ndipo vikugwiliskirika nchito mu mitundu yinandi. Ŵakwimba ŵanyake ŵa ku Senegal awo ŵakumanyikwa pa caru cose ni Ismael Lô, Cheikh Lô, Orchestra Baobab, Baaba Maal, Akon Thione Seck, Viviane, Fallou Dieng Titi, Seckou Keita na Pape Diouf. ===Cinema=== {{main|Cinema of Senegal}} ===Media=== {{main|Media of Senegal}} ===Hospitality=== Mu cikaya ca ku Senegal, kupokelera ŵalendo nkhwakuzirwa comene mwakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti nkhwakuzirwa comene. Lizgu la Chiwolophu ilo likung'anamura kupokelera ŵalendo ni "teranga" ndipo likukolerana chomene na kujikuzga kwa Senegal mwakuti timu ya charu ichi yikuchemeka kuti nkhalamu za ku Teranga.<ref name="ross"/> === Maseŵera === [[File:Lutte sénégalaise Bercy 2013 - Mame Balla-Pape Mor Lô - 32.jpg|thumb|Senegalese Wrestling|left]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Senegal ŵakuchita maseŵero ghanandi. Maseŵero ghakucemeka kuti wrestling na football ngakutchuka comene mu caru ici. Boma la Senegal ndilo lizamuchitiska maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha ŵawukirano mu chaka cha 2026 ku Dakar.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/senegal-to-be-1st-african-olympic-host-at-2022-youth-games/2018/09/07/4a0d6548-b2c2-11e8-8b53-50116768e499_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180910164731/https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/senegal-to-be-1st-african-olympic-host-at-2022-youth-games/2018/09/07/4a0d6548-b2c2-11e8-8b53-50116768e499_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 September 2018|title=Senegal to be 1st African Olympic host at 2022 Youth Games|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=10 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/09/senegal-african-nation-host-olympic-event-180907175449927.html|title=Senegal first African nation to host an Olympic event|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=10 September 2018}}</ref> Ku Senegal, maseŵero ghakucemeka wrestling ngakumanyikwa comene ndipo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero agha. Kanandi maseŵero agha ghakovwira ŵawukirano ŵanandi kuti ŵaleke ukavu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pri.org/stories/2011-06-09/wrestling-solution-poverty-senegal|title=Wrestling As a Solution to Poverty in Senegal|last1=Skelton|first1=Rose|last2=Werman|first2=Marco|date=9 June 2011|publisher=PRI|access-date=3 April 2015}}</ref> [[File:Senegal fans Russia 2018.jpg|thumb|Senegalese football fans at the [[2018 FIFA World Cup]] in Russia]] Mpira wa pasi ni maseŵero agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa ku Senegal. Mu 2022, timu ya chalo ichi yikathereska chalo cha Egypt pakutola chiphalizgano cha Africa Cup of Nations kwa nyengo yakwamba. Ŵakaŵa ŵamoza mwa ŵasilikari ŵankhondi pera ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakafika ku vigaŵa vyaumaliro vya FIFA World Cup. Charu cha Senegal chikapokera mpikisano wa 2018 FIFA World Cup ku Russia, na 2022 FIFA World Cup ku Qatar. Kwamba kale, charu cha Senegal ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu Africa. Gulu la ŵanalume likachita makora chomene kuluska charu chilichose cha ku Africa pa 2014 FIBA World Cup, apo ŵakafika ku play-off kakwamba. Gulu la ŵanakazi likapokera mendulo 19 pa maseŵero 20 gha ku Africa. Apo chalo ichi chikapokeleranga chiphalizgano cha FIFA Women's AfroBasket cha 2019, ŵanthu 15,000 ŵakiza ku Dakar Arena. Senegal yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pakwamba kuchita maseŵero gha basketball. Mu 2016, NBA yikapharazga za kukhazikiska Elite's Academy mu Africa, chomenechomene mu Senegal. Charu ichi ndicho chikachitiskanga chiphalizgano cha Paris-Dakar kufuma mu 1979 m'paka mu 2007. Rally ya Dakar yikaŵa mpikisano wa njinga ya moto uwo ukafumanga ku Paris, France, kuya ku Dakar, Senegal. Awo ŵakacitanga maseŵero agha ŵakendanga mu magalimoto ghakupambanapambana. Mpikisano uwu ukachitika mu 2007, kweni mu 2008, mpikisano uwu ukafumiskika zuŵa limoza pamanyuma pakuti boma la Mauritania lalekeska. Kweniso ku Senegal kukachitika chiphalizgano cha Ocean X-Prix cha Extreme E.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/05/france.sport|title=Dakar rally cancelled at last minute over terrorist threat|last=Hamilos|first=Paul|date=4 January 2008|website=The Guardian|access-date=10 February 2018}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Senegal|Africa}} * [[Outline of Senegal]] * [[Index of Senegal-related articles]] == Mazgo ghakulongosoleka == {{notelist}} ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{refbegin}} * Babou, Cheikh Anta, ''Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853–1913'', (Ohio University Press, 2007) * Behrman, Lucy C, ''Muslim Brotherhood and Politics in Senegal'', (iUniverse.com, 1999) * Buggenhage, Beth A, ''Muslim Families in Global Senegal: Money Takes Care of Shame'', (Indiana University Press, 2012) * Bugul, Ken, ''The Abandoned Baobab: The Autobiography of a Senegalese Woman'', (University of Virginia Press, 2008) * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Senegal (colony) | volume= 24 |last= Cana |first= Frank Richardson |author-link= | pages = 640&ndash;644 |short= 1}} * Foley, Ellen E, ''Your Pocket is What Cures You: The Politics of Health in Senegal'', (Rutgers University Press, 2010) * Gellar, Sheldon, ''Democracy in Senegal: Tocquevillian Analytics in Africa'', (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) * Glover, John, ''Sufism and Jihad in Modern Senegal: The Murid Order'', (University of Rochester Press, 2007) * Kane, Katharina, ''Lonely Planet Guide: The Gambia and Senegal'', (Lonely Planet Publications, 2009) * Kueniza, Michelle, ''Education and Democracy in Senegal'', (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) * Mbacké, Khadim, ''Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal'', (Markus Wiener Publishing Inc., 2005) * Streissguth, Thomas, ''Senegal in Pictures'', (Twentyfirst Century Books, 2009) * Various, ''Insight Guide: Gambia and Senegal'', (APA Publications Pte Ltd., 2009) * Various, ''New Perspectives on Islam in Senegal: Conversion, Migration, Wealth, Power, and Femininity'', (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) * Various, ''Senegal: Essays in Statecraft'', (Codesria, 2003) * Various, ''Street Children in Senegal'', (GYAN France, 2006) {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Senegal}} * {{Official website|https://www.sec.gouv.sn/}} {{in lang|fr}} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064496.stm Country Profile] from [[BBC News]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210204143936/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/senegal/ Senegal]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Senegal}} * {{wikiatlas|Senegal}} ; Trade * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/SEN/Year/2012/Summary Senegal 2012 Summary Trade Statistics] {{-}} {{Senegal topics}} {{Navboxes | list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{African Union}} {{G15}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}} {{La Francophonie}} {{Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP)}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Senegal| ]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Senegal]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1960]] [[Category:West African countries]] nhiyq2zmoil3txqfkfuzdpwwgsf578k 0 6961 122370 118861 2026-09-25T02:33:37Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country in West Africa}} {{about|the African country}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Togolese Republic | common_name = Togo | native_name = {{native name|fr|République togolaise|fontsize=100%}} | image_flag = Flag of Togo (3-2).svg | image_coat = Emblem of Togo.svg | coa_size = 70 | symbol_type = Coat of arms | national_motto = {{native phrase|fr|nolink=yes|"Travail, Liberté, Patrie"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africanlegislaturesproject.org/content/constitution-togo|title=Constitution of Togo|year=2002|access-date=20 November 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214090412/http://www.africanlegislaturesproject.org/content/constitution-togo|archive-date=14 February 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>|italics=off}}<br />"Work, Liberty, Homeland" | national_anthem = {{native name|fr|"[[Salut à toi, pays de nos aïeux|Terre de nos aïeux]]"|nolink=on|italic=no}}<br />({{Lang-en|"Land of our ancestors"}})<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:Togolese national anthem.ogg]]}}</div> | image_map = Location Togo AU Africa.svg | map_caption = {{map caption|countryprefix=|location_color=dark blue|region=the [[African Union]]|region_color=light blue}} | capital = [[Lomé]] | coordinates = {{Coord|6|8|N|1|13|E|type:city|display=inline}} | largest_city = Lomé | official_languages = {{hlist|[[French language|French]]|}} | languages_type = Spoken languages | languages = {{collapsible list|bullets=y|title={{nobold|List:}} |[[Arabic]] |[[English language|English]] |[[French language|French]] |[[German language|German]] |[[Ewe language|Ewe]] |[[Gbe languages|Gbe]] |[[Gur languages|Gur]] |[[Kwa languages|Kwa]] |[[Kabiye language|Kabiye]] |[[Talni language|Talensi]] |[[Wasa dialect|Wasa]] |[[Aguna language|Aguna]] |[[Adja language|Aja]] |[[Ngangam language|Ngangam]] |[[Ntcham language|Ntcham]] |[[Tammari language|Tammari]] |[[Tem language|Tem]] |[[Ifè language|Ifè]] |[[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{collapsible list|title_style=nobold|title={{nobold|[[Demographics of Togo|West African]] (94.4%)}}<ref name="cia">{{cite web|title=Togo|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/togo/|website=CIA World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> |[[Aja people|Aja]], [[Ewe people|Ewe]] and [[Gen language|Mina]] (42.4%) |[[Kabye people|Kabye]] and [[Tem people|Tem]] (25.9%) |[[Akan people|Akan]] and [[Gurma people|Gurma]] (17.1%) |[[Kposo people|Kposo]] and [[Kebu language|Akebu]] (4.1%) |[[Ifè language|Ana-Ife]] (3.2%) |Other West African groups (1.7%)}} [[Demographics of Togo|Other]] (5.6%)<ref name="cia" /> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |47.8% [[Christianity]] |33.0% [[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]] |18.4% [[Islam]] |0.5% [[Baháʼí Faith]] |0.3% [[Religion in Togo|Others]] / [[Irreligion|None]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=221c | title=National Profiles }}</ref>}} | religion_year = 2020 | demonym = [[Demographics of Togo|Togolese]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential republic]] | leader_title1 = [[List of presidents of Togo|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Faure Gnassingbé]] | leader_title2 = [[List of prime ministers of Togo|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Victoire Tomegah Dogbé]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Togo)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from [[France]] | established_event1 = Independence granted | established_date1 = 27 April 1960 | area_km2 = 56,785 | area_rank = 123rd | area_sq_mi = 21,925 | percent_water = 4.2 | population_estimate = 8,703,961<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Togo|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 101th | population_density_km2 = 125.9 | population_density_sq_mi = 243 | GDP_PPP = {{decrease}} $22.7 billion<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 151st | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{decrease}} $2,612<ref name="auto"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 175th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $8.41 billion<ref name="auto"/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 157th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita ={{increase}} $916<ref name="auto"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 170th | Gini = 43.1 | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.539 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=23 January 2023}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 162nd | currency = [[West African CFA franc]] | currency_code = XOF | utc_offset = {{sp}} | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Togo|+228]] | cctld = [[.tg]] | footnote_a = Such as [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Gin language|Mina]] and [[Adja language|Aja]]. | footnote_b = Largest are the [[Ewe people|Ewe]], Mina, [[Tem people|Kotokoli Tem]] and [[Kabye people|Kabyè]]. | footnote_c = Mostly European, Indian & Syrian-Lebanese. | footnote_d = Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. | footnote_e = Rankings based on 2017 figures ([https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/togo/ ''CIA World Factbook'' – "Togo"]) | today = }} '''Togo''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Togo.ogg|ˈ|t|oʊ|ɡ|oʊ}}), mwalamulo, '''Charu cha Togo''' ({{lang-fr|République togolaise}}), ni caru ico cili ku [[West Africa]]. Charu ichi chili kufupi na Ghana, Benin, na Burkina Faso.<ref name="Republic of Togo">{{cite web |title=Republic of Togo |url=https://www.isdb.org/togo |access-date=26 January 2021 |website=[[Islamic Development Bank]] |language=en}}</ref> Charu ichi ntchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose chapasi, ndipo chili kumwera m'paka ku Nyanja ya Guinea, uko kuli msumba wa Lomé.<ref name="Republic of Togo" /> Charu ichi ntchichoko, chili na malo ghakukwana 56,785 square kilometres (22,000 square miles) ndipo chili <ref>{{cite web |title=Togo country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14106781 |website=BBC News |access-date=27 January 2021 |date=24 February 2020}}</ref>na ŵanthu pafupifupi 8 million, ndipo chili na malo ghakukwana 115 km (71 mi) pakati pa Ghana na Benin.{{UN_Population|ref}} Pakati pa vilimika vya m'ma 1000 na 1500 ŵanthu ŵakupambanapambana ndiwo ŵakakhala mu cigaŵa ico lero ni Togo. Pakati pa virimika vya m'ma 1500 na 1700, cigaŵa ca ku nyanja ici cikaŵa pakwamba pakuguliska ŵazga ku Europe, ndipo ici cikacitiska kuti Togo na cigaŵa ca ku nyanja ici ŵacemeke kuti "Cicirwa ca Ŵazga". Mu 1884, caru ca Germany cikapharazga kuti caru ca Togoland ni cigaŵa ico cili pasi pa boma. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, caru ca Togo cikapika ku France. Charu cha Togo chikamba kujiwusa chekha kufuma ku France mu 1960.<ref name="cia"/><ref name="icye.org">{{cite web |title=Togo (Partner) – International Cultural Youth Exchange |url=https://www.icye.org/icye-in-the-world/togo/ |website=International cultural youth exchange |access-date=27 January 2021}}</ref> Mu 1967, Gnassingbé Eyadéma wakapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵamuwuse, ndipo pamanyuma wakaŵa pulezidenti wa boma la chipani chimoza. Mu 1993, Eyadéma wakaluta ku mavoti agho ghakaŵa na vifukwa vyakupambanapambana, ndipo wakathereskeka katatu. Pa nyengo iyo Eyadéma wakafwanga, wakaŵa "mulongozgi uyo wakakhala kwa nyengo yitali comene mu caru ca Africa", pakuti wakaŵa pulezidenti kwa vilimika 38.<ref name="Obituary">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/830774.stm "Obituary: Gnassingbe Eyadema"]. (5 February 2005). [[BBC News]]. Retrieved 22 May 2007.</ref>Mu 2005, mwana wake Faure Gnassingbé wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti. Togo ni caru ca ku mpoto<ref name="Republic of Togo"/> kwa Sahara, ndipo cuma cake cikuthemba comene pa ulimi.<ref name="icye.org"/> Ciyowoyero ico cikuyowoyeka mu caru ici ni Cifurenci, kweni ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake, comenecomene viyowoyero vya mtundu wa Gbe. 47.8% ya ŵanthu ŵakugomezga Chikhristu, ndipo ndicho ntchisopa chikuru mu charu ichi.<ref>{{Citation |title=Togo |date=2023-01-11 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/togo/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2023-01-13}}</ref>Charu cha Togo chili ku United Nations, African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, Francophonie, Commonwealth, na Economic Community of West African States. == Mbili == {{Main|History of Togo}} Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga vikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamanyanga kupanga viŵiya vya dongo na visulo. Zina lakuti Togo likung'anamulika kufuma ku ciyowoyero ca Ewe kuti "kumanyuma kwa mlonga". Pakati pa vilimika vya m'ma 1100 na 1600, mafuko ghanyake ghakanjira mu cigaŵa ici: ŴaEwe kufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo ŴaMina na Ŵaguni kufuma kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja. Munda wa ŵazga ku Atlantic ukamba mu virimika vya m'ma 1500, ndipo kwa vilimika 200 vyakulondezgapo, cigaŵa ici cikaŵa cigaŵa cakupharazgako ku Europe, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhumbanga ŵazga. Ici cikapangiska kuti caru ca Togo na vigaŵa vyapafupi na ico citumbikike na zina lakuti "Munda wa ŵazga". [[File:Togoland.jpg|thumb|left|Togoland ([[Rudolf Hellgrewe|R. Hellgrewe]], 1908)]] Mu 1884, themba Mlapa III na boma la Germany ŵakasaina phangano ku Togoville lakuti ŵajilamulirenge ku malo ghanyake gha mumphepete mwa nyanja ndipo pamasinda ŵakamba kulamuliraso vyaru vinyake. Mipaka ya caru ici yikamanyikwa pamanyuma pakuti Ŵagiriki na Ŵasiriya ŵapoka caru ca Germany na kukolerana na France na Britain. Mu 1905, caru ici cikazgoka cigaŵa ca Germany ndipo cikacemekanga Togoland. Ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kulima kotoni, khofi, na cacao na kupeleka msonkho. Ŵakazenga njanji na dowoko la Lomé kuti ŵaguliske vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵajeremani ndiwo ŵakamba kulima cacao, khofi, na thonje, ndipo ŵakapanga nyumba zinandi. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, caru ca Togoland cikatoleka na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na France. Nkhondo ya ku Togoland yikakhwaska kuti Ŵafalansa na Ŵabritani ŵapoke charu cha Germany cha Togoland pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Germany ŵakathereskeka mu Ogasiti 1914, ndipo boma ili likajipeleka pa Ogasiti 26, 1914. Pa Disembala 7, 1916, boma la Togoland likamara ndipo likapatulika mu vigaŵa vya Britain na France, ivyo vikaŵa British Togoland na French Togoland. Pa Julayi 20, 1922, boma la Great Britain likapika mazaza na wupu wa League of Nations kuti liwusenge chigaŵa chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Togo, ndipo la France likapika mazaza kuti liwusenge chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi. Mu 1945, caru ici cikapika wanangwa wa kutuma ŵanthu ŵatatu ku nyumba ya malango ya France. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, vyaru ivi vikazgoka vigaŵa vya UN Trust Territories. Mu 1957, ŵanthu ŵa ku British Togoland ŵakakolerana kuti Gold Coast yiŵe cigaŵa ca Ghana. Mu 1959, caru ca French Togoland cikamba kuŵa na mazaza pa cigaŵa ico cikaŵa pasi pa France, kweni France yikalutilira kuŵa na mazaza pa nkhani ya kuvikilira caru, vyaru vyaŵene, na ndalama. Pa 27 Epulero 1960, boma la Togo likapharazga kuti ni Republic. Pa visankho vyakwamba vya pulezidenti mu 1961, Sylvanus Olympio ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba, ndipo wakapoka vitiviti vyose ivyo ŵakususka ŵakakana. Pa 9 April 1961, Constitution ya Togoles Republic yikapelekeka, iyo yikati wupu wakulongozga ni National Assembly of Togo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ujamaalive.africa/encyclomedia/togo/|title=Togo|date=2019-04-26|website=Ujamaa Live|language=en-ZA|access-date=2019-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502190520/https://ujamaalive.africa/encyclomedia/togo/|archive-date=2 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mu Disembala 1961, ŵarongozgi ŵa vipani vya ŵakususka ŵakakakika cifukwa ŵakayimbika mulandu wakuti ŵakanozga vyakutimbana na boma. Ŵakatumizga dango lakumazga magulu gha ŵanthu ŵakususka. Olympio wakayezgayezga kuti waleke kugomezga comene caru ca France mwa kukolerana na caru ca United States, United Kingdom, na West Germany. Wakakana ivyo ŵasilikari ŵa ku France awo ŵakafumiskika ku nkhondo ya ku Algeria ŵakakhumbanga, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti waŵe msilikari wa ku Togo. Vinthu ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵamuwukire pa 13 January 1963 apo ŵakamukoma na gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakulongozgeka na Sergeant Gnassingbé Eyadéma. Mu Togo, boma likalangura kuti vinthu viŵe vyamabuci. Ŵasilikari ŵakapeleka mazaza ku boma la nyengo yicoko ilo likalongozgekanga na Nicolas Grunitzky. Mu Meyi 1963, Grunitzky wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa caru ici. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵaphya ŵakamba kulimbikira kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa paubwezi na France. Cakulinga cake cikaŵa cakuti wathaske mphatukano pakati pa kumpoto na kumwera, walembe dango liphya la cikaya, na kukhazikiska cipani ca vipani vinandi. Pa Janyuwale 13, 1967, Eyadéma Gnassingbé wakathereska Grunitzky na kuwusa.<ref name="heritage.org">{{cite web |title=Togo Economy: Population, GDP, Inflation, Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/country/togo |website=www.heritage.org |access-date=27 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Wakapanga phwando la Rally of the Togolese People Party, wakukanizga vipani vinyake vya ndyali ndipo wakambiska ndondomeko ya chipani chimoza mu Novembala 1969. Wakasolekaso mu 1979 na 1986. Mu 1983, boma likamba kucitako vinthu vyakupambanapambana ndipo mu 1991 ŵakazomerezga magulu ghanyake gha ndyali. Mu 1993, EU yikalekeska ubwezi uwu, ndipo yikati Eyadema wakasankhikaso mu 1993, 1998 na 2003, kuti wakakhumba kupoka mazaza. Mu Epulero 2004, ku Brussels, kukadumbiskana pakati pa wupu wa European Union na wupu wa Togo pa nkhani ya kwambiraso kukolerana.[[File:Protests in Lomé, Togo, 18 octobre 2017 04.jpg|thumb|left|The [[2017–18 Togolese protests]] against the 50-year rule of the Gnassingbé family]] Eyadéma Gnassingbé wakafwa pa 5 February 2005. Ŵasilikari ŵakati ŵimika mwana wake Faure Gnassingbé kuŵa mulongozgi wa caru, caru cose cikasuska, kweni ku France yayi. Ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mu Africa awo "ŵakasankhika mwakuyana na demokilase", nga ni Abdoulaye Wade wa ku Senegal na Olusegun Obasanjo wa ku Nigeria, ŵakakolerana nayo fundo iyi, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti mu African Union muŵe mphindano. Gnassingbé wakafumapo pa udindo na kuluta ku mavoti, ndipo pamanyuma pa myezi yiŵiri wakathereska. Ŵakususka ŵakayowoya kuti ivyo vikacitika vikaŵa vyaupusikizgi. Vinthu ivyo vikacitika mu 2005 vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kukayikira ivyo boma likuchita pa nkhani ya demokalase. Boma ili likakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora na wupu wa European Union. Wupu uwu ukaleka kovwira wupu wa European Union mu 1993 chifukwa cha nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Kuyana na UN, ŵanthu pafupifupi 400 ŵakakomeka pa nkondo iyo yikacitika pa nyengo ya kusora pulezidenti. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 40,000 ŵa ku Togo ŵakachimbilira ku vyaru vyapafupi. Gnassingbé wakasankhikaso mu 2010 na 2015. Mu 2017, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugalukira boma. Wupu wa UN ukayowoyerathu kuti boma la Gambia likwenera kuleka kuwusa. Wupu wa UN ukayowoyeraso kuti Gnassingbé waleke kuwusa.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-togo/togos-president-gnassingbe-should-resign-immediately-gambian-foreign-minister-idUSKBN1CS1W7|title=Gambian ministry says up to Togo to resolve crisis|last=Farge|first=Emma|date=2017-10-23|work=Reuters|access-date=2017-10-26|publisher=Thomson Reuters}}</ref> Mu Febuluwale 2020, Faure Gnassingbé wakaluta ku chiphara cha pulezidenti wa Togo. Kuyana na ivyo vikalembeka, iyo ndiyo wakawina ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamuvoteranga chomene. Ici cikamovwira kuti wathereske uyo wakamususkanga comene, uyo wakaŵa nduna ya boma, Agbeyome Kodjo, uyo wakaŵa na 18%. Pa 4 Meyi 2020, Bitala Madjoulba, mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Togo, wakasangika wakufwa mu ofesi yake. Zuŵa ilo Madjoulba wakafwira likaŵa pamanyuma pakuti Faure Gnassingbé wasankhika. Ŵapolisi ŵali kwamba kupenjerezga nkhani iyi ndipo ŵali kufumba mafumbo ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhwaskika na nyifwa yake. Togo yikamba kuwungana na Commonwealth mu Juni 2022. Pambere ŵandazomerezge kuti ŵanjire mu wupu wa Commonwealth, nduna ya vyakuwaro, Robert Dussey, yikayowoya kuti yikukhazga kuti wupu uwu uzamupeleka ndalama zakwendeskera vinthu ku vyaru vinyake, na kovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Togo kuti ŵasambirenge Chingelezi kweniso kuti ŵasambirenge vinthu vinyake.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Lawson |first=Alice |date=2022-06-24 |title=Togo sees Commonwealth entry as pivot to English-speaking world |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/togo-sees-commonwealth-entry-pivot-english-speaking-world-2022-06-24/ |access-date=2022-07-01}}</ref> == Boma == {{Main|Politics of Togo}} [[File:Faure Gnassingbé 2014.png|thumb|upright|President since 2005 [[Faure Gnassingbé]]]] [[File:Gnassingbé Eyadema, 1972.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gnassingbé Eyadéma]] wakawusa kwambira mu 1967 mpaka apo wakafwira mu 2005.]] Pulezidenti wakusankhika na ŵanthu wose ndipo wakulongozga ŵasilikari kwa vyaka vinkhondi. Iyo wali na mazaza ghakupanga malango na kugumura nyumba ya malango. Pulezidenti na boma ndiwo ŵali na mazaza ghakulongozga. Mulongozgi wa boma ni nduna yikuru iyo yikwimikika na pulezidenti. Pulezidenti Gnassingbé Eyadéma, uyo wakalamuliranga Togo mu muwuso wa chipani chimoza, wakafwa na nthenda ya mtima pa 5 February 2005. Kuyana na dango la chalo cha Togo, Fambaré Ouattara Natchaba, uyo ni mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malamulo, ndiyo wakeneranga kuŵa mulongozgi wa caru ici, pakulindilira kuti mu mazuŵa 60 ghacoko waka, kuŵe mavoti. Natchaba wakaŵa ku caru cinyake, ndipo wakaweranga na ndege ya Air France kufuma ku Paris. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Togo, awo ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Forces Armées Togolaises (FAT), ŵakajara mphaka za caru, ndipo ndege yikakhira mu caru ca Benin. Pakugwiliskira nchito nkhongono za ŵanthu, Nyumba ya Malamulo yikati yiwuskemo dango la malango ilo likakhumbanga kuti paŵe mavoti mu mazuŵa 60 ndipo yikayowoya kuti mwana wa Eyadema, Faure Gnassingbé, ndiyo waŵenge pulezidenti ndipo waŵenge pa udindo nyengo yose iyo adada ŵake ŵakhalako. Faure wakalayira pa 7 February 2005, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamususka. Wupu wa African Union ukayowoya kuti ŵasilikari ndiwo ŵakawukira boma. Wupu wa United Nations nawo ukaŵachichizganga. Ku Togo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na boma ili, ntheura pakaŵa vivulupi ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafwa. Mu misumba na matawuni, comene-comene ya kumwera kwa caru ici, mukaŵa viwawa. Mu tawuni ya Aného, ŵapharazgi ŵakayowoya za kuwukira kwa ŵasilikari, ndipo pamanyuma pake ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. Pa 25 February, Gnassingbé wakafumapo pa udindo wa pulezidenti, ndipo wakazomera kusankhika kuti wazakaŵe pulezidenti mu April.<ref name="Ebow Godwin">{{cite web |url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/n/a/2005/02/25/international/i180735S60.DTL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060106033758/http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2005%2F02%2F25%2Finternational%2Fi180735S60.DTL |archive-date=6 January 2006 |title=Togo Leader to Step Down, Seek Presidency |publisher=Associated Press (via SF Gate) |author=Godwin, Ebow |date=8 June 2010 |access-date=27 June 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Pa 24 Epulero 2005, Gnassingbé wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa Togo, ndipo wakapokera mavoti ghakujumpha 60 peresenti. Munthu uyo wakalimbana nayo comene pa mpikisano uwu wakaŵa Emmanuel Bob-Akitani wa gulu la Union des Forces du Change (UFC). Ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti pakaŵa kuswa malango cifukwa cakuti pakaŵavya wupu wa European Union panji wupu unyake wakucita mulimo uwu. Nyumba ya malango yikasankha kuti Bonfoh Abbass, uyo ni mulongozgi wa chalo, ndiyo waŵe mulongozgi wa chalo mpaka apo wazamuŵikika. Pa 3 Meyi 2005, Faure Gnassingbé wakazomelezgeka kuŵa pulezidenti ndipo wupu wa European Union ukayimiska wovwiri ku Togo kuti wovwire awo ŵakususka boma, mwakupambana na wupu wa African Union na wupu wa United States ivyo vikayowoya kuti visola vikachitika "mwakwenelera". Pulezidenti wa ku Nigeria, Olusẹgun Ọbasanjọ, wakayezga kudumbiskana pakati pa boma na ŵalwani kuti ŵaŵe na boma lakukolerana, ndipo wakakana apo komiti ya AU yikasankha pulezidenti wakale wa ku Zambia, Kenneth Kaunda, kuti waŵe nthumwi yapadera ya AU ku Togo. Mu Juni, Pulezidenti Gnassingbé wakasora Edem Kodjo kuŵa nduna yikuru. Mu Okutobala 2007, pamanyuma pa kujowoleka, visankho vikacitika mu nthowa ya kuyana na unandi wa ŵanthu. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku mpoto awo ŵakakhalanga kutali na ku mizi ŵakhalenge ku mpoto uko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi. Wupu wa Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) uwo ukakhozgekanga na pulezidenti wa Togo, ndiwo ukakhwaskika comene, ndipo UFC yikaŵa yaciŵiri, ndipo vipani vinyake vikaŵavya mazaza. Ŵakatenge RPT yikunanga mavoti ndipo ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵakayilondezganga. Pa ungano uwu pakaŵaso ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vya ku Europe, ndipo pakaŵaso mavoti ghambura kuzomerezgeka, ndipo ghanandi ghakaŵanga mu malo ghakupambanapambana. Pa 3 Disembala 2007 Komlan Mally wa RPT adasankhidwa kukhala nduna yayikulu kulowa m'malo mwa Agboyibor. Pa Seputembala 5, 2008, Mally wakaleka nchito ya kuŵa nduna yikuru ya Togo. Faure Gnassingbé wakathereskeka mu March 2010 pa chisankho cha pulezidenti, wakatora 61% ya voti kwimikana na Jean-Pierre Fabre wa UFC, uyo wakawovwirika na gulu la chipani cha FRAC (Republican Front for Change). Ŵakuwona vya visankho ŵakayowoya kuti pakaŵa "upusikizgi" na masuzgo ghanyake, ndipo ŵalwani ŵakakana kuzomerezga ivyo vikachitika.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8554145.stm |title=Togo opposition vows to challenge election result |publisher=BBC |date=7 March 2010 |access-date=16 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-togo-idUSTRE62520G20100306 |title=Togo leader Gnassingbe re-elected in disputed poll |work=Reuters |date=6 March 2010 |access-date=16 November 2011}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakamba kugalukira Faure Gnassingbé pamanyuma pa mavoti. Mu mwezi wa May 2010, mulongozgi wa chipani cha opposition Gilchrist Olympio wakapharazga kuti wazamunjira mu mgwirizano wa kugaŵana mazaza na boma, ndondomeko ya umoza iyo yikupereka UFC na maudindo 8 gha nduna.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10177087 |title=Togo opposition 'to join coalition government' |publisher=BBC |date=27 May 2010 |access-date=16 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14107024 |title=Togo profile |publisher=BBC |date=11 July 2011 |access-date=16 November 2011}}</ref> Mu mwezi wa Juni 2012, vinthu vyasintha pa nkhani ya mavoti, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kugalukira boma. Ŵakachita ivi kuti ŵaŵike dango la mu 1992 ilo likayowoyerathu kuti muwuso wa munthu ukwenera kuŵa na nyengo yichoko waka. Mu Julayi 2012, nduna yikuru ya ku Malaŵi, Gilbert Houngbo, yikamba kuleka nchito. Pakati pajumpha mazuŵa ghacoko waka, nduna ya vya malonda, Kwesi Ahoomey-Zunu, yikasoleka kuti yilongozge boma liphya. Mu mwezi wenewuwo, nyumba ya mulongozgi wakususka Jean-Pierre Fabre yikatimbanizgika na ŵapolisi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakumanaso kuti ŵakane ivyo boma likacitanga. Mu April 2015, pulezidenti Faure Gnassingbé wakasankhika kuti waŵeso pa udindo kachitatu. Mu Febuluwale 2020, Faure Gnassingbé wakasankhikaso kuŵa pulezidenti kwa nyengo yachinayi. Ŵakususka ŵakamupa mulandu wakuti wakacita uryarya na vinthu vinyake vyambura urunji. Mbumba ya Gnassingbé ndiyo yili kuwusa Togo kwambira mu 1967, ndipo ndiyo yili na mazaza ghatali comene mu Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ips-journal.eu/regions/africa/togos-dynasty-lives-on-4111/ |title=Togo's dynasty lives on |work=IPS |date=28 February 2020 |access-date=14 July 2021 }}</ref> === Administrative divisions === {{Main|Regions of Togo|Prefectures of Togo}} {{stack|{{Regions of Togo Image Map}}}} Charu cha Togo chili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa 5, ivyo navyo vili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa 30. Kufumira kumpoto kuya kumwera, vigaŵa ivi ni Savanes, Kara, Centrale, Plateaux na Maritime. === Foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of Togo}} Nangauli caru ca Togo cikukolerana yayi na vyaru vinyake, kweni cikukolerana na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe, comenecomene France na Germany. Charu cha Togo chikukolerana na vyaru vya China, North Korea, na Cuba. Mu 1987, caru ici cikambaso kucezga na caru ca Israyeli. Boma la Togo likulondezga ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake ndipo likukolerana na vyaru vinyake. Wupu uwu ukulimbikira comene pa nkhani za mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa na mu wupu wa African Union. Mu 2017, caru ca Togo cikasayinapo phangano la UN lakukanizga kugwiliskira nchito vilwero vya nyukiliya. Boma la Togo na la Gabon ŵakamba kukolerana na vyaru vya Commonwealth pa ungano wa ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vya Commonwealth uwo ukacitikira ku Kigali, Rwanda mu 2022. Pakuŵa yumoza wa vyaru ivyo vili mu Commonwealth, nduna ya vyakuwaro, Robert Dussey, yikati caru ici cikakhumbanga kuti ciŵe paubwezi na vyaru ivyo vikuyowoya Cingelezi.<ref name=":2" /> === Military === {{Main|Togolese Armed Forces}} Gulu la ŵasilikari la FAT (Forces armées togolaises, "magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵa ku Togo"), ni gulu la ŵasilikari, ŵasilikari ŵa pa nyanja, ŵasilikari ŵa pa mlengalenga, na ŵasilikari. Vyakugulira nkhondo vyose ivyo vikacitika mu cilimika ca 2005, vikaŵa 1.6% ca GDP ya caru. Ŵasilikari ŵalipo mu Lomé, Temedja, Kara, Niamtougou, na Dapaong. Mkulu wa General Staff ndi Brigadier General Titikpina Atcha Mohamed, yemwe adayamba kugwira ntchito pa 19 May 2009. Ŵasilikari ŵali na ndege za Alpha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27460%3Atogolese-air-force-acquires-cn235&catid=35%3AAerospace&Itemid=107|title=Togolese Air Force acquires CN235|publisher=defenceweb.co.za|access-date=5 July 2015|date=29 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="fat_organisation">{{cite web|url=http://forcesarmees.tg/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=13&Itemid=33|title=Organisation des Forces Armées|publisher=www.forcesarmees.tg|access-date=15 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316193353/http://forcesarmees.tg/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=13&Itemid=33|archive-date=16 March 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="fat_tetedefat">{{cite web|url=http://forcesarmees.tg/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=100|title=Un Nouveau Chef à la Tête des FAT|publisher=www.forcesarmees.tg|access-date=16 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816140008/http://forcesarmees.tg/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=100|archive-date=16 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="cia" /> === Human rights === {{Main|Human rights in Togo}} Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wakucemeka Freedom House, ukayowoya kuti caru ca Togo "nchambura wanangwa" kwambira mu 1972 mpaka mu 1998 ndiposo kwambira mu 2002 mpaka mu 2006, ndipo kufuma mu 1999 mpaka mu 2001 ndiposo kwambira mu 2007, caru ici cikucemeka kuti "nchambura wanangwa". Kuyana na U.S. Lipoti la Unduna wa vya Malango la mu 2010, likati masuzgo gha wanangwa wa ŵanthu ni agha: "ŵankhondo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono zawo mwakujumphizga, kusazgapo kuŵachitira nkhaza, ivyo vikupangiska ŵanthu kufwa na kupwetekeka; ŵaboma ŵakutondeka kuŵalanga; mu jele muli masuzgo ghakofya, ndipo umoyo wa ŵanthu uli pangozi; ŵanthu ŵakukakika na kuŵikika mu jele mwambura kwenelera; ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu jele kwa nyengo yitali pambere ŵanderuzgike; ŵamazaza ŵakukhwaska ŵeruzgi; wanangwa wakuti ŵanthu ŵayowoye na ŵanyawo, kuwungana, na kwenda mwakufwatuka; vimbundi; kusankhana pakati pa ŵanakazi na ŵanalume; kuchitira nkhaza ŵana, kusazgapo kuŵachitira nkhaza ŵanakazi, kweniso kuŵachitira nkhaza ŵana; kusuzga ŵanthu, chomenechomene ŵanakazi na ŵana; kusankhana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakupendera; kusankhana pakati pa ŵaboma na ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyawo; kusankhana pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵali na HIV; na kugwiliskira ŵanthu ntchito ya Ku Togo, kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera nkhukanizgika na dango, ndipo chilango chake nkhukakhala mu jele kwa vilimika vitatu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2013.pdf |title=State-sponsored Homophobia: A world survey of laws prohibiting same-sex activity between consenting adults |last=Itaborahy |first=Lucas Paoli |date=May 2013 |publisher=The International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association |access-date=3 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717085454/http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2013.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2013 }}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{Main|Geography of Togo}} {{ multiple images |align=right |image1=Ghana Topography.png |caption1 =Ghana-Togo [[topography]]−[[topographic map]] |image2=To-map.png |caption2=Map of Togo |total_width=330 }} Chigaŵa ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 56,785 km2. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na Nyanja ya Benin kumwera; Ghana kumanjiliro gha dazi; Benin kumafumiro gha dazi; ndipo kumpoto, chili na mphaka na Burkina Faso. Kumpoto kwa equator, kuli pakati pa 6° na 11°N, ndipo pakati pa 0° na 2°E. Mphepete mwa nyanja ya Togo iyo yili mu nyanja ya Gulf of Guinea, njitali makilomita 56 ndipo yili na madambo gha mchenga. Kumpoto kwa caru ici kuli malo gha mapiri, kweni pakati paco pali mapiri. Kumwera kwa caru ca Togo kuli mapiri na makuni agho ghakukwana ku nyanja na madambo. Phiri litali chomene mu charu ichi ni Mont Agou, ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 986 kufuma pasi pa nyanja. Mlonga utali comene ni Mono River uwo uli na utali wa 400 km (250 miles). Likufuma kumpoto kuluta kumwera. Nyengo ya ku malo agha njakuzizima comene ndipo nyengo ya kotcha yikupambana comene na ya ku malo ghanyake. Ku Togo kuli malo ghatatu: nkhorongo ya ku Guinea,<ref>{{cite web |title=Koutammakou, the Land of the Batammariba |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1140/ |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=27 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref> nkhorongo ya ku Guinea, na nkhorongo ya ku Sudan. Cirwa ca Togo cili na malo gha mathipa na makuni gha mangrove. Mu 2019, charu ichi chikaŵa pa nambala 92 pa vyaru 172. Pa vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pa nambala iyi, charu ichi chikaŵa pa nambala 5.88 pa 10. Pafupifupi mapaki ghankhondi na malo ghanyake ghakusungirako vyamoyo ghali kupangika: Abdoulaye Faunal Reserve, Fazao Malfakassa National Park, Fosse aux Lions National Park, Koutammakou, na Kéran National Park.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. 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M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="icye.org" /> == Chuma == {{Main|Economy of Togo}} {{see also|List of companies based in Togo}} [[File:Togo Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Togo exports, 2019]] Charu ichi chili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo vikusazgapo vyakurya vyakupambanapambana nga ni khofi, mbuto ya kakawo, na mtedza, ndipo vyose pamoza vikupanga ndalama zakukwana pafupifupi 30 peresenti ya ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Cotton ni mbuto iyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Munda uwu uli na malo ghakukwana 11.3 peresenti ndipo unandi wake ngwakuzenga. Vipambi vinyake ni cassava, mpunga wa jasmine, mbuto ya chimanga na chiwuvi. Vinyake mwa vigaŵa ivi ni vyakupangira moŵa na vyakuvwara. "Kukwera kwa mitengo ya katundu" wa ku Togo pamoza na "nkharo ya ndyali" ya m'ma 1990 na 2000, vikaŵa na "mawuzi" pa chuma. Charu ichi chili mu gulu la vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene. Msumba uwu ndiwo ukaŵa cigaŵa cikuru ca malonda mu caru ici. Mulimo wa boma uwo ukamara kwa vilimika khumi, ndipo ukacitikanga na Banki ya pa Caru Cose na wupu wa International Monetary Fund (IMF), wa kusintha vinthu mu ndyali, kukhozga ndalama, na kupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe pa mtende pakati pa ndalama izo munthu wakusangapo na izo wakurya, watimbanizgika. Mu 1992 na 1993, vinthu vikahenipa mu caru cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali, kusazgapo vigeŵenga na maboma, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ndondomeko ya kusintha vinthu yiŵe yakusuzga, kukhizga msonkho, na kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora mu caru. Likutumizga ku caru cinyake makina, vinthu vyakupangira mafuta, na vyakurya. Vyaru vikuruvikuru ivyo vikupanga vinthu ivi ni France (21.1%), Netherlands (12.1%), Côte d'Ivoire (5.9%), Germany (4.6%), Italy (4.4%), South Africa (4.3%) na China (4.1%). Vinthu vikuruvikuru ivyo ŵakuluta navyo ku vyaru vinyake ni kakawo, khofi, vinthu ivyo ŵakuluta navyo ku vyaru vinyake, phosphates, na thonje. "Ŵabwezi ŵithu ŵalara chomene pa nkhani ya kutumizga vinthu ku vyaru vinyake" ni Burkina Faso (16.6%), China (15.4%), Netherlands (13%), Benin (9.6%) na Mali (7.4%).[[File:Togo-pedaleamundo.jpg|thumb|Fishermen]] Pa nkhani ya kusintha vinthu mu vyaru vinyake, vyaru ivi vyaluta panthazi pa nkhani ya kulekeska ntchito zaukaboni, chomenechomene pa nkhani ya malonda na ntchito za pa dowoko. Ndondomeko ya kucitiska malonda gha viŵeto kuŵa ghaŵekha mu vigaŵa vya viŵeto vya thonje, vyamafoni, na vya maji ya maji, yili kumara. Pa Janyuwale 12, 1994, ndalama ya ku Europe yikakhira pa mtengo wake na 50%, ndipo ivi vikawovwira kuti vinthu viwelere pa malo ghakwenelera. Kuti vinthu viŵe makora, boma likwenera kuŵa lakufwatuka pa nkhani ya ndalama izo likupeleka (kuti likwaniskenge kulipira ndalama izo zikukhumbikwa pa vinthu vya boma) kweniso likwenera kuchepeska ŵasilikari awo boma ili likuthemba kuti liŵe na nkhongono. Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa ndalama, kweniso kukwera kwa mitengo ya kakawo, GDP yikakhira na 1 peresenti mu 1998, ndipo yikambaso kukura mu 1999. Charu cha Togo chili mu wupu wakucemeka Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Kulima ndiko kuli nga ni msana wa chuma. Kuŵavya ndalama zakugulira vinthu vyakumwa na vyakununkhira kwapangiska kuti ulimi uchepe. Mu 2012, ulimi ukapangiska kuti GDP yiŵe 28.2 peresenti ndipo mu 2010, ukaŵa na ntchito 49 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito. Charu ichi chikukwaniska yekha kupanga vyakurya. Kuŵeta ng'ombe ndiko kukupangiska kuti viŵeto viŵe vinandi.<ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web |date=2023-02-27 |title=Togo |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/togo/ |access-date=March 17, 2023 |series=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Getting Togo's Agriculture Back on Track, and Lifting Rural Families Out of Poverty Along the Way|author=Joelle Businger|url=http://blogs.worldbank.org/nasikiliza/getting-togos-agriculture-back-on-track-and-lifting-rural-families-out-of-poverty-along-the-way}}</ref> Mu 2012, migodi yikapanga 33.9% ya GDP ndipo mu 2010 yikagwiliskiranga nchito 12% ya ŵanthu. Ku Togo ndiko kuli phosphates zinayi izo zikusangika comene pa caru cose. Vikufumiska matani 2.1 miliyoni pa cilimika. Ku malo agha kuli malibwe gha kalama, malibwe gha marble, na mchere. Makampani ghakuzenga ghakupanga 20.4% ya ndalama izo charu cha Togo chikusanga. Malibwe ghanyake gha malibwe ghakovwira kuti ku Togo kupangike simenti.<ref name="cia.gov"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Togo|title=Togo {{!}} Location, History, Population, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-02-20}}</ref> ==Transport== {{Main|Transport in Togo}} ===Road=== Ku Togo kuli misewu ya makilomita 7,520 (4,670 mi) kwambira mu 2000, ndipo palije data ya 2023. Charu ichi chili na misewu yiŵiri yikuru, N1 na N2, iyo yikusazga Lomé na msumba wa Dapaong, ndipo yikufumako kumpoto kukafika ku Burkina Faso kufuma apo yikuluta kumpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi ku Mali, na kumpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi ku Niger. N1 ni mseu utali comene mu Togo, ndipo utali wake ni 613 km. N2 yikusazga Lomé na Aneho. Msewu wa N2 ni Highway RNIE1, panji Trans ⁇ West African Coastal Highway, kufuma ku Aneho kuya ku Cotonou mu Benin. Misewu yinyake ni misewu ya mu vigaŵa vinyake mu caru cose ici, iyo yikwendaso mu vyaru vyapafupi. Msewu wa Trans ⁇ West African Coastal Highway ukujumpha mu charu cha Togo, ndipo ukufika ku Benin na Nigeria kumafumiro gha dazi, kweniso ku Ghana na Ivory Coast kumanjiliro gha dazi. Para mulimo wa kuzenga mu vigaŵa vya Liberia na Sierra Leone wamalizgika, msewu uwu uzamulutilira kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa vyaru vinyake vinkhondi na viŵiri vya Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). ===Railways=== [[File:Railways in Togo.svg|thumb|Railway network of Togo]] Ku Togo kuli njanji ya mtunda wa makilomita 568 mu chaka cha 2008, ndipo mu chaka cha 2023, njanji iyi yizamuweleraso yayi. Sitima iyi yikwenda pa mtunda wa 1000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) (narrow gauge) Sitima iyi yikwendeka na Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Togolais (SNCT), iyo yikapangika chifukwa cha kusinthika na kusinthika zina la Réseau des Chemins de Fer du Togo kufuma 1997 mpaka 1998. Pakati pa Hahotoé na doko la Kpémé, Compagnie Togolaise des Mines du Bénin (CTMB) yikagwiliskiranga nchito sitima za phosphate.<ref name="JWR0506">{{cite book |title=Jane's World Railways 2005-2006 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780710627100 |date=2005 |publisher=Jane's Information Group |isbn=0-7106-2710-6 |editor-last=Harris |editor-first=Ken |edition=47th |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780710627100/page/464 464] |language=English}}</ref> [[File:Togo Eisenbahn 086 1990-02.jpg|thumb|A train from [[Lomé]] to [[Kpalimé]], at an intermediate station]] The following are the railway networks present in the country: *[[Lomé–Aného railway]] *[[Lomé–Blitta railway]] *[[Lomé–Kpalimé railway]] *Hahotoé–Kpémé railway (operated by CTMB)<ref name="JWR0506"/> ===Air=== [[File:2014-06-16 17-21-49 Togo Maritime - Station Météo.JPG|thumb|[[Lomé–Tokoin International Airport]]]] Ku Togo kuli ma eyapoti ghakukwana 8, ndipo ghaŵiri ni gha pa caru cose ndipo ghacinkhondi na limoza ni gha pa caru cose. Ndege zikuruzikuru za mu chalo ichi ni za Lomé-Tokoin International Airport, izo zikugwira nchito mu msumba wa Lomé, na za Niamtougou International Airport mu Niamtougou, izo zikugwira nchito kumpoto kwa chalo ichi. ===Water=== [[File:Déplacement de containers au port.jpg|thumb|Port of Lomé]] Ku Togo, pakuyowoya za maji, pali makilomita 50 pera agho ghangafikako, chomene pa Mlonga wa Mono, kuyana na vula, mu 2011. Ku Togo kuli dowoko limoza pera ilo likutumizgirako katundu wa makontena, ndipo ni dowoko la Lomé. == Chiwerengero cha anthu == {{Main|Demographics of Togo}} {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population{{UN_Population|ref}} |- ! style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |style="text-align:left;"|1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|1.4 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|5.0 |- |style="text-align:left;"|{{UN_Population|Year}} ||style="text-align:right;"|{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Togo}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}} |} Mu Novembala 2010 ku Togo kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 6,191,155, ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵakujumpha kaŵiri awo ŵakaŵapo pa census yakwamba. Mu 2022, ku Togo kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 8,680,832. Kuŵerengeska uko kukacitika mu 1981, kukalongora kuti mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵantu 2,719,567. Msumba wake, Lomé, ukakura kufuma pa ŵanthu 375,499 mu 1981 kufika pa 837,437 mu 2010. Para ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu tawuni ya Golfe nawo ŵakusazgikako, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu tawuni ya Lomé ŵakaŵa 1,477,660 mu 2010.<ref name="ReferenceA">[RGPH4 Recensement Général de la Population 2010]. Direction Générale de la Statistique et de la Comptabilité Nationale</ref><ref name="Données de Recensement">[http://www.stat-togo.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=43&Itemid=96 Données de Recensement]. Direction Générale de la Statistique et de la Comptabilité Nationale</ref> Misumba yinyake ya ku Togo yikaŵa Sokodé (95,070), Kara (94,878), Kpalimé (75,084), Atakpamé (69,261), Dapaong (58,071) na Tsévié (54,474). Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu tawuni iyi ŵakukwana{{UN_Population|Togo}} ({{As of|{{UN_Population|Year}}|lc=y}}), Togo is the 107th largest country by population. Most of the population (65%) live in rural villages dedicated to agriculture or pastures. The population of Togo shows a stronger growth: from 1961 (the year after independence) to 2003 it quintupled.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="Données de Recensement"/> {{Largest cities | country = Togo | stat_ref = Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2010<ref>{{Cite web |title=Togo|work=City Population |url= https://www.citypopulation.de/en/togo/cities/ }}</ref> | div_name = Region | city_1 = Lomé | div_1 = Maritime Region{{!}}Maritime | pop_1 = 1,477,658 | img_1 = Quartier des administrations (Lomé, Togo).jpg | city_2 = Sokodé | div_2 = Centrale Region, Togo{{!}}Centrale | pop_2 = 117,811 | img_2 = Sokodé-centre-ville.jpg | city_3 = Kara, Togo{{!}}Kara | div_3 = Kara Region{{!}}Kara | pop_3 = 94,878 | img_3 = Kara, Togo - panoramio - Milos58.jpg | city_4 = Kpalimé | div_4 = Plateaux Region, Togo{{!}}Plateaux | pop_4 = 75,084 | img_4 = Kpalime.jpg | city_5 = Atakpamé | div_5 = Plateaux Region, Togo{{!}}Plateaux | pop_5 = 69,261 | city_6 = Dapaong | div_6 = Savanes Region, Togo{{!}}Savanes | pop_6 = 58,071 | city_7 = Tsévié | div_7 = Maritime Region{{!}}Maritime | pop_7 = 54,474 | city_8 = Anié | div_8 = Plateaux Region, Togo{{!}}Plateaux | pop_8 = 37,398 | city_9 = Notsé | div_9 = Plateaux Region, Togo{{!}}Plateaux | pop_9 = 35,039 | city_10 = Cinkassé | div_10 = Savanes Region, Togo{{!}}Savanes | pop_10 = 26,926 }} === Ethnic groups === [[File:Togo-benin 1985-079 hg.jpg|thumb|People in the 1980s]] Ku Togo, kuli mafuko ghakupambanapambana ghakukwana 40, ndipo fuko likuru ni la Ŵa-Ewe, awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi ndipo ŵakupanga 32 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose. Mu mphepete mwa nyanja kumwera, ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵalipo 21 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose. Kweniso ku mpoto kuli ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kotokoli panji Tem na Tchamba, ndipo ku mpoto kuli ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kabye (22%). Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ouatchi [fr] ŵalipo 14 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose. Nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵa Ewes na ŵa Ouatchis mbanthu ŵamoza, kweni Ŵafalansa awo ŵakasanda magulu ghose ghaŵiri, ŵakughanaghana kuti ni ŵanthu ŵakupambana. Mitundu yinyake ni Ŵamina, Ŵamosi, Ŵamoba na Ŵabassar, Ŵachokossi ŵa ku Mango (pafupifupi 8%).<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of world geography |author1=Khan, M. Ali |author2=Sherieff, A. |author3=Balakishan, A. |year=2007 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-81-7625-773-2 |page=255|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUwr1BpOCooC&pg=PA255}}</ref> === Religion === {{Main|Religion in Togo }} {{Pie chart | thumb = left | caption = Religion in Togo (Arda 2020 estimate)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=221c|title=Religions in Togo &#124; Arda|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org|access-date=17 October 2020}}</ref> | label1 = [[Christianity]] | value1 = 47.84 | color1 = Blue | label3 = [[Islam]] | value3 = 18.36 | color3 = Green | label2 = [[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]] | value2 = 33.43 | color2 = Beige | label4 = [[Irreligion|No religion]] | value4 = 0.23 | color4 = Grey | label5 = Other | value5 = 1.14 | color5 = Black | value6 = | color6 = Yellow | value7 = | color7 = }}[[File:Kpalime.jpg|thumb|left|Church in [[Kpalime]]]] Kuyana na lipoti la boma la US la 2012 pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa kusopa, mu 2004, Yunivesite ya Lomé yikati ŵanthu 33 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakugomezga kuti vinthu vili kulengeka, 28 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose Mbakatolika, 20 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose Mbakhristu ŵa Sunni, 9 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose Mbakuprotesitanti, ndipo 5 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵali mu visopa vinyake. Pa ŵanthu 5 awo ŵakakhalapo, pakaŵaso ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵa ŵa cisopa cilicose yayi. Lipoti ili likayowoya kuti "Ŵakhristu na Ŵasilamu ŵanandi" ŵakulutilira kulondezga visambizgo vya cisopa ca ku malo agha.<ref name="Togo 2012">{{cite web |year=2012 |title=Togo 2012 International Religious Freedom Report |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208418.pdf |access-date=17 March 2023 |website=2009-2017 Archive for the U.S. Department of State |publisher=[[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]] |page=1 |language=en}}</ref> Mu 2023, The World Factbook yikati 42.3% ya ŵanthu ni Ŵakhristu ndipo 14% ni Ŵasilamu, ndipo 36.9% mbalondezgi ŵa visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, ndipo ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ni Ŵahindu, Ŵayuda, na ŵalondezgi ŵa visopa vinyake, ndipo 6.2% mbambura kusopa..<ref name="cia.gov" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Decalo|first1=Samuel|title=Historical Dictionary of Togo |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000deca_d4z5|date=1996|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810830738|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000deca_d4z5/page/74 74]}}</ref><ref>[https://www.freedomhouse.org/country/togo/freedom-world/2022 Freedom House, Retrieved 2023-04-25]</ref> Cikhristu cikamba kuthandazgika pakati pa virimika vya m'ma 1400, pamanyuma pakuti ŵamishonale ŵa Cikatoriki ŵafika. Kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany ŵakambiska Ciphulotesitanti apo ŵamishonale 100 ŵa gulu la Bremen Missionary Society ŵakatumika ku vigaŵa vya Togo na Ghana ivyo vili mumphepete mwa nyanja. Ŵaprotesitanti ŵa ku Togo ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti "Brema", ilo likung'anamura "Bremen". Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, ŵamishonale ŵa ku Germany ŵakafumamo, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti mpingo wa Ewe Evangelical Church uŵe wakujiyimira pawekha. Mu 2022, Freedom House yikati wanangwa wa kusopa mu Togo ni 3 pa 4, ndipo yikati wanangwa wa kusopa ukuvikilirika na dango la boma kweniso ŵanthu wose ŵakuwuchindika. Boma likuzomerezga visopa vya Cisilamu, Cikatolika, na Ciphulotesitanti. Kulembeka kwa ma ID kwajumpha nyengo yitali, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 900 ŵakakhumbikwiranga ma ID mu 2021. === Viyowoyelo === {{main|Languages of Togo}} Kuyana na buku la Ethnologue, mu caru ici mukuyowoyeka viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana 39, ndipo vinyake mwa viyowoyero ivi vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵambura kukwana 100,000. Pa viyowoyero 39 ivi, ciyowoyero ca Cifurenci ndico cikayowoyeka pa caru cose. Viyowoyero viŵiri ivyo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi vikapika mazaza mu 1975 kuti viŵe viyowoyero vya mu charu ichi. Viyowoyero ivi ni Ewé (Template:Lang-ee) na Kabiyé. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Cifurenci yayi, kweni cikuyowoyeka mu visambizgo, mu nyumba za malango, mu ma TV, mu maofesi gha boma, na mu malonda. Ciyowoyero ca Ewe cikayowoyekanga comene kumwera. Ku vigaŵa vinyake vya kumpoto kwa caru ici, ciyowoyero ca Tem cikayowoyekanga pakugwiliskira nchito malonda. Kuyana na ivyo vikuyowoyeka ku Togo, viyowoyero ivi ni viyowoyero ivyo vikuyowoyeka pa sukulu na mu manyuzipepara. Ŵanyake ni Gen, Aja, Moba, Ntcham, na Ife. Boma la Togo likati lazomera kuŵa mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Commonwealth, likawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Togo ŵasambirenge Chingelezi.<ref name=":2" /> === Umoyo === Wupu wa Human Rights Measurement Initiative ukati Togo yikufiska 73.1% ya ivyo yikwenera kufiska pa nkhani ya wanangwa wakuŵa na umoyo uwemi. Pa nkhani ya kulera ŵana, caru ca Togo cikukwaniska 93.8% ya ivyo cikulindizga kuyana na ndalama izo cikusanga. Pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa umoyo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵalara, caru ici cikukwaniska 88.2% ya ivyo vikulindizgika kuyana na unandi wa ndalama izo munthu wakusanga. Pa nkhani ya kulera ŵana, caru ici cili mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵambura kulera makora cifukwa cikukwaniska 37.3 peresenti ya ivyo cikwenera kufiska kuyana na ndalama izo zilipo. Mu 2014, ndalama izo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa vyaumoyo ku Togo zikaŵa 5.2% za GDP, ndipo caru ici cikukhala pa malo gha 45 pa caru cose. Ŵana awo ŵakufwa na nthenda iyi ŵalipo pafupifupi 43.7 pa ŵana 1,000 mu 2016. Mu 2016, unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhala na umoyo kwa vyaka vinandi ukaŵa 62.3 pa ŵanalume, ndipo wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhala na umoyo kwa vyaka vinandi ukaŵa 67.7. Kuyana na lipoti la UNICEF la mu 2013, ŵanakazi 4 pa ŵanakazi 100 ŵaliwose ku Togo ŵali kukotoleka. Ku Togo, pa ŵanthu 100,000 awo ŵakababika mu 2015, ŵanthu 368 ndiwo ŵakafwanga, apo mu 2010 ŵakafwanga 350 ndipo mu 1990 ŵakafwanga 539.7. Ciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵa vyaka 5 awo ŵakufwa pa ŵana 1,000 awo ŵakubabika ni 100, ndipo ciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵa vyaka 5 awo ŵakufwa pa ŵana 1,000 awo ŵakubabika ni 32. Ku Togo, pa ŵanakazi 1,000 awo ŵakubabika ŵamoyo, ŵanakazi ŵaŵiri ndiwo ŵakubaba ndipo pa ŵanakazi 67 awo ŵakubaba, yumoza ndiyo wakufwa.<ref name="SOWMY">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|title=The State Of The World's Midwifery|publisher=United Nations Population Fund}} Accessed August 2011.</ref><ref name="cia.gov" /><ref name="UNICEF2013p27">[https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |date=5 April 2015 }}, p. 27.</ref><ref name="cia.gov" /><ref name="cia.gov" /> Mu 2016, ku Togo kukaŵa ŵanthu 4100 (2400-6100) awo ŵakasangika na HIV ndipo 5100 (3100-7700) awo ŵakafwa na AIDS. Mu 2016, pakaŵa ŵanthu 100,000 (73,000-130,000) awo ŵakaŵa na HIV, ndipo pa ŵanthu aŵa, 51% (37-67%) ŵakalutanga ku cipatala. Pa ŵanakazi awo ŵakaŵa na nthumbo ndipo ŵakaŵa na HIV, 86% (59% - > 95%) ŵakalutanga ku cipatala panji ku cipatala kuti ŵaleke kuphalizgana nthenda iyi na ŵana ŵawo. Pafupifupi ŵana < 1000 (< 500- 1400) ndiwo ŵakasangika na HIV cifukwa cakuti yikathandazgika kufuma kwa mama kuluta kwa mwana. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na HIV, pafupifupi 42% (30- 55%) ŵakaŵa na HIV yayi. AFD yikugwira nchito kuti yikhozge umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa mu Lomé, tawuni ya mumphepete mwa nyanja iyo yili na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 1.4 miliyoni, mwa kunozga vinthu vyakovwira kuti ŵakhalenge makora. Ntchito iyi yikusazgapo kunozga malo ghakusungiramo viswaswa agho ghakukolerana na malango gha caru cose.<ref name=":111">{{Cite web|last=Bank |first=European Investment |date=2023-02-23 |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230014-the-clean-oceans-initiative |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Clean Oceans Initiative |url=https://www.afd.fr/en/the-clean-oceans-initiative |access-date=2023-02-23 |website=www.afd.fr |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/togo|title=Togo|website=www.unaids.org}}</ref> === Masambilo === Ku Togo, masambiro ni ghakukhumbikwa kwa vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza. Mu 1996, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeskeka mu sukulu ya pulayimale chikaŵa 119.6%, ndipo chiŵelengero cha awo ŵakalembeskeka mu sukulu ya pulayimale chikaŵa 81.3%. Mu 2011, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskeka pa sukulu iyi chikaŵa 94%. Masambiro gha mu caru ici "ghakusuzgika cifukwa ca kusoŵa ŵasambizgi, masambiro ghaheni comene mu mizi, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuweleraso ku sukulu na kuleka sukulu".<ref name="ilab">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080202100024/http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/togo.htm "Togo"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080202100024/http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/togo.htm|date=2 February 2008}}. ''2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor''. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2002). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].</ref> == Mwambo == {{Main|Culture of Togo|Music of Togo}} [[File:Togo Taberma house 04.jpg|thumb|Taberma houses]] Chikhalidwe chake chikusonyeza zikhalidwe za mafuko, zikuluzikulu mwa izo ndi Ewe, Mina, Tem, Tchamba ndi Kabre. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulondezga maluso na vigomezgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Vikozgo vya Ewe vikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakasopanga viŵeto ivi. Ŵakapanganga vithuzithuzi na vinthu vinyake vyakukopa m'malo mwa vikozgo vya ku Afrika ivyo vikaŵa palipose. Ŵakuŵaja makuni ŵa ku Kloto ŵali na "maunyoro gha nthengwa": Ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakukolerana na mphete izo ŵajambura ku khuni limoza. Vinthu ivyo ŵakajambura ku Kloto vikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakacitiranga vinthu mu nyengo yakale. Pali vizwazwa ivyo ŵakuvwara pa chiŵegha ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa viphikiro vya ku Assahoun. Mulembi Sokey Edorh wakalemba vinthu ivyo vikulongora "malo ghambura maji, agho ghakuputwa na mphepo yiheni", ndipo mu malo agha muli vimanyikwiro vya ŵanthu na vinyama. Paul Ahyi, uyo wakagwiranga nchito ya kupanga mapulasitiki, wakacitanga "zota", ndipo vinthu vinandi ivyo wakacita vikukondweska ŵanthu ŵa ku Lomé. Maseŵero gha basketball ni "maseŵero ghaciŵiri agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene" ku Togo. Timu ya Togo yikaŵa na timu ya beach volleyball iyo yikachita mpikisano wa 2018 ⁇ 2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup mu chigaŵa cha ŵanalume. Vinthu ivi ni wayilesi, TV, na mabuku. Wupu wa nkhani wa Agence Togolaise de Presse [fr] ukayamba mu 1975. Bungwe la nyuzipepara la Union des Journalistes Indépendants du Togo likukhala ku Lomé.<ref name="Europ2003">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1KBP7QbalX0C |title=Africa South of the Sahara 2003 |publisher=[[Europa Publications]] |year=2003 |isbn=9781857431315 |series=Regional Surveys of the World |page=1106+ |chapter=Togo: Directory |issn=0065-3896 |ref={{harvid|Europa|2003}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= Continental Cup Finals start in Africa|url=https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |accessdate=7 August 2021 |work=[[FIVB]] |date=22 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1=Kayi Lawson |title= Le basketball, une discipline en quêtes de moyen et de vocations au Togo|url=https://www.voaafrique.com/a/le-basketball-une-discipline-en-qu%C3%AAtes-de-moyen-et-de-vocations-au-togo/5907971.html |accessdate=7 August 2021 |work=VOA Afrique |date=28 May 2021|language=French}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{portal|Africa}} * [[Outline of Togo]] *[[Horses in Togo]] ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{Refbegin}} * Bullock, A L C, ''Germany's Colonial Demands'' (Oxford University Press, 1939). * Gründer, Horst, ''Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien'', 3. Aufl. (Paderborn, 1995). * Mwakikagile, Godfrey, ''Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties'' ([[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]], 2001). * Packer, George, ''The Village of Waiting'' (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1988). * Piot, Charles, ''Nostalgia for the Future: West Africa After the Cold War'' (University of Chicago Press, 2010). * Schnee, Dr. Heinrich, ''German Colonization, Past and Future - the Truth about the German Colonies'' (George Allen & Unwin, 1926). * Sebald, Peter, ''Togo 1884 bis 1914. Eine Geschichte der deutschen "Musterkolonie" auf der Grundlage amtlicher Quellen'' (Berlin, 1987). * Seely, Jennifer, ''The Legacies of Transition Governments in Africa: The Cases of Benin and Togo'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). * Zurstrassen, Bettina, ''"Ein Stück deutscher Erde schaffen". Koloniale Beamte in Togo 1884-1914'' (Frankfurt/M., Campus, 2008) (Campus Forschung, 931). {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|wikt=Togo|n=Category:Togo|q=no|s=Portal:Togo|b=no|voy=Togo|v=no}} '''Government''' * [https://www.republicoftogo.com/ Republic of Togo] official site {{in lang|fr}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110511202912/http://www.assemblee-nationale.tg/ National Assembly of Togo] official site * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081210073916/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-t/togo.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{in lang|fr}} '''General''' * [http://www.newint.org/columns/country/2003/08/01/togo/ Country Profile] from [[New Internationalist]] * [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14106781 Country Profile] from [[BBC News]] * [https://www.britannica.com/place/Togo Togo] from [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20231012171517/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/togo/ Togo]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085853/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/togo.htm Togo] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Togo}} * {{wikiatlas|Togo}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TG Key Development Forecasts for Togo] from [[International Futures]] '''Malonda''' * [https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/TGO/Year/2012/Summary Togo 2012 Summary Trade Statistics] {{Togo topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{African Union}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}} {{La Francophonie}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Togo| ]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Togo]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1960]] [[Category:West African countries]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former German colonies]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Africa]] opyr69tgf2rrspxmdf4bb7nr04tagx9 0 6968 122346 116652 2026-09-25T00:42:12Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122346 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in West Africa}} {{About|charu chiphya|chakumanyuma|The Gambia (1965–1970)}} {{Redirect|Gambia|the river|Gambia River}} {{pp-move}} {{nkhaniiwemi}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2017}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Gambia | common_name = The Gambia | image_flag = Flag of The Gambia.svg | flag_type = [[Flag of the Gambia|Flag]] | religion_year = 2019 | image_coat = Coat of arms of The Gambia.svg | symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of the Gambia|Coat of arms]] | national_motto = "Progress, Peace, and Prosperity" | national_anthem = "[[For The Gambia Our Homeland]]"<div style="padding-top:0.5em;" class="center">[[File:For The Gambia Our Homeland (instrumental).ogg]]</div> | image_map = Gambia (orthographic projection with inset).svg | map_caption = Malo gha Gambia kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa | image_map2 = | capital = [[Banjul]] | largest_settlement_type = metropolitan area | largest_settlement = [[Serekunda]] | official_languages = [[English language|English]]<!-- Until official sources state otherwise, this should not be changed. See the Talk page. --> | languages_type = [[National language]]s | languages = {{collapsible list|bullets=y|title={{nobold|List:}}|[[Mandinka language|Mandinka]] |[[Pulaar language|Pulaar]] |[[Wolof language|Wolof]] |[[Serer language|Serer]] |[[Jola languages|Jola]] |[[English language|English]] |[[Arabic language|Arabic]] |[[Balanta languages|Balanta]] |[[Hassaniya Arabic]] |[[Jola-Fonyi language|Jola-Fonyi]] |[[Mandjak language|Mandjak]] |[[Mankanya language|Mankanya]] |[[Noon language|Noon]] |[[Cangin languages|Cangin]] |[[Dyula language|Dyula]] |[[Fula language|Fula]] |[[Karon language|Karon]] |[[Kassonke language|Kassonke]] |[[Soninke language|Soninke]] |[[Gambian Sign Language]] |[[French language|French]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 34.4% [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] | 24.1% [[Fula people|Fula]] | 14.8% [[Wolof people|Wolof]] | 10.5% [[Jola people|Jola]] | 8.2% [[Soninke people|Soninke]] | 3.1% [[Serer people|Serer]] | 1.9% [[Manjago people|Manjago]] | 1.3% [[Bambara people|Bambara]] | 0.5% [[Oku people (Sierra Leone)|Aku]] | 1.5% other<ref name=2013Census>{{cite web |url=https://www.gbos.gov.gm/uploads/census/2013/Spatial-distribution-report_%20Final.pdf |title=2013 Population and Housing Census: Spatial Distribution |publisher=The Republic of The Gambia |last=National Population Commission Secretariat |date=April 30, 2005 |website=Gambia Bureau of Statistics |access-date=December 29, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103134831/https://www.gbos.gov.gm/uploads/census/2013/Spatial-distribution-report_%20Final.pdf |archive-date=3 January 2018 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2013 Census | religion_ref = <ref name=CIA>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gambia-the/|title=The World Factbook: Gambia, The|website=CIA|language=en|access-date=2020-06-03|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | demonym = Gambian | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[presidential republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of the Gambia|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Adama Barrow]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of the Gambia|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Muhammad B.S. Jallow]] | leader_title3 = [[List of speakers of the National Assembly of the Gambia|Speaker of the National Assembly]] | leader_name3 = [[Fabakary Jatta]] | leader_title4 = [[Chief Justice of the Gambia|Chief Justice]] | leader_name4 = [[Hassan Bubacar Jallow]] | legislature = [[National Assembly of the Gambia|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = Independence | established_event1 = from the United Kingdom | established_date1 = 18 February 1965 | established_event2 = dissolution of the [[Senegambia Confederation]] | established_date2 = 30 September 1989 | area_km2 = 11,300<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/gambia-the/#geography|title=Gambia, The|date=28 February 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov}}</ref> | area_rank = 159th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 4,007 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | percent_water = 11.5 | population_estimate = 2,413,403<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Gambia The|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 144th | population_density_km2 = 176.1 | population_density_sq_mi = 425.5 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 74th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$6.7 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 166th | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_per_capita ={{increase}} $2,640<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 175th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$2.1 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 185th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita ={{increase}} $846<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 180th | Gini = 35.9 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_change = decrease | Gini_ref = <ref name=Gini>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2015&locations=GM&start=2015&view=bar|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=21 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421232414/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2015&locations=GM&start=2015&view=bar|archive-date=21 April 2018|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.500<!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name=UNHDR>{{cite book |title=Human Development Report 2021-22: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future in a Transforming World |date=8 September 2022 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |isbn=978-9-211-26451-7 |pages=272–276 |website=hdr.undp.org |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908114232/hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 174th | currency = [[Gambian dalasi]] | currency_code = GMD | utc_offset = {{sp}} | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | DST_note = {{smaller|''Daylight saving time is not observed''}} | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+220]] | iso3166code = GM | cctld = [[.gm]] | coordinates = {{Coord|13|28|N|16|36|W|type:city|display=inline,title}} | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; | 96.4% [[Islam in the Gambia|Islam]] | 3.5% [[Christianity in the Gambia|Christianity]] | 0.1% Others }} | today = | p1 = | flag_p1 = Flag of The Gambia.svg | p2 = }} '''Charu cha Gambiya,''' panji kuti '''Gambia''',{{efn|[[Mandinka language|Mandinka]]: ''Kambiya'' {{lang|nqo|ߞߊߡߓߌߦߊ}}, {{lang-wo|Gámbi}}, {{lang-ff|Gammbi}}, {{lang-srr|Gambi}}, {{lang-ar|غامبيا}}}} pa[[chizungu]], '''''Republic of The Gambia''''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/member-states|title=Member States|first=United|last=Nations|website=United Nations}}</ref> ni chalo icho chili ku [[Western Africa]]. Ni caru cicoko comene pa vyaru vyose vya<ref name=Hoare>Hoare, Ben. (2002) ''The Kingfisher A-Z Encyclopedia'', Kingfisher Publications. p. 11. {{ISBN|0-7534-5569-2}}.</ref> mu Africa, ndipo cili kuzingilizgika na Senegal. Charu cha Gambia chili mumphepete mwa [[Mlonga wa Gambia]], uwo ukujumpha pakati pa charu ichi<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Banjul|title=Banjul &#124; national capital, The Gambia|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=7 April 2020}}</ref> na kuthira mu [[Nyanja ya Atlantic]]. Ili na malo ghakukwana 11,300 square kilometres (4,400 sq mi) ndipo ŵanthu 1,857,181 ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi. Banjul ni msumba ukuru wa charu cha Gambia, ndipo ni msumba ukuru chomene mu charu ichi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cities/gambia|title=Population of Cities in Gambia 2023|website=worldpopulationreview.com}}</ref> Mu 1455, Ŵapwitikizi ndiwo ŵakamba kwenda mu chigaŵa cha Gambia, kweni ŵakaŵavya malonda. Mu 1765, charu cha Gambia chikaŵa chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa [[Britain]].<ref>Hughes, Arnold (2008) ''Historical Dictionary of the Gambia''. Scarecrow Press. p. xx. {{ISBN|0810862603}}.</ref> Mu 1965, charu cha Gambia chikamba kujiwusa chekha pasi pa muwuso wa [[Dawda Jawara]]. [[Adama Barrow]] wakazgoka purezidenti wachitatu wa Gambia mu Janyuwale 2017, wati watonda Jammeh pa chisankho cha Disembala 2016.<ref name=Wiseman>Wiseman, John A. (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=jj4J-AXGDaQC&pg=PA456 Africa South of the Sahara 2004 (33rd edition): The Gambia: Recent History], Europa Publications Ltd. p. 456.</ref> Jammeh wakazomera vifukwa ivi, pambere wandaleke uteŵeti wake, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe suzgo la ndyali na kunjilirapo kwa [[ŵasilikari]] ŵa [[wupu wa Economic Community of West African States]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/21/anxious-gambians-await-former-president-yahya-jammeh-departure|title=Yahya Jammeh leaves the Gambia after 22 years of rule|last=Maclean|first=Ruth|date=21 January 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=17 May 2017|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516194615/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/21/anxious-gambians-await-former-president-yahya-jammeh-departure|archive-date=16 May 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=Agrees>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/01/gambia-yahya-jammeh-agrees-step-170120184330091.html|title=Gambia's Yayah Jammeh confirms he will step down|date=20 January 2017|website=Al Jazeera|access-date=21 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121003151/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/01/gambia-yahya-jammeh-agrees-step-170120184330091.html|archive-date=21 January 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref> {{cite news | last =Ramsay | first =Stuart | title =Former Gambia leader Yahya Jammeh flies into political exile | language =en | publisher =Sky News | date =22 January 2017 | url =https://uk.news.yahoo.com/former-gambia-leader-yahya-jammeh-preparing-leave-country-205300165.html | access-date =23 January 2017 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20170123004834/https://uk.news.yahoo.com/former-gambia-leader-yahya-jammeh-preparing-leave-country-205300165.html | archive-date =23 January 2017 | url-status =live | df =dmy-all }} </ref> Charu cha Gambia chili mu wupu wa Economic Community of West African States kufuma apo ukapangika mu 1975 ndipo chili mu wupu wa Commonwealth. Chuma cha mu Gambia chikuthemba pa ulimi, kuloŵa somba, na vyakusanguluska. Mu 2015, ŵanthu 48.6% ŵakaŵa ŵakavu. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ukavu ukaŵa ukuru comene, pafupifupi 70 peresenti.<ref name="WorldBank">{{cite web |title=The Gambia overview |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/gambia/overview |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705183902/http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/gambia/overview |archive-date=5 July 2018 |access-date=5 July 2018 |publisher=World Bank |df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Zina== Zina lakuti "Gambia" lili kufuma ku lizgu la [[Mandinka]] lakuti Kambra/Kambaa, ilo likung'anamura [[Mlonga wa Gambia]] (panji panji kufuma ku lizgu la [[Serer Gamba]], mtundu wapadera wa calabash uwo ŵakumenya para mulara wa Serer wafwa). Apo charu ichi chikamba kujiyimira mu 1965, chikachemekanga Gambia. Mu 1970, charu ichi chikazgoka Republic of Gambia. Boma la Yahya Jammeh likasintha zina la boma ili kuŵa Islamic Republic of Gambia mu Disembala 2015. Pa 29 January 2017 Pulezidenti Adama Barrow wakasintha zina la charu ichi kuŵa Republic of Gambia.<ref name=abr>{{Cite news|url=https://www.naij.com/1085177-adama-barrow-removes-islamic-gambias-name.html|title=Adama Barrow removes 'Islamic' title from Gambia's name|last=Adegun|first=Aanu|date=29 January 2017|newspaper=Naij|language=en-US|access-date=31 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129123855/https://www.naij.com/1085177-adama-barrow-removes-islamic-gambias-name.html|archive-date=29 January 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/01/gambia-president-adama-barrow-pledges-reforms-170128194124520.html|title=The Gambia: President Adama Barrow pledges reforms|date=28 January 2017|website=Al Jazeera|access-date=31 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131012508/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/01/gambia-president-adama-barrow-pledges-reforms-170128194124520.html|archive-date=31 January 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Charu cha Gambia ntchimoza mwa vyaru viŵiri ivyo vili na zina la Chingelezi ilo lili na chilembo chakumanyikwa (chinyake ni Bahamas), padera pa vyaru ivyo zina lake lili mu unandi (Netherlands, Philippines) panji lili na boma ([[United Kingdom]], [[Czech Republic]]).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Geoghegan |first=Tom |date=2012-06-07 |title=Ukraine or the Ukraine: Why do some country names have 'the'? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18233844 |access-date=2023-02-23 |quote=[A]ccording to several authoritative sources, such as the CIA World Factbook, the Times Comprehensive Atlas of the World and the US Department of State, only two countries, The Bahamas and The Gambia, should officially be referred to with the article.}}</ref> Kweniso boma la charu ichi na mawupu ghanyake gha pa charu chose ghakugwiliskira ntchito mazgu agha. Pakwamba ŵakalemba mazgu agha cifukwa ca zina la cigaŵa ici lakuti "Mlonga wa Gambia". Mu 1964, pambere charu chindaŵe na wanangwa, nduna yikuru Dawda Jawara yikalembera kalata komiti yakuwona vya mazina gha vyaru ku Britain, na kupempha kuti zina lakuti Gambia likhalilirenge na lizgu ilo likung'anamura zina la charu ichi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Alfa Shaban |first1=Abdur Rahman |title=Why Africa's 'smiling coast' is officially referred to as 'The' Gambia |url=https://www.africanews.com/2017/01/19/why-africa-s-smiling-coast-is-referred-to-as-the-gambia// |access-date=28 November 2020 |work=Africa News |date=19 January 2017 |archive-date=11 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411013024/https://www.africanews.com/2017/01/19/why-africa-s-smiling-coast-is-referred-to-as-the-gambia/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito zina la Gambia. ==Mbili== {{Main|History of the Gambia}} === Vyaka vya m'ma 900-1600: Ŵasilamu na Ŵapwitikizi === Ŵamalonda Ŵachiarabu ndiwo ŵakalemba nkhani yakwamba yakukhwaskana na charu cha Gambia mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 na 900 C.E. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., Ŵasilamu awo ŵakaguliskanga vinthu na ŵasambizgi ŵakakhazikika mu malo ghanandi gha ku [[West Africa]]. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri agha ghakaŵa na nthowa zakwendeskera malonda mu Sahara, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakendeskanga malonda ghakurughakuru. [[File:Wassu Stone Cirles shaunamullally 02.jpg|thumb|left|Makhwiro gha malibwe gha ku Senegambia (megalites) agho ghakutora nyengo kufuma ku Senegal kuya ku Gambia ndipo UNESCO yikuyowoya kuti "ndigho ghakukwana chomene pa charu chose".]] Kuzakafika mu 11 panji 12 C.E., mathemba gha maufumu nga ni Takrur (ufumu uwo ukaŵa kumpoto kwa Mlonga wa Senegal), Ghana wakale, na Gao, ghakazgoka Ŵasilamu ndipo ŵakimika Ŵasilamu awo ŵakamanyanga Ciarabu kuti ŵateŵeterenge mu nyumba zawo.<ref>Easton P (1999) [http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/581121468329358898/Education-and-Koranic-literacy-in-West-Africa "Education and Koranic Literacy in West Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220150050/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/581121468329358898/Education-and-Koranic-literacy-in-West-Africa |date=20 December 2016 }}. IK Notes on Indigenous Knowledge and Practices, n° 11, World Bank Group. pp. 1–4</ref> Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, chigaŵa chikuru cha Gambia chikaŵa mu ufumu wa Mali. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakafika pa malo agha pa nyanja. === Boma la Chingelezi na la France === Mu 1588, António, Prior wa ku Crato, uyo wakakhumbanga kukhala pa ufumu wa Portugal, wakaguliska wanangwa wa malonda pa Mlonga wa Gambia ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku England. Makalata agho Fumukazi Elizabeth I yikalemba ghakakhozga fundo iyi. Mu 1618, Themba James I la ku England likazomerezga kampani yinyake ya ku England kuti yikaguliskenge vinthu ku Gambia na ku Gold Coast (uko sono ni Ghana). Pakati pa 1651 na 1661, vigaŵa vinyake vya charu cha Gambia Chirwa cha Andrew mu Mlonga wa Gambia kusazgapo Fort Jakob, na St. Chirwa cha Mary (lero ni Banjul) na Fort Jillifree ‡ vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Courland na Semigallia (lero ni Latvia), ndipo vikagulika na Karonga Jacob Kettler.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yevstratyev|first=O|date=2018|title=Chronological Dating of the Duchy of Courland's Colonial Policy|url=https://www.lvi.lu.lv/lv/LVIZ_2018_files/3_numurs/O_Yevstratyev_Chronological_LVIZ_2018_3.pdf|journal=Latvijas Vēstures Institūta Žurnāls|volume=3|pages=34–72|doi=10.22364/lviz.108.02|access-date=22 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223074148/https://www.lvi.lu.lv/lv/LVIZ_2018_files/3_numurs/O_Yevstratyev_Chronological_LVIZ_2018_3.pdf|archive-date=23 February 2019|url-status=live|df=dmy-all|doi-access=free}}</ref> Mu 1664, England yikapoka malo agha. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na m'ma 1800, ufumu wa Britain na wa France ukalutilira kulimbana kuti uŵe na mazaza pa ndyali na malonda mu vigaŵa vya Senegal na Gambia. Ufumu wa Britain ukaŵa na mazaza pa charu cha Gambia apo ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Augustus Keppel ŵakafika ku charu ichi mu 1758. Mu 1783, pa phangano lakwamba la Versailles, Britain likapoka Mlonga wa Gambia, kweni France likalutilira kuŵa na malo ghacoko waka ku Albreda kumpoto kwa mlonga uwu. Paumaliro, charu ichi chikapelekeka ku Britain mu 1856. === Ukapolo (Vyaka vya m'ma 1700-1900) === Ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 miliyoni ŵakakoleka wuzga mu chigaŵa ichi mu vyaka 300 ivyo ŵakaguliskiranga ŵazga. Tikumanya yayi unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga pa nkhondo izo zikachitika pambere malonda gha ŵazga ghandambe. Ŵanandi awo ŵakakoleka ŵakaguliskika ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanyake ŵakakoleka pa nkhondo za mafuko, ŵanyake ŵakaguliskika cifukwa ca ngongoli zambura kulipika, ndipo ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵakakoleka waka.<ref>Park, Mungo ''Travels in the Interior of Africa'' [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5305 v. II, Chapter XXII – War and Slavery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924192512/http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5305 |date=24 September 2009 }}.</ref> [[File:James Island and Fort Gambia.jpg|thumb|Mapu gha James Island na Fort Gambia]] Pakwamba, ŵamalonda ŵakatumanga ŵanthu ku Europe kuti ŵakagwirenge ntchito ya ŵateŵeti m'paka mu ma 1800, apo ntchito yikakura ku West Indies na North America. Mu 1807, boma la Britain likalekeska malonda gha ŵazga mu ufumu wake wose. Kweniso likayezgayezga kumazga malonda gha ŵazga mu Gambia, kweni vikatondeka. Ngalaŵa za ŵazga izo zikaŵa mu nyanja ya Atlantic zikaweleraso ku Gambia, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵakaŵafumiska pa cirwa ca MacCarthy uko ŵakalindiliranga kuti ŵakambe umoyo uphya. Mu 1816, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakazenga msumba wa Bathurst (uno ni Banjul). ===Gambia Colony and Protectorate (1821–1965)=== [[File:The National Archives UK - CO 1069-25-4.jpg|thumb|right|Kazembe wa Britain, George Chardin Denton (1901-1911), na chipani cake, 1905]] {{Further|Gambia Colony and Protectorate}} Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, nyengo zinyake Banjul wakaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa kazembe wa Britain ku Sierra Leone. Mu 1888, charu cha Gambia chikazgoka chikaya. Mu 1889, boma la Britain na la France ŵakakolerana kuti malo agha ghaŵe na mphaka. Mu 1891, ŵalara ŵa boma la England na France ŵakasuska ivyo ŵakachita. Gambia wakazgoka ufumu wa Britain, ndipo ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Mu 1901, charu cha Gambia chikaŵa na wupu wakulongozga na wakwimika malango. Mu 1906, ŵazga ŵakalekeskeka, ndipo pamanyuma pa nkhondo yichoko waka pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na ŵanthu ŵa ku Gambia, boma la Britain likamba kulamulira. Mu 1919, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana pakati pa Traveling Commissioner J. K. McCallum na mwanakazi wa Wolof Fatou Khan ŵakakwiyiska boma. Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵakarwa nkhondo pamoza na ŵanyawo. Nangauli ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakarwa nkhondo mu Burma, kweni ŵanyake ŵakafwira kufupi na kukwawo. Ku Banjul kukaŵa ndege za ŵasilikari ŵa boma la United States. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, vinthu vikasintha comene. Pamanyuma pa mavoti gha mu 1962, boma la United Kingdom likapeleka wanangwa wakujiwusa yekha.<ref name="Biz">{{Cite book |title=Gambia Business Law Handbook |publisher=International Business Publication |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4387-6988-2 |volume=1: Strategic Information and Basic Laws}}</ref>[[File:Gambia 1953 stamps crop 6.jpg|thumb|Sitampu iyo yili na cithuzithuzi ca Fumukazi Elizabeth II, 1953]] === Pamasinda pa kujiyimira (1965-pano) === ==== Ufumu wa ufumu na demokilase ya boma ==== Charu cha Gambia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha pa 18 February 1965, ndipo chikaŵa na ufumu wa wupu wakulongozga. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, boma likacita pharazgo lakuti caru ici ciŵe caru cakucemeka republic. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakatondeka kuzomera kuti paŵe ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakakhumbanga kusintha malango gha charu ichi. Pa Epulero 24, 1970, charu cha Gambia chikazgoka charu cha Commonwealth. Mulara wa boma Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti. Pulezidenti Dawda Jawara wakasankhikaso kankhondi.<ref name=ucdp>UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia</ref> ==== Kuyezga kupoka boma mu 1981 ==== Pa Julayi 29, 1981, boma likayezga kutimbanizga boma. Kuyezga kupoka boma kukacitika apo purezidenti Jawara wakaluta ku London ndipo kukacitika na wupu wa National Revolutionary Council, uwo ukaŵa na Socialist and Revolutionary Labour Party (SRLP) wa Kukoi Samba Sanyang na ŵantchito ŵa Field Force, gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵanandi mu vyalo vya nkhondo. Pulezidenti Jawara wakapempha wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ku Senegal, uyo wakatuma ŵasilikari 400 ku Gambia pa Julayi 31. Pa Ogasiti 6, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Senegal pafupifupi 2,700 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵanjira, ndipo ŵakathereska ŵakugaluka. Ŵanthu pakati pa 500 na 800 ŵakakomeka pa nyengo ya kuwukira boma na nkhaza izo zikaŵako.<ref name=ucdp/> Mu 1982, pamanyuma pa kuwukira boma, Senegal na Gambia ŵakasazga phangano la kuwungana. Cholinga cha mgwirizano wa Senegambia chinali kugwirizanitsa magulu a nkhondo a mayiko awiriwa ndi kugwirizanitsa chuma chawo ndi ndalama zawo. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri pera, Gambia wakafumamo mu wupu uwu mu 1989. ==== 1994 Yahya Jammeh coup; kubwerera ku demokalase ya chisankho ==== Mu 1994, wupu wa Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council (AFPRC) ukawuskapo boma la Jawara na kukanizga ŵanthu awo ŵakususka boma. Mulara Yahya A.J.J. Jammeh, mulongozgi wa AFPRC, wakaŵa mutu wa boma. Jammeh wakaŵa na vilimika 29 pera apo boma likagalukira. Boma la AFPRC likapharazga ndondomeko yakuwelera ku boma la demokilase. Wupu wakuwona vya mavoti (Independent Electoral Commission) (PIEC) ukakhazikiskika mu 1996 kuti ucitenge mavoti gha pa caru cose ndipo ukasinthika kuŵa wupu wakuwona vya mavoti (Independent Electoral Commission) (IEC) mu 1997 ndipo ukaŵa na mulimo wa kulembeska ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuvota ndiposo wa kucita mavoti na ma referendum. Kuumaliro wa 2001 na kukwambilira kwa 2002, ku Gambia kukachitika maungano gha purezidenti, gha ŵalara ŵa boma, na gha chigaŵa. Pulezidenti Yahya Jammeh, uyo wakasankhika kuti walutilire pa udindo uwo wakaŵa nawo pa nyengo ya vimbundi, wakalapa pa 21 December 2001. Gulu la Jammeh la Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction (APRC) likalutilira kuŵa na wanandi wa ŵanthu mu Nyumba ya Malango, comenecomene pamanyuma pakuti chipani cikuru ca United Democratic Party (UDP) ico cikususka boma, cikakana mavoti. (Kweni kufuma nyengo yira, boma ili likuchitako mavoti.) Pa 2 Okutobala 2013, nduna ya vyalo ya Gambia yikapharazga kuti Gambia wafumengepo mu Commonwealth mwaluŵiro, ndipo ivi vyamalizga vyaka 48 ivyo wakaŵa mu wupu uwu. Boma la Gambia likati "likadumura kuti Gambia waŵengepo yayi mu wupu unyake wa vyaru viphya na kuŵapo yayi mu wupu unyake wa vyaru viphya". Pa Disembala 11, 2015, Pulezidenti Jammeh wakapharazga kuti Gambia ni charu cha Chisilamu, ndipo wakati ni charu icho chili kutali na ufumu wa Chisilamu. Pulezidenti Jammeh wakadumbiskana na ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani cha opposition Adamu Barrow kufuma ku Independent Coalition of Parties na Mamma Kandeh kufuma ku chipani cha Gambia Democratic Congress mu mavoti gha December 2016. Boma la Gambia likadumura kuti Ousainou Darboe uyo ni mulongozgi wa chipani chakususka na wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu wakhale mu jele vyaka vitatu mu Julayi 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/07/gambia-prison-sentences-for-opposition-leaders-continues-downward-spiral-for-human-rights/ |title=Gambia: Prison sentences for opposition leaders continues downward spiral for human rights |date=20 July 2016 |work=Amnesty International |access-date=29 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026164743/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/07/gambia-prison-sentences-for-opposition-leaders-continues-downward-spiral-for-human-rights/ |archive-date=26 October 2016 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ==== Kuthereskeka kwa Jammeh mu 2016 ==== Pambuyo pa chisankho cha pa 1 Disembala 2016, komiti ya zisankho idalengeza kuti Adama Barrow ndiye wopambana pa chisankho cha purezidenti. Jammeh, uyo wakawusa kwa virimika 22, wakadankha kuphara kuti wafumengepo pa udindo wake wati watondeka pa mavoti gha mu 2016 pambere wandayowoye kuti mavoti ghakaŵa ghambura ntchito na kuchemera mavoti ghaphya. Pa 20 January 2017, Jammeh wakapharazga kuti wazomera kufumapo ndipo wafumenge mu chalo.<ref name=Agrees/> ==== Since 2017 ==== Mu Janyuwale 2017, Pulezidenti Barrow wakawuskamo zina lakuti "Islamic" mu zina la Gambia. Pa 14 February 2017, charu cha Gambia chikamba kuwelera ku Commonwealth ndipo chikapeleka chikalata chake kwa Secretary General Patricia Scotland pa 22 January 2018. Boris Johnson, uyo wakaŵa Secretary of Foreign wa ku Britain wakwamba kuchezgera charu cha Gambia kwambira apo charu ichi chikapokera wanangwa mu 1965, wakapharazga kuti boma la Britain lakondwa kuti Gambia wawelere ku Commonwealth. Charu cha Gambia chikawelera ku Commonwealth pa 8 February 2018. Pa 28 February 2018, Jaha Dukureh, uyo wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanakazi wakasankhika kuti wapokere chawanangwa cha Nobel cha mtende chifukwa cha mulimo wake wa kulimbana na kuswa viŵaro vya ŵanakazi. Pa 4 Disembala 2021, Adama Barrow wakathereskeka pa chisankho cha purezidenti. Pa Disembala 20, 2022, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Gambia ŵakayezga kutimbanizga boma, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵanayi ŵakakakika. Ŵasilikari ŵa Gambia ŵakukana kuti pakaŵavya uyo wakayezga kutimbanizga boma.<ref name="BBC-2022">{{Cite news|date=2022-12-21|title=Gambia coup attempt foiled – government|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-64055295|access-date=2022-12-21}}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of the Gambia}} [[File:Ga-map.png|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Mapu gha Gambia]] [[File:GambiaKololiBeach043 (11904193013).jpg|thumb|Mphepete mwa nyanja ya Kololi]] Gambia ni caru cicoko comene ico mphaka zake zikuyana waka na Mlonga wa Gambia. Charu ichi chili pakati pa latitude 13 na 14°N, na longitude 13 na 17°W. Charu cha Gambia chili na usani wa makilomita 50 pa malo ghakupambanapambana. Malo pafupifupi 1,300 (11,5%) gha charu cha Gambia ghali na maji. Ni caru cicoko comene pa vyaru vya mu Africa. Kuyana na malo agha, Gambia ni mucoko comene pakuyaniska na cirwa ca Jamaica. Charu cha Senegal chili kuzingilizga charu cha Gambia kufuma ku vigaŵa vitatu, ndipo chili na mtunda wa makilomita 80 pa nyanja ya Atlantic. Malire agho ghalipo sono ghakaŵako mu 1889, pamanyuma pa phangano pakati pa Britain na France. Pa nyengo ya kudumbiskana pakati pa ŵa ku France na ŵa ku Britain mu Paris, ŵa ku France ŵakamba kupeleka kwa ŵa ku Britain makilomita pafupifupi 320 (200 mi) gha Mlonga wa Gambia. Kwamba na kuŵika mphaka mu 1891, pakajumpha vyaka pafupifupi 15 kufuma apo ungano wa ku Paris ukachitikira. Vinthu ivi vikawovwira kuti Ŵanung'una ŵa Britain ŵambe kulamulira malo agho ghakaŵa pa mtunda wa makilomita 16 kumpoto na kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Gambia. Mu charu cha Gambia muli vyakumera vitatu: nkhorongo ya ku Guinea, nkhorongo ya ku West Sudan, na mangrove. Charu ichi chili na chiŵelengero cha 4.56/10 pa 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index, ndipo chili pa 120 pa vyaru 172.<ref name=FLII>{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Nyengo=== Ku Gambia, nyengo yake njakuthukira. Nyengo ya vula yikuŵa yitali yayi, ndipo yikwamba mu Juni m'paka Seputembala. Kweni kufuma mu Juni m'paka Meyi, maji ghakukhoma chomene. Nyengo ya ku Gambia yikuyana comene na ya ku Senegal, Mali, na kumpoto kwa Guinea.<ref name=hayward> {{cite book | last = Hayward | first = Derek |author2=J. S. Oguntoyinbo | title = Climatology of West Africa | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | year = 1987 | location = Lanham, Maryland | page = 189 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0RooGyB2f60C&pg=PA189 | isbn = 978-0-389-20721-4 }} </ref> {{Weather box |width=auto |location = Banjul |metric first = yes |single line = yes |Jan record high C = 37.2 |Feb record high C = 38.9 |Mar record high C = 40.6 |Apr record high C = 41.1 |May record high C = 41.1 |Jun record high C = 37.8 |Jul record high C = 33.9 |Aug record high C = 33.3 |Sep record high C = 34.4 |Oct record high C = 37.2 |Nov record high C = 35.6 |Dec record high C = 35.6 |year record high C = 41.1 |Jan high C = 31.7 |Feb high C = 33.5 |Mar high C = 33.9 |Apr high C = 33.0 |May high C = 31.9 |Jun high C = 31.9 |Jul high C = 30.8 |Aug high C = 30.2 |Sep high C = 31.0 |Oct high C = 31.8 |Nov high C = 32.7 |Dec high C = 31.9 |year high C = 32.0 |Jan low C = 15.7 |Feb low C = 16.6 |Mar low C = 17.9 |Apr low C = 18.8 |May low C = 20.3 |Jun low C = 22.9 |Jul low C = 23.6 |Aug low C = 23.3 |Sep low C = 22.6 |Oct low C = 22.2 |Nov low C = 18.8 |Dec low C = 16.2 |year low C = 19.9 |Jan record low C = 7.2 |Feb record low C = 10.0 |Mar record low C = 11.7 |Apr record low C = 12.2 |May record low C = 13.9 |Jun record low C = 18.3 |Jul record low C = 20.0 |Aug record low C = 20.0 |Sep record low C = 17.2 |Oct record low C = 16.1 |Nov record low C = 12.2 |Dec record low C = 8.9 |year record low C = 7.2 |Jan rain mm = 0.5 |Feb rain mm = 0.0 |Mar rain mm = 0.0 |Apr rain mm = 0.0 |May rain mm = 1.3 |Jun rain mm = 62.7 |Jul rain mm = 232.4 |Aug rain mm = 346.8 |Sep rain mm = 255.1 |Oct rain mm = 75.8 |Nov rain mm = 1.6 |Dec rain mm = 0.7 |year rain mm = 976.9 |rain colour=green |Jan rain days = 0 |Feb rain days = 0 |Mar rain days = 0 |Apr rain days = 0 |May rain days = 0 |Jun rain days = 5 |Jul rain days = 14 |Aug rain days = 19 |Sep rain days = 16 |Oct rain days = 6 |Nov rain days = 0 |Dec rain days = 0 |year rain days = 60 |Jan humidity = 47 |Feb humidity = 47 |Mar humidity = 50 |Apr humidity = 58 |May humidity = 67 |Jun humidity = 73 |Jul humidity = 81 |Aug humidity = 85 |Sep humidity = 84 |Oct humidity = 80 |Nov humidity = 69 |Dec humidity = 55 |year humidity = 67 |Jan sun = 207.7 |Feb sun = 237.3 |Mar sun = 266.6 |Apr sun = 252.0 |May sun = 229.4 |Jun sun = 201.0 |Jul sun = 182.9 |Aug sun = 189.1 |Sep sun = 183.0 |Oct sun = 217.0 |Nov sun = 246.0 |Dec sun = 210.8 |Jand sun = 6.7 |Febd sun = 8.4 |Mard sun = 8.6 |Aprd sun = 8.4 |Mayd sun = 7.4 |Jund sun = 6.7 |Juld sun = 5.9 |Augd sun = 6.1 |Sepd sun = 6.1 |Octd sun = 7.0 |Novd sun = 8.2 |Decd sun = 6.8 |yeard sun = 7.2 |source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organization]]<ref name= WMO>{{cite web | url = http://worldweather.wmo.int/en/city.html?cityId=140 | title = World Weather Information Service – Banjul | publisher = World Meteorological Organization | access-date = 10 June 2016}}</ref> |source 2 = [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] (extremes, humidity, and sun)<ref name = DWD> {{cite web | url = http://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_617010_kt.pdf | title = Klimatafel von Banjul-Yundum (Flugh.) / Gambia | work = Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world | publisher = Deutscher Wetterdienst | language = de | access-date = 10 June 2016}}</ref> |date=August 2010 }} ==Boma na ndale== {{Main|Politics of the Gambia}} {{multiple image | border = infobox | image_gap = 20 | caption_align = center | align = right | direction = horizontal | image1 = Dawda Jawara (1979).jpg | width1 = 128 | caption1 = Sir [[Dawda Jawara]]<br /><small>1st [[President of the Gambia|President]] (1970–1994)</small><br /><small>[[Prime Minister of the Gambia|Prime Minister]] (1962–1970)</small> | image2 = Yahya Jammeh.jpg | width2 = 128 | caption2 = [[Yahya Jammeh]]<br /><small>2nd President (1996–2017)</small><br /><small>Chairman of the [[Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council|AFPRC]] (1994–1996)</small> | image3 = Adama Barrow - 2018 (39774084330) (cropped).jpg | width3 = 128 | caption3 = [[Adama Barrow]]<br /><small>3rd President (2017–present)</small> }} [[File:Banjul Arch 22.jpg|thumb|The [[Arch 22]] monument commemorating [[1994 Gambian coup d'état|the 1994 coup]] which saw the then 29-year-old [[Yahya Jammeh]] seize power in a bloodless coup, ousting [[Dawda Jawara]], who had been President of the Gambia since 1970<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/28/world/in-gambia-new-coup-follows-old-pattern.html|title= In Gambia, New Coup Follows Old Pattern|date= 28 August 1994|work= The New York Times|access-date= 13 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161226204826/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/28/world/in-gambia-new-coup-follows-old-pattern.html|archive-date= 26 December 2016|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref>]] Charu cha Gambia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha pa 18 February 1965. Kwamba mu 1965 m'paka mu 1994, charu ichi chikaŵa na vipani vinandi. Wakawusikanga na Dawda Jawara na People's Progressive Party (PPP). Ndipouli, mu nyengo iyi vinthu vikasintha yayi pa ndyali, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakasuskanga yayi kuti boma liŵe na mazaza.<ref>Edie, p. 162</ref> Mu 1994, gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likapangika na ŵalara ŵa ŵasilikari likamba kuwusa. Pakati pajumpha vyaka viŵiri kufuma apo boma likambira kulamulira, ŵakalemba dango liphya ndipo mu 1996, mulongozgi wa AFPRC, Yahya Jammeh, wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti. Wakalongozga mu nthowa ya wupu wakulongozga m'paka mu 2016 apo Adamu Barrow wakathereskeka na chipani cha opposition. === Mbiri ya ndale === Mu nyengo ya Jawara, pakaŵa vipani vinayi, PPP, United Party (UP), Democratic Party (DP), na I.M. Chipani cha Muslim Congress Party (MCP) cha Garba-Jahumpa. Pa maungano gha mu 1960, pakaŵa Nyumba ya Wupu Wakulongozga ndipo pakaŵavya chipani icho chikapokera vithuzithuzi vinandi. Ndipouli, mu 1961, Kazembe wa Britain wakasankha Pierre Sarr N'Jie, mulongozgi wa UP kuti waŵe mulongozgi wakwamba wa boma. Ici cikaŵa cinthu cambura kutemweka comene, ndipo maungano gha mu 1962 ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa comene cifukwa vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana na visopa mu Gambia. Chipani cha PPP chikapokera chiŵelengero chikuru, ndipo chikapangika na chipani cha Democratic Congress Alliance (DCA; chisanganiko cha DP na MCP). Ŵakacemera UP kuti ŵanjire mu wupu uwu mu 1963, kweni ŵakaluta mu 1965.<ref name=Edie162>Edie, pp. 162–164</ref> Gulu la UP ndilo likaŵa lakwamba kususka boma, kweni likathera mu 1965 m'paka 1970. Mu 1975, chipani cha National Convention Party (NCP) chikapangika na Sheriff Mustapha Dibba, ndipo chikazgoka chipani chiphya chakususkana na PPP. Wupu wa PPP na NCP ukaŵa wakuyana maghanoghano, ntheura mu ma 1980 chipani chiphya cha opposition chikawoneka, mu kawonekero ka chipani cha Socialist People's Democratic Organisation for Independence and Socialism (PDOIS). Ndipouli, pakati pa 1966 na 1992, chipani cha PPP cikaŵa na mazaza ghakuru comene, cikapokera mavoti 55 mpaka 70 peresenti.<ref>Edie, p. 165</ref> Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Jawara, ŵanthu ŵakakwesananga pa nkhani za ndyali. Kweni ŵakayowoya kuti mu charu ichi mukaŵa "chipani chimoza icho chikaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose. Pa nyengo iyo boma likamba kujiyimira palekha, ŵanthu ŵakaŵavya wanangwa, ndipo magulu ghakwimikana nagho ghakaŵa ghakukhora. Ŵakususka ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wa kusanga ndalama, cifukwa ŵamalonda ŵakakana kuzipeleka. Boma likaŵa na mazaza pa nyengo yakupharazgira ŵanthu na kuŵapharazgira, ndipo pakaŵaso milandu ya kuguliska mavoti na kuleka kulembeska mavoti. Pa mulandu wa kuswa malango kwa boma la PDOIS mu 1991 cifukwa ca kuswa malango mu Banjul, boma likakana mulandu uwu. Mu Julayi 1994, ŵasilikari ŵakathereska boma la Jawara. Wupu uwu ukalekeska ntchito ya malango gha charu ichi, ukazomerezga yayi vyaru vyose vya ndyali, ndipo ukaŵika dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵafumenge yayi pa nyumba kufuma mise m'paka mulenji. Mu 1996, boma likamba kusintha vinthu kuti liŵe la demokilase, ndipo ŵakalemba dango liphya, nangauli ŵakalondezga fundo izo zikamovwira Jammeh. Mu 1996, ŵanthu 70% ŵakakolerana na dango ili, ndipo mu Disembala 1996, Jammeh wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti. Mabungwe ghose agho ghakaŵapo pambere boma lindanjire mu boma ghakakanizgika, ndipo ŵaliska ŵakaŵakanizga kugwira ntchito za boma. Pa nyengo iyo Jammeh wakaŵa na mazaza, ŵanthu ŵakususkana nawo ŵakambaso kugaŵikana. Mwaciyelezgero, pakaŵa nkhondo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la National Alliance for Democracy and Development (NADD) ilo likapangika mu 2005. Jammeh wakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵapolisi kusuzga ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake. Jammeh wakasoleka na mulandu wa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, comenecomene ku ŵanthu awo ŵakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu, mawupu gha wupu wa ŵanthu, ŵakususka ndyali, na ŵapharazgi. Ŵakatumizgika ku caru cinyake, ŵakatambuzgika, ŵakakakika mwambura mulandu, ŵakakomeka, kweniso ŵakazgeŵa. Viyelezgero vinyake ni ivyo vikachitika mu 2004, apo Deyda Hydara uyo wakaŵa mulembi wa nyuzipepara wakakomeka. Mu 2000, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuskanga ŵasambizgi pa ungano wa kususka. Kweniso, Jammeh wakawofyanga wanangwa wa cisopa wa ŵanthu awo Mbacikhristu yayi, wakagwiliskiranga nchito 'ŵeruzgi ŵakugwilira nchito ŵekha' kuti watimbanizge wupu wa vyeruzgi, ndipo wakasuskika kanandi waka kuti wakasuzga pa mavoti. Mu Disembala 2016, Jammeh wakathereskeka na Adama Barrow, uyo wakawovwirika na mabungwe ghakupambanapambana. Jammeh wakati wazomera kufumapo ndipo wakasintha maghanoghano, pakaŵa suzgo la ndyali ilo likapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ECOWAS ŵanjire mu charu mu Janyuwale 2017. Barrow wakalayizga kuti wazamulongozga boma la nyengo yitali kwa vilimika vitatu. Wupu wakuwona vya demokilase na chitukuko wa ku Nigeria ukuti masuzgo agho Barrow wakukumana nagho ghakukhumbikwira kuwezgerapo "kugomezga kwa ŵanthu mu boma". Ŵakuyowoya kuti "mtende ngwakukhazika" ndipo mu vyaru vya kumwera muli masuzgo pakati pa ŵalimi na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵakaphalirangaso za masuzgo agho ghakuŵapo pakati pa mafuko. Mwachiyelezgero, mu Febuluwale 2017, ŵanthu 51 awo ŵakakolerananga na Jammeh ŵakakakika chifukwa cha kutambuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na Barrow. Nangauli pakwamba ŵanthu ŵakakondwa chomene na ivyo Barrow wakachita pakusankha pulezidenti, kweni ŵakakondwa yayi chifukwa cha ivyo wakachita apo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti. Pa 5 Disembala, 2021, Purezidenti wakale Adamu Barrow adalengezedwa ngati wopambana pa chisankho cha purezidenti wa Gambia ndi komiti yosankha. Chisankho cha pa 4 Disembala 2021, chakwamba kufuma apo uyo wakalamuliranga kale Yahya Jammeh wakachimbilira ku charu chinyake, chikawonekanga kuti ntchakukhumbikwa chomene ku demokilase.<ref>{{cite news |title=Incumbent Barrow declared winner of Gambia's presidential vote as opposition cries foul |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20211205-incumbent-barrow-declared-winner-of-gambia-s-presidential-election |work=France 24 |date=5 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> ===Buku la amalango=== Mu vyaka vyose ivyo vyajumpha, charu cha Gambia chili na malango ghanandi. Malamulo ghaŵiri ghakuzirwa chomene ni dango la 1970 ilo likakhazikiska charu cha Gambia nga ni boma la pulezidenti, na dango la 1996 ilo likawovwira Jammeh kuwusa. Jammeh wakasintha malango gha mu 1996 kuti wawovwirepo. Pakaŵavya mazgu ghakuti nyengo iyo Jammeh wazamwambira kuwusa yizamukhalako nyengo yitali. Kuyana na dango la boma la mu 1996, pulezidenti ndiyo ni mulara wa boma, mulara wa boma, ndiposo mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari. Jammeh na Barrow nawo ŵali na udindo wa Minisita wa vya Vyankhondo.<ref name=EASO>{{Cite web|title=The Gambia: Country Focus|date=December 2017|website=European Asylum Support Office|url=https://www.easo.europa.eu/sites/default/files/coi-gambia.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615004602/https://www.easo.europa.eu/sites/default/files/coi-gambia.pdf|archive-date=15 June 2018|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ===Ulongozgi=== Pulezidenti wakusora wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti na nduna za boma. Mu 1970, boma likalekeska mulimo wa kuŵa nduna yikuru. Mulongozgi wa boma ndiyo wali na mazaza ghose. Kweniso wangimika ŵanthu ŵankhondi ŵa mu Nyumba ya Malango, ŵeruzgi ŵa makhoti ghapachanya, ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa, na ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa. Pa nkhani ya uteŵeti wa boma, wangimika Komiti ya Uteŵeti wa Wupu Wakulongozga, ombudsman, na Independent Electoral Commission. Pulezidenti wakusankhika mwaluŵiro kuti waŵepo vyaka vinkhondi. Palije mphaka.<ref name=EASO/> Ndondomeko ya malango yikunozgekerathu kufuma mu 2018 ndipo ŵakukhazga kuti nyengo ya mavoti yiŵenge yiŵiri kweniso kuti vinthu visinthenge. ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{Main|Foreign relations of the Gambia}} [[File:Yahya Jammeh with Obamas 2014.jpg|thumb|Yahya Jammeh na Mrs. Zeinab Jammeh pamoza na Barack na Michelle Obama mu White House, August 2014]] Boma la Gambia likalondezganga fundo ya kuleka kujipatura ku vyaru vinyake mu nyengo yose iyo Pulezidenti Jawara wakaŵira pa udindo wake. Likalutilira kukolerana na Britain, Senegal, na vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa. Nkhondo ya boma iyo yikacitika mu Julayi 1994 yikananga ubwezi wa Gambia na vyaru vya ku Western, comenecomene United States, iyo m'paka mu 2002, yikakanizga wovwiri wa ŵanthu wose mwakuyana na Section 508 of the Foreign Assistance Act. Pamasinda pa 1995, Pulezidenti Jammeh wakambiska ubwezi na vyaru vinyake vinandi, kusazgapo Libya (iyo yikamara mu 2010), na Cuba. Boma la China likadumura ubwezi na charu cha Gambia mu 1995 pamanyuma pakuti charu ichi chakhazikiska ubwezi na charu cha Taiwan.<ref>{{cite news|last1= Wong|first1= Chun Han|title= Beijing Resumes Formal Ties With Gambia, in Signal to Taipei|url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/beijing-resumes-formal-ties-with-gambia-in-signal-to-taipei-1458233742?mod=fox_australian|newspaper= Wall Street Journal|date= 17 March 2016|access-date= 19 March 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160319140747/http://www.wsj.com/articles/beijing-resumes-formal-ties-with-gambia-in-signal-to-taipei-1458233742?mod=fox_australian|archive-date= 19 March 2016|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> Pakuŵa ciŵaro ca wupu wa Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), charu ca Gambia cacitapo kanthu pa mulimo wa wupu uwu wa kumazga nkhondo za cikaya mu Liberia na Sierra Leone ndipo capeleka ŵasilikari ku wupu wa ECOMOG mu 1990 na ECOMIL mu 2003. Mu Novembala 2019, charu cha Gambia chikapeleka mulandu ku boma la Myanmar ku The Hague, chifukwa cha kususka ŵasilikari ŵa charu ichi. Pa nyengo ya muwuso wa Yahya Jammeh, charu cha Gambia chikapelekaso wovwiri ku ŵakugaluka ŵa MFDC ku Casamance kumwera kwa Senegal. Nkharo ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu yikalutilira kuhenipa ndipo vinthu vikamba kunangika pakati pa boma la United States na la Gambia. Gambia wakafumamo mu Commonwealth pa Okutobala 3, 2013, ndipo boma likati "likaghanaghana kuti Gambia waŵengepo yayi mu wupu uliwose wa vyaru viphya ndipo waŵengepo yayi mu wupu uliwose uwo ukuyana na vyaru vinyake". Mu muwuso wa purezidenti muphya, charu cha Gambia chikamba kuwelera ku wupu wa Commonwealth na wovwiri wa boma la Britain, ndipo pa 22 January 2018 chikapeleka fomu yake ya kuwelera ku Commonwealth kwa Secretary General Patricia Scotland.<ref name="boris">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38968336|title=The Gambia: UK 'very pleased' about Commonwealth return|publisher=BBC|access-date=22 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719150054/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38968336|archive-date=19 July 2018|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="cwlthre">{{cite news|title=The Gambia presents formal application to re-join the Commonwealth|url=http://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/gambia-presents-formal-application-re-join-commonwealth|access-date=24 January 2018|publisher=The Commonwealth|date=23 January 2018|format=Media Release|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124135618/http://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/gambia-presents-formal-application-re-join-commonwealth|archive-date=24 January 2018|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Gambia wakawelera ku malo ghake nga ni republic mu Commonwealth pa 8 February 2018. ==== Mndandanda wa mamembala gha bungwe ghapacharu chose ==== * [[Commonwealth of Nations]] * [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) * [[Organization of Islamic Cooperation]]<ref name=oicmems>{{cite web|title=Member States|url=http://www.oic-oci.org/states/?lan=en|website=OIC|access-date=31 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609063319/http://www.oic-oci.org/states/?lan=en|archive-date=9 June 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> * [[United Nations]] * [[African Union]]<ref name=AUmem>{{cite web|title=Member States|url=https://au.int/en/memberstates|website=African Union|access-date=31 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107025239/https://au.int/en/memberstates|archive-date=7 November 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> === Ŵankhondo === {{Main|Gambia Armed Forces}} [[File:Masaneh Kinteh and Carter Ham saluting.jpg|thumb|[[United States Africa Command|U.S. AFRICOM]] commander [[Carter Ham]] and senior Gambian Army officer [[Masaneh Kinteh]] surveying the troops, 21 July 2011]] Gulu la ŵasilikari la Gambia (GAF) likapangika mu chaka cha 1985 nga ni ndondomeko ya Senegambia Confederation, umoza wa ndyali pakati pa Gambia na Senegal. Gulu ili likaŵa la Gambia National Army (GNA), ilo likasambizgika na ŵa ku Britain, na la Gambia National Gendarmerie (GNG), ilo likasambizgika na ŵa ku Senegal. GNG yikasazgikana na ŵapolisi mu 1992, ndipo mu 1997 Jammeh wakapangiska Gambian Navy (GN). Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, ŵanthu ŵakayezgapo kuti ŵaŵe na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Gambia kweni ŵakatondeka. Mu 2008, Jammeh wakambiska gulu la National Republican Guard, ilo lili na ŵasilikari ŵapadera. Gulu la GNA lili na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 900. Likagwiliskiranga nchito magalimoto gha Ferret na M8 Greyhound. Gulu la GN lili na maboti ghakuvikilira, ndipo Taiwan likapeleka maboti ghanyake ghaphya ku ŵasilikari mu 2013. Kufuma waka apo ŵasilikari ŵa GAF ŵakakhazikiskikira mu 1985,<ref name=Bellamy>Bellamy, Alex J. and Williams, Paul D. (2013) ''Providing Peacekeepers: The Politics, Challenges, and Future of United Nations Peacekeeping Contributions''. Oxford University Press, p. 30. {{ISBN|0199672822}}.</ref> ŵakawovwirapo pa ntchito za UN na African Union. Wakapika udindo wa kuŵika mtende pa malo ghaŵiri ndipo wupu wa Center on International Cooperation ukati ni charu icho chikulongozga pa vya mtende. Likatumizga ŵasilikari ku Liberia mu 1990 mpaka 1991, apo ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri ŵa ku Gambia ŵakakomeka. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, boma ili lapeleka ŵasilikari ku ECOMIL, UNMIL, na UNAMID. Kuwusa kwa ŵasilikari kuli mu mawoko gha pulezidenti kwambira apo Jammeh wakapokera mazaza pa boma mu 1994 apo wakapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵathereske ŵanthu. Jammeh wakapangaso udindo wa Chief of the Defence Staff, uyo ni mulara wa ŵasilikari uyo wakwendeska milimo ya zuŵa na zuŵa ya ŵasilikari ŵa Gambia. Pakati pa 1958 na 1985, caru ca Gambia cikaŵavya ŵasilikari, kweni Gambia Field Force yikaŵa cigaŵa ca ŵapolisi. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Gambia likamba mu 1901 m'paka 1958, ndipo likarwa Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose. Mu 2017, charu cha Gambia chikalemba chikalata cha UN pa nkhani ya kukanizga vilwero vya nyukiliya. Wupu wa vya nkhondo wa Gambia uli na mapangano ghanandi ghakupeleka vinthu na masambiro ku vyaru vinyake. Mu 1992, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakawovwira kulongozga GNA. Pakati pa 1991 na 2005, ŵasilikari ŵa Turkey ŵakawovwira kusambizga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Gambia. Kweniso ku Gibraltar kukaŵa ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain na United States. === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{See also|Human rights in the Gambia}} Wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose ukati, pafupifupi 78.3% ya ŵasungwana na ŵanakazi ŵa ku Gambia ŵali kupwetekeka. Kucita vinthu vya kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵa mtundu unyake ni kwaukazuzi, ndipo munthu wangakakika umoyo wake wose. Mabungwe ghakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakugomezga kuti mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya Daily Observer, Ebrima Manneh, ŵakamukora mu Julayi 2006 ndipo ŵakamujalira mu jele. Manneh wakakakika na wupu wa National Intelligence Agency wa ku Gambia pamanyuma pakuti wakayezga kupulinta lipoti la BBC ilo likasuskanga pulezidenti Yahya Jammeh. Wupu wa Amnesty International ukuwona kuti ni kayidi wa njuŵi ndipo ukamuzunura kuti ni "mulandu wakuzirwa comene" mu 2011. Mu 2019 nyuzipepala ya ku Gambia ya The Trumpet yikati Manneh wakafwa mu ukayidi pakati pa chaka cha 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rsf.org/en/news/gambia-missing-editor-died-detention-2008-after-mistreatment|title=Gambia: Missing editor died in detention in 2008 after mistreatment {{!}} Reporters without borders|date=2019-03-22|website=RSF|language=en|access-date=2019-09-12|archive-date=21 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421110336/https://rsf.org/en/news/gambia-missing-editor-died-detention-2008-after-mistreatment|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://trumpet.gm/2019/03/19/journalist-manneh-died-on-road-to-diabugu-hospital/|title=Journalist Manneh Died On Road To Diabugu Hospital|last=Ceesay|first=Fabakary B.|date=2019-03-19|website=The Trumpet|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-12|archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801011121/https://trumpet.gm/2019/03/19/journalist-manneh-died-on-road-to-diabugu-hospital/|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Kugawikana kwa boma === {{Main|Local government areas of the Gambia}} {{Stack|[[File:Gambia-LGAmap.png|700px|Local government areas of the Gambia]]}} Charu cha Gambia chili na vigaŵa 8 vya boma, kusazgapo msumba wa Banjul. Chigaŵa cha Gambia chikapangika na Independent Electoral Commission kuyana na ndime 192 ya Constitution ya chalo.<ref name="ciageography">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Gambia, The|access-date=30 May 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> {| class="sortable wikitable plainrowheaders" |+Administrative divisions !scope="col"| Zina !! scope="col" | Malo (km²) !! scope="col" | Population Census 2003 !!scope="col"| Population Census 2013<br />(provisional) !!scope="col"| Capital !!scope="col"| Number<br />of<br />Districts |- !scope="row"| '''[[Banjul]]''' (capital city) |align="right"| 12.2||align="right"| 35,061||align="right"| 31,301|| [[Banjul]]|| align="right" | 3 |- !scope="row"| [[Kanifing LGA|Kanifing]] |align="right"| 75.6||align="right"| 322,735||align="right"| 382,096|| [[Kanifing]] ||align="right"| 1 |- !scope="row"| [[Brikama (Gambia)|Brikama]] <br />(formerly Western) |align="right"| 1,764.3||align="right"| 389,594||align="right"| 699,704|| [[Brikama]] ||align="right"| 9 |- !scope="row"| [[Mansa Konko (Gambia)|Mansa Konko]] <br />(formerly Lower River) |align="right"| 1,628.0||align="right"| 72,167||align="right"| 82,381|| [[Mansa Konko|Mansakonko]] ||align="right"| 6 |- !scope="row"| [[Kerewan (Gambia)|Kerewan]] <br />(formerly North Bank) |align="right"| 2,255.5||align="right"| 172,835||align="right"| 221,054|| [[Kerewan]] ||align="right"| 7 |- !scope="row"| [[Kuntaur (Gambia)|Kuntaur]] <br />(formerly the western half <br />of [[Central River Division]]) |align="right"| 1,466.5||align="right"| 78,491||align="right"| 99,108|| [[Kuntaur]]|| align="right" | 5 |- !scope="row"| [[Janjanbureh (Gambia)|Janjanbureh]] <br />(formerly the eastern half <br />of [[Central River Division]]) |align="right"| 1,427.8||align="right"| 107,212||align="right"| 126,910|| [[Janjanbureh, Gambia|Janjanbureh]] ||align="right"| 5 |- !scope="row"| [[Basse (Gambia)|Basse]] <br />(formerly Upper River) |align="right"| 2,069.5||align="right"| 182,586||align="right"| 239,916|| [[Basse (LGA)|Basse Santa Su]] ||align="right"| 7 |- !scope="row"| '''Total Gambia''' |align="right"| 10,689||align="right"|1,360,681||align="right"|1,882,450|| Banjul ||align="right"| 43 |} Mu 2013, vigaŵa vya boma vyagaŵika mu vigaŵa 43. Mu vigaŵa ivi, Kanifing na Kombo Saint Mary (ivyo vili na msumba ukuru wa Brikama pamoza na chigaŵa cha boma la Brikama) ni vigaŵa vya Greater Banjul.<ref> {{cite web |author= Law, Gwillim |title= Divisions of Gambia |publisher= Administrative Divisions of Countries ("Statoids") |date= 19 April 2006 |url= http://www.statoids.com/ugm.html |access-date= 29 September 2006 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110804220753/http://www.statoids.com/ugm.html |archive-date= 4 August 2011 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }} </ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of the Gambia}} [[File:Gambia Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|right|A proportional representation of The Gambia exports, 2019]] [[File:People tourists in swimming pool hotel Gambia.jpg|thumb|Tourists in Gambia, 2014]] [[File:GDP per capita development in Senegal and Gambia.svg|thumb|GDP per capita development in Senegal and Gambia]] Charu cha Gambia chili na chuma chakukhora, icho chikuthemba pa msika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuthemba chomene mphonje za mu charu ichi kuti ŵasange ndalama zakwendeskera malonda. Banki ya Charu chose yikati GDP ya Gambia mu 2018 yikaŵa US$1,624M; International Monetary Fund yikati yikaŵa US$977M mu 2011. Kwambira mu 2006 m'paka 2012, chuma cha Gambia chikakuranga chaka chilichose pa mlingo wa 5~6% ya GDP.<ref>Fadera, Hatab (23 April 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035755/http://observer.gm/africa/gambia/article/gambia-to-commence-rail-system-in-2013-discloses-president-jammeh-as-he-opens-parliament "Gambia to commence rail system in 2013:- Discloses President Jammeh, as he opens parliament"], ''The Daily Observer'' (23 April 2012).</ref> Vyaru vikupangiska pafupifupi 30% ya GDP (Gross Domestic Product) ndipo vikugwira nchito pafupifupi 70% ya ŵanthu. Mu vyaru vinyake, vyakumera vikupanga 6.9% ya GDP, vyakurya vinyake 8.3%, viŵeto 5.3%, somba 1.8%, na makuni 0.5%. Makampani ghakuzenga ghakugwirapo nchito pafupifupi 8% ya GDP, ndipo maofesi ghakupeleka pafupifupi 58%. Vigaŵa vichoko waka vya vyakurya vikupangika mu vyaru vya vyakurya (nga ni vyakurya vya mu vyakumera, vyakupangira buledi, vyakupangira moŵa, na vyakupangira makuni). Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakupanga ni sopo, vyakumwa vyakunowa, na vyakuvwara. Pakwamba [mphawuli?], caru ca United Kingdom na EU vikaŵa misika yikuru ya Gambia. Ndipouli, mu vilimika vyasonosono apa, Senegal, United States, na Japan ŵaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa Gambia. Ku Africa, mu 2007, Senegal ndiyo yikaŵa yikulu comene mu vyamalonda ya Gambia, ico cikupambana comene na vyaka vyakumasinda apo Guinea-Bissau na Ghana vikaŵa vyamalonda vyakuzirwa comene. Pa caru cose capasi, Denmark, United States, na China ni vyaru vyakuzirwa ivyo vikuguliska vinthu vya ku Gambia. Vyaru vya UK, Germany, Ivory Coast, na Netherlands navyo vikuguliska vinthu vinandi ku Gambia. Mu 2007, Gambia yikaŵa na suzgo la malonda la $331 miliyoni. Mu Meyi 2009, mu Gambia mukaŵa mabanki 12 gha malonda, kusazgapo banki yimoza ya Chisilamu. Banki yakale comene njakuti Standard Chartered Bank, ndipo yikamba mu 1894 apo yikazgoka Bank of British West Africa. Mu 2005, International Commercial Bank, wupu wa banki uwo uli ku Switzerland, ukambiska kampani yinyake ndipo pasono uli na maofesi ghanayi mu charu ichi. Mu 2007, Banki yaku Nigeria Access Bank yikambiska kampani yinyake iyo pasono yili na maofesi ghanayi mu charu ichi, kusazgapo ofesi yake yikuru. Banki iyi yikalayizga kuti yizamujura ghanyake ghanayi. Mu Meyi 2009, Lebanese Canadian Bank yikajura kampani yinyake yakuchemeka Prime Bank. Kwambira mu 2017, China yikugwiliskira nchito ndalama mu Gambia nga ni cigaŵa ca ndondomeko ya "Belt and Road Initiative". Chinthu chikuru icho ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵakuchita mu charu cha Gambia nkhupharazga somba izo zikukoreka mu charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵakususkana na umo vyakurya ivi vikupangiskira kuti visomba visuzgike.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/03/08/fish-farming-is-feeding-the-globe-whats-the-cost-for-locals|title=Fish Farming is Feeding the Globe. What's the Cost for Locals?|magazine=[[The New Yorker]]|date=26 February 2021}}</ref><gallery widths="250" heights="170"> Serekunda market.jpg|[[Serekunda]] market Fishing boat The Gambia.jpg|Brightly painted fishing boats are common in [[Bakau]] Green monkey (Chlorocebus sabaeus) juvenile head.jpg|The Gambia's wildlife, like this [[green monkey]], attracts tourists </gallery> == Vinthu Vyakwendeskeka == {{main|Transport in the Gambia}} [[File:Road in Gambia 0007.jpg|thumb|220px|A road in Gambia, 2007.]] [[File:Banjul ferry.jpg|thumb|220px|The Banjul ferry.]] Mu charu cha Gambia, ŵanthu ŵakwenda pa misewu (ya pa msewu na iyo njambura msewu), maji, na ndege. Msewu wa Trans-Gambia Highway ukujumpha mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Gambia. Mlonga uwu mungambuka pa boti panji pa mlatho wa Senegambia. Mu caru ici mulije njanji. Misewu ya mu caru ici yili na utali wa makilomita 3,742, ndipo makilomita 723 pera ndigho ghali na misewu. Charu ichi chili na misewu ya maji ya mtunda wa makilomita 390. Malo ghekha ghakukwelera ŵanthu ku vyaru vinyake mu charu ichi ni Banjul International Airport ku Yundum, agho ghali pa mtunda wa makilomita 26.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/654943/Yundum|title=Yundum|publisher=Britannica Online encyclopedia|access-date=10 August 2012|archive-date=6 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406055020/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/654943/Yundum|url-status=live}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of the Gambia}} [[File:Bevölkerungspyramide Gambia 2016.png|thumb|Population pyramid]] {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population<br />in The Gambia{{UN_Population|ref}} |- ! style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |style="text-align:left;"|1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|0.27 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|1.2 |- |style="text-align:left;"|{{UN_Population|Year}} ||style="text-align:right;"|{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Gambia}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}} |} Mu 2011, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni ghakurughakuru chikaŵa 57.3%. Pa kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2003, ŵanthu ŵakamanya kuti chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu matawuni na ku mizi chikusendelera apo chiŵelengero chikukwera. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Gambia ŵakukumana na mitheto ya ku Western chifukwa cha kusama mu matawuni, vinthu vyakusintha, na kuzgoka ŵanthu ŵaphya, kweni kawonekero ka vyakuvwara na viphikiro vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Gambia, kweniso umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira chomene vya mbumba, vikulutilira kuŵa vyakuzirwa pa umoyo wawo. Lipoti la United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) la 2010 la Human Development Report likuŵika charu cha Gambia pa malo 151 pa vyaru 169 pa Human Development Index, ndipo charu ichi chili mu gulu la "Low Human Development". Nambara iyi yikupambana na vyaka ivyo munthu wakukhala, vyaka ivyo wasambira sukulu, ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakuguliska, na vinyake. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanakazi awo ŵakubaba ŵana chikaŵa 3.98 pa mwanakazi waliyose mu 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|title= TOTAL FERTILITY RATE|publisher= CIA World Factbook|access-date= 13 October 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091028133713/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|archive-date= 28 October 2009|url-status= dead|df= dmy-all}}</ref> ===Ethnic groups=== {{bar box |title=Ethnic Groups in the Gambia |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Ethnic Groups |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Mandinka|darkgreen|34.4}} {{bar percent|Fula|purple|30.1}} {{bar percent|Wolof|red|10.8}} {{bar percent|Jola|black|8.5}} {{bar percent|Sarahule|orange|8.2}} {{bar percent|Serere|darkblue|3.1}}{{bar percent|Aku Marabou|white|0.5}} {{bar percent|Mangajo|maroon|1.9}} {{bar percent|Bambara|darkgray|1.3}} {{bar percent|Other|gray|1.5}} }} Ku Gambia kuli mafuko ghakupambanapambana, ndipo waliyose wakuyowoya ciyowoyero cake na maluso ghake. Mtundu wa Mandinka ndiwo uli na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene, ndipo ukulondezgeka na Fula, Wolof, Jola/Karoninka, Serahule/Jahanka, Serers, Manjago, Bambara, Aku Marabou, Bainunka na ŵanyake nga ni Tukulor. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Krio, awo ŵakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Akus, mbanthu ŵachoko chomene mu Gambia. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Creole ndipo ŵakukhala mu msumba ukuru wa Sierra Leone. Pa ŵanthu 3,500 awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ŵali kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe mba ku Britain, nangauli ŵanandi ŵakafumako ku Britain ŵakati ŵajiyimira ŵekha.<ref name="bn">[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5459.htm "Background note: The Gambia"] . U.S. Department of State (October 2008).{{PD-notice}}</ref> ===Languages=== {{Main| Languages of the Gambia}} Cingelezi ni ciyowoyero ca boma mu Gambia, ntheura cikugwiliskirika nchito pa milimo ya boma ndiposo pa masambiro. Viyowoyero vinyake ni Mandinka, Wolof, Fula, Serer, Soninke, Krio, Jola, na viyowoyero vinyake. Cifukwa ca malo agho caru ici cili, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Cifurenci. Chiyowoyero cha Mandinka chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu 38%, Chipulaya na ŵanthu 21%, Chiwolophu na ŵanthu 18%, Soninke na ŵanthu 9%, Jola na ŵanthu 4.5%, Serer na ŵanthu 2.4%, Manjak na Bainouk na ŵanthu 1.6%, Chiportuguese Creole na ŵanthu 1%, na Chingelezi na ŵanthu 0.5%. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵakumangwa makutu ŵakuyowoya Chiyowoyero cha Mawoko cha ku Gambia.<ref>[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/GM Gambia.] ''Ethnologue'' 24, 2021</ref> ===Masambilo=== {{Main|Education in the Gambia}} [[File:Gambian classroom.jpg|thumb|Classroom at [[Armitage High School]]]] Dango la caru la Gambia likukanizga yayi masambiro gha ku pulayimale. Cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama na vinthu vinyake vyakovwira pa masambiro, mulimo uwu ngwakusuzga. Mu 1995, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga ku sukulu ya pulayimale chikaŵa 77.1% ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga ku sukulu ya pulayimale chikaŵa 64.7%. Ŵasungwana ndiwo ŵali na ciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵa sukulu 52%. Ŵana ŵasungwana awo ŵakukhala ku mizi ndiwo ŵakuŵa na suzgo ili. Pafupifupi ŵana 20 pa 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakuya ku sukulu ŵakusambira mu masukulu gha Koran. International Open University (paka January 2020 yakuchemeka Islamic Online University), sukulu ya masambiro ghapachanya iyo yili na ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakujumpha 435,000 ŵakufuma mu vyaru vyakujumpha 250 pa charu chose, yili na ofesi yake yikuru ku Gambia.<ref>{{Cite web|url= http://ayvnewspaper.com/index.php/k2-categories/politics/item/5024-islamic-online-university-signs-agreement-with-fbc|title= Islamic Online University Signs Agreement with FBC|last= Admini|website= ayvnewspaper.com|language= en-gb|access-date= 2019-04-11|archive-date= 23 September 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190923170413/http://ayvnewspaper.com/index.php/k2-categories/politics/item/5024-islamic-online-university-signs-agreement-with-fbc|url-status= dead}}</ref> ===Health=== {{Main| Health in the Gambia}} ===Religion=== {{Main| Religion in the Gambia}} [[File:Serekunda Market Mosque - 2010.jpg|thumb|Bundung mosque is one of the largest mosques in [[Serekunda]] ]] {{bar box |title=Religions in the Gambia<ref name=DHS>{{cite web|title= The Gambia: Demographic and Health Survey, 2013|publisher= Gambia Bureau of Statistics|page=32|url= https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR289/FR289.pdf|access-date= 25 April 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161225150115/http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR289/FR289.pdf|archive-date= 25 December 2016|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> |titlebar= #ddd |left1= '''Religions''' |right1= '''Percent''' |float= right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam in the Gambia|Islam]]|green|95.8}} {{bar percent|[[Christianity in the Gambia|Christianity]]|blue|4.1}} {{bar percent|Other|red|0.1}} }} Pafupifupi 96% ya ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuŵa Ŵasilamu ŵa Sunni, ndipo ŵanandi mwa iwo mba Maliki. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa Mbakhristu. Ndime 25 ya dango ili yikuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa kusopa chisopa chilichose icho ŵakukhumba.<ref name="chap4con">{{cite web|year=1997|title=CHAPTER IV – PROTECTION OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS|url=http://www.commonlii.org/gm/legis/const/1997/5.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212164817/http://www.commonlii.org/gm/legis/const/1997/5.html|archive-date=12 December 2008|access-date=14 January 2009|work=Constitution of the Republic of the Gambia|quote=25. Freedom of speech, conscience, assembly, association and movement <br/> (1) Every person shall have the right to – [...] (c) freedom to practice any religion and to manifest such practice;|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="irfr07">{{cite web|date=14 September 2007|title=Gambia, The|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90099.htm|access-date=14 January 2009|work=International Religious Freedom Report 2007|publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ====Islam==== Pafupifupi malonda ghose mu Gambia ghakumara pa nyengo ya maholide ghakuru gha Chisilamu, nga ni Eid al-Adha na Eid ul-Fitr. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ku Gambia ŵakulondezga chisambizgo cha Maliki. Kweniso gulu la Ahmadiyya likusangika chomene mu charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Shiite ŵali mu charu cha Gambia, chomenechomene chifukwa cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Lebanon na Ŵaarabu awo ŵakiza ku chigaŵa ichi. Ŵanandi awo ŵafuma ku vyaru vya kumwera kwa Asia, Mbasilamu.<ref name=irfr07/> ====Christianity==== Ŵakhristu ŵalipo pafupifupi 4 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose. Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera kwa charu cha Gambia, Mbakhristu. Kweni paliso magulu ghacoko waka gha Cikhristu, nga ni Anglican, Methodist, Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist, Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova, na magulu ghacoko waka gha Cikhristu.<ref name=irfr07/> ====Traditional religions==== Tikumanya yayi usange ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakulutilira kugomezga visambizgo vyawo nga ni visambizgo vya cisopa ca Serer. Chisopa cha Serer chikusazgapo kusanda vinthu vya mu mlengalenga na kugomezga kuti kuli chiuta mukuru uyo wakuchemeka Roog. Vikondwelero vinyake vya cisopa ni Xooy, Mbosseh, na Randou Rande. Caka cilicose, ŵanthu ŵa cisopa ca Serer ŵakuluta ku Sine, Senegal, kukacita ciphikiro ca kuwukwa kwa Xooy. Chisopa cha Serer chikukhwaskaso chomene ŵanthu ŵa ku Senegambia, chifukwa viphikiro vyawo nga ni "Tobaski", "Gamo", "Koriteh" na "Weri Kor" vili na mazina agho ghakulongora kuti ni viphikiro vya kale chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Jola ŵali na mitheto yawo, nga umo viliri na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Serer.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Diouf, Niokhobaye|year= 1972|title= Chronique du royaume du Sine, suivie de Notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin (1972)|journal= Bulletin de l'IFAN |volume= 34B |issue= 4 |pages= 706–7, 713–14}}</ref> ====Other religions==== Cifukwa ca ciŵelengero cicoko ca ŵanthu awo ŵakafuma ku South Asia, Ŵahindu na ŵalondezgi ŵa cisopa ca Bahá'í nawo ŵalipo.<ref name=irfr07/> ==Mwambo== [[File:Elderly Gambian woman face portrait.jpg|thumb|Mama wachilala wa ku Gambia]] [[File:1014067-Serrekunda_arena_for_wrestling-The_Gambia.jpg|thumb|upright|Drummers at a wrestling match]] Nangauli charu cha Gambia ntchichoko chomene pa vyaru vya mu Africa, kweni ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵali na mitheto yakupambanapambana. Malire gha caru ghakukolerana na Mlonga wa Gambia, uwo ngwakuzirwa comene pa umoyo wa caru ici. Pakuti charu cha Gambia chilije mphaka, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, comenecomene mu Senegal. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakambiska malonda gha ŵazga ku Gambia, chifukwa mu Mlonga wa Gambia ndimo mukendanga ŵanthu. (Ici cikapangiskaso kuti malonda gha vinyama ghaleke kwendera malango gha boma mu ma 1800.) Nkhani iyi yikayowoyeka mu buku la Alex Haley lakuti Roots.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Roots revival: how does the new Kunta Kinte compare to the classic?|url=http://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2017/feb/08/roots-revival-how-does-the-kunta-kinte-remake-stand-up|date=2017-02-08|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2020-05-30}}</ref> ===Sumo=== {{Further|Music of the Gambia}} Sumu ya ku Gambia yikukolerana comene na ya ku Senegal. Mu sumu iyi mukuŵa sumu na kuvina kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Western, pamoza na sumu ya Sabar, sumu ya ŵanthu ŵa Wolof na Serer ŵa ku Senegal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FolkWorld #71: Africa|url=http://www.folkworld.eu/71/e/africa.html|website=www.folkworld.eu|access-date=2020-05-30}}</ref> ===Kuphika=== {{Main|Gambian cuisine}} Mu vyakurya vya ku Gambia muli mphangwe, mpunga, somba, nyama, anyezi, tomato, cassava, chili peppers, na oyster. Ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakutemwa chomene vyakurya vya yassa na domoda..<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gambia.co.uk/blog/traditional-gambian-food-and-drink|title=Traditional food and drink in the Gambia|website=www.gambia.co.uk|language=en-gb|access-date=2018-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221095929/https://www.gambia.co.uk/blog/traditional-gambian-food-and-drink|archive-date=21 February 2018|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> === Literature === {{main|Gambian literature}} Nga ni vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, Gambia nayo wali na mitheto ya kulemba mabuku, kusazgapo ma griots, ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kuyowoya nkhani na ŵakwimba. Kwamba m'ma 1960, mabuku gha Chingelezi gha mu Gambia ghafuma. Lenrie Peters wakuwoneka kuti ndiyo wakambiska mabuku agha, apo ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ni Tijan Sallah, Nana Grey-Johnson na Mariama Khan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Perfect |first1=David |title=Historical dictionary of the Gambia |date=2016 |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=9781442265264 |edition=Fifth|chapter=Literature|pages=302–303}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sallah |first1=Tijan M. |title=Saani baat: aspects of African literature and culture (Senegambian and other African essays) |date=2021 |publisher=[[Africa World Press]] |location=Trenton, New Jersey |isbn=978-1-5690269-8-4|page=89}}</ref> ===Wayilesi=== Awo ŵakususka boma ŵakuti likujandizga wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Dango la mu 2002 likapangiska kuti paŵe wupu uwo uli na mazaza gha kupeleka malaisensi na kukaka ŵapharazgi; mu 2004, malango ghanyake ghakazomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵakakike chifukwa cha kusesa na kunyoza, ndipo likakanizga malaisensi ghose ghakusindikizga na kuthuwuska nkhani, ndipo ivi vikapangiska magulu gha vyakupharazga kuti ghalembeskeso pa mtengo wakukwana kankhondi pa mtengo uwo ghakalipira pakwamba.<ref name=BBCProfile> {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1032156.stm#media |title=Country profile: The Gambia |publisher=[[BBC News website]] |access-date=16 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081123010005/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1032156.stm#media |archive-date=23 November 2008 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }} </ref><ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=199422&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__africa/ |title = President tightens media laws in The Gambia |date = 11 May 2005 |newspaper = [[Mail & Guardian]] |access-date = 16 October 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080219055811/http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=199422&area=%2Fbreaking_news%2Fbreaking_news__africa%2F |archive-date = 19 February 2008 |url-status = dead |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Ŵapharazgi ŵatatu ŵa ku Gambia ŵakakakika kufuma apo boma likayezgera kuwukira boma. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵakakakika cifukwa ca kususka ndondomeko ya boma yakukhwaskana na vya cuma, panji cifukwa ca kuyowoya kuti uyo wakacitiska ciŵembu wakaŵa nduna ya mukati na mulara wa ŵapolisi. Mulembi wa nyuzipepara Deyda Hydara wakakomeka na vilwero vyambura kupulikikwa, pati pajumpha mazuŵa ghacoko waka kufuma apo dango la mu 2004 likambira kugwira nchito. Malipiro gha nyuzipepara na mawayilesi ngakukwera chomene, ndipo boma likuŵa na mazaza pa mawayilesi agho ghakupharazga pa charu chose. Wupu wa Reporters Without Borders (Ŵapharazgi Ŵambura Mphepete mwa Malire) walemba kuti boma la ŵapolisi la Pulezidenti Yahya Jammeh likuphalira ŵanthu kuti ŵakukoma ŵanthu, kuŵawotcha, kuŵakaka kwambura mulandu, na kuŵachimbizga. Mu Disembala 2010, khoti la ECOWAS ku Abuja, Nigeria likapeleka ndalama zakukwana madola 200,000 kwa Musa Saidykhan, uyo wakaŵa mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya The Independent. Khoti likasanga kuti boma la Gambia lili na mulandu wa kutambuzga apo wakaŵa mu jele kwambura kweruzgika ku National Intelligence Agency. Vikuwoneka kuti ŵakamukayikiranga kuti wakamanyanga vya kuwukira boma uko kukacitika mu 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Gambia {{!}} Countries {{!}} Collection of Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum|url=https://collection.cooperhewitt.org/countries/23424821/|website=collection.cooperhewitt.org|access-date=2020-05-30}}</ref> === Maseŵera === Nga umo viliri mu charu cha Senegal, maseŵero ghakumanyikwa chomene ku Gambia ni nkhonya. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa maseŵero gha bola na basketball. Mpira wa ku Gambia ukwendeskeka na wupu wa Gambia Football Federation, uwo uli ku FIFA na CAF. GFA ikugwira ntchito mu mpira wa mpira ku Gambia, kuphatikizapo gulu lapamwamba la GFA League First Division, komanso gulu la mpira wa Gambia. Gulu la chalo ili likuchemeka "The Scorpions" ndipo lindasankhikepo ku FIFA World Cup, kweni likasankhika ku Africa Cup of Nations pa chigaŵa cha senior kwa nyengo yakwamba mu 2021. Ŵakaseŵera pa sitediyamu ya Independence. Charu cha Gambia chikapoka viphalizgano viŵiri vya CAF U-17 umoza mu chaka cha 2005 apo chalo ichi chikapokeleranga, ndipo mu chaka cha 2009 mu charu cha Algeria. Wupu wa U-20 nawo ukaŵa na mwaŵi wa kuseŵera pa maseŵera gha FIFA U-20 mu chaka cha 2007. Gulu la ŵanakazi la U-17 likagwiraso nchito pa mpikisano wa FIFA U-17 World Cup 2012 ku Azerbaijan. Chalo cha Gambia chili na timu ya chalo ya beach volleyball iyo yikathereskana pa 2018-2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup mu chigaŵa cha ŵanakazi na ŵanalume.<ref>{{cite news |title= Continental Cup Finals start in Africa|url=https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |access-date=7 August 2021 |work=[[FIVB]] |date=22 June 2021}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Gambia}} * [[Index of Gambia-related articles]] * [[Outline of the Gambia]] == Mazgo ghakulongosoleka == {{Notelist}} ==Ukaboni== ===Mazgo ghakuyowoyeka=== {{Reflist}} ===Works cited=== {{refbegin}} * {{Cite journal|last=Edie|first=Carlene J.|date=2000|title=Democracy in the Gambia: Past, Present and Prospects for the Future|journal=Africa Development|volume=XXV|pages=161–198}} * {{cite web |title= UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia: Gambia. In depth: Economic crisis and a leftist coup attempt in 1981 |work= [[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]] |publisher= Uppsala University |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220417/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=60&regionSelect=2-Southern_Africa |access-date= 8 July 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220417/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=60&regionSelect=2-Southern_Africa |archive-date= 2013-10-04}} {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=The Gambia}} ===Boma=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200327204813/http://statehouse.gov.gm/ State House and Office of the President] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327204813/http://statehouse.gov.gm/ |date=27 March 2020 }} ===Vyakulemba mwakudumula=== * [http://www.accessgambia.com/information/ Gambia Guide] – Comprehensive information * [http://www.gambia.dk/press/ Gambia Daily news] – Daily news from the Gambia through various media sources * [http://www.gambia.dk/gam.html The Gambia] – A comprehensive website about the Gambia * {{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Gambia, The}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607084848/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/gambia.htm The Gambia] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Gambia}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13376517 The Gambia] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas|The Gambia}} * {{osmrelation-inline|192774}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=GM Key Development Forecasts for the Gambia] from [[International Futures]] === Ŵalendo === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100114003822/http://www.visitthegambia.gm/ Visit the Gambia] – The official website of the Gambia Tourism Board. * [http://www.gambiabirdguide.net Birdwatching in the Gambia] – Website about birdwatching in the Gambia including photo galleries of Gambian birds ===Malonda=== * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/GMB/Year/2011/Summary Gambia 2011 Trade Summary Statistics] {{Gambia topics}} {{Navboxes | title=Related articles | list= {{Countries of Africa}} {{The Commonwealth}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}} {{African Union}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Gambia, The}} [[Category:The Gambia| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> [[Category:1965 establishments in the Gambia]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Former British protectorates]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1965]] [[Category:West African countries]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:1965 establishments in Africa]] 3dnjrmpfcnbrulc1h9bz8ioi2wljcrn 0 6970 122347 119305 2026-09-25T00:46:34Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122347 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country in West Africa}} {{redirect|Guinée|the concept in the African diasporic religion|Haitian Vodou}} {{distinguish|French Guiana|Guinea-Bissau|Equatorial Guinea|New Guinea}} {{for multi|the region|Guinea (region)|other uses|Guinea (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}} {{Use British English|date=September 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Guinea | common_name = Guinea | native_name = {{native name|fr|République de Guinée}}<br>{{nativename|fuf|𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫}}<br>{{nativename|emk| ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊ}} | image_flag = Flag of Guinea.svg | alt_flag = [[Flag of Guinea|Flag]] | image_coat = Coat of Arms of Guinea.svg | symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of Guinea|Coat of arms]] | national_motto = {{native phrase|fr|"Travail, Justice, Solidarité"|italics=off}}<br />"Work, Justice, Solidarity" | national_anthem = {{native name|fr|[[Liberté (anthem)|Liberté]]}}<br />"Freedom"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Liberté.oga]]}} | image_map = Guinea (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = Guinea in dark green | image_map2 = Location Guinea AU Africa.svg | map_caption2 = {{map caption |countryprefix= |location_color=dark blue |region=Africa |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[African Union]] |subregion_color=light blue}} | capital = [[Conakry]] | coordinates = {{Coord|9|31|N|13|42|W|type:city}} | largest_city = Conakry | official_languages = [[French language|French]] | languages_type = [[Vernacular language|Vernacular<br />language]]s | languages = {{Collapsible list |framestyle=border:none; padding:0; |[[French language|French]] |[[Arabic language|Arabic]] |[[English language|English]] |[[Fula language|Fula]] |[[Mandinka language|Malinké]] |([[N'Ko language|N'ko]]) |[[Susu language|Susu]] |[[Kissi language|Kissi]] |[[Maninka language|Koro]] |[[Kpelle language|Kpelle]] |[[Temne language|Temne]] |[[Toma language|Toma]] |[[Badyara language|Badyara]] |[[Baga language|Baga]] |[[Bambara language|Bambara]] |[[Bassari language|Bassari]] |[[Dan language|Dan]] |[[Dyula language|Dyula]] |[[Landoma language|Landoma]] |[[Limba language|Limba]] |[[Maninka language|Maninka]] |[[Mano language|Mano]] |[[Pular language|Pular]] |[[Sua language|Sua]] |[[Wamey language|Wamey]] |[[Yalunka language|Yalunka]] |[[Zialo language|Zialo]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 33.4% [[Fula people|Fula]] | 29.4% [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] | 21.2% [[Susu people|Susu]] | 7.8% [[Kpelle people|Kpelle]] | 6.2% [[Kissi people|Kissi]] | 2.0% others }} | ethnic_groups_year = <ref name="CIA Factbook1">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=26 December 2020 }}</ref> | religion = {{unbulleted list|89.1% [[Islam]]|6.8% [[Christianity]]| 1.6% [[Traditional African religions|Folk religions]]| 2.5% Other}} | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Guinea |date=2022-03-02 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2022-03-05}}</ref> | demonym = Guinean | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[republic]] under a [[military junta]] | leader_title1 = [[List of presidents of Guinea|Interim President]] and [[National Committee of Reconciliation and Development|CNRD Chairman]] | leader_name1 = [[Mamady Doumbouya]] | leader_title2 = [[List of prime ministers of Guinea|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Amadou Oury Bah]] | leader_title3 = [[National Assembly (Guinea)|Speaker of Parliament]] | leader_name3 = <!--Currently vacant---> | leader_title4 = [[Supreme Court of Guinea|Supreme Court]] | leader_name4 = <!--Currently vacant---> | legislature = [[National Council of the Transition]]<ref>[[National Assembly (Guinea)|National Assembly]] is currently suspended in the wake of the [[2021 Guinean coup d'état]].</ref> | sovereignty_note = (was the colony of [[French Guinea]] since 1891) | sovereignty_type = Independence | established_event1 = from France | established_date1 = 2 October 1958 | established_event2 = Republic | established_date2 = 2 October 1958 | established_event3 = 4th constitution | established_date3 = 2 October 1958 | established_event4 = Second Republic Day | established_date4 = 3 April 1984 | established_event5 = [[2021 Guinean coup d'état]] | established_date5 = 5 September 2021 | area_km2 = 245,857 | area_rank = 77th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]--> | area_sq_mi = 94,926 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 13,607,249<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Guinea|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 75th | population_density_km2 = 40.9 | population_density_sq_mi = 106.1 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $33.7 &nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> <!--Do not edit!-->| GDP_PPP_rank = 142nd | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$2,993<ref name=imf2/> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 166th | GDP_nominal = {{increase }}$14.8 &nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_nominal_rank = 140th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$1,346<ref name=imf2/> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 161st | Gini = 33.7 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2012 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2014&locations=GN&start=1990 |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110133707/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2014&locations=GN&start=1990 |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.465 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908052326/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-date=2022-09-08 |url-status=live|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 182nd | currency = [[Guinean franc]] | currency_code = GNF | utc_offset = {{sp}} | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+224]] | iso3166code = GN | cctld = [[.gn]] | religion_year = 2014 | population_density_rank = 164th | today = }} '''Guinea''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Guinea.ogg|ˈ|ɡ|ɪ|n|i}} {{respell|GHIN|ee}}),{{efn|{{lang-fr|Guinée}}, {{lang-fuf|𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫|italic=no|Gine}}, {{lang-wo|Gine}}, {{lang-nqo|ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫}}, {{lang-bm|Gine}}}} mwalamulo '''Charu cha Guinea''' ({{lang-fr|République de Guinée}}), ni charu icho chili mumphepete mwa nyanja ku [[West Africa]]. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[nyanja ya Atlantic]] kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Guinea-Bissau]] kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Senegal]] kumpoto, [[Mali]] kumpoto kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Sierra Leone]] na [[Liberia]] kumwera. Nyengo zinyake charu ichi chikuchemeka [[Guinea-Conakry]] chifukwa cha msumba wake wa [[Conakry]].<ref name="uiowa1">{{cite web |url=http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/countries/Guinea-Conakry.html |title=Guinea-Conakry |access-date=11 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205044119/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/countries/Guinea-Conakry.html |archive-date=5 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.musicvideos.the-real-africa.com/guinea/ |title=Music Videos of Guinea Conakry |access-date=12 April 2018 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221053336/http://www.musicvideos.the-real-africa.com/guinea/ |archive-date=21 February 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://netministries.org/see/churches/ch00472 |title=The Anglican Diocese of Ghana |website=Netministries.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107033350/http://netministries.org/see/churches/ch00472 |archive-date=7 January 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfi.fr/partenaires_en.php3?id_rubrique=24&id_article=473 |title=CFI - Africa - Guinea Conakry |access-date=11 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511084226/http://www.cfi.fr/partenaires_en.php3?id_rubrique=24&id_article=473 |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu 13.5 miliyoni ndipo chigaŵa chake chili na makilomita 245,857.<ref name="guinea_stats">{{cite web|title=Nations Online: Guinea – Republic of Guinea – West Africa|url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/guinea.htm|publisher=Nations Online|access-date=25 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030503155420/http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/guinea.htm|archive-date=3 May 2003}}</ref> Charu ichi kale chikachemekanga [[French Guinea]], kweni chikajiyimira paŵekha mu 1958. Ku Guinea ŵanthu ŵakwamba kuwukira boma.<ref name=Bariyo>Nicholas Bariyo & Benoit Faucon, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/military-faction-stages-coup-in-mineral-rich-guinea-11630866469 Military Faction Stages Coup in Mineral-Rich Guinea], ''Wall Street Journal'' (September 5, 2021).</ref><ref name=Larson>Krista Larson, [https://apnews.com/article/africa-elections-senegal-west-africa-term-limits-4c595d69cbfd95d173b7ef1a6da0d5f8 EXPLAINER: Why is history repeating itself in Guinea's coup?], Associated Press (September 7, 2021).</ref><ref name=Paquett>Danielle Paquett, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2021/09/06/guinea-coup-explained/ Here's what we know about the unfolding coup in Guinea], ''Washington Post'' (September 6, 2021).</ref> <ref>[https://www.dw.com/en/west-africa-economic-bloc-suspends-guinea-after-military-coup/a-59127739 West Africa economic bloc suspends Guinea after military coup], [[Deutsche Welle]] (September 8, 2021).</ref>Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi kufuma apo boma likamba kulamulira mwaurunji, mu 2010 ŵakachita chisankho chakwamba.<ref name=Paquett/><ref>Abdourahmane Diallo and Adam Nossiter, [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/08/world/africa/08guinea.html Guinea Votes in Its First Democratic Presidential Election], ''New York Times'' (November 7, 2010).</ref><ref name="FH2010">[https://freedomhouse.org/country/guinea/freedom-world/2021 Guinea], ''Freedom in the World'', [[Freedom House]], 2021.</ref> Apo boma likalutilira kucita maungano gha vyaru vinandi, ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kutinkhana, vimbundi vikazara, kweniso ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi ŵakacitiranga nkhaza ŵanthu.<ref name=FH2010/><ref>Saliou Samb, [https://www.reuters.com/article/guinea-politics/guinea-president-conde-vows-to-tackle-corruption-during-third-term-idUSKBN28P27F Guinea President Conde vows to tackle corruption during third term], Reuters (December 15, 2020).</ref> Mu 2011, boma la United States likati ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵakusuzgika na ŵasilikari kweniso ŵakutambuzgika. Mu 2021, gulu la ŵasilikari likawuskapo pulezidenti [[Alpha Condé]] na kukanizga dango la chalo.<ref name=Bariyo/><ref name=Larson/><ref name=Paquett/> Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 85%.<ref name="uiowa1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visualgeography.com/categories/guinea/religion.html |title=Religion in Guinea |publisher=Visual Geography |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914140804/http://www.visualgeography.com/categories/guinea/religion.html |archive-date=14 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecobank.com/countryinfo.aspx?cid=74049 |title=The Pan African Bank |publisher=Ecobank |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319131431/http://www.ecobank.com/countryinfo.aspx?cid=74049 |archive-date=19 March 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Charu ichi chili kugaŵika vigaŵa vinayi: Malire gha Nyanja ya Guinea ku Atlantic Coast, Fouta Djallon panji mapiri gha ku Middle Guinea, [[chigaŵa cha Upper Guinea savanna]] kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi, na chigaŵa cha Guinea forestière. Chifurenchi ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa sukulu, mu boma, na mu manyuzipepara. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakujumpha 24, ndipo viyowoyero vikuru chomene ni Susu, Pular, na Maninka. Chuma cha ku Guinea chikuthemba pa ulimi na vinthu vyakuthupi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africa-import-export.gm/import-export/guinea-conakry.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124833/http://www.africa-import-export.gm/import-export/guinea-conakry.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 November 2010|title=Guinea Conakry: Major Imports, Exports, Industries & Business Opportunities in Guinea Conakry, Africa|access-date=15 October 2014}}</ref> Ni caru caciŵiri pa caru cose ico cikupanga bauxite, ndipo muli malibwe gha dayimani na golide.<ref name="guineaconakrysupport.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.guineaconakrysupport.com/?lang=en|title=Guinea Conakry Support – Guinee Conakry Trade and Support. (GCTS)|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105021335/http://www.guineaconakrysupport.com/?lang=en|archive-date=5 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa pakwamba pa nthenda ya Ebola mu 2014. ==Zina== {{Further|Guinea (region)#Etymology}} Zina lakuti Guinea lili kufuma ku chigaŵa cha Guinea icho chili mumphepete mwa Gulf of Guinea. Likwendera kumpoto mu vigaŵa vyamuthondo na kumalira ku Sahel. Lizgu la Chingelezi lakuti Guinea likufuma ku lizgu la Chiphwitikizi lakuti Guiné ilo likafuma pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 kuti likung'anamura malo agho ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵakakhalanga. ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Guinea}}<!--two subsections and several other paragraphs have no citations--> Charu icho sono chikuchemeka Guinea chili kufupi na maufumu ghanyake gha ku Africa pambere Ŵafarisi ŵandafike mu ma 1890. Pa Okutobala 2, 1958, charu cha Guinea chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Kufuma apo charu cha Guinea chikapokera wanangwa wake m'paka pa nyengo ya maungano gha boma mu 2010, chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵamazaza ŵanandi.<ref> {{cite web | last = Zounmenou | first = David | title = Guinea: Hopes for Reform Dashed Again | publisher = allAfrica.com | date = 2 January 2009 | url = http://allafrica.com/stories/200901020524.html | access-date = 27 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090111161633/http://allafrica.com/stories/200901020524.html | archive-date = 11 January 2009 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_GIN.html |title=UN Human Development Report 2009 |publisher=Hdrstats.undp.org |access-date=28 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413190650/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_GIN.html |archive-date=13 April 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ross |first=Will |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7647962.stm |title=Africa {{pipe}} Guineans mark '50 years of poverty' |work=BBC News|date=2 October 2008 |access-date=28 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610090758/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7647962.stm |archive-date=10 June 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Maufumu na maufumu gha ku West Africa === {{main|Imamate of Futa Jallon|Wassoulou Empire}} Charu icho sono chikuchemeka Guinea chikaŵa ku mizi ya maufumu gha ku West Africa. Ufumu wakwambilira, uwo ukaŵa wa Ghana, ukakuranga cifukwa ca malonda ndipo pamasinda ukaparanyika cifukwa ca kuwukira kwa Almoravid. Mu nyengo iyi ndipo chisopa cha Ciisilamu chikambira mu cigaŵa ici kwizira mu ŵamalonda ŵa ku North Africa. Ufumu wa Sosso (zaka za m'ma 1200 m'paka 13 C.E.) ukakura chomene, ndipo Ufumu wa Mali ukamanyikwa chomene apo Soundiata Kéïta wakatonda Soumangourou Kanté uyo wakaŵa fumu ya Sosso pa Nkhondo ya Kirina, mu c. 1235. Ufumu wa Mali ukalamuliranga na ŵanthu awo ŵakachemekanga Mansa (Mafumu), kusazgapo Kankou Moussa uyo wakachita ulendo wa haji ku Mecca mu 1324. Ufumu wa Mali ukayamba kuchepa mu 1500, ndipo pamasinda ukaleka kulamulira. Ufumu wa Songhai ukakura kufuma mu 1460 ndipo pamasinda ukajumpha ufumu wa Mali. Msumba uwu ukalutilira kukura m'paka apo Askia Daoud wakafwira mu 1582. Ufumu uwu ukathereskeka na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Morocco pa Nkhondo ya Tondibi vilimika vitatu pamanyuma pake. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakatondeka kuwusa makora ufumu uwu ndipo ukagaŵikana mu maufumu ghacoko. Ufumu unyake wa ku West Africa ukati wabwanganduka, maufumu ghakupambanapambana ghakawuka mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Guinea. Ŵasilamu ŵa Fulani ŵakasamira ku Futa Jallon ku Central Guinea, ndipo ŵakakhazikiska boma la Chisilamu kufuma mu 1727 m'paka 1896, ilo likaŵa na dango lakulembeka na ŵalongozgi ŵanyake. Ufumu wa Wassoulou panji Wassulu (1878-1898) ukalongozgekanga na Samori Toure mu chigaŵa cha Malinké icho sono ni Upper Guinea na kumwera kwa Mali (Wassoulou). Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, charu ichi chikasamira ku Ivory Coast. ===Chikoloni=== Kwambira mu ma 1700, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuphalizgana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Cape.<ref>"John Lovell". in ''The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1558-1603'', ed. P.W. Hasler, 1981. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230704143316/http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/lovell-john History of Parliament Online website] Retrieved 25 September 2021.</ref><ref>"America and West Indies: October 1653." ''Calendar of State Papers Colonial, America and West Indies'': Volume 1, 1574-1660. Ed. W Noel Sainsbury. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1860. 409–410. [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/colonial/america-west-indies/vol1/pp409-410 British History Online website] Retrieved 25 September 2021.</ref> Ŵazga ŵakatumizgikanga ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵakagwire nchito. Ŵamalonda aŵa ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵazga awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi. Nyengo iyo charu cha Guinea chikaŵa pasi pa mawoko gha ŵasilikari ŵa ku France yikamba m'ma 1800. Mu 1898, ŵasilikari ŵa Samori Touré, uyo wakaŵa themba la ufumu wa Ouassoulou kweniso mulongozgi wa mafuko gha Malinké, ŵakathereskeka. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, charu cha France chikapangana na Britain vya Sierra Leone, Portugal vya Guinea (iyo sono ni Guinea-Bissau), na Liberia. Mu nyengo ya Ŵafarisi, charu ichi chikaŵa mu chigaŵa cha French West Africa. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakalongozganga vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa maboma agha.[[File:Ahmed Sékou Touré na obisku v Ljubljani 1961 (3).jpg|thumb|President [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]] was supported by Communist states, and in 1961, visited [[Yugoslavia]].]] Mu 1958, caru ca France cikawa cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali ndiposo cifukwa ca kutondeka kucita vinthu na maboma ghake, comenecomene Indochina na Algeria. Pa ungano wa ŵanthu wose wa pa Seputembala 28, 1958, boma la France likapeleka wanangwa ku vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma ili. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikalamulilikanga na boma ili, charu cha Guinea chikapokera wanangwa. Chipani ichi chikalongozgekanga na Ahmed Sékou Touré uyo chipani chake cha Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally (PDG) chikapokera vithuzithuzi 56 pa vithuzithuzi 60 mu ma 1957 territorial elections. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakafumako, ndipo pa Okutobala 2, 1958, Guinea yikajiphara kuti ni charu chakujiyimira paŵekha, ndipo Sékou Touré ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti. Nyuzipepara ya Washington Post yikati Ŵafalansa "ŵakofya" ŵakagumura vinthu vyose ivyo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti vyawovwira Guinea. Ŵakawuskamo mababu gha magesi, ŵakawuskamo pulani ya maji gha ku Conakry, msumba ukuru, na kotcha munkhwala m'malo mwa kulekera ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea".<ref>{{cite news |last=Dash |first=Leon |author-link=Leon Dash |date=28 March 1984 |title=Guinea's Longtime President, Ahmed Sekou Toure, Dies |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1984/03/28/guineas-longtime-president-ahmed-sekou-toure-dies/18f31685-878c-4759-8028-3bef7fbc568b/ |access-date=28 January 2023}}</ref> === Nkhondo Yakumaliro gha Chikoloni (1958 ̇) === {{See also|Opération Persil}} Pamanyuma, charu cha Guinea chikakolerana na Soviet Union ndipo chikachita vinthu mwakukolerana na fundo za boma. Kufuma apo, yikamba kulondezga fundo za ku China. Likalutilira kupokera ndalama kufuma ku vyaru vinyake nga ni United States. Kuzakafika mu 1960, Touré wakapharazga kuti PDG ndiyo yekha wakaŵa chipani cha ndyali mu caru ici, ndipo kwa vilimika 24 vyakulondezgapo, boma na PDG vikaŵa cimoza. Touré wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti kwa vyaka 47, ndipo pa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri, ŵanthu ŵakamuwonanga kuti ni mulongozgi wa boma. Pakulondezga fundo za kusankhana mitundu mu vyaru vya mu Africa na Pan-Africanism mu vyaru vinyake, Touré wakazgoka mulongozgi uyo wakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupulikana, ndipo boma lake likakanizga ŵanthu ŵanyake kuti ŵaleke kupulikana nayo. Mu m'ma 1960, boma la Guinea likakanizga ŵanthu kugura malo, likawuskapo ŵalongozgi awo ŵakimikika na ŵa ku France, kweniso likakanizga ubwezi wawo na boma la France na makampani gha ku France. Boma la Touré likathembanga Soviet Union na China kuti liŵawovwire pa vinthu vyakuthupi. Pa Novembala 22, 1970, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakachita opareshoni yakuchemeka Operation Green Sea. Pakati pa vilato vyawo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakakhumbanga kukoma panji kukora Sekou Touré cifukwa ca wovwiri wake wa PAIGC, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakugaluka ilo likacitanga vivulupi mu Guinea kufuma ku misasa yawo mu Guinea.<ref>"Mr Sekou Touré, who gave the PAIGC unstinting support during its war against the Portuguese,..."[http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13213487 Black revolt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308154755/http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=13213487|date=8 March 2009}}, [[The Economist]] (22 November 1980)</ref> Pamanyuma pa nkhondo, ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhozgekanga na Ŵapwitikizi ŵakawelera, ŵakafwatura ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Portugal awo ŵakaŵa mu jele ku Conakry. Mu vilimika vyakulondezgapo, boma la Touré likaŵawuskamo ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo ŵanthu 50,000 ŵakakomeka. Ŵanyake ŵakakakika na kutambuzgika. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakacicizgika kufumamo mu caru ici, cifukwa cakuti ŵakutorana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵakakakika ndipo ŵana ŵawo ŵakaŵapeleka ku boma. Guinea wakasankhika kuŵa ciŵaro cambura kukhazikika ca wupu wa UN Security Council mu 1972-73. Mu 1977, chuma chikamba kunangika, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka, ndyali yikakhalanga makora yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kuchita malonda. Ici cikapangiska Touré kuti wasinthe comene vinthu. Touré wakaleka kukhozgera Soviet Union na kwamba kukhozgera United States. Paumaliro wa m'ma 1970 na kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1980, vinthu vikasintha chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma. Pakuyowoya za ubwezi wake na France, pamanyuma pakuti Valéry Giscard d'Estaing wasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa France, malonda ghakasazgikira ndipo vyaru viŵiri ivi vikamba kwendera lumoza. Sékou Touré wakafwa pa 26 March, 1984, pamanyuma pa opareshoni ya mtima mu United States, ndipo wakasinthika na nduna yikuru Louis Lansana Beavogui, uyo wakeneranga kuŵa pulezidenti wa nyengo yeneyiyo, pakulindilira mavoti ghaphya. Pa 3 Epulero 1984, PDG yikeneranga kusankha mulongozgi muphya. Kuyana na dango ili, munthu uyu ndiyo wakeneranga kuŵa yekha mulongozgi wa boma. Maora ghacoko waka pambere ungano uwu undambe, Koloneli Lansana Conté na Diarra Traoré ŵakatora mazaza mwa kuwukira boma kwambura kuthiska ndopa. Conté wakaŵa pulezidenti, ndipo Traoré wakaŵa nduna yikuru m'paka mu Disembala.[[File:President Jimmy Carter with President Ahmed Sǩou Tour ̌of Guinea.jpg|thumb|United States Pulezidenti Jimmy Carter wakupokelera Ahmed Sékou Touré kuwaro kwa White House, Washington, D.C., 1979]] Conté wakasuska ivyo boma lakwamba likacita pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali 250 na kukhozga ŵanthu pafupifupi 200,000 kuti ŵawelere kufuma ku wuzga. Wakayowoya mwakupulikikwa makora kuti wafumengepo pa kusopa kwautesi. Mu 1992, Conté wakapharazga kuti wawelerenge ku boma, ndipo mu 1993, wakachita mavoti gha pulezidenti. Mu Seputembala 2001, mulongozgi wa chipani chinyake, Alpha Condé, ŵakamujalira mu jele cifukwa ca kunanga civikiliro ca boma. Pamanyuma, wakakhalako kanyengo mu caru ca France. Mu 2001, Conté wakanozga na kutonda pa referendamu ya kusazgirako nyengo ya kuwusa kwa pulezidenti, ndipo mu 2003, wakamba uteŵeti wake wacitatu. Mu Janyuwale 2005, Conté wakapona ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakukhumba kumukoma apo wakawonekera pa wumba mu msumba wa Conakry. Ŵalwani ŵake ŵakayowoya kuti ni "munthu wakuvuka", ndipo wakeneranga kufumapo, kweni awo ŵakamukhozganga ŵakagomezganga kuti watonda ŵalwani ŵake. Kuyana na magazini ya Foreign Policy, caru ca Guinea cikaŵa pangozi ya kuzgoka caru cakutondeka.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4350 | title=Failed States list 2008 | publisher=Fund for Peace | access-date=27 June 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626091027/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4350 | archive-date=26 June 2008 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Mu 2000, ku Guinea kukaŵa vivulupi ivyo vikakhwaska vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Vikawonekanga nga kuti charu ichi chili pafupi kuparanyika. Conté wakati ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vyapafupi ŵakudokera usambazi wa mu Guinea, kweni ŵanthu ŵakakana. Mu 2003, charu cha Guinea chikakolerana na vyaru vyapafupi kuti chilimbane na ŵakugaluka. Mu 2007, boma la Guinea likasankha nduna yikuru.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdf |title=Austrian Study Centre for Peace and Conflict Resolution (ASPR) {{pipe}} Peace Castle Austria |publisher=ASPR |access-date=9 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615021433/http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1102574.stm |work=BBC News| title=Guinea head blames neighbours | date=6 January 2001 | access-date=2 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm |work=BBC News| title=Civil war fears in Guinea | date=23 October 2000 | access-date=2 April 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040619115730/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm | archive-date=19 June 2004 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Conté wakalutilira kuwusa m'paka apo wakafwira pa Disembala 23, 2008. Maora ghacoko waka pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, Moussa Dadis Camara wakapoka mazaza mwa kuwukira boma, ndipo wakajiphara kuti ni mulongozgi wa boma la ŵasilikari. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na boma ili ndipo ŵanthu 157 ŵakafwa apo pa Seputembala 28, 2009, boma likalangura ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵawukire ŵanthu awo ŵakawungana kuti ŵakane ivyo Camara wakachita kuti waŵe pulezidenti. Ŵasilikari ŵakamba kutimba ŵanthu, kuŵapweteka, na kuŵakoma, ndipo boma la Britain likakanizga ŵasilikari ŵanyake kuti ŵaleke kovwira boma liphya.<ref name="NYT"> {{cite news | last = MacFarquhar | first = Neil | title = U.N. Panel Calls for Court in Guinea Massacre | work = The New York Times | date = 21 December 2009 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/world/africa/22guinea.html | access-date = 23 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110511215744/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/world/africa/22guinea.html | archive-date = 11 May 2011 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite news | last = Walker | first = Peter | title = Army steps in after Guinea president Lansana Conté dies | work = The Guardian | location = London | date = 23 December 2008 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/guinea-dictator-lansana-conte-dies | access-date = 23 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090826134854/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/dec/23/guinea-dictator-lansana-conte-dies | archive-date = 26 August 2009 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite news | title = Guinea massacre toll put at 157 | publisher = BBC | date = 29 September 2009 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8280603.stm | access-date = 23 December 2009 | location = London | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091002232605/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8280603.stm | archive-date = 2 October 2009 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite news | last = McGreal | first = Chris | title = Lansana Conté profile: Death of an African 'Big Man' | work = The Guardian | location = London | date = 23 December 2008 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/lansana-conte-profile | access-date = 23 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130905092810/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/lansana-conte-profile | archive-date = 5 September 2013 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref> Pa Disembala 3, 2009, movwiri wake wakamukoma Camara apo ŵakakwesananga pa ivyo vikacitika mu Seputembala. Camara wakaluta ku Morocco kuti wakapwelelereke.<ref name = "NYT"/><ref>{{cite web | title = Guinean soldiers look for ruler's dangerous rival | publisher = malaysianews.net | date = 5 December 2009 | url = http://www.malaysianews.net/story/573838 | access-date = 23 December 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110723202201/http://www.malaysianews.net/story/573838 | archive-date = 23 July 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti (na nduna ya vya vimbundi) Sékouba Konaté wakafuma ku Lebanon kuti wazakalongozge caru. Pamanyuma pa kukumana ku Ouagadougou pa 13 na 14 January 2010, Camara, Konaté na Blaise Compaoré, Pulezidenti wa Burkina Faso, ŵakapanga ndondomeko ya malango 12 agho ghakulayizga kuti Guinea wawelerenge ku boma la ŵanthu mu myezi 6. Pa 27 Juni, pa ungano wa ŵalara ŵa boma pakaŵa mautesi ghakukhwaskana na upusikizgi, ndipo pa 7 Novembala pakaŵaso ungano unyake. Kuvota kukaŵa "kwapacanya", ndipo mavoti ghakaŵa "ghawemi". Alpha Condé, mulongozgi wa chipani chakususka cha Rally of the Guinean People (RGP), wakathereska mavoti, ndipo wakalayizga kuti wasinthenge vinthu pa nkhani ya kuvikilira na kunozgaso mapangano gha migodi. Mu Febuluwale 2013, nkhaza za ndyali zikawuka pamanyuma pa viwawa vya mu misewu vyakususkana na mavoti gha mu Meyi. Ŵanthu 9 ŵakakomeka pa viphikiro ivi ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 220 ŵakapwetekeka. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakafwa na kupwetekeka cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵakagwiliskira nchito vilwero vyakofya. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe kulimbana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Malinke na Fula. Pa 26 March 2013, chipani chakususka chikafumamo mu viphikiro na boma pa nkhani ya chisankho, ŵakati boma lindasungilire ivyo likayowoya, ndipo laswa mapangano ghose.<ref>{{cite news| title=Guinea election talks fail, opposition threatens protests| author=Bate Felix| work=Reuters| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE92P11320130326| date=26 March 2013| access-date=1 July 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924180316/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/26/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE92P11320130326| archive-date=24 September 2015| url-status=live| df=dmy-all}}</ref>[[File:Acte2 FNDC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Chiwonetsero cha 2019-2020 ku Guinea chotsutsana ndi ulamuliro wa Alpha Condé]] Pa Malichi 25, 2014, wupu wakuwona vya umoyo pa charu chose (WHO) ukati ku Guinea kuli nthenda ya Ebola. Mu nyengo yakwamba iyi, ŵanthu 86 ŵakafwa, ndipo 59 ŵakafwa. Pa Meyi 28, ŵanthu 281 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi ndipo 186 ŵakafwa. Munthu wakwamba uyo ŵakagomezga kuti wakafwa wakaŵa Emile Ouamouno, msepuka wa vyaka viŵiri wa ku Meliandou. Wakalwara pa 2 Disembala 2013 ndipo wakafwa pa 6 Disembala. Pa Seputembala 18, 2014, ŵanthu 8 ŵa gulu la ŵapharazgi ŵa Ebola ŵakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu muzi wa Womey. Pa Novembala 1, 2015, ku Guinea kukaŵa ŵanthu 3,810 awo ŵakalwara nthenda iyi ndipo 2,536 ŵakafwa. Nkhondo ya 2019-2020 ku Guinea yikaŵa mbembe zinandi na vivulupi vya ŵanthu ŵanandi ivyo vikacitika pa Okutobala 14, 2019 kwimikana na boma la Alpha Conde. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 800 ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi. Pambuyo pa chisankho cha pulezidenti cha 2020 ku Guinea, chisankho cha Alpha Condé ku nyengo yachitatu chinatsutsidwa ndi otsutsa, omwe adamunamizira zachinyengo. Condé wakayowoya kuti pa March 2020 pakachitika referendum iyo yikamovwira kuti waŵepo pa mavoti. Pa 5 September 2021, pamanyuma pa kuwombera kwa maora ghanandi kufupi na nyumba ya pulezidenti, Lt. Col. Mamady Doumbouya wakatora mazaza pa TV ya boma ndipo wakapharazga kuti boma la Pulezidenti Alpha Conde lapasuka ndipo mphaka za chalo zajalika. Namise, ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵakamba kulamulira msumba wa Conakry na ŵasilikari ŵa charu. Kuyana na Guinée Matin, pa Seputembala 6, ŵasilikari ŵakamba kulamulira boma na kwamba kunjizga ŵasilikari mu malo mwa boma. Wupu wa United Nations, European Union, African Union, ECOWAS (iyo yikakanizga Guinea kuŵa mu wupu wa ECOWAS) na La Francophonie ŵakasuska boma ilo likapoka boma ili, ndipo ŵakacema kuti pulezidenti Condé wafwatulike. Vinthu vyakuyana waka vikafumira ku vyaru vinyake vya ŵazengezgani na vyakumanjiliro gha dazi (nga ni United States), kweniso ku China (uko ukugwiliskira ntchito Guinea kuti upange hafu ya visulo vyake vya aluminiyamu. Nangauli vili nthena, pa 1 Okutobala 2021, Mamady Doumbouya wakalapizga kuŵa purezidenti wa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{cite news |title=Guinea coup leader sworn in as interim president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/1/guinea-coup-mamady-doumbouya-interim |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Guinea}} [[File:Un-guinea.png|thumb|upright=2.5|center|Mapu agho ghakulongora misumba ya ku Guinea na vigaŵa vyake]] Guinea yili na mphaka na Guinea-Bissau kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi, Senegal kumpoto, Mali kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi, Ivory Coast kumafumiro gha dazi, Sierra Leone kumwera kwa dazi na Liberia kumwera. Charu ichi chili na chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ndipo chikujumphilira kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku mphaka yake ya kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Guinea-Bissau. Maji gha Mlonga wa Niger, Gambia, na Senegal, ghose ghali mu chigaŵa cha Guinea Highlands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0h.htm |title=The Senegal River basin |website=Fao.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019075901/http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0h.htm |archive-date=19 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0i.htm |title=The Niger River basin |website=Fao.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721033139/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4347e/w4347e0i.htm |archive-date=21 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0t.htm |title=The West Coast |website=Fao.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011063822/http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0t.htm |archive-date=11 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>Mu charu ichi muli vyaru vyakukwana 245,857 km2. Mphepete mwa nyanja muli mtunda wa makilomita 320 (200 mi) na mphaka ya makilomita 3,400 (2,100 mi). Chigaŵa ichi chili pakati pa latitude 7° na 13°N, kweniso longitude 7° na 15°W, ndipo chigaŵa chinyake chili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa latitude 15°. [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map GIN present.svg|thumb|upright=1|Mapu gha nyengo gha Köppen ]] Charu cha Guinea chili na vigaŵa vinayi: Charu cha Maritimic Guinea, icho chikuchemekaso kuti Lower Guinea panji Basse-Coté lowlands, icho ŵanthu ŵake mbanandi chomene ŵa fuko la Susu. Charu cha Fouta Djallon chili na mapiri ghanandi ndipo chili kumpoto na kumwera kwa charu ichi. Mu mapiri gha ku Guinea ndimo mukufuma milonga ya Niger, Gambia, na Senegal. Phiri la Nimba ndilo lili pachanya chomene mu Guinea. Apo vigaŵa vya ku Guinea na Ivory Coast vya Nimba Massif ni malo ghakusungirako vyamoyo gha UNESCO, chigaŵa icho chikuchemeka Guinea Backbone chikuluta ku Liberia, uko ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito migodi vyaka vinandi. Ku Guinea kuli malo 5 agho kuli vyakumera vinandi. Chigaŵa ichi chili na chigaŵa cha 4.9/10, ndipo chili pa nambala 114 pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. 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M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. 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Viyuni vinyake vikukhala mu malo ghakutali chomene na malo ghakuvikilirako ŵanthu. Vinyama ivi ni ivi: * Amphibians : ''[[Hemisus guineensis]]'', ''[[Phrynobatrachus guineensis]]'' * Reptiles : ''[[Acanthodactylus]] guineensis'', ''[[Mochlus]] guineensis'' * Arachnids: ''[[Malloneta guineensis]]'', ''[[Dictyna]] guineensis'' * Insects : ''[[Zorotypus]] guineensis'', ''[[Euchromia guineensis]]'' * Birds: ''[[Melaniparus guineensis]]'' ===Regions and prefectures=== {{Main|Administrative divisions of Guinea}} [[File:Guinea Regions.png|thumb|upright=1.6|[[Regions of Guinea]]]] Charu cha Guinea chili na malo ghakukwana ma kilomita 245,857 mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa vinayi ivyo vikupambana na vinyake. * [[Maritime Guinea]] (''La Guinée Maritime'') covers 18% of the country. * [[Middle Guinea]] (''La Moyenne-Guinée'') covers 20% of the country. * [[Upper Guinea]] (''La Haute-Guinée'') covers 38% of the country. * [[Guinée forestière|Forested Guinea]] (''Guinée forestière'') covers 23% of the country, and is both forested and mountainous. [[File:Fouta Djallon (14582291826).jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Fouta Djallon]] highlands in central Guinea]] Charu cha Guinea chili na vigaŵa 8 ivyo vili na vigaŵa 33. Msumba ukuru wa Conakry, uwo uli na ŵanthu 1,675,069, uli mu chigaŵa chapadera. {|class="wikitable sortable" |- !Chigaŵa!!Msumba!!Ŵanthu <br /> (2014 census by National Institute of Statistics) |- |[[Conakry Region]] ||[[Conakry]]||1,675,069 |- |[[Nzérékoré Region]] ||[[Nzérékoré]]||1,591,716 |- |[[Kindia Region]] ||[[Kindia]]||1,573,690 |- |[[Boké Region]] ||[[Boké]]||1,092,291 |- |[[Labé Region]] ||[[Labé]]||1,001,392 |- |[[Mamou Region]] ||[[Mamou]]||737,062 |- |[[Kankan Region]] ||[[Kankan]]||1,979,038 |- |[[Faranah Region]]||[[Faranah]]||949,589 |} ==Ndale== {{Further|Politics of Guinea}} Charu cha Guinea ni charu cha Republic. Pulezidenti wakusankhika na ŵanthu ndipo ni mulara wa boma. Nyumba ya Malango ya caru cose iyo yili na nyumba yimoza ndiyo yikupanga malango mu caru, ndipo ŵanthu ndiwo ŵakusankha ŵanthu awo ŵali mu nyumba iyi. Khoti Likuru Chomene mu Guinea ndilo lili na mazaza pa milandu yose.<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE9AF0AP20131116|title=Guinea's Supreme Court rejects election challenges|work=Reuters|date=16 November 2013|access-date=23 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924190855/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/16/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE9AF0AP20131116|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live|last1=Samb|first1=Saliou}}</ref> Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Guinea, yikaŵavya maungano kufuma mu 2008 m'paka mu 2013, apo yikagaŵirika pamanyuma pa boma kuwukira boma mu Disembala. Kufuma waka mu 2007, mavoti ghakasunkhunyika kanandi waka. Mu Epulero 2012, Pulezidenti Condé wakachedweska mavoti kwamuyirayira, chifukwa cha kukhumbikwa kuti ghaŵe "ghapusu na gha demokilase".<ref name="RNW Africa Desk">{{cite web|title=Guinea president postpones parliamentary elections indefinitely|url=http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/guinea-president-postpones-parliamentary-elections-indefinitely|publisher=Radio Netherlands Worldwide|access-date=22 August 2012|author=RNW Africa Desk|date=28 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430121146/http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/guinea-president-postpones-parliamentary-elections-indefinitely|archive-date=30 April 2012}}</ref> Pa Seputembala 24, 2013, ku Guinea kukachitika chisankho chapulezidenti. Chipani cha Pulezidenti Alpha Condé, Rally of the Guinean People (RPG), chikapokera vithuzi vinandi mu Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Guinea, na vithuzi 53 pa vithuzi 114. Maphwando a chipani chakususkana nagho ghakapokera vithuzithuzi 53, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani chakususkana nawo ŵakasuska kuti ivyo vikalembeka vikaŵa vyautesi. Mulara wa boma la Guinea wakusankhika na ŵanthu wose kuti waŵe na vyaka 5. Munthu uyo wawina wakwenera kupokera mavoti ghanandi kuti waŵe mulara wa boma. Pulezidenti ndiyo wakulamulira charu cha Guinea, ndipo wakuwovwirika na ŵalara ŵa boma 25. Boma likwendeska vinthu mu vigaŵa 8, vigaŵa 33, vigaŵa vichokovichoko vyakujumpha 100, na vigaŵa. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakusankhika; pulezidenti wakusora ŵantchito ŵa vigaŵa vinyake vyose. Pulezidenti wakale Alpha Condé wakawovwirika na mtundu waciŵiri ukuru comene mu Guinea, wa Malinke. Ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Fula ndiwo ŵakakolerana na fundo iyi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/#people-and-society|title=Guinea|date=23 September 2021}}</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{Further|Foreign relations of Guinea}} [[File:Vladimir Putin and Alpha Condé (2017-09-28) 2.jpg|thumb|President [[Alpha Condé]] with Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] on 28 September 2017]] Charu cha Guinea chili mu wupu wa African Union, Agency for the French-Speaking Community, African Development Bank, Economic Community of West African States, World Bank, Islamic Development Bank, IMF, na United Nations. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu Febuluwale 2009, Kufumira waka mu 1985, ubwezi wa Guinea na vyaru vinyake, kusazgapo vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ukwenda makora comene. Lipoti la Dipatimenti iyi mu Okutobala 2018 likati nangauli "U.S. yikasuska" boma la Guinea la " 2008 coup d'etat", kweni "U.S". yikaŵa na "ubwezi wakukhora" na Guinea pambere boma la Guinea lindanjire, ndipo pamanyuma pa "mavoti gha pulezidenti wa Guinea mu 2010, United States yikambaso kukolerana na boma". Chikalata ichi chikayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakukolerana na "masankhiro gha wupu wakulongozga mu 2013 na chisankho chachiŵiri cha pulezidenti mu 2015". Lipoti la U.S. March 2021 Dipatimenti ya vyaru vya ku America yikanena kuti boma, mawupu gha vimbundi, na mabungwe gha vyamalonda mu Guinea vikutimbanizga wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Lipoti ili likayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi pa caru cose ŵakususka ivyo vikacitika pa maungano gha boma agho ghakacitika sonosono apa, agho ghakapangiska kuti "Purezidenti Alpha Conde wasankhikeso (nangauli pakaŵa mphindano)... pamanyuma pa kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu mwezi wa Malichi. Dipatimenti iyi yikadandawura na boma ilo likawuskapo boma mu 2021, ndipo yikachenjezga kuti "nkhaza na viyezgo vyose vyambura kukolerana na dango vizamumara waka mtende, kukhazikika, na kutukuka kwa Guinea, [ndipo] vingapangiska kuti United States na ŵabwezi ŵanyake ŵa Guinea ŵaleke kovwira charu ichi...," Nangauli ŵakayowoyapo yayi kuti pulezidenti Condé wawelere ku mazaza, kweni boma la United States likati "mphapo za charu chose kuti viwovwire kuti vinthu vyende makora mu charu ichi kweniso kuti paŵe mtende".<ref name="us_relations_2021_09_05_state_gov">[https://www.state.gov/on-the-military-seizure-of-power-in-guinea/ "On the Military Seizure of Power in Guinea,"], September 5, 2021, [[United States Department of State]], retrieved September 6, 2021</ref><ref name="guinea_coup_leader_2021_09_06_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/uneasy-calm-guinea-after-president-condes-apparent-ouster-2021-09-06/ "Guinea coup leader bars foreign travel for government officials,"] [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved September 6, 2021</ref> Wupu wa United Nations ukadandawura mwaluŵiro kuti boma likapoka mazaza mu 2021, ndipo ŵabwezi ŵanyake ŵa Guinea ŵakadandawura. Wupu wa African Union na West Africa's regional bloc (ECOWAS), wose ŵakawopanga kuti ŵaŵikenge vyeruzgo apo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti vyeruzgo ivi viŵenge na nkhongono zichoko chifukwa chakuti Guinea njumoza wa vyeruzgo vya West African currency union yayi. ECOWAS yikatumizga mwaluŵiro wupu wa Guinea, ndipo yikapempha kuti pulezidenti Condé wafwatulike, uku yikutuma mathenga ku Conakry kuti ghasange nthowa yakumazgira suzgo ili. Ku China (uko kukuthemba pa Guinea pa hafu ya aluminiyamu wake, na kukolerana na pulezidenti Condé) kukususkana na boma.<ref name="china_is_ok_2021_09_foreign_policy">[https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/09/08/china-guinea-interference-relations-alpha-conde-xi-jinping/ "China Is OK With Interfering in Guinea's Internal Affairs,"], September 8, 2021, ''[[Foreign Policy]]'' retrieved September 9, 2021</ref><ref name="leaders_due_in_guinea_2021_09_09_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/west-african-leaders-due-guinea-post-coup-calm-pervades-conakry-2021-09-09/ West African leaders due in Guinea as post-coup calm pervades Conakry,"] September 9, 2021, [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved September 9, 2021</ref><ref name="leaders_suspend_guinea_2021_09_08_bbc">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58487925 "West African leaders suspend Guinea from Ecowas following coup,"] September 9, 2021, [[BBC News]], retrieved September 9, 2021</ref><ref name="guinea_coup_leader_2021_09_06_reuters" /> === Ŵankhondo === {{Main|Military of Guinea}} Gulu la ŵasilikari la Guinea lili kugaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinkhondi: ŵasilikari, ŵasilikari ŵa mu nyanja, ŵasilikari ŵa mu mlengalenga, ŵasilikari ŵa National Gendarmerie na ŵasilikari ŵa Republican Guard. Kuonjezerapo, magulu a chitetezo cha boma akuphatikizapo National Police Force (Sûreté Nationale). Gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likuvikilira ŵanthu, lili na ŵanthu masauzandi ghanandi. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵali na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 15,000, ndipo ni gulu likuru comene la ŵasilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵakujumpha 700. Vinthu vyake vikusazgapo ndege zinandi zakulwera nkhondo na vyakurya vya ku Russia. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵali na ŵantchito pafupifupi 900 ndipo ŵakwendeska maboti na maboti ghachoko. === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{main|Human rights in Guinea}} Ku Guinea, kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera nkhukanizgika. Mu 2010, nduna yikuru yikayowoya kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kugonana ŵalije wanangwa uwu. Anastasia Gage, pulofesa wa pa Yunivesite ya Tulane, na Ronan van Rossem, pulofesa wa pa Yunivesite ya Ghent, ŵakuti mu Guinea ndimo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukomekera ŵanakazi. Mu 2009, ku Guinea, ŵanakazi ŵakujumpha 98% ŵakachitiskanga viŵaro vyawo. Ku Guinea, "pafupifupi ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose, visopa, na mafuko" ŵakukoma ŵanakazi. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2005, wakalongora kuti ŵanakazi 96 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵali kuchitapo opareshoni iyi.<ref name="State 2011">{{cite web |author=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |author-link=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |year=2012 |title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2011: Guinea |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?dlid=186203 |access-date=27 August 2012 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="The effects of female genital mutil" /><ref name="The effects of female genital mutil">{{cite journal|last2=Gage|first2=A. J.|year=2009|title=The effects of female genital mutilation on the onset of sexual activity and marriage in Guinea|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-sexual-behavior_2009-04_38_2/page/178|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=38|issue=2|pages=178–185|doi=10.1007/s10508-007-9237-5|pmid=17943434|last1=Rossem|first1=R. V.|s2cid=40103661}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last2=Gage|first2=AJ|year=2009|title=The effects of female genital mutilation on the onset of sexual activity and marriage in Guinea|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-sexual-behavior_2009-04_38_2/page/178|journal=Arch Sex Behav|volume=38|issue=2|pages=178–85|doi=10.1007/s10508-007-9237-5|pmid=17943434|last1=Van Rossem|first1=R|s2cid=40103661}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Guinea}} [[File:Fisher women on River Niger in Guinea, Africa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Malinke fisher women on the Niger River, [[Niandankoro]], [[Kankan Region]], in eastern Guinea]] [[File:Kissidougou market.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Kissidougou]] market]] ===Ulimi=== Pa nyengo yinyake, vyakurya vikagwiranga nchito ŵanthu pafupifupi 75%. Mpunga uwu ukulimika mu malo agho kuli maji ghanandi pakati pa milonga. Chifukwa chakuti mpunga uwo ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakupanga ngwakukwana yayi, ŵakuguliska kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuliska mphonje za khofi, anase, maperekisi, vipasi, mango, malalanje, mabhanana, mbatata, matumato, macucumber, malibwe, na vyakurya vinyake. Charu cha Guinea nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikupanga maapulo na mapeyala. Pali minda ya mpheska, ya makomamanga, ndipo mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vyakumera vya makomamanga vyamba kukura.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Madiou|first=Sow|title=Impact on agricultural productivity in Guinea of R&D Investment, Foreign Aid and Climate Change|url=https://twasp.info/journal/Cf9659eX/impact-on-agricultural-productivity-in-guinea-of-rd-investment-foreign-aid-and-climate-change|journal=North American Academic Research|year=2020|volume=3|pages=86–106|doi=10.5281/zenodo.3611652|s2cid=244984398 }}</ref> ===Vyachilengiwa=== Ku Guinea kuli mabomba gha bauxite ghakukwana 25% panji kujumpha apa. Muli malibwe gha dayamondi, golide, na visulo vinyake. Bauxite na alumina ni vinthu vikuru comene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Makampani ghanyake ghakupanga moŵa, maji, vyakumwa vyakunowa na hona. Vyaru vili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 75 peresenti. Mu nyengo iyo charu cha Guinea chikalamuliranga na ŵa ku France, chikaŵa na vyakurya vinandi nga ni nthochi, anase, khofi, mankhwaŵa, na mafuta. Malo agha ghali na dongo, maji, na mphepo. === Kugwira Ntchito M'migodi === {{main|Mining industry of Guinea}} [[File:Guinea Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Guinea exports, 2019]] Ku Guinea kuli matani ghakujumpha 25 biliyoni gha bauxite, panji kuti hafu ya malo agho ghalipo pa caru cose. Vinthu vyakuthupi ivyo charu ichi chili navyo ni matani ghakujumpha 4 biliyoni gha visulo vyamahara, dayamondi, golide, na uranium. Mu vigaŵa vyose ivi, muli mwaŵi wa kupanga ndalama na malonda, ndipo "nthondo ya ku Guinea iyo njambura kukhazikika ndiposo vimbundi vikulutilira kutondeska ŵanthu kupanga ndalama zinandi". Makampani ghakukolerana agho ghakupanga mabomba gha bauxite na alumina kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Guinea ghakupanga pafupifupi 80% ya ndalama za ku Guinea. Bauxite wakuzgoka aluminiyamu, ndipo pamanyuma wakuzgoka aluminiyamu. Wupu wa Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée (CBG) ukupeleka matani pafupifupi 14 miliyoni gha bauxite ya mtundu wapachanya pa chaka. CBG ni kampani yakukolerana, 49% yili na boma la Guinea ndipo 51% yili na kampani ya Halco Mining Inc., iyo yikulongozgeka na kampani ya Alcoa (AA) iyo yikupanga aluminiyamu, Rio Tinto Group na Dadco Investments. Wupu wa CBG uli na wanangwa wakuŵa na bauxite mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Guinea m'paka mu 2038. Mu 2008, ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga ntchito ya magesi ŵakajara misewu iyo CBG yikendangamo. Mu mapangano agho ŵakachita na makampani gha mafuta gha pa caru cose, Guinea wali na fundo yakuti ŵantchito ŵake ŵapelekenge magesi ku ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala kufupi.<ref> {{cite news |url=http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=8889 |author1=Saliou Samb |author2=Daniel Magnowski |title=One dead in Guinea protest, mine trains stop |agency=Reuters |date=1 November 2008 |work=Minesandcommunities.org |access-date=24 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019125412/http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=8889 |archive-date=19 October 2014 |url-status=live }} </ref>[[File:River sand production Guinea.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵana awo ŵakugwira nchito za mawoko kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa mu mbumba zawo.]]Wupu wa Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK), uwo ni wupu wa boma la Guinea na wa RUSAL, ukupanga matani pafupifupi 2.5 miliyoni pa chaka, ndipo pafupifupi matani ghose agha ghakutumizgika ku Russia na ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe. Dian Dian, wupu wa ku Guinea na Ukraine, uwo ukupangiska bauxite, ukupangika matani 1,000,000 (1,102,311 short tons; 984,207 long tons) pa chaka. Mu 2004, kampani ya Alumina Compagnie de Guinée (ACG) iyo yikapoka kampani ya Friguia Consortium, yikapanga matani pafupifupi 2.4 miliyoni gha mafuta gha aluminiyamu. Malo agha ghakutumizga matani 750,000 gha alumina. Global Alumina na Alcoa-Alcan ŵali kulembeska mapangano na boma la Guinea kuti ŵazenge mafakitale ghakurughakuru ghakupangira alumina, agho ghali na nkhongono yakuchitira vinthu pafupifupi matani 4 pa chaka. Mu mgodi wa Simandou muli visulo vinandi vya visulo. Mu Malichi 2010, kampani ya Anglo-Australian Rio Tinto Group na aluminiyamu yikuru chomene ya China (Chinalco) ŵakasazga phangano lakukhwaskana na mulimo wa Rio Tinto. Mu 2017, wupu wakuwona vya upusikizgi (SFO), uwo ni wupu wakuwona vya upusikizgi ku Britain, ukayambiska kafukufuku pa ivyo Rio Tinto wakachitanga mu Guinea. Tigui Camara, uyo kale wakaŵa wamaseŵera, ni mwanakazi wakwamba mu Guinea kuŵa na kampani ya migodi iyo yikwendeskeka na ŵanthu.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=TIGUI CAMARA: Leading In The Male Dominated Mining Industry|url=https://www.africanleadershipmagazine.co.uk/tigui-camara-leading-in-the-male-dominated-mining-industry/|access-date=2022-01-25|website=African Leadership Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Mafuta=== Mu 2006, charu cha Guinea chikachita phangano na Hyperdynamics Corporation ku Houston kuti ŵapenje malo ghakutali na nyanja. Chibuŵa chakwamba, Sabu-1, chikeneranga kwambika mu Okutobala 2011, pa malo agho ghakaŵa pasi pa maji mamita pafupifupi 700. Sabu-1 yikaŵa na vigaŵa vinayi vya mchenga wa Cretaceous, ndipo yikaghanaghananga kuti yifwenge mamita 3,600. Pamanyuma pa kumalizga kubowozga mu 2012, chisimi cha Sabu-1 chikawoneka kuti ntchakovwira yayi. Mu Novembala 2012, kampani ya Hyperdynamics, SCS, yikapangana kuti yigulitse 40% ya malo ogulitsira ku Tullow Oil, ndipo chiŵerengero cha eni ake ku Guinea chinakwera kufika pa 37% Hyperdynamics, 40% Tullow Oil, ndi 23% Dana Petroleum. Hyperdynamics yizamuŵa na nyengo m'paka Seputembala 2016, mwakuyana na phangano ilo lilipo sono, kuti yambe kubowozga pa malo ghanyake agho yikukhumba, agho ni Fatala Cenomanian turbidite fan prospect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hyperdynamics.com/guinea_project.htm|title=Overview of the Guinea Project|website=Hyperdynamics.com|author1=Hyperdynamics|access-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203114454/http://www.hyperdynamics.com/guinea_project.htm|archive-date=3 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref> {{cite web|url=https://doc.research-and-analytics.csfb.com/docView?document_id=x548038&serialid=6XKHhijcT%2B6Xg1jfyFmVuwQySL6HHtJCNiU0UlOijDA%3D|title=Tullow Oil|date=21 January 2014|work=Equity Research|publisher=Credit Suisse|page=15|author1=Thomas Adolff|author2=Charlotte Elliott|access-date=24 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017122251/https://doc.research-and-analytics.csfb.com/docView?document_id=x548038&serialid=6XKHhijcT%2B6Xg1jfyFmVuwQySL6HHtJCNiU0UlOijDA%3D|archive-date=17 October 2016|url-status=live}} </ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tullowoil.com/index.asp?pageid=137&newsid=805|title=Tullow Oil Agrees Farm-in to Guinea Concession|website=Tullowoil.com|access-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203120232/http://www.tullowoil.com/index.asp?pageid=137&newsid=805|archive-date=3 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.offshore-technology.com/news/newshyperdynamics-completes-drilling-of-sabu-1-well-offshore-guinea-conakry|title=Hyperdynamics completes drilling at Sabu-1 well offshore Guinea-Conakry|website=Offshore-technology.com|date=14 February 2012|access-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203115227/http://www.offshore-technology.com/news/newshyperdynamics-completes-drilling-of-sabu-1-well-offshore-guinea-conakry|archive-date=3 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> === Ŵalendo === == Galerie == <gallery> File:Le "Voile" de la mariée à Kindia.png|The "Voile de la Mariée" (Bride's Veil) waterfall in Kindia File:Dame_de_Mali_Guinée.jpg|[[:en:fr:Mont Loura|Dame de Mali]] File:Chute_de_Tabouna_à_Kindia_01.jpg|[[:en:fr:Chute de Tabouna|Chute de Tabouna]] à [[:en:fr:Kindia|Kindia]] File:Chute_de_Saala_vue_à_360°_Labé.jpg|[[:en:fr:Chute de Saala|Chute de Saala]] [[:en:fr:Labé|Labé]] File:Chimpanzé_de_Bossou_33.jpg|Chimpanzé de Bossou File:Plage_de_Roume.jpg|Plage sur les [[:en:fr:Îles de Loos|Ile de Loos]] </gallery> Vinyake ivyo vikukondweska chomene mu Guinea ni majigha agho ghali mu vigaŵa vya Basse Guinea (Lower Guinea) na Moyenne Guinea (Middle Guinea). Chigwa cha Soumba pa phiri la Kakoulima ku Kindia, Voile de la Mariée (Valo la Mkwatibwi) ku Dubreka, chigwa cha Kinkon chomwe chili pafupifupi mamita 80 (260 ft) pa Kokoula River ku Pita, mathithi a Kambadaga omwe amatha kufika mamita 100 (330 ft) nyengo yamvula pamtsinje womwewo, mathithi a Ditinn & Mitty ku Dalaba, ndi mathithi a Fetoré ndi mlatho wamwala m'chigawo cha Labe ndi ena mwa malo okopa alendo okhudzana ndi madzi. ==Mayendelo== {{Main|Transport in Guinea}} Malo ghakwendera ndege gha Conakry International Airport ndigho ni ghakurughakuru chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo ghakwendera ku misumba yinyake mu Africa na ku Europe. Njanji iyi yikazengeka pakati pa 1904 na 1910, ndipo yikaŵaso yayi kugwira ntchito mu 1995 ndipo mu 2007 yikamara. Pakwamba, ŵakakhumbanga kunozga msewu uwu kuti uŵe wakwendamo ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo apo ntchito yikambanga mu 2010, ŵakayowoya kuti mulimo uwu uli kumara chifukwa cha vimbundi. Pali njanji iyo yikwendeskeka na boma iyo yikukolerana na migodi ya bauxite ya Sangarédi na dowoko la Kamsar (137 km) kweniso njanji ya m'ma 1960 iyo yikwendeskeka na Russia RusAl ku migodi ya Fria (143 km). Pakuŵa chigaŵa cha ndondomeko ya kwambaso kuguliska migodi ya visulo pa Simandou block 1 na 2, wupu uphya uwu ukalayizga mu 2019 kuti uzamupeleka ndalama zakwendeskera mulimo wa kuzenga njanji yiphya yakuya ku Matakong pa nyanja ya Atlantic uko ŵazamuguliska ndalama zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 20 gha ku America kuti ŵazenge dowoko la maji ghakunyang'amira. Njira ya makilomita 650 njitali kuluska nthowa yinyake yakulongozgera kumwera ku Buchanan, Liberia, iyo yikawonekanga nga ni nthowa yinyake mu October 2019.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/trending/LjaSYcEdRjnMwG4RserstA2| title = SP Global report, November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.planete-tp.com/IMG/pdf/cdf_ao-ae_vnrweb_cle13f153.pdf| title = Georges Pilot's history of railways in West Africa (in French)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.africa-confidential.com/article-preview/id/12816/Iron_back_on_track| title = Africa Confidential December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url = http://guineenews.org/kankan-le-chemin-de-fer-conakry-niger-a-quand-sa-rehabilitation/ |author = Amadou Timbo Barry |title = Kankan : Le chemin de fer Conakry-Niger à quand sa réhabilitation ? |date = 14 May 2015 |publisher = Guinee News |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160915153034/http://guineenews.org/kankan-le-chemin-de-fer-conakry-niger-a-quand-sa-rehabilitation/ |archive-date = 15 September 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Ndipouli, nthowa ya Matakong yikeneranga kuŵa mu Guinea ndipo yikeneranga kuŵa na nthowa yakwendeskera vyakurya. Mu Guinea, magalimoto ghanyake ghali na vyaka vyakujumpha 20, ndipo magalimoto gha taxi ni magalimoto gha vipata vinayi agho mweneko wayowoya kuti ghapangike. Ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni iyi, awo ŵalije magalimoto, ŵakugwiliskira nchito magalimoto gha tekisi na mabasi ghacoko kuti ŵendenge mu tawuni na mu caru cose. Mahachi na mbunda vikuguza magileta, comenecomene pakunyamura vinthu vya kuzenga. == Ŵanthu == {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population in Guinea{{UN_Population|ref}} |- ! style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |style="text-align:left;"|1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|3.0 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|8.8 |- |style="text-align:left;"|{{UN_Population|Year}} ||style="text-align:right;"|{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Guinea}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}} |} {{Main|Demography of Guinea}} Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ŵalipo 13.5 miliyoni. Msumba wa Conakry ndiwo uli na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Mu 2014, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakababikanga mu Guinea chikaŵa 4.93 pa mwanakazi waliyose.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|title=The World Factbook|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028133713/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|archive-date=28 October 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{Largest cities | country = Guinea | stat_ref = According to the 2014 Census<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citypopulation.de/Guinea-Cities.html |title=Cities and Regions |website=Citypopulation.de |access-date=23 July 2021 }}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = Region | div_link = | city_1 = Conakry | div_1 = Conakry | pop_1 = 1,660,973 | img_1 = Conakry.jpg | city_2 = Nzérékoré | div_2 = Nzérékoré | pop_2 = 195,027 | img_2 = Nzerekore.jpg | city_3 = Kankan | div_3 = Kankan | pop_3 = 190,722 | img_3 = | city_4 = Manéah | div_4 = Kindia | pop_4 = 167,354 | img_4 = | city_5 = Dubréka | div_5 = Kindia | pop_5 = 157,017 | city_6 = Kindia | div_6 = Kindia | pop_6 = 138,695 | city_7 = Siguiri | div_7 = Kankan | pop_7 = 127,492 | city_8 = Kissidougou | div_8 = Faranah | pop_8 = 99,931 | city_9 = Labé | div_9 = Labé | pop_9 = 92,654 | city_10 = Kamsar | div_10 = Boké | pop_10 = 83,428 }} Chiyowoyero cha ku Guinea ni Chifurenchi. Mu 2018, ŵanthu 33.9% ŵakayowoyanga Chipular, ndipo ŵanthu 29.4% ŵakayowoyanga Chimandingo. Chilankhulo chachitatu chomwe chimalankhulidwa kwambiri ndi Chisu, chomwe chimalankhulidwa ndi 21.2% ya anthu mu 2018 ngati chilankhulo chawo choyamba. Viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu Guinea nga ni chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea vikakwana 16% mu 2018, kusazgapo Kissi na Kpelle.<ref name="CIA Factbook1" /> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵali mu mafuko pafupifupi 24. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mandinka, awo ŵakumanyikwaso kuti Mandingo panji Malinké, ŵalipo 29.4% ndipo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Guinea.<ref name=guinea_stats/> TŴafula panji Ŵafula, ŵalipo 33.4% ndipo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha Futa Djallon. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soussou ŵalipo 21.2% ndipo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa msumba wa Conakry, Forécariah, na Kindia. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakukhala pa chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu 16%, kusazgapo Kpelle, Kissi, Zialo, Toma na ŵanyake. Ku Guinea kuli ŵanthu 10,000 awo mba ku Africa yayi, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku Lebanon, France, na vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2824.htm |title=Guinea |website=State.gov |date=22 November 2016 |access-date=23 July 2017 }}</ref><ref name="guinea_stats" /><ref name="cia.gov" /><ref name="Fula">In {{lang-fr|Peul|link=no}}. In {{lang-ff|Fulɓe}}.</ref><ref name="cia.gov" /><ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/ |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=12 April 2018 }}</ref> ===Chisopo=== {{Further|Religion in Guinea}} {{bar box |title=Guinea religious sects<ref name="state.gov"/> |titlebar=#ddd |left1='''Religion''' |right1='''Percent''' |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Islam|lightgreen|85}} {{bar percent|Christianity|blue|8}} {{bar percent|[[Traditional African religion]]|brown|7}} }} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵalipo 85% Mbasilamu ndipo 8% Mbakhristu. Ŵanyake, Ŵasilamu na Ŵakristu wuwo, ŵakulondezga vigomezgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa.<ref name="state.gov">[https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208368.pdf "Guinea 2012 International Religious Freedom Report"], US State Department, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor.</ref><ref>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108372.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Guinea] . United States [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] (29 December 2008). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵa ku Guinea ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Sunni, cha Maliki. Magulu gha Cikristu ghakuphatikizapo ŵa Katolika, ŵa Anglican, ŵa Baptist, ŵa Seventh-day Adventist, na ŵa Evangelical. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵakugwira nchito mu caru ici ndipo boma likuŵamanya makora. Ku malo agha kuli cisopa ca Bahá'í. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake mba Chihindu, Chibuda, na ŵa chisopa cha Chitchayinizi. Ku Nzerekore kukaŵa nkhondo za mitundu na visopa kwa mazuŵa ghatatu mu Julayi 2013.<ref name="Guinea 2013">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guinea-violence-idUSBRE96G00820130717|title="Guinea's Conde appeals for calm after 11 killed in ethnic clashes", Reuters, 16 July 2013.|work=Reuters|date=17 July 2013|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006190639/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/17/us-guinea-violence-idUSBRE96G00820130717|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 3818383|title = A Sufi Interpretation of 'Le Regard du Roi'|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_research-in-african-literatures_summer-1983_14_2/page/135|journal = Research in African Literatures|volume = 14|issue = 2|pages = 135–164|last1 = Harrow|first1 = Kenneth|year = 1983}}</ref><ref name="bbc.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23335719|title="Guinean troops deployed after deadly ethnic clashes", BBC Africa, 17 July 2013.|work=BBC News|access-date=15 October 2014|date=17 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017234847/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23335719|archive-date=17 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Nkhondo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Kpelle awo Mbakhristu panji ŵakugomezga kuti kuli vyamoyo, na ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Konianke awo Mbasilamu ndipo ŵali pafupi na fuko la Malinke, ŵakafwa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 54. Ŵanyake awo ŵakafwa ŵakaŵakoma na vilwero na kotcha ŵamoyo. Nkhaza zikamara apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Guinea ŵakaŵikapo dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kwiza ku nyumba zawo.<ref name="bbc.com"/><ref name="bbc.com" /> ===Masambilo=== {{Main|Education in Guinea}} [[File:Guinea schoolgirls.jpg|Schoolgirls in [[Conakry]]|thumb]] Mu 2010, ŵanthu 41 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakamanyanga kuŵazga na kulemba (52 pa 100 pa ŵanalume na 30 pa 100 pa ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html|title=The World Factbook|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124171442/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html|archive-date=24 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sukulu ya pulayimale njakukakamiza kwa vyaka 6. Mu 1999, ŵanthu 40 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakasambiranga ku pulayimale. Ŵana, comenecomene ŵasungwana, ŵakufumiskika ku sukulu kuti ŵawovwire ŵapapi ŵawo pa nchito za pa nyumba panji zaulimi, panji kuti ŵatoreke: Mu Guinea muli "ciŵelengero cikuru comene" ca ŵana awo ŵakutengwa.<ref>According to the WHO:"The 10 countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger, 75%; Chad and Central African Republic, 68%; India, 66%; '''Guinea, 63%'''; Mozambique, 56%; Mali, 55%; Burkina Faso and South Sudan, 52%; and Malawi, 50%."[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/child_marriage_20130307/en/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424050514/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/child_marriage_20130307/en/|date=24 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=252689|title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2015: Guinea|access-date=19 November 2016|author=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|author-link=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081205042438/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/guinea.htm Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB) – U.S. Department of Labor] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205042438/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/guinea.htm |date=5 December 2008 }}. Dol.gov. Retrieved 28 June 2011.</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{Further|Health in Guinea}} ====Ebola==== {{Further|Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa}} Mu 2014, ku Guinea kukabuka nthenda ya Ebola. Lekani dipatimenti ya vyaumoyo yikakanizga kuguliska na kurya viyuni ivi. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, nthenda iyi yikathandazgika kufuma ku vigaŵa vya ku mizi kuya ku Conakry, ndipo mu Juni 2014 yikafika mu vyaru vyapafupi nga ni Sierra Leone na Liberia. Mu Ogasiti 2014, charu cha Guinea chikajara mphaka na Sierra Leone na Liberia kuti chileke kuthandazga nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite news | date= 28 March 2014 | title= Ebola: Guinea outbreak reaches capital Conakry | url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26774343 | publisher= BBC | access-date= 30 March 2014 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140330024741/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26774343 | archive-date= 30 March 2014 | url-status= live | df= dmy-all }}</ref> Nthenda iyi yikamba mu Disembala mu muzi wa Meliandou, kumwera kwa Guinea, kufupi na mphaka na Liberia na Sierra Leone. Munthu wakwamba uyo ŵakamupima wakaŵa mwana wa vyaka viŵiri, ndipo wakafwa pa 6 Disembala, chifukwa cha nthenda ya malungo, kuputa, na vyoto vyaswesi. Pakati pajumpha sabata yimoza, amama ŵa mwana uyu ŵakafwa, ndipo pamanyuma mudumbu na abuya ŵake ŵakafwa. Pamanyuma, nthenda iyi yikathandazgikira ku mizi yinyake cifukwa ca ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵapweleleranga. "Malo ghakusungirako ŵakufwa" ndigho ghakwambiska nthenda iyi. Wupu wa vyaumoyo pa caru cose (WHO) ukati cifukwa ca kuleka kucezga na ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici, ŵantchito ŵa vyaumoyo ŵakatondeka kusanga uko kukafuma nthenda iyi. Apo WHO yikamalizga ndondomeko ya Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) pa 29 March 2016, lipoti la Ebola Situation Report ilo likapelekeka pa 30 March likakhozga kuti ŵanthu 5 ŵanyakeso ŵakalwara nthenda iyi mu masabata ghaŵiri agho ghakajumpha, ndipo nthenda iyi yikakhwaskana na nthenda ya Novembala 2014. Nthenda ya Ebola yikananga nthowa zakuchizgira matenda ghanyake mu Guinea. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kuleka kuluta ku chipatala chifukwa cha kopa nthenda iyi kweniso chifukwa cha kuleka kugomezga ndopa. Kweniso chifukwa cha Ebola, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuleka kupwelelera ndopa. Ebola yikwambaso ku Guinea mu January/February 2021.<ref> {{cite news | title = Guinea declares Ebola epidemic: First deaths since 2016 | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56060728 | department = Africa | work = BBC News | publisher = BBC | publication-date = 14 February 2021 | access-date = 15 February 2021 | quote = Guinea has officially declared that it is dealing with an Ebola epidemic after the deaths of at least three people from the virus. <br /> They - and four others - fell ill with diarrhoea, vomiting and bleeding after attending the burial of a nurse. [...] A nurse who worked a health centre in Goueké, near the south-eastern city of Nzérékoré, died on 28 January and her funeral was held four days later. }} </ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/end-of-ebola-pheic/en/|title= Ebola is no longer a public health emergency|website= World Health Organization|access-date= 14 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160331231040/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/end-of-ebola-pheic/en/|archive-date= 31 March 2016|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-4-march-2015|title= Ebola Situation Report – 4 March 2015 {{!}} Ebola|website= apps.who.int|access-date= 14 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170301084553/http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-4-march-2015|archive-date= 1 March 2017|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-30-march-2016|title= Ebola Situation Report – 30 March 2016 {{!}} Ebola|website= apps.who.int|access-date= 14 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160613210509/http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-30-march-2016|archive-date= 13 June 2016|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndawinz |first1=Jacques D A |last2=Cissé |first2=Mohamed |last3=Diallo |first3=Mohamadou S K |last4=Sidibé |first4=Cheik T |last5=D'Ortenzio |first5=Eric |title=Prevention of HIV spread during the Ebola outbreak in Guinea |journal=The Lancet |date=April 2015 |volume=385 |issue=9976 |pages=1393 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60713-9 |pmid=25890415 |s2cid=41478740 |url=http://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(15)60713-9.pdf}}</ref> ====Maternal and child healthcare==== Chiŵerengero cha amayi omwe amafa mu 2021 pa kubadwa 100,000 ku Guinea ndi 576.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.usaid.gov/global-health/health-areas/family-planning/resources/impact-brief-guinea | title=Impact Brief: Guinea | date=21 May 2021 | access-date=28 October 2022 | archive-date=28 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028205848/https://www.usaid.gov/global-health/health-areas/family-planning/resources/impact-brief-guinea | url-status=dead }}</ref> Pa ciŵelengero ici, mu 2010 kukaŵa 680 ndipo mu 2008 kukaŵa 859.9 ndipo mu 1990 kukaŵa 964.7. Ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵandafike vyaka vinkhondi ŵakufwa pa ŵana 1,000 146, ndipo ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵandafike vyaka vinkhondi ŵakufwa 29. Ku Guinea, pa ŵana 1,000 awo ŵakubabika, mwanakazi yumoza ndiyo wakuŵa mama, ndipo pa ŵanakazi 26 ŵaliwose, yumoza wakufwa. Ku Guinea ndiko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi comene awo ŵakukoma ŵanakazi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/|title=WHO – Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012192739/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/|archive-date=12 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |title=Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change – UNICEF DATA |website=Unicef.org |date=22 July 2013 |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |archive-date=5 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="SOWMY">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|title=The State of the World's Midwifery|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=25 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225024306/http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|archive-date=25 December 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> ====HIV/AIDS==== {{Main|HIV/AIDS in Guinea}} Paumaliro wa 2004, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 170,000 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/hiv/HIVCP_GIN.pdf |title=Status of HIV/AIDS in Guinea, 2005 |access-date=30 September 2007 |year=2005 |publisher=World Health Organisation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805150456/http://www.who.int/hiv/HIVCP_GIN.pdf |archive-date=5 August 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/GlobalAtlas/predefinedReports/EFS2006/EFS_PDFs/EFS2006_GN.pdf |title=Epidemiological Fact Sheets: HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, December 2006 |access-date=30 September 2007 |date=December 2006 |publisher=World Health Organisation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025053159/http://www.who.int/GlobalAtlas/predefinedReports/EFS2006/EFS_PDFs/EFS2006_GN.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2007 }}</ref>Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2001 na 2002 wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusuzgika na HIV mu misumba kuluska ku mizi. Ku Conakry (5%) na mu misumba ya ku Forest Guinea (7%) iyo yili kufupi na Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, na Sierra Leone ndiko kukaŵa nthenda iyi. Matenda gha HIV ghakuthandazgika comene para munthu wakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyake. Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakuŵa na nthenda ya HIV mwakuyana waka, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 24 ndiwo ŵakusuzgika comene. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito za kugonana (42%), ŵasilikari (6.6%), ŵakwendeska magalimoto na matekisi (7.3%), ŵanthu ŵakugwira ntchito mu migodi (4.7%) na ŵanthu ŵakukhwima awo ŵali na TB (8.6%), viŵelengero ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito za kugonana (42%). Pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikwambiska nthenda ya HIV/AIDS ku Guinea. Vinthu ivi ni kugonana kwambura kuvikilirika, kugonana na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kuleka kuŵazga na kulemba, ukavu ukuru, mphaka zambura kukhazikika, ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo, kusoŵerwa kwa wovwiri wa boma, na kusoŵa kwa wovwiri wa munkhwala na wovwiri wa boma.<ref name=usaid/><ref name="usaid" /><ref name="usaid">{{citation-attribution|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081113214710/http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/Countries/africa/guinea_05.pdf "Health Profile: Guinea"]. [[USAID]] (March 2005).}}</ref> ==== Kuŵa na njara ==== Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2012, wakalongosora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulwara matenda gha matenda agha mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Kafukufuku uyu wakalongora kuti ŵana 139,200 ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa chakurya, 609,696 ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa chakurya, ndipo 1,592,892 ŵakaŵa na nthenda ya kusulura ndopa. Ŵanthu ŵakayowoya kuti vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupwelelera ŵanyawo, ŵaleke kusanga wovwiri wa munkhwala, ŵaleke kuŵa na utozi uwemi, kweniso kuti vyakurya vileke kuŵa vyakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/eb/wfpdoc062106.pdf |title=Enquête nationale nutrition-santé, basée sur la méthodologie SMART, 2011–2012 |access-date=12 May 2014 |year=2012 |publisher=World Food Programme }}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ====Malaria==== Maleriya ghakuthandazgika chaka chose, ndipo ghakuthandazgika chomene kwamba mu Julayi m'paka Okutobala. Ku Guinea ŵanthu ŵakulwaralwara cifukwa ca matenda agha.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/country_profiles/GBD/ihme_gbd_country_report_guinea.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120427/http://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/country_profiles/GBD/ihme_gbd_country_report_guinea.pdf |archive-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pmi.gov/docs/default-source/default-document-library/malaria-operational-plans/fy14/guinea_mop_fy14.pdf?sfvrsn=8 |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120928/http://www.pmi.gov/docs/default-source/default-document-library/malaria-operational-plans/fy14/guinea_mop_fy14.pdf?sfvrsn=8 |archive-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref> ====COVID-19 pandemic==== {{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea}} Munthu wakwamba uyo wakasangana na nthenda ya COVID-19 wakalembeka mu Guinea pa 13 March 2020. Paumaliro wa 2020, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakasangika na nthenda iyi chikaŵa 13,722. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, 13,141 ŵakachira, 500 ŵakaŵa ŵamoyo, ndipo 81 ŵakafwa.<ref>{{cite web|title=COVID-19 and W/Africa: 1,994 new cases, 31 new deaths in 24 hours|url=http://apanews.net/en/news/covid-19-and-wafrica-1994-new-cases-31-new-deaths-in-24-hours|publisher=APA|access-date=2 January 2021|date=31 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="First">{{Cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-guinea/eu-employee-tests-positive-for-coronavirus-in-guineas-first-case-idUSL8N2B46DI |title=EU employee tests positive for coronavirus in Guinea's first case |date=13 March 2020 |work=Reuters}}</ref> ==Mwambo== [[File:Guinea Dinguiraye market.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Malo agho ŵakuguliskako vyakurya mu chigaŵa cha Dinguiraye, ku Guinea]] === Maseŵera === Mu charu cha Guinea, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha bola. Wupu wakuwona vya maseŵero wa Guinea Football Federation ndiwo ukuchita maseŵero agha. Wupu uwu ndiwo ukwendeska timu ya mpira wa ku caru cose, na ligi ya ku caru cose. Likakhazikiskika mu 1960 ndipo likukolerana na FIFA kufuma mu 1962 na Confederation of African Football kufuma mu 1963. Gulu la mpira la ku Guinea, lakucemeka Syli nationale (Ndlovu za ku Guinea), likucitako maseŵero gha mpira wa pa caru cose kwamba mu 1962. Ŵakamba kulimbana na East Germany. Ŵandafikepo pa chigoti cha World Cup, ndipo ŵakathereskeka na Morocco pa Africa Cup of Nations mu 1976.<ref name=Encyclopedia/><ref name="Encyclopedia" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cafonline.com/en-us/memberassociations/f%C3%A9d%C3%A9rationguin%C3%A9ennedefootball/Home |title=Member Associations: Fédération Guinéenne de Football (FGF) |publisher=Confederation of African Football |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702191454/http://www.cafonline.com/en-us/memberassociations/f%C3%A9d%C3%A9rationguin%C3%A9ennedefootball/home |archive-date=2 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/guinea_25923.html |title=At a glance: Guinea - Football boosts girls' education |publisher=UNICEF |access-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224220145/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/guinea_25923.html |archive-date=24 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Guinea, Post Report|year = 1985|url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=-FzsyAEIxi8C&rdid=book--FzsyAEIxi8C&rdot=1|access-date=8 September 2021|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/associations/association=gui/ |title=Associations: Guinea |publisher=FIFA |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010102648/https://www.fifa.com/associations/association=gui/ |archive-date=10 October 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|last2=Jean-Jacques|first2=Daniel|title=Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YjoVCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA593|access-date=5 November 2016|date=14 December 2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598846669|pages=568–569}}</ref> Guinée Championnat National ndi chigawo chapamwamba cha mpira wa ku Guinea. Kufuma waka apo yikambira mu 1965, magulu ghatatu ghakaŵa na chilato cha kutonda mphindano za ku Guinea. Horoya AC wali na vithuzithuzi 16 ndipo ndiyo wakathereska mu 2017. Hafia FC (iyo yikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Conakry II mu ma 1960s) yili na vithuzithuzi vyakujumpha 15. AS Kaloum Star (iyo yikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Conakry I mu ma 1960s) yili na maudindo 13. Magulu ghose ghatatu ghali mu msumba wa Conakry. Hafia FC yikathereska African Cup of Champions Clubs katatu, mu 1972, 1975 na 1977, apo Horoya AC yikathereska African Cup Winners' Cup mu 1978.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kuhn|first=Gabriel|title=Soccer vs. the State: Tackling Football and Radical Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwmsLxiWvnwC&pg=PA33|date=15 March 2011|publisher=PM Press|isbn=9781604865240|page=33}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="RSSSF">{{cite web |url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesg/guineachamp.html |title=Guinea: List of champions |website=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227175550/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesg/guineachamp.html |archive-date=27 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kutora mitala === {{Further|Polygamy in Guinea}} Dango la ku Guinea likukanizga kutora ŵanakazi ŵanandi, kweni pali vinyake ivyo vikukanizgika. Mu 2020, ŵanthu pafupifupi 26% ŵakatoranga ŵanakazi ŵanandi (29% Ŵasilamu na 10% Ŵakhristu).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/12/07/polygamy-is-rare-around-the-world-and-mostly-confined-to-a-few-regions/ | title=Polygamy is rare around the world and mostly confined to a few regions }}</ref><ref>[http://ddata.over-blog.com/xxxyyy/2/86/20/02/CODE-CIVIL.pdf Articles 315-319] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521165450/http://ddata.over-blog.com/xxxyyy/2/86/20/02/CODE-CIVIL.pdf |date=21 May 2013 }}, Civil Code of the Republic of Guinea (Code Civil de la Republique de Guinee)</ref> === Kuphika === {{Further|Cuisine of Guinea}} Vyakurya vya ku Guinea vikupambana kuyana na chigaŵa. Cassava wakumwa. Vyakurya vya ku Guinea ni yétissé, msuzi wa ma nuts, msuzi wa okra na chingwa cha tapalapa. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu ŵakurya mu "mbale yikuru" na kurya na mawoko kuwaro kwa nyumba.<ref name=dc>{{cite web |url=http://wamu.org/programs/metro_connection/12/09/21/eating_in_the_embassy_guinean_embassy_brings_west_african_food_to_washington |title=Eating in the Embassy: Guinean Embassy Brings West African Food To Washington |publisher=WAMU |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201183046/http://wamu.org/programs/metro_connection/12/09/21/eating_in_the_embassy_guinean_embassy_brings_west_african_food_to_washington |archive-date=1 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="friends">{{cite web |url=http://friendsofguinea.org/about-guinea/recipes |title=Recipes & Cookbooks |publisher=Friends of Guinea |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203132146/http://friendsofguinea.org/about-guinea/recipes |archive-date=3 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Sumo === === Vyakuona === ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Guinea|Africa}} * [[Outline of Guinea]] * [[Index of Guinea-related articles]] {{clear}} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ===Vyakulemba=== {{notelist}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Guinea}} * {{Official website|http://www.presidence.gov.gn/}} {{in lang|fr}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210910203013/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/ Guinea]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081215085918/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/guinea.htm Guinea] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/Guinea}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13442051 Guinea profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Guinea}} * {{osmrelation-inline|192778}} * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/GIN/Year/2008/Summary Guinea 2008 Summary Trade Statistics] {{Guinea topics}} {{Navboxes | list = {{African Union}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{La Francophonie}} {{Organisation of the Islamic Conference}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|11|N|10|W|display=title}} [[Category:Guinea| ]] [[Category:1958 establishments in Guinea]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1958]] [[Category:West African countries]] j5lsfndwc3vvysfl24gsag2umqqe1xf 0 6981 122338 118617 2026-09-25T00:08:33Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 4 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122338 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in North-Central Africa}} {{about|the country|the given name|Chad (name)|other uses}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Chad | common_name = Chad | native_name = {{unbulleted list|{{native name|ar|جمهورية تشاد|italics=off|rtl=yes}}|{{native name|fr|République du Tchad}}}} | image_flag = Flag of Chad.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Chad.svg | symbol_type = Coat of arms | national_motto = {{vunblist |{{native phrase|fr|"Unité, Travail, Progrès"|italics=off}} |{{native phrase|ar|الاتحاد، العمل، التقدم|italics=off}}|"Unity, Work, Progress"}} | national_anthem = {{vunblist |{{native phrase|fr|"[[La Tchadienne]]"|nolink=yes|italics=off}} |{{native phrase|ar|نشيد تشاد الوطني|nolink=yes|italics=off}}|"The Song of Chad"}}<div style="padding-top:0.5em;" class="center">[[File:La Tchadienne (instrumental).ogg]]</div> | image_map = Chad (orthographic projection).svg | capital = [[N'Djamena]] | coordinates = {{coord|12|06|N|16|02|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = {{hlist|[[Arabic language|Arabic]]|[[French language|French]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist | 26.6% [[Sara people|Sara]] | 12.9% [[Baggara Arabs|Arab]] | 8.5% [[Kanembu people|Kanembu]] | 7.2% [[Masalit people|Masalit]] | 6.9% [[Toubou people|Toubou]] | 4.8% [[Masa people|Masa]] | 3.7% [[Bidiyo language|Bidiyo]] | 3.7% [[Bilala people|Bulala]] | 3.0% [[Maba people|Maba]] | 2.6% [[Daju people|Daju]] | 2.5% [[Mundang language|Mundang]] | 2.4% [[Southern Gabri language|Gabri]] | 2.4% [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]] | 2.1% [[Fula people|Fula]] | 2.0% [[Tupuri people|Tupuri]] | 1.6% [[Tama people|Tama]] | 1.4% [[Karo people (East Africa)|Karo]] | 1.3% [[Bagirmi language|Bagirmi]] | 1.0% [[Masmaje language|Masmaje]] | 2.6% [[Ethnic groups in Chad|Other Chadian]] | 0.7% Foreign }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2009 Census<ref name="recensement2009">{{cite web|url=http://www.inseed-td.net/index.php/blog-with-right-sidebar/document/send/7-documents-et-publications-demographique/20-indicateurs-globaux-issus-du-rgph2-97-dg-94-couleur-28mp-22|title=Analyse Thematique des Resultats Definitifs Etat et Structures de la Population|publisher=Institut National de la Statistique, des Études Économiques et Démographiques du Tchad|access-date=3 May 2020|archive-date=28 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228022216/http://www.inseed-td.net/index.php/blog-with-right-sidebar/document/send/7-documents-et-publications-demographique/20-indicateurs-globaux-issus-du-rgph2-97-dg-94-couleur-28mp-22|url-status=dead}}</ref> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; | 55.1% [[Islam in Chad|Islam]] | 41.1% [[Christianity in Chad|Christianity]] | 2.4% [[Irreligion|No religion]] | 1.3% [[African Traditional Religion|Animism]] | 0.1% Others }} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref name=":religions2020" /> | demonym = Chadian | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[republic]] under a [[hereditary dictatorship|hereditary]] [[military dictatorship]]<ref name="Reuters transition">{{cite news |last1=Ramadane |first1=Mahamat |title=Junta set to stay in power after Chad delays elections by two years |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/junta-set-stay-power-after-chad-delays-elections-by-two-years-2022-10-02/ |access-date=20 October 2022 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=2 October 2022 |location=[[N'Djamena]]}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[List of heads of state of Chad|Transitional&nbsp;President]] | leader_name1 = [[Mahamat Déby]] | leader_title2 = [[List of prime ministers of Chad|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Saleh Kebzabo]] | leader_title3 = [[Vice President of Chad|Vice President]] | leader_name3 = [[Djimadoum Tiraina]] | legislature = [[National Transitional Council (Chad)|National Transitional Council]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Chad's military ruler Mahamat Deby names transitional parliament |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/24/chads-military-ruler-mahamat-deby-names-transitional-parliament |access-date=19 March 2023 |work=[[Al Jazeera]] |date=24 September 2021}}</ref> | sovereignty_type = [[History of Chad|Independence]] from [[France]] | established_event1 = [[French Chad|Colony]] established | established_date1 = 5 September 1900 | established_event2 = Autonomy granted | established_date2 = 28 November 1958 | established_event3 = Sovereign state | established_date3 = 11 August 1960 | area_km2 = 1284000 | area_footnote = <ref name=area>{{cite web |url=http://www.inseedtchad.com/?Le-TCHAD-en-bref |title=Le TCHAD en bref |language=fr |date=22 July 2013 |publisher=INSEED |access-date=18 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222081746/http://www.inseedtchad.com/?Le-TCHAD-en-bref |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | area_rank = 20th | area_sq_mi = | percent_water = 1.9 | population_estimate = 18,523,165<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Chad|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 66th | population_density_km2 = 8.6 | population_density_rank = | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $32.062 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=628,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= March 21, 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 147th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,789<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 179th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $13.523 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 145th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $755<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 183rd | Gini = 37.5 | Gini_year = 2018 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=TD|title=Gini Index|publisher=World Bank|access-date=15 July 2022}}</ref> | HDI = 0.394 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 190th | currency = [[Central African CFA franc]] | currency_code = XAF | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+235]] | cctld = [[.td]] | today = }} '''Chad''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Chad.ogg|tʃ|æ|d}}),{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{lang-ar|تشاد|Tšād}}, {{IPA-ar|tʃaːd}}|{{lang-fr|Tchad}}, {{IPA-fr|tʃa(d)|pron}}}}}} mwalamulo '''Charu cha Chad''',{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{lang-ar|جمهورية{{nbsp}}تْشَاد|Jumhūriyyat Tšād}}|{{Lang-fr|République du Tchad}}}}}} ni charu icho chili pa mphambano ya kumpoto na pakati pa [[Africa]]. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na vyaru nga ni [[Libya]] kumpoto, [[Sudan]] kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Central African Republic]] kumwera, [[Cameroon]] kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Nigeria]] kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, na [[Niger]] kumanjiliro gha dazi. Chadi chili na ŵanthu 16 miliyoni, ndipo 1.6 miliyoni ŵakukhala mu msumba ukuru wa [[N'Djamena]]. Chadi wali na vigaŵa vinandi: kumpoto kuli mapopa, pakati pa chigaŵa ichi pali Sahelian belt, ndipo kumwera kuli savana ya ku Sudan. Nyanja ya Chad, iyo ni zina la caru ici, ndiyo ni malo ghaciŵiri ghakuru comene mu Africa. Viyowoyero vya boma mu Chad ni Chiarabic na Chifurenchi. Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu ŵa mafuko na viyowoyero vyakujumpha 200. Chisopa cha Chisilamu (55.1%) na Chikhristu (41.1%) ndicho ntchikuru chomene mu Chad.<ref name=":religions2020">{{cite web |title=Religions in Chad &#124; PEW-GRF |url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/chad#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR90/FR90.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR90/FR90.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Enquête Démographique et de Santé 1996–1997}}</ref> Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamira mu Chadi. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., maufumu ghanandi ghakawuka na kuwa mu chigaŵa cha Sahel ku Chad. Mu 1920, caru ca France cikathereska caru ici na kuciŵika mu cigaŵa ca French Equatorial Africa. Mu 1960, charu cha Chad chikamba kujiwusa chekha mwakulongozgeka na François Tombalbaye. Ŵanthu ŵakakwiya comene na ivyo wakacita ku mpoto kwa caru ca Muslim, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ya cikaya mu 1965. Mu 1979, ŵakugaluka ŵakathereska msumba uwu na kumazga muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵa ku South. Ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu la ŵakugaluka ŵakarwanga lumoza m'paka Hissène Habré wakatonda ŵalwani ŵake. Nkhondo ya Chadian-Libya yikamba mu 1978 cifukwa ca nkhondo ya ku Libya iyo yikamara mu 1987 na nkhondo ya ku France (Operation Épervier). Mu 1990, Hissène Habré wakathereskeka na mulara wake Idriss Déby. Na wovwiri wa ku France, mu 1991 gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Chad likamba kunozgekaso. Kwambira mu 2003, suzgo la ku Darfur mu Sudan likasazgikira pa mphaka ndipo likapangiska kuti caru cileke kukhazikika. Charu ichi chikaŵa kale mukavu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵake ŵakasuzgikanga kuti ŵakwaniske kupokelera ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku Sudan awo ŵakukhala mu misasa ya ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Chad. Nangauli magulu ghanandi gha ndyali ghakakolerana na wupu wakulongozga mu Chad, wupu wa National Assembly, kweni mazaza ghakaŵa mu mawoko gha Patriotic Salvation Movement mu nyengo ya Idriss Déby, uyo boma lake likalongosoreka kuti ndakuzomerezgeka.<ref>{{cite web|date=8 April 2016|title=Chad's authoritarian Deby unwilling to quit|url=https://www.dw.com/en/chads-authoritarian-deby-unwilling-to-quit/a-19173621|access-date=4 August 2020|website=Deutsche Welle|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Haynes |first=Suyin|date=28 March 2019|title=This African Country Has Had a Yearlong Ban on Social Media. Here's What's Behind the Blackout|url=https://time.com/5559491/chad-social-media-internet-ban-censorship/|access-date=4 August 2020|magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Werman|first=Marco|date=5 June 2012|title=ExxonMobil and Chad's Authoritarian Regime: An 'Unholy Bargain'|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2012-06-05/exxonmobil-and-chads-authoritarian-regime-unholy-bargain|access-date=4 August 2020|website=The World|publisher=Public Radio International}}</ref> Panyuma pakuti President Déby wakomeka na ŵakugaluka ŵa FACT mu April 2021, wupu wa Transitional Military Council uwo ukalongozgeka na mwana wake Mahamat Déby ukamba kuwusa boma na kuswa wupu wa Assembly.<ref name=":2" /> Chadi wakulutilira kusuzgika na vivulupi vya ndyali ndiposo kuyezga kupoka boma. Chadi yili pa malo gha chiŵiri pa malo ghachoko chomene pa ndondomeko ya chitukuko cha ŵanthu, na 0.394 mu 2021 ndipo yili pa malo gha 190. Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu tawuni iyi mbakavu ndipo ŵalimi. Kwambira mu 2003, mafuta ghakununkhira ndigho ghakovwira chomene pa malonda gha vyakurya. Chadi yili na mbiri yiheni pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika, nga nkhujalirika mu jele mwakuyana na khumbo lawo, kukoma ŵanthu kwambura mulandu, na kukanizga wanangwa wa ŵanthu. == Mbili == {{main|History of Chad}} === Mbili yakwambilila === Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ghakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu cha Chad, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga chomene. Vinyake mwa malo ghakuzirwa comene gha ku Africa agho ŵanthu ŵakusanda vinthu vyakale ŵakughasanga ku Chad, comenecomene mu cigaŵa ca Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 44–45</ref><ref name="Collelo">S. Collelo, ''Chad''</ref> [[File:Group of Kanem-Bu warriors.jpg|thumb|Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Kanem-Bu. Ufumu wa Kanem-Bornu ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa caru cose ico lero ni Chad.|left]] Kwa vilimika vyakujumpha 2,000, ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakutemwa kulima. Malo agha ghakazgoka malo ghakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako ni awo ŵakamanyikwanga na vimanyikwiro vya ku Sao. Ufumu wa Sao ukathereskeka na Ufumu wa Kanem, uwo ukaŵa wakwamba na wakukhalilira nyengo yitali chomene pa maufumu agho ghakaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Sahel ku Chad kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 1500 C.E., mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa maufumu ghanyake ghaŵiri, la Bagirmi na Wadai. Kanem na awo ŵakamulondezganga ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nthowa za malonda izo zikendanga kujumpha mu Sahara. Vyaru ivi, ivyo vikaŵa vya Cisilamu, vikatemwanga yayi kumwera kwa caru ici. Ku Kanem, pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ŵanthu ŵakaŵa ŵazga.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=29 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref><ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], p. 6</ref><ref name="Lange88">D. Lange 1988</ref> === French colonial period (1900–1960) === Mu 1900, boma la France likapangiska kuti charu cha Chad chiŵe na ŵasilikari. Kuzakafika mu 1920, caru ca France cikaŵa kuti capokera mazaza ghose gha caru ici ndipo cikaŵa cigaŵa ca French Equatorial Africa. Boma la France likaŵa na fundo zakovwira kuti charu ichi chiŵe na umoza yayi kweniso likasintha viŵi yayi pakuyaniska na maboma ghanyake gha France.<ref name="Decalo, pp. 8–9">[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 8–9</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku France ŵakawonanga kuti malo agha ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵambura kusambira ntchito na makuni gha makuni gha makuni. Boma la ku Chad likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵachoko comene ndipo likathembanga waka ŵantchito ŵa boma la France. Malo gha Sara agho ghakaŵa kumwera pera ndigho ghakalongozgekanga makora. Ndondomeko ya masambiro yikakhwaskika cifukwa ca kuleka kupulikira.<ref name="Collelo"/><ref name="Decalo, pp. 8–9"/> [[File:Chadian soldier of WWII.jpg|thumb|left|Msilikari wa ku Chad uyo wakarwa nkhondo ya Free France pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose. Gulu la Free French Forces likaŵa na ŵasilikari 15,000 ŵakufuma ku Chad.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], p. 53</ref>]] Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, caru ca France cikapeleka wanangwa ku ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici wa kusankha ŵimiliri mu Nyumba ya Malango ya caru ici. Chipani chikuru chomene cha ndyali chikaŵa cha Chadian Progressive Party (French), icho chikaŵa kumwera kwa charu ichi. Tchad yikapokera wanangwa wake pa 11 Ogasiti 1960 ndipo mulongozgi wa PPT, François Tombalbaye, wa fuko la Sara, ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba.<ref name="Collelo"/><ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 248–249</ref><ref>[[#Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu]], p. 17</ref> === Ulamulilo wa Tombalbaye (1960-1979) === Pakati pajumpha vyaka viŵiri, Tombalbaye wakazomerezga yayi vyaru vinyake kuti viŵe na chipani chimoza. Muwuso wa Tombalbaye uwo ukaŵa wankhongono comene na kuwusa uheni, vikapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa mafuko. Mu 1965, Ŵasilamu ŵa kumpoto, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na gulu la National Liberation Front of Chad (French: Front de libération nationale du Tchad, FRONILAT), ŵakamba nkhondo ya pawenenawene. Mu 1975, Tombalbaye wakathereskeka, kweni ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kuwukira boma. Mu 1979, gulu la ŵakugaluka ilo likalongozgekanga na Hissène Habré likapoka msumba wa msumba uwu, ndipo boma lose likamara. Magulu gha nkhondo, ghanandi mwa agha ghakafuma ku kumpoto, ghakakwesananga mazaza.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 12–16</ref><ref>[[#Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu]], p. 268</ref> === Nkhondo yakwamba ya ku Chad (1979-1987) === Kupatukana kwa Chad kukapangiska kuti caru ca France cileke kuŵa na nkhongono. Libiya likagwiranga nchito iyi na kunjilirapo pa nkhondo ya mukati mu caru ca Chad. Nkhondo ya ku Libya yikamalira pa ngozi mu 1987; pulezidenti uyo wakakhozgeka na France, Hissène Habré, wakawovwira ŵanthu ŵa mu Chadi kuti ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana, ndipo wakachimbizga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya mu Chadi.<ref>[[Kenneth Pollack|Pollack, Kenneth M.]] (2002); ''[[iarchive:arabsatwarmilita0000poll/page/391/mode/2up|Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991]]''. Lincoln: [[University of Nebraska Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8032-3733-2}}, pp. 391–397</ref> === Dictatorship of Habré (1987–1990) === Habré wakalutilira kulamulira mwauryarya ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka. Pulezidenti wakatemwanga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Toubou ndipo wakasankhanga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Zaghawa. Mulara wake wa ŵasilikari, Idriss Déby, wakamuwuskapo mu 1990. Mu 2005, ŵakamujalira mu nyumba yake ku Senegal cifukwa ca kuyezga kumususka. Mu Meyi 2016, wakasangika na mulandu wa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kukaka ŵanthu, kugwiliska nchito za uzga, na kukanizga kukoma ŵanthu 40,000, ndipo wakalangika kukhala mu jele umoyo wake wose.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36411466| title= Hissène Habré: Chad's ex-ruler convicted of crimes against humanity| year = 2016| publisher = BBC}}</ref> === Déby lineage & democracy with second Civil War (1990–present) === [[File:Idriss Déby at the White House in 2014.jpg|thumb|upright|Nangauli pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakususka boma, ŵakayezga kutimbanizga boma, kweniso nkhondo ya pawenenawene, kweni Idriss Déby wakalutilira kuwusa Chad kwambira mu 1990 m'paka apo wakafwira mu 2021.]] Déby wakayezga kuwezgerapo mtende pakati pa magulu gha ŵakugaluka na kuwezgeraso vyaru vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Chad ŵakazomerezga dango liphya la boma, ndipo mu 1996, Déby wakathereska mwambura kusuzgika. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi, wakimikikaso. Mu 2003, ku Chad kukamba kunozga mafuta, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga kuti charu ichi chiŵenge na mtende na usambazi. M'malo mwake, mphindano zikakura, ndipo nkhondo yiphya yikamba. Déby wakasintha malango gha boma kuti waleke kuŵa pulezidenti kwa nyengo ziŵiri.<ref>IPS, "{{lang|fr|Le pétrole au cœur des nouveaux soubresauts au Tchad}}"</ref> Mu 2006, Déby wakathereskeka kacitatu pa mavoti agho ŵakususka boma ŵakacita yayi. Nkhaza za mafuko mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Chadi zazara comene; wupu wa United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) wacenjezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵangakomeka nga umo vikaŵira ku Darfur. Mu 2006 na mu 2008, ŵasilikari ŵakayezga kutora msumba uwu na nkhongono, kweni ŵakatondeka. Pa Janyuwale 15, 2010, charu cha Chad na Sudan vikakolerana kuti viŵeso pa mtende. Ŵalwani ŵa Chadi ŵakawelera ku caru cawo kufuma ku Sudan, ŵakajura mphaka pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi pamanyuma pa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri, na kutumizga ŵasilikari kuti ŵavikilire mphaka. Mu Meyi 2013, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Chad ŵakatondeska boma kuwukira pulezidenti Idriss Déby. Pasono Chadi njimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikukolerana na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa pa nkhondo yakulimbana na gulu la Boko Haram na ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵa chisopa cha Islam. Boma la Chad likapharazga kuti Déby wafwa pa 20 Epulero, 2021, pamanyuma pakuti gulu la FACT lawira mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto, apo pulezidenti wakakomeka apo ŵakalutanga ku nkhondo. Mwana wa Déby, Jenerale Mahamat Idriss Déby, wasankhika kuŵa purezidenti wakudumura na wupu wa ŵasilikari. Wupu uwu watora malo gha dango liphya na kupeleka mazaza kwa Mahamat Déby na kumwimika kuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari.<ref name=":2">{{cite news |last=Ramadane|first=Madjiasra Nako, Mahamat|date=21 April 2021|title=Chad in turmoil after Deby death as rebels, opposition challenge military|publisher=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chad-deby-idUSKBN2C818G|access-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{main|Geography of Chad}} [[File:Chad sat.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Chad is divided into three distinct zones, the [[Sudanian Savanna]] in the south, the [[Sahara Desert]] in the north, and the [[Sahelian]] belt in the center.]] Chadi ni charu chikuru icho chili kumpoto kwa Africa. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 1,284,000 square kilometres (496,000 sq mi), ndipo chili pakati pa latitude 7° na 24° N, na 13° na 24° E, ndipo ni charu cha nambara 20 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa charu chose. Chadi ni chigaŵa chichoko waka pakuyaniska na charu cha Peru, ndipo chikuru chomene pakuyaniska na charu cha South Africa. Chadi chili na mphaka na Libya kumpoto, Sudan kumafumiro gha dazi, Niger, Nigeria na Cameroon kumanjiliro gha dazi, na Central African Republic kumwera. Msumba ukuru wa charu ichi uli pa mtunda wa makilomita 1,060 (660 mi) kufuma ku dowoko la pafupi chomene la Douala, Cameroon. Cifukwa cakuti caru ici cili kutali comene na nyanja ndiposo cifukwa ca mphepo ya mu mapopa, nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakucichema kuti "Mtima Wakufwa wa ku Africa". Chigaŵa ichi chili na chigaŵa chikuru icho chili kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Ennedi Plateau na Tibesti Mountains, ndipo chili na phiri la Emi Koussi, ilo lili na mamita 3,414 (mamita 11,201) pachanya pa nyanja. Nyanja ya Chad, yeneiyo yikupangiska kuti charu ichi chichemeke (ndipo yeneiyo yikutora zina lake kufuma ku lizgu la Kanuri ilo likung'anamura "nyanja"), ni vyakukhalira vya nyanja yikuru iyo yikaŵa na malo ghakukwana 330,000 square kilometres (130,000 sq mi) mu Chad Basin vyaka 7,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Nangauli mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chiziŵa ichi chili na malo ghakukwana ma kilomita 17,806 pera, ndipo malo ghake ghakusintha nyengo na nyengo.<ref name=":1">Dinar, Ariel (1995); ''Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs''. World Bank Publications. {{ISBN|0-8213-3321-6}}, p. 57</ref> Mu charu cha Chad muli malo 6 ghakukhala vyamoyo: East Sudan savanna, Sahelian Acacia savanna, Lake Chad flooded savanna, East Sahara montane xeric forests, South Sahara steppe and forests, na Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric forests. Pakuti mu chigaŵa ichi muli vyakumera vinandi, ntchakwenelera kuti viyuni, vinyama vyakukhwaŵa, na vinyama vikuruvikuru vyambukengepo. Mlonga ukuru wa Chadi, wa Chari, wa Logone na milonga yawo yinyake, ukufuma kumwera kwa charu ichi kuya ku nyanja ya Chad.<ref name=":1" /> Caka cilicose, nyengo yakuzizima iyo yikumanyikwa kuti intertropical front, yikwendendeka kufuma kumwera kuya kumpoto mu caru ca Chad. Para vula yikulokwa pa malo ghakupambanapambana, pakupangika vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vitatu. Charu ichi chili kumpoto kwa Sahara. Mvula iyo yikulokwa chaka chilichose mu chigaŵa ichi njakukwana 50 millimeters (2.0 inches).<ref name=":1" /> Charu cha Sahara chili pakati pa charu cha Chad, ndipo pa charu ichi pali chivula cha mamita 300 m'paka 600. Ku Sahel, makuni gha minga (makuni ghanandi gha akasiya) ghakwenda pachokopachoko kulazga kumwera na kufika ku chigaŵa cha Sudan. Mvula iyo yikulokwa pa chaka mu chigaŵa ichi njakukwana 900 mm.<ref name="UNHCHR">"[http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/48f4be12f6c55e5a802565cd005d4e0e?Opendocument Chad]". Human Rights Instruments. [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]]. 12 December 1997.</ref> === Wildlife === {{Main|Wildlife of Chad}} [[File:African Bush Elephant Mikumi.jpg|thumb|An [[African bush elephant]]]] Vinyama na vyakumera vya mu caru ici vikukolerana na malo ghatatu agha. Mu chigaŵa cha Sahara, vyakumera ivyo vikusangika mu malo agha ni makuni gha mikama. Makuni gha mikama na gha akasiya ghakumera mu chigaŵa cha Sahel. Malo gha kumwera, panji gha ku Sudan, ghali na utheka ukuru panji malo ghakuliskako viŵeto. Kuzakafika mu 2002, mu caru ici mukaŵa vyamoyo pafupifupi 134, viyuni 509 (vyamoyo 354 ivyo vikukhala mu malo agha, na 155 ivyo vikusama), na vyakumera vyakujumpha 1,600. Ku malo agha kuli njovu, nkhalamu, mbaŵala za mu nkhorongo, zombe, mphoyo, mphumphi, nyalubwe, mphoyo, na njoka zinandi. Kuzingira njovu, comenecomene kumwera kwa caru ici mu malo nga ni Zakouma National Park, ni suzgo likuru comene. Gulu lichoko waka la ng'ona za ku West Africa izo zilipo mu Ennedi Plateau, ni zamoyo zaumaliro ku Sahara.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brito|first1=José C.|last2=Martínez-Freiría|first2=Fernando|last3=Sierra|first3=Pablo|last4=Sillero|first4=Neftalí|last5=Tarroso|first5=Pedro|last6=Fenton|first6=Brock|title=Crocodiles in the Sahara Desert: An Update of Distribution, Habitats and Population Status for Conservation Planning in Mauritania|journal=[[PLOS ONE]]|date=25 February 2011|volume=6|issue=2|pages=e14734|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0014734|pmc=3045445|pmid=21364897|bibcode=2011PLoSO...614734B|doi-access=free}}</ref> Chadi wakaŵa na chiŵelengero cha 6.18/10 pa 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index, ndipo wakaŵa wa nambara 83 pa vyaru 172. Pakuti makuni ghanandi ghakumara, makuni gha acacia, baobab, na makuni gha mikama ghakumara. Ici cikupangiska kuti nyama za mu thengere zileke kukhala mu malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Viŵeto nga ni nkhalamu, nyalubwe, na mphumphi vyachepa comene. Wupu wakuwona vya vyakurya na vyakurya (Food and Agriculture Organization) wacitapo kanthu kuti uwovwire comene ŵalimi, ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto, na ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto mu malo gha Zakouma National Park (ZNP), Siniaka-Minia, na Aouk mu chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Chad kuti vinthu vyende makora. Nga ni cigaŵa ca mulimo wa kuvikilira caru, makuni ghakujumpha 1.2 miliyoni ghaŵikikaso kuti mapopa ghaleke kukura, ndipo ici cikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici ŵasange ndalama kufuma ku makuni gha acacia, agho ghakupanga chigumula, kweniso makuni gha vipambi. Kucicizga njoka ni suzgo likuru comene mu caru ici, comenecomene njovu izo zikuguliskika cifukwa ca malonda gha maryero gha maryero. Kanandi njovu zikukomeka mu viŵeto mukati na kufupi na malo agha. Suzgo ili likusazgikira cifukwa cakuti mu mapaki agha mulije ŵantchito ŵanandi kweniso ŵalinda ŵanandi ŵakomeka na ŵalwani.<ref name="NYT">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/01/world/africa/central-africas-wildlife-rangers-face-deadly-risks.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1382003098-yauBx4MSdHcb4DxeUgSrUw|title=Rangers in Isolated Central Africa Uncover Grim Cost of Protecting Wildlife|newspaper=The New York Times|date=31 December 2012|access-date=17 October 2013}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{main|Demographics of Chad}} [[File:Well of the Young Girls in the Ennedi Mountains - northeastern Chad 2015.jpg|thumb|[[Toubou people|Toubou]] nomads in the [[Ennedi Plateau|Ennedi Mountains]] ]] Wupu wakuwona vya ndyali ku Chad ukati mu 2015, ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakaŵa pakati pa 13,630,252 na 13,679,203, ndipo ŵanthu 13,670,084 ndiwo ŵakawonekanga kuti ŵalipo. Ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici mbawukirano comene: 47% ŵali na vyaka vya pasi pa 15. Ŵanthu ŵakubaba ŵana 42.35 pa ŵanthu 1,000, ndipo ŵakufwa 16.69. Ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 52. Ŵanthu ŵa mu charu cha Chad ŵali palipose yayi. Chiŵelengero chake chili 0.1/km2 (0.26/sq mi) mu chigaŵa cha Sahara cha Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti kweni 52.4/km2 (136/sq mi) mu chigaŵa cha Logone Occidental. Mu msumba uwu, ciŵelengero ici nchakukwera comene. Ŵanthu pafupifupi hafu ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi. Mu msumba uwu ndimo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakuchita malonda. Matawuni ghanyake ghakuru ni Sarh, Moundou, Abéché na Doba, agho ngakutowa comene kweni ŵanthu ŵakukura mwaluŵiro ndiposo vinthu vikwenda makora. Kwambira mu 2003, ŵanthu 230,000 ŵakufuma ku Sudan ŵachimbira ku Darfur, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Chad. Ŵanthu 172,600 ŵa ku Chad ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vyawo cifukwa ca nkhondo ya pa cikaya iyo yikacitika kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/funding/decisions/2008/chad_gp_01000_en.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/funding/decisions/2008/chad_gp_01000_en.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | title=COMMISSION DECISION of on the financing of a Global Plan for humanitarian operations from the budget of the European Union in CHAD | publisher=European Commission | year=2008}}</ref><ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20070714031528/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/fullMaps_Af.nsf/luFullMap/387875A9DF1816A78525725F005D5397/$File/chad_final.pdf?OpenElement Chad: Humanitarian Profile – 2006/2007]" (PDF). 8 January 2007. [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]].</ref> Ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakutora mitala. Dango likuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵatorenge ŵanakazi ŵanandi, pekha para ŵakutorana ŵayowoyapo kuti ŵaleke kutora. Nangauli nkhaza za ŵanakazi ni zakukanizgika, kweni ni viŵi yayi kuti ŵanakazi ŵachitirike nkhaza pa nyumba. Kucicizga ŵanakazi nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi, kweni nkharo iyi njakuzara comene ndipo njakukhora comene mu mitheto; ŵanakazi 45 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵa mu Chad ŵakucicizgika, ndipo ŵanakazi ŵanandi comene ŵali mu mtundu wa Ciarabu, Hadjarai, na Ouaddai (90% panji kujumpha apa). Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sara (38%) na Toubou (2%) ŵakaŵa na vigaŵa vichoko chomene. Ŵanakazi ŵalije mwaŵi wakuyana pa nkhani ya masambiro na masambiro, lekani vikuŵasuzga kuphalizgana na ŵanyawo pa milimo yinandi iyo yikuchitika mu vipatala. Nangauli malango ghakukhwaskana na katundu na kuhara agho ghakukolerana na malango gha ku France ghakususkana yayi na ŵanakazi, kweni ŵalongozgi ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakutemwera ŵanalume.<ref name="HRP">"[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78726.htm Chad]". [[United States' Country Reports on Human Rights Practices|Country Reports on Human Rights Practices]] 2006, 6 March 2007. [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]], U.S. Department of State.</ref> ===Largest cities, towns, and municipalities=== {| class="wikitable" |+ Cities of Chad ! rowspan="2"|Rank || rowspan="2"| City || colspan="2"| Population || rowspan="2"| Region |- ! 1993 Census<ref name="auto">{{cite web |url=http://www.inseed-td.net/index.php/blog-with-right-sidebar/document/send/7-documents-et-publications-demographique/20-indicateurs-globaux-issus-du-rgph2-97-dg-94-couleur-28mp-22 |title=INSEED-TCHAD – Document |publisher=Inseed-td.net |date=24 April 2018 |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-date=28 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228022216/http://www.inseed-td.net/index.php/blog-with-right-sidebar/document/send/7-documents-et-publications-demographique/20-indicateurs-globaux-issus-du-rgph2-97-dg-94-couleur-28mp-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 2009 Census<ref name="auto"/> |- |align=right | 1. || [[N'Djaména]] || align=right | 530,965 || align=right | 951,418 || [[N'Djaména]] |- |align=right | 2. || [[Moundou]] || align=right | 99,530 || align=right | 137,251 || [[Logone Occidental (region)|Logone Occidental]] |- |align=right | 3. || [[Abéché]] || align=right | 54,628 || align=right | 97,963 || [[Ouaddaï Region|Ouaddaï]] |- |align=right | 4. || [[Sarh]] || align=right | 75,496 || align=right | 97,224 || [[Moyen-Chari Region|Moyen-Chari]] |- |align=right | 5. || [[Kélo]] || align=right | 31,319 || align=right | 57,859 || [[Tandjilé Region|Tandjilé]] |- |align=right | 6. || [[Am Timan]] || align=right | 21,269 || align=right | 52,270 || [[Salamat Region|Salamat]] |- |align=right | 7. || [[Doba, Chad|Doba]] || align=right | 17,920 || align=right | 49,647 || [[Logone Oriental Region|Logone Oriental]] |- |align=right | 8. || [[Pala, Chad|Pala]] || align=right | 26,116 || align=right | 49,461 || [[Mayo-Kebbi Ouest]] |- |align=right | 9. || [[Bongor]] || align=right | 20,448 || align=right | 44,578 || [[Mayo-Kebbi Est]] |- |align=right | 10. || [[Goz Beïda]] || align=right | 3,083 || align=right | 41,248 || [[Sila Region|Sila]] |} === Ethnic groups=== {{main|Ethnic groups in Chad}} [[File:Danse fille mboum Tchad.jpg|thumb|Mboum girls dancing in Chad]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Chad ŵali kufuma ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi, vyapakati, kumanjiliro gha dazi, na kumpoto kwa Africa. Mu charu cha Chad muli mafuko ghakujumpha 200, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakupambana mitundu. Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma na maboma ghakupambanapambana ŵakayezga kukanizga ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe mu charu chawo, kweni ku ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Chadi, ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa chawo ndiwo ŵakuŵa na mazaza chomene. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵa ku Chad ŵangapika vigaŵa kuyana na malo agho ŵakukhala.<ref name="Collelo"/><ref name="EB">"Chad". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. (2000)</ref> Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera, kuli ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mwakufwasa nga ni Sara, mtundu ukuru wa ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu mbumba zawo. Mu vyaru vya Sahel, ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mwakufwasa ŵakukhala lumoza na ŵanthu awo ŵakwenda mwakufwasa, nga Mbaarabu. Kumpoto kuli ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda, comenecomene ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Toubous.<ref name="Collelo"/><ref name="EB"/> === Languages === {{main|Languages of Chad}} Viyowoyero vya boma mu Chad ni Ciarabu na Cifurenci, kweni ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakujumpha 100. Cifukwa ca mulimo wakuzirwa wa ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia awo ŵakendanga mu vyaru vinyake, Ciarabu ca ku Chad cazgoka ciyowoyero ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya.<ref name="Collelo"/> === Religion === {{main|Religion in Chad}} Chadi ni charu icho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa visopa vyakupambanapambana. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti ŵanthu 52% ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu, 39% ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu, 22% ŵakaŵa Ŵakatolika, ndipo 17% ŵakaŵa Ŵaprotesitanti. Kuyana na kafukufuku wa Pew Research wa mu 2012, 48% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Chad awo Mbasilamu, ŵakatenge Mbakhristu ŵa chisopa cha Sunni, 21% Ŵachihiya, 4% Ŵaahmadi, ndipo 23% Mbasilamu. Chisilamu chikulongosoreka mu nthowa zakupambanapambana; nga ni umo tawonera, ŵanthu 55% ŵa Chadi ŵali mu chisopa cha Sufi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuyowoya vya chisopa cha Tijaniyah. Mu 2020, ARDA yikati ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa Chadi ŵakaŵa Ŵasuni. Ŵasilamu ŵachoko waka (5~10%) mu charu ichi ŵakuchita vinthu vyautesi, ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵakukolerana na gulu la Salafi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi Mbakatolika. Ŵaprotesitanti ŵanandi, kusazgapo "Winners' Chapel" ya ku Nigeria, ŵali mu magulu ghakupambanapambana gha Cikhristu. Ŵanthu ŵa cisopa ca Bahá'í na Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova nawo ŵali mu caru ici. Visopa vyose viŵiri ivi vikamba mu 1960 apo charu chikapokera wanangwa. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo. Chisopa cha Animisimu chili na visopa vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikuyowoya vya ŵasekuru na malo. Chikhristu chikafika ku Chad pamoza na ŵamishonale ŵa ku France na America; nga umo vikaŵira na Chisilamu cha ku Chad, chikukolerana na visambizgo vya chisopa ivyo vikaŵako pambere Chikhristu chindafike.<ref name="Collelo" />{{bar box |title=[[Religion in Chad]] ([[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]])<ref name=cia/><ref name=pew>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131216202531/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/chad/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Chad]. [[Pew Research Center]]. 2010.</ref> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=religion |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam in Chad|Islam]]|green|57}} {{bar percent|[[Christianity in Chad|Christianity]]|blue|39}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion|None]]|black|2}} {{bar percent|[[African traditional religion|Folk]]|red|1}} {{bar percent|[[Freedom of religion in Chad|Other]]|gray|1}} }} Ŵasilamu ŵakukhala comene kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Chad, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga kuti kuli vyamoyo na Ŵakhristu ŵakukhala comene kumwera kwa Chad na Guéra. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu cha Chad, kweni Ŵakhristu ŵachoko chomene kumpoto. Ndondomeko iyi yikupanga boma la ŵanthu yayi ndipo likupeleka wanangwa wa kusopa. Mu caru ca Chad muli ŵamishonale ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake awo ŵakwimira magulu gha Cikhristu na Cisilamu. Ŵapharazgi ŵa Cisilamu ŵakufuma ku Sudan, Saudi Arabia, na Pakistan nawo ŵakwiza. Ndalama za Saudi Arabia zikovwira pa ntchito za umoyo wa ŵanthu na za masambiro kweniso kuzenga masisiteri ghanandi.<ref name="US-DoS-IRFR-2006">"[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71293.htm Chad]". ''International Religious Freedom Report 2006''. 15 September 2006. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.</ref> === Education === Ŵasambizgi ŵakukumana na masuzgo ghanandi cifukwa cakuti mu caru muli ŵanthu ŵanandi ndipo ŵapapi ŵakukhumba yayi kutuma ŵana ŵawo ku sukulu. Nangauli sukulu njakukhumbikwa, kweni ŵana 68 pera pa ŵana 100 ŵaliwose ndiwo ŵakusambira pulayimale. Masambiro ghapacanya ghakusambizgika pa Yunivesite ya N'Djamena. Mu caru ca Chad, ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba ŵali pacoko comene kuluska mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Africa. Mu 2013, boma la United States Dipatimenti ya Ntchito ya ku Chad yikati ŵana ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 5 na 14 awo ŵakugwira ntchito pa sukulu ŵalipo 39%. Ivi vikukolerana na nkhani ya ŵana awo ŵakugwira nchito, cifukwa lipoti ili likayowoyaso kuti ŵana 53% ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 5 na 14 ŵakagwiranga nchito, ndipo ŵana 30% ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 7 na 14 ŵakagwiranga nchito pamoza na sukulu. Lipoti linyake la DOL likulongora kuti viŵeto ni vyakurya vikuru ivyo ŵana ŵachoko ŵakuchita.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/|title=List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor|access-date=29 June 2015|archive-date=10 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610003351/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Boma na ndale == {{main|Politics of Chad}} [[file:Chadian woman voting during the 2016 presidential election.jpg|thumb|Chadian woman voting during the 2016 presidential election]] Dango la caru ca Chad likuti boma likulongozgeka na pulezidenti. Pulezidenti wali na mazaza gha kwimika nduna yikuru na nduna za boma, ndipo wali na mazaza ghakuru pa kwimika ŵeruzgi, ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari, ŵalara ŵa boma na ŵalongozgi ŵa mabungwe gha boma. Para kwacitika suzgo yikuru, pulezidenti wangapharazga kuti kuli suzgo yikuru. Pulezidenti wakusankhika mwakudunjika na ŵanthu kuti waŵe na vyaka vinkhondi. Mu 2005, ŵakafumiskapo malango agho ghakukanizga munthu kuŵa na vyaka viŵiri. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu awo ŵakovwira Déby mba fuko la Zaghawa, nangauli ŵanthu ŵa kumwera na ŵakususka ŵali mu boma.<ref name="BGN">"[https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/chad/74122.htm Background Note: Chad] ". September 2006. [[United States Department of State]].</ref><ref name="UNPACP">"[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614080558/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023258.pdf Republic of Chad – Public Administration Country Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614080558/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023258.pdf |date=14 June 2007 }}" (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. November 2004.</ref> Ndondomeko ya malango ya Chadi yikukolerana na malango gha boma la France na malango gha Chadi agho ghakususkana yayi na malango gha boma panji malango agho ghakovwira kuti ŵanthu wose ŵaŵe ŵakuyana. Nangauli dango likukanizga ŵeruzgi yayi, kweni pulezidenti ndiyo wakwimika ŵeruzgi ŵanandi. Khoti Likuru ili likulongozgeka na ŵeruzgi ŵankhondi na ŵaŵiri. Wangaŵa na mazaza ghakuwonaso malango, mapangano, na mapangano gha pa caru cose pambere ghandakhazikiskike.<ref name="BGN"/><ref name="UNPACP"/> Nyumba ya Malango ndiyo yikupanga malango. Wupu uwu uli na mamembara 155, awo ŵakusankhika kwa vilimika vinayi. Nyumba ya Ufumu iyi yikuwungana kaŵiri pa chaka, mu Malichi na Okutobala. Pa vilimika viŵiri vilivyose, ŵimiliri ŵakusankha mulongozgi wa wupu wakulongozga. Mu mazuŵa 15 pera, pulezidenti wakwenera kusayinira panji kukana malango ghaphya. Nyumba ya Malamulo yikwenera kuzomerezga ndondomeko ya nduna yikuru ya boma ndipo yingacicizga nduna yikuru kuti yifumeko na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵaleke kuyigomezga. Ndipouli, usange wupu wakulongozga ukukana ndondomeko ya wupu uwu kaŵiri pa chaka, pulezidenti wangamazga wupu uwu na kuchema maungano gha malango. Mu vyakucitika, pulezidenti wakuŵa na mazaza pa Nyumba ya Malango kwizira mu chipani cake, Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS), ico cili na wanandi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, magulu gha ndyali 78 ghalembeka. Mu 2005, vyaru vyakwimikana na malango na mawupu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa wanthu vikwimilira pakukana referendum iyo yikazomerezga kuti Déby wasankhike kachiŵiri pa nyengo yacitatu pamanyuma pakuti ŵapharazgi ŵayowoya kuti pakaŵa vinthu vyakupambanapambana pa nkhani ya kulembeska ŵanthu na boma. Awo ŵakalembanga nkhani iyi ŵakawona kuti mavoti gha mu 2006 ghakaŵa ghambura kuzirwa, chifukwa ŵakususka ŵakawona kuti mavoti agha ghakaŵa ghautesi ndipo ŵakaŵachimbizga. Charu cha Chad chili pa gulu la vyaru ivyo vyabudiska kuyana na fundo ya Peace Fund (FFP). Chad yikaŵa na malo gha nambara 7 pa malo ghapachanya chomene pa Index ya Vyaru Vyakukhora mu 2021. Vimbundi vili palipose; Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index ya 2021 yikati Chad yili pa malo gha 164 pa vyaru 180. Ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga pulezidenti wakale Déby ŵakamupa mulandu wa kutemwana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa charu cha Chad, ŵanthu ŵakusuzgikana comene cifukwa ca malo. Kanandi ŵakuŵa ŵankhaza. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene vikumara, ndipo ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakutondeka kusanga vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo wawo. Kufwa kwa president wa Chadi kwa nyengo yitali Idriss Déby pa 20 April, 2021, kukapangiska kuti chalo cha National Assembly na boma vyasweke ndipo boma la chalo likasinthika na wupu wa ŵasilikari wa nyengo yachilendo uwo ukaŵa na ŵasilikari ndipo ukalongozgekanga na mwana wake Mahamat Kaka.<ref name=newgovernment>{{cite news|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20210420111727-lvy4q/|title=Chad President Idriss Deby killed on frontline, son to take over|agency=Reuters|publisher=Thomas Reuters News|date=20 April 2021|access-date=20 April 2021}}</ref><ref name=newgvernment2021>{{cite web|title=Chad Sets Up Transitional Military Council Headed By Son Of Late President – Reports|url=https://www.urdupoint.com/en/world/chad-sets-up-transitional-military-council-he-1229174.html|access-date=20 April 2021|website=UrduPoint}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=Chad President Idriss Deby dies on front lines, according to an army statement|url=https://www.dw.com/en/chad-president-idriss-deby-dies-on-front-lines-according-to-an-army-statement/a-57262804|access-date=20 April 2021|work=Deutsche Welle|date=20 April 2021}}</ref> Pa nyengo yasono dango la boma ili ndakwimiskika, ndipo likulindilira kuti lisinthike na dango linyake ilo lalembeka na wupu wa ŵanthu wose wa National Transitional Council, uwo uchalipo. Wupu wa ŵasilikari wati mavoti ghazamunozgeka pamanyuma pa nyengo ya myezi 18.<ref>{{cite news |title=Calm and order in Chad three months after Idriss Déby's death |url=https://www.africanews.com/2021/07/19/calm-and-order-in-chad-three-months-after-idriss-deby-s-death/ |access-date=10 August 2021 |work=Africanews |date=19 July 2021}}</ref> === Internal opposition and foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of Chad}} [[File:Embassy of Chad (Washington, D.C.).JPG|thumb|[[Embassy of Chad in Washington, D.C.]] ]] Déby wakasangana na ŵanthu awo ŵakamususkanga chifukwa cha kupambana maghanoghano pa nkhani ya ŵalongozgi. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakanjira mu msumba uwu pa Epulero 13, 2006, kweni pamasinda ŵakaŵawuskamo. Charu icho chili na ŵasilikari ŵanandi ku Chad ni France, ndipo chili na ŵasilikari 1,000. Déby wakagomezga Ŵafalansa kuti ŵamovwirenge kuthereska ŵakugaluka, ndipo France yikovwira ŵasilikari ŵa Chadi pa nkhani ya vinthu vyakuthupi na vya umanyi cifukwa ca kopa kuti mu chigaŵa ichi vinthu vinganangika. Ndipouli, ubwezi wa caru ca France na Chad ukasuzgika cifukwa cakuti mu 1999 kampani ya ku America yakucemeka Exxon yikapokera wanangwa wa kubowozga mafuta.<ref>Manley, Andrew; "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4809420.stm Chad's vulnerable president]", BBC News, 15 March 2006.</ref> Mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha, ku Chad kwaŵa magulu ghanandi gha ŵakugaluka. Mu 2007, pakalembeka phangano la mtende ilo likasazga ŵasilikari ŵa United Front for Democratic Change mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Chadi. Gulu la Justice and Democracy mu Chad nalo likakumana na ŵasilikari ŵa boma mu 2003 pakukhumba kuwuskapo pulezidenti Idriss Déby. Kuonjezera apo, pakaŵa nkhondo zakupambanapambana na ŵakugaluka ŵa Janjaweed ŵa ku Khartoum kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Chad, awo ŵakakoma ŵanthu mwakugwiliskira nchito ndege za nkhondo. Pasono, gulu la Union of Resistance Forces (UFR) ni gulu la ŵakugaluka ilo likulutilira kurwa nkhondo na boma la Chad. Mu 2010, UFR yikati yikaŵa na ŵasilikari 6,000 na magalimoto 300.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chad-rebels-idUSBRE92K17Q20130321 Chad rebels say to resume fight, Deby's promises unmet] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924180216/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/21/us-chad-rebels-idUSBRE92K17Q20130321 |date=24 September 2015}}. Reuters. 21 March 2013</ref> === Military === {{main|Chad National Army}} Buku la CIA la World Factbook likuti bajeti ya usilikari wa Chad ni 4.2% ya GDP kufuma mu 2006. Pakuwona kuti pa nyengo iyo caru ici cikaŵa na ndalama zakukwana $7.095 biliyoni, ndalama izo ŵakagwiliskira nchito pa nkhondo zikaŵa pafupifupi $300 miliyoni. Kweni pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya ku Chad (2005-2010) chiŵerengero ichi chikakhira kufika pa 2.0% nga umo Banki ya Charu Chose yikayowoyera mu 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS|title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) &#124; Data|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> === Administrative divisions === {{main|Regions of Chad|Departments of Chad|Sub-prefectures of Chad}} Kwambira mu 2012, charu cha Chad chili na vigaŵa 23. Boma la Chad likagaŵa vigaŵa mu 2003, apo likamazga vigaŵa 14. Chigaŵa chilichose chikulongozgeka na kazembe. Ŵalara ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakulongozga vigaŵa 61. Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri, ivyo vili na vigaŵa 446. Vyaru ivi vikwenera kuzingilizgika na vyaru vinyake, kweni malango gha vyaru ivi ghandamalizgike. Ndondomeko iyi yikuphalira boma kuti liŵachichizge ŵanthu kuti ŵachitengepo kanthu kuti vinthu viŵayendere makora. Pa cifukwa ici, dango la boma likuti cigaŵa cilicose cikwenera kulongozgeka na wupu wakulongozga, kweni palije maungano gha cigaŵa agho ghacitika.<ref name="HRP"/>{{excerpt|Regions of Chad|Current regions}} == Chuma == {{further|Economy of Chad|Agriculture in Chad|Petroleum industry in Chad}} [[File:Chad Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Chad exports, 2019]] [[File:GDP per capita development of Chad.svg|thumb|GDP per capita development of Chad, since 1950]] Lipoti la wupu wa United Nations' Human Development Index likulongora kuti charu cha Chad chili pa nambara 7 pa vyaru vikavu chomene pa charu chapasi. Mu 2009, GDP pa munthu yumoza yikaŵa USD 1,651. Chadi wali mu wupu wa Central African States Bank, Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC) na Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Ndalama za ku Chad ni CFA franc. M'ma 1960, ŵanthu ŵa ku Chad ŵakagwiranga nchito ya migodi kuti ŵapange sodium carbonate, panji natron. Kweniso ku chigaŵa cha Biltine kuli malipoti ghakuti kuli malibwe gha golide. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca nkhondo iyo yikacitika kwa vilimika vinandi, ŵamalonda ŵakufumako ku vyaru vinyake ŵakawopa. Mu 2000, ndalama zinandi zakufuma ku vyaru vinyake zikamba kugwiliskirika nchito mu dipatimenti ya mafuta, ndipo ivi vikakhozga vinthu vya mu caru ici.<ref name="cia">CIA, "Chad", 2009</ref><ref name="BGN"/>[[File:Mao Women.jpg|thumb|Women in [[Mao, Chad|Mao]], where [[Utilities in Chad|water]] is provided by a water tower. Access to clean water is often a problem in Chad.]] Kuŵavya umoza mu vyalo vya ndyali pa caru cose nga ni malo agho ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pakuguliska vinthu (makamaka thonje na mafuta ghamsinjiro), ndyali ya caru cose iyo yikovwira yayi panji kukhozga vyalo vya Chadi, kweniso kuleka kovwira vyalo vya mu caru ici, vyapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Chadi ŵakhalenge na njara.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_5HjgjpmmUC|title=Maldevelopment: Anatomy of a Global Failure|publisher=[[United Nations University Press]]|last=Amin|first=Samir|year=1990|isbn=9780862329310}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBXF3IIcBwYC|title=Looting Africa: The Economics of Exploitation|last=Bond|first=Patrick|publisher=[[Zed Books]]|year=2006|isbn=9781842778111}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 80 pa 100 ŵali mu caru ca Chad ŵakuthemba pa ulimi na viŵeto. Vipambi ivyo vikulimika na malo agho viŵeto vikukhala vikuthemba pa nyengo ya mu malo agha. Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa charu ichi kuli malo ghanandi gha vyakurya. Mu Sahel, mbuto za mphoza izo zikukura makora ni izo zikupambika makora yayi kuluska za kumwera. Kweni ku Sahel kuli viŵeto vinandi vya ng'ombe, mbuzi, mberere, mbunda, na mahachi. Mu mapopa gha Sahara muli vyakumera vichoko waka. Msumba wa Chad uli na masuzgo ghakuru pa nkhani ya vinthu vya mu tawuni; 48% pera ya ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu matawuni ndiwo ŵali na maji ghakumwa ndiposo 2% pera ndiwo ŵali na vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo.<ref name="EB"/><ref name="WB1">"[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/08/18/000112742_20040818161300/Rendered/PDF/298290Chad0IEM1ject0Brief10Final004.pdf Chad – Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project]" (PDF). 24 September 2002. [[World Bank]].</ref> Makuni gha katoni ghakukhalilira kuŵa vyakurya vyakuzirwa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska, nangauli palije maukaboni. Kuweleramo kwa tawuni ya Cotontchad, iyo ni tawuni yikuru ya makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni agho ghali kuchepa cifukwa ca kukhira kwa mtengo wa makuni gha makuni gha makuni agha, kuli kovwirika na France, Netherlands, European Union, na International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). Pasono boma likulindizga kuti likanizgirenge vinthu vyawo. Ku malo agha kuli viŵeto vinandi vya ng'ombe na vyakurya vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Africa/Chad-AGRICULTURE.html |title=Chad economic products |date=28 October 2016 |website=NationsEncyclopedia.com |access-date=28 October 2016}}</ref> Kuyana na wupu wa United Nations, caru ca Chad caŵa na suzgo la ŵanthu kwamba mu 2001. Mu 2008, mu charu cha Chad mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 280,000 ŵakufuma mu chigaŵa cha Darfur ku Sudan, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 55,000 ŵakufuma ku Central African Republic, kweniso ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 170,000 awo ŵakachimbira kwawo. Mu Febuluwale 2008, pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya ku N'Djamena, Muteŵeti wa Secretary-General wa UN pa Nkhani za Umoyo wa Ŵanthu, John Holmes, wakayowoya kuti "wakudandawura comene" cifukwa ca suzgo ili. Maurizio Giuliano, muyowoyeri wa UN, wakaphalira nyuzipepara ya The Washington Post kuti: "Usange tikutondeka kovwira ŵanthu mwakukwana, suzgo ili lingazgoka soka". Kweniso mawupu nga ni Save the Children ghalekeska milimo yawo cifukwa ca kukoma ŵanthu awo ŵakovwira ŵanthu. Chad yaluta panthazi comene pa nkhani ya kucepeska ukavu. Ndipouli, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵakavu chikakwera kufuma pa 4.7 miliyoni mu 2011 kufika pa 6.5 miliyoni mu 2019. Kuzakafika mu 2018, ŵanthu 4.2 pa 10 ŵaliwose ŵachali mu ukavu.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=The World Bank in Chad |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/chad/overview#1 |url-status=live |access-date=25 May 2022 |website=The World Bank}}</ref> === Infrastructure === ==== Transport ==== {{Main|Transport in Chad}} Nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikapangiska kuti vipatala vileke kwenda makora. Mu 1987, mu Chad mukaŵa waka misewu ya makilomita 30. Mu 2004, misewu iyi yikaŵa na utali wa makilomita 550. Ndipouli, misewu yinandi njambura kwenda makora, ndipo kanandi yingaŵa yambura kwenda myezi yinandi pa chaka. Pakuti charu cha Chad chilije misewu ya njanji, ntchigaŵa icho chikuthemba chomene njanji za ku Cameroon. Mu 2013, charu cha Chad chikaŵa na ma eyapoti pafupifupi 59, ndipo 9 pera ghakaŵa na misewu.<ref name="CIA-WFB"> {{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Chad|access-date=16 April 2017 }} </ref> Ku Paris kuli chiŵanja cha ndege icho chikwendako nyengo na nyengo ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuluta ku misumba yinyake ya mu Africa. ==== Energy ==== {{See also|Energy in Chad}} Boma la Chad likwendeska makora yayi vya magesi kwa vyaka vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Chad ŵakugwiliskira ntchito makuni na vyakumera kuti ŵasange magesi. ExxonMobil ndiyo wakulongozga gulu la Chevron na Petronas ilo laŵika ndalama zakukwana madola 3.7 biliyoni kuti liŵe na mafuta ghakukwana mabarale 1 biliyoni kumwera kwa Chad. Mu 2003, mulimo wa kupanga mafuta ukayamba apo ŵakamalizga kuzenga maji (ghakovwira na ndalama za World Bank) agho ghakukolerana na malo gha ku mizi ya kumwera kwa caru ca Cameroon. Pakupeleka wovwiri uwu, Banki ya Caru Cose yikakhumbanga kuti ndalama izo zikufuma mu mafuta zinjizgike pa 80 peresenti. Mu Janyuwale 2006, Banki ya Caru Cose yikayimiska ndondomeko yake ya ngongoli apo boma la Chad likapeleka malango ghakukanizga ndalama izi. Pa Julayi 14, 2006, Banki ya Charu Chose na Chadi ŵakasayina chikalata chakulongosolera umo boma la Chadi likugwiliskira ntchito ndalama zake 70% pa mapulogiramu ghakovwira kuchepeska ukavu.<ref>World Bank (14 July 2006). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20071012184831/http://web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/news/0,,contentmdk:20994138~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html World Bank, Govt. of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction]''</ref> ==== Telecommunications ==== {{See also|Telecommunications in Chad}} Mafoni agha ghakaŵa ghakudura ndipo ghakaŵa ghapachanya chomene. Mu 2000, mu caru ici mukaŵa waka mafoni 14 pa ŵanthu 10,000. Gateway Communications, uyo wakwendeska ntchito ya kutumizga mauthenga ku vyaru vya ku Africa, nayo wali ku Chad. Mu Seputembala 2013, Unduna wa vya Makalata na Mapulogiramu gha Umoyo (PNTIC) wa ku Chad ukati charu ichi chikupenja ŵantchito awo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito vinthu vya fiber optic. Chadi wali pa malo ghaumaliro pa ndondomeko ya World Economic Forum yakuwona umo maofesi gha pa Intaneti ghakugwilira ntchito. Chad yikaŵa pa nambara 148 pa nambara 148 pa nambara ya NRI ya 2014. Mu Seputembala 2010, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mafoni chikaŵa 24.3% pa ŵanthu 10.7 miliyoni.<ref name="Chad Mobile Market (Q1 2008 - Q3 2010)">{{cite web |url=http://www.mnodirectory.com/ame/Chad.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204221211/http://www.mnodirectory.com/ame/Chad.htm|archive-date=4 December 2011|title=Chad Mobile Market (Q1 2008 – Q3 2010) |work=mnodirectory.com}}</ref> == Mwambo == Cifukwa ca ŵanthu na viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana, caru ca Chad cili na mitheto yakupambanapambana. Boma la Chadi likulimbikira kukhozga mitheto ya Chadi mwa kujura Nyumba ya Vyakusanguluska ya Chadi na Charu cha Chikhalidwe cha Chadi. Maholide ghakukwana 6 ghakuchitika chaka chose, ndipo maholide ghanyake ghakusunkhunyika ni maholide gha Chikhristu gha Easter Monday na maholide gha Chisilamu gha Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, na Eid Milad Nnabi.<ref name="CCG">Spera, Vincent (8 February 2004); {{cite web |title=Chad Country Commercial Guide – FY 2005 |url=http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/site/imr-ri.nsf/en/gr126314e.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015073734/http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/site/imr-ri.nsf/en/gr126314e.html |archive-date=15 October 2007 |access-date=6 May 2007}}. [[United States Department of Commerce]].</ref> [[File:Tailor in Chad.jpg|thumb|A Chadian tailor sells traditional dresses.]] === Kuphika === {{main|Cuisine of Chad}} Mu vyakurya vya ku Chad, chiŵiya cha millet ndicho ntchakukhumbikwa chomene. Ŵakuwugwiliskira ntchito pakupanga viŵiya ivyo ŵakuviŵika mu msuzi. Mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto vya caru ici, cakurya ici cikucemeka alysh, ndipo kumwera, biya. Somba zikumanyikwa comene, ndipo kanandi zikuphika na kuguliskika nga ni salanga (somba zikuruzikuru zakukhoma) panji nga ni banda (somba zikuruzikuru zakukhoma). Chitayi chakuchemeka carcaje, ntchakutchuka chomene. Nangauli mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto mulije vyakumwa vyakuloŵezga, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumwa mu vigaŵa vya kumwera, uko ŵanthu ŵakumwa moŵa wakuchemeka billi-billi para wafuma mu moŵa wakukhoma, ndipo coshate para wafuma mu moŵa utuŵa.<ref name="culture">{{cite web |title=Chad: A Cultural Profile |url=http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/chad/chad_eng.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001212259/http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/chad/chad_eng.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2006 |access-date=19 June 2007}} (PDF). Cultural Profiles Project. [[Citizenship and Immigration Canada]]. {{ISBN|0-7727-9102-3}}</ref> === Sumo === {{main|Music of Chad}} Sumu za ku Chad zili na vyakwimbira nga ni kinde, mtundu unyake wa zeze; kakaki, mbata yitali; na hu hu, vyakwimbira vya vingwe ivyo vikugwiliskira nchito ma calabash nga ni vyakukuzgira mazgu. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sara ŵakutemwa chomene vyakwimbira nga ni vyakwimbira vya kodjo. Ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kanembu ŵakusazga vyakwimbira vyawo na vyakwimbira vya vyakwimbira nga ni vyakwimbira vya fuluti. Gulu la sumu la Chari Jazz likapangika mu 1964 ndipo ndilo likambiska sumu za mu Chad. Pamanyuma, magulu ghanyake ghakucemeka African Melody na International Challal ghakayezga kusazga vinthu vyasono na vya kale. Magulu gha ŵanthu nga ni Tibesti, ghakulutilira kulondezga mitheto yawo chifukwa cha sumu za sai, za kumwera kwa charu cha Chad. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Chad ŵakutinkha sumu za mazuŵa ghano. Ndipouli, mu 1995 ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kutemwa comene nkhani za mu Chadi izo zili pa ma CD na ma kaseti. Kuwukira boma na kuleka kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ni masuzgo ghakuru comene ku makampani gha sumu gha ku Chad.<ref name="culture"/><ref>* {{in lang|fr}} Gondjé, Laoro (2003); "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140422134754/http://www.cefod.org/archives/spip.php?article231 {{lang|fr|La musique recherche son identité}}] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140422134754/http://www.cefod.org/archives/spip.php?article231 |date=22 April 2014 }}", {{lang|fr|Tchad et Culture}} '''214'''.</ref> ===Literature=== [[File:Criquets grillés ou fris.jpg|thumb|Fried or Grilled Grasshoppers]] Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Sahel, mabuku gha mu Chad ghali na suzgo la vyachuma, ndyali, na vyauzimu. Awo ŵakulemba mabuku mu charu cha Chad ŵakachichizgika kulemba mabuku kufuma ku charu chinyake, ndipo ŵakalemba mabuku agho ghakulongosora vya nkhaza za ndyali na mbiri. Kwambira mu 1962, ŵalembi 20 ŵa ku Chad ŵalemba mabuku pafupifupi 60. Ŵanyake mwa ŵalembi awo ŵakumanyikwa pa caru cose ni Joseph Brahim Seïd, Baba Moustapha, Antoine Bangui na Koulsy Lamko. Mu 2003 munthu yumoza pera uyo wakususka mabuku gha Chadi, Ahmat Taboye, wakafumiska buku lake lakuti Anthologie de la littérature tchadienne kuti wamanye makora mabuku gha Chadi pa caru cose kweniso ku ŵawukirano.<ref name="culture"/><ref>{{in lang|fr}} Malo, Nestor H. (2003); "[https://archive.is/20130928053407/http://www.cefod.org/archives/spip.php?article236 Littérature tchadienne : Jeune mais riche] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130928053407/http://www.cefod.org/archives/spip.php?article236|date=28 September 2013}}", ''Tchad et Culture'' '''214'''.</ref><ref>Boyd-Buggs, Debra & Joyce Hope Scott (1999); ''Camel Tracks: Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures''. Lawrenceville: Africa World Press. {{ISBN|0-86543-757-2}}, pp. 12, 132, 135</ref> === Media and cinema === {{Main|Media of Chad|Cinema of Chad}} Ŵanthu awo ŵakuwonelera TV mu charu cha Chad ŵakukhala waka mu msumba wa N'Djamena. Wayilesi ya boma ya Télé Tchad ndiyo yikulongozga pa nkhani iyi. Wayilesi yikupharazga comene, ndipo pali wayilesi zakukwana 13. Manyuzipepara ghakupambanapambana, ndipo ghakupharazgika bweka yayi chifukwa cha ndalama zakwendeskera vinthu, ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya yayi kuŵazga na kulemba, kweniso ukavu. Nangauli dango la boma likuvikilira wanangwa wakuyowoya, kweni boma likukana wanangwa uwu, ndipo kuumaliro wa 2006 likamba kukanizga ŵanthu kuti ŵapharazgenge. Makampani gha mafilimu gha ku Chad ghakamba na mafilimu ghafupi gha Edouard Sailly mu m'ma 1960, kweni ghakatimbanizgika na nkhondo za pawenenawene kweniso chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa mafilimu. Makampani gha mafilimu gha Chadian ghakambaso kukura mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, na ntchito ya Mahamat-Saleh Haroun, Issa Serge Coelo na Abakar Chene Massar. Filimu ya Haroun yakucemeka Abouna yikapokelereka na ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo Daratt wake wakatora Mphoto ya Grand Special Jury pa Venice International Film Festival ya nambara 63. Filimu ya A Screaming Man ya mu 2010 yikapokera chawanangwa cha jury pa 2010 Cannes Film Festival, ndipo Haroun ndiyo wakaŵa director wakwamba wa ku Chad kunjira, kweniso kuwina chawanangwa mu chiphalizgano chikuru cha Cannes. Issa Serge Coelo wakapangiska mafilimu Daresalam na DP75: Tartina City.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Bambé, Naygotimti (April 2007); "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130530063045/http://www.cefod.org/spip.php?article915 Issa Serge Coelo, cinéaste tchadien: ''On a encore du travail à faire''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530063045/http://www.cefod.org/spip.php?article915 |date=30 May 2013}}", ''Tchad et Culture'' '''256'''.</ref><ref>Young, Neil (23 March 2004) [http://www.jigsawlounge.co.uk/film/harouninterview.html An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun, writer and director of Abouna ("Our Father")]. jigsawlounge.co.uk</ref><ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/5328462.stm Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice]", BBC News, 9 September 2006.</ref><ref>{{in lang|fr}} Alphonse, Dokalyo (2003) "[https://archive.is/20130928053358/http://www.cefod.org/archives/spip.php?article235 Cinéma: un avenir plein d'espoir]" {{webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20130928053358/http://www.cefod.org/archives/spip.php?article235 |date=28 September 2013}}, ''Tchad et Culture'' '''214'''.</ref> === Maseŵera === {{main|Sports in Chad}} Bola la malundi ni maseŵero agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa ku Chad. Ŵasepuka ŵa ku Chadi ŵakwimira timu ya ku France pa maseŵera gha caru cose. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita maseŵero gha basketball na freestyle wrestling, ndipo awo ŵakuchita maseŵero agha ŵakuvwara vikumba vya nyama na kujibisa fuvu.<ref name="culture"/> == Wonaniso == {{portal|Africa}} * [[Outline of Chad]] *[[Index of Chad-related articles]] <!-- * [[Bibliography of Chad]] --> <!-- * {{wikipedia books link|Chad}} --> == Vyakulemba == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == === Citations === {{reflist}} === Sources === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{in lang|fr}} Alphonse, Dokalyo (2003) "[https://archive.is/20130928053358/http://www.cefod.org/archives/spip.php?article235 Cinéma: un avenir plein d'espoir]" {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130928053358/http://www.cefod.org/archives/spip.php?article235 |date=28 September 2013 }}, ''Tchad et Culture'' '''214'''. * "[https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/chad/74122.htm Background Note: Chad]". September 2006. [[United States Department of State]]. * {{in lang|fr}} Bambé, Naygotimti (April 2007); "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130530063045/http://www.cefod.org/spip.php?article915 {{lang|fr|Issa Serge Coelo, cinéaste tchadien: ''On a encore du travail à faire''|italic=unset}}]", {{lang|fr|Tchad et Culture}} '''256'''. * Botha, D.J.J. (December 1992); "S.H. Frankel: Reminiscences of an Economist", ''The South African Journal of Economics'' '''60''' (4): 246–255. * Boyd-Buggs, Debra & Joyce Hope Scott (1999); ''Camel Tracks: Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures''. Lawrenceville: Africa World Press. {{ISBN|0-86543-757-2}} * {{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Chad|access-date=28 January 2010 }} * "[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78726.htm Chad]". [[United States' Country Reports on Human Rights Practices|Country Reports on Human Rights Practices]] 2006, 6 March 2007. [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]], U.S. Department of State. * "[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41595.htm Chad]". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004, 28 February 2005. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. * {{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=52&pr.y=1&sy=2013&ey=2017&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=628&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Chad |publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=18 April 2012 }} * "[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71293.htm Chad]". ''International Religious Freedom Report 2006''. 15 September 2006. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. * "[https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/POL10/001/2006/en ''Amnesty International Report 2006''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113025418/http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/POL10/001/2006/en |date=13 January 2015 }}". [[Amnesty International]] Publications. * "[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/25/62/38561813.pdf Chad]" (PDF). ''African Economic Outlook 2007''. [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]. May 2007. {{ISBN|978-92-64-02510-3}} * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032225/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chad/ Chad]". ''[[The World Factbook]]''. United States [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. 15 May 2007. * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614080601/http://www.reproductiverights.org/pdf/chad.pdf Chad]" (PDF). ''Women of the World: Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives – Francophone Africa''. Center for Reproductive Rights. 2000 * {{cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/inc/content/pubs/pfs/inc_country_detail.cfm?country=6939&year=2006&pf |title=Chad (2006) |access-date=6 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604102856/http://www.freedomhouse.org/inc/content/pubs/pfs/inc_country_detail.cfm?country=6939&year=2006&pf |archive-date=4 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}. ''Freedom of the Press: 2007 Edition''. Freedom House, Inc. * "[http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/48f4be12f6c55e5a802565cd005d4e0e?Opendocument Chad]". Human Rights Instruments. [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]]. 12 December 1997. * "Chad". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. (2000). Chicago: [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] * "Chad, Lake". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. (2000). * "[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/08/18/000112742_20040818161300/Rendered/PDF/298290Chad0IEM1ject0Brief10Final004.pdf Chad – Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project]" (PDF). 24 September 2002. [[World Bank]]. * {{cite web |url=http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/chad/chad_eng.pdf |title=Chad: A Cultural Profile |access-date=4 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001212259/http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/chad/chad_eng.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2006 |url-status=dead }} (PDF). Cultural Profiles Project. [[Citizenship and Immigration Canada]]. {{ISBN|0-7727-9102-3}} * "[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/11/23/000104615_20041129133849/Rendered/PDF/PID010Concept0Stage.pdf Chad Urban Development Project]" (PDF). 21 October 2004. World Bank. * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070714031528/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/fullMaps_Af.nsf/luFullMap/387875A9DF1816A78525725F005D5397/$File/chad_final.pdf?OpenElement Chad: Humanitarian Profile – 2006/2007]" (PDF). 8 January 2007. [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]]. * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120504133937/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADE389.pdf Chad Livelihood Profiles]" (PDF). March 2005. [[United States Agency for International Development]]. * "[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1997/10/21/000009265_3971229180948/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf Chad Poverty Assessment: Constraints to Rural Development]" (PDF). World Bank. 21 October 1997. * "[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6939 Chad (2006)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012174004/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6939 |date=12 October 2007 }}". ''Country Report: 2006 Edition''. [[Freedom House]], Inc. * {{cite web |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Chad_Cameroon/Full.html |title=Chad and Cameroon |access-date=17 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113061630/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Chad_Cameroon/Full.html |archive-date=13 January 2009 |url-status=dead }}. Country Analysis Briefs. January 2007. [[Energy Information Administration]]. * "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4771383.stm Chad leader's victory confirmed]", [[BBC News]], 14 May 2006. * "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6367545.stm Chad may face genocide, UN warns]", BBC News, 16 February 2007. * {{in lang|fr}} Chapelle, Jean (1981); {{lang|fr|Le Peuple Tchadien: ses racines et sa vie quotidienne}}. Paris: L'Harmattan. {{ISBN|2-85802-169-4}} * [[Anwarul Karim Chowdhury|Chowdhury, Anwarul Karim]] & Sandagdorj Erdenbileg (2006); {{cite web |url=http://www0.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ohrlls/UNOHRLLS/new/UserFiles/File/Publications/LLDC/05-33151_geography_sm.pdf |title=''Geography Against Development: A Case for Landlocked Developing Countries'' |access-date=5 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205131921/http://www0.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ohrlls/UNOHRLLS/new/UserFiles/File/Publications/LLDC/05-33151_geography_sm.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2009 |url-status=dead }}. New York: United Nations. {{ISBN|92-1-104540-1}} * Collelo, Thomas (1990); ''[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/tdtoc.html Chad: A Country Study]'', 2d ed. Washington: [[United States Government Printing Office|U.S. GPO]]. {{ISBN|0-16-024770-5}} * {{in lang|fr}} Dadnaji, Dimrangar (1999); {{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308024013/http://www.cefod.org/Fichiers%20web/decentralisationtchad.doc|title=La decentralisation au Tchad|access-date=19 June 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308024013/https://web.archive.org/web/20080308024013/http://www.cefod.org/Fichiers%20web/decentralisationtchad.doc|archive-date=8 March 2008}} *{{cite book|ref=Decalo|author=Decalo, Samuel |year=1987|title=Historical Dictionary of Chad|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000deca_o6n0|edition= 2 |publisher=Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-1937-5}} * East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003); ''Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders''. Routledge. {{ISBN|1-85743-126-X}} * Dinar, Ariel (1995); ''Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs''. World Bank Publications. {{ISBN|0-8213-3321-6}} * {{in lang|fr}} Gondjé, Laoro (2003); "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130530061624/http://www.cefod.org/spip.php?article231 {{lang|fr|La musique recherche son identité}}]", {{lang|fr|Tchad et Culture}} '''214'''. * [https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR20/004/2001/en "Chad: the Habré Legacy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113041028/http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR20/004/2001/en |date=13 January 2015 }}. [[Amnesty International]]. 16 October 2001. * Lange, Dierk (1988). "[http://dierklange.com/pdf/fulltexts/UNESCO_III.pdf The Chad region as a crossroad]" (PDF), in ''UNESCO [[General History of Africa]] – Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century'', vol. 3: 436–460. [[University of California Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-520-03914-8}} * {{in lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20071024234020/http://www.deltcd.ec.europa.eu/fr/item2_info_docs/Lettre3_a4x10p.pdf {{lang|fr|Lettre d'information}}] (PDF). {{lang|fr|Délégation de la Commission Européenne au Tchad}}. N. 3. September 2004. * Macedo, Stephen (2006); ''Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law''. University of Pennsylvania Press. {{ISBN|0-8122-1950-3}} * {{in lang|fr}} Malo, Nestor H. (2003); "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130530063643/http://www.cefod.org/spip.php?article236 {{lang|fr|Littérature tchadienne : Jeune mais riche}}]", {{lang|fr|Tchad et Culture}} '''214'''. * Manley, Andrew; "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4809420.stm Chad's vulnerable president]", BBC News, 15 March 2006. * "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/5328462.stm Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice]", BBC News, 9 September 2006. * {{in lang|fr}} Ndang, Tabo Symphorien (2005); "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120512110104/http://www.pep-net.org/fileadmin/medias/pdf/files_events/4th_colombo/PMMA/Ndang-pa.pdf {{lang|fr|A qui Profitent les Dépenses Sociales au Tchad? Une Analyse d'Incidence à Partir des Données d'Enquête}}] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512110104/http://www.pep-net.org/fileadmin/medias/pdf/files_events/4th_colombo/PMMA/Ndang-pa.pdf |date=12 May 2012 }}" (PDF). ''4th PEP Research Network General Meeting''. Poverty and Economic Policy. * {{cite book|ref=Nolutshungu|author=Nolutshungu, Sam C. |year=1995|title=Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad|url=https://archive.org/details/limitsofanarchyi0000nolu|publisher= Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-1628-6|author-link=Sam Nolutshungu }} * [[Kenneth Pollack|Pollack, Kenneth M.]] (2002); ''Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991''. Lincoln: [[University of Nebraska Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8032-3733-2}} * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html Rank Order – Area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |date=9 February 2014 }}". ''The World Factbook''. United States Central Intelligence Agency. 10 May 2007. * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614080558/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023258.pdf Republic of Chad – Public Administration Country Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614080558/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023258.pdf |date=14 June 2007 }}" (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. November 2004. * {{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070316210936/http://www.primature-tchad.org/CIRCONSCRIPTIONS.pdf |date=3 July 2007 |title=Circonscriptions Administratives |language=fr |publisher=[[Government of Chad]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703022324/https://web.archive.org/web/20070316210936/http://www.primature-tchad.org/CIRCONSCRIPTIONS.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2007 }} * Spera, Vincent (8 February 2004); {{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015073734/http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/site/imr-ri.nsf/en/gr126314e.html |title=Chad Country Commercial Guide – FY 2005 |access-date=6 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015073734/https://web.archive.org/web/20071015073734/http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/site/imr-ri.nsf/en/gr126314e.html |archive-date=15 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}. [[United States Department of Commerce]]. * "[http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/D7238E/D7238E03.htm Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources in the development and management of inland fisheries]". CIFA Technical Paper No. 2. [[FAO]]. 29 November – 1 December 1972. * {{in lang|fr}} "[http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/tchad/contents.html {{lang|fr|Tchad}}]". {{lang|fr|L'évaluation de l'éducation pour tous à l'an 2000: Rapport des pays}}. [[UNESCO]], Education for All. * {{in lang|fr}} "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110905003712/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/central-africa/chad/French%20translations/Chad%20Back%20towards%20War%20French.pdf {{lang|fr|Tchad: vers le retour de la guerre?}}]" (PDF). [[International Crisis Group]]. 1 June 2006. * Wolfe, Adam; {{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105160231/http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=592&language_id=1 |title=Instability on the March in Sudan, Chad and Central African Republic |access-date=3 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070105160231/https://web.archive.org/web/20070105160231/http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=592&language_id=1 |archive-date=5 January 2007 |url-status=dead }}, PINR, 6 December 2006. * World Bank (14 July 2006). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20071012184831/http://web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/news/0,,contentmdk:20994138~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html World Bank, Govt. of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction]''. [[News release|Press release]]. * ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20090905200753/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database]''. 2006. United Nations Population Division. * "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4351076.stm Worst corruption offenders named]", BBC News, 18 November 2005. * Young, Neil (August 2002); ''[http://www.jigsawlounge.co.uk/film/harouninterview.html An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun, writer and director of Abouna ("Our Father")]''. {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Chad|collapsible=collapsed}}{{Library resources box}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032225/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chad/ Chad]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/tdtoc.html Chad country study] from [[Library of Congress]] * {{GovPubs|chad}} * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Chad}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13164686 Chad profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Chad}} * {{osmrelation-inline|2361304}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TD Key Development Forecasts for Chad] from [[International Futures]] {{Chad topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Related articles |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} {{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} {{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|15|N|19|E|display=title}} [[Category:Chad| ]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Saharan countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1960]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Chad]] obz1nuig67givpijufr41gydvn5z1z5 0 9928 122363 74841 2026-09-25T02:06:48Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122363 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water|name=Lake Malombe|image=Lake Malombe NASA.jpg|caption=Seen from space|image_bathymetry=|caption_bathymetry=|location=[[Southern Region, Malawi|Southern Region]]|coords={{coord|14|40|0|S|35|15|0|E|type:waterbody_region:MW|display=inline,title}}|pushpin_map=Malawi|type=|inflow=[[Shire River]] from [[Lake Malawi]]|outflow=Shire River|catchment=|basin_countries=[[Malawi]]|length=|width=|area={{convert|450|km2|abbr=on}}|depth={{convert|6|-|8|ft|abbr=on}}|max-depth=|volume=|residence_time=|shore=|elevation=|frozen=|islands=|cities=}}'''Nyanja ya Malombe''' ni nyanja iyo yili kumwera kwa [[Malawi]], pa mlonga wa [[Shire]], mu chigaŵa cha Southern Region. Ili pa 14°40′0′′S 35°15′0′′E / 14.66667°S 35.25000°E, pafupifupi 20 km (12 mi) kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Malawi. Chigaŵa chake chili na vigaŵa pafupifupi 450 km2. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, chiŵelengero cha ŵalovi mu nyanja iyi chakwera chomene, ndipo ichi chapangiska kuti visomba vinyake vikhalenge viŵi yayi, comenecomene visomba vya chambo cichlids, ivyo ni vyakurya vyakuzirwa mu Malawi mose. Nyanja iyi njakututuka comene, ndipo para kwazizima, maji ghakukhira comene. Nyanja iyi yikaŵa yambura maji kwa vyaka vinandi m'paka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. ==Malo== ===Msumba=== Msumba gha kufupi na Malombe ni: * Kwitambo * Dimu * [[Mpinganjira, Mangochi|Mpinganjila]] (Mpinganjira) * [[Chimwala, Mangochi|Chimwala]] (panji Kukulanga) * Mvela (panji Saidi) * Chithumba * Lukulungwa * [[Malombe, Mangochi|Malombe Court]] (panji Malombe, Kwisimba, na Saidi Kwisimba) * Kadewele * Sili * [[Nalikolo, Mangochi|Nalikolo]] ===Mlonga=== * Mangale * Lingamasa * Namaswa * Nanjoka * Ntongolamusi * Ngalu * Mpwapwata * Mbombwe * Masanje * Lisalo * Namiyala * Shire * Likuzi * Mpale * Nasenga == Ukaboni == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060910134631/http://srdis.ciesin.columbia.edu/cases/malawi-002.html Community-based fisheries management, Lake Malombe] * {{cite web |title=An evaluation of the Lake Malombe co-management programme |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195800/http://www.co-management.org/download/malombe.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195800/https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195800/http://www.co-management.org/download/malombe.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-03 |access-date=2006-04-15}}&nbsp;{{small|(94.1&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]])}} <references group="" responsive="1"></references> {{Authority control}} {{Malawi-geo-stub}}{{Malaŵi}} [[Category:Nyanja za Malaŵi]] i7fxi7bagj789474iegve8gc71kdu3e 0 19344 122371 72529 2026-09-25T02:50:01Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122371 wikitext text/x-wiki Ŵakupharazga mu [[Malaŵi]] ŵakugwiliskira nchito nthowa zakupambanapambana: TV, wayilesi, mafilimu, manyuzipepara, magazini, na mawebusayiti. Malaŵi nayo wali na makampani gha sumu agho ghakukura. Ŵapharazgi ŵakuŵa ŵa boma panji ŵa boma yayi. == Wayilesi == {{see also|List of radio stations in Africa#Malawi}} Wayilesi ya ku Malawi yikupharazga mu vigaŵa viŵiri: FM, AM. Ma wayilesi gha ku Malaŵi ni MBC 1 na MBC 2 agho ghakulongozgeka na Malawi Broadcasting Corporation. Siteshoni ya wayilesi ya boma iyi yikusazgapo Zodiak Broadcasting Station, na Capital Radio Malawi.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 January 2001 |title=Malawi: South African Investor Buys Stake in Malawi Radio |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200101080121.html |access-date=2020-11-19 |website=allafrica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ZODIAK MALAWI ONLINE |url=https://zodiakmalawi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=123&Itemid=119 |url-status=dead |website=zodiakmalawi.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115103628/http://zodiakmalawi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=123&Itemid=119 |archivedate=January 15, 2013}}</ref> Wupu wa Malawi Communications Regulatory Authority (MACRA) wapeleka malaisensi ku mawayilesi ghaphya kuti ghatumizge mauthenga gha pa wayilesi mu Malawi. Ivi vikusazgapo Matindi, GoodNews, na Mwadama. == Wayilesi ya vithuzi vyakulongola (TV) == {{main|Television in Malawi}} TV mu Malawi yikwendeskeka na wupu wa MACRA. Charu ichi chili na mawayilesi 20 agho ghakupharazga pa Intaneti mu 2016..<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web |title=Misa-Malawi hail JB govt for issuing 15 broadcasting licenses &#124; Nyasa Times Malawi breaking news in Malawi<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2012/07/25/misa-malawi-hail-jb-govt-for-issuing-15-broadcasting-licenses/ |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728021720/http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2012/07/25/misa-malawi-hail-jb-govt-for-issuing-15-broadcasting-licenses/ |archivedate=July 28, 2012}}</ref> Ivi vikusazgapo Times Group, Timveni, Adventist, na Beta. == Vithuzi vyakwenda == {{main|Cinema of Malawi}} Makampani gha mafilimu mu Malaŵi ghacali kwamba waka, kweni kwa vilimika vinandi, vinthu vinyake vyasintha ndipo vyapangiska kuti paŵe viphikiro vya mafilimu. Ku Malawi kuli chiphikiro cha mafilimu icho chikamba mu 2009. Muwoneski wakumanyikwa chomene ni Shemu Joyah uyo ni producer na wakupangiska mafilimu wa ku Malawi uyo wakapangiska Season of a life.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Malawian film gets first nominations at international festivals &#124; Nyasa Times Malawi breaking news in Malawi<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2012/10/26/new-malawian-film-gets-first-nominations-at-international-festivals/}}</ref> Ŵalendo ŵakumanyikwa chomene ŵa ku Malawi ni Michael Usi na Tapiwa Gwaza. Ŵanthu ŵangagura mafilimu mu nyumba zakuzengeka panji ku malo ghakuwonera mafilimu. == Manyuzipepara == {{main|List of newspapers in Malawi}} Wupu wa Malawi News Agency (MANA) ndiwo ni wupu ukuru chomene mu Malawi. Likakhazikiskika mu 1966 kuti lipelekenge na kupanga nkhani za boma. Kweniso likuwunjika nkhani za mu vyaru vyose. Magazini iyi yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2012. Nyuzipepara yakale comene ya mu caru ici ni The Daily Times. Manyuzipepara agho ghakupharazgika comene mu caru cose ni The Daily Times na The Nation. Vyose ivi vikuguliskika mu misumba yinandi ya ku Malawi. Kweniso manyuzipepara ghanandi ghakusangika pa Intaneti. Kweniso nyuzipepara za pa Intaneti zikukura chomene. Ivi vikusazgapo manyuzipepara agho ghali na ndalama za wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi nga ni Leeds, England based Nyasatimes, Atlanta, US based Maravi Post na Malawi24 based in Blantyre.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nyasa Times Editors Seek Asylum in Britain<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://www.voanews.com/content/nyasa-times-editors-seek-asylum-in-britain-92340579/160278.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=You are being redirected... |url=http://www.maravipost.com/about-maravipost.html |url-status=dead |website=www.maravipost.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623202940/http://maravipost.com/about-maravipost.html |archivedate=June 23, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Malawi News sources |url=http://allafrica.com/list/publisher/editorial/editorial/cat/malawi/most/posted.html |website=[[AllAfrica]] |accessdate=24 October 2016}}</ref> == Magazini == {{See also|List of Malawi magazines}} Malaŵi wali na magazini gha Chingelezi na Chichewa agho ghakupharazgika mu charu chose, mu vigaŵa, panji mu msumba. == Intaneti == Ku Malawi kwasazgikira ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito Intaneti, chomene pa Twitter, Facebook. Ku Malawi nako kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulemba mabulogu. Social Media yikovwira chomene kuti vinthu viŵe vyakutowa mu Malawi. Likukolerana na ivyo vikachitika mu 2012. == Wonaniso == * [[:en:Communications_in_Malawi|Communications in Malawi]] * [[:en:List_of_Malawian_writers|List of Malawian writers]] == Maukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Mabuku == * {{cite journal|title=Printing Presses and Publishing in Malawi|author=Steve S. Mwiyeriwa|journal=[[Society of Malawi, Historical and Scientific|Society of Malawi]] Journal|volume=31|jstor=29778404|year=1978}} * {{cite book|title=Africa South of the Sahara 2004|series=Regional Surveys of the World|publisher=[[Europa Publications]]|year=2004|isbn=1857431839|chapter=Malawi: Directory: Broadcasting and Communications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jj4J-AXGDaQC|page=673|ref={{harvid|Europa|2004}}}} * {{citation|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626224743/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/malawi|title=Malawi|work=[[Freedom of the Press (report)|Freedom of the Press]]|oclc=57509361|year=2015|publisher=[[Freedom House]]|location=USA|ref={{harvid|Freedom House|2015}}}} == Ma linki ghakuwalo == * [http://www.sdnp.org.mw/macra/ MACRA Online] {{Malawi topics}}{{Africa topic|Media of}} 6aou6fxpc5x2jz3tob4451l0hmjjq99 0 19835 122353 50932 2026-09-25T01:26:33Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122353 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Malaŵi]] wali kugaŵika vigaŵa 28. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na mulara wake.[[:en:District_Commissioner_(Malawi)|:]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111020085146/http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/edu/Comparative%20EM%20Book%20-%20Chapter%20-%20Emergency%20Management%20In%20Malawi.doc] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020085146/http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/edu/Comparative%20EM%20Book%20-%20Chapter%20-%20Emergency%20Management%20In%20Malawi.doc|date=October 20, 2011}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Vigaŵa !Region !Maboma !Unandi !Population/districts |- |Pakati |9 | | |- |Kumwela | | | |- |Kumpoto | | | |} {{Politics of Malawi}} {{stack|{{Districts of Malawi Image Map}}|Maboma}} {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Chigaŵa ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Zina ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Unandi (2018<ref>{{Cite web |title=2018 Malawi Census, Preliminary Report |url=https://malawi.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/2018%20Census%20Preliminary%20Report.pdf |access-date=January 1, 2020}}</ref>) ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Malo (km²) ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Msumba ! rowspan="2" scope="col" |Index |- ! rowspan="9" |[[:en:Central_Region,_Malawi|Central]] ![[:en:Dedza_District|Dedza]] |830,512 |3,754 |[[:en:Dedza|Dedza]] |1 |- ![[:en:Dowa_District|Dowa]] |772,569 |3,077 |[[:en:Dowa,_Malawi|Dowa]] |2 |- ![[:en:Kasungu_District|Kasungu]] |842,953 |8,017 |[[:en:Kasungu|Kasungu]] |3 |- ![[:en:Lilongwe_District|Lilongwe]] |2,626,901 |6,211 |[[:en:Lilongwe|Lilongwe]] |4 |- ![[:en:Mchinji_District|Mchinji]] |602,305 |3,131 |[[:en:Mchinji|Mchinji]] |5 |- ![[:en:Nkhotakota_District|Nkhotakota]] |395,897 |4,338 |[[:en:Nkhotakota|Nkhotakota]] |6 |- ![[:en:Ntcheu_District|Ntcheu]] |659,608 |3,251 |[[:en:Ntcheu|Ntcheu]] |7 |- ![[:en:Ntchisi_District|Ntchisi]] |317,069 |1,709 |[[:en:Ntchisi|Ntchisi]] |8 |- ![[:en:Salima_District|Salima]] |478,346 |2,151 |[[:en:Salima,_Malawi|Salima]] |9 |- ! rowspan="6" |[[:en:Northern_Region,_Malawi|Northern]] ![[:en:Chitipa_District|Chitipa]] |234,927 |4,334 |[[:en:Chitipa|Chitipa]] |10 |- ![[:en:Karonga_District|Karonga]] |365,028 |3,416 |[[:en:Karonga|Karonga]] |11 |- ![[:en:Likoma_District|Likoma]] |14,527 |20 |[[:en:Likoma,_Malawi|Likoma]] |12 |- ![[:en:Mzimba_District|Mzimba]] |1,157,522 |10,619 |[[:en:Mzimba|Mzimba]] |13 |- ![[:en:Nkhata_Bay_District|Nkhata Bay]] |285,795 |4,182 |[[:en:Nkhata_Bay|Nkhata Bay]] |14 |- ![[:en:Rumphi_District|Rumphi]] |229,161 |4,560 |[[:en:Rumphi|Rumphi]] |15 |- ! rowspan="13" |[[:en:Southern_Region,_Malawi|Southern]] ![[:en:Balaka_District| Balaka]] |438,379 |2,142 |[[:en:Balaka_Township,_Malawi|Balaka]] |16 |- ![[:en:Blantyre_District| Blantyre]] |1,251,484 |2,025 |[[:en:Blantyre|Blantyre]] |17 |- ![[:en:Chikwawa_District| Chikwawa]] |564,684 |4,878 |[[:en:Chikwawa|Chikwawa]] |18 |- ![[:en:Chiradzulu_District| Chiradzulu]] |356,875 |761 |[[:en:Chiradzulu|Chiradzulu]] |19 |- ![[:en:Machinga_District| Machinga]] |735,438 |3,582 |[[:en:Machinga_District|Machinga]] |20 |- ![[:en:Mangochi_District| Mangochi]] |1,148,611 |6,729 |[[:en:Mangochi|Mangochi]] |21 |- ![[:en:Mulanje_District| Mulanje]] |684,107 |2,005 |[[:en:Mulanje|Mulanje]] |22 |- ![[:en:Mwanza_District| Mwanza]] |130,949 |756 |[[:en:Mwanza,_Malawi| Mwanza]] |23 |- ![[:en:Nsanje_District| Nsanje]] |299,168 |1,945 |[[:en:Nsanje|Nsanje]] |24 |- ![[:en:Thyolo_District| Thyolo]] |721,456 |1,666 |[[:en:Thyolo|Thyolo]] |25 |- ![[:en:Phalombe_District| Phalombe]] |429,450 |1,323 |[[:en:Phalombe|Phalombe]] |26 |- ![[:en:Zomba_District| Zomba]] |851,737 |2,405 |[[:en:Zomba,_Malawi|Zomba]] |27 |- ![[:en:Neno_District| Neno]] |138,291 |1,561 |[[:en:Neno,_Malawi|Neno]] |28 |} == Wonaniso == * [[:en:ISO_3166-2:MW|ISO 3166-2:MW]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Vinnyake == * {{cite web |title=Parliament of Malawi |url=http://www.parliament.gov.mw/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505075437/http://www.parliament.gov.mw/ |archive-date=2017-05-05 |access-date=2008-08-01}} {{Regions and districts of Malawi}}{{Articles on first-level administrative divisions of African countries}} gpltjk521dtcq3dhv06hd4ce32zb4ci 0 23042 122373 119741 2026-09-25T03:02:32Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122373 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Landlocked country at the crossroads of Southern, Central, and East Africa}} {{About|the African nation|the 18th-century BC king of Isin|Zambiya|the part of Kaliningrad Oblast|Sambia Peninsula}}{{further|Name of Rhodesia}}<!--{{pp-move|small=yes}}--> {{Nkhani iwemi}} {{Coord|15|S|30|E|type:country_region:ZM|display=title}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}} {{Infobox country|conventional_long_name=Charu cha Zambia|common_name=Zambia|image_flag=Flag of Zambia.svg|image_coat=Coat of arms of Zambia.svg|image_map=Zambia (orthographic projection).svg|image_map2=|national_motto=<br />"One Zambia, One Nation" <!--speechmarks, as it's a quotation-->|national_anthem="[[Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free]]"<br /><div style="padding-top:0.4em; text-align:center;">{{center|[[File:Zambian national anthem.oga]]}}</div>|official_languages=English, Nyanja and Icibemba (Bemba)|regional_languages={{collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; |title = |liststyle = text-align: left;border-top:1px solid #aaa; | 28.5% [[Bemba language|Bemba]] | 13.8% [[Nyanja language|Nyanja]] | 11.4% [[Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)|Tonga]] | 10.6% [[Tumbuka language|Tumbuka]] | 5.5% [[Lozi language|Lozi]] | 4.5% [[Chewa language|Chewa]] | 3.0% [[Nsenga language|Nsenga]] | 1.9% [[Lunda language|Lunda]] | 1.9% [[Kaonde language|Kaonde]] | 1.8% [[Lala-Bisa language|Lala]] | 1.8% [[Lamba language|Lamba]] | 1.7% English | 1.5% [[Luvale language|Luvale]] | 1.3% [[Mambwe language|Mambwe]] | 1.2% [[Lenje language|Lenje]] | 1.2% [[Namwanga language|Namwanga]] | 1.0% [[Lala-Bisa language|Bisa]] | 0.9% Ushi | 0.7% [[Ila language|Ila]] | 0.7% [[Mbunda language|Mbunda]] | 0.7% [[Ngoni language|Ngoni]] | 0.7% [[Tumbuka-Senga language|Senga]] | 0.6% [[Lungu language|Lungu]] | 0.5% Toka-Leya | 4.7% Others }}|demonym=Zambian|ethnic_groups={{collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; |title = |liststyle = text-align: left;border-top:1px solid #aaa; | 19.0% [[Bemba people|Bemba]] | 13.6% [[Tonga people of Zambia and Zimbabwe|Tonga]] | 7.5% [[Tumbuka people|Tumbuka]] | 6.0% [[Chewa people|Chewa]] | 5.7% [[Lozi people|Lozi]] | 5.3% [[Nsenga people|Nsenga]] | 3.0% [[Ngoni people|Ngoni]] | 3.1% Lala | 3.9% Kaonde | 2.8% Namwanga | 2.6% [[Lunda people|Lunda (Northern)]] | 2.5% [[Mambwe people|Mambwe]] | 2.2% Luvale | 2.4% [[Lamba people|Lamba]] | 1.9% Ushi | 1.6% Bisa | 1.6% Lenje | 1.2% [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]] | 0.9% [[Lunda people|Lunda (Luapula)]] | 0.9% [[Senga people|Senga]] | 0.8% [[Ila people|Ila]] | 0.8% [[Lungu people|Lungu]] | 0.7% [[Tabwa]] | 0.7% Soli | 0.7% [[Kunda people|Kunda]] | 0.6% Ngumbo | 0.5% Chishinga | 0.5% [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]] | 0.5% [[Nkoya people|Nkoya]] | 5.4% Other ethnics | 0.8% Major racial | 0.4% Unclassified }}|ethnic_groups_year=2010<ref name="ZMBCSO2016">[http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/phocadownload/2010_Census/2010%20Census%20of%20Population%20National%20Analytical%20Report.pdf Census of Population and Housing National Analytical Report 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114001635/http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/phocadownload/2010_Census/2010%20Census%20of%20Population%20National%20Analytical%20Report.pdf |date=14 November 2017 }} Central Statistical Office, Zambia</ref>|religion=[[Christianity]] ([[State religion|official]])|capital=[[Lusaka]]|coordinates={{Coord|15|25|S|28|17|E|type:city_region:ZM}}|largest_city=capital|government_type=[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]]|leader_title1=[[President of Zambia|President]]|leader_name1=[[Hakainde Hichilema]]|leader_title2=[[Vice-President of Zambia|Vice President]]|leader_name2=[[Mutale Nalumango]]|leader_title3=[[Speaker of the National Assembly of Zambia|Speaker]]|leader_name3=[[Nelly Mutti]]|leader_title4=[[Chief Justice of Zambia|Chief Justice]]|leader_name4=[[Mumba Malila]]|legislature=[[National Assembly (Zambia)|National Assembly]]|area_km2=752,617|area_sq_mi=290,587 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->|area_rank=38th <!--should be same as listed on [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]-->|area_footnote=<ref name="area">{{cite web |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf |title=Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density |author=United Nations Statistics Division |access-date=9 November 2007}}</ref>|percent_water=1|population_estimate=19,610,769<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-24 |title=Zambia : Preliminary data shows Population grew from 13.1 million in 2010 to 19.6 million in 2022 |url=https://www.lusakatimes.com/2022/12/24/preliminary-data-shows-population-grew-from-13-1-million-in-2010-to-19-6-million-in-2022/ |access-date=2022-12-27 |language=en-GB}}</ref>|population_estimate_year=2022|population_estimate_rank=63rd|population_density_km2=26.1|population_density_sq_mi=67.6 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->|GDP_PPP_year=2022|GDP_PPP={{increase}}$76.325&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPGDP@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD/ZMB|title=Zambia |publisher=International Monetary Fund }}</ref>|GDP_PPP_rank=102nd|GDP_PPP_per_capita={{increase}}$3,803<ref name=imf2/>|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=158th|GDP_nominal={{increase}}$27.02&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/>|GDP_nominal_year=2022|GDP_nominal_rank=112nd|GDP_nominal_per_capita={{increase}}$1,348<ref name=imf2/>|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank=160th|Gini_year=2015|Gini_change=<!--increase/decrease/steady-->|Gini=57.1 <!--number only-->|Gini_ref=<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2 September 2019}}</ref>|Gini_rank=|HDI_year=2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->|HDI_change=decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->|HDI=0.565 <!--number only-->|HDI_ref=<ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020: The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref>|HDI_rank=154th|sovereignty_type=[[History of Zambia|Independence]]|sovereignty_note=from the [[United Kingdom]]|established_event1=[[North-Western Rhodesia]]|established_date1=27 June 1890|established_event2=[[Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia]]|established_date2=28 November 1899|established_event3=[[North-Eastern Rhodesia]]|established_date3=29 January 1900|established_event4=[[Northern Rhodesia|Amalgamation of Northern Rhodesia]]|established_date4=17 August 1911|established_event5=[[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]]|established_date5=1 August 1953|established_event6=[[Zambia Independence Act 1964|Republic of Zambia]]|established_date6=24 October 1964|established_event7=[[Constitution of Zambia|Current constitution]]|established_date7=5 January 2016|currency=[[Zambian kwacha]]|currency_code=ZMW|time_zone=[[Central Africa Time|CAT]]|utc_offset=+2|date_format=dd/mm/yyyy|drives_on=left|calling_code=[[+260]]|cctld=[[.zm]]|today=|date_start=|religion_ref=|religion_year=}}'''Zambia''' ''(Zambiya)'', mwadango '''''Republic ya Zambia''''', ntcharu icho chilije [[nyanja]] icho chili pamphambano ya Central, Southern na [[East Africa]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Henderson|first=Ian|date=1970|title=The Origins of Nationalism in East and Central Africa: The Zambian Case|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180923|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=11|issue=4|pages=591–603|doi=10.1017/S0021853700010471|jstor=180923|s2cid=154296266|issn=0021-8537}}</ref> nangauli kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuti chili kumwera kwa [[Africa]] ndipo chili pakatikati.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zambia {{!}} Population, Capital, Language, Flag, & Map {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia |access-date=10 March 2022 |website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>Charu ichi chili na vyaru nga ni [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] kumpoto, [[Tanzania]] kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Malaŵi|Malawi]] kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Mozambique]] kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Zimbabwe]] na [[Botswana]] kumwera, [[Namibia]] kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi, na [[Angola]] kumanjiliro gha dazi. Msumba ukuru wa Zambia ni [[Lusaka]]. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ŵakukwana 20.1 miliyoni (2023) ndipo ŵakukhala chomene mu chigaŵa cha Lusaka kumwera na [[Copperbelt Province]] kumpoto. Pakwamba ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Khoisan]] ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Europe]] ŵakati ŵafika mu caru ici mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Britain]] ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na mafuko 73. Mu 1911, vyaru ivi vikasazgikana na kupanga Northern Rhodesia. Mu nyengo yose iyo charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Britain, boma la Zambia likalongozgekanga na ŵanthu awo ŵakimikika kufuma ku [[London]]. Pa Okutobala 24, 1964, Zambia yikajiyimira pawekha ndipo nduna yikuru Kenneth Kaunda ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba. Gulu la Kaunda la United National Independence Party (UNIP) likalutilira kuwusa kwambira mu 1964 m'paka mu 1991. Kaunda wakawovwira comene pa nkhani ya ndyali, ndipo wakakolerananga comene na boma la United States pakusanga nthowa zakumazgira nkhondo izo zikaŵa ku Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Angola, na Namibia.<ref>Andy DeRoche, ''Kenneth Kaunda, the United States, and Southern Africa'' (London: Bloomsbury, 2016).</ref> Kufuma mu 1972 kufika mu 1991 Zambia yikaŵa chalo cha chipani chimoza na UNIP nga chipani chimoza pera cha ndyali pasi pa fundo yakuti "Zambia Yimoza, Charu Chimoza" icho chapangika na Kaunda. Mu 1991, [[Frederick Chiluba]] wa Social-Democratic Movement for Multi-Party Democracy ndiyo wakamusankhira Kaunda. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, charu cha Zambia chili na vipani vinandi ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulutilira kusintha mazaza mwa mtende. Mu Zambia muli vinthu vinandi ivyo vingawovwira ŵanthu kusanga vyakurya, vyakumera, makuni, maji ghawemi, na malo ghakukolerana.<ref>Karlyn Eckman (FAO, 2007).GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN FORESTRY IN AFRICA ZAMBIA.</ref> In 2010, the [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] named Zambia one of the world's fastest economically reformed countries.<ref>Ngoma, Jumbe (18 December 2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20221014161009/https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2010/12/18/world-bank-president-praises-reforms-zambia-underscores-need-continued-improvements-policy-governance "World Bank President Praises Reforms In Zambia, Underscores Need For Continued Improvements In Policy And Governance"]. World Bank.</ref> Wupu wa Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa ([[COMESA]]) uli ku Lusaka. {{TOC limit|3}} == Kazilo ka zina == Chigaŵa cha Zambia chikachemekanga [[Northern Rhodesia]] kufuma mu 1911 m'paka 1964. Mu Okutobala 1964, charu ichi chikati chafwatuka ku boma la Britain, chikachemeka Zambia. Zina lakuti Zambia lili kufuma ku zina la [[Mlonga wa Zambezi]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Everett-Heath|first1=John|title=The Concise Dictionary of World Place Names|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1589|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=7 December 2017|isbn=9780192556462}}</ref> == Mbili == {{Main|Mbili ya Zambia}}<!--many paragraphs have no citations--> === Mbili ya nyengo ya chiyamwaka === Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura mu [[Dambo la Zambezi]] na ku [[Kalambo Falls]] vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo ghakupambanapambana. Vinthu vyakale ivyo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa msasa kufupi na maji gha Kalambo, ŵali kusanga kuti ni vyaka vyakujumpha 36,000. Viwangwa vya munthu wa ku [[Broken Hill]] (uyo wakumanyikwaso na zina lakuti [[Kabwe Man]]) ivyo vikusangika pakati pa vyaka 300,000 na 125,000 [[B.C.E.]], vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Malcolm Southwood, Bruce Cairncross & Mike S. Rumsey|date=2019|title=Minerals of the Kabwe ("Broken Hill") Mine, Central Province, Zambia, Rocks & Minerals|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00357529.2019.1530038|journal=Rocks & Minerals|volume=94:2|pages=114–149|doi=10.1080/00357529.2019.1530038|s2cid=135446729}}</ref> Munthu wa ku Broken Hill wakasangika ku Zambia mu chigaŵa cha Kabwe. === Khoisan na Batwa === [[File:NsaluCave.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NsaluCave.jpg|left|thumb|Vinthu vyakale (kweni vili kulembeka pa malibwe) mu mphanji ya Nsalu, ku Kasanka National Park kumpoto kwa Zambia]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia ŵakakhalanga na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa [[Khoisan]] na [[Batwa]] m'paka cha m'ma 300 C.E., apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha.<ref>{{cite book|last=Holmes|first=Timothy|title=Cultures of the World: Zambia|publisher=Times Books International|year=1998|isbn=978-0-7614-0694-5|location=Tarrytown, New York|pages=19–20}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakafuma ku [[East Africa]] ndipo ŵakapharazgika kumwera vyaka 150,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa kwa Twa ŵakagaŵikana mu magulu ghaŵiri: Kafwe Twa ŵakakhalanga kufupi na Kafue Flats na Lukanga Twa awo ŵakakhalanga kufupi na [[Lukanga Swamp]]. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakalemba vinthu vinandi vyakukhwaskana na malukwa agho ghakaŵako kale chomene ku Zambia, nga ni ivyo ŵakulemba pa malukwa gha [[Mwela]], Mumbwa, na Nachikufu. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan, chomenechomene ŵa mtundu wa Twa, ŵakakhalanga pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto ku Central na Southern Africa. === The Bantu (Abantu) === Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu panji Bantu (ŵanthu awo ŵakung'anamura ŵanthu) ni ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ndipo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi, kumwera, na pakati pa Africa. Cifukwa cakuti caru ca Zambia cili pa mphambano ya caru ca [[Central Africa]], [[Southern Africa]], na [[Africa Great Lakes]], ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vitatu ivi. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika mu vigaŵa vitatu ivi vikacitika nyengo yimoza, ntheura mbiri ya Zambia, nga ni vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, yingalongosoreka makora yayi. Mbiri yakwambilira ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia yikusangika mu mabuku agho ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pamulomo, ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale, na mu mabuku ghakulembeka, ndipo ghanandi mwa mabuku agha ghakalembeka na ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa yayi.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Scott D. |title=Culture and Customs of Zambia |url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/scott_d._taylor_culture_and_customs_of_zambia_cbook4you.pdf |access-date=25 March 2018 |publisher=Greenwood Press}}</ref> ==== Bantu origins ==== [[File:Batonga_women.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Batonga_women.png|thumb|Ŵalovi ŵa ku Batonga ku Southern Zambia. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanakazi ŵakucita milimo yakuzirwa comene.]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakukhala kumanjiliro gha dazi na pakati pa Africa. Pakati pa vyaka 4,000 na 3,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusazgikira mu vyaru vinandi. Ici nchimoza mwa vinthu vikuru comene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakacita. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakambiska vyakumera mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakendanga mu nthowa ziŵiri: Yimoza yikafumanga kumafumiro gha dazi na kujumpha mu Congo Basin ndipo yinyake yikafumanga kumafumiro gha dazi na kujumpha mu [[Nyanja zikuru za mu Africa]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Bostoen |first=Koen |date=26 April 2018 |title=The Bantu Expansion |url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-191 |access-date=27 October 2020 |website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.191 |isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> ==== First Bantu settlement ==== Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Bantu awo ŵakiza ku Zambia ŵakafuma kumafumiro gha dazi na kwiza ku Africa. Ŵakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., ndipo pakati pawo pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Tonga (ŵakuchemekaso kuti Ba-Tonga, "Ba-" kung'anamura "ŵanandi") na ŵa Ba-Ila na Namwanga, awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Zambia kufupi na Zimbabwe. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Ba-Tonga ŵakulemba vikulongora kuti ŵakafuma kumafumiro gha dazi kufupi na "nyanja yikuru". Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ba-Tumbuka nawo ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia na Malawi. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu mizi yikuruyikuru. Ŵakaŵavya mulongozgi ndipo ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na kovwirana pakunozga vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵakasamukanga kanandi waka chifukwa chakuti charu chikamba kunangika chifukwa cha kulima vyakurya. Kweniso ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa na viŵeto vikuruvikuru vya ng'ombe.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 January 2019 |title=Ila |url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/early-bantu-settlers/ila/ |access-date=27 October 2020 |website=Zambia's Traditional History}}</ref> [[File:Great-Zimbabwe-ruins-outer-walls-3-1200.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great-Zimbabwe-ruins-outer-walls-3-1200.jpg|left|thumb|Vinthu ivyo vikaparanyika ku Great Zimbabwe. Ŵalongozgi ŵa Kalanga/Shona ŵa ufumu uwu ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda pa Ingombe Ilede.]] Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ku Zambia ŵakaŵa ŵakujitemwa. Ŵamishonale ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhazikika kumwera kwa Zambia ŵakamanya kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyimira pawekha. Yumoza wa ŵamishonale aŵa wakati: "Para ŵanthu ŵa ku Tonga ŵakukhumba vilwero vya nkhondo, kuvina, na vya mu nyumba, ŵakuluta ku mapiri na kukumba mpaka ŵasange visulo. Wakusongonora visulo ivi na kupanga nkhwantha, vyakulimira, na vinthu vinyake vyakovwira. Wakotcha makuni na kupanga makala gha makuni. Viŵiya ivyo wakugwiliskira ntchito ni vikumba vya nyama, ndipo viŵiya vyake ni dongo, ndipo viŵiya vyake ni visulo. Wakuwumba, kuwotcha, kupanga, na kucita milimo yose iyo wakucita". Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakachitanga malonda pa malo ghakuchemeka Ingombe Ilede (kung'anamura ng'ombe yakugona mu Chi-Tonga chifukwa khuni la baobab likuwoneka nga ni ng'ombe) ku Southern Zambia. Pa malo agha, ŵakakumana na ŵamalonda ŵanandi ŵa Kalanga na Shona ŵakufuma ku Great Zimbabwe kweniso ŵa Swahili ŵakufuma ku East Africa. Ingombe Ilede ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghakuzirwa chomene ghakwendeskera malonda gha mafumu gha ku Zimbabwe, ndipo ghanyake ghakaŵa gha ku Swahili nga ni Sofala. Vinthu ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Ingombe Ilede vikaŵa vyakuvwara, mphete, golide, na mabangili. Vinthu vinyake ivi vikafuma ku vigaŵa ivyo sono ni kumwera kwa Democratic Republic of Congo na Kilwa Kisiwani, apo vinyake vikafuma ku India, China, na vyaru vinyake vya ku Arabia..<ref>{{Cite web |title=Origins of trade - Zambia Travel Guide |url=http://www.zambia-travel-guide.com/bradt_guide.asp?bradt=1084 |access-date=28 October 2020 |website=www.zambia-travel-guide.com}}</ref> The African traders were later joined by the Portuguese in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pikirayi|first=Innocent|date=August 2017|title=Ingombe Ilede and the demise of Great Zimbabwe|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003598X17000953/type/journal_article|journal=Antiquity|volume=91|issue=358|pages=1085–1086|doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.95|s2cid=158120419|issn=0003-598X}}</ref> Kuchepa kwa ufumu wa Great Zimbabwe, chifukwa cha mpikisano wa malonda kuchokera ku maufumu ena a Kalanga/Shona monga Khami ndi Mutapa, kunatanthauzira kutha kwa Ingombe Ilede.. ==== Second Bantu settlement ==== Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala ku Zambia, ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakenda nthowa ya kumanjiliro gha dazi ya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Democratic Republic of the Congo ndipo ndiwo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 August 2019 |title=Luba |url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/second-bantu-invasion/luba/ |access-date=7 November 2020 |website=Zambia's Traditional History}}</ref> Nangauli pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bemba panji AbaBemba ŵali na ubwezi wakukhora na Ufumu wa Kongo kwizira mwa Mwene Kongo VIII Mvemba, kweni palije ukaboni. ===== Luba-Lunda states ===== [[File:Mwata.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mwata.jpg|thumb|Chithuzi cha mulongozgi wa Lunda, Mwata Kazembe, wakupokelera Ŵapwitikizi mu luŵaza lwa ufumu mu ma 1800.]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bemba, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Lamba, Bisa, Senga, Kaonde, Swaka, Nkoya na Soli, ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu Ufumu wa Luba ku Upemba mu Democratic Republic of Congo. Chigaŵa icho Ufumu wa Luba ukakhalanga chikaŵa na ŵalimi ŵakwambilira na ŵantchito ŵa visulo kwambira m'ma 300. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakasambira kugwiliskira nchito mikwawu na vyakuponyera visulo, kupanga maboti, kujura migelo mu mathipa, na kupanga madamu gha mamita 2.5. Ntheura ŵakamba kuguliska somba, mkuwa, visulo, na mchere kuti ŵasange vinthu vyakufuma ku vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa, nga ni mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili, kweniso ku Portugal. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ufumu wa Luba ukafuma mu ŵanthu aŵa.<ref name="metmuseum.org">{{Cite web |last=Bortolot |first=Alexander Ives |title=Kingdoms of the Savanna: The Luba and Lunda Empires |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/luba/hd_luba.htm |access-date=7 November 2020 |website=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> Ufumu wa Luba ukaŵa ufumu ukuru uwo ukaŵa na boma likuru kweniso mafumu ghachoko waka. Chikaŵa na mawupu ghakurughakuru gha malonda agho ghakakolerananga nkhorongo za mu Congo Basin na mapiri gha ku Copperbelt Province, agho sono ghali na vinthu vinandi. Mu ufumu uwu, ŵanthu ŵakazirwiskanga comene maluso, ndipo ŵantchito nawo ŵakazirwiskikanga comene. Mu Ufumu wa Luba mukaŵa mabuku ghanandi. Nkhani yinyake yakukhwaskana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba ŵakababikira yikulongosora mphambano iyo yilipo pakati pa mitundu yiŵiri ya mafumu gha ku Luba.{{blockquote|Nkongolo Mwamba, fumu yakufipa, na Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, karonga wa mtundu wakufipa. Nkongolo Mwamba ni mwanalume wakuloŵera ndiposo wankhaza, ndipo Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe ni karonga muwemi ndiposo wakuzika. Nkongolo the Red ni munthu wambura nkharo, munthu uyo wakurya pa wumba, wakuloŵera, ndipo wakumanya yayi kujikora, apo Mbidi Kiluwe ni munthu wakujivikilira, wakutemwa nkharo yiwemi; wakurya yayi pa wumba, wakulamulira kayowoyero kake na kacitiro kake, ndipo wakujipatura ku makhaliro ghaheni gha ŵanthu bweka. Nkongolo Mwamba wakwimira nkhaza, apo Mbidi Kiluwe wakulutilira kuŵa munthu wacitemwa ndiposo walusungu.<ref>{{cite web|title=Luba {{!}} people|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Luba-people|access-date=7 November 2020|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>}} [[File:Lunda_houses-1854.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lunda_houses-1854.jpg|left|thumb|A drawing of [[:en:Lunda_people|Lunda]] houses by a Portuguese visitor. The size of the doorways relative to the building emphasizes the scale of the buildings.]] Mu chigaŵa chenechicho cha kumwera kwa Congo ŵanthu ŵa Lunda ŵakazgoka chigaŵa cha ufumu wa Luba ndipo ŵakamba kulondezga mitheto ya ŵanthu ŵa Luba. Mwakuyana na nthano za Lunda, Chibinda Ilunga, mwana wa Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, uyo wakaŵa mulwani wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba, wakambiska ndondomeko ya boma ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Lunda mu 1600 apo wakatora Lueji. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba, ŵakaŵa mu ufumu wa Luba. Ndipouli, mafumu gha Lunda ghakaŵa ghakupambana na mafumu ghanyake ndipo ghakalutilira kuthereska ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref name="metmuseum.org" /> Lunda, nga ni boma la Luba, nalo likaguliskanga vinthu mu nyanja za Atlantic na Indian Ocean. Apo muwusi Mwaant Yaav Naweej wakambiska nthowa zakwendera ku nyanja ya Atlantic ndipo wakambiska kukolerana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga ŵazga na vyakurya vya mu nkhorongo.<ref name="metmuseum.org" /> Vyaru vya Luba-Lunda vikamara chifukwa cha malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Atlantic kumanjiliro gha dazi na ku Indian Ocean kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chokwe, awo ŵakakolerananga chomene na ŵa Luvale ndipo ŵakakhalanga ku Lunda, ŵakasuzgikanga na ŵazga awo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhumbanga. Kweni ŵakati ŵafumako ku Lunda, iwo ŵakamba kuguliska ŵazga ku vyaru vyose viŵiri. Paumaliro Ŵachokwe ŵakathereskeka na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake kweniso Ŵapwitikizi. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ufumu wa Luba-Lunda uparanyike ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafumako ku Democratic Republic of the Congo kuluta ku vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya Zambia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵali kufuma ku mbumba ya Luba-Lunda na ku vyaru vinyake vya ku Central Africa.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 August 2019 |title=Luba |url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/second-bantu-invasion/luba/ |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=Zambia's Traditional History}}</ref> ===== The Maravi Confederacy ===== Mu ma 1200, pambere boma la Luba-Lunda lindambe, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku Congo kuya ku nyanja ya Mweru. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Upemba, Democratic Republic of Congo. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, magulu agha ghakacemekanga kuti Maravi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene ŵakaŵa ŵa Chewa (Achewa), awo ŵakamba kusangana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu nga mba Tumbuka.<ref name="Team">{{cite web |last=Team |first=Editorial |date=26 December 2018 |title=The Maravi Confederacy |url=https://thinkafrica.net/maravi-confederacy/ |access-date=13 December 2020 |website=Think Africa}}</ref> [[File:Kalonga.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kalonga.jpg|left|thumb|The kalonga (ruler) of the [[:en:Chewa_people|AChewa]] today descends from the kalonga of the Maravi Empire.]] Mu 1480 Ufumu wa Maravi ukakhazikiskika na kalonga (mkulu wa Maravi) wa fuko la Phiri, limoza mwa mafuko ghakurughakuru. Ufumu wa Maravi ukaŵa kufuma ku nyanja ya Indian Ocean na kujumpha mu charu icho sono ni Mozambique m'paka ku Zambia na vigaŵa vinandi vya Malawi. Gulu la ndyali la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Maravi likaŵa nga ni gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi ŵakendanga na mino gha zovu ndipo ŵakaghaguliskanga ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. Kweniso ŵakacitanga na kutumizga visulo. Mu 1590 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵajikorenge malonda gha ku Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi ku Lundu ŵakakwiya chomene na ivyo ŵakachita. Ŵa WaZimba ŵakathereska matawuni gha Tete, Sena, na matawuni ghanyake gha ku Portugal. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Ŵamaravi ŵakiza na mitheto iyo yikazgoka gulu lakubisika la Nyau kufuma ku Upemba. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nyau ndiwo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nyau ŵakutemwa kuvina na masks. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Maravi ŵakamba kusuzgika cifukwa ca mphindano za umo ŵakakhalira mu ufumu, kuwukira kwa Ŵangoni, na kuwukira kwa ŵazga kufuma ku Yao.<ref name="thinkafrica.net">{{cite web |last=Team |first=Editorial |date=26 December 2018 |title=The Maravi Confederacy |url=https://thinkafrica.net/maravi-confederacy/ |access-date=14 December 2020 |website=Think Africa}}</ref> ===== Mutapa Empire and Mfecane ===== [[File:Ngoni_Chiefs.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ngoni_Chiefs.jpg|thumb|Three young [[:en:Ngoni_people|Ngoni]] chiefs. The Ngoni made their way into [[:en:Eastern_Province,_Zambia|Eastern Zambia]] from [[:en:KwaZulu-Natal|KwaZulu]] in South Africa. They eventually assimilated into the local ethnic groups.]] Apo Ufumu wa Zimbabwe ukaŵa pafupi kumara, yumoza wa ŵakaronga ŵa charu ichi, Nyatsimba Mutota, wakafumamo mu ufumu uwu na kupanga ufumu uphya wakuchemeka Mutapa. Mwene Mutapa, kung'anamura "Wakupankhura Vyaru", ndiyo wakapika zina ili pamoza na mafumu ghanyake agho ghakiza pamanyuma pake. Ufumu wa Mutapa ukaŵa pakati pa milonga ya Zambezi na Limpopo, mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Zambia, Zimbabwe, na Mozambique. Apo Mutapa wakaŵa na mazaza ghakuru, wakaŵa kuti wapoka chigaŵa cha Dande ku Tonga na Tavara. Ufumu wa Mutapa ukaguliskanga vinthu mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean na ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. Ŵakatumanga golide na njovu ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵazakapokere silika na vinthu vinyake vya ku Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mutapa |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Mutapa/ |access-date=31 December 2020 |website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref> Nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku Maravi, Mutapa nayo wakasuzgika na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Portugal. Ubwezi wawo ukafika pachanya apo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kuti ŵajinthe vinthu mu ufumu wawo mwa kupanga misika na kuzgora ŵanthu kuŵa Ŵakhristu. Ici cikakwiyiska comene Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Swahili awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba wa msumba uwu, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵambe kuwukira ufumu uwu na kuwukira migodi ya golide na misewu ya njovu. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathera chifukwa cha matenda agho ghakawira mu mlonga wa Zambezi. Mu ma 1600, Mutapa wakamba kunangika cifukwa ca mphindano na nkhondo za mukati. Paumaliro, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathereska ufumu uwu, ndipo pamasinda ŵakarwa nawo. Kweniso Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaŵa na malo ghakurughakuru ghakuchemeka Prazos. Ŵakaŵasambizganga umo ŵangacitira nkhondo na kuŵapa vilwero. Ŵanalume aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵalwani ŵa njovu ndipo ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Chikunda. Ŵakati ŵamara kuwusa, Ŵachikunda ŵakaluta ku Zambia.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 January 2019 |title=Chikunda |url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/mozambique/chikunda/ |access-date=12 January 2021 |website=Zambia's Traditional History}}</ref> [[File:Litunga.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Litunga.jpg|left|thumb|Inside the palace of the [[:en:Litunga|Litunga]], ruler of the Lozi. Due to the flooding on the Zambezi, the Litunga has two palaces one of which is on higher ground. The movement of Litunga to higher land is celebrated at the [[:en:Kuomboka|Kuomboka]] Ceremony.]] Julian Cobbing wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga kweniso awo ŵakayezganga kuti ŵajikorenge vinthu mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya mu Africa, ndiwo ŵakambiska nkhondo. Ici tingaciwona na mtundu wa nkhondo wa WaZimba wa Ŵamaravi, awo ŵakati ŵathereska Ŵapwitikizi, ŵakalutilira kuŵa ŵankhondo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Rozvi, uwo ukaŵa wa Mutapa, uŵeko. Mulongozgi wa mafuko gha Rozvi, Changamire Dombo, wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵankhongono comene mu South-Central Africa. Mu muwuso wake, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Rozvi ŵakathereska Ŵapwitikizi na kuŵachimbizga ku malo agho ŵakaguliskiranga vinthu mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Zambezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rozwi {{!}} historical state, Africa |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Rozwi-historical-state-Africa |access-date=2 January 2021 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Kweni ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa comene pa nkhani iyi nchakuti Ŵazulu ŵakamba kulamulira na Shaka. Ŵanthu ŵa ku England awo ŵakakhalanga ku Cape ŵakamba kuŵasuzga chomene ndipo Ŵazulu ŵakamba kuŵa ŵankhondo. Ŵazulu ŵakalutilira kuthandazgika mwa kupoka ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵa mafuko agho ŵakathereska. Usange ŵanalume ŵa mafuko agha ŵakapona ku nkhondo, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa za Ŵazulu kuti ŵawukire mafuko ghanyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafumemo mu vikaya vyawo, nkhondo na kuwukira mu vyaru vya kumwera, pakati na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵanguni awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Zwagendaba ŵakambuka mlonga wa Zambezi kulazga kumpoto. Ŵangoni ndiwo ŵakakoma ufumu wa Maravi uwo ukaŵa kuti wanangika kale. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Nguni ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, na Tanzania. Ku Western Zambia, gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakufuma mu fuko la Sotho-Tswana ŵakuchemeka Kololo, ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi awo ŵakafuma mu vigaŵa vya Luba na Lunda. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Luyana ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Barotse pa malo agho mukaŵa maji gha Zambezi ŵakati ŵafika kufuma ku Katanga. Mu nyengo ya Kololo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Luyana ŵakamba kuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Kololo m'paka apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Luyana ŵakagalukira na kuwiskira pasi Ŵakololo. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ŵambunda ŵanyake ŵakasamukira ku Barotseland, Mongu.<ref>'' The elites of Barotseland, 1878–1969: a political history of Zambia's Western Province'': a. Gerald L. Caplan, C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1970, {{ISBN|0900966386}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140411045127/http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/zonek.html Bantu-Languages.com], citing Maniacky 1997</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Aluyi na mulongozgi wawo, Litunga Mulambwa, ŵakazirwiskanga comene Mbunda cifukwa ca luso lwawo lwa kurwa nkhondo. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa ivyo ŵakukhala sono. === Colonial Period === ==== Europeans ==== [[File:David Livingstone by Thomas Annan.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David Livingstone by Thomas Annan.jpg|thumb|An 1864 photograph of the Scottish explorer and missionary [[:en:David_Livingstone|David Livingstone]]]] Yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaluta ku malo agha wakaŵa Francisco de Lacerda wa ku Portugal. Lacerda wakalongozga ulendo kufuma ku Mozambique kuya ku Kazembe ku Zambia (uyo wakakhumbanga kuwona na kwambuka kumwera kwa Africa kufuma ku nyanja yimoza m'paka ku yinyake kakwamba), ndipo wakafwa pa ulendo uwu mu 1798. Kufuma pa nyengo iyi, mubwezi wake Francisco Pinto ndiyo wakalongozganga ulendo uwu. Chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa pakati pa Mozambique na Angola. Mu ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufuma ku Europe nawo ŵakiza. Yumoza wawo wakaŵa David Livingstone, uyo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuguliska ŵazga. Wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ku Europe kuwona maji ghakunyang'amira gha mu Mlonga wa Zambezi mu 1855. Wakalongosora kuti: "Ŵangelo ŵakwenera kuti ŵakawonanga vinthu viwemi comene apo ŵakachimbiranga". Ku malo agha, maji agha ghakucemeka "Mosi-o-Tunya" panji "musi wakugolera" mu ciyowoyero ca Lozi panji Kololo. Tawuni ya Livingstone, kufupi na maji gha Falls, yili na zina lake. Nkhani za maulendo ghake izo zikaŵa zakumanyikwa comene zikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe, ŵamishonale na ŵamalonda ŵize ku malo agha. British South Africa Company Mu 1888, British South Africa Company (BSA Company), yakulongozgeka na Cecil Rhodes, yikapokera wanangwa wa migodi kufuma ku Litunga wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Lozi, Mulara Mulara wa ku Lozi (Ba-rotse) mu chigaŵa icho pamasinda chikazgoka Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia.<ref name="livingstone">{{cite web |author=Livingstone Tourism Association |title=Destination:Zambia&nbsp;– History and Culture |url=http://www.livingstonetourism.com/pages/history.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012153527/http://livingstonetourism.com/pages/history.htm |archive-date=12 October 2007 |access-date=29 October 2007}}</ref> Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi, mu Disembala 1897 gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Angoni panji Ngoni (awo ŵakafuma ku Zululand) ŵakagalukira Tsinco, mwana wa Themba Mpezeni, kweni ŵakathereskeka. Cigaŵa ici cikacemekanga Rhodesia wa kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu 1895, Rhodes wakapempha Frederick Russell Burnham, uyo wakaŵa wakuwona vya charu cha America, kuti wapenje tumaji na nthowa zakwendeskera milonga mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref name="burnham1899">{{cite book|last=Burnham|first=Frederick Russell|author-link=Frederick Russell Burnham|editor-first=Walter H.|editor-last=Wills|title=Bulawayo Up-to-date; Being a General Sketch of Rhodesia|publisher=Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co.|year=1899|pages=177–180|chapter=Northern Rhodesia|title-link=s:Northern Rhodesia}}</ref> North-Eastern Rhodesia na Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia ghakaŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana m'paka mu 1911, apo vikasazgikana na kupanga Northern Rhodesia, boma la Britain. Mu 1923, kampani ya BSA yikapeleka mazaza gha kumpoto kwa Rhodesia ku boma la Britain pamasinda pakuti boma la Britain likakana kuwezgerapo chikalata cha kampani iyi. ==== British colonisation ==== Mu 1923, charu cha Southern Rhodesia (sono ni Zimbabwe), icho chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain, chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain. Mu 1924, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana, boma la Northern Rhodesia likasamira ku British Colonial Office. ===== Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ===== Mu 1953, boma la Rhodesia na Nyasaland likapangiska kuti Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, na Nyasaland (lero ni Malawi) viŵe chigaŵa chimoza. Ivi vikacitika nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuskanga, ndipo ŵakalongosora kuti ŵakususka mu 1960-61. Ku Northern Rhodesia ndiko kukaŵa masuzgo ghanandi agho ghakaŵapo mu vyaka vyaumaliro. Pakwamba, chipani cha African National Congress (ANC) cha Harry Nkumbula ndicho chikalongozganga kampeni iyi, ndipo pamasinda chipani cha United National Independence Party (UNIP) cha Kenneth Kaunda ndicho chikamba. === Independence === [[File:Zambia123f.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia123f.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Kenneth_David_Kaunda|Kenneth Kaunda]], first Republican president, on a state visit to [[:en:Socialist_Republic_of_Romania|Romania]] in 1970]] Pa vigaŵa viŵiri, mu Okutobala na Disembala 1962, pakaŵa mavoti ghanandi gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa mu wupu wakulamulira. {{cn|date=February 2023}} Boma ili likamara pa 31 Disembala 1963, ndipo mu Janyuwale 1964, Kaunda wakathereska pa chisankho cha pera cha Prime Minister wa Northern Rhodesia. Kaunda wakaŵa paubwezi wakukhora na kazembe wa vigaŵa, Evelyn Hone. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, ku mpoto kwa charu kukawuka chigaluka chakuchemeka Lumpa Uprising icho chikaŵa na Alice Lenshina. Northern Rhodesia yikazgoka Republic of Zambia pa 24 Okutobala 1964, ndipo Kenneth Kaunda ndiyo wakaŵa purezidenti wakwamba. Apo Zambia wakapokera wanangwa wake, wakaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi. Pa caru cose, pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa ku Zambia awo ŵakasambizgika makora ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera kwendeska boma. John Willson ndiyo wakawovwirapo. Mu 1964, ku Zambia kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakujumpha 70,000, ndipo ŵakalutilira kuŵa na nchito yikuru comene.<ref name="Zambia">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/25/newsid_2658000/2658325.stm 1964: President Kaunda takes power in Zambia]. [[BBC]] 'On This Day'.</ref> === Post-independence === Kaunda wakawovwira ŵasilikari ŵa Patriotic Front kuti ŵanjire mu charu cha Rhodesia, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe masuzgo gha ndyali. Malo ghakuzenga magesi gha Kariba agho ghali pa Mlonga wa Zambezi ghakaŵa na magesi ghakukwana kuti charu chiŵe na magesi nangauli charu cha Rhodesia ndicho chikaŵa na magesi agha. Nkhondo ya ku Rhodesia mu 1965 yikakhwaska vyaru ivyo vikaŵa paubwezi na ŵandyali. Pa 3 Seputembala 1978, ndege ya ŵanthu wose, ndege ya Air Rhodesia Flight 825, yikadumulika kufupi na Kariba na Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Ŵanthu 18, kusazgapo ŵana, ŵakapona pa ngozi iyi kweni ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Joshua Nkomo. Rhodesia yikazgora na Operation Gatling, kuwukira maboma gha Nkomo mu Zambia, chomene ku likuru lake la ŵasilikari kufupi na Lusaka. Pa zuŵa lenelili, maofesi ghanyake ghaŵiri mu Zambia ghakaŵawukira na vilwero vya nkhondo vya mu mlengalenga na vya ŵasilikari ŵa ku malo agha.<ref>{{cite web |title=GREEN LEADER. OPERATION GATLING, THE RHODESIAN MILITARY'S RESPONSE TO THE VISCOUNT TRAGEDY |url=http://www.helion.co.uk/new-and-forthcoming-titles/green-leader-operation-gatling-the-rhodesian-military-s-response-to-the-viscount-tragedy.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125155440/http://www.helion.co.uk/new-and-forthcoming-titles/green-leader-operation-gatling-the-rhodesian-military-s-response-to-the-viscount-tragedy.html |archive-date=25 January 2017 |access-date=22 April 2017}}</ref> Njanji yakuya ku Dar es Salaam ku Tanzania, iyo yikamara kuzengeka mu 1975 na wovwiri wa ku China, yikawovwira kuti Zambia yileke kuthemba njanji iyo yikendanga kumwera kwa South Africa na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Angola. M'paka apo njanji iyi yikamalira, nthowa yikuru ya ku Zambia yakwendeskera katundu wakunjira na kufuma ku vyaru vinyake yikaŵa mu nthowa ya TanZam Road, iyo yikendanga kufuma ku Zambia kuya ku misumba ya ku Tanzania. Kweniso ŵakanozga nthowa yakufumiskira mafuta ya Tazama kufuma ku Dar es Salaam kuluta ku Ndola ku Zambia. Kuumaliro wa m'ma 1970, Mozambique na Angola vikafwatuka ku Portugal. Boma la ku Rhodesia ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵatuŵa, likapeleka chikalata cha kujithemba mu 1965, ndipo likakolerana na ivyo chikalembeka mu 1979 mu phangano la Lancaster House. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikacitika mu vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Portugal kweniso nkhondo ya wanangwa ya ku Namibia, yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafume mu vyaru ivi. Msewu wa njanji wa Benguela, uwo ukajumphanga kumanjiliro gha dazi kujumpha mu Angola, ukajalika ku Zambia kuumaliro wa ma 1970. Boma la Zambia likapeleka wovwiri ku gulu lakulimbana na apartheid nga ni African National Congress (ANC).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Evans, M.|title=The Front-Line States, South Africa and Southern African Security: Military Prospects and Perspectives|url=http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol12n1/juz012001002.pdf|page=1|journal=Zambezia|year=1984|volume=12}}</ref> ==== Economic troubles ==== Pakati pa ma 1970, mtengo wa mkuwa, uwo ni usambazi ukuru wa ku Zambia, ukakhira comene pa caru cose. Mu Zambia, ndalama izo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakuguliska mkuwa mu malo ghatali zikaŵa zinandi. Zambia wakaluta ku vyaru vinyake na ku vyaru vinyake kukapempha wovwiri, kweni cifukwa cakuti mtengo wa mkuŵa ukakhala waka pacoko, cikaŵa cakusuzga kuti wapeleke ngongoli yake. Kuzakafika pakati pa ma 1990, nangauli ngongoli yikaŵa yakukwana yayi, kweni ngongoli ya Zambia yikaŵa yitali comene pa caru cose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambia (12/08) |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/zambia/102331.htm |access-date=27 May 2020 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> ==== Democratisation ==== Mu Juni 1990, vivulupi vya ku Kaunda vikakura comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na boma mu Juni 1990.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2020 |title=About Zambia |url=http://www.psp-ltd.com/zam_stat_eng.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509233410/http://psp-ltd.com/zam_stat_eng.htm |archive-date=9 May 2016 |access-date=20 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bartlett|first=David M. C.|date=2000|title=Civil Society and Democracy: A Zambian Case Study|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2637411|journal=Journal of Southern African Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=429–446|doi=10.1080/030570700750019655|jstor=2637411|s2cid=143480603|issn=0305-7070}}</ref> Mu 1990 Kaunda wakapona ku chiyezgo cha kuwukira boma, ndipo mu 1991 wakazomera kuwezgerapo demokilase ya vyaru vinandi, wati wakhazikiska boma la chipani chimoza pasi pa Chona Commission ya 1972. Pa mavoti gha vyaru vinandi, Kaunda wakafumiskika pa udindo wake (wonani pasi apa). Pa Disembala 30, 1991, pa ciphikiro cinyake, Frederick Chiluba, pulezidenti muphya wa caru ici, wakapharazga kuti Zambia ni caru ca Cikristu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chuma chikakhazikika, ndipo mu 2006 na 2007, chiŵelengero cha ndalama chikakwera chomene. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikapangiska kuti charu ichi chikure ni ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakuguliska mu migodi kweniso chifukwa cha kukwera kwa mtengo wa mkuwa pa charu chose. Vyose ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia ŵambe kukondwa na wovwiri uwo ŵapeleka. Pa 20 Janyuwale 2015, pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Michael Sata, Edgar Lungu wakathereska mavoti 807,625. == Vya ndale == {{Main|Politics of Zambia}} [[File:Zambia_National_Assembly_Building.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia_National_Assembly_Building.jpg|thumb|Zambia National Assembly building in [[:en:Lusaka|Lusaka]]]] Ndyali mu Zambia zikuchitika mu ndondomeko ya presidental representative democratic republic, apo President wa Zambia ni mutu wa boma na mutu wa boma mu ndondomeko ya vyaru vinandi. Boma ndilo lili na mazaza ghakulongozga, ndipo boma na nyumba ya malango ndivyo vili na mazaza. Mu Okutobala 1964, charu cha Zambia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Kufuma mu 2011 mpaka 2014, pulezidenti wa Zambia wakaŵa Michael Sata, mpaka apo Sata wakafwira pa 28 Okutobala 2014. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Sata, Vice President Guy Scott, wa ku Zambia uyo wakafuma ku Scotland, ndiyo wakaŵa President wa Zambia. Pa 22 January 2015, ŵakachita chisankho cha pulezidenti. Pa 24 January 2015, wakapharazga kuti Edgar Chagwa Lungu watonda pa chisankho kuti waŵe purezidenti wa 6. Wakawina mavoti 48.33% ndipo wakuluska Hakainde Hichilema uyo wakaŵa pafupi nayo pa 46.67%.<ref>[https://news.yahoo.com/defence-minister-edgar-lungu-wins-zambia-vote-203552285.html Defence Minister Lungu wins Zambia's disputed presidential race]. ''Associated Press'' via ''Yahoo News''. 24 January 2015</ref> Ŵanyake 9 wose ŵakapokera pacoko waka pa 1 peresenti. Mu Ogasiti 2016 pa mavoti gha chalo cha Zambia, pulezidenti Edgar Lungu wakathereskeka mu chigaŵa chakwamba. Chipani chakususka chikaŵa na milandu ya upusikizgi ndipo chipani cha Patriotic Front (PF) chikakana ivyo chipani cha UPND chikayowoya. Mu mavoti gha 2021 agho ghakaŵa na ŵanthu 70%, Hakainde Hichilema wakapokera 59% ya mavoti, apo mulwani wake wapamtima, pulezidenti Edgar Chagwa Lungu, wakapokera 39% ya mavoti. Pa 16 August Edgar Lungu wakazomera mu mazgu gha pa TV, kutuma kalata na kuwonga pulezidenti wakusankhika Hakainde Hichilema. Pa 24 Ogasiti 2021, Hakainde Hichilema wakalapizga kuŵa purezidenti muphya wa Zambia pa chiphikiro icho chikaŵapo na ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa vyaru kusazgapo mulongozgi wa Commonwealth icho chikachitikira ku Heroes Stadium mu msumba wa Lusaka.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 August 2021 |title=HH SWORN-IN AS ZAMBIAN PRESIDENT ~ |url=https://www.znbc.co.zm/news/hh-sworn-in-as-zambian-president/ |access-date=24 February 2022}}</ref> === Ubale na vyaru vinyake === {{Further|Foreign relations of Zambia}} [[File:Vladimir_Putin_and_Edgar_Lungu,_26_july_2018_(2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_and_Edgar_Lungu,_26_july_2018_(2).jpg|thumb|President [[:en:Edgar_Lungu|Edgar Lungu]] with Russian President [[:en:Vladimir_Putin|Vladimir Putin]], 26 July 2018]] Pamanyuma pa kujithemba mu 1964, vyalo vya ku Zambia vikaŵa vyakukhora chomene pakuwovwira maboma gha ku Southern Africa, nga African National Congress na SWAPO. Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakuzizima, Zambia wakaŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵambura kukolerana. === Military === {{main|Zambian Defence Force}} Wupu wa Zambia Defence Force (ZDF) uli na ŵasilikari ŵa Zambia Army (ZA), Zambia Air Force (ZAF), na Zambia National Service (ZNS). ZDF yili kupangika kuti yikhozge nkhondo. Mu chaka cha 2019, Zambia yikasaina phangano la UN lakukanizga vilwero vya nyukiliya.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 July 2017 |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament&nbsp;– No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection}}</ref> === Administrative divisions === {{Further|Provinces of Zambia}}{{Regions of Zambia Labelled Map}}Boma la Zambia lili kugaŵika vigaŵa 10 mu vigaŵa 116, na vigaŵa 156 na vigaŵa 1,281. ; Provinces # [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]] # [[:en:Copperbelt_Province|Copperbelt]] # [[:en:Eastern_Province,_Zambia|Eastern Province]] # [[:en:Luapula_Province|Luapula]] # [[:en:Lusaka_Province|Lusaka]] # [[:en:Muchinga_Province,_Zambia|Muchinga]] # [[:en:North-Western_Province,_Zambia|North-Western Province]] # [[:en:Northern_Province,_Zambia|Northern Province]] # [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] # [[:en:Western_Province,_Zambia|Western Province]] === Human rights === {{See also|Human rights in Zambia|LGBT rights in Zambia}} Boma likujipulika makora para ŵanthu ŵakususka panji kuŵasuska, ndipo likuchitapo kanthu mwaluŵiro pakususka awo ŵakuŵasuska. Malango ghakususkana na ŵanthu ghakovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuyowoya mwakufwatuka kweniso kuti ŵaleke kulemba nkhani.<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2012&dlid=204181 "Zambia"], ''Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012'', Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 22 March 2013.</ref> Ku Zambia, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵakugonana yayi.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 May 2016 |title=State Sponsored Homophobia 2016: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition |url=http://ilga.org/downloads/02_ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2016_ENG_WEB_150516.pdf |website=[[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Daniel|last=Avery|title=71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal|url=https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974|work=Newsweek|date=4 April 2019}}</ref> Kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu 2010, wakalongora kuti pa ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia, 2 pera ndiwo ŵakuwona kuti kugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhwakuzomerezgeka.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biggest Ever Studies on Attitudes to Religion and Morality in Africa Released |url=http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/11763 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407070152/http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/11763 |archive-date=7 April 2014 |publisher=Newstime Africa}}</ref> Mu Disembala 2019, vikayowoyeka kuti kazembe wa United States ku Zambia Daniel Lewis Foote "wakakhuŵara chomene" chifukwa cha kukakika kwa Japhet Chataba na Steven Samba. Foote wakapempha boma la Zambia kuti liwoneso mulandu uwu kweniso malango agho ghakukanizga kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera. Foote wakasuzgika chomene ndipo wakaleka kuwonekera pa wumba chifukwa cha kuthaskika pa social media.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 December 2019 |title=US recalls ambassador to Zambia after gay rights row |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50901537 |website=BBC News}}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{Main|Malo gha Zambia|Geology of Zambia}} [[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_ZMB_present.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_ZMB_present.svg|thumb|Zambia map of Köppen climate classification]] Charu cha Zambia chili kumwera kwa Africa, ndipo chili na mphepo yakotcha. Ili na malo ghakukwana 290,587 sq mi ndipo ni caru ca nambara 38 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa caru cose, ndipo ni cicoko comene kuluska Turkey. Charu ichi chili pakati pa latitude 8° na 18°S, na longitude 22° na 34°E. Mu Zambia muli milonga yikuruyikuru yiŵiri: Yachiŵiri ni ya Zambezi na Kafue iyo yili pakati, kumanjiliro gha dazi, na kumwera. Chigaŵa chichoko chomene cha kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Rukwa, ku Tanzania. Mu chigaŵa cha Zambezi, muli milonga yinandi iyo yikwenda mu Zambia: Kabompo, Lungwebungu, Kafue, Luangwa, na Zambezi, iyo yikwenda mu charu ichi kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo yikumalira ku Namibia, Botswana, na Zimbabwe. Mlonga uwu ukufuma ku Zambia, kweni ukuzgokera ku Angola. Mlonga wa Cuando ndiwo uli kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia, ndipo para wajumpha mu mlonga wa Chobe, maji ghanandi ghakunjira yayi mu mlonga wa Zambezi. Mlonga uŵiri ukuru comene wa Zambezi, Kafue na Luangwa, ukwenda mu Zambia. Mlonga wa Zambezi ukukumana na msumba wa Chirundu na Luangwa. Pambere mlonga wa Luangwa undanjire mu maji, ukuŵa mphaka ya Zambia na Mozambique. Kufuma mu tawuni ya Luangwa, Mlonga wa Zambezi ukufuma mu Zambia na kunjira mu Mozambike, ndipo paumaliro ukujumpha mu Mozambique Channel. Mlonga wa Zambezi ukuwa mtunda wa mamita 100 pachanya pa Victoria Falls, uwo uli pa mtunda wa makilomita 1.6. Dambo la Zambezi, ilo likwenda mumphepete mwa mphaka ya kumwera, ndakuzika kweniso ndakupambanapambana. Kufumira kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Kariba, yikupangika na ma graben ndipo nga ni madambo gha Luangwa, Mweru-Luapula, Mweru-wa-Ntipa na Nyanja ya Tanganyika, ni dambo la chipalamba. Kumpoto kwa Zambia kuli mapiri ghanandi. Ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, chigaŵa ichi chikuchemeka Barotse Floodplain, icho chili pa mlonga wa Zambezi, ndipo chikuzura kufuma mu Disembala m'paka Juni. Cigumula ici cikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi na vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vili na maji ghanandi mu caru ici ŵaleke kukondwa na umoyo wawo. Victoria Falls Mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia, chigaŵa icho chili pakati pa Zambezi na Nyanja ya Tanganyika chikukwelera kumpoto, ndipo chikuwuka mwambura kuwoneka kufuma pa mamita 900 kumwera m'paka mamita 1,200 pakati, kufika mamita 1,800 kumpoto kufupi na Mbala. Malo agha ghali kumpoto kwa Zambia ndipo World Wildlife Fund yikuti ni malo ghakurughakuru gha ku Central Zambezian miombo woodlands. Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia kuli vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Dambo la Luangwa likupatura chipalamba ichi kufuma kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kuya kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mapiri na mapiri vikusangika mu vigaŵa vinyake vya chipalamba ichi, chomenechomene kumpoto kwa chipalamba cha Nyika (2,200 m panji 7,218 ft) pa mphaka ya Malawi. Mapiri gha Muchinga, agho ghali pakati pa Zambezi na Congo, ghakukolerana na dambo la Luangwa ndipo ghakuŵa kumpoto kwake. Phiri la Mumpu lili kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo lili na mamita 1,892 (6,207 ft). Mphaka ya Congo Pedicle yikazingilizgika na phiri ili. Mlonga wa Congo uwo uli kumwera chomene ukufuma ku Zambia ndipo ukufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi na kujumpha mu chigaŵa chakumpoto. Mlonga wa Luapula ukwenda kumwera kufuma apo kumanjiliro gha dazi pambere undazgoke kumpoto m'paka ku Nyanja ya Mweru. Mlonga unyake ukuru uwo ukufuma kumafumiro gha dazi ni Kalungwishi. Mlonga wa Luvua ukufuma mu Nyanja ya Mweru, ndipo ukufuma kumpoto kwa nyanja iyi kuya ku Mlonga wa Lualaba (Upper Congo River). Nyanja ya Tanganyika nayo njimoza mwa nyanja zikuruzikuru za mu Congo. Mlonga wa Kalambo ndiwo ukupeleka maji ku chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa dambo ili. Mlonga uwu uli na maji ghaŵiri ghatali comene mu Africa. === Climate === {{Main|Climate of Zambia}} Charu cha Zambia chili pa mapiri gha ku Central Africa, pakati pa mamita 1,000 na 1,600. Malo agha ghali pachanya pa mtunda wa mamita 1,200. Nyengo ya ku Zambia njakuthukira, ndipo yikusintha para munthu wakwera. Mu charu cha Köppen, chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili na vyakumera vyamuthondo panji vyamuthondo. Nyengo zikupambana mu vigaŵa viŵiri, nyengo ya vula (kwambira Novembala m'paka Epulero) iyo yikukolerana na chihanya, na nyengo ya chilangalanga (May/June m'paka Okutobala/November), iyo yikukolerana na nyengo ya chiwuvi. Nyengo ya chilangalanga yikupambana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: nyengo yakuzizima yakuzizima (May/June mpaka August), na nyengo yakuzizima yakuzizima (September mpaka October/November). Chifukwa chakuti malo agha ghali pachanya chomene, nyengo ya mu charu ichi njakukondweska chomene.<ref>''Spectrum Guide to Zambia''. Camerapix International Publishing, Nairobi, 1996. {{ISBN|1874041148}}.</ref>Ndipouli, mu vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi, mu myezi yinkhondi na yitatu panji kujumpha apa, mu mwezi umoza, matenthedwe ghakujumpha 20 °C. === Biodiversity === {{main|Wildlife of Zambia}} {{multiple image|caption_align=left|header_align=center|align=right|direction=horizontal|total_width=500|image1=Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti.jpg|alt1=Rhodesian giraffe|caption1=[[Rhodesian giraffe]] in [[South Luangwa National Park]]|width1=3264|height1=4352|image2=African fish eagle just caught fish.jpg|alt2=African fish eagle|caption2=[[African fish eagle]], the national bird of Zambia|width2=672|height2=673|image3=Barbet-zambian.jpg|alt3=Zambian barbet|caption3=[[Chaplin's barbet|Zambian barbet]], Zambia's only true [[endemic]] bird species|width3=500|height3=375|footer_align=center|footer=}} Mu Zambia muli vyakumera vinandi, nga ni nkhorongo, makuni, na vyakumera vinyake. Ku Zambia kuli mitundu ya vyamoyo pafupifupi 12,505. 63% ya vyamoyo, 33% ya vyakumera, 4% ya bakiteriya na vyamoyo vinyake.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} Pali vyakumera vyamuthengere pafupifupi 3543, ivyo ni vyakumera vya mu thengere, vyakumera vyamuthengere, na vyakumera vya makuni. Vyaru vya kumpoto na kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici ndivyo vili na vyakumera vinandi. Vipambi 53 pa 100 ivyo vili mu charu ichi ni vichoko chomene. Mulimo wa Flora Zambesiaca uwo Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ndiyo yikulongozga, uli na mazina gha vyakumera vyose vya ku Zambia na vyakumera vinyake vya mu vyaru vinyake ivyo vili pafupi na charu ichi. Mu caru ici muli vyamoyo vyakukora nyama 242, ndipo vinandi vya vyamoyo ivi vili mu makuni na malo ghakuliskako viŵeto. Cingwe ca ku Rhodesia na Kafue lechwe ni vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu Zambia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ministry of Lands |date=June 2015 |title=Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection:United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity Fifth National Report |url=https://www.mlnr.gov.zm/?wpfb_dl=77 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626142324/https://www.mlnr.gov.zm/?wpfb_dl=77 |archive-date=26 June 2020 |website=Zambia - Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources}}</ref> Pali vyakumera vyamuthengere pafupifupi 3543, ivyo ni vyakumera vya mu thengere, vyakumera vyamuthengere, na vyakumera vya makuni. Vyaru vya kumpoto na kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici ndivyo vili na vyakumera vinandi. Vipambi 53 pa 100 ivyo vili mu charu ichi ni vichoko chomene. Mulimo wa Flora Zambesiaca uwo Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ndiyo yikulongozga, uli na mazina gha vyakumera vyose vya ku Zambia na vyakumera vinyake vya mu vyaru vinyake ivyo vili pafupi na charu ichi. Mu caru ici muli vyamoyo vyakukora nyama 242, ndipo vinandi vya vyamoyo ivi vili mu makuni na malo ghakuliskako viŵeto. Cingwe ca ku Rhodesia na Kafue lechwe ni vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu Zambia.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Historical census population in Zambia}}{{Main|Demographics of Zambia}} Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2010, ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia ŵakaŵa 13,092,666. Ku Zambia kuli mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo kuli mitundu yakupambanapambana 73. Mu nyengo iyo boma la Britain likalamuliranga charu ichi kufuma mu 1911 m'paka mu 1963, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku Europe na ku India. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakafumako ku Europe, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Asia ŵakakhalako. [[File:Umutomboko_ceremony.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Umutomboko_ceremony.jpg|thumb|The [[:en:Mwata_Kazembe|Mwata Kazembe]] opens the Mutomboko ceremony.]] Pa kalembera wakwamba uyo wakacitika pa Meyi 7, 1911, pakaŵa ŵanthu 1,497 ŵa ku Europe, 39 ŵa ku Asia, na 820,000 ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa na mitundu yakuwaro ŵakalembeka yayi mu 1911, 1921, 1931, 1946, 1951 na 1956, pambere charu chindaŵe na wanangwa wakulamulira. Kuzakafika mu 1956, ku Europe kukaŵa ŵanthu 65,277, ku Asia 5,450, ndipo ku Africa kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵafipa pafupifupi 2,100,000. Zambia yikulutilira kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana yakucemeka kuti "ŵakutowa" panji Goffal, gulu ilo likupangika na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakufipa ŵa ku Africa na ŵazungu ŵa ku Britain (nyengo zinyake ŵa ku India). Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu unyake ŵandalembekepo pa kalembera wa ŵanthu kufuma apo Zambia yikapokera wanangwa mu 1964 ndipo ŵalije wanangwa wakuyana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake (ŵazgani: Goffal). Mu 2010, pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakalembeka, ŵanthu 99.2% ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yinyake ndipo 0.8% ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yinyake. {{Graph:Chart|width=350|height=150|xAxisTitle=Year|yAxisTitle=Population|type=line|showSymbols=|yAxisFormat=s|yGrid=|x=1963, 1969, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010|y=3490540, 4056995, 5661801, 7383097, 9885591, 13092666}} Zambia ni yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakababikanga chikaŵa 6.2 mu 2007 (6.1 mu 1996, 5.9 mu 2001).<ref>{{cite web |title=Welcome to the Official site of Zambian Statistics |url=http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/surveys/zdhs.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113144454/http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/surveys/zdhs.php |archive-date=13 November 2014 |access-date=11 April 2014 |publisher=Zamstats.gov.zm}}</ref> === Largest towns === {{Further|List of populated places in Zambia}} The onset of industrial copper mining on the Copperbelt in the late 1920s triggered rapid urbanisation. Although urbanisation was overestimated during the colonial period, it was substantial.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Potts|first=Deborah|date=2005|title=Counter-urbanisation on the Zambian Copperbelt? Interpretations and implications|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_urban-studies_2005-04_42_4/page/583|journal=Urban Studies|volume=42|issue=4|pages=583–609|doi=10.1080/00420980500060137|s2cid=154412136}}</ref> Mining townships on the Copperbelt soon dwarfed existing centres of population and continued to grow rapidly following Zambian independence. Economic decline in the Copperbelt from the 1970s to the 1990s has altered patterns of urban development, but the country's population remains concentrated around the railway and roads running south from the Copperbelt through Kapiri Mposhi, Lusaka, Choma and Livingstone.{{Largest cities of Zambia|class=info}} === Ethnic groups === {{bar box|title=Ethnic Groups in Zambia|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Ethnic Groups|right1=percent|float=right|bars={{bar percent|Bemba|darkgreen|19}} {{bar percent|Tonga|purple|13.6}} {{bar percent|Tumbuka|darkblue|8.4}} {{bar percent|Chewa|red|6.4}} {{bar percent|Lozi|black|5.7}} {{bar percent|Nsenga|orange|4.3}} {{bar percent|Ngoni|white|4}} {{bar percent|Lala|maroon|3.1}} {{bar percent|Kaonde|darkgray|2.9}} {{bar percent|Namwanga|gray|2.8}} {{bar percent|Lunda (Northern)|tan|2.6}} {{bar percent|Mambwe|lime|2.5}} {{bar percent|Luvale|Violet|2.2}} {{bar percent|Lamba|darkgreen|2.1}} {{bar percent|Ushi|purple|1.9}} {{bar percent|Bisa|red|1.6}} {{bar percent|Lenje|black|1.6}} {{bar percent|Mbunda|orange|1.2}} {{bar percent|Lunda (Luapula)|darkblue|0.9}}{{bar percent|Senga|white|0.9}} {{bar percent|Ila|maroon|0.8}} {{bar percent|Lungu|darkgray|0.8}} {{bar percent|Tabwa|gray|0.7}} {{bar percent|Soli|tan|0.7}} {{bar percent|Kunda|lime|0.7}} {{bar percent|Ngumbo|Violet|0.6}} {{bar percent|Chishinga|darkgreen|0.5}} {{bar percent|Chokwe|purple|0.5}} {{bar percent|Nkoya|red|0.5}} {{bar percent|Other Zambian|black|5.4}} {{bar percent|Major Racial|orange|0.8}} {{bar percent|Not Stated|darkblue|0.4}}}}Ŵanthu aŵa ŵali na mafuko pafupifupi 73, ndipo ŵanandi mwa iwo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Bantu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia pafupifupi 90 peresenti ŵali mu mitundu 9 yikuru: Nyanja-Chewa, Bemba, Tonga, Tumbuka, Lunda, Luvale, Kaonde, Nkoya na Lozi. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanandi ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake. Magulu ghanandi ngambura kumanyikwa. Kweni ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose iyi ŵakusangika mu Lusaka na ku Copperbelt. Padera pa chiyowoyero, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake ndiwo ŵakumanyikwa chomene mu Zambia.<ref name="epr">{{cite web |author=GROWup – Geographical Research On War, Unified Platform |title=Ethnicity in Zambia |url=https://growup.ethz.ch/atlas/Zambia |access-date=1 November 2018 |publisher=ETH Zurich}}</ref>Kanandi ŵanthu ŵa mafuko agha ŵakukolerana na mbumba zawo panji ŵamazaza. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko agha ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana.<ref>Posner, Daniel (2005). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/institutions-and-ethnic-politics-in-africa/696855CDE1BDD865EA1254D0A3843B82 Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Zambia]. New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> [[File:Tribal_Linguistic_map_Zambia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tribal_Linguistic_map_Zambia.jpg|left|thumb|Tribal and linguistic map of Zambia]] Ŵalendo, comenecomene ŵa ku Britain panji ŵa ku South Africa, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵazungu ŵa ku Zambia awo ŵali kufuma ku Britain, ŵakukhala comene mu Lusaka na ku Copperbelt kumpoto kwa Zambia, uko ŵakugwira nchito mu migodi, mu vyamalonda na milimo yinyake. Mu 1964, mu Zambia mukaŵa ŵanthu 70,000 ŵa ku Europe, kweni ŵanandi ŵali kufumamo mu caru ici. Mu Zambia muli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Asia, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku India na ku China. Gulu ili lili na mazaza chomene pa vyachuma ndipo likulongozga makampani. Ku Zambia kuli ŵanthu pafupifupi 80,000 ŵa ku China. Mu vilimika vyasonosono apa, ŵalimi ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵafumamo mu Zimbabwe cifukwa cakuti boma la Zambia likaŵacema kuti ŵambe kulima mu cigaŵa ca kumwera. Mu Zambia muli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakasankhanga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ŵafipa na ŵatuŵa mu malo gha ŵanthu wose nga ni masukulu, vipatala, na mu nyumba. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakusazgikira cifukwa cakuti Zambia yikukura comene. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu unyake ŵakulembeka yayi pa kalembera kweni ŵakuwoneka kuti mbacoko mu Zambia. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika ku United States mu 2009, Komiti ya Ŵakuchimbira na Ŵakufuma mu Vyaru Vinyake, ku Zambia kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo na awo ŵakakhumbanga malo ghakubisamamo pafupifupi 88,900. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakachimbilira mu charu ichi ŵakafuma ku Democratic Republic of Congo (ŵanthu 47,300 ŵakufuma ku DRC awo ŵakakhalanga mu Zambia mu 2007), Angola (27,100; wonani Ŵangoza mu Zambia), Zimbabwe (5,400) na Rwanda (4,900). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia ŵakutemwa kupokelera ŵalendo. Kwambira mu Meyi 2008, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakakhalanga ku Zambia chikakwera chomene. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakakhalanga ku South Africa. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 60,000 ŵakuchimbilira ku misasa ya ku Zambia, ndipo ŵanthu 50,000 ŵakukhala mu misasa iyi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuchimbilira ku Zambia kuti ŵakagwire nchito ŵakwenera kupempha makalata ghakuŵazomerezga, agho ghangaŵa na mtengo wa madola 500 pa caka.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2009">{{cite news|title=World Refugee Survey 2009|publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants|url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/zambia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211175633/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/zambia.html|archive-date=11 December 2013}}</ref> === Religion === {{Further|Religion in Zambia}} Zambia ni "mtundu wa Cikristu" mwakuyana na dango la boma la 1996, kweni wakuzomerezga wanangwa wa kusopa. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵacoko comene kuluska pacanya pa pacanya ŵatatu pa ŵanthu 100 awo ŵakukhala mu caru ici ndiwo ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo, kweni Cikristu ca ku Zambia cikupambana comene. Pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia ŵali mu visopa vya Chiprotesitanti, nga ni Anglicanism, New Apostolic Church, Lutheranism, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventist Church, na Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Pafupifupi ciŵelengero cimoza pa viŵiri ni ŵa Katolika. Cikristu cikafika mu Zambia kwizira mu mulimo wa umishonale mu cigaŵa caciŵiri ca vilimika vya m'ma 1800, ndipo visambizgo na magulu ghakupambanapambana ghakulongora umo mulimo wa umishonale ukasinthiranga. Mwaciyelezgero, Cikatolika cikafuma ku Mozambique, uko kukaŵa Ŵapwitikizi, apo Cikatolika cikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakacitiranga kumwera. Pamanyuma pakuti Zambia wapokera wanangwa wake mu 1964, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku tchalitchi linyake kufuma ku vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene ku North America na Germany. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi awo ŵakagomezganga mu Baibolo ndiwo ŵakamba kuchita mulimo wa umishonale. Frederick Chiluba, uyo wakaŵa Mkhristu wa Pentekoste, wakati waŵa pulezidenti mu 1991, mipingo ya Pentekoste yikakura comene mu caru cose.<ref name="pentecostal">{{cite book|author=Steel, Matthew|title=Pentecostalism in Zambia: Power, Authority and the Overcomers|id=MSc Dissertation|publisher=University of Wales|year=2005}}</ref>{{Religious affiliation in Zambia}}Mu Zambia muli visopa vinandi vya Cikhristu ivyo ni vichoko. Mu caru ici ndimo muli ŵanthu ŵanandi comene ŵa cisopa ca Seventh-day Adventist pa caru cose. Tchalitchi la Lutheran of Central Africa lili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 11,000 mu caru ici. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova awo ŵakhala mu Zambia kwambira mu 1911, ŵalipo ŵakujumpha 190,000. Ndipo pafupifupi 800,000 ŵakiza pa Cikumbusko ca nyifwa ya Khristu mu 2021. Ŵanthu 12 pa 100 ŵaliwose mu Zambia ŵali mu tchalitchi la New Apostolic; ndipo lili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1.2 miliyoni.<ref>{{cite web |title=Membership figures of the global Church as at the end of 2009: New Apostolic Church International (NAC) |url=http://www.nak.org/news/naci-news/article/16710/ |access-date=26 May 2020 |website=www.nak.org}}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵali mu chisopa chautesi ŵalipo ŵachoko chomene, nangauli ŵakumanyikwa chomene mu misumba. Ŵalondezgi ŵa cisopa ca Bahá'í ŵalipo ŵakujumpha 160,000, panji 1.5 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu. Pa ŵanthu 100 awo ŵakukhala mu Zambia, pafupifupi hafu Mbasilamu, ndipo ŵanyake ŵanandi Mbahindu. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 500 ŵali mu cisopa ca Ahmadiyya, ico ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuciwona nga ni cisopa ca Cisilamu panji cisopa cautesi.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbElAQAAIAAJ|title=Some basics of religious education in Zambia|access-date=30 March 2014|year=2007|isbn=9789982073370}}</ref> Paliso Ŵayuda ŵachoko waka awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Ashkenazi. === Viyowoyelo === TChiŵelengero cha viyowoyero vya ku Zambia nchakumanyikwa yayi, nangauli mabuku ghanandi ghakuyowoya kuti ku Zambia kuli viyowoyero na viyowoyero 73. Ntheura, viyowoyero vya ku Zambia ni 20 panji 30 pera.<ref name="Chanda, Vincent M., and, Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson. 2013 1–173">{{Cite book|last=Chanda, Vincent M., and, Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson.|title=Speak Zambian Languages: Phrase Book in Bemba, Kaonde, Lozi, Luvale, Lunda, Nyanja and Tonga, all in one|publisher=UNZA Press|year=2013|isbn=978-9982-03-073-1|location=Lusaka, Zambia|pages=1–173}}</ref> {{main|Languages of Zambia}}{{Major language groups in Zambia}}Chiyowoyero cha boma mu Zambia ni Chingelezi, ndipo chikuyowoyeka pa nkhani za bizinesi na kusambizga ŵanthu. Chiyowoyero chikuru ku Lusaka ni Nyanja (Chewa), ndipo chiyowoyero chinyake ni Bemba. Mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt, chiyowoyero cha Bemba ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene ndipo cha Nyanja ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Bemba na Nyanja mu matawuni. Viyowoyero ivi ni Lozi, Tumbuka, Kaonde, Tonga, Lunda, na Luvale.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2020 |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia/People |access-date=26 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="Chanda, Vincent M., and, Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson. 2013 1–173" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson.|title=The State of Affairs of Cultural Literacy in Zambia's Multicultural Education System. In A. L. Jotia and J. Dudu (Ed.), Multicultural Education Discourses: Breaking Barriers of Exclusion in Selected African Contexts|publisher=Zebra publishing (Pty) LTD|year=2015|isbn=978-99945-84-99-4|location=Windhoek, Namibia|pages=190–204}}</ref>{{Dominant regional languages in Zambia}}Ŵanthu ŵa vigaŵa ivi ŵakutemwa kuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu matawuni nyengo zinyake ŵakupambaniska chiyowoyero cha ku mizi na cha ku mizi. Ntheura ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Bemba na Nyanja mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt. Cingelezi cikugwiliskirika nchito pa nkhani za boma, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakucimanya makora pa nyumba zawo. Ivi vyapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Lusaka na misumba yinyake yikuruŵikulu ŵayowoyenge viyowoyero vya ku Zambia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Zambia ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi. Ciphwitikizi caŵikikamo mu masukulu cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Angola awo ŵakuyowoya Ciphwitikizi.<ref>[http://www.afriquejet.com/news/africa-news/zambia-to-introduce-portuguese-into-school-curriculum-2009041825794.html Zambia to introduce Portuguese into school curriculum]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208151924/http://www.afriquejet.com/news/africa-news/zambia-to-introduce-portuguese-into-school-curriculum-2009041825794.html|date=8 December 2012}}</ref> French is commonly studied in private schools, while some secondary schools have it as an optional subject. A German course has been introduced at the [[:en:University_of_Zambia|University of Zambia]] (UNZA). === Education === {{Main|Education in Zambia}} [[File:Pupils_at_St_Monicas_Girls_Secondary_School.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pupils_at_St_Monicas_Girls_Secondary_School.jpg|thumb|Pupils at the St Monica's Girls Secondary School in [[:en:Chipata|Chipata]], [[:en:Eastern_Province,_Zambia|Eastern Province]]]] Dango la Zambia likuti waliyose wakwenera kusambira mwakuyana.<ref>{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Laws of Zambia |url=http://www.parliament.gov.zm/acts/volumes |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307105357/http://www.parliament.gov.zm/acts/volumes |archive-date=7 March 2016 |access-date=27 January 2016 |website=National Assembly of Zambia |publisher=National Assembly of Zambia}}</ref> Dango la vya masambiro la mu 2011 likovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵasambirenge mwakuyana. Unduna wa vya masambiro ukulaŵilira masambiro ghapacanya kwizira mu ndondomeko ya masambiro. Cakulinga cikuru ca masambiro mu Zambia nchakuti ŵanthu wose awo ŵakusambira ŵasambizgike vinthu vya thupi, vinjeru, umo ŵangakhalira na ŵanyawo, umo ŵangajipulikira, makhaliro ghawo, na vyauzimu. Ndondomeko ya masambiro yili na vigaŵa vitatu: masambiro ghakwambilira na ghakwambilira (magiredi 1 na 7), masambiro ghaciŵiri (magiredi 8 na 12) na masambiro ghapacanya. Pali mapulogiramu ghakovwira ŵanthu ŵalara kumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Ndalama izo boma likugwiliskira ntchito pa sukulu zikukwera kufuma pa 16.1 peresenti mu 2006 kufika pa 20.2 peresenti mu 2015. === Health === {{Main|Health in Zambia|Healthcare in Zambia}} Ku Zambia kuli nthenda ya HIV/AIDS, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulwara nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Country Comparisons—HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/hiv-aids-adult-prevalence-rate/country-comparison |access-date=19 June 2021 |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |location=Langley, Virginia}}</ref> Ndipouli, mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, caru ca Indonesia caŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali na HIV/AIDS..<ref>{{cite web |title=Children in Zambia |url=https://www.unicef.org/zambia/children-zambia |access-date=27 May 2020 |publisher=UNICEF}}</ref> Vinthu vinyake vya umoyo navyo vyasintha chomene, nangauli pa caru cose vinthu vili makora yayi. Ŵana awo ŵakababika ŵamoyo mu 2014 ŵakafwanga 398 pa ŵanthu 100,000, kweni mu 2007 ŵakafwanga 591. == Chuma == {{Further|Economy of Zambia}} [[File:Zambia_Product_Exports_(2019).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia_Product_Exports_(2019).svg|right|thumb|A proportional representation of Zambia exports, 2019]] Pasono, caru ca Zambia cikuguliska vinthu vya mu vyaru vinyake vyakukwana $7.5 na $8 biliyoni pa caka. Mu 2018, caru ici cikaguliska vinthu vinyake vyakukwana madola 9.1 biliyoni. Mu 2015, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia awo ŵakakhalanga pasi pa ukavu cikakwera comene kufuma pa 60.5% mu 2010. Ŵakavu ku mizi ŵakaŵa 76.6% ndipo mu misumba ŵakaŵa 23.4%. Pa charu chose, ukavu ukafika pa ZMK 214 (US$12.85) pa mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty & Equity Brief: Zambia |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/poverty/33EF03BB-9722-4AE2-ABC7-AA2972D68AFE/Global_POVEQ_ZMB.pdf |access-date=30 December 2021}}</ref> Kuŵavya nchito na ŵanthu ŵambura nchito mu matawuni ni masuzgo ghakuru. Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu vikaya vya ku Zambia ŵalimi.{{Recent Annual Budget Expenditure in Zambia}}Pa vyaru 128, Zambia yikaŵa pa nambara 117 pa vyaru vyose ivyo vikalembeka pa 2007 Global Competitiveness Index. Kweni mu 2019 Zambia yikakhira pa malo 19 mu Africa na 120 pa charu chose. Ndipouli, mu 2020 Zambia yili pa malo gha nambara 7 pa malo gha Ease of Doing Business mu Africa na 85 pa vyaru 190. Vigaŵa vya umoyo wa ŵanthu vikulutilira kuchepa, comenecomene pa nkhani ya umoyo uwo munthu wakulindilira para wababika (pafupifupi vyaka 40.9) na kufwa kwa ŵanakazi (830 pa ŵanakazi 100,000). Mu ma 1970, mtengo wa mkuwa ukakhira chomene mu charu cha Zambia. Boma la Socialist likawovwira kuti ndalama zileke kunangika cifukwa cakuti likayezgapo kanandi waka kuti likhazikiske mapulogiramu ghakukhozga vinthu gha International Monetary Fund (IMF). Ndondomeko ya kuleka kuguliska vinthu kwizira mu nthowa yikuru yakupelekera vyakurya na njanji yakuya ku nyanja, yikapangiska kuti caru ici ciŵe na masuzgo ghanandi. Pamanyuma pa muwuso wa Kaunda, (kwamba mu 1991) maboma ghakulondezgapo ghakamba kusintha vinthu vinyake. Vyaru ivi vikaŵa vyambura ndalama mpaka kuumaliro wa m'ma 1990. Mu 2007, Zambia yikaŵa na cuma cakukwera comene kwa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri. Kukwera kwa ndalama kukakwera kufika pa 8.9%, kufuma pa 30% mu 2000.<ref name="dos2009">{{cite web |title=Background Note: Zambia |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2359.htm |publisher=Department of State}}</ref> [[File:Zambia_Export_Treemap_(2014).png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia_Export_Treemap_(2014).png|left|thumb|Zambia Export Treemap (2014)]] Boma la Zambia lichali kulimbana na masuzgo gha vyachuma nga ni ukuru wa boma, kweniso kusintha nthowa zakwendeskera vinthu vya umoyo wa ŵanthu. Pa charu pali malango ghanandi ghakwendeskera vinthu vya ndalama, ndipo vimbundi vyazara chomene. Ndondomeko za boma izo zikovwira kuti munthu waŵe na malayisensi zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito nthowa zakovwira ŵanthu. Ndalama zose izo Zambia yili nazo ku vyaru vinyake zikajumpha $6 biliyoni apo charu ichi chikapokera wovwiri wa HIPC (Highly Indebted Poor Countries Initiative) mu 2000, kweni chikeneranga kufiska fundo zinyake. Pakwamba, Zambia yikagomezganga kuti yizamumalizga ndondomeko ya HIPC, ndipo yizamugowokereka ngongoli yikuru mu 2003. [[File:GDP_per_capita_(current),_%25_of_world_average,_1960-2012;_Zimbabwe,_South_Africa,_Botswana,_Zambia,_Mozambique.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GDP_per_capita_(current),_%25_of_world_average,_1960-2012;_Zimbabwe,_South_Africa,_Botswana,_Zambia,_Mozambique.png|thumb|GDP per capita (current), compared to neighbouring countries (world average = 100)]] Mu Janyuwale 2003, boma la Zambia likaphalira wupu wa International Monetary Fund na World Bank kuti likukhumba kwambiraso kudumbiskana vinthu vinyake ivyo likakolerana kuti vichitike. Nangauli ŵakakolerana pa nkhani izi, kweni cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi izo ŵakagwiliskira nchito pa malipiro gha ŵateŵeti ŵa boma, ŵakacedwa kulekeska ngongoli za ŵa HIPC kufuma kuumaliro wa 2003 m'paka kukwambilira kwa 2005. Kuti ŵamalizge ndondomeko ya HIPC mu 2004, boma likanozga bajeti yakukhozga vinthu mu 2004, ndipo likakanizga malipiro gha ŵateŵeti ŵa boma na kusazgirako misonkho. Kukwezga misonkho na kukanizga ŵantchito kusanga malipiro ghakupambanapambana. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mu Febuluwale 2004 pa charu chose paŵe chiwawa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090724213759/http://www.eurodad.org/whatsnew/articles.aspx?id=2108 The World Bank and IMF's long shadow in Zambia's copper mines]. eurodad.org. 20 February 2008</ref> Boma la Zambia likuyezgayezga kusintha vinthu vinyake pa nkhani ya ndalama kuti ndalama zichepe. Ntchito iyi yikukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵa Zambia ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito vinthu vinyake ivyo vili mu charu ichi. Mu Julayi 2018, Pulezidenti wa Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdogan na Pulezidenti wa Zambia Edgar Lungu ŵakasazgapo mapangano 12 mu msumba wa Lusaka pa nkhani zakupambanapambana kufuma pa malonda na ndalama mpaka pa vyaulendo na udumura..<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkey and Zambia sign agreements to boost bilateral ties |url=https://www.trtworld.com/africa/turkey-and-zambia-sign-agreements-to-boost-bilateral-ties-19216 |access-date=30 July 2018 |website=Turkey and Zambia sign agreements to boost bilateral ties |language=tr-TR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/turkey-zambia-sign-12-deals-to-boost-bilateral-ties/1216679|title=Turkey, Zambia sign 12 deals to boost bilateral ties|access-date=30 July 2018}}</ref> === Mining === {{further|Mining in Zambia}} Vyaka vinandi, chuma cha Zambia chikuthemba pa migodi ya mkuwa. Mu 1998, mulimo wa kupanga mkuŵa ukakhira kufika pa matani 228,000 pamanyuma pa vilimika 30 ivyo mulimo uwu ukakhira cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama, mitengo ya mkuŵa yikaŵa yakukhora, kweniso cifukwa ca kuleka kumanya usange mulimo uwu ucitikenge mwamahara. Mu 2002, pamanyuma pakuti makampani agha ghaŵikamo ndalama zawo, mkuwa uwo ŵakapanganga ukakwera kufika pa matani 337,000. Vinthu vikwenda makora pa msika wa mkuwa wa pa caru cose, ndipo ivi vyawovwira kuti ndalama zinjire comene. [[File:ZM-Nkana-headgear-Kitwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZM-Nkana-headgear-Kitwe.jpg|left|thumb|The major Nkana open copper mine, [[:en:Kitwe|Kitwe]]]] Mu 2003, vyakununkhira vyakusangika mu vyaru vinyake vikasazgikira na 25%, ndipo vikaŵa na 38%. Boma la Zambia lili kupeleka malaisensi ku makampani gha vyalo vyakupangira vinthu vyakuthupi gha vyalo vyakupangira vinthu vyakuthupi nga ni nickel, tin, copper, na uranium. Boma la Zambia likugomezga kuti nikele ndiyo yizamunjira mu malo mwa mkuwa. Mu 2009, ku Zambia kukaŵa suzgo la vyachuma.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110919225012/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article5576766.ece Chinese keep low profile to cash in on the slump in Zambia]. The Times. 24 January 2009.</ref> === Agriculture === {{Further|Economy of Zambia#Agriculture}} Ku Zambia kuli vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikovwira ŵanthu kusanga ntchito kuluska migodi. Ŵalimi ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakaŵapokelera mu Zambia ŵakati ŵachimbizgika na Robert Mugabe. Ŵakulima vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, nga ni hona, tirigu, na chizi. Maluso agho ŵakasanga, pamoza na kuweleramo mu vya cuma mu nyengo ya pulezidenti Levy Mwanawasa, ghakawovwira kuti vinthu vyambe kwenda makora mu Zambia. Mu 2004, aka kakaŵa kakwamba mu vyaka 26 kuti Zambia yigeŵetere vyakurya vinandi kuluska ivyo yikaguliskanga. Mu Disembala 2019, boma la Zambia likadumura mwakukolerana kuti lizomerezge kumwa munkhwala wa cannabis pa vilato vya munkhwala na vyakutumizga katundu pera.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zambia legalizes cannabis, kind of |url=https://thegrowthop.com/cannabis-news/zambia-legalizes-cannabis-kind-of |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303193126/https://www.thegrowthop.com/cannabis-news/zambia-legalizes-cannabis-kind-of |archive-date=3 March 2021 |access-date=7 May 2021 |website=thegrowthop}}</ref> === Energy === {{Further|Economy of Zambia#Energy}} {{see also|List of power stations in Zambia}} Mu 2009, Zambia yikapanga magesi ghakukwana 10.3 TWh ndipo yikagwiliskiranga ntchito nkhongono ya dazi na magesi gha maji. Ndipouli, kukwambilira kwa 2015, Zambia yikamba kusoŵa magesi chifukwa cha vula iyo yikalokwa yayi mu 2014/2015, ndipo maji ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene pa chiziŵa cha Kariba. Mu Seputembala 2019, African Green Resources (AGR) yikapharazga kuti yikugwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakukwana madola 150 miliyoni mu famu ya nkhongono ya dazi ya 50 megawatt (MW), pamoza na chigodobu cha ulimi wa milonga na kusazgirako nkhongono ya tirigu ya matani 80,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zambia-agriculture-idUSKCN1VU0ZU|title=Zambia farm input supplier plans to invest $150 million in farming|date=9 September 2019|work=Reuters|access-date=10 September 2019}}</ref> == Mwambo == [[File:Nsima_Relishes.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nsima_Relishes.JPG|thumb|''[[:en:Nshima|Nshima]]'' (top right corner) with three types of [[:en:Relish|relish]]]] Pambere charu cha Zambia chindaŵeko, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu mafuko ghakupambanapambana. Cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikacitika mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu misumba yikaŵa kukura kwa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakamba kukhala pamoza mu matawuni na misumba, ndipo waliyose wakasambizganga munyake. Kweniso ŵakamba kulondezga mitheto ya charu chose, chomenechomene umo ŵakavwariranga. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵakukhala ku mizi, ndipo ŵanji ŵali kusintha nkharo zawo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake mu Zambia ŵakuchemeka kuti 'ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia' apo awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake ŵakuchemeka kuti "ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia" chifukwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia wose ŵakuŵako.<ref name="Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau. 2019 1–206">{{cite book|last=Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau.|title=Zambian Culture: Harnessing Cultural Literacy with a Focus on Myths and Taboos|publisher=UNZA Press|year=2019|isbn=978-9982-03-105-9|location=Lusaka, Zambia|pages=1–206}}</ref>Mu tawuni iyi, ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kusangana na kusintha mitheto iyi kuti ŵafiske ivyo ŵakuvichema kuti "thuto la ku Zambia". [[File:African_Art,_Yombe_sculpture,_Louvre.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:African_Art,_Yombe_sculpture,_Louvre.jpg|left|thumb|A [[:en:Yombe_people|Yombe]] sculpture, 19th century]] Ku Zambia, ŵanthu ŵakuchita viphikiro vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita viphikiro na maluso agha pa viphikiro vyapadera, nga ni viphikiro vya kukumbukira ivyo ŵacita, viphikiro vya mazuŵa ghaumaliro, viphikiro vya kuwuskika kwa Yesu, viphikiro vya kuwuskika kwa Yesu, vya kuwombora na kutozgeka, vya kumalizga masambiro, vya kujipeleka, viphikiro vya kugomezgeka kwa Yesu, vya kutora na kutengwa, viphikiro vya nyifwa, vya kubabika, na vinyake.<ref name="Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau. 2019 1–206" /> Nga ni vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, Zambia nayo wakucita viphikiro na maluso agho ghakuvumbukwa na agho ghakuleka kuvumbukwa. Vinthu ivi ni kalendala, nyengo, masuzgo, kuwukwa, kuphalizgana, na viphikiro vya zuŵa na zuŵa. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuleka kuvumbura ni ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita mwakubisilizga, nga ni awo ŵakwimba Nyau na Nakisha, kweniso awo ŵakupeleka ulongozgi pa nthengwa nga mbanakazi ŵa ku Alangizi. Mu Disembala 2016, boma la Zambia likazomerezga viphikiro vya kalendala 77, ndipo chiŵelengero ichi chizamukwera.<ref name="Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau. 2019 1–206" /> Maungano agha ghakuchitika kamoza pa chaka, ndipo ghakuŵa ku Nc?? wala, Kulonga, Kuoboka, Malaila, Nsengele, Chibwela kumushi, Dantho, Ntongo, Makundu, Lwiindi, Chuungu, na Lyenya. Ivi ni viphikiro vya ku Zambia. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni: Kuomboka na Kathanga (Chigaŵa cha Kumanjiliro gha dazi), Mutomboko (Chigaŵa cha Luapula), Kulamba na Ncwala (Chigaŵa cha Kumafumiro gha dazi), Lwiindi na Shimunenga (Chigaŵa cha Kumwera), Lunda Lubanza (Chimwera cha Kumanjiliro gha dazi), Likumbi Lyamize (Chimwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi), Mbunda Lukwakwa (Chimwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi), Chibwela Kumushi (Chigaŵa chapakati), Vinkhakanimba (Chigaŵa cha Muchinga), Ukusefya Pa Ng'wena (Chigaŵa cha Kumpoto). Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kupanga vinthu nga ni viŵiya, vyakuŵikamo viŵiya (nga ni viŵiya vya ku Tonga), vyakuŵikamo vinthu, vyakuvwara, mphasa, vyakuŵikamo vinthu vya makuni, vyakuŵikamo vinthu vya mino gha zovu, vyakuŵikamo vinthu vya waya, na vya mkuŵa. Sumu zinandi za ku Zambia zikufuma ku viŵiya (na vyakwimbira vinyake) na kwimba na kuvina. Mu matawuni, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kwimba sumu za ku vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene za rumba za ku Congo, za ku Africa na America, na za reggae za ku Jamaica. === Media === {{Main|Media in Zambia|Telecommunications in Zambia}} Unduna wa vya makani na mawayilesi ku Zambia ndiwo uli na udindo wa Zambia News Agency, apo paliso maboma ghanandi mu chalo ichi agho ghakusazgapo: ma TV, manyuzipepara, mawayilesi gha FM, na mawebusayiti gha nkhani pa intaneti. === Sports and games === Masewera ndi masewera ndizo zikhalidwe za chikhalidwe cha ku Zambia zomwe zimabweretsa anthu palimodzi kuti aphunzire, kukulitsa luso, kusangalala ndi mphindi zosangalatsa. Maseŵera na maseŵero gha ku Zambia ghakukhala na maseŵero gha mpira, maseŵero gha ku malo ghakupambanapambana, netball, volleyball na maseŵero gha ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha nga nsolo, chiyenga, waida, kubisa, walyako, na sojo. Agha ni maseŵero gha ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha agho ghakovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe paubwezi. Maseŵera ghose agha ghakukolerana na mitheto ya ku Zambia. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchitako maseŵero agha, ghakukondweska ŵanthu kweniso ghakusambizga. Vinyake mwa maseŵero agha ni ghakale comene nga umo viliri na ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia. Ndipouli, Zambia yikamba kuchitako maseŵero ghakumanyikwa pa caru cose, comenecomene pa maseŵero gha ku Summer Olympics mu 1964.<ref name="Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau. 2019 1–206" /> [[File:Inauguration_of_Edgar_Lungu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inauguration_of_Edgar_Lungu.jpg|thumb|[[:en:National_Heroes_Stadium|National Heroes Stadium]] in [[:en:Lusaka|Lusaka]]]] Zambia yikapharazga wanangwa wake pa zuŵa la kujara maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha mu 1964, ndipo yikaŵa caru cakwamba kunjira mu maseŵero gha Olimpiki nga ni caru cimoza, na kufumamo nga ni cinyake. Mu chaka cha 2016, Zambia yikawunganaso ka 13 pa maseŵera gha Olympic. Ŵakapokera mendulo ziŵiri. Ŵakapokera mendulo mu nkhonya na mu maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi. Mu 1984, Keith Mwila wakatora mendulo ya mkuŵa pa maseŵera gha muvi. Mu 1996, Samuel Matete wakatora mendulo ya siliva pa mtunda wa mamita 400. Zambia yindaciteko maseŵero agha. Mu Zambia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha bola, ndipo timu ya ku Zambia yikuŵa na viwemi vinandi. Pa maseŵero gha ku Seoul mu 1988, timu ya charu ichi yikathereska timu ya ku Italy na mavoti 4 ̊0. Kalusha Bwalya, uyo wakaŵa wakumanyikwa comene pa maseŵero gha ku Zambia, ndipo njumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene pa maseŵero gha ku Africa, wakalemba chiphalizgano ici. Ndipouli, mpaka lero, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti timu yiwemi comene iyo Zambia yikaŵa nayo yikafwa pa Epulero 28, 1993, apo ndege yikawa ku Libreville, Gabon. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni mu 1996, charu cha Zambia chikaŵa pa nambara 15 pa nambara ya FIFA World Football Team. Mu chaka cha 2012, Zambia yikathereskeka kaŵiri pa mpikisano wa African Cup of Nations. Ŵakathereska Cote d'Ivoire na 8-7 pa penalty shoot-out paumaliro, uwo ukacitikira ku Libreville, mtunda wa makilomita ghacoko waka kufuma apo ndege yikawira vyaka 19 kumasinda. Mu chaka cha 2017, Zambia yikapokelera na kuthereska chiphalizgano cha mpira cha Pan-African U-20 African Cup of Nation ku wosewera ŵa vyaka 20 na pasi. Gulu la mpira la azimayi la Zambia, pakadali pano, lachita bwino kwambiri ngati gulu loyamba lochokera kudziko lomwe lilibe nyanja ku Africa kulowa nawo FIFA Women's World Cup, pomaliza gawo lachitatu mu 2022 Women's Africa Cup of Nations. Kweniso ni nkhonya yakwamba ya pa caru cose ya ŵanthu ŵalara msinkhu. Mu Zambia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa maseŵero nga ni rugby, nkhonya, na cricket. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, timu ya rugby ya ku Australia na South Africa yikaŵa na ŵasepuka awo ŵakababikira mu chipatala chimoza cha ku Lusaka. Mpaka mu 2014, Roan Antelope Rugby Club mu Luanshya yikaŵa na Guinness World Record ya malo ghapachanya chomene pa charu chose gha rugby union. Mbiri iyi sono yili na Wednesbury Rugby Club. Mu Zambia, maseŵero gha rugby ndicoko comene, kweni ghakukulirakulira. Pasono ŵakukhala pa malo gha nambara 73 na IRB ndipo ŵali na ŵaseŵera 3,650 na magulu ghatatu. Zambia yikaseŵeranga cricket apo yikaŵa ku Rhodesia. Zambia yikapelekaso shinty international, Eddie Tembo uyo wakababika ku Zambia uyo wakayimilira Scotland mu maseŵera gha Shinty/Hurling ku Ireland mu 2008. Mu 2011, ku Zambia kukaŵa maseŵero gha nambara 10 gha ku Africa. Sitediyamu ya ku Lusaka yikeneranga kuŵa na ŵanthu 70,000, apo ma sitediyamu ghanyake ghaŵiri ghakaŵa na ŵanthu 50,000. Boma likakhwimiska maboma kuti ghaŵikeko mtima pakuzenga malo gha maseŵero agha cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama za boma. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Zambia yikaleka kuchitiska maseŵero gha ku Africa mu 2011, chifukwa cha kusoŵa ndalama. Mwantheura, caru ca Mozambique cikapokelera ungano uwu. Zambia yikapangaso munthu wakudanga wa ku Africa (Madalitso Muthiya) uyo wakaseŵera mu United States Golf Open, yimoza mwa viphalizgano vikuru vinayi vya gofu. Mu 1989, timu ya basketball ya mu caru ici yikacita makora comene apo yikafikapo pa FIBA Africa Championship ndipo yikamalizga mu magulu 10 gha ku Africa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20151225205209/http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid//sid/2403/tid/0/_/1989_AfroBasket/index.html 1989 African Championship for Men], ARCHIVE.FIBA.COM. Retrieved 16 December 2015.</ref> === Music and dance === Chikhalidwe cha Zambia chakhala gawo lofunikira pakukula kwawo pambuyo pa ufulu monga kuwukira kwa midzi yachikhalidwe ndi malo osungiramo zinthu zakale. Sumu iyo yikapangiska kuvina ni cigaŵa ca mitheto yawo ndipo yikulongora utozi wa umoyo wa ku Zambia, kwambira na viwoneskero vya matambulara agho ghakuyowoya mpaka ku matambulara gha Kamangu agho ghakugwiliskirika nchito pakumanyiska kwamba kwa ciphikiro ca Malaila. Kuvina kukuwovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 June 2016 |title=The Unrivaled Zambian Culture |url=http://ayibamagazine.com/unrivaled-zambian-culture/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330174848/http://ayibamagazine.com/unrivaled-zambian-culture/ |archive-date=30 March 2019 |access-date=30 June 2016 |website=Ayiba Magazine}}</ref> ==== Zamrock ==== Zamrock ni sumu iyo yikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 ndipo yikamba kumanyikwa chomene ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Zamrock yikulongosoreka kuti yikusazga sumu za ku Zambia na ma riffs ghakuwerezgawerezga ghakuyana na magulu, ŵakwimba nga ni Jimi Hendrix, James Brown, Black Sabbath, Rolling Stones, Deep Purple, na Cream. Magulu ghakuzirwa mu mtundu uwu ni Rikki Ililonga na gulu lake Musi-O-Tunya, WITCH, Chrissy "Zebby" Tembo, na Paul Ngozi na Mbumba yake ya Ngozi.<ref name="azambianband">{{cite web |title=We're a Zambian Band |url=http://theappendix.net/issues/2014/7/were-a-zambian-band |access-date=26 August 2014 |publisher=theappendix.net}}</ref><ref name=":2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20170914035049/http://www.dustedmagazine.com/reviews/5657 WITCH] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914035049/http://www.dustedmagazine.com/reviews/5657|date=14 September 2017}} on Dusted Magazine (15 April 2010)</ref> == Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa == {{main|Mndandanda wa anthu a ku Zambia}} <!---♦♦♦ Chonde musawonjezere mayina a anthu kuno kuwonjezera pa [[Mndandanda wa anthu a ku Zambia]] ♦♦♦---> == Wonaniso == {{portal|Zambia}} * [[:en:Index_of_Zambia-related_articles|Index of Zambia-related articles]] * [[:en:Outline_of_Zambia|Outline of Zambia]] {{-}} == Ukaboni == <references responsive="1"></references> == Wonani vinandi == {{Refbegin}} * DeRoche, Andy, ''Kenneth Kaunda, the United States and Southern Africa'' (London: Bloomsbury, 2016) * {{Cite book|author-link=James Ferguson (Anthropologist)|first=James|last=Ferguson|title=Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Urban Life in the Zambian Copperbelt|url=https://archive.org/details/expectationsofmo00ferg|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=1999|isbn=978-0-520-21701-0}} * Gewald, J. B., et al. ''One Zambia, Many Histories: Towards a History of Post-colonial Zambia'' (Brill, 2008) * Ihonvbere, Julius, ''Economic Crisis, Civil Society and Democratisation: The Case of Zambia'' (Africa Research & Publications, 1996) * LaMonica, Christopher, ''Local Government Matters: The Case of Zambia '' (Lambert Academic Publishing, 2010) * Mcintyre, Charles, ''Zambia'', (Bradt Travel Guides, 2008) * Murphy, Alan and Luckham, Nana, ''Zambia and Malawi'', Lonely Planet Multi Country Guide (Lonely Planet Publications, 2010) * Phiri, Bizeck Jube, ''A Political History of Zambia: From the Colonial Period to the 3rd Republic'' (Africa Research & Publications, 2005) * [[Andrew D. Roberts|Roberts, Andrew]], ''A History of Zambia'' (Heinemann, 1976) * Sardanis, Andrew, ''Africa: Another Side of the Coin: Northern Rhodesia's Final Years and Zambia's Nationhood'' (I. B. Tauris, 2003) {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == {{Sister project links|Zambia|voy=Zambia}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050619081520/http://www.statehouse.gov.zm/ Official government website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050619081520/http://www.statehouse.gov.zm/|date=19 June 2005}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032804/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zambia/ Zambia]. ''[[:en:The_World_Factbook|The World Factbook]]''. [[:en:Central_Intelligence_Agency|Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140420184253/http://business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/zambia/business-corruption-in-zambia.aspx Zambia Corruption Profile] from the [[:en:Business-Anti-Corruption_Portal|Business Anti-Corruption Portal]] * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Zambia}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14112449 Zambia profile] from [[:en:BBC_News|BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Zambia}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ZM Key Development Forecasts for Zambia] from [[:en:International_Futures|International Futures]] * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ZMB/Year/2011/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Zambia] * [http://phys.org/news/2013-03-early-human-fossil-africa-debut.html First early human fossil found in Africa makes debut] {{Zambia topics|state=expanded}}{{Navboxes|list={{Countries of Africa|state=expanded}} {{African Union|state=expanded}} {{Southern African Development Community|state=expanded}} {{Commonwealth of Nations|state=expanded}}}}{{Authority control}} 6te8zbyc5ly7bea5wihel9wcvxyiy44 0 24227 122355 119591 2026-09-25T01:28:25Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Kawonelo ka masambiro mu Malawi}}[[File:Schoolchildren in Malawi.jpg|thumb|Ŵana ŵa sukulu ya pulayimale pa ungano wa pawaro ku Malawi|300x300px]] '''Masambiro gha ku [[Malawi]]''' ghakovwira munthu kuti waŵe wakunozgeka kuluta ku masukulu gha sekondare na mayunivesite. Ndipouli, mbanthu ŵacoko comene awo ŵakuluta ku sukulu ya sekondare panji ku yunivesite. Ŵana ŵanandi ŵakuleka sukulu, comenecomene awo ŵakusambira pulayimale. ==Sukulu ya pulayimale== Masukulu ghakupambana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: gha boma na gha ŵekha. Mu mizi na vikaya vinandi mu caru cose muli masukulu agha. Kuzakafika mu 1970, kukaŵa masukulu ghakwambilira pafupifupi 2,000 agho ghakaŵanga na ŵana 35 pa ŵana 100 ŵaliwose. Pa ŵana wose ŵa sukulu za pulayimare, 12 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakasambiranga mu masukulu ghapadera agho ghakaŵa gha tchalitchi. ==Sukulu ya sekondare== Masambiro gha ku sekondare ghakaŵa ghacedwa comene ku Malawi, cifukwa cakuti mu nyengo ya ukoloni, masambiro gha ku sekondare ghakaŵavya mahara. Mu Malaŵi muli masukulu ghasekondale gha mitundu yinkhondi. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni masukulu ghakusambizgirako ŵanthu, masukulu gha zuŵa, masukulu gha boma, masukulu gha ku sekondare, na masukulu ghapachanya. Ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵa masambiro ghaciŵiri ŵali na madigiri panji madipuloma. Mu masambiro agha, ŵana wose ŵakwenera kusambira vya ulimi. Ŵanyamata ŵakuchiskika kuti ŵagwirenge nchito za makuni, visulo, na kupenta, ndipo ŵasungwana ŵakuchiskika kuti ŵagwirenge nchito za panyumba. Chimoza mwa vinthu vikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakususka pa masukulu gha sekondare mu Malawi ntchakuti ghakusambizga chomene masambiro gha ku yunivesite. Ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵakwamba kugwira nchito mwaluŵiro ndipo ŵakukhumbikwira kuŵasambizga vinthu vinyake. Ntheura, masukulu gha sekondare ghakuŵa na ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵacoko comene. Nakuti pa ŵawukirano wose ŵa ku Malawi, yumoza pera pa ŵawukirano ŵanayi ndiyo wakumalizga sukulu. <ref>{{Cite book|title = Youth Studies|url = https://archive.org/details/youthstudiesintr0000furl|last = Furlong|first = Andy|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|isbn = 978-0-415-56479-3|location = Abingdon, Oxon|pages = [https://archive.org/details/youthstudiesintr0000furl/page/233 233]}}</ref> ==System ya Sukulu za boma== Wupu wa UNICEF ukati mu 1994, boma likakhazikiska sukulu zaulere za ŵana wose. <ref name="ilab">[https://web.archive.org/web/20101111075628/http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/malawi.htm "Malawi"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006092319/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/TDA2001/malawi.htm |date=2008-10-06 }}. ''2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor''. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2002). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]]''.</ref> Mu 1994, ciŵelengero ca ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga masambiro gha ku pulayimale cikaŵa 133.9 peresenti, ndipo 102.6 peresenti. <ref name=ilab/> Mu 1995, ŵana 62 pa 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakamba sukulu ya pulayimale ŵakafika mu kilasi laciŵiri, ndipo 34 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakafika mu kilasi lacinayi. <ref name=ilab/> Ŵasungwana ŵanandi ŵakuleka sukulu kuluska ŵanyamata. <ref name=ilab/> ==System ya Sukulu zaŵene== Masukulu gha ŵanthu ŵekha ghafuma mu Malaŵi ndipo ghakovwira kuti sukulu za boma zileke kwenda. Masukulu ghaŵene ghakusazgapo masukulu nga ni tukombo private girls secondary school, Bedir IS, Phungu, Lilongwe Girls, Hossana private School na Sunnyside School. Masukulu ghanyake ghakusambizgika na boma. [[Sukulu yakwamba]] ya ŵasungwana ya Tukombo yikamba mu 1998, ndipo yikwendeskeka na NY nkhatabay development trust. Wupu wa [[Bedir Foundation]], uwo ukambika mu 2000, uli na masukulu ghaŵiri: Bedir Star International School, Lilongwe na Bedir International School, Blantyre. Vyose viŵiri vikugwiliskira nchito masambiro gha Cambridge International Examinations, kweniso MANEB. ===Sukulu za Charitable Foundation=== Masukulu ghanandi gha kujikora ghapangika mu Malawi nga ni mawupu gha vyawanangwa na ŵana ŵa sukulu: * Wupu wa [[Jacaranda Foundation]], <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jacarandafoundation.org|title=Jacaranda Foundation: Building Schools, Providing Education, Preventing AIDS in Malawi}}</ref> uwo ukazengeka na mama Marie Da Silva, ndiwo ukuwovwira sukulu iyi. Ili ndilo likaŵa sukulu yimoza pera yaulere ku Malawi ya ŵana ŵa sukulu za pulayimale na sekondare. Ŵana ŵanandi ŵa sukulu ya Jacaranda mbalanda chifukwa cha nthenda ya [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]], nga umo vikaŵira pa [[CNN Heroes]] mu 2008. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/02/14/dasilva/|title=CNN Heroes: Giving hope to orphans of AIDS|website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> * Sukulu ya St. Patrick Academy & primary * [[Joyce Banda Foundation]] ni wupu uwo ukwendeska masukulu gha primary na secondary mu Malawi. * Wupu wa [[Raising Malawi]] Foundation ukuzenga sukulu ya ŵasungwana ku Malawi. * Sukulu ya Legson Kayira Primary na Community Center * Gulu la [[Youth of Malawi]] lazenga sukulu ya pulayimale iyo yikugwiliskira nchito nkhongono ya dazi, ndipo yikuwunjika maji gha vula mu muzi wa Chimphamba, mu cigaŵa ca Mchinji ku vigaŵa vya ku Malaŵi. ==System ya Yunivesite== Masukulu ghapachanya mu Malawi ghali na masukulu ghanayi gha boma na ghanyake ghapachanya. Palije yunivesite ya ku Malawi iyo yili pa chigaŵa cha [[Times Higher]] panji [[QS World University Rankings]]. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-25 |title=World University Rankings |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2022/world-ranking |access-date=2023-03-25|website=Times Higher Education (THE) |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2022 |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2022 |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=Top Universities |language=en}}</ref> Malaŵi ni yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵacoko comene pa caru cose awo ŵakusambira pa yunivesite. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Wider access to higher education needs a mindset shift |url=https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20180705091345766 |access-date=2023-03-25|website=University World News}}</ref> Ŵakuyezgayezga kuti ŵasambire masambiro ghapachanya, comenecomene ŵanakazi awo kanandi ŵakuŵavya mwaŵi. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-23 |title=Strengthening Higher Education Access in Malawi Activity (SHEAMA) |url=https://education.asu.edu/projects-and-impact/sheama-higher-education-access-malawi |access-date=2022-05-08 |website=Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College |language=en}}</ref> Masukulu gha boma ni agha (mwakuyana na umo ghakaŵirako): * [[Yunivesite ya Malawi]] ni yunivesite yakwamba na yikuru chomene mu Malawi. Likasangika mu 1964 ndipo lili na masukulu ghanandi. * [[Yunivesite ya Mzuzu]] yikayambika mu chaka cha 1997 ndipo njimoza mwa yunivesite zikuruzikuru za ku Malawi. Sukulu iyi yili mu msumba wa [[Mzuzu]], kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Kumpoto kwa Malaŵi ni malo ghakavu comene, ndipo ŵana wose ŵakuseŵera ndipo ŵanthu ŵalara ŵakulima. Ŵana ŵanyake ŵakovwira ŵalara pa ulimi, kweni ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku sukulu. * [[Lilongwe Yunivesite ya Kulima na Vinthu Vyacilengiwa]] ni yunivesite iyo yili ku [[Lilongwe]], Malawi. Likapangika mu chaka cha 2011 pakusazgikana pakati pa Bunda College of Agriculture of the University of Malawi na Natural Resources College (NRC). * [[Malawi University of Science and Technology]] (MUST), panji [[University of Southern Malawi]], yikambikwa pa 17 Disembala 2012 na Malawi University of Science and Technology Act No. 31 ya 2012 nga ni yunivesite yachinayi ya boma mu Malawi. Likatsegulika mu 2014 na Professor Peter Mutharika, LL.B ((Hons), J.D.S. Malo agha ghali mu chigaŵa cha [[Thyolo (ving'anamulilo vinyake)|Thyolo]], ku Malawi. Malo agha ghali pa malo ghakukwana {{convert|215,000 |m2|ha acre|abbr=on}} ndipo chigaŵa chose cha nyumba zake {{convert|46,000| m2|sqyd|abbr=on}}. Yunivesite iyi yili na malo ghakukwana ŵanthu 3,000, kweni yingaŵa na malo ghakujumpha kaŵiri. Nadi, Yunivesite iyi yizamovwira comene boma la Malawi kuti ŵanthu ŵasambire masambiro ghapacanya. Para sukulu iyi yafika pa malo ghake, yizamuŵa na Malawi Institute of Technology, Ndata School of Climate & Earth Sciences, Academy of Medical Sciences na Bingu School of Culture and Heritage. Malo gha Malawi Industrial Research and Technology Development Centre ghazamuŵa ku MIT. Masukulu ghapachanya gha ku Malawi ni agha: * Yunivesite ya Central Christian ni Yunivesite ya Private-Not-Profit iyo yikupangiska kafukufuku ndipo yikukhumba kupeleka masambiro gha palipose na pa mtunda mu Malawi * Catholic University of Malawi ni sukulu iyi yili mu chigaŵa cha Montfort mu chigaŵa cha Chiladzulu mu Malawi. Likakhazikiskika mu 2004 ndipo likajulika mu 2006, ndipo likaŵa na masukulu gha vya [[sayansi]] na masambiro. Pasono likusambizgaso vya vyachuma, malonda, bizinesi, na kuwerengera ndalama. Malipiro gha pa Yunivesite {{as of when?}} Ndalama izi zikasazgikira kankhondi na kamoza kufika pa pafupifupi mapaundi 380 pa caka, kuluska kaŵiri malipiro ghapachanya gha ku Malawi. <ref>{{cite news|last1=Scott|first1=David|title=Developing pharmacy in Malawi|url=http://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/20202748.article|access-date=17 July 2017|publisher=Pharmaceutical Journal|date=4 July 2017}}</ref> ==Ntchito ya kusambizga na kusambizga== Unduna wa vya masambiro ndiwo ukulemba mapulogiramu gha masukulu gha ku Malawi na kulaŵilira masambiro gha ŵasambizgi. Ŵasambizgi ŵakusambira masambiro gha ku sukulu na masambiro ghanyake. Pakusambizga munthu payekha, pakukhumbikwira kuti walongozgekenge. Ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵakwamba kusambizga pa sukulu za pulayimale mu sukulu iyo yili pafupi na malo ghakusambizgira ŵasambizgi. Pamanyuma pake, ŵakusambizga pa gulu ndipo msambizgi uyo wakusambira wakusambizga yekha kilasi kwa masabata 6. Pali mitundu yitatu ya ŵasambizgi awo ŵakusambizga ŵanthu. Ŵasambizgi awo ŵali kumalizga masambiro agha ndiwo ŵakulongozga dipatimenti zinandi, ndipo ŵakovwirika na ŵantchito awo ŵali na maudindo ghapachanya panji ghapachanya. ===Ŵasambizgi ŵa ku pulayimale=== Malawi wali na masukulu ghanayi ghakusambizga masambiro gha ku pulayimale. Msambizgi wa PT4 wali na chiphaso cha Malawi School Certificate of Education (MSCE) icho ni vyaka vinayi vya masambiro gha ku sekondare, na chiphaso cha ŵasambizgi cha vyaka viŵiri. Para munthu wafika pa msinkhu wa PT3, wakuŵa na mwaŵi wa kufumba mafumbo. Para munthu wakughanaghana kuti wakumanya vinandi pa nkhani iyi, wakwenera kufumba fumbo. Ndipouli, PT2 ni digiri ya boma (Muteŵeti wa msambizgi mulara) apo PT1 njakovwira kwa msambizgi mulara, ŵasambizgi ŵa pulayimale na awo ŵakulaŵilira ntchito. ===Ŵasambizgi ŵa sukulu za sekondare=== Ŵasambizgi ŵa masukulu gha sekondare ŵakusambizgika pa sukulu ya masambiro. Sukulu iyi yikupeleka masambiro gha mitundu yitatu: Diploma of Education, Bachelor of Education na University Certificate of Education. ===Wasambizgi ŵa pa yunivesite=== Ŵasambizgi ŵa pa yunivesite iyi ŵalipo 30 peresenti. Mu 1977, pa ŵasambizgi 199, 87 ŵakaŵa ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Pa ŵasambizgi aŵa, 27 ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Malawi, ndipo ŵanyake 48 ŵakasambiranga masambiro ghapachanya ku vyaru vinyake. Pali kukhumbikwa kuti ŵanthu awo pasono ŵakuteŵetera nga ni ŵasambizgi ŵalutilire kuŵa na maluso kweniso kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Malawi ŵasambizgike. ===Wupu wa mawupu gha boma yayi=== {{Third-party}} Wungwero Book Foundation yikusambizga ŵasambizgi ŵa mabuku pa sukulu ya DAPP. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africanlibraryproject.org/about-us/our-partners/136-library-partner-wungwero-book-foundation-malawi|title=African Library Project - Library Partner - Wungwero Book Foundation Malawi|work=The African Library Project.}}</ref> Wupu unyake ukuru uwo uli ku Malawi, ndipo ukucemeka AYISE, ukupeleka masambiro ku masukulu gha mu cigaŵa ici. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ayisemw.org|title=Cheap Electronics Could Be A Good Idea}}</ref> ==Ŵasambizgi ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Malawi== * [[Joyce Banda]] - Mtsogoleri wakale wa Malawi, woyambitsa bungwe la [[Joyce Banda Foundation]] * [[Frank Chipasula]] - mulembi, mulembi na wakusambizga * [[Peter Mutharika]] - Pulezidenti wa Malaŵi, pulofesa wa malango, mulaŵiliri wa malango gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana * [[Anjimile Oponyo]] - wakusambizga ==Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Malawi== * [[Frank Chipasula]] - mulembi, mulembi na wakusambizga * [[William Kamkwamba]] - Msambiri wa ku Malawi uyo wakamanya kumanyikwa chifukwa cha kuzenga mphero ya mphepo kufuma ku vigaŵa vinyake <ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8yKFVPOD6o |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/G8yKFVPOD6o |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|title=William Kamkwamba: How I built a windmill|date=1 August 2007|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} ==Vigaŵa vya kuwaro== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081108102928/http://www.malawi.gov.mw/Education/Home%20%20Education.htm Unduna wa vya Masambiro wa ku Malawi (en)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090323022613/http://www.sacmeq.org/education-malawi.htm Kafukufuku Wakulongosora vya Masambiro na Umoyo wa Ŵanthu ku Malawi], Wupu wa Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) (en) * [http://www.mef-malawi.org Wupu Wakulongozga ya Malawi (en)] {{Masambiro gha ku Africa}} [[Category: Masambiro gha ku Malawi| ]] [[Category:Masambiro gha ku Africa|Malawi]] liuksmu3u6rhekfu3ksjjnt7a82uuko 0 24451 122334 68119 2026-09-24T23:58:37Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{stub}} {{stack|{{Districts of Malawi Image Map}}}} {{Politics of Malawi}} [[Malawi]] ni boma ichi chili na vigaŵa 28.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.gov.mw/|title=Parliament of Malawi - Official Website|publisher=Parliament.gov.mw|access-date=2015-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505075437/http://www.parliament.gov.mw/|archive-date=2017-05-05|url-status=dead}}</ref> mu [[Chigaŵa (Malaŵi)]] mu vigaŵa vitatu. Boma chilichose chikulongozgeka na [[Muteŵeti wa boma (Malaŵi)|Muteŵeti wa boma]]:<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111020085146/http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/edu/Comparative%20EM%20Book%20-%20Chapter%20-%20Emergency%20Management%20In%20Malawi.doc] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020085146/http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/edu/Comparative%20EM%20Book%20-%20Chapter%20-%20Emergency%20Management%20In%20Malawi.doc |date=October 20, 2011 }}</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} {{malawi-stub}} [[Category:Boma|Malaŵi]] 7b5x4uydbrvldftcpkignrsd0rgoaze 0 25507 122348 118831 2026-09-25T00:49:30Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122348 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Unique numeric book identifier since 1970}} {{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}{{Infobox identifier|name=International Standard Book Number|image=EAN-13-ISBN-13.svg|image_caption=A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an [[International Article Number|EAN-13 bar code]]|acronym=ISBN|start_date={{Start date and age|1970}}|organisation=International ISBN Agency<!-- Yes, they are really called the International International Standard Book Number Agency -->|digits=13 (formerly 10)|check_digit=Weighted sum|example=978-3-16-148410-0|website={{url|isbn-international.org}}}} Nambala ya '''International Standard Book Number''' (ISBN) ni nambara iyo yikulongora umo mabuku ghakuguliskikira. Ŵakupharazga ŵakugura panji kupokera mazina gha ISBN ku wupu unyake wa International ISBN Agency.<ref>{{cite web |title=The International ISBN Agency |url=https://www.isbn-international.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224032510/https://www.isbn-international.org/ |archive-date=24 February 2018 |access-date=20 February 2018}}</ref> Buku lililose likuŵa na ISBN (International Number Number Number) ndipo para lafuma likuŵa na ISBN. Mwachiyelezgero, buku la pa kompyuta, buku lakupelekeka mu mapepara ghafinyi, na buku lakupelekeka mu mapepara ghakusuzga, waliyose waŵenge na ISBN yake. Nambala ya ISBN njitali manambara 10 usange yapika pambere chaka cha 2007 chindafike, ndipo njitali manambara 13 usange yapika pa 1 Janyuwale 2007 panji pamanyuma pake. Nthowa yakupelekera ISBN yikupambana mu vyaru na vyaru, ndipo kanandi yikuthemba pa unandi wa mabuku agho ghakusindikizgika mu vyaru ivi. Mtundu wakwambilira wa ISBN ukapangika mu 1967, kufuma pa manambara 9 gha Standard Book Numbering (SBN). Gulu la pa charu chose lakuwona vya ndembera (International Organization for Standardization (ISO)) ndilo likapangiska ISBN ya manambara 10. Mabuku agho ghakupharazgika na ŵanthu ŵekha nyengo zinyake ghakuŵa na ISBN yayi. Nyengo zinyake wupu wa International ISBN Agency ndiwo ukupeleka mazina gha mabuku agha. Nambara yinyake iyo yikovwira kumanya mabuku nga ni magazini na manyuzipepara ni International Standard Serial Number (ISSN). International Standard Music Number (ISMN) yikung'anamura sumu. == {{anchor|SBN}}Mbili == Nambara ya Buku (SBN) ni nthowa yakupangira mabuku iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito manambara gha manambara 9. Mu 1965, WHSmith, uyo wakuguliska mabuku ku Britain, wakapharazga kuti wakukhumba kuŵika manambara gha mabuku ghake. Ŵakalemba ntchito ŵanthu ŵanyake kuti ŵaŵawovwire, ndipo Gordon Foster, uyo wakaŵa pulofesa wa masamu pa Trinity College ku Dublin ndiyo wakambiska nthowa iyi. Wupu wa International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee on Documentation ukakhumbanga kusintha SBN ya ku Britain kuti yiŵe yakovwira pa caru cose. Mtundu wa ISBN ukapangika mu 1967 ku United Kingdom na David Whitaker (uyo wakucemeka "Wiske wa ISBN") ndipo mu 1968 ku United States na Emery Koltay (uyo pamanyuma wakazgoka mulongozgi wa U.S. Wupu wa ISBN R. R. Bowker).<ref name="niso.org">{{citation|url=http://www.niso.org/apps/group_public/download.php/6294/ISQ_vol8_no3_July1996.pdf|title=Emery Koltay, David Whitaker Named NISO Fellows|journal=Information Standards Quarterly|date=July 1996|pages=12–13|volume=8|number=3|publisher=National Information Standards Organization|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804153745/http://www.niso.org/apps/group_public/download.php/6294/ISQ_vol8_no3_July1996.pdf|archive-date=4 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=US ISBN Agency |title=Bowker.com – Products |url=http://commerce.bowker.com/standards/home/isbn/about_information_standards.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031219215516/http://commerce.bowker.com/standards/home/isbn/about_information_standards.asp |archive-date=19 December 2003 |access-date=11 June 2015 |publisher=Commerce.bowker.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Gregory |first=Daniel |title=ISBN |url=http://www.printrs.com/isbn.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516011735/http%3A//www.printrs.com/isbn.htm |archive-date=16 May 2016 |access-date=11 June 2015 |publisher=PrintRS}}</ref> Fomu ya ISBN ya manambara 10 yikapangika na wupu wa ISO ndipo yikalembeka mu 1970 nga ni ISO 2108. Ku United Kingdom ŵakalutilira kugwiliskira nchito nambara ya SBN m'paka mu 1974. Wupu wakuwona vya masisiteri (International ISBN Agency) ndiwo uli na mazaza gha kulembeska masisiteri pa charu chose. Pa Intaneti pali mabuku gha ISO agho ghakulongosora waka vya mu 1978. Nambala ya SBN yingasinthika kuŵa ISBN mwa kuŵikapo chilembo cha "0". Mwaciyelezgero, magazini yaciŵiri ya Mr. J. Wakayama G. Reeder Returns, ilo likalembeka na Hodder mu 1965, lili na "SBN 340 01381 8", apo "340" likung'anamura mupharazgi. Para nambala iyi yalembeka pambere nambara yindalembeke, yingazgoka <nowiki>ISBN 0-340-01381-8</nowiki>; nambara iyi yikukhumbikwa yayi kuŵerengaso. Ŵakupharazga ŵanyake, nga ni Ballantine Books, nyengo zinyake ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito manambara 12 gha SBNs apo manambara ghatatu ghaumaliro ghakalongoranga mtengo wa buku; nga ni umo viliri na Woodstock Handmade Houses. Kwambira pa Janyuwale 1, 2007, manambara gha ISBN ghali na manambara 13, ndipo ghakukolerana na manambara gha "Bookland" agho ghali na manambara 13..<ref name="LAC FAQ">{{cite web |author=TC 46/SC 9 |title=Frequently Asked Questions about the new ISBN standard from ISO |url=http://www.lac-bac.gc.ca/iso/tc46sc9/isbn.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610160919/http://www.lac-bac.gc.ca/iso/tc46sc9/isbn.htm |archive-date=10 June 2007 |website=lac-bac.gc.ca |publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Kuona mwapatali patali == Buku lililose likuŵa na ISBN yake (pakuleka kupulinta). Mwaciyelezgero, buku la e-book, la ma audiobook, la mapepara ghapusu, na la buku limoza, lili na ISBN yakupambana.:12 ISBN njitali manambara 13 usange yili kulembeka pa 1 Janyuwale 2007 panji pamanyuma pake, ndipo njitali manambara 10 usange yili kulembeka pambere chaka cha 2007 chindafike.{{efn|name=conversion}}<ref name="LAC FAQ" /> Nambala ya International Standard Book Number yili na vigaŵa vinayi (para ni ISBN ya manambara 10) panji vigaŵa vinkhondi (para ni ISBN ya manambara 13). Pa chigaŵa cha 5 mu buku la International ISBN Agency's official user manual:11 pali kulembeka umo ISBN ya manambara 13 yiliri: [[File:ISBN_Details.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ISBN_Details.svg|thumb|Vigaŵa vya ISBN ya manambara 10, EAN-13 na barcode. Wonani manambara agho ghali mu chigaŵa chilichose. Chigaŵa cha EAN-13 icho chili na zina lakuti "EAN" ni code ya charu cha Bookland.]] # pa ISBN ya manambara 13, chigaŵa chakwamba   a GS1 prefix: mpaka sono GS1 yapeleka 978 panji 979, # chigaŵa cha gulu la kulembeska (gulu la vyaru ivyo vikuyowoya chiyowoyero chimoza, charu chimoza panji chigaŵa chimoza),{{efn|Some books have several codes in the first block: e.g. A. M. Yaglom's ''Correlation Theory...'', published by [[Springer Verlag]], has two ISBNs, {{ISBNT|0-387-96331-6|3-540-96331-6|leadout=and}}. Though Springer's 387 and 540 codes are different for English (0) and German (3); the same item number 96331 produces the same check digit for both (6). Springer uses 431 as the publisher code for Japanese (4), and 4-431-96331-? also has a check digit of 6. Other Springer books in English have publisher code 817, and 0-817-96331-? would also have a check digit of 6. This suggests that special considerations were made for assigning Springer's publisher codes, as random assignments of different publisher codes would not be expected to lead by coincidence to the same check digit every time for the same item number. Finding publisher codes for English and German, say, with this effect would amount to solving a linear equation in modular arithmetic.{{Original research inline|This note may contain original research|date=May 2019}}}} # chigaŵa cha uyo wakulembeska, # chigaŵa cha kufumiska, na # Chilembo cha checksum panji chilembo cha digito. Nambala ya ISBN ya manambara 13 yingagaŵika mu vigaŵa vyake (vigaŵa vyakwambilira, gulu la kulembeska, munthu uyo wali kulembeska, buku, na nambara ya kuwoneskera), ndipo para vyaŵa nthena, kanandi vigaŵa ivi vikugaŵikana na vilembo vyambura kulembeka. Kugaŵa vigaŵa vya ISBN ya manambara 10 (gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵali kulembeska, awo ŵali kulembeska, awo ŵalembeka, na awo ŵali na nambara iyo ŵakukhumba kuwona) kukucitikaso na ma hyphens panji malo. Ntchipusu yayi kupambaniska makora ISBN, chifukwa vigaŵa vinandi vikugwiliskira ntchito manambara ghanandi yayi.{{efn|The International ISBN Agency's ''ISBN User's Manual'' says: "The ten-digit number is divided into four parts of variable length, which must be separated clearly, by hyphens or spaces", although omission of separators is permitted for internal data processing. If present, hyphens must be correctly placed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isbn-international.org/range_file_generation|title=ISBN Ranges|date=2014|publisher=International ISBN Agency|access-date=29 April 2014|archive-date=29 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429101326/https://www.isbn-international.org/range_file_generation|url-status=live}}</ref> The actual definition for hyphenation contains more than 220 different registration group elements with each one broken down into a few to several ranges for the length of the registrant element (more than 1,000 total). The document defining the ranges, listed by agency, is 29 pages.}} === Issuing process === Kufumiska ISBN nkhwakuyana waka na charu chilichose, chifukwa ni wupu uwo uli na mazaza pa charu ichi. Vinthu ivyo vikulembeka pa ISBN vikuthemba pa umo mabuku ghakusindikizgika mu charu icho, ntheura vikupambana kuyana na unandi wa mabuku, na unandi, mtundu, na ukuru wa awo ŵakulemba mabuku. Maofesi ghanyake ghakulembeka mazina gha visopa ghakusangika mu malaibulale panji mu maofesi gha boma ghakuwona vya kusambizga ŵanthu Baibolo. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nchito ya kulembeska ISBN yikucitika na mawupu agho ghakupokera ndalama yayi kufuma ku boma.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 April 2013 |title=ISBN Canada |url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/services/isbn-canada/Pages/isbn-canada.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421235618/https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/services/isbn-canada/Pages/isbn-canada.aspx |archive-date=21 April 2020 |access-date=19 January 2016 |website=www.bac-lac.gc.ca |publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada|LAC]]}}</ref> Maofesi ghose gha ISBN ghali pa webusayiti ya International ISBN Agency.<ref>{{cite web |title=Find an agency – International ISBN Agency |url=https://www.isbn-international.org/agencies |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420020626/https://www.isbn-international.org/agencies |archive-date=20 April 2020 |access-date=6 April 2018 |website=isbn-international.org}}</ref> Pa vyaru ivi pali vigaŵa vichoko waka: * Australia – Thorpe-Bowker<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Australian ISBN Agency |url=https://www.myidentifiers.com.au/isbn/US_isbn_agency |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416201605/https://www.myidentifiers.com.au/isbn/US_isbn_agency |archive-date=16 April 2020 |access-date=23 January 2016 |publisher=[[R. R. Bowker|THORPE-Bowker]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=5 January 2009 |title=Bowker – ISBN |url=https://www.myidentifiers.com.au/isbn/main |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402074747/https://www.myidentifiers.com.au/isbn/main |archive-date=2 April 2019 |access-date=29 March 2012 |publisher=Thorpe-Bowker}}</ref> * Brazil – The [[:en:National_Library_of_Brazil|National Library of Brazil]];<ref name="ISBN BR OLD">{{cite web |title=Tabela de preços dos serviços |trans-title=Table of service prices |url=http://www.isbn.bn.br/website/tabela-de-precos |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018035854/http://www.isbn.bn.br/website/tabela-de-precos |archive-date=18 October 2019 |access-date=8 September 2015 |publisher=[[National Library of Brazil|Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil]] |language=pt}}</ref> (Up to 28 February 2020)<ref name="isbn-international.org">{{cite web |title=Changes in arrangements for ISBN in Brazil |url=https://www.isbn-international.org/content/changes-arrangements-isbn-brazil/333 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028220210/https://www.isbn-international.org/content/changes-arrangements-isbn-brazil/333 |archive-date=28 October 2021 |access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref> * Brazil – Câmara Brasileira do Livro<ref name="ISBN BR">{{cite web |title=ISBN Brasil |url=http://www.isbn.org.br/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508084634/https://servicos.cbl.org.br/isbn/ |archive-date=8 May 2020 |access-date=20 January 2020 |language=pt}}</ref> (From 1 March 2020)<ref name="isbn-international.org" /> * Canada – English [[:en:Library_and_Archives_Canada|Library and Archives Canada]], a government agency; French [[:en:Bibliothèque_et_Archives_nationales_du_Québec|Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec]]; * Colombia – Cámara Colombiana del Libro, an NGO * Hong Kong – Books Registration Office (BRO), under the [[:en:Hong_Kong_Public_Libraries|Hong Kong Public Libraries]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction to Books Registration |url=https://www.hkpl.gov.hk/en/about-us/services/book-registration/introduction.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420065651/https://www.hkpl.gov.hk/en/about-us/services/book-registration/introduction.html |archive-date=20 April 2020 |access-date=12 January 2017 |publisher=[[Hong Kong Public Libraries|HKPL]]}}</ref> * Iceland – Landsbókasafn ([[:en:National_and_University_Library_of_Iceland|National and University Library of Iceland]]) * India – The [[:en:Raja_Rammohun_Roy_National_Agency_for_ISBN|Raja Rammohun Roy National Agency for ISBN]] (Book Promotion and Copyright Division), under Department of Higher Education, a constituent of the [[:en:Ministry_of_Human_Resource_Development|Ministry of Human Resource Development]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2016 |title=Union HRD Minister Smt. Smriti Zubin Irani Launches ISBN Portal |url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=138686 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626201908/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=138686 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |access-date=16 June 2016 |publisher=[[Ministry of Human Resource Development|MHRD]]}}</ref> * Israel – The Israel Center for Libraries<ref>{{cite web |date=7 April 2015 |title=What is an ISBN ? |url=https://www.icl.org.il/isbn-eng |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113232205/https://www.icl.org.il/isbn-eng |archive-date=13 January 2019 |access-date=13 January 2019 |website=ICL – מרכז הספר והספריות}}</ref> * Italy – ''EDISER srl'', owned by ''Associazione Italiana Editori'' (Italian Publishers Association)<ref>{{cite web |title=ISBN – Chi siamo e contatti |trans-title=ISBN – Who we are and contacts |url=http://www.isbn.it/LAGENZIA.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524222541/http://www.isbn.it/LAGENZIA.aspx |archive-date=24 May 2017 |access-date=3 January 2015 |publisher=EDISER srl |language=it}}</ref><ref name="ediser-tariffs">{{cite web |title=ISBN – Tariffe Servizi ISBN |trans-title=ISBN Service Tariffs |url=https://www.isbn.it/TARIFFE.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103161540/http://www.isbn.it/TARIFFE.aspx |archive-date=3 January 2015 |access-date=3 January 2015 |publisher=EDISER srl |language=it}}</ref> * Kenya – [[:en:National_Library_Service_of_Kenya|National Library of Kenya]] * Lebanon – [[:en:Lebanese_ISBN_Agency|Lebanese ISBN Agency]] * Maldives – The [[:en:National_Bureau_of_Classification_(NBC)|National Bureau of Classification (NBC)]] * Malta – The [[:en:National_Book_Council|National Book Council]] ({{lang-mt|Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb|link=no}})<ref>{{cite web |date=2016 |title=ISBN |url=http://ktieb.org.mt/?page_id=22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023123140/http://ktieb.org.mt/?page_id=22 |archive-date=23 October 2016 |publisher=Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN|url=http://ktieb.org.mt/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Manwal-ghall-Utenti-tal-ISBN-Maltese.pdf|publisher=Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb|language=mt|location=[[Malta]]|edition=6th|date=2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817083617/http://ktieb.org.mt/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Manwal-ghall-Utenti-tal-ISBN|archive-date=17 August 2016|pages=1–40|isbn=978-99957-889-4-0|access-date=14 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=23 January 2015 |title=Gazzetta tal-Gvern ta' Malta |url=https://govcms.gov.mt/en/Government/Government%20Gazette/Documents/2015/01/Government%20Gazette%20-%2023%20January.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123220053/https://govcms.gov.mt/en/Government/Government%20Gazette/Documents/2015/01/Government%20Gazette%20-%2023%20January.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2016 |publisher=Government Gazette |page=582}}</ref> * Morocco – The National Library of Morocco * New Zealand – The [[:en:National_Library_of_New_Zealand|National Library of New Zealand]]<ref name="NLNZ">{{cite web |title=ISBNs, ISSNs, and ISMNs |url=http://natlib.govt.nz/publishers-and-authors/isbns-issns-and-ismns |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423113348/https://natlib.govt.nz/publishers-and-authors/isbns-issns-and-ismns |archive-date=23 April 2020 |access-date=19 January 2016 |publisher=[[National Library of New Zealand]]}}</ref> * Nigeria – [[:en:National_Library_of_Nigeria|National Library of Nigeria]] * Pakistan – [[:en:National_Library_of_Pakistan|National Library of Pakistan]] * Philippines – [[:en:National_Library_of_the_Philippines|National Library of the Philippines]]<ref>{{cite web |title=International Standard Book Number |url=http://web.nlp.gov.ph/nlp/?q=node%2F645 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419212749/http://web.nlp.gov.ph/nlp/?q=node%2F645 |archive-date=19 April 2020 |access-date=25 December 2017 |publisher=[[National Library of the Philippines|NLP]]}}</ref> * South Africa – [[:en:National_Library_of_South_Africa|National Library of South Africa]] * Spain – [https://www.agenciaisbn.es/ Spanish ISBN Agency – Agencia del ISBN] * Turkey – General Directorate of Libraries and Publications, a branch of the [[:en:Ministry_of_Culture_and_Tourism_(Turkey)|Ministry of Culture]]<ref>{{cite web |title=ISBN – Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Kütüphaneler ve Yayımlar Genel Müdürlüğü OS |url=http://ekygm.gov.tr/isbn.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419234147/http://ekygm.gov.tr/isbn.html |archive-date=19 April 2020 |access-date=29 March 2018 |website=ekygm.gov.tr}}</ref> * United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland – ''Nielsen Book Services Ltd'', part of [[:en:Nielsen_Holdings|Nielsen Holdings]] N.V.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nielsen UK ISBN Agency |url=https://www.nielsenisbnstore.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029082349/http://www.nielsenisbnstore.com/ |archive-date=29 October 2019 |access-date=2 January 2015 |publisher=Nielsen UK ISBN Agency}}</ref> * United States – [[:en:R._R._Bowker|R. R. Bowker]]<ref name="ktieb">{{cite book|title=Manwal ghall-Utenti tal-ISBN|url=http://ktieb.org.mt/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Manwal-ghall-Utenti-tal-ISBN-Maltese.pdf|publisher=Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb|edition=6th|language=mt|location=[[Malta]]|date=2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817083617/http://ktieb.org.mt/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Manwal-ghall-Utenti-tal-ISBN|archive-date=17 August 2016|page=5|isbn=978-99957-889-4-0|access-date=14 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=8 March 2013 |title=Bowker – ISBN |url=http://www.bowker.com/en-US/products/servident_isbn.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331032631/http://www.bowker.com/en-US/products/servident_isbn.shtml |archive-date=31 March 2015 |access-date=8 March 2013 |publisher=R. R. Bowker}}</ref> === Chigaŵa cha gulu la kulembeska === {{anchor|Registration Group identifier}} {{anchor|ISBN format}} TChigaŵa cha gulu la kulembeska ISBN ni nambara ya manambara 1 m'paka 5 iyo yili na chigaŵa chimoza pera (ya 978 panji 979): 11 ndipo yingapatukana na "978-1-"... Magulu gha kulembeska ghakapelekeka mu chigaŵa cha 978 prefix. Mabungwe gha cilembo cimoza mu cigaŵa ca 978 ni: 0 panji 1 ku vyaru vya ciyowoyero ca Cingelezi; 2 ku vyaru vya ciyowoyero ca Cifurenci; 3 ku vyaru vya ciyowoyero ca Cigerman; 4 ku Japan; 5 ku vyaru vya ciyowoyero ca Cirushiya; na 7 ku China. Chiyelezgero cha gulu la manambara ghankhondi ni 99936, ku Bhutan. Magulu gha kulembeska agho ghalipo ni agha: 05, 600, 625, 65, 7, 8094, 950, 989, 9917 na 99901. Mabuku agho ghakusindikizgika mu viyowoyero vichoko chomene kanandi ghakukhala nyengo yitali. Mu chigaŵa cha 979, chigaŵa cha kulembeska chigaŵa cha 0 chili kulembeka kuti chiŵe chakukolerana na International Standard Music Numbers (ISMNs), kweni chigaŵa ichi chikuŵa na ISBN yayi. Magulu gha kulembeska agho ghalembeka mu chigaŵa cha 979 ni 8 ku United States of America, 10 ku France, 11 ku Republic of Korea, na 12 ku Italyy.<ref name="C4WDefault-5691881">{{cite web |author=International ISBN Agency |date=5 December 2014 |title=International ISBN Agency – Range Message (pdf sorted by prefix) |url=https://www.isbn-international.org/export_rangemessagebyprefix.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229084400/https://www.isbn-international.org/export_rangemessagebyprefix.pdf |archive-date=29 December 2014 |access-date=15 December 2014 |website=isbn-international.org |page=29}}</ref> The original 9-digit standard book number (SBN) had no registration group identifier, but prefixing a zero to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. === Registrant element === Wupu wa ku caru cose ukupeleka ISBN (cf. Wupu uwu ukupeleka zina la ISBN ku buku lililose. Mu vyaru vinandi, dango likukhumba yayi kuti mulembi wa mabuku wapelekenge ISBN, nangauli mu mashopu ghanandi ghakurughakuru mukusangika mabuku agho ghali na ISBN. Wupu wa International ISBN Agency ndiwo ukulemba mazina gha ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni awo ŵali na mazina agha. Mungapenja pa Intaneti. Ŵapharazgi ŵakupokera mazina ghakupambanapambana gha ISBN, ndipo mazina ghakurughakuru ghakupelekeka ku ŵapharazgi awo ŵakukhazga kuti ghaŵawovwirenge. Para mabokosi gha ISBN ghasangika, mupharazgi wangapokera mabokosi ghanyake gha ISBN agho ghali na chigaŵa chakupambana cha uyo wakulembeska. Ntheura, mupharazgi wangaŵa na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya munthu wakulembeska. Kweniso mu charu chimoza mungaŵa vimanyikwiro vinandi vya gulu la kulembeska. Ivi vingacitika para ŵanthu wose awo ŵali kulembeska mu gulu limoza ŵapelekeka ku ŵapharazgi. Pakugwiliskira nchito vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, mawupu ghakulembesa mabuku ghangaŵa na mwaŵi wa kupeleka mazina ghakupambanapambana ku awo ŵakulemba mabuku. Mwaciyelezgero, mupharazgi mulara wangapika mabokosi gha ISBN apo manambara ghachoko ghali kupelekeka ku munthu uyo wakulembeska ndipo manambara ghanandi ghali kupelekeka ku munthu uyo wakulemba mabuku.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Splane|first=Lily|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54527545|title=The book book : a complete guide to creating a book on your computer|date=2002|publisher=Anaphase II|isbn=0-945962-14-2|edition=2nd|location=San Diego, Calif.|oclc=54527545}}</ref> Apa pali ma code gha ISBN agho ghakulongora umo ma block ghakupambanirana. {| class="wikitable" !ISBN !Charu panji chigaŵa !Wakulemba |- |<code>99921-58-10-7</code><!--ISBN 978-99921-58-10-4--> |Qatar |NCCAH, Doha |- |<code>9971-5-0210-0</code><!--ISBN 978-9971-5-0210-2--> |Singapore |World Scientific |- |<code>960-425-059-0</code><!--ISBN 978-960-425-059-2--> |Greece |Sigma Publications |- |<code>80-902734-1-6</code><!--ISBN 978-80-902734-1-2--> |Czech Republic; Slovakia |Taita Publishers |- |<code>85-359-0277-5</code><!--ISBN 978-80-902734-1-2--> |Brazil |Companhia das Letras |- |<code>1-84356-028-3</code><!--ISBN 978-0-14-015098-8--> |English-speaking area |Simon Wallenberg Press |- |<code>0-684-84328-5</code><!--ISBN 978-0-684-84328-5--> |English-speaking area |Scribner |- |<code>0-8044-2957-X</code><!--ISBN 978-0-8044-2957-3--> |English-speaking area |Frederick Ungar |- |<code>0-85131-041-9</code><!--ISBN 978-0-85131-041-1--> |English-speaking area |J. A. Allen & Co. |- |<code>93-86954-21-4</code><!--ISBN 978-93-86954-21-3--> |English-speaking area |Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd. |- |<code>0-943396-04-2</code><!--ISBN 978-0-943396-04-0--> |English-speaking area |Willmann–Bell |- |<code>0-9752298-0-X</code><!--ISBN 978-0-9752298-0-4--> |English-speaking area |KT Publishing |} ==== Chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi ==== Vigaŵa vya gulu la kulembeska mu Cingelezi ni 0 na 1 (vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vyakujumpha 220 vya gulu la kulembeska). Vinthu viŵiri ivi vya gulu la kulembeska vili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa vya munthu wakulembeska mu ndondomeko iyo yikovwira kumanya utali wake, nga ni umo vikuŵira:<ref name="C4WDefault-9122662">{{cite web |author1=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=15 September 2014 <!-- No date available; last modification date used. --> |title=ISBN Ranges |url=https://www.isbn-international.org/range_file_generation |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429101326/https://www.isbn-international.org/range_file_generation |archive-date=29 April 2014 |access-date=15 September 2014 |website=isbn-international.org |publisher=International ISBN Agency}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |Publication element length ! colspan="3" |0 – Registration group element ! colspan="3" |1 – Registration group element ! rowspan="2" |Total Registrants |- !From !To !Registrants !From !To !Registrants |- !6 digits |0-00-xxxxxx-x |0-19-xxxxxx-x |20 |1-01-xxxxxx-x 1-04-xxxxxx-x |1-02-xxxxxx-x 1-06-xxxxxx-x |5 |25 |- !5 digits |0-200-xxxxx-x 0-229-xxxxx-x 0-370-xxxxx-x 0-640-xxxxx-x 0-646-xxxxx-x 0-649-xxxxx-x 0-656-xxxxx-x |0-227-xxxxx-x 0-368-xxxxx-x 0-638-xxxxx-x 0-644-xxxxx-x 0-647-xxxxx-x 0-654-xxxxx-x 0-699-xxxxx-x |494 |1-000-xxxxx-x 1-030-xxxxx-x 1-100-xxxxx-x 1-714-xxxxx-x |1-009-xxxxx-x 1-034-xxxxx-x 1-397-xxxxx-x 1-716-xxxxx-x |316 |810 |- !4 digits |0-2280-xxxx-x 0-3690-xxxx-x 0-6390-xxxx-x 0-6550-xxxx-x 0-7000-xxxx-x |0-2289-xxxx-x 0-3699-xxxx-x 0-6397-xxxx-x 0-6559-xxxx-x 0-8499-xxxx-x |1,538 |1-0350-xxxx-x 1-0700-xxxx-x 1-3980-xxxx-x 1-6500-xxxx-x 1-6860-xxxx-x 1-7170-xxxx-x 1-7900-xxxx-x 1-8672-xxxx-x 1-9730-xxxx-x |1-0399-xxxx-x 1-0999-xxxx-x 1-5499-xxxx-x 1-6799-xxxx-x 1-7139-xxxx-x 1-7319-xxxx-x 1-7999-xxxx-x 1-8675-xxxx-x 1-9877-xxxx-x |2,852 |4,390 |- !3 digits |0-85000-xxx-x |0-89999-xxx-x |5,000 |1-55000-xxx-x 1-68000-xxx-x 1-74000-xxx-x 1-77540-xxx-x 1-77650-xxx-x 1-77830-xxx-x 1-80000-xxx-x 1-83850-xxx-x 1-86760-xxx-x |1-64999-xxx-x 1-68599-xxx-x 1-77499-xxx-x 1-77639-xxx-x 1-77699-xxx-x 1-78999-xxx-x 1-83799-xxx-x 1-86719-xxx-x 1-86979-xxx-x |22,310 |27,310 |- !2 digits |0-900000-xx-x |0-949999-xx-x |50,000 |1-869800-xx-x 1-916506-xx-x 1-916908-xx-x 1-919655-xx-x 1-987800-xx-x 1-991200-xx-x |1-915999-xx-x 1-916869-xx-x 1-919599-xx-x 1-972999-xx-x 1-991149-xx-x 1-998989-xx-x |113,741 |163,741 |- !1 digit |0-6398000-x-x 0-6450000-x-x 0-6480000-x-x 0-9500000-x-x |0-6399999-x-x 0-6459999-x-x 0-6489999-x-x 0-9999999-x-x |522,000 |1-7320000-x-x 1-7750000-x-x 1-7764000-x-x 1-7770000-x-x 1-8380000-x-x 1-9160000-x-x 1-9168700-x-x 1-9196000-x-x 1-9911500-x-x 1-9989900-x-x |1-7399999-x-x 1-7753999-x-x 1-7764999-x-x 1-7782999-x-x 1-8384999-x-x 1-9165059-x-x 1-9169079-x-x 1-9196549-x-x 1-9911999-x-x 1-9999999-x-x |119,590 |641,590 |- ! colspan="3" |Total |579,052 ! colspan="2" |Total |258,814 |837,866 |} == Check digits == Chiŵerengero cha digito ni nthowa yakuwoneramo maubudi agho ghakovwira kumanya maubudi. Chiŵelengero ichi chili na nambara yimoza. Nthowa ya ISBN ya manambara 10 njakusazgikira kwa iyo ya SBNs, ntheura vyaru viŵiri ivi vikukolerana; SBN iyo yili na cero (ISBN ya manambara 10) yikuŵa na cikozgo cimoza na ca SBN kwambura cero. Chiŵerengero icho chikulembeka ni base 11, ndipo chingaŵa chiŵerengero chose pakati pa 0 na 9, panji 'X.' Nambala ya ISBN ya manambara 13 yikukolerana yayi na ya SBN ndipo kanandi yikupambana na ya manambara 10, ntheura yikuvikilirika yayi. Chifukwa ntchakuti nambara ya manambara 13 yikeneranga kukolerana na EAN, ntheura yikaŵanga na "X" yayi. === <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> check digits === Kuyana na buku la 2001 la International ISBN Agency's official user manual, nambara ya ISBN (iyo ni nambara yaumaliro ya nambara 10 ya ISBN) yikwenera kuŵa pakati pa 0 na 10 (chimanyikwiro cha 'X' chikung'anamura 10), ndipo yikwenera kuŵa yakuti nambara 10 zose, yimoza na yimoza yikwenera kuŵikamo (nambara yimoza), kufuma pa 10 kufika pa 1, ni nambara yimoza na 11. {{block indent|<math>\sum_{i = 1}^{10} (11-i)x_i \equiv 0 \pmod{11}.</math>}} For example, for an <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> of 0-306-40615-2: {{block indent|<math> \begin{align} s &= (0\times 10) + (3\times 9) + (0\times 8) + (6\times 7) + (4\times 6) + (0\times 5) + (6\times 4) + (1\times 3) + (5\times 2) + (2\times 1) \\ &= 0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 + 2\\ &= 132 = 12\times 11. \end{align} </math>}} Formally, using [[:en:Modular_arithmetic|modular arithmetic]], this is rendered {{block indent|<math>(10x_1+9x_2+8x_3+7x_4+6x_5+5x_6+4x_7+3x_8+2x_9+x_{10})\equiv 0 \pmod{11}.</math>}} It is also true for <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki>s that the sum of all ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ''ascending'' order from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11. For this example: {{block indent|<math> \begin{align} s &= (0\times 1) + (3\times 2) + (0\times 3) + (6\times 4) + (4\times 5) + (0\times 6) + (6\times 7) + (1\times 8) + (5\times 9) + (2\times 10) \\ &= 0 + 6 + 0 + 24 + 20 + 0 + 42 + 8 + 45 + 20\\ &= 165 = 15\times 11. \end{align} </math>}} Formally, this is rendered {{block indent|<math>(x_1 + 2x_2 + 3x_3 + 4x_4 + 5x_5 + 6x_6 + 7x_7 + 8x_8 + 9x_9 + 10x_{10})\equiv 0 \pmod{11}.</math>}} The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g. when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. It can be proven mathematically that all pairs of valid <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki>s differ in at least two digits. It can also be proven that there are no pairs of valid <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki>s with eight identical digits and two transposed digits. (These proofs are true because the ISBN is less than eleven digits long and because 11 is a [[:en:Prime_number|prime number]].) The ISBN check digit method therefore ensures that it will always be possible to detect these two most common types of error, i.e., if either of these types of error has occurred, the result will never be a valid ISBN&nbsp;– the sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never be a multiple of 11. However, if the error were to occur in the publishing house and remain undetected, the book would be issued with an invalid ISBN.<ref>For example, ''I'saka: a sketch grammar of a language of north-central New Guinea.'' Pacific Linguistics. ISBN "0-85883-554-4".</ref> In contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered digits, to result in a valid ISBN (although it is still unlikely). === <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> check digit calculation ===<!--"Damm algorithm" links here--> Each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN&nbsp;– excluding the check digit itself&nbsp;– is multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 2, and the sum of these nine products found. The value of the check digit is simply the one number between 0 and 10 which, when added to this sum, means the total is a multiple of 11. For example, the check digit for an <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> of 0-306-40615-''?'' is calculated as follows: {{block indent|<math> \begin{align} s &= (0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2)\\ &= 130. \end{align} </math>}} Adding 2 to 130 gives a multiple of 11 (because 132 = 12×11) – this is the only number between 0 and 10 which does so. Therefore, the check digit has to be 2, and the complete sequence is <nowiki>ISBN 0-306-40615-2</nowiki>. If the value of <math>x_{10}</math> required to satisfy this condition is 10, then an 'X' should be used. Alternatively, [[:en:Modular_arithmetic|modular arithmetic]] is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11. The [[:en:Remainder|remainder]] of this sum when it is divided by 11 (i.e. its value modulo 11), is computed. This remainder plus the check digit must equal either 0 or 11. Therefore, the check digit is (11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products modulo 11) modulo 11. Taking the remainder modulo 11 a second time accounts for the possibility that the first remainder is 0. Without the second modulo operation, the calculation could result in a check digit value of {{nobr|11 − 0 {{=}} 11}}, which is invalid. (Strictly speaking, the ''first'' "modulo 11" is not needed, but it may be considered to simplify the calculation.) For example, the check digit for the <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> of 0-306-40615-''?'' is calculated as follows: {{block indent|<math> \begin{align} s &= (11 - ( ( (0\times 10)+(3\times 9)+(0\times 8)+(6\times 7)+(4\times 6)+(0\times 5)+(6\times 4)+(1\times 3)+(5\times 2) ) \,\bmod\, 11 ) ) \,\bmod\, 11\\ &= (11 - ( (0 + 27 + 0 + 42 + 24 + 0 + 24 + 3 + 10 ) \,\bmod\, 11) ) \,\bmod\, 11\\ &= (11-((130) \,\bmod\, 11))\,\bmod\, 11 \\ &= (11-(9))\,\bmod\, 11 \\ &= (2)\,\bmod\, 11 \\ &= 2 \end{align} </math>}} Thus the check digit is 2. It is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software implementation by using two accumulators. Repeatedly adding <code>t</code> into <code>s</code> computes the necessary multiples:<syntaxhighlight lang="C"> // Returns ISBN error syndrome, zero for a valid ISBN, non-zero for an invalid one. // digits[i] must be between 0 and 10. int CheckISBN(int const digits[10]) { int i, s = 0, t = 0; for (i = 0; i < 10; ++i) { t += digits[i]; s += t; } return s % 11; } </syntaxhighlight>The modular reduction can be done once at the end, as shown above (in which case <code>s</code> could hold a value as large as 496, for the invalid <nowiki>ISBN 99999-999-9-X</nowiki>), or <code>s</code> and <code>t</code> could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each addition. === <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> check digit calculation === Appendix 1 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual<ref name="7th edition Users' Manual">{{cite book|url=https://www.kb.se/download/18.71dda82e160c04f1cc412bc/1531827912246/ISBN%20International%20Users%20Manual%20-%207th%20edition.pdf|title=ISBN Users' Manual, International Edition|edition=7th|date=2017|publisher=International ISBN Agency|location=London|isbn=978-92-95055-12-4|access-date=9 June 2019|archive-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211194637/https://www.kb.se/download/18.71dda82e160c04f1cc412bc/1531827912246/ISBN%20International%20Users%20Manual%20-%207th%20edition.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|33}} describes how the 13-digit ISBN check digit is calculated. The <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> check digit, which is the last digit of the ISBN, must range from 0 to 9 and must be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between 1 and 3, is a multiple of [[:en:10_(number)|10]]. As ISBN is a subset of [[:en:International_Article_Number#Check_digit|EAN-13]], the algorithm for calculating the check digit is exactly the same for both. Formally, using [[:en:Modular_arithmetic|modular arithmetic]], this is rendered: {{block indent|<math>(x_1 + 3x_2 + x_3 + 3x_4 + x_5 + 3x_6 + x_7 + 3x_8 + x_9 + 3x_{10} + x_{11} + 3x_{12} + x_{13} ) \equiv 0 \pmod{10}.</math>}} The calculation of an <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> check digit begins with the first twelve digits of the 13-digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself). Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed [[:en:Modular_arithmetic|modulo]] 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A zero replaces a ten, so, in all cases, a single check digit results. For example, the <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> check digit of 978-0-306-40615-''?'' is calculated as follows:<!--This is what we'd like to do, but it is far too wide. :<math>\textstyle \begin{array}{rlllllllllllll} s &{}= 1 \times 9 &{}+ 3 \times 7 &{}+ 1 \times 8 &{}+ 3 \times 0 &{}+ 1 \times 3 &{}+ 3 \times 0 &{}+ 1 \times 6 &{}+ 3 \times 4 &{}+ 1 \times 0 &{}+ 3 \times 6 &{}+ 1 \times 1 &{}+ 3 \times 5 \\ &{}= 9 &{}+21 &{}+ 8 &{}+ 0 &{}+ 3 &{}+ 0 &{}+ 6 &{}+ 12 &{}+ 0 &{}+ 18 &{}+ 1 &{}+ 15 \\ &{}= 93 \end{array}</math>--> s = 9×1 + 7×3 + 8×1 + 0×3 + 3×1 + 0×3 + 6×1 + 4×3 + 0×1 + 6×3 + 1×1 + 5×3 = 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93 93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3 10 – 3 = 7 Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7</nowiki>. In general, the <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> check digit is calculated as follows. Let {{block indent|<math>r = \big(10 - \big(x_1 + 3x_2 + x_3 + 3x_4 + \cdots + x_{11} + 3x_{12}\big) \bmod 10\big).</math>}} Then {{block indent|<math> x_{13} = \begin{cases} r, & r < 10, \\ 0, & r = 10. \end{cases} </math>}} Njira iyi ya kuwoneskera njakuyana waka na nthowa ya UPC ya kuwoneskera manambara. Para pali mphambano pakati pa manambara ghaŵiri gha pafupi na limoza, manambara ghaŵiri agha ghakusangika yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, ciyelezgero ico cili pacanya apa cikulongora kuti para nambala 6 yalondezgeka na nambala 1, mbwenu pali suzgo. Para nambala iyi yalembeka mu ndondomeko yiwemi, yikwimira 3 × 6 + 1 × 1 = 19; kweni para nambala iyi yalembeka mu nthowa yinyake (1 na 6), yikwimira 3 × 1 + 1 × 6 = 9. Ndipouli, 19 na 9 vikuyana waka, ndipo vyose vikuyana waka. Fomula ya ISBN yikugwiliskira ntchito nambala ya nambala 11 iyo yikovwira kuti munthu waleke kuwona vinthu mwambura kuwona. Kweniso usange manambara ghaŵiri, ghanayi, ghankhondi na limoza. === <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> to <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> conversion === ISBN yikuzgoka ISBN para pa ISBN pali mazgu ghakuti "978" na kupendeseraso chiŵelengero chaumaliro. Para nambala yikwamba na chilembo chinyake padera pa 978, yingaŵa yayi. === {{anchor|Cancelled ISBN}}Errors in usage === [[:en:Publishing|Publishers]] and [[:en:Library|libraries]] have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Book Publishing I|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780973872705|last1=Lorimer|first1=Rowland|last2=Shoichet|first2=Jillian|last3=Maxwell|first3=John W.|publisher=CCSP Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9738727-0-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780973872705/page/299 299]}}</ref> For example, {{ISBN|0-590-76484-5}} is shared by two books – ''Ninja gaiden: a novel based on the best-selling game by Tecmo'' (1990) and ''Wacky laws'' (1997), both published by [[:en:Scholastic_Corporation|Scholastic]]. Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. The [[:en:Library_of_Congress|Library of Congress]] catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase "Cancelled ISBN".<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2013 |title=020 – International Standard Book Number (R) – MARC 21 Bibliographic – Full |url=https://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/bd020.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105045654/http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/bd020.html |archive-date=5 January 2018 |access-date=29 December 2017 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref> However, book-ordering systems will not search for a book if an invalid ISBN is entered to its search engine.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} The International Union Library Catalog (a.k.a., [[:en:WorldCat|WorldCat]] [[:en:OCLC|OCLC]] – Online Computer Library Center system) often indexes by invalid ISBNs, if the book is indexed in that way by a member library.<ref>{{cite web |title=xISBN (Web service) |url=http://xisbn.worldcat.org/xisbnadmin/xoclcnum/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501074452/http://xisbn.worldcat.org/xisbnadmin/xoclcnum/index.htm |archive-date=1 May 2011 |access-date=27 May 2013 |publisher=Xisbn.worldcat.org}}</ref> === eISBN === Only the term "ISBN" should be used; the terms "eISBN" and "e-ISBN" have historically been sources of confusion and should be avoided. If a book exists in one or more digital ([[:en:E-book|e-book]]) formats, each of those formats must have its own ISBN. In other words, each of the three separate [[:en:EPUB|EPUB]], [[:en:Amazon_Kindle|Amazon Kindle]], and [[:en:PDF|PDF]] formats of a particular book will have its own specific ISBN. They should not share the ISBN of the paper version, and there is no generic "eISBN" which encompasses all the e-book formats for a title.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.sellbox.com/myth-eisbn-every-ebook-edition-needs-unique-number/|title=The Myth of the eISBN Why Every eBook Edition Needs a Unique Number – Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses|date=28 June 2013|work=Publishing services for self publishing authors and businesses|language=en-US|access-date=16 January 2017|archive-date=10 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010155538/https://www.sellbox.com/myth-eisbn-every-ebook-edition-needs-unique-number/|url-status=live}}</ref> == EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading == Mazuŵa ghano, manambara agho ghali pa chikopi chakumasinda cha buku (panji mukati mwa chikopi chakunthazi cha buku la mapepara) ni EAN-13; ghangaŵa na manambara ghankhondi agho ghakulongora ndalama iyo munthu wakuguliska na mtengo wake. Pa manambara 10 gha ISBN, nambala ya "978", iyo ni Bookland "country code", yikwamba na ISBN mu barcode data, ndipo chiŵelengero cha check digit chikupendekaso kuyana na EAN-13 formula (modulo 10, 1× na 3× weighting on alternating digits). Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa mazina ghanyake gha ISBN, wupu wa International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ukasintha mazina agha. Ndondomeko iyi yikamba pa Janyuwale 1, 2005, ndipo yikeneranga kumara pa Janyuwale 1, 2007. Kufumira mu 2011, manambara ghose 13 ghakwamba na 978. Pakuwona kuti nambala ya ISBN ya 978 yili kumara, ŵakalemba 979. Chigaŵa chimoza cha code 979 chikugwiliskirika ntchito na code ya Musicland pa sumu izo zili na ISMN. Makhodi gha ISMN gha manambara 10 ghakaŵa ghakupambana chifukwa ghakambanga na "M". Ma ISMN ghose sono ghali na manambara 13 agho ghakwamba na Template:Not a typo; Template:Not a typo to Template:Not a typo. Nambara ya chigaŵa cha chiyowoyero ichi yikuyana yayi na nambala ya chigaŵa cha chiyowoyero chinyake. Kweniso, nambara ya ISBN ya manambara 10 yikuyana yayi na nambara ya ISBN ya manambara 13. Chifukwa chakuti GTIN-13 ntchigaŵa cha Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (iyo yikusazgapo GTIN-14, GTIN-12, na GTIN-8), ISBN ya manambara 13 yili na manambara 14.<ref>{{Citation|title=Standards|contribution-url=http://www.isbn.org/standards/home/isbn/transition.asp|contribution=Are You Ready for <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki>?|publisher=ISBN|access-date=14 October 2005|archive-date=31 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080831082318/http://www.isbn.org/standards/home/isbn/transition.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> == Wonaniso == * [[:en:Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number|ASIN]] (Amazon Standard Identification Number) * [[:en:Book_Item_and_Component_Identifier|BICI]] (Book Item and Component Identifier) * [[:en:Special:BookSources|Book sources search]]&nbsp;– a Wikipedia resource that allows search by ISBNs * [[:en:CODEN|CODEN]] (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works) * [[:en:Digital_object_identifier|DOI]] (Digital Object Identifier) * [[:en:English_Short_Title_Catalogue|ESTC]] (English Short Title Catalogue) * [[:en:International_Standard_Audiovisual_Number|ISAN]] (International Standard Audiovisual Number) * [[:en:International_Standard_Recording_Code|ISRC]] (International Standard Recording Code) * [[:en:International_Standard_Text_Code|ISTC]] (International Standard Text Code) * [[:en:International_Standard_Musical_Work_Code|ISWC]] (International Standard Musical Work Code) * [[:en:ISWN|ISWN]] (International Standard Wine Number) * [[:en:Library_of_Congress_Control_Number|LCCN]] (Library of Congress Control Number) * {{ill|License number (East German books)|de|Lizenznummer}} (Book identification system used between 1951 and 1990 in the former GDR) * [[:en:List_of_group-0_ISBN_publisher_codes|List of group-0 ISBN publisher codes]] * [[:en:List_of_group-1_ISBN_publisher_codes|List of group-1 ISBN publisher codes]] * [[:en:List_of_ISBN_registration_groups|List of ISBN registration groups]] * [[:en:Serial_Item_and_Contribution_Identifier|SICI]] (Serial Item and Contribution Identifier) * [[:en:VD_16|VD 16]] (''Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des 16. Jahrhunderts'', "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Sixteenth Century") * [[:en:VD_17|VD 17]] (''Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17. Jahrhunderts'', "Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Seventeenth Century") == Vinandi == <references group="lower-alpha" responsive="1"></references> == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == {{Wikidata property|P957|P212}} {{sisterlinks|d=Q33057|mw=Manual:ISBN|species=no|voy=no|wikt=ISBN|n=no|q=no|s=no|b=no|v=no|c=Category:ISBN}} <!--============================== NoMoreLinks ===============--> <!--DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS--> <!--If you think that your link might be useful, instead of placing it here, put--> <!--it on this article's discussion page first. Links that have not been verified--> <!--WILL BE DELETED. See WP:WPSPAM for motivation.--> <!--======================================================--> * [http://www.iso.org/standard/65483.html ISO 2108:2017 – International Standard Book Number (ISBN)] * [https://www.isbn-international.org/ International ISBN Agency]&nbsp;– coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system ** [https://www.isbn-international.org/range_file_generation Numerical List of Group Identifiers]&nbsp;– List of language/region prefixes ** [https://www.isbn.org/ISBN_converter Free conversion tool: <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> to <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> & <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki> to <nowiki>ISBN</nowiki>] from the [http://www.isbn.org/ ISBN agency]. Also shows correct hyphenation & verifies if ISBNs are valid or not. * {{cite web |title=Guidelines for the Implementation of 13-Digit ISBNs |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040912203458/http://www.isbn-international.org/en/download/implementation-guidelines-04.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040912203458/http://www.isbn-international.org/en/download/implementation-guidelines-04.pdf |archive-date=12 September 2004 |postscript=none |df=dmy-all}} * {{IETF RFC|3187}}&nbsp;– Using International Standard Book Numbers as [[:en:Uniform_Resource_Name|Uniform Resource Names]] (URN) {{Audiovisual works|state=uncollapsed}}{{ISO standards}}{{Books}}{{Authority control}} laqiccpxn14l2b1ke1str6kwuwbqivz 0 25591 122356 121962 2026-09-25T01:33:49Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122356 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|History of the African region}} {{Nkhani iwemi}} [[File:African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg|right|thumb|Vyaru vya ku Africa ivyo vikaŵako pambere charu chindambe kulamulira]] [[File:Map-Africa-Regions-Islands.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-Africa-Regions-Islands.png|thumb|312x312px|Mapu gha ndyali gha mu nyengo yithu ya sono gha mu Africa (Kukusazgapo vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa na North Africa)]] [[File:Obelisk_Luxor.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Obelisk_Luxor.JPG|right|thumb|Chikhuni cha malibwe mu tempile la Luxor, Egypt. c. 1200 B.C.E.]] [[File:Rytter_fra_Bagirmi.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rytter_fra_Bagirmi.jpg|thumb|Msilikari wa ku Baguirmi uyo wali na vyakuvwara vyakofya, kwamba m'ma 1900.]] {{Human history}} Mbiri ya [[Africa]] yikamba na kuwoneka kwa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa hominid, ŵanthu ŵakale na  vyaka pafupifupi 300,000 - 250,000 vyaka vyajumphapo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evolution of Modern Humans: Early Modern Homo sapiens |url=https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/homo2/mod_homo_4.htm |access-date=2020-05-27 |website=www2.palomar.edu}}</ref> Mbiri yakwambilira iyo yikumanyikwa yikalembeka mu [[Eguputo]] wakale, ndipo pamasinda mu Nubia, [[Sahel]], Maghreb, na ku [[Horn of Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/learn/lesson/early-african-civilizations-history-culture-achievements.html#:~:text=The%20first%20civilization%20in%20Africa,a%20united%20kingdom%20of%20Egypt. |access-date=2023-01-22 |website=study.com}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kuzgoka kwa [[Sahara]] kuŵa mapopa, mbiri ya kumpoto kwa [[Africa]] yikakhwaskana na Middle East na [[Southern Europe]] apo banthu ŵakamba kufumako ku Cameroon (Central West Africa) mu vigaŵa vinandi vya sub-Saharan pakati pa 1000 BC na 1 AD.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Visit Africa: History of Africa |url=https://visitafrica.site/history-of-africa.html |access-date=2020-05-27 |website=visitafrica.site}}</ref> Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., chisopa cha Cisilamu chikamba kusazgikira kufuma ku Arabia m'paka ku Eguputo. Vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵako pambere charu chindambe kulamulira mu Africa vikaŵa Ufumu wa Ajuran, Ufumu wa Bachwezi, Ufumu wa D'mt, Ufumu wa Adal, Ufumu wa Alodia, Ufumu wa Dagbon, Ufumu wa Warsangali, Ufumu wa Buganda, Ufumu wa Nri, Chikhalidwe cha Nok, Ufumu wa Mali, Ufumu wa Bono, Ufumu wa Songhai, Ufumu wa Benin, Ufumu wa Oyo, Ufumu wa Lunda (Punu-yaka), Ufumu wa Ashanti, Ufumu wa Ghana, Ufumu wa Mossi, Ufumu wa Mutapa, Ufumu wa Mapungubwe, Ufumu wa Sine, Ufumu wa Sennar, Ufumu wa Saloum, Ufumu wa Baol, Ufumu wa Cayor, Ufumu wa Zimbabwe, Ufumu wa Congo, Ufumu wa Kaabu, Ufumu wa Ife, Ise, Carthage wakale, Numidia, Mauretania, na Ufumu wa Aksumite. Pa nyengo iyo caru ca Africa cikaŵa cakutowa comene, pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kulamulira caru ici, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti mu Africa mukaŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana 10,000 na magulu gha ŵanthu ŵakujiwusa ŵekha, awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero na mitheto yakupambanapambana.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meyerowitz|first=Eva L. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3lyAAAAMAAJ|title=The Early History of the Akan States of Ghana|date=1975|publisher=Red Candle Press|isbn=9780608390352}}</ref><ref>[http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2013/10/31/getting-to-know-africa-50-facts/ Africa Information]</ref> Kwambira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuguliska ŵazga.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=The Portuguese in Africa, 1415–1600 |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/agex/hd_agex.htm |access-date=26 January 2021 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref> Mu vyaru ivi mukaŵa malonda gha ŵanthu ŵatatu. Pakwamba Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga, ndipo pamasinda ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nkhaza. Ŵakatumanga ŵazga ŵa ku West, Central, na Southern Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=African Slave Trade, 1788 |url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/slavetrade.htm}}</ref> Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuzunura charu cha Africa kufuma pa 10% (1870) kufika pa 90% (1914) mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Africa (1881-1914). Ndipouli, pamanyuma pa kulimbana kwa wanangwa mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici, kweniso kupeleŵera kwa caru ca Europe pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caru Cose (1939-1945), caru cose cikamba kuzgoka caru ca Africa. Vinthu vinyake nga ni kulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu, kusanda malulimi, kusanda vinthu vyakale, na sayansi ya majini, vikawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵamanye umo vinthu vikaŵira kale. == Mbili ya chiyamwaka == {{Further|Mbili ya kumwera kwa Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa#Prehistory|Mbili ya Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa|History of Central Africa#Prehistory|History of East Africa#Prehistory|Horn of Africa#Prehistory|History of Southern Africa#Prehistory|African archaeology}} === Mbili yamu nyengo yachiyamwaka ya malibwe === {{Main|Lower Paleolithic|Middle Stone Age|Later Stone Age}} ==== Lower Paleolithic ==== [[File:Bienvenida_al_Museo_de_Lucy.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bienvenida_al_Museo_de_Lucy.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of "[[:en:Lucy_(Australopithecus)|Lucy]]"]] Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakamanyikwa ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa. Kuyana na ivyo ŵasayansi ŵakuyowoya, viwangwa vya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira vikaŵa vyakuyana waka na vya gorila na chimpanzee. Ici cikaŵawovwira comene kuti ŵakhalenge mu nkhorongo kweniso mu malo ghambura makuni, nangauli mu nyengo iyi mu Africa mukaŵa vyakumera vinandi. Ivi vikwenera kuti vikachitika vyaka 10 m'paka 5 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, kweni ŵanthu ŵakususkana navyo chifukwa ŵasayansi ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵako vyaka 70,000 m'paka 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Pafupifupi vyaka 4 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, mitundu yinandi ya vikoko vya mu vigaŵa vya kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi, na ku Central Africa yikamba kuŵako. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito vinthu na kupanga vinthu. Ŵakasanga nyama ndipo ŵakaryanga vyose..{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=2}} Pafupifupi vyaka 3.3 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo vya malibwe pakusanga nyama izo zikakomeka na vinyama vinyake. Pa nyengo ya ulovi, munthu uyu wakwenera kuti wakalimbananga na vinyama vikuruvikuru yayi. H. habilis wakwenera kuti wakibanga mazira mu viŵaya ndipo wakakozganga nyama zichoko waka na kuchepeska nyama zikuruzikuru. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa vya Oldowan.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=2–3}} Pafupifupi vyaka 1.8 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo ergaster ŵakalembeka kakwamba mu malibwe mu Africa. Kufuma ku Homo ergaster, Homo erectus wakasintha vyaka 1.5 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu uwu ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene mu wongo ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo vya malibwe nga ni H. habilis. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, wongo ukakura chomene, ndipo H. erectus wakapangaso vinthu vinyake vyakuzirwa chomene. Munthu uyu ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kufumamo mu Africa, ndipo wakafika mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Africa na Eurasia. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti munthu wakwamba uyo wakaŵako kuwaro kwa Africa wakaŵa Homo georgicus, kweni ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuti munthu wakwamba uyo wakaŵako kuwaro kwa Africa ni H. georgicus.{{sfnmp|Shillington|2005|Ehret|2002|1p=3|2p=22}} ==== Middle Paleolithic ==== [[File:Pieza_foliácea_africana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pieza_foli%C3%A1cea_africana.jpg|right|thumb|Vinthu vya ku Africa ivyo vili na visko viŵiri (mphumphu) ivyo vikulongora kuti vikaŵako mu nyengo ya malibwe]] Vinthu vyakale ivyo vili kulembeka vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens (awo ŵakuchemekaso kuti "ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano" panji "ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano") ŵakakhalanga mu Africa vyaka 350,000 m'paka 260,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya kuti ni vinyama vya Homo sapiens ni Jebel Irhoud ivyo vili kufuma ku Morocco (pafupifupi vyaka 315,000 ivyo vyajumpha), Florisbad Skull wa ku South Africa (pafupifupi vyaka 259,000 ivyo vyajumpha), na Omo uyo wali kufuma ku Ethiopia (pafupifupi vyaka 233,000 ivyo vyajumpha). Ŵasayansi ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakamba kuŵako pakati pa vyaka 350,000 na 260,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ukaboni wa nkharo zakupambanapambana ukulongora kuti nkharo za ŵanthu zikamba mu nyengo ya malibwe iyo yikaŵa ku Africa. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona vinthu vyambura kuwoneka makora, umo ŵanthu ŵakukhala makora, kweniso nkharo zinyake izo ŵanthu ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano. Mwaciyelezgero, mu mphanji ya Blombos, ku South Africa, ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca malibwe ghakututuŵa agho ghali na vithuzithuzi. Pakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zinandi zakupimira vyaka, ŵakamanya kuti malo agha ghakaŵako vyaka vyapakati pa 77,000 na 75,000. Mu Diepkloof, South Africa, ŵakasangamo viŵiya ivyo vikaŵa na viwangwa vya tuyuni uto pakalembeka maukaboni agho ghakalembeka vyaka 60,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinthu vinyake vyakusongoneska vyakusangika ku Morocco ivyo vingaŵa kuti vili na vyaka 130,000. Kweniso, mu mphanji ya Hearths ku South Africa muli vinthu vinandi ivyo vikulongora kuti vikaŵa vyaka 50,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Zida zapadera zakhala zikupezeka m'malo osiyanasiyana ku Middle Stone Age Africa, kuphatikizapo mafupa ndi mivi ya mivi ku malo a South Africa monga Sibudu Cave (pamodzi ndi singano yoyambirira ya mafupa yomwe inapezekanso ku Sibudu) kuyambira pafupifupi zaka 60,000-70,000 zapitazo, ndi ma harpoon a mafupa ku malo a Katanda ku Central Africa kuyambira pafupifupi zaka 90,000 zapitazo. Pali ukaboni wakuti malibwe gha silcrete ghakapangikanga mwakukhazikika kuti ghaŵe ghakutowa chomene, ndipo ghakamba kupangika vyaka 164,000 ivyo vyajumpha pa malo gha Pinnacle Point ku South Africa. Vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya malibwe (viŵiya ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito), ni viŵiya vya malibwe ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakugwiliskira ntchito mikondo, ndipo vikasangika mu 2013 ku Gademotta ku Ethiopia.<ref name="SahlePLOS1">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahle|first1=Y.|last2=Hutchings|first2=W. K.|last3=Braun|first3=D. R.|last4=Sealy|first4=J. C.|last5=Morgan|first5=L. E.|last6=Negash|first6=A.|last7=Atnafu|first7=B.|editor1-last=Petraglia|editor1-first=Michael D|title=Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0078092|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=11|page=e78092|year=2013|pmid=24236011|pmc=3827237|bibcode=2013PLoSO...878092S|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[File:Homo_naledi_facial_reconstruction.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Homo_naledi_facial_reconstruction.jpg|left|thumb|190x190px|Vikuwoneka kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakamba kukhala pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano vyaka pafupifupi 300,000 ivyo vyajumpha.]] Mu 2008, ku Blombos Cave, South Africa, ŵakasanga malo agho ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kupenta. Kufufuza uku kukulongora kuti mu viswaswa viŵiri ivi mukaŵa viswaswa vinandi ivyo vikaŵa na viswaswa vinandi. Ukaboni ukulongora kuti ntchito iyi yikaŵa yakusuzga chomene, nga ni kusanga na kusazga vinthu vyakufuma ku malo ghakupambanapambana (kulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamanyanga makora umo ŵangachitira), panji ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vyakupangira mafuta kuti ŵafumiskemo mafuta mu viwangwa, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa yinyake kuti ŵapangire munkhwala uwu, kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito viŵiya vyakupimira visulo pakusazga na kusunga kuti ŵazakawusange munthazi.<ref name="bbc.com-15257259">{{cite news|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Amos|title=A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity – Ancient 'paint factory' unearthed|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-15257259|date=13 October 2011|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=13 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Washington Post-2011/10/12/gIQApyHrhL">{{cite news|last=Vastag|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Vastag|title=South African cave yields paint from dawn of humanity|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/african-cave-yields-paint-from-dawn-of-humanity/2011/10/12/gIQApyHrhL_story.html|date=13 October 2011|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=13 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Henshilwood et al. 2011">{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood|first1=Christopher S.|display-authors=etal|year=2011|title=A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2011-10-14_334_6053/page/219|journal=Science|volume=334|issue=6053|pages=219–222|doi=10.1126/science.1211535|pmid=21998386|bibcode=2011Sci...334..219H|s2cid=40455940}}</ref> Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano, nga nkhupangira tumabango, viŵiya, na vinthu vinyake vyamalibwe, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vinthu vyamalibwe vyaka 78,000 m'paka 67,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti nkharo ya ŵanthu yikusintha chomene chifukwa cha kupenja nyama zinandi. Malo ghanandi ku South Africa ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kugomezga chomene visomba. Ku Pinnacle Point, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vya mu nyanja vyaka 120,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mwaciyelezgero, para ŵanthu ŵakuthemba chomene visomba ivyo vili na visomba ivi, ŵangaleka kwendera lumoza na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Mphanji ya Blombos na malo gha 440 mu Sudan, ghose ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaloŵanga somba. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti visomba ivyo vikusangika mu mphanji ya Blombos vikaŵa vyamoyo. Ŵanthu ku North Africa (Nazlet Sabaha, Egypt) ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kujimira malibwe, vyaka 100,000 ivyo vyajumpha, kuti ŵapangire visulo vya malibwe.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Yvan Dionne |date=Aug 19, 2014 |title=5 Oldest Mines in the World: A Casual Survey |url=https://www.promine.com/blog/5-oldest-mines-in-the-world-a-casual-survey |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105054434/https://www.promine.com/blog/5-oldest-mines-in-the-world-a-casual-survey |archive-date=2019-01-05 |access-date=2019-10-31 |work=Promine AutoCAD Tip of the Week}}</ref><ref name="Records2015">{{cite book|title=Guinness World Records 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f896CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|date=10 September 2015|publisher=Guinness World Records|isbn=978-1-910561-03-4|page=27}}</ref> [[File:Spreading_homo_sapiens_la.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spreading_homo_sapiens_la.svg|thumb|290x290px|Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambeso kuŵa na nkharo ziheni ni Homo erectus (yayiwulu), Homo neanderthalensis (ochre), na Homo sapiens (red).]] Mu 2018, pa malo gha Olorgesailie, ku Kenya, pakaŵa ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchita vinthu nga umo ŵakuchitira mazuŵa ghano. Awo ŵakalemba mabuku ghatatu gha mu 2018 ŵakayowoya kuti ukaboni wa nkharo izi ukusangika mu nyengo ya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu Africa (nga ni awo ŵakaŵako ku Jebel Irhoud na Florisbad). Mu 2019, ukaboni unyake wakuti kukaŵa vilwero vyakugwiliskira ntchito futi ku Africa ukasangika ku Adouma, Ethiopia vyaka 80,000-100,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Sahle">{{Cite journal|title=Assessment of complex projectiles in the early Late Pleistocene at Aduma, Ethiopia|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=5|page=e0216716|year=2018|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0216716|pmid=31071181|pmc=6508696|vauthors=Sahle Y, Brooks AS|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1416716S|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==== Upper Paleolithic ==== Pakati pa vyaka 65,000 na 50,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Kuzakafika mu 10,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Africa na Eurasia. Kusakaza kwawo kukulongosoreka na maukaboni gha chiyowoyero, mitheto na majini. Kusama kwa ku Eurasia, comenecomene kusama kwa ku Western-Eurasia, kukayamba mu nyengo ya Holocene panji kale comene mu nyengo ya Paleolithic, nyengo zinyake pakati pa vilimika 30-15,000 ivyo vyajumpha, kulondezgana na kusama kwa nyengo ya Neolithic na Neolithic kufuma ku Middle East, comenecomene ku Northern Africa, Horn of Africa, na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Sahel zone na East Africa.<ref name="Vicente 8–15">{{Cite journal|last1=Vicente|first1=Mário|last2=Schlebusch|first2=Carina M|date=2020-06-01|title=African population history: an ancient DNA perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959437X20300599|journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development|series=Genetics of Human Origin|language=en|volume=62|pages=8–15|doi=10.1016/j.gde.2020.05.008|pmid=32563853|s2cid=219974966|issn=0959-437X}}</ref> [[File:Pre-Neolithic_and_Neolithic_migration_events_in_Africa_(excluding_Basal-West-Eurasian_geneflow_during_the_Paleolithic).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pre-Neolithic_and_Neolithic_migration_events_in_Africa_(excluding_Basal-West-Eurasian_geneflow_during_the_Paleolithic).jpg|thumb|Vinthu ivyo vikachitika pambere nyengo ya Neolithic na Neolithic yindambe ku Africa.<ref name="Vicente 8–15" />]] Ukaboni wakwambilira wa umo vinthu vya mu mlengalenga vikachitikiranga ni kalendara ya mwezi iyo yikasangika pa chiwangwa cha Ishango icho chili pakati pa 23,000 na 18,000 B.C.E. mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Democratic Republic of Congo. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakususkana na fundo iyi. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti nkhondo yikaŵako yayi mu nyengo yakale chomene, ndipo yikafuma mu ndyali zakusuzga chomene chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa yayi. Ndipouli, ivyo vikasangika pa malo gha Nataruk mu chigaŵa cha Turkana, ku Kenya, uko kukaŵa viwangwa vya ŵanthu 27 awo ŵakafwa cifukwa ca kuwukilika na gulu linyake vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kale comene kulimbana.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Inter-group violence among early Holocene hunter-gatherers of West Turkana, Kenya|journal=Nature|pages=394–398|volume=529|issue=7586|doi=10.1038/nature16477|first1=M. Mirazón|last1=Lahr|first2=F.|last2=Rivera|first3=R.K.|last3=Power|first4=A.|last4=Mounier|first5=B.|last5=Copsey|first6=F.|last6=Crivellaro|first7=J.E.|last7=Edung|first8=J.M. Maillo|last8=Fernandez|first9=C.|last9=Kiarie|bibcode=2016Natur.529..394L|pmid=26791728|year=2016|s2cid=4462435|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/253726}}</ref> === Emergence of agriculture and desertification of the Sahara === {{Further|Neolithic Revolution#In Africa}} [[File:Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png|thumb|290x290px|Vegetation and water bodies in early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] (top), between about 12,000 and 7,000 years ago, and [[:en:Eemian|Eemian]] (bottom)]] Pafupifupi mu 16,000 B.C.E., kufuma ku mapiri gha ku Nyanja Yiswesi m'paka ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Ethiopia, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwunjika mphangwe, vyakumera, na vipasi kuti ŵarye. Kuzakafika mu 13,000 na 11,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwunjika vyakurya vyamuthengere. Ivi vikafika mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Asia, uko ŵanthu ŵakamba kulima tirigu na balere. Pakati pa 10,000 na 8000 B.C.E., kumpoto kwa Africa kukaŵa vyakurya vya tirigu na balere kweniso mberere na ng'ombe za ku Southwest Asia. Mu Africa, nyengo yakotcha yikapangiska mapiri gha ku Ethiopia kuŵa nkhorongo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Omo ŵakamba kukhala ku malo agha cha m'ma 6500-5500 B.C.E. Pafupifupi chaka cha 7000 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya ku Ethiopia ŵakamba kuzengera mbunda, ndipo mu 4000 B.C.E., mbunda zikafika mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Asia. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Cushitic, ŵakaleka kuliska ng'ombe, teff na chiŵegha pakati pa 5500 na 3500 BC. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kupanga viŵiya ku Africa, ndipo viŵiya vyakwambilira chomene vikafuma ku Mali. Nyengo yichoko waka, nthenda iyi yikathandazgika mu vigaŵa vyose vya kumwera kwa Sahara na Sahel. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri gha Sahara na Sahel ku North West Africa, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan na ŵanthu ŵa Mandé ŵakamba kuwunjika na kuliska mphoza, mpunga wa ku Africa, na sorghum pakati pa 8000 na 6000 B.C.E. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵakambaso kuvuna na kupwelelera viŵeto nga ni nkhaka, mphoza, mbuto za castor, na thonje. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kukora viŵeto vya mu thengere na kuviŵika mu viŵaya vyaminga. Mu milonga na nyanja zinandi izo zikaŵako cifukwa ca vula, ŵanthu ŵakaloŵanga comene pa somba. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mande ndiwo ŵakamba kulima pafupifupi 4000-3000 BC. Mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, nkhorongo yikakura chomene kufuma ku Senegal m'paka ku Cameroon. Pakati pa 9000 na 5000 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Niger na Congo ŵakamba kulima makuni gha maolive na raphia. Vipambi viŵiri vya mbuto, viŵiya vya maso ghafipa na voandzeia (vipasi vya ku Africa), vikamba kulengeka, pamanyuma pake pakaŵa okra na kola. Pakuti vyakumera vinandi vikakuliranga mu nkhorongo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Niger na Congo ŵakamba kupanga vyakujinthamo malibwe kuti ŵajinyolore. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa, mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka pygmy na Khoisan awo ŵakakoperanga na kuvulura. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakalemba vinthu vinyake vyakale chomene. Kwa vyaka vikwi vinandi, chipalamba cha Sahara chikusintha pakati pa mapopa na vyakumera vya mu savanna mu nyengo ya vyaka 41,000 chifukwa cha kusintha ("precession") kwa pasi apo likuzingilira dazi. Para nyengo ya mphepo ya ku North Africa yafika paheni chomene, mu chigaŵa cha Sahara mukuŵa vyakumera vinandi. Para vula ya ku North Africa njakukhora yayi, ndipo yikuchepa chaka chilichose, mbwenu vyakumera vikumara. Sahara ni mapopa kwa vyaka vikwi vinandi, ndipo ghakwenera kuzengekaso mu vyaka 15,000 (17,000 AD).<ref name="Lakes">{{Cite journal|title=Ancient Lakes of the Sahara|journal=American Scientist|volume=94|year=2006|pages=58–65|author1=Kevin White|author2=David J. Mattingly|issue=1|doi=10.1511/2006.57.983}}</ref> Pambere Sahara wandazgoke mapopa, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Eguputo, mu charu icho sono ni Sudan, ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya Neolithic ndipo ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti malibwe ghakurughakuru agho ghakasangika ku Nabta Playa ni vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskira ntchito pakusanda vya mu mlengalenga. Vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikachitika pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose na mu nyengo ya Ufumu wakale wa Eguputo ndivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180205001131/http://www.comp-archaeology.org/WendorfSAA98.html Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213184210/http://www.comp-archaeology.org/WendorfSAA98.html|date=2008-02-13}} – Wendorf (1998)</ref> Kufika mu 5000 B.C.E., mu Africa mukaŵa chilangalanga, ndipo nyengo ya mu chigaŵa cha Sahara yikamba kukamuka. Ŵanthu ŵakafumanga mu chigaŵa cha Sahara ndipo ŵakendanga mu vigaŵa vyose, kusazgapo ku Dambo la Nayelo kusi kwa Dambo la Chiŵiri, uko ŵakakhalanga. Nyengo yikafika paheni comene, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ku Central na East Africa kuleke kuwa vula zinandi. === Central Africa === {{Main|History of Central Africa#Prehistory}} TVinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga mu Central Africa vyaka 100,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ghakasangika ku Zilum, Chad, pafupifupi makilomita 60 kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Ivyo ŵasanga vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Sao, Kanem, Bornu, Shilluk, Baguirmi, na Wadai, ŵakalutilira kuŵa na umoyo uwemi chifukwa cha umo vinthu vikasinthira pa nkhani ya ulimi kweniso malonda. Pafupifupi 1,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakafika ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes ku Central Africa. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 1,000, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kukhala kumwera kwa charu icho sono chikuchemeka Angola.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Coelho|first1=Margarida|last2=Sequeira|first2=Fernando|last3=Luiselli|first3=Donata|last4=Beleza|first4=Sandra|last5=Rocha|first5=Jorge|date=2009-01-01|title=On the edge of Bantu expansions: mtDNA, Y chromosome and lactase persistence genetic variation in southwestern Angola|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=9|page=80|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-9-80|issn=1471-2148|pmc=2682489|pmid=19383166}}</ref> === Metallurgy === {{Main|Copper metallurgy in Africa|Iron metallurgy in Africa}} [[File:Bronze_ornamental_staff_head,_9th_century,_Igbo-Ukwu.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bronze_ornamental_staff_head,_9th_century,_Igbo-Ukwu.JPG|thumb|9th-century bronze staff head in form of a coiled snake, [[:en:Archaeology_of_Igbo-Ukwu|Igbo-Ukwu]], Nigeria]] Ukaboni wakuti kale ŵanthu ŵakasungunuranga visulo ∙ lead, copper, and bronze ∙ ukafuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Ŵaeguputo ŵakasungunuranga mkuŵa mu nyengo ya Ufumu wa Farawo. Nubia ndiyo yikapanganga mkuŵa na golide. Kugwiliskira nchito golide na siliva mu Eguputo kukamba mu nyengo ya ufumu wa ufumu wa Persia. Mu mapiri gha Aïr mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Niger, ŵanthu ŵakasungunuranga mkuwa kwambura kughanaghanira ivyo vikachitikanga mu dambo la Nayelo pakati pa 3,000 na 2,500 B.C.E. Ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa yakupambanapambana iyo yikaŵa mu chigaŵa ichi, kulongora kuti luso ili likafuma kuwaro yayi. Kuzakafika m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo ku Northwestern Africa, Egypt, na Nubia. Zangato na Holl ŵakalemba ukaboni wakuti mu Central African Republic na Cameroon mukaŵa visulo ivyo vikasongonoka kufuma mu 3,000 m'paka 2,500 B.C.E. Ŵaasiriya ŵakagwiliskira ntchito vilwero vyachisulo kuti ŵafumiske ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia mu Eguputo mu 670 B.C.E. Kufuma apo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito chisulo mu dambo la Nayelo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezga yayi fundo yakuti chisulo chikafika ku vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa kwizira mu tawuni ya Meroe ku Nubia. Ku Africa kumanjiliro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo kwamba mu 2500 B.C.E. ku Egaro kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Termit ku Niger. Ku Nigeria, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusungunula visulo mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Ku Central Africa kuli ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya chisulo kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Kusungunula zitsulo kunayamba pakati pa Nyanja ya Chad ndi Nyanja za Great African pakati pa 1,000 ndi 600 BC, ndipo ku West Africa pafupi ndi 2,000 BC, kale kwambiri lusoli lisanafike ku Egypt. Pambere chaka cha 500 B.C.E. chindambe, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok mu Jos Plateau ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kusungunula visulo. Malo gha Gbabiri (mu Central African Republic) ghakasangaso ukaboni wa vyakupangira visulo, kufuma ku ng'anjo yakuchepeskeramo visulo na malo ghakusoperapo ŵanthu; ndipo ghakafuma mu 896-773 BC na 907-796 BC.<ref name="Eggert 2014 53–54">{{Cite book|title=Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context|last=Eggert|first=Manfred|publisher=Africa Magna Verlag Press|year=2014|isbn=9783937248462|editor-last=Breunig|editor-first=P|location=Frankfurt, Germany|pages=53–54|chapter=Early iron in West and Central Africa|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBn1BQAAQBAJ&q=Nok+Breunig&pg=PA38}}</ref> == Antiquity == Mbiri yakale ya kumpoto kwa Africa yikukolerana na ya ku Middle East. Ivi ndivyo vikachitikanga chomene mu Eguputo na Nubia. Mu chigaŵa cha Horn of Africa, ufumu wa Aksum ukalamuliranga Eritrea, kumpoto kwa Ethiopia, na chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Arabia. Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kukolerana na charu cha Punt mu 2350 B.C.E. Punt wakaŵa munyake wa Eguputo wakale ndipo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti wakaŵa ku Somalia, Djibouti panji Eritrea.<ref>{{cite book|first=Simson|last=Najovits|title=Egypt, trunk of the tree|volume=2|publisher=Algora Publishing|year=2004|page=258}}</ref> Misumba ya Ŵafoinike nga ni Carthage yikaŵako mu nyengo ya Mediterranean Iron Age kweniso mu nyengo yakale. Mu nyengo yira, vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa vikamba kujilongozga.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}} === Ancient Egypt === {{Main|History of ancient Egypt}} [[File:Lower_Egypt_Nomes_01.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lower_Egypt_Nomes_01.png|right|thumb|Map of Ancient Egypt and nomes]] Para Sahara wazgoka mapopa, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga chomene mu Dambo la Nayelo. Vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene vikaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Nile Delta ku Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, kweniso ku Dongola Reach ku Nubia. Ŵanthu ŵakasazgikiranga comene cifukwa ca kulima vyakurya vya kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Asia, nga ni tirigu na balere, kweniso kuŵeta mberere, mbuzi, na ng'ombe. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuphalizgana kuti ŵatore malo gha kulima. Ŵakapanga mabungwe gha ŵalara ŵa visopa. Ufumu wakwamba na wankhongono comene ukaŵa wa Ta-Seti, uwo ukazengeka mu 3,500 B.C.E. Fundo yakuti ŵakaronga ndiwo ŵakalongozganga ŵanthu yikazara chomene mu Eguputo.{{sfnp|Ehret|2002|pp=143–146}} [[File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg|left|thumb|The [[:en:Pyramids_of_Giza|pyramids of Giza]], symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt]] Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵakaronga ŵakamba kukolerana mu vyaru vinandi mu Upper na Lower Egypt, ndipo Narmer (Menes) ndiyo wakapangiska kuti charu cha Egypt chiŵe chimoza mu chaka cha 3100 B.C.E. M'malo mwa kuwoneka nga ni mulongozgi wa cisopo, iyo wakaŵa fumu ya Ciuta. Chisopa chautesi, panji kusopa chiuta yumoza, icho chikachitikanga mu vigaŵa vya ku Upper na Lower Egypt, chikazgoka chisopa chautesi mu Eguputo. Mu nyengo ya mafumu gha Eguputo, maboma ghakaŵa na ŵamazaza, ŵakazembe, ŵakusonkheska msonkho, ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari, ŵantchito, na ŵantchito. Ŵakapokeleranga misonkho, ŵakanozganga ntchito zakovwira ŵanthu, ŵakazenganga maji, mapiramidi, matempile, na migelo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa muwuso wa ŵanayi (2,620-2,480 B.C.E.), malonda gha mtunda utali ghakacitika, na vyakumera vya ku Levant, na vya golide na vikumba vya ŵanthu vya ku Nubia, na vyakununkhira vya ku Punt, kweniso na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Libya. Mu nyengo ya Ufumu Wakale, Eguputo wakapangiska vinthu vyakupambanapambana, maboma na mitheto, ndipo nyengo zose wakacitanga ivi kwizira mu boma la boma na Faro.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., Eguputo wakamba kulamulira ŵasilikari na ndyali kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kuzakafika mu 2200 B.C.E., ufumu wakale ukaŵa kuti ulije mtende chifukwa cha kulimbana pakati pa ŵalongozgi ŵa mitundu yinyake awo ŵakasuskanga mazaza gha mafaro. Nyengo Yakwamba Yakupambana ya Ndyali yikamba.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Ufumu wa pakati wa Egypt ukawuka apo Mentuhotep II wa muwuso wa 11 wa Egypt wakambaso kuwungana pakati pa 2041 na 2016 BC kwambira na kuwukira kwake muwuso wa 10 mu 2041 BC.{{sfnp|Grimal|1988|pp=155–156}}{{sfnp|Habachi|1963|pp=16–52}} Ŵanthu ŵakambiraso kuzenga mapiramidi, malonda ghakaŵa kutali chomene, ndipo msumba wa Memphis ukaŵa ku Thebes. Ŵakakhozga ubwezi wawo na vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Kush, Wawat na Irthet. Kufuma apo, pakaŵa nyengo yaciŵiri, apo Ŵaigupto ŵakamba kuwukira caru cawo na magileta ghakuyegheka na mahaci na vilwero vya mkuŵa. Nyengo yichoko waka, magileta agho ghakotekanga na mahachi ghakafika ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sahara na North Africa. Ŵaiguputo ŵakatondeka kusunga malo ghawo, ndipo ŵakamba kukolerana nawo. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe ufumu uphya wa Eguputo (1,580-1,1080 B.C.E.) uwo ukaŵa na muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa 18. Ŵaeguputo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa Nubia na Yudeya, kweniso ŵakalamuliranga ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya na ŵa ku Mediterranean.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Nga umo vikaŵira kale, Ufumu Uphya ukamara apo ŵakaronga ŵa ku Libya ŵakiza kufuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kwamba na Shoshenq I, Ufumu wa Ufumu wa Mafumu 22 ukaŵako. Wakawusa kwa vilimika vinandi.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Kumwera, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakambaso kujiyimira paŵekha. Ivyo vikachitika apa vikapangiska kuti Nubia wapoke charu cha Eguputo, icho chikamba na Kashta ndipo chikamara na Piye (Pianhky, 751-730 B.C.) na Shabaka (716-695 B.C.). Ici cikaŵa kwamba kwa muwuso wa ufumu waciŵiri na cinayi wa Egupto. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakayezga kuwezgerapo mitheto ya ku Eguputo. Ŵakawusa Eguputo kwa vilimika 100. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Asiriya ŵakanjira mu msumba uwu, ndipo Taharqa wakawona nkhongono zose za vilwero vya ku Asiriya. Farawo wa ku Nubia, Tantamani wakaŵa waumaliro wa muwuso wa ufumu wa 25.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Apo Ŵaasiriya na Ŵanubia ŵakafumako, ufumu uphya waciŵiri na citatu ukafuma mu Sais. Ukalutilira m'paka mu 525 B.C.E., apo Ŵaperesiya ŵakanjira mu Eguputo. Mwakupambana na Ŵaasiriya, Ŵaperesiya ŵakakhalako. Mu 332 C.E., Alexander Mukuru wakathereska Eguputo. Ici cikaŵa kwamba kwa muwuso wa Ptolemy, uwo ukamara apo Ŵaroma ŵakathereska caru mu 30 B.C.E. Eguputo wa Farawo wakamara.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} === Nubia === {{Main|Nubia#History}} {{See|Kerma Culture|Kingdom of Kush}} [[File:Kushite_empire_700bc.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kushite_empire_700bc.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Kingdom_of_Kush|Nubian Empire]] at its greatest extent]] {{disputed|date=January 2020}} Pafupifupi 3,500 B.C.E., ufumu wakwamba uwo ukaŵa ku Nile ukaŵa wa Ta-Seti, uwo ukaŵa kumpoto kwa Nubia. Ta-Seti wakaŵa ufumu wankhongono uwo ukaŵa mu Dambo la Nayelo pa nyengo ya 1 na 2 C.E. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kufupi na msumba uwu. Ta-Seti wakaguliskanga vinthu mu vyaru vya Siriya na Palestina kweniso ku Eguputo. Ta-Seti wakatumanga golide, mkuŵa, nthenga za mbunda, makuni gha ebony, na njovu ku Ufumu Wakale. Kuzakafika m'ma 200 B.C.E., tawuni ya Ta-Seti yikamba kunangika. Pamanyuma pakuti Narmer wakakolerana na Eguputo mu 3,100 B.C.E., Farawo Hor-Aha wa mu muwuso wakwamba wakawukira tawuni ya Ta-Seti. Ta-Seti wakukolerana na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vya mipukutu yakale..{{sfnp|Ehret|2002|pp=144–145}}{{dubious|date=January 2020}} [[File:Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg|left|thumb|Nubian Temple of [[:en:Apedemak|Apedemak]], Naqa]] Maufumu ghachoko waka ghakaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Nubian cha Nile kwa vyaka vinandi kufuma mu 3,000 B.C.E. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 C.E., maufumu ghakupatulika ghakakolerana chomene. Ufumu wa Sai ukaŵa kumwera kwa Eguputo, ndipo ufumu wa Kerma ukaŵa ku chigaŵa chachitatu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 B.C.E., Ufumu wa Kerma ukathereska Ufumu wa Sai, ndipo ukaŵa mulwani wa Eguputo. Kerma wakaŵa mu chigaŵa icho chikaŵa kufuma ku chiziŵa chakwamba m'paka apo Mlonga wa Blue Nile, White Nile, na Atbarah ukukumana. Pakati pa 1575 na 1550 B.C.E., mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ufumu wa 17 wa ufumu wa Peresiya, ufumu wa Kerma ukawukira Eguputo. Ufumu wa Kerma ukakolerana na Ŵaigupto awo ŵakambukira ku Eguputo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ufumu wa Eguputo ukaweleraso ku nkhongono mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ufumu wa nambara 18 ndipo ukathereska ufumu wa Kerma panji Kush. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kush ŵakamba kuzgoka Ŵaeguputo mu nyengo iyi. Kuzakafika mu 1100 B.C.E., Ŵaeguputo ŵakafumako ku Kush. Malo agha ghakaŵaso ghakujiyimira payekha ndipo ghakaŵaso na kakhaliro kawemi. Kush wakazenga cisopa ciphya kuzingilizga Amun ndipo wakapanga Napata kuŵa malo ghake ghauzimu. Mu 730 B.C.E., ufumu wa Kush ukawukira Eguputo, ndipo ukatoranga msumba wa Thebes na kwamba ufumu wa Nubia. Ufumu uwu ukafumanga ku Palestina m'paka apo Mlonga wa Blue Nile, White Nile, na Atbara ukukumana. Mu 664 B.C.E., Ŵaasiriya ŵakachimbizga Ŵakushi mu Eguputo. Pamanyuma, msumba ukuru wa boma ukafumako ku Napata na kuluta ku Meröe, uko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nubian. Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵa ku Mero ŵakaŵa na mikhaliro yakuyana na ya Ŵaeguputo. Nubia yikaŵa malo ghakupangira visulo na salu za thonje. Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Meroitic. Ciuta wa nkharamu, Apedemak, wakasazgikako ku ŵachiuta ŵa Ŵaegupto. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakendanga mu Nyanja Yiswesi, ndipo Nubia wakendanga na Greece. Mu msumba uwu muli vinthu vinandi vyakupambanapambana, nga ni vithuzithuzi vya nkhalamu, viyuni vya mu nkhorongo, nkhalamira, na zovu. Paumaliro, apo msumba wa Aksum ukakura, malonda gha Nubia ghakamara ndipo charu ichi chikamba kunangika chifukwa cha kudumulika kwa makuni. Mu 350 C.E., Fumu Ezana ya ku Aksum yikamara kuwusa Meröe.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=42–45}} === Carthage === {{Main|Ancient Carthage#History}} [[File:Carthaginianempire.PNG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carthaginianempire.PNG|thumb|Carthaginian Empire]] Vinthu vyakuzirwa nga ni mkuŵa, golide, tini, na sulefure vikaŵa vinandi. Ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ku North Africa, ndipo ŵakamba kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber. Mu 814 B.C.E., Ŵafenikiya ŵakufuma ku Ture ŵakakhazikiska msumba wa Carthage. Kufika mu 600 B.C.E., msumba wa Carthage ukaŵa kuti wazgoka msumba wakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya malonda mu Meditereniyani. Pakuti Carthage yikaŵa na vinthu vinandi, ufumu wa Berber, wa Numidia, na Mauretania ukakura. Pafupifupi 500 B.C.E., msumba wa Carthage ukawovwira chomene ŵanthu kuti ŵaguliskane vinthu na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber awo ŵakendanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sub-Saharan Africa, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito viŵeto pakuguliska vinthu. Ŵagaramantes ŵa ku Fez ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakofya comene. Ŵakasanganga golide, ŵazga, ngale, na mino gha zovu. [[File:Ruines_de_Carthage.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ruines_de_Carthage.jpg|left|thumb|Ruins of Carthage]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage ŵakaŵa ŵalwani ŵa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma. Carthage wakarwa Nkhondo za Punic, nkhondo zitatu na Roma: Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Punic (264 mpaka 241 BC), pa Sicily; Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Punic (218 mpaka 201 BC), umo Hannibal wakawukira Europe; na Nkhondo Yachitatu ya Punic (149 mpaka 146 BC). Carthage wakataya nkhondo ziŵiri zakwambilira, ndipo mu nkhondo yacitatu yikabwangandulika, ndipo yikazgoka cigaŵa ca Romu ca ku Africa. Ŵaegupto ŵakatenge ŵanthu ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nile, awo ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber, ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Libya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya ŵakaŵa ŵalimi nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Maur ku Morocco na ŵa ku Numidia ku Algeria. Ŵakaŵaso ŵakwendendeka, ŵakendanga pa mahachi, ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu malo ghakomira na mu mapopa nga umo ŵakachitiranga Ŵagaetuli. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapopa ŵakakolerananga na ŵalimi ŵa ku mizi. Ŵafenikiya ŵakaŵa ŵakwendeska ngalaŵa ŵa ku Meditereniyani awo ŵakendanga pa nyanja nyengo zose na ufumu wa Berber wa Numidia uwo ukawovwiranga Roma. Chigaŵa cha Africa icho chikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Roma, ndicho chikapelekanga tirigu, maolive, na mafuta gha maolive ku ufumu wa Roma. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 200, ufumu wa Roma ukamba kulamulira maufumu gha ku Numidia na Mauretania. Mu ma 420 C.E., Ŵavanda ŵakawukira kumpoto kwa Africa ndipo Roma wakataya vigaŵa vyake. Chikhristu chikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E. ku Alexandria mu Africa, ndipo chikafika mu vyaru vya kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kuzakafika mu 313 C.E., pamoza na dango la ku Milan, caru cose ca kumpoto kwa Africa cikaŵa Cikhristu. Ŵaeguputo ŵakatora Chikhristu cha Chiphwitikizi na kwamba mpingo wakuchemeka Coptic Church. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kugomezga cisopa ca Donat. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakakana kuzomera mazaza gha Tchalitchi la Katolika.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Sundkler|first1=Bengt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1p61xARWY4C&q=+Egyptians+adopted+Monophysite+Christianity+and+formed+the+independent+Coptic+Church.+Berbers+adopted+Donatist+Christianity.+Both+groups+refused+to+accept+the+authority+of+the+Roman+Catholic+Church&pg=PR14|title=A History of the Church in Africa|last2=Steed|first2=Christopher|date=2000-05-04|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-58342-8}}</ref> ==== Role of the Berbers ==== {{unreferenced section|date=February 2011}} Apo ufumu wa Carthage ukakuranga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage nawo ŵakakhwaskika. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakaŵa kale pa nyengo iyo kulima, kupanga vinthu, malonda, na ndyali vikawovwiranga vyaru vinandi. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pakati pa Carthage na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Berber awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati, kweni chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa vigaŵa, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakazgoka ŵazga panji ŵasilikari. Kuzakafika kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakaŵa ŵanandi chomene mu ŵasilikari ŵa ku Carthage. Mu Nkhondo ya Ŵasilikari ŵa Nkhondo (241-238 B.C.E.), ŵasilikari ŵa ku Carthage na ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵakambiska chigaluka. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Berber nawo ŵakachitako nkhondo iyi chifukwa chakuti ŵakapokera malipiro yayi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakathereska vigaŵa vinandi vya kumpoto kwa Africa, ndipo ŵakapanga ndalama izo zikaŵa na zina lakuti Libyan. Boma la Carthage likamara chifukwa cha kutondeka kwa Ŵaroma mu Nkhondo za Punic. Mu 146 B.C.E., msumba wa Carthage ukaparanyika. Apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Carthage ŵakamba kuchepa, ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage. Kuzakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., maufumu ghanandi gha Ŵaberi ghakaŵa kuti ghababika. Vinyake viŵiri vikaŵa ku Numidia, kuseri kwa malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja agho ghakaŵa pasi pa Cartagena. Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Numidia kukaŵa Mauretania, uwo ukafika pa mlonga wa Moulouya ku Morocco m'paka ku Nyanja ya Atlantic. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kuŵa na chitemwa chikuru chomene m'paka apo ŵa Almohad na Almoravid ŵakaŵirako. Masinissa wakati wafwa mu 148 B.C.E., maufumu gha Ŵaberi ghakagaŵikana na kuwungana kanandi waka. Mzere wa Masinissa ukakhala m'paka mu 24 C.E., apo chigaŵa cha Ŵaberi icho chikakhalako chikapokelereka na Ufumu wa Roma. === Macrobia and the Barbari City States === {{Main|Macrobia}} {{Further|Maritime history of Somalia}} [[File:Herodotus_world_map-en.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herodotus_world_map-en.svg|right|thumb|200x200px|Reconstruction of the [[:en:Oikumene|Oikumene]] (inhabited world) as described by Herodotus in the 5th century BC.]] [[File:Qableh1.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qableh1.JPG|right|thumb|Ruins of [[:en:Qa'ableh|Qa'ableh]], an early center of [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] civilization]] Macrobia ukaŵa ufumu wakale uwo ukaŵa ku mphanji ya Africa (sono ni Somalia). Likayowoyeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E. Herodotus wakayowoya kuti Themba la ku Peresiya, Cambyses II, likati lakora Eguputo (525 B.C.E.), likatuma mathenga ku Makroba kuti ghazakamupe vyawanangwa vinandi. Fumu ya Macrobiya, iyo yikasoleka cifukwa ca msinkhu wake, yikamuzgora mwa kumucenjezga kuti waŵike uta wake mu woko lake: Usange Ŵaperesiya ŵangakwaniska kuwukoma, ŵangaŵa na wanangwa wa kuwukira caru cake. Kweni m'paka pa nyengo iyo, ŵakwenera kuwonga ŵaciuta cifukwa cakuti Macrobiya ŵakakana kuwukira ufumu wawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Macrobian ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene ndipo ŵakamanyikwanga cifukwa ca luso lwawo lwa kuzenga na usambazi wawo wa golide. Pamanyuma pakuti Macrobia wabwangandulika, misumba yinandi yakale nga ni Opone, Essina, Sarapion, Nikon, Malao, Damo na Mosylon kufupi na Cape Guardafui yikafuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E. 500 C.E. kuti yikwane na ŵanthu ŵa ku Saba, Parthians na Axumites pa nkhani ya malonda gha Indo-Greco-Roman. Ŵakaŵa na malonda ghakurughakuru mu chigaŵa icho chikachemekanga Barbaria.<ref>Oman in history By Peter Vine Page 324</ref> === Roman North Africa === {{Further|Africa (Roman province)#History|Numidia#History|Libya in the Roman era#History|Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[File:Roman_Africa.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Africa.JPG|right|thumb|Northern Africa under Roman rule]] Buku linyake likati: "Chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni ghakurughakuru kweniso malo ghakurughakuru ghakasakazikanga apo Ŵaroma ŵakalamuliranga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakasuzgika chomene. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa ŵakaŵavya wanangwa wakuchita vinthu paŵekha kweniso ŵakaleka kukolerana na charu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakasuskanga comene Ŵaroma. Themba la Ŵaroma zina lake Trajan likakhozga mphaka kumwera mwa kuzingilizga mapiri gha Aurès na Nemencha na kuzenga vigongwe kufuma ku Vescera (lero ni Biskra) m'paka ku Ad Majores (Henchir Besseriani, kumwera kwa Biskra). Malo agha ghakafika m'paka ku Castellum Dimmidi (lero ni Messaâd, kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Biskra). Ŵaroma ŵakamba kukhazikika mu msumba wa Sitifis (sono ni Sétif) mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., kweni kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa msumba uwu, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kwenda mu misewu yikuru ya ŵasilikari.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Metz|first1=Helen|title=Algeria : a country study|date=1994|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C|page=8|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/94043019/|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> [[File:The_Mummy_of_Demetrios,_95-100_C.E.,11.600.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Mummy_of_Demetrios,_95-100_C.E.,11.600.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Fayum_mummy_portraits|Fayum mummy portrait]] of Demetrios, a citizen of [[:en:Roman_Egypt|Roman Egypt]], {{circa|100 AD}}, [[:en:Brooklyn_Museum|Brooklyn Museum]]]] Ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ku North Africa ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene, ŵakaŵa na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 28,000 mu Numidia na vigaŵa viŵiri vya Mauretanian. Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha. Padera pa Carthage, ku North Africa kukaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga na ŵasilikari ŵankhondo awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Claudius (uyo wakawusa mu 41-54), Nerva (96-98), na Trajan (98-117). Ku Algeria, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga ku Tipasa, Cuicul panji Curculum (lero ni Djemila, kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sétif), Thamugadi (lero ni Timgad, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sétif), na Sitifis (lero ni Sétif). Mu misumba yinandi vinthu vikendanga makora chifukwa cha ulimi. Ku North Africa, uko kukachemekanga kuti "malo ghakusungiramo vyakurya gha ufumu wa Roma", ŵanthu ŵakendangamo chomene na vyakurya. Vyakurya vinyake vikaŵa vipambi, vikuyu, mpheska, na nyungu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., mafuta gha maolive ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene kuluska vyakurya vinyake. Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukamba kuchepa ku North Africa. Ndipouli, pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakagalukira boma. Mu 238 C.E., ŵeneco ŵa caru ŵakagalukira boma la ufumu. Kufuma mu 253 m'paka mu 288, mu nyengo ya suzgo ya mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., mu mapiri gha Mauretanian mukaŵa viwawa vya mafuko. Matawuni agha ghakaŵa na masuzgo gha vya cuma, ndipo nchito ya kuzenga yikakhala pacoko kuti yimare. Mu misumba ya ku North Africa uko kukaŵa Ŵaroma, mukaŵa Ŵayuda ŵanandi. Ŵayuda ŵanyake ŵakachimbizgika mu Yudeya na Palestina mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 na 200 C.E. chifukwa cha kugalukira boma la Ŵaroma. Ŵanyake ŵakaluta ku malo agha na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Punic. Kweniso mafuko ghanyake gha Ŵaberi ghakazgoka Ŵayuda.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wells|first1=C. M.|last2=Luttwak|first2=Edward N.|date=1978|title=The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-philology_winter-1978_99_4/page/527|journal=The American Journal of Philology|volume=99|issue=4|page=527|doi=10.2307/293904|jstor=293904|issn=0002-9475}}</ref> {{multiple image|total_width=365|align=right|image1=Memnon the Ethiopian (detail).jpg|alt1=|caption1=|image2=Antakya Arkeoloji Muzesi 1250320 nevit cr.jpg|alt2=|caption2=|footer='''Left''': Memnon, [[foster child]] of [[Herodes Atticus]]; marble bust (showing [[sub-Saharan]] facial features), ca. 170 AD, from the villa of Herodes Atticus at [[Eva, Arcadia]].<br />'''Right''': an ancient [[Roman mosaic]] from [[Antioch]] depicting a [[sub-Saharan]] African man carrying goods over his shoulder.}} Christianity arrived in the 2nd century and soon gained converts in the towns and among slaves. More than eighty bishops, some from distant frontier regions of Numidia, attended the [[:en:Council_of_Carthage_(256)|Council of Carthage (256)]] in 256. By the end of the 4th century, the settled areas had become [[:en:Christianization|Christianized]], and some Berber tribes had converted ''en masse''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hrsg.|first=Nelson, Harold D.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/642916799|title=Morocco : a country study|date=1986|publisher=American Univ|pages=8|oclc=642916799}}</ref> Mu 313 C.E., Ŵakhristu ŵa ku North Africa ŵakamba kugaŵikana. Ŵadonatisti ŵakayowoyanga chomene vya utuŵa wa tchalitchi ndipo ŵakakana kuzomera mazaza gha awo ŵakapeleka malemba apo ŵakakanizgika na Fumu Diocletian (iyo yikawusa mu 284-305). Kweniso ŵakasuskanga ivyo Constantine Mukuru (uyo wakawusa mu 306 m'paka 337) wakachitanga. Nkhondo iyo yikaŵapo pakati pa ŵa Donatist yikamanyikwa kuti yikaŵa pakati pa ŵakususka na ŵakukhozgera boma la Ŵaroma. Augustine, bishopu wa ku Hippo Regius, ndiyo wakadandawura chomene na chisambizgo cha ŵa Donatist. Augustine wakayowoya kuti usange munthu ni muteŵeti wambura kwenelera, ndikuti sakaramenti ndakwenelera yayi cifukwa Yesu Khristu ndiyo wakaŵa muteŵeti wawo nadi. Mu nkhani zake na mabuku ghake, Augustine, uyo wakuwoneka kuti wakulongozga visambizgo vya Cikristu, wakalongosora kuti ŵalongozgi ŵa Cikristu caunenesko ŵali na wenelero wa kugwiliskira nchito nkongono kwimikana na ŵakugaluka. Nangauli nkhani iyi yikamara mu 411 C.E., kweni mu Carthage mukaŵa wupu uwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa nkhani iyi. Chifukwa chakuti malonda ghakamara, Ŵaroma ŵakaleka kulamulira. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri na mu mapopa mukaŵa maufumu ghakujiyimira, misumba yikaparanyika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber awo ŵakasuzgikanga na Ufumu wa Roma ŵakawelera. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Ŵananda, Belisarius, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa themba la Byzantine Justinian I, uyo wakakhalanga ku Constantinople, wakafika ku North Africa mu 533 C.E. pamoza na ŵanalume 16,000. Ndipouli, apo boma la Byzantine likamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi, pakajumpha vyaka 12, ndipo apo ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa ichi, ukaŵa nga ni mfwiri waka. Nangauli ŵakazenga vigongwe vinandi, kweni boma la Byzantium likasuzgika chifukwa cha vimbundi, ukavu, ukavu wa ŵasilikari, na kuleka kupwelelera nkhani za ku Africa. Ntheura, mizi yinandi yikawelera ku boma la Ŵaberi.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shillington|first=Kevin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=Byzantine+rule+was+compromised+north+africa+Berber+rule&pg=PA195|title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set|date=2013-07-04|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45670-2|language=en}}</ref> === Aksum === {{Main|Kingdom of Aksum#History}} {{Further|History of Ethiopia|Ethiopian historiography}} [[File:LocationAksumiteEmpire.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LocationAksumiteEmpire.png|right|thumb|Aksumite Empire]] [[File:ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img37_Stelae_Park.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img37_Stelae_Park.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Aksum_Obelisk|Aksum Obelisk]], symbol of the Aksumite civilization]] The earliest state in [[:en:Eritrea|Eritrea]] and northern [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], [[:en:Dʿmt|Dʿmt]], dates from around the 8th and 7th centuries BC. D'mt traded through the [[:en:Red_Sea|Red Sea]] with Egypt and the Mediterranean, providing frankincense. By the 5th and 3rd centuries, D'mt had declined, and several successor states took its place. Later there was greater trade with [[:en:South_Arabia|South Arabia]], mainly with the port of [[:en:Sabaeans|Saba]]. [[:en:Adulis|Adulis]] became an important commercial center in the [[:en:Ethiopian_Highlands|Ethiopian Highlands]]. The interaction of the peoples in the two regions, the southern Arabia [[:en:Sabaeans|Sabaeans]] and the northern Ethiopians, resulted in the [[:en:Ge'ez|Ge'ez]] culture and language and eventual development of the [[:en:Ge'ez_script|Ge'ez script]]. Trade links increased and expanded from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, with Egypt, Israel, Phoenicia, Greece, and Rome, to the Black Sea, and to Persia, India, and China. Aksum was known throughout those lands. By the 5th century BC, the region was very prosperous, exporting ivory, hippopotamus hides, gold dust, spices, and live elephants. It imported silver, gold, olive oil, and wine. Aksum manufactured glass crystal, brass, and copper for export. A powerful Aksum emerged, unifying parts of eastern Sudan, northern Ethiopia ([[:en:Tigray_Region|Tigre]]), and [[:en:Eritrea|Eritrea]]. Its kings built stone palatial buildings and were buried under megalithic monuments. By 300 AD, Aksum was minting its own coins in silver and gold.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=66–71}} In 331 AD, King [[:en:Ezana|Ezana]] (320–350 AD) was converted to [[:en:Orthodox_Tewahedo|Miaphysite Christianity]] which believes in one united divine-human nature of Christ, supposedly by [[:en:Frumentius|Frumentius]] and Aedesius, who became stranded on the Red Sea coast. Some scholars believed the process was more complex and gradual than a simple conversion. Around 350, the time Ezana sacked Meroe, the Syrian monastic tradition took root within the Ethiopian church.{{sfnp|Iliffe|2007|p=41}} In the 6th century Aksum was powerful enough to add Saba on the Arabian peninsula to her empire. At the end of the 6th century, the [[:en:Sasanian_Empire|Sasanian Empire]] pushed Aksum out of the peninsula. With the spread of [[:en:Islam|Islam]] through [[:en:Western_Asia|Western Asia]] and Northern Africa, Aksum's trading networks in the Mediterranean faltered. The Red Sea trade diminished as it was diverted to the [[:en:Persian_Gulf|Persian Gulf]] and dominated by [[:en:Arabs|Arabs]], causing Aksum to decline. By 800 AD, the capital was moved south into the interior highlands, and Aksum was much diminished.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=66–71}} === West Africa === {{Main|History of West Africa#Iron Age}} {{See also|Serer prehistory|Timeline of Serer history}} Mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sahel, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi cifukwa ca kulima mphoza na mphoza. Ŵanthu awo ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakulongora kuti mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni. Ubwezi wa malonda uwo ukaŵako pambere malonda gha pakati pa Sahara na Sahara ghandambe, ukaŵako chifukwa cha umo vyakumera vya kumpoto na kumwera vikupambanirana. Ŵalimi ŵakapokeranga mchere kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapopa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapopa ŵakasanganga nyama na vyakurya vinyake ku ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto na ŵalimi ŵa mu malo ghakuliskako viŵeto kweniso ku ŵalovi ŵa mu Mlonga wa Niger. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu nkhorongo ŵakapelekanga weya na nyama.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=79–80}} [[File:Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg|left|thumb|Nok sculpture, terracotta, [[:en:Louvre|Louvre]]]] Dhar Tichitt na Oualata mu Mauritania sono ni malo ghakumanyikwa chomene mu misumba yakwambilira, iyo yikaŵako m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Mu chigaŵa icho kale chikachemekanga Sahara muli malo gha malibwe pafupifupi 500. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu ŵakaloŵanga somba na kulima mphoza. Augustin Holl wakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soninke awo ŵakakhalanga ku Mandé ndiwo ŵakazenga malo agha. Pafupifupi 300 B.C.E., chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa chakomira chomene ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa, ndipo panyake ŵakasamukira ku Koumbi Saleh. Ukaboni wa vyakuzengeka na kuyaniska vyakuzengeka vikulongora kuti Dhar Tichitt wakaŵa mu ufumu wa Ghana. Djenné-Djenno (uko sono ni Mali) wakakhalanga ŵanthu pafupifupi 300 B.C.E., ndipo msumba uwu ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵa mu nyengo ya Iron Age. Vinthu vyamoyo vikazengeka na mathipa agho ghakawomira pa dazi. Kufika mu 250 B.C.E., Djenné-Djenno wakaŵa kuti wazgoka msumba ukuru wa msika. Kumwera, pakati pa Nigeria, cha m'ma 1500 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakamba kukhala ku Jos Plateau. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga pamoza. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakapanganga vithuzithuzi vya ŵanthu, njovu, na vinyama vinyake. Kuzakafika mu 500 B.C.E., ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakusazgapo chisulo. Mu 200 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakafwa. Chifukwa cha kuyana kwa kalembedwe ndi ma terracotta a Nok, ziboliboli za mkuwa za ufumu wa Yoruba wa Ife ndi za ufumu wa Bini wa Benin tsopano zikukhulupirira kuti ndizopitilira miyambo ya chikhalidwe choyambirira cha Nok.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=39}} === Bantu expansion === {{Main|Bantu peoples#History|Bantu expansion#Expansion}} [[File:Bantu_Phillipson.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bantu_Phillipson.png|thumb|'''1''' = 3000 – 1500 BC origin'''2''' = c. 1500 BC first migrations {{spaces|4}} '''2.a''' = Eastern Bantu, {{spaces|4}} '''2.b''' = Western Bantu'''3''' = 1000 – 500 BC [[:en:Urewe|Urewe]] nucleus of Eastern Bantu '''4''' – '''7''' = southward advance'''9''' = 500 BC – 0 Congo nucleus '''10''' = 0 – 1000 CE last phase<ref>after Derek Nurse and Gérrard Philipsian: The Bantu Languages. Routledge, London 2003.{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref>]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakamba kusama chifukwa cha kupanikizgika kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu (mu banja la Niger na Congo) ŵakamba kuyowoya viyowoyero ivi mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Kufuma ku Cameroon kuya kumafumiro gha dazi kukafika ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu vikafika ku vigaŵa vya kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Gulu linyake likaluta kumwera ku chipalamba cha Zambezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E. Kufuma apo, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu ŵakaluta kumanjiliro gha dazi ku vigaŵa vya ku Angola, ndipo ŵakaluta kumafumiro gha dazi ku Malawi, Zambia, na Zimbabwe mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E. Cinthu caciŵiri ico cikapangiska kuti maji gha mu Nyanja Yikuru ghafuluke cikaŵa ca kumafumiro gha dazi, vyaka 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo ghakafika mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean, Kenya, na Tanzania. Paumaliro, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakumafumiro gha dazi likakumana na ŵanthu ŵakumwera kufuma ku Malawi, Zambia, na Zimbabwe. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakalutilira kulazga kumwera, ndipo magulu gha kumafumiro gha dazi ghakalutilira kulazga ku Mozambique na kufika ku Maputo mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ndipo ghakafika m'paka ku Durban. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda mu chigaŵa cha Great Kei River, icho sono ni South Africa. Vipambi ivi vikaŵa vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, ndipo vikakuranga makora yayi mu nyengo ya chiwuvi ku Namibia na ku Western Cape. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera kwa Africa.{{sfnp|Iliffe|2007|pp=34–35}}{{qn|date=May 2018}} == {{anchor|500 to 1800}}Medieval and Early Modern (6th to 18th centuries) ==<!--Template:Human history links here--> === Central Africa === {{Main|History of Central Africa#Post-classical history}} ==== Sao civilization ==== {{Main|Sao civilisation#Origins and decline}} Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sao ŵakakhalanga ku Central Africa kwambira m'ma 500 B.C.E. m'paka m'ma 1500 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sao ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Chari kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Chad, mu caru ico pamasinda chikazgoka caru ca Cameroon na Chad. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwambilira kusangika mu charu cha Cameroon. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵa kumpoto kwa Cameroon na kumwera kwa Chadi, chomenechomene ŵa Sara, ŵakuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Sao. Vinthu vya ku malo agha vikulongora kuti ŵakaŵa ŵaluso pakupanga mkuŵa, mkuŵa, na chisulo. Vinthu ivi ni vithuzithuzi vya ŵanthu na vinyama, ndalama, viŵiya vyakusungiramo ŵakufwa, viteŵetero vya pa nyumba, majuda, viŵiya vya dongo vyakutowa chomene, na mikondo. Vinthu vikuruvikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Sao ŵakabowozga vikusangika kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Chad. ==== Kanem Empire ==== {{Main|Kanem–Bornu Empire#History}} [[File:Borno_in_1810.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Borno_in_1810.svg|thumb|The Kanem and Bornu Empires in 1810]] Ufumu wa Kanem ukaŵa ku Chad. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa wa Kanem kwambira m'ma 900 C.E. m'paka mu 1893. Pa nyengo iyo nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yankhongono chomene, yikaŵa mu charu cha Chad pera yayi, kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera kwa Libya, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Niger, kumpoto kwa Nigeria, kumpoto kwa Cameroon, vigaŵa vinyake vya South Sudan, na Central African Republic. Mbiri ya Ufumu wa Roma yikumanyikwa chomene na buku la Royal Chronicle panji Girgam ilo likasangika mu 1851 na Heinrich Barth uyo wakaŵa mulendo wa ku Germany. Kanem wakawuka mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E. mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Ufumu wa Kanem ukamba kunangika, ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 14 C.E., ukawombokwa na ŵalwani ŵa Bilala ŵakufuma ku chigaŵa cha Nyanja ya Fitri. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Kanuri ndiwo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Kanem. Kanem wakababika cifukwa ca malonda gha mu Sahara. Ŵakapelekanga mahachi kufuma ku vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa kuti ŵagulire ŵazga. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1100, Humai (Hummay) ibn Salamna ndiyo wakambiska ufumu wa Asilamu wa Sayfawa. Ufumu wa Sayfawa ukawusa kwa vilimika 771, ndipo ukaŵa umoza mwa mafumu agho ghakatora nyengo yitali comene mu mdauko wa ŵanthu. Kanem wakafika pachanya chomene mu muwuso wa Mai (themba) Dunama Dibalemi ibn Salma (1210-1248). Ŵanyake ŵakuti ufumu uwu ukaŵa na ŵasilikari 40,000, ndipo ukafumanga ku Fezzan kumpoto m'paka ku Sao kumwera. Chisilamu chikakhazikika mu ufumu wa Roma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalutanga ku Mecca, ndipo ku Cairo kukaŵa nyumba za ŵalendo izo ŵakasungirangamo ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Kanem.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=182–183}}{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=90}} ==== Bornu Empire ==== {{Main|Kanem–Bornu Empire#Shift of the Sayfuwa court from Kanem to Bornu}} Ŵanthu ŵa Kanuri awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Sayfuwa ŵakasamukira kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera kwa nyanja, uko ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Bornu. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ufumu wa Bornu ukaŵa kuti wasanuzga na kupoka vigaŵa vinyake vya Kanem ivyo vikaŵa kuti vyatoleka na Bulala. Boma la Bornu likaŵa na chigaŵa cha Damagaram kumanjiliro gha dazi na cha Baguirmi kumwera kwa nyanja ya Chad. Pafupifupi chaka cha 1400, ufumu wa Sayfawa wakasamuskira msumba wake ukuru ku Bornu, msumba uwo ukaŵa kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Cifukwa ca kuryamo viŵeto vinandi, malo ghakuliskako viŵeto gha mu Kanemu ghakaŵa ghakomira comene. Mwakusazgirapo, mphindano za ndyali pakati pa mbumba ya Bilala zikaŵa zikuru comene. Pakuti ufumu uwu ukasamukira ku Bornu, ukaŵa na mwaŵi wa kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ca Sahara. Kweniso ŵakamba kukolerana na vigaŵa vya Hausa, ndipo ŵakapelekanga mahachi na mchere kufuma ku Bilma. Mai Ali Gazi ibn Dunama (c. 1475 1503) wakathereska Bilala, ndipo wakambaso kuwusa Kanem. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, muwuso wa Sayfawa ukakhozga mazaza ghake pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Bornu. Mu hafu yaumaliro ya vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Mai Idris Alooma wakasintha ŵasilikari ŵake. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Turkey ndiwo ŵakasambizganga ŵasilikari. Ufumu wa Sayfawa ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kumwera kwa Sahara kunozga vilwero. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa vyose vya Sahel kufuma ku Darfur kumafumiro gha dazi m'paka ku Hausaland kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ŵakaŵa paubwezi na Ufumu wa Ottoman kwizira mu Tripoli. Ŵana ŵa Mai ŵakapelekanga vyawanangwa kwa themba la Ottoman. [[File:CentralEastAfrica1750.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CentralEastAfrica1750.png|thumb|Major states of Middle Africa in 1750]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, tikumanya vinandi yayi vya Bornu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, msumba uwu ukazgoka malo ghakusambizgirako chisopa cha Cisilamu. Ndipouli, ŵasilikari ŵa Bornu ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafwa cifukwa ca kuleka kunozga vilwero viphya, ndipo Kamembu nayo wakamba kuchepa. Nkhondo iyi yikamba chifukwa cha chilangalanga na njara, kugaluka kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto, nkhongono ya Hausa, kweniso ŵasilikari awo ŵakizanga na vilwero. Mu 1841, mai waumaliro wakathereskeka, ndipo ufumu wa Sayfawa ukamara.Mu malo ghake, muwuso wa al-Kanemi ukayamba kuwusa. ==== Ufumu wa Shilluk ==== {{Main|Shilluk Kingdom#History}} Ufumu wa Shilluk ukaŵa ku South Sudan kwambira mu 15th century kufuma ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nile, kufuma ku Lake No kufika ku 12° north latitude. Msumba wa Fashoda ndiwo ukaŵa likuru la ufumu uwu. Ufumu uwu ukazengeka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E. na Nyikang, uyo wakaŵa fumu yakwamba. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ufumu wa Shilluk ukamba kunangika chifukwa cha nkhondo izo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukambiska kweniso chifukwa cha ufumu wa Britain na Sudan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shilluk |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/asia-and-africa/middle-eastern-history/shilluk |access-date=2020-03-20 |website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref> ==== Baguirmi Kingdom ==== {{Main|Sultanate of Bagirmi#History}} Ufumu wa Baguirmi ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 17 C.E., kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Baguirmi wakafuma kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Ufumu wa Kanem ̇ Bornu. Fumu yakwamba ya ufumu uwu yikaŵa Mbang Birni Besse. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ufumu wa Bornu ukathereska caru ici na kucizgora kuŵa cigaŵa cake.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Concise History of Islam|last=Syed|first=Muzaffar Husain|publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd|year=2011|isbn=978-93-82573-47-0|location=New Delhi, India|page=165}}</ref> [[File:La_ville_d'Abéché,_vue_du_poste_Français_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_ville_d'Ab%C3%A9ch%C3%A9,_vue_du_poste_Fran%C3%A7ais_(cropped).jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Abéché|Abéché]], capital of Wadai, in 1918 after the French had taken over]] ==== Wadai Empire ==== {{Main|Wadai Empire#Origins}} Ufumu wa Wadai ukaŵa ku Chad na Central African Republic kwambira mu ma 1700. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tunjur ndiwo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Wadai kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Bornu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵa Maba ŵakagaluka ndipo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Ŵasilamu. Pakwamba, Wadai wakapeleka msonkho ku Bornu na Durfur, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Wadai wakaŵa wakujiyimira yekha ndipo wakawukira ŵazengezgani ŵake. Wose ŵaŵiri ŵakanjira mu ufumu wa Sokoto mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya Fulani ya mu 1805, iyo yikasuzga Bornu.{{sfnp|Udo|1970|p=178}} ==== Luba Empire ==== {{Main|Kingdom of Luba#Origins and foundation}} [[File:Luba_pottery-1908.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Luba_pottery-1908.jpg|right|thumb|Luba pottery]] Pakati pa 1300 na 1400 C.E., Kongolo Mwamba (Nkongolo) wa fuko la Balopwe wakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ya Luba, kufupi na Nyanja ya Kisale. Wakayambiska ufumu wa Kongolo, uwo pamasinda Kalala Ilunga wakawuparanya. Kalala wakasazgirako ufumu wake kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Kisale. Ndondomeko yiphya ya ndyali ya mathemba ghauzimu (balopwe) na wupu wa ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa na ŵalongozgi ŵa vikaya. Mulongozgi uyu ndiyo wakadumbiskananga na mizimu ya ŵasekuru. Vyaru ivyo vikathereskeka vikaŵanga na ŵimiliri mu nyumba ya themba. Muwuso wa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ukaŵa wauzimu yayi. Ŵasilikari ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda gha mu vigaŵa ivi na kupokera mithulo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakambiska boma ili ŵakayowoya kuti ŵali kufuma mu fuko la Luba. Gulu la Luba likafika mu vigaŵa vyose vya Central Africa, kumwera kwa Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Congo. Maufumu ghaŵiri ghakuru agho ghakayowoya kuti ghakafuma ku Luba ghakaŵa gha Lunda na Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bemba na Basimba awo ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Zambia ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba awo ŵakiza ku Zambia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=138–139}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=159–160}} ==== Lunda Empire ==== {{Main|Kingdom of Lunda#Origin}} {{Further|List of rulers of the Lunda Empire}} [[File:Lunda_houses-1854.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lunda_houses-1854.jpg|right|thumb|Lunda town and dwelling]] Mu ma 1450, munthu munyake wakuchemeka Luba uyo wakaŵa wa mbumba yacifumu, zina lake Ilunga Tshibinda, wakatora fumukazi ya Lunda, zina lake Rweej. Mwana wawo Mulopwe Luseeng ndiyo wakalutilira kuwusa. Mwana wake Naweej wakalutilira kusazgirako ufumu wake ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti ni themba lakwamba la Lunda, ndipo wakaŵa na zina lakuti mwato yamvo (mwaant yaav, mwant yav), fumu ya njoka. Ndyali za ku Luba zikalutilira, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakathereskeka ŵakaŵamo. Mwato yamvo wakapelekanga cilool panji kilolo (muteŵeti wa themba) na wakusonkheska msonkho ku boma lililose ilo likathereskeka.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=141}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|p=161}} Vyaru vinandi vikayowoya kuti vikafuma ku Lunda. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Imbangala awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu cha Angola ŵakatenge mbana ŵa Kinguri, mukuru wa Fumukazi Rweej, uyo wakatinkhanga muwuso wa mulopwe Tshibunda. Kinguri wakaŵa zina la mafumu gha vyaru ivyo vikazengeka na mukuru wa Fumukazi Rweej. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luena (Lwena) na Lozi (Luyani) ku Zambia nawo ŵakugomezga kuti mbana ŵa Kinguri. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, mulongozgi wa Lunda zina lake Mwata Kazembe, wakambiska ufumu wa Lunda kumanjiliro gha dazi mu dambo la Luapula. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Lunda ŵakamba kuthandazgikira kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo Ŵakayaka na Ŵapende nawo ŵakayowoya kuti mbana ŵawo. Lunda wakayaniskanga pakati pa Africa na malonda agho ghakacitikanga ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ufumu wa Lunda ukamara mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chokwe awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero, ŵakiza na kuwukira.{{sfnmp|Davidson|1991|Shillington|2005|1p=161|2pp=139, 141}} ==== Kingdom of Kongo ==== {{Main|Kingdom of Kongo#History}} [[File:KingdomKongo1711.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KingdomKongo1711.png|right|thumb|Kongo in 1711]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 15 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakongo awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto (ba ndiyo yikaŵa chiŵelengero chikuru) ŵakakolerananga mu Ufumu wa Kongo. Msumba uwu ukaŵa wa M'banza-Kongo. Cifukwa cakuti ŵakaŵa na ndondomeko yiwemi, ŵakathereskanga ŵazengezgani ŵawo na kupokera msonkho. Ŵakaŵa ŵaluso pakupanga visulo, viŵiya, na kuluka salu za raffia. Ŵakawovwiranga ŵanthu kuti ŵaguliskane vinthu pakati pa vigaŵa vyawo. Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska vyakurya nga ni chimanga na manioc ku malo agha. Vipambi ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi na vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa ŵasazgikirenge, ndipo mbuto iyi yikanjira mu malo mwa mphoza. Kuzakafika m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa manikongo ŵakaŵa na mazaza kufuma ku nyanja ya Atlantic kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku mlonga wa Kwango kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu cigaŵa cilicose mukaŵa mani-mpembe (kazembe wa cigaŵa) uyo wakapika na manikongo. Mu 1506, Afonso I (1506-1542), uyo wakaŵa Mkhristu, wakamba kuwusa. Apo Afonso wakathereskanga ŵanthu, malonda gha ŵazga ghakalutilira kukura. Mu 1568 m'paka 1569, Ŵagaga ŵakanjira mu charu cha Kongo, ndipo ŵakaparanya ufumu wose. Mu 1574, Manikongo Álvaro I wakawezgekeramo mu ufumu wake na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1660, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kuti ŵambe kulamulira charu cha Kongo. Manikongo António I (1661-1665), pamoza na ŵasilikari 5,000 ŵa ku Congo, ŵakaparanyika na ŵasilikari ŵa Afro-Portuguese pa Nkhondo ya Mbwila. Ufumu uwu ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vichokovichoko, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakakoleka ku nkhondo ŵakaguliskikanga ku wuzga. Boma la Kongo likapoka ŵanthu ku ufumu wa Ndongo. Ndongo yikawusikanga na mtundu wa ngola. Kweniso Ndongo wakaguliskanga ŵazga na Ŵapwitikizi. Ufumu uwu ukaŵapokeleranga makora yayi Ŵapwitikizi nga umo ŵakachitira Ŵakenani. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kupoka charu cha Ndongo, kweni Ŵambundu ŵakaŵathereska. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ndongo ŵakasuzgika comene cifukwa ca kuthereskeka kwa ŵazga. Ŵalongozgi aŵa ŵakakhazikiska boma linyake ku Matamba, ilo likaŵa la Fumukazi Nzinga. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja kuti ŵaguliskenge vinthu. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵazga ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu, ndipo boma likamba kurwa nkhondo kuti liŵatore. Mbumba ya Imbangala ndiyo yikaŵa na boma la Kasanje, ilo likaŵa na ŵazga ŵanandi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800..{{sfnmp|Shillington|2005|Davidson|1991|1pp=198–199|2p=158}} === Horn of Africa === {{Main|Horn of Africa#Middle Ages and Early Modern era}} ==== Somalia ==== {{Main|History of Somalia}} [[File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|right|thumb|The [[:en:Citadel|Citadel]] of [[:en:Gondershe|Gondershe, Somalia]] was an important city in the medieval [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] [[:en:Ajuran_Sultanate|Ajuran Empire]]]] Cifukwa cakuti cisopo ca Ciislamu cikababika kufupi na nyanja ya Somalia, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia na ŵakwendeska ngalaŵa awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ca Arabia ŵakamba kulondezga cisopa ici. Mu vyaka vyakwambilira vya Chisilamu, mbumba za Chisilamu zikaluta ku Somalia, ndipo mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵa Chisilamu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakasintha mitima yawo kuti ŵaŵe Ŵasamariya. Msumba wa Mogadishu ndiwo ukamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Msumba wa Cisilamu ndipo ndiwo ukendeskanga malonda gha golide ku East Africa kwa vyaka vinandi. Nyumba ya Ufumu ya Almnara, Mogadishu. Mu nyengo iyi, mafumu gha ufumu nga ni Ajuran Empire na Mogadishu Sultanate, na ma republics nga ni Barawa, Merca na Hobyo pamoza na vipata vyawo vikakura ndipo vikaguliskanga vinthu ku vyaru vinyake. Vasco da Gama, uyo wakajumpha mu Mogadishu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, wakati msumba uwu ukaŵa ukuru chomene ndipo ukaŵa na nyumba zakukwana vigaŵa vinayi panji vinkhondi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Duarte Barbosa wakalemba kuti ngaraŵa zinandi izo zikafumanga ku ufumu wa Cambaya, uwo sono ni India, zikalutanga ku Mogadishu na salu na vyakununkhira. Barbosa wakayowoyaso za unandi wa nyama, tirigu, balere, mahachi, na vipasi ivyo vikasangikanga mu misika ya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mogadishu, msumba uwo ukaŵa pakati pa vyakupangira vinthu vya ku Eguputo na Siriya, pamoza na Merca na Barawa, ukaŵa malo ghakwendakwenda gha ŵamalonda ŵa Chiswahili ŵakufuma ku Mombasa na Malindi. Ŵamalonda Ŵachiyuda ŵakufuma ku Strait of Hormuz ŵakizanga na vyakuvwara vyawo vya ku India na vipambi ku Somali kuti ŵaguliske tirigu na nkhuni. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska malaya, ambergris, na porcelain. Ŵakaŵaguliskanga ku Ufumu wa Ming ku China, uko ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda pakati pa Asia na Africa. Ŵamalonda ŵa Chihindu ŵakufuma ku Surat na ŵa ku southeast Africa ŵakufuma ku Pate, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito virwa vya Merca na Barawa ku Somalia (ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha maboma ghaŵiri agha) kuti ŵaguliskenge vinthu kwambura suzgo.<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, p. 45.</ref> ==== Ethiopia ==== {{Main|History of Ethiopia}} {{Further|Ethiopian historiography}} Ufumu wa Zagwe ukawusa vigaŵa vinandi vya Ethiopia na Eritrea kufuma mu 1137 m'paka 1270. Zina lakuti dy nasty likufuma ku lizgu la Cushitic lakuti Agaw, ilo likuyowoyeka kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Kwambira mu 1270 C.E. m'paka vyaka vinandi, ufumu wa Solomoni ndiwo ukalamuliranga ufumu wa Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solomonic Dynasty |url=https://ethiopianhistory.com/Solomonic_Dynasty/ |access-date=2021-08-28 |website=ethiopianhistory.com}}</ref> [[File:ET_Gondar_asv2018-02_img03_Fasil_Ghebbi.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ET_Gondar_asv2018-02_img03_Fasil_Ghebbi.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Fasilides_of_Ethiopia|King Fasilides's Castle]]]] Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Etiyopiya wakayezga kukolerana na maufumu gha ku Europe. Kalata iyo Themba Henry IV la ku England likalembera Fumu ya ku Abyssinia yilipo m'paka sono. Mu 1428, Fumu Yeshaq I yikatuma mathenga ghaŵiri kwa Alfonso V wa ku Aragon. Ubwezi wakwamba na caru cinyake ca ku Europe ukamba mu 1508 na ufumu wa Portugal, uwo ukaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Lebna Dengel. Ici cikaŵa cinthu cakuzirwa comene, cifukwa apo ufumu ukawukiranga na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Adal, Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (uyo wakacemekanga "Grañ", panji "wa woko lamazere"), caru ca Portugal cikamovwira fumu ya Ethiopia mwa kutuma vilwero na ŵanalume 400, awo ŵakawovwira mwana wake Gelawdewos kuti wathereske Ahmad na kwambaso kuwusa. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yimoza mwa nkhondo zakwambilira izo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukachitanga. Apo Fumu Susenyos yikang'anamukira ku Cikatolika mu 1624, pakacitika viwawa na vivulupi ivyo vikakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵamishonale ŵa cisopo ca Jesuit ŵakakhuŵazga cisopa ca Orthodox ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia, ndipo pa Juni 25, 1632, mwana wa Susenyos, Emperor Fasilides, wakapharazga kuti cisopa ca boma ni Cikhristu ca Ethiopian Orthodox ndipo wakacimbizga ŵamishonale ŵa cisopo ca Jesuit na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe.{{sfnp|Beshah|Aregay|1964|p=105}}<ref>{{cite book|last=van Donzel|first=Emeri|chapter=Fasilädäs|editor-first=Siegbert|editor-last=Uhlig|title=[[Encyclopaedia Aethiopica]]|location=Wiesbaden|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2005|page=500}}</ref> === North Africa === {{Main|History of North Africa#Arrival of Islam}} ==== Maghreb ==== {{Main|Maghreb#History}} {{Further|Almoravid dynasty|Almohad Caliphate|Saadi dynasty|Alaouite dynasty}} [[File:Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosquée_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg|right|thumb|The [[:en:Mosque_of_Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]] (also known as the Mosque of Uqba), first built in 670 by the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi, is the oldest and most prestigious mosque in the Maghreb and North Africa,<ref>{{cite book|author=Hans Kng|title=Tracing The Way: Spiritual Dimensions of the World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sm0BfUKwct0C&pg=PA248|year=2006|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-8264-9423-8|page=248}}</ref> located in the city of [[:en:Kairouan|Kairouan]], [[:en:Tunisia|Tunisia]]]] Yahya ibn Umar na munung'una wake Abu Bakr ibn Umar, ŵana ŵa fumu ya ku Lamtuna, ŵa Almoravid ŵakazenga ufumu uwo ukafumanga ku Sahel m'paka ku Mediterranean. Abdallah ibn Yassin na Yahya ibn Umar ŵakati ŵafwa, Abu Bakr wakagaŵa ufumu pakati pa iyo na Yusuf ibn Tashfin, cifukwa ukaŵa ukuru comene kuti munthu yumoza ndiyo wawusenge. Abu Bakr wakatora kumwera kuti walutilire kurwa nkhondo na Soninke, ndipo Yusuf ibn Tashfin wakatora kumpoto, expMu 711 AD, Umayyad Caliphate wakathereska North Africa yose. Kuzakafika mu 100 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ku North Africa ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu. Kuzakafika m'ma 900 C.E., umoza uwo ukaŵako cifukwa ca kuwukira kwa Cisilamu ku North Africa na kuthandazgika kwa cisopa ca Cisilamu ukamara. Pakaŵa mphindano yakuti ni njani wakeneranga kunjira mu malo gha nchimi iyi. Pakwamba, ŵa Umayyads ndiwo ŵakalongozganga ufumu wa Caliphate, ndipo msumba wawo ukaŵa ku Damaseko. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Ŵababasi ŵakamba kuwusa msumba wa Baghdad. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber, ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyimira pawekha ndipo ŵakasuskanga ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵaleke kunjilirapo pa vinthu vyawo kweniso kuti Ŵaarabu ndiwo ŵekha ŵaŵe na mazaza pa chisopa cha Orthodox, ntheura ŵakasankha Chisilamu cha Shi'ite na cha Kharijite. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 na 900 C.E., maufumu ghanandi gha Kharijite ghakiza na kuwa. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., gulu la Ŵasilamu ŵakufuma ku Siriya, awo ŵakatenge ŵali kufuma kwa mwana mwanakazi wa Muhammad, zina lake Fatimah, ŵakambiska ufumu wa Fatimid ku Maghreb. Kuzakafika mu 950, ŵakaŵa kuti ŵathereska caru cose ca Maghreb, ndipo mu 969, Eguputo yose. Mwaluŵiro ŵakafumamo mu Baghdad. Pakukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu mtundu wa Sanhaja ŵaŵe na chisopa cha Chiisilamu chakutowa, Abdallah ibn Yasin wakambiska gulu la Almoravid ku Mauritania na Western Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sanhaja Berber, nga ni Soninke, ŵakasopanga visopa vyawo pamoza na Chislamu. Abdallah ibn Yasin wakasanga ŵanthu ŵakunozgeka kuzgokera ku Chiyuda ku Lamtuna Sanhaja, uko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soninke kumwera na ŵa mtundu wa Zenata kumpoto. Mu ma 1040, ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Lamtuna ŵakazgoka ŵa Almoravid. Wakaŵawovwira kuti ŵalute ku Spain. Abu Bakr wakati wafwa mu 1087, ŵanthu ŵakakolerana yayi ndipo nkhondo yikasazgikira kumwera. Ici cikapangiska kuti Soninke wasanuzgikeso. Nyengo yinyake ŵanthu ŵakatenge ŵa Almoravid ndiwo ŵakaparanya Ufumu wa Ghana mu 1076, kweni sono ŵanthu ŵakugomezga yayi fundo iyi.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=90}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 m'paka mu 1300, Ŵabedouin ŵanandi ŵakafumako ku Arabia. Pafupifupi mu 1050, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 250,000 ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakasamukira ku Maghreb. Awo ŵakalondezganga mumphepete mwa nyanja ŵakamanyikwanga kuti Banu Hilal. Awo ŵakendanga kumwera kwa mapiri gha Atlas ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Banu Sulaym. Ivi vikapangiska kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiarabic chikure luŵiro chomene, kweniso kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiberberber chikhalenge makora yayi. Pamanyuma, gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ilo likachemekanga kuti Hawwara, likaluta kumwera ku Nubia, kujumpha mu Eguputo. [[File:Almohad1200.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Almohad1200.png|right|thumb|Almohad Empire, c. 1200]] Mu 1140 C.E., Abd al-Mu'min wakapharazga kuti ŵa Almoravid ŵazamukomeka, ndipo wakaŵapa mulandu wa uheni na vimbundi. Wakakolerana na Ŵaberi ŵa kumpoto kuti ŵarwe na Ŵalmoravid, ndipo wakaŵathereska na kupanga ufumu wa Almohad. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakamba kusopa chisopa cha Chisilamu ndipo ŵakamanya kuŵazga na kulemba, kusanda malemba gha algebra, na kugwiliskira ntchito manambara gha zero na decimals. Kuzakafika m'ma 1300, ufumu wa Almohad ukagaŵikana mu vyaru vitatu. Ufumu wa Chikhristu wa Castile, Aragon, na Portugal ndiwo ukaparanya chomene visopa vyautesi. Mu 1415, charu cha Portugal chikapoka msumba wa Ceuta, ndipo mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, charu cha Spain na Portugal vikapoka misumba yinyake ku North Africa. Mu 1492, ku umaliro wa Nkhondo ya Granada, Spain wakathereska Ŵasilamu ku Granada, ndipo ici cikamara muwuso wa Ŵasilamu uwo ukaŵa kuti waŵa na vilimika mahandiredi ghankhondi na ghatatu kumwera kwa Iberia.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=88–92}} [[File:Safi_minaret.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Safi_minaret.png|left|thumb|The Almohad minaret in Safi]] {{Citation needed span|text=Portugal and Spain took the ports of [[Tangiers]], [[Algiers]], [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], and [[Tunis]]. This put them in direct competition with the [[Ottoman Empire]], which re-took the ports using Turkish corsairs ([[Piracy|pirates]] and [[privateer]]s). The Turkish corsairs would use the ports for raiding Christian ships, a major source of booty for the towns. Technically, North Africa was under the control of the Ottoman Empire, but only the coastal towns were fully under [[Istanbul]]'s control. Tripoli benefited from trade with [[Borno State|Borno]]|date=November 2021}}. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tripoli ŵakaguliskanga mahachi, vilwero, na vyakuvwara vya nkhondo na mafumu gha ufumu wa Bornu.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=166–167}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Saadi, awo ŵakatenge mbana ŵa mwana mwanakazi wa Muhammad, ŵakathereska charu cha Morocco na kuchikolerana. Ŵakatondeska Ufumu wa Ottoman kufika ku nyanja ya Atlantic ndipo ŵakachimbizga Portugal kufuma ku Morocco. Ahmad al-Mansur ndiyo wakawovwira kuti ufumu uwu uŵe wankhongono chomene. Mu 1591, wakawukira msumba wa Songhay kuti wawuskepo malonda gha golide agho ghakendanga ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa Morocco ukamara kulamulira msumba wa Songhay. Mu 1603, pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Ahmad, ufumu ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri, Fes na Marrakesh. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Muley al-Rashid, uyo wakambiska ufumu wa Alaouite (1672-1727) wakawovwira kuti msumba uwu uŵeso wakukolerana. Mubali wake Ismail ibn Sharif (1672-1727), wakakhwimiska kukolerana kwa caru ici mwa kwiza na ŵazga kufuma ku Sudan kuti ŵakhozge ŵasilikari ŵake.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=167–168}} ==== Nile Valley ==== {{See|Nile#History}} ===== Egypt ===== {{Main|History of Egypt#Arab and Ottoman Egypt (641–1882)}} {{Further|Lists of rulers of Egypt}} [[File:Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG|right|thumb|Fatimid Caliphate]] In 642 AD, the [[:en:Rashidun_Caliphate|Rashidun Caliphate]] conquered [[:en:Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt|Byzantine Egypt]]. Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Fatimid, caru ca Eguputo cikaŵa cakutowa comene. Ŵakakhozga madamu na migelo, ndipo ŵakamba kupanga tirigu, balere, lineni, na thonje. Ŵaeguputo ndiwo ŵakapanganga salu zinandi za salu yiwemi. Malonda ghake ghakasazgikiranga mu nyanja ya Meditereniyani na Nyanja Yiswesi. Ŵaeguputo ŵakapangaso ndalama ya golide yakucemeka dinari ya Fatimid, iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa malonda. Ndalama zinandi zikafumanga ku msonkho uwo ŵakaŵanga nawo ŵalimi (fellahin). Ŵasilikari awo ŵakachitako nkhondo ya ku Fatimid mu 969 C.E., ndiwo ŵakaguliskanga misonkho. Ŵakaronga ŵakapelekanga chigaŵa ku ŵalongozgi ndipo ŵakasunganga ivyo vyakhalapo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵakazgoka ŵenecho ŵa malo ndipo ŵakakhalanga makora. Kuti ŵasilikari aŵa ŵafike pa msinkhu uwu, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ŵasilikari ŵa ku Turkey awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵa Mamluk. Ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka ŵa ku Berber nawo ŵakalembeka. M'ma 1150, ndalama za misonkho izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga ku minda zikakhira. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakagaluka na kunanga vikaya, ŵakalekeska malonda, kweniso ŵakatimbanizga mazaza gha ŵasilikari ŵa Fatimid.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=158}} Mu 1160 C.E., Ŵaeguputo awo ŵakaŵa Ŵafatisimu ŵakaŵa pafupi kuparanyika. Cifukwa ca suzgo ili, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Kurdish zina lake Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb (Saladin), pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵanyake, ŵakamba kuvikilira Ŵasilamu. Saladin wakathereska Ŵakhristu awo ŵakalutanga ku nkhondo ku mphaka za Eguputo ndipo wakapoka Yerusalemu mu 1187. Mu 1171, apo Al-Adid wakafwa, Saladin wakaŵa fumu ya Eguputo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wake, Ŵaeguputo ŵakawelera ku chisopa cha Sunni, Cairo likazgoka malo ghakuzirwa ghakusambizgirako chisopa cha Chiarabu, ndipo ŵazga ŵa Mamluk ŵakatolekera ku Turkey na kumwera kwa Russia kuti ŵateŵetere usilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵakapelekanga msonkho ku ŵasilikari. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵa Mamluk ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵankhongono chomene, ndipo ŵakamazga muwuso wa Ayyubid mu 1250 na kwambiska muwuso wa Mamluk. Ŵa Mamluk awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti amirs. Kwa vilimika 250, Mamluk ghakaŵa na mazaza pa Eguputo yose. Eguputo wakambiska nkhondo ya ku Siriya na Palestina, ndipo wakathereska ŵalwani ŵa Ŵaeguputo. Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kuwona Ŵaamamuleki kuti mbakuvikilira chisopa cha Cisilamu, Medina, na Mecca. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, gulu la ŵasilikari la iqta likamba kuchepa ndipo likagomezgeka yayi. Ŵa Mamluks ŵakamba kuwona kuti iqta yawo njakulondezgana na umo ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu misumba. Vipambi vikamba kuchepa, ndipo madamu na migelo vikamba kunangika. Maluso gha ŵasilikari ŵa Mamluk ghakapambana na gha futi na futi.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=159–161}} [[File:Louis-François_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg|thumb|250x250px|In July 1798, French forces under Napoleon annihilated an Egyptian army at the [[:en:Battle_of_the_Pyramids|Battle of the Pyramids]].]] Ufumu wa Ottoman ukati wamba kuwusa, Eguputo wakathereskeka. Mu 1517, pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Ottoman-Mamluk, Eguputo wakaŵa chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Ottoman. Boma la Istanbul likawezgerapo ndondomeko ya iqta. Ŵanthu ŵakambiraso kwenda mu Nyanja Yiswesi, kweni chifukwa chakuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵakendanga chomene mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean, ŵakamanyanga yayi uko ŵakendanga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, Ŵamamluk ŵakambaso kulamulira. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Beys ŵakaŵa Ŵamamuleki. Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵakimiranga waka boma la Istanbul, ndipo ŵakachitanga vinthu mwakujiyimira. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵasilikari ŵa Pasha ŵakamba kulamulira. Boma likaŵa lambura nkhongono ndipo likaŵa lambura urunji.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=161}} Mu 1798, Napoleon wakawukira Eguputo. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku malo agha ŵakatondeka kulimbana na Ŵafarisi. Kweni mu 1801, ufumu wa Britain na Ufumu wa Ottoman ukawuskapo Ŵafarisi. Ivi ndivyo vikapangiska kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵa Anglo-Franco ŵambe kulimbana na Ŵaeguputo.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=162}} ===== Sudan ===== {{Main|History of Sudan}} ==== Christian and Islamic Nubia ==== {{Main|Nubia#Christian Nubia|Nubia#Islamic Nubia}} {{Further|List of rulers of Makuria}} [[File:Christian_Nubia.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_Nubia.png|right|thumb|Christian Nubia and the Nile [[:en:Cataract|cataracts]]]] Ezana wa ku Aksum wakati wapoka msumba wa Meroe, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Ballana ŵakasamira ku Nubia kufuma kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo ŵakambiska maufumu ghatatu: Makuria, Nobatia, na Alodia. Ŵakawusa vyaka 200. Malo agha ghakaŵa pachanya pa malo ghachitatu, mumphepete mwa Dongola Reach. Nobadia wakaŵa kumpoto na msumba wake wa Farasi, ndipo Alodia wakaŵa kumwera na msumba wake wa Soba. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Makuria wakawukira Nobadia. Ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakazgoka Ŵakhristu mu 500 m'paka 600 C.E. Pakwamba tchalitchi likamba kulemba mu Chicoptic, kufuma apo mu Chigiriki, ndipo paumaliro mu Chi-Nubian chakale, chiyowoyero cha ku Nilo-Sahara. Tchalitchi ili likakolerananga na Tchalitchi la Coptic la ku Eguputo. Mu 641, ufumu wa Rashidun ukathereska Eguputo. Ici cikapangiska kuti Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Nubia na Aksum ŵaleke kwendera visopa vyautesi. Mu 651-652, Ŵaarabu ŵakufuma ku Eguputo ŵakanjira mu Nubia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Nubia ŵakathereska ŵalwani. Pakajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo pakalembeka phangano la Baqt (panji Bakt), ilo likazomerezga Chikhristu ku Nubia na kwendeska malonda. Phangano ili ndilo likawovwira kuti Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Nubia na Ŵaeguputo ŵalutilire kukolerana kwa vyaka pafupifupi 600. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., caru ca Nubia cikamba kunangika. Tchalitchi na ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika ŵakachepeskanga mazaza gha ufumu. Ŵabedouin ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kunjira mu Nubia, ndipo ŵakambiska masuzgo ghanyake. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka awo ŵakasopanga visambizgo vya Chisilamu ŵakafika mu Nubia. Kuzakafika mu 1366, caru ca Nubia cikaŵa kuti cagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vicoko comene apo cikapokelereka na Ŵamamuleki. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kwiza ku Nubia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakamba kusambira chiyowoyero cha ku Arabia. Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., Makuria na Nobadia vikaŵa kuti vyazgoka vya Chisilamu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Abdallah Jamma wakalongozga gulu la Ŵaarabu ilo likaparanya msumba wa Soba, uwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Alodia. Pamanyuma, Alodia wakaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Funj. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa ku Funj ŵakaluta kumpoto ku Alodia na kukhalamo. Pakati pa 1504 na 1505, ufumu uwu ukathandazgika, ndipo ukafika pachanya chomene. 1644 – 1680). Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵa ku Funj ŵakazgoka Ŵasilamu. Ŵakatumizga ufumu wawo kumanjiliro gha dazi ku Kordofan. Ŵakafika kumafumiro gha dazi, kweni Etiyopiya wakaŵakanizga. Ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa Nubia m'paka ku Cataract Yachitatu. Vinthu vikendanga makora chifukwa cha ŵalwani awo ŵakakoleka na ŵamalonda awo ŵakendanga mu Sennar. Mu nyengo ya Badi IV (1724-1762), ŵasilikari ŵakagalukira fumu, ndipo yikaŵa nga ni munthu uyo wakuwoneseska. Mu 1821, Funj ŵakathereskeka na Muhammad Ali (1805-1849), Pasha wa ku Egypt.{{sfnp|Page|2001|p=88}}{{sfnp|Lye|2002|p=189}} === Southern Africa === {{Main|History of Southern Africa#Post-classical history}} Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Limpopo m'ma 400 C.E. Ŵakaŵa ŵalimi na ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto awo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo. Ŵakamba kusamira kumwera, ndipo ŵakugomezga kuti visulo vyakwambilira vya ku KwaZulu-Natal vikaŵako cha m'ma 1050.{{Ambiguous|date=March 2020}} Gulu la kumwera chomene likaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa, awo chiyowoyero chawo chikukolerana na chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Khoi-San.<ref>{{Cite web |title=500–1800 – AFRICA |url=https://sites.google.com/site/africasfacts/history/500-1800 |access-date=2019-01-18 |website=sites.google.com}}</ref> ==== Great Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe ==== {{Main|Great Zimbabwe#Description|Kingdom of Mapungubwe#Origin}} {{Further|List of rulers of Mutapa}} [[File:Tower,_Great_Zimbabwe1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tower,_Great_Zimbabwe1.jpg|right|thumb|Towers of [[:en:Great_Zimbabwe|Great Zimbabwe]].]] Ufumu wa Mapungubwe ukaŵa wa ku Southern Africa, ndipo msumba wake ukaŵa ku Mapungubwe. Boma ili likaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E. Chuma chake chikafuma ku malonda gha njovu kufuma ku Limpopo Valley, mkuwa kufuma ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Transvaal, na golide kufuma ku Zimbabwe Plateau pakati pa milonga ya Limpopo na Zambezi, pamoza na ŵamalonda ŵa Swahili ku Chibuene. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., msumba wa Mapungubwe ukakhala waka. Mapungubwe wakati wagumuka, Great Zimbabwe yikakwera pa Zimbabwe Plateau. Zina lakuti Zimbabwe likung'anamura nyumba yakuzengeka na malibwe. Great Zimbabwe ndiyo yikaŵa msumba wakwamba ku Southern Africa ndipo yikaŵa likuru la ufumu uwo ukakhozga maboma ghachoko gha Shona. Nyumba za malibwe zikafuma ku Mapungubwe. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzengera mu msumba wa Great Zimbabwe, uwo ukaŵa nga ni linga la Great Enclosure. Kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito malibwe ghakupangira nyumba kuti ŵazenge nyumba zichoko. Charu cha Zimbabwe chikakura chomene chifukwa cha malonda agho chikachitanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. Kuwuka kwa Great Zimbabwe kukukolerana na kuwuka kwa Kilwa. Mu charu cha Zimbabwe, golide likasangikanga chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa mu nyumba yake ŵakakhalanga makora, ŵakavwaranga salu za ku India, ŵakavwaranga vinthu vya mkuŵa na golide, ndipo ŵakaryanga vyakurya vyakufuma ku Peresiya na China. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1420 na 1430, caru ca Zimbabwe cikamba kunangika. Mu 1450, msumba uwu ukalekeka. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti cifukwa ca kuchepa kwa vinthu ivi nchakuti msumba wa Ingombe Ilede ndiwo ukakura comene. Ivi vikapangiska kuti nkhani ya Ŵashona yambe kujintha. Nyatsimba Mutota, fumu ya kumpoto kwa Shona ya Karanga, yikaŵa pa nkhondo. Iyo na mwana wake Mutope ŵakathereska chigaŵa cha Zimbabwe Plateau, ndipo ŵakenda kujumpha mu Mozambiki m'paka kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Ŵakacemanga ufumu wawo kuti Wilayatu 'l Mu'anamutapah panji mwanamutapa (Fumu ya Vyaru Vyakupokeka), panji Ufumu wa Mutapa. Monomotapa ndiyo yikaŵa vimbundi vya ku Portugal. Ŵakazenga nyumba za malibwe yayi; Ŵashona ŵa kumpoto ŵakaŵa na mitheto ya kuzenga na malibwe yayi. Matope wakati wafwa mu 1480, ufumu uwu ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: Torwa kumwera na Mutapa kumpoto. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona, Changa na Togwa, ŵakakwesananga na mbumba ya mwanamutapa. Changa wakathereska chigaŵa cha kumwera, ndipo wakazenga ufumu wa Butua uwo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Khami. Ufumu wa Mutapa ukalutilira kumpoto pasi pa muwuso wa mwenemutapa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhazikiska misika mu Mlonga wa Zambezi kuti ŵambe kulamulira Mutapa. Ŵakaŵa ŵakukondwa. Mu 1628, nkhondo yikuru yikaŵawovwira kuti ŵaŵike mwanamutapa munyake zina lake Mavura, uyo wakalemba mapangano agho ghakaŵapa wanangwa wakupeleka vinthu ku Ŵapwitikizi. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamazga muwuso wa mwanamutapa na kunanga malonda. Kuzakafika mu 1667, Mutapa wakaŵa kuti wanangika. Ŵalongozgi ŵakakanizganga ŵanthu kugura golide chifukwa cha kopa kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵibenge, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa. Ufumu wa Butua ukalamuliranga na changamire, zina ilo likwiza cifukwa ca uyo wakambiska, Changa. Pamanyuma pake ukazgoka Ufumu wa Rozwi. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵafike ku malo agha, kweni Changamire Dombo wakaŵachimbizga mu 1693. Caka ca m'ma 1600 cikaŵa ca mtende na cimwemwe. Ufumu wa Rozwi ukaparanyika mu ma 1830 chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa Nguni kufuma ku Natal.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=252–254}} ==== Namibia ==== {{Main|History of Namibia}} [[File:Realnam.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Realnam.JPG|thumb|Herero and Nama territories]] Kuzakafika mu 1500 C.E., vyaru vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa vikaŵa kuti vyamba kulamulira. Ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Namibia, ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Ovambo ŵakalimanga, ndipo ŵa fuko la Herero ŵakaliskanga viŵeto. Apo viŵeto vikasazgikiranga, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero ŵakasamira kumwera ku Namibia kuti ŵakasange malo ghakuliskako viŵeto. Gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Ovambanderu, ŵakamba kukhala ku Ghanzi, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Botswana. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nama, awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Khoi, ŵakaliskanga mberere ndipo ŵakaluta kumpoto ndipo ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero. Boma la Lozi likathereska ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mbukushu, Subiya, na Yei, ndipo ŵakaluta ku Botei, Okavango, na Chobe, kumpoto kwa charu cha Botswana.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=218}} ==== South Africa and Botswana ==== {{Main|Early history of South Africa|History of South Africa|History of Botswana}} ===== Sotho–Tswana ===== [[File:Realzulu.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Realzulu.JPG|thumb|South African ethnic groups]] Kukula kwa maiko gha Sotho na Tswana agho ghakaŵa kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Limpopo, kukamba mu 1000 C.E. Nkhongono za mulongozgi zikathembanga pa viŵeto na kukolerana na ŵasekuru ŵake. Ici tingaciwona mu mizi iyo yili pa Toutswemogala Hill, kumpoto kwa mapiri na kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Vaal. Kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Vaal kukaŵa vyaru vyakwambilira vya Tswana ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Para pawuka mphindano, ŵanthu ŵakambanga kupanga maboma ghawo.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=153–155}} ===== Nguni peoples ===== Kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Drakensberg kukakhalanga ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Nguni. Iwo nawo ŵakachitanga mulimo wa kuzenga maufumu, ndipo maufumu ghaphya ghakawukanga chifukwa cha mphindano, kupambana maghanoghano, na suzgo la ŵanthu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, nkhondo, kuzenga boma, na kusama vikamanyikwa kuti Mfecane (Nguni) panji Difaqane (Sotho). Cinthu cikuru ico cikapangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nthena nchakuti Ufumu wa Ŵazulu ukakhazikika. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kusona visulo, kulima mpunga, na kuliska viŵeto.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=153–155}} ===== Khoisan and Boers ===== [[File:SouthAfrica1885.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SouthAfrica1885.jpg|thumb|Political map of Southern Africa in 1885]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakakhalanga kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa chigaŵa cha Cape, uko kuli vula zinandi. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, nga mba Sotho na Nguni, kweni chigaŵa ichi chikamara apo kukaŵa vula. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu vili na lizgu la chiyowoyero cha Khoisan. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakaguliskanga ng'ombe, mberere, na nyama. Ŵazengezgani ŵawo awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu ŵakaguliskanga mkuŵa, chisulo, na hona.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=153–155}} Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., kampani ya Dutch East India Company yikakhazikiska malo ghakusungira maji ku Table Bay kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Khoikhoi ŵagulire maji na nyama. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakapokeranga mkuŵa, chisulo, hona, na mphete. Kuti ŵamanye mtengo wa nyama na viŵeto, kweniso kuti ŵagwirenge makora ntchito, Ŵachidachi ŵakakhazikika ku Table Bay mu 1652. Ŵakalimanga vipasi na vipasi ndipo ŵakazenga chipatala cha ŵasilikari ŵalwari. Kuti ŵasazgireko vyakurya, Ŵachidachi ŵakaghanaghana vya kusazgirako minda mu Table Bay mwa kukhozga ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka kuti mba burgher boers (ŵalimi) pa malo agho pakwamba ŵakagwiranga nchito ŵazga ŵa ku West Africa. Malo agha ŵakaghafumiskapo ku malo ghakuliskako viŵeto gha Khoikhoi, ndipo agha ndigho ghakacitiska nkhondo yakwamba ya Khoikhoi na ŵa Dutch mu 1659. Pakaŵavya uyo wakathereska, kweni Ŵachidachi ŵakamba kupoka chigaŵa chose cha Cape. Mu nkhondo zinandi izo ŵakachitiranga Khoikhoi, ŵa Boer ŵakatora malo ghose gha Khoikhoi na kutora viŵeto vyawo vyose. Nkhondo yachiŵiri ya Khoikoi na Dutch (1673-1677) yikaŵa nkhondo ya viŵeto. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakafwa na matenda gha ku Europe. Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga ku Cape, ndipo ŵazga ŵakizanga kufuma ku Madagascar, Mozambique, na Indonesia. Kweniso malo agha ghakamba kusazgikira kumpoto, kweni ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari, ndipo nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikapangiska kuti malo agha ghaleke kusazgikira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Ŵaburu awo ŵakamba kuliska viŵeto ŵakachemekanga kuti trekboers. Ŵana ŵacekuru awo ŵakakoleka pa nyengo ya kuwukira ndipo ŵapapi ŵawo ŵakakomeka ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vikaya vya Trekboer.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=213–214}} === Southeast Africa === {{Main|Southeast Africa#History}} ==== Prehistory ==== Kuyana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵali kufuma ku Africa, ŵanthu wose ŵali kufuma ku South-East Africa panji ku Horn of Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Nilotic na Bantu ŵakanjira mu chigaŵa ichi.. ==== Swahili coast ==== {{Main|Swahili coast#History}} [[File:Swahili_door_Zanzibar.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Swahili_door_Zanzibar.jpg|left|thumb|A traditional Zanzibari-style [[:en:Swahili_people|Swahili]] coast door in [[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibar]].]] Pamanyuma pa kusama kwa Bantu, mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ku South East Africa, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kukolerana na Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Arabia na Ŵaperesiya, ndipo ŵakamba kuzgoka misumba ya ku Arabia, Peresiya na Swahili. Chikhalidwe cha Chiswahili chomwe chinachokera ku kusinthana uku chikuwonetsa zikhalidwe zambiri zachiarabu ndi Chisilamu zomwe sizikuwoneka mu chikhalidwe cha Bantu, monga momwe zimakhalira ndi anthu ambiri a Afro-Arab a Bantu Swahili. Chiyowoyero cha Bantu cha Swahili chili na mazgu ghanandi gha mu Chiarabu agho ghakusangika mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja vya Tanzania (makamaka Zanzibar) na Kenya. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Kenya na Tanzania awo ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na Peresiya ŵakamanyikwa kuti ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Rhapta, Azania, na Menouthias. Vinthu ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Kale, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa Kenya na kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Ruvuma ku Mozambique. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Arabia ŵakacemanga mphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili kuti ni caru ca zanji (ŵachibulumutira). Template:Sfnp Nangauli kale ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu aŵa mbana ŵa Ŵaperesiya, kweni sono ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusanda mdauko, ŵavisopa, na ŵasayansi ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa Ŵabantu awo ŵakenderananga na ŵamalonda Ŵachisilamu, kwambira m'ma 700 C.E. m'paka m'ma 800 C.E.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Spear|first=Thomas|year=2000|title=Early Swahili History Reconsidered|journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|volume=33|issue=2|pages=257–290|jstor=220649|doi=10.2307/220649}}</ref> [[File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg|right|thumb|Arab slave traders and their captives along the [[:en:Ruvuma_River|Ruvuma River]] in [[:en:Mozambique|Mozambique]] along the Swahili coast.]] Maufumu gha ku Swahili agho ghakaŵako mu nyengo yakale ghakaŵa na vipata vya malonda pa virwa, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri Ŵachigiriki ŵakavizunura kuti "vigaŵa vikuruvikuru". Ŵanthu ŵa ku China awo ŵakendanga pa sitima za pa maji nga ni Mombasa, Zanzibar, na Kilwa, ŵakamanyikwanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku China awo ŵakendanga pa sitima za pa maji nga ni Zheng He kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Middle Ages awo ŵakamanyanga vya Chisilamu nga ni Abu Abdullah ibn Battuta. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakaguliskanga chomene zovu, ŵazga, na golide. Ŵakachitanga malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia, India, Peresiya, na China. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakiza mu 1498. Pakukhumba kuti ŵazakaŵe na ndalama zinandi kweniso kuti ŵazakaŵe Ŵakhristu, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kuwukira msumba wa Kilwa mu 1505. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakasuskanga, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakatondeka kucita malonda. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kuchepeskako mazaza ghawo pa chigaŵa cha Swahili. Na wovwiri wa Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman, mu 1729 Ŵapwitikizi ŵakafumapo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, chigaŵa ichi chikazgoka chigaŵa cha ufumu wa Oman. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora, kweni vikaŵa nga ni kale yayi.{{sfnp|Page|2001|pp=263–264}} ==== Urewe ==== {{Main|Urewe#Chronology}} Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Urewe ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Nyanja ya Victoria mu Africa. Vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalemba vili mu chigaŵa cha Kagera ku Tanzania, ndipo vikafika m'paka ku chigaŵa cha Kivu ku Democratic Republic of Congo, Nyanza na Western ku Kenya, kweniso kumpoto kwa Uganda, Rwanda na Burundi. Malo agho ghakasangika mu nyengo ya Urewe ghakafuma mu nyengo ya Iron Age, kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E. m'paka mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Urewe ŵakamba kukhala ku Cameroon. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mu nyengo ya Iron Age ku sub-Saharan Africa, wakuchitika pamoza na kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na chiyowoyero cha ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Urewe ndiwo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Pakudanga waka kuwona, ŵanthu ŵa ku Urewe ŵakuwoneka nga mbanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo yakale. Kuyana na umo tikumanyira vinthu mazuŵa ghano, palije ico cikuwoneka kuti chasintha kwa vyaka pafupifupi 2,000. Ndipouli, vinthu vinyake vya ku malo agha vikupambana. Urewe ni zina la malo gha ku Kenya agho ghakamanyikwa comene mu 1948 cifukwa ca ivyo Mary Leakey wakasanga. Wakalongosora za nyengo yakwambilira ya vyaka vya Iron Age mu chigaŵa cha Great Lakes ku Central East Africa kuzingilizga Nyanja ya Victoria. ==== Madagascar and Merina ==== {{Main|History of Madagascar|Merina people#History}} [[File:The_Queen's_Ordinary_Style_of_Appearing_in_Public_(edit).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Queen's_Ordinary_Style_of_Appearing_in_Public_(edit).jpg|thumb|Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]]]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Austronesian ŵakamba kukhala ku Madagascar pambere vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. vindafike. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Austronesia ndiwo ŵakamba kulima banane na mpunga. Mu ma 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na ku India ŵakamba kwenda kumpoto kwa charu cha Madagascar kuti ŵaguliske vinthu vya mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, ŵamalonda ndiwo ŵakambiska Chisilamu pa chirwa ichi. Mu nyengo ya ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, charu cha Madagascar chikaŵa nga ni dowoko la ŵanthu awo ŵakendanga mu misumba yinyake ya ku Swahili nga ni Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa, na Zanzibar. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, maufumu ghanandi ghakaŵako: Ufumu wa Sakalava (wa m'ma 1600) ku nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi, Ufumu wa Tsitambala (wa m'ma 1700) ku nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi, na Merina (wa m'ma 15) ku chigaŵa chapakati cha mapiri. Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, Merina wakaŵa na mazaza pa cirwa cose ici. Mu 1500, Ŵapwitikizi ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa ku Europe kufika pa cirwa ici. Ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku Britain ndipo pamanyuma ŵakafuma ku France. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, ŵankhungu ŵakendanga chomene mu charu cha Madagascar. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Radama I (1810-1828) wakachema ŵamishonale kuti ŵize ku Yerusalemu. Fumukazi Ranavalona I "Wakusuzga" (1828-1861) yikakanizga Ŵakhristu mu ufumu wake, ndipo Ŵakhristu pafupifupi 150,000 ŵakafwa. Mu muwuso wa Radama II (1861-1863), charu cha Madagascar chikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Ŵafarisi. Mu 1895, mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku France na Hova, Ŵafarisi ŵakanjira mu charu cha Madagascar, ndipo ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Antsiranana (Diego Suarez).{{sfnp|Lye|2002|pp=242–243}} ==== Lake Plateau states and empires ==== {{Main|History of Buganda|Karagwe District#History}} Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the [[:en:Buganda|Buganda]]<ref name="Roland Oliver 1800. pp. 24–25">Roland Oliver, et al. "Africa South of the Equator", in Africa Since 1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 24–25.</ref> and [[:en:Karagwe|Karagwe]]<ref name="Roland Oliver 1800. pp. 24–25" /> Kingdoms of [[:en:Uganda|Uganda]] and [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]].<ref>{{cite web |date=20 May 2015 |title=Africa Timeline |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/africa-timeline |website=South African History Online}}</ref> ===== Empire of Kitara ===== {{Main|Empire of Kitara#Founding|Bunyoro#History}} By 1000 AD, numerous states had arisen on the [[:en:East_African_Plateau|Lake Plateau]] among the [[:en:Great_Lakes_(Africa)|Great Lakes]] of East Africa. Cattle herding, cereal growing, and banana cultivation were the economic mainstays of these states. The [[:en:Ntusi|Ntusi]] and [[:en:Bigo_bya_Mugenyi|Bigo]] earthworks are representative of one of the first states, the [[:en:Bunyoro_kingdom|Bunyoro kingdom]], which oral tradition stipulates was part of the [[:en:Empire_of_Kitara|Empire of Kitara]] that dominated the whole Lakes region. A [[:en:Luo_peoples|Luo]] ethnic elite, from the Babito clan, ruled over the [[:en:Bantu_languages|Bantu-speaking]] [[:en:Nyoro_people|Nyoro people]]. The society was essentially Nyoro in its culture, based on the evidence from pottery, settlement patterns, and economic specialization.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=122–123}} The Babito clan claim legitimacy by being descended from the [[:en:Bachwezi|Bachwezi]] clan, who were said to have ruled the [[:en:Empire_of_Kitara|Empire of Kitara]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 May 2021 |title=Empire of Kitara: One of the oldest African Empires that existed since 900 AD to date |url=https://theafricanhistory.com/1812 |website=Theafricanhistory.com}}</ref> ===== Buganda ===== {{Main|History of Buganda}} {{Further|Kabaka of Buganda}} Ufumu wa Buganda ukapangika na Kato Kimera mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kato Kintu ŵakwenera kuti ŵakasamukira kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Victoria mu 1000 B.C.E. Boma la Buganda likalamuliranga na kabaka uyo wakaŵa na bataka. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Kabakas ŵakamba kuchepeska mazaza gha Bataka, ndipo Buganda yikazgoka ufumu wakulamulira. Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., charu cha Buganda chikamba kusazgikira chomene, kweni pakaŵa munthu munyake uyo wakakhumbanga kuti chiŵe na mazaza pa charu ichi. Kuzakafika mu ma 1870, charu cha Buganda chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Kabaka wakawusanga na Lukiko wake. Boma la Buganda likaŵa na ngalaŵa zakukwana 100 ndipo ngalaŵa yiliyose yikaŵa na ŵanthu 30. Boma la Buganda ndilo likaŵa lakuzirwa chomene mu chigaŵa ichi. Kweni kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, charu cha Buganda chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain.{{sfnp|Lye|2002|pp=121–122}} ===== Rwanda ===== {{Main|Kingdom of Rwanda#Pre-colonization}} Kumwera kwa Bunyoro, kufupi na Nyanja ya Kivu, ku mphepete kwa mphepete kwa nyanja, kukaŵa ufumu wa Rwanda. Ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi (BaTutsi) ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono chomene, ndipo themba lawo likachemekanga mwami. Ŵahutu ŵakaŵa ŵalimi. Wose ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero chimoza, kweni ŵanthu ŵakakanizgikanga kutengwa na kuchezga. Mwakuyana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya, Ufumu wa Rwanda ukaŵako mu nyengo ya Mwami Ruganzu II (Ruganzu Ndori) (c. 1600 1624), ndipo likuru lake likaŵa kufupi na Kigali. Vikatora vyaka 200 kuti Ufumu wa Mwami Kigeli IV (Kigeri Rwabugiri) uŵepo. Chikaŵa chakusuzga chomene kuwusa Ŵahutu kuluska Ŵatutsi. Mulongozgi waumaliro wa Ŵatutsi wakajipeleka kwa Mwami Mutara II (Mutara Rwogera) (1802-1853) mu 1852, kweni chigaŵa chaumaliro cha Ŵahutu chikathereskeka mu ma 1920 na Mwami Yuhi V (Yuli Musinga) (1896-1931).{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=123–124}} ===== Burundi ===== {{Main|Kingdom of Burundi#History}} {{Further|List of Kings of Burundi}} South of the Kingdom of Rwanda was the [[:en:Burundian_monarchy|Kingdom of Burundi]]. It was founded by the Tutsi chief [[:en:Ntare_I_Kivimira_Savuyimba_Semunganzashamba_Rushatsi_Cambarantama|Ntare Rushatsi]] ({{circa|1657}} – 1705). Like Rwanda, Burundi was built on cattle raised by Tutsi pastoralists, crops from Hutu farmers, conquest, and political innovations. Under Mwami [[:en:Ntare_IV_Rutaganzwa_Rugamba|Ntare Rugaamba]] ({{circa|1795}} – 1852), Burundi pursued an aggressive expansionist policy, one based more on diplomacy than force.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=124}} ==== Maravi ==== {{Main|Maravi}} [[File:Maravi_Kingdom_map_c._1650s.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maravi_Kingdom_map_c._1650s.svg|right|thumb|Maravi Kingdom]] The [[:en:Maravi|Maravi]] claimed descent from Karonga (''kalonga''), who took that title as king. The Maravi connected Central Africa to the east coastal trade, with [[:en:Swahili_people|Swahili]] Kilwa. By the 17th century, the Maravi Empire encompassed all the area between [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]] and the mouth of the [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. The ''karonga'' was Mzura, who did much to extend the empire. Mzura made a pact with the Portuguese to establish a 4,000-man army to attack the [[:en:Shona_people|Shona]] in return for aid in defeating his rival Lundi, a chief of the Zimba. In 1623, he turned on the Portuguese and assisted the Shona. In 1640, he welcomed back the Portuguese for trade. The Maravi Empire did not long survive the death of Mzura. By the 18th century, it had broken into its previous polities.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=164–165}} === West Africa === {{Main|History of West Africa#Iron Age}} ==== Sahelian empires and states ==== {{Main|Sahelian kingdoms#History of Sahel kingdoms}} ===== Ghana ===== {{Main|Ghana Empire#Origin}} {{See also|Serer history}} [[File:The_Ghana_Empire.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Ghana_Empire.svg|thumb|The Ghana Empire]] Ufumu wa Ghana ukwenera kuti ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., ndipo ukazengeka na Dinge Cisse. Ghana wakazunulika kakwamba na Al-Farazi, uyo wakaŵa Muarabu. Mu Ghana, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni na ku mizi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni agha ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa ufumu uwu, kweniso themba la Ghana ilo likachitanga chisopa chaunenesko. Kukaŵa matawuni ghaŵiri, limoza uko kukaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu na Ŵaarabu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya, ndipo ŵakakolerananga na maboma ghanyake agho ghakalayizga kuti ghaŵenge ghakugomezgeka ku Ghana. Ŵanthu ŵakamuwonanga kuti ni Ciuta, ndipo ŵanthu wose ŵakamuwonanga kuti wali makora. Ghana wakazgoka Muislamu cha m'ma 1050, wakati wapoka Aoudaghost. Ufumu wa Ghana ukaŵa na ndalama zinandi chifukwa cha kukhomeska msonkho pa malonda agho ghakaŵa pakati pa Tiaret na Sijilmasa. Ghana ndiyo wakawoneseskanga malo gha golide gha ku Bambouk, kumwera kwa Koumbi Saleh. Ŵakatoranga mchere na golide ivyo vikendanga mu caru cawo. Ufumu ukacitangako yayi kupanga vinthu. Kuzakafika m'ma 1100, caru ca Ghana cikamba kunangika. Nyengo yinyake ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti chifukwa chake chikaŵa chakuti Ŵaberi ŵakathereska msumba wa Koumbi Saleh mu 1076. Ici nchakuzomerezgeka yayi. Pali vifukwa vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira. Cifukwa cimoza nchakuti malonda gha golide ghakasamukira kumafumiro gha dazi ku Mlonga wa Niger na ku nthowa ya Taghaza, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Ghana uleke kwenda makora. Cifukwa cinyake ico ŵakuzunura nchakuti ndyali zikuŵa zambura kukhazikika cifukwa ca mphindano pakati pa maboma ghakupambanapambana. Ufumu uwu ukamara mu 1230, apo Takrur, kumpoto kwa Senegal, ndiyo wakapoka msumba ukuru.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=173–174}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Story of Africa&#124; BBC World Service |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter1.shtml |website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> ===== Mali ===== {{Main|Mali Empire#Pre-imperial Mali}} {{Further|Keita dynasty}} [[File:MALI_empire_map.PNG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MALI_empire_map.PNG|thumb|Mali Empire at its greatest extent]] Ufumu wa Mali ukamba mu 13th century AD, apo mulongozgi wa Mande (Mandingo), Sundiata (Lord Lion) wa fuko la Keita, wakatonda Soumaoro Kanté, fumu ya Sosso panji Soninke wakumwera, pa Nkhondo ya Kirina mu c. 1235. Sundiata wakalutilira kuwusa kufuma ku nkhorongo na ku Dambo la Niger, kumafumiro gha dazi kukafika ku Niger Bend, kumpoto kukafika ku Sahara, na kumanjiliro gha dazi kukafika ku Atlantic Ocean. Sundiata wakaŵa na zina lakuti mansa. Wakazenga msumba ukuru wa ufumu wake ku Niani. Nangauli malonda gha mchere na golide ghakalutilira kuŵa ghakuzirwa ku Ufumu wa Mali, kweni vyakurya na viŵeto navyo vikaŵa vyakuzirwa. Kulima mpheska, mpunga, na mpunga kukaŵa kwakuzirwa comene. Ku mphaka za kumpoto kwa Sahel, viŵeto vya ng'ombe, mberere, mbuzi, na ngamila vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mande ŵakakhalanga mu mizi na malo. Mu mizi iyi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka kafu, ndipo ŵakalamuliranga na famu. Famu iyi yikapeleka chawanangwa ku fumu. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakwenda pa mahachi na ŵasilikari ŵakwenda pasi ŵakalongozgekanga na themba. Usange mphakukhumbikwa, ŵasilikari ŵankhongono ŵangasangika mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Munthu wakang'anamukiranga ku Cisilamu pachokopachoko. Nkhongono ya mansa yikathembanga pa kukolerana na vigomezgo vya ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yakale kweniso pa nkhongono zauzimu. Pakwamba, Sundiata wakakananga chisopa cha Ciisilamu. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mansa ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakasopanga chomene Chiuta, kweni ŵakalondezganga mitheto na viphikiro ivyo vikaŵa vyakuzirwa chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mande. Chisilamu chikazgoka chisopa cha ku nyumba ya themba mu muwuso wa mwana wa Sundiata, Uli I (1225-1270). Mansa Uli wakaluta ku Mecca, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamumanya. Pa nyumba yacifumu iyi, pakaŵa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakaŵa ŵalembi na ŵalembi. Munthu munyake wa chisopa cha Cisilamu, zina lake Ibn Battuta, wakalemba vinthu vyakukhwaskana na ufumu uwu. Mali yikafika pa msinkhu wa nkhongono zake mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, apo Mansa Musa (1312-1337) wakacita ulendo wake wakucemeka Hajj ku Mecca na ŵazga 500. Ulendo wa haji wa Mansa Musa ukapangiska kuti golide lileke kukhumbikwa mu Eguputo kwa vyaka 10. Wakakondweska comene ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ca Cisilamu na ŵa ku Europe. Wakacemera ŵasambizgi na ŵakuzenga nga ni Ishal al-Tuedjin (al-Sahili) kuti ŵalutilire kunjizga Mali mu caru ca Cisilamu. Ufumu wa Mali ukakura chomene pa nkhani ya kusambira na kulemba. Mu 1285, muzga wakufwatuka zina lake Sakura, wakawukira ufumu. Munthu uyu wakachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg mu msumba wa Timbuktu na kuwuzgora msumba wa masambiro na malonda. Kuguliska mabuku kukakura comene, ndipo kukopera mabuku kukazgoka nchito yakuzirwa ndiposo yakovwira comene. Timbuktu na Djenné vikazgoka malo ghakuzirwa ghakusambilira visambizgo vya Chisilamu.{{sfnp|Davidson|1971|pp=84–85}} Pamanyuma pa muwuso wa Mansa Suleyman (1341-1360) charu cha Mali chikamba kunjira mu suzgo. Ŵasilikari ŵa Mossi ŵakawukira mphaka ya kumwera. Ŵa Tuareg ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa charu ichi kuti ŵapoke Timbuktu. Ŵafulani (Fulbe) ŵakathereska mazaza gha Mali kumanjiliro gha dazi mwa kukhazikiska boma lakujiyimira palekha la Futa Toro, ilo likapokelera ufumu wa Takrur. Ubali wa Serer na Wolof ukamara. Mu 1545 m'paka 1546, Ufumu wa Songhai ukatora Niani. Pamanyuma pa 1599, ufumu uwu ukaleka kusanga golide ku Bambouk ndipo ukagaŵikana.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=83–87}} ===== Songhai ===== {{Main|Songhai Empire#History}} {{Further|Askiya dynasty|Sonni dynasty}} [[File:SONGHAI_empire_map.PNG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SONGHAI_empire_map.PNG|right|thumb|The Songhai Empire, c. 1500]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Songhai ŵali kufuma ku ŵalovi awo ŵakakhalanga mu Mlonga wa Niger. Ŵakazenga msumba wawo ukuru ku Kukiya mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E. na ku Gao mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Songhai ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha ku Nilo na Sahara. Sonni Ali, uyo wakaŵa wa fuko la Songhai, wakamba kuwukira msumba wa Timbuktu mu 1468. Wakafika kumpoto, mu mapopa, wakambiska ufumu wa Mossi kumwera kwa Niger, na kufika ku Djenne. Ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakaŵa na ŵapamahachi na maboti. Sonni Ali wakaŵa Musulumani wakugomezgeka yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber-Arab ŵakamulongosoleranga viheni, comenecomene cifukwa ca kuwukira Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Timbuktu pamanyuma pakuti waŵavikilira na kuŵaponoska ku Ŵatuareg. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake mu 1492, muhaliri wake wakatoleka na muzukuru wake Askia Mohammad I, mwana wa Kassey, mudumbu wa Sonni Ali. Muhammad Ture (1493-1528) ndiyo wakambiska ufumu wa Askiya. Wakakhozga vinthu ivyo Sonni Ali wakathereska. Chisilamu chikagwiliskirika nchito kuti wasazgireko mazaza ghake mwa kuphalira ŵanthu ŵa ku Mossi kuti ŵacite nkhondo, kwambaso malonda mu caru ca Sahara, kweniso kuti Khalifa wa ku Cairo uyo wakaŵa "mu mfwiri" wa Ŵababasi, wamuphalire kuti waŵe Khalifa wa ku Sudan. Wakakhazikiska msumba wa Timbuktu kuŵa malo ghakusambizgirako chisopa cha Cisilamu. Muhammad Ture wakalutilira kusanuzga ufumu wake mwa kusunkhunya ŵa Tuareg kumpoto, kuwukira Aïr kumafumiro gha dazi, na kuwukira tawuni ya Taghaza iyo yikaŵa na mchere. Wakaŵagwiliskira nchito mu malonda gha Songhay. Wakalutilira kusora ŵateŵeti ŵakugomezgeka na mbumba zawo kuti ŵaŵe ŵalaŵiliri na kuŵapa maudindo mu vigaŵa ivyo wakapoka. Ŵakaŵa na udindo wa kuzenga magulu gha nkhondo. Pakuti Songhay yikaŵa malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵanandi, yikaŵa yakukhora chomene nanga ni apo pakaŵa mphindano. Leo Africanus wakalongosora makora ufumu wa Askiya Muhammad. Askiya Muhammad wakathereskeka na mwana wake mu 1528. Pamanyuma pa kulimbana kukuru, mwana waumaliro wa Muhammad Ture, Askiya Daoud (1529-1582) wakatora ufumu. Mu 1591, Morocco wakawukira ufumu wa Songhai mwakulongozgeka na Ahmad al-Mansur wa fuko la Saadi kuti wapoke malo gha golide gha ku Sahel. Pa Nkhondo ya ku Tondibi, ŵasilikari ŵa Songhai ŵakathereskeka. Ŵaroma ŵakathereska msumba wa Djenne, Gao, na Timbuktu, kweni ŵakatondeka kupoka chigaŵa chose. Askiya Nuhu na ŵasilikari ŵa Songhay ŵakakumanaso ku Dendi mu mphepete mwa chigaŵa cha Songhai, uko gulu la ŵasilikari likapoka katundu wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, charu cha Songhai chikagaŵikana mu vyaru vinandi. Morocco wakawona kuti mulimo wake ukaŵa wambura phindu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakaguliskanga golide. Ntheura malonda ghanandi agho ghakacitikanga mu caru ca Sahara ghakafika ku Bornu. Vinthu vyakudura ivyo ŵakagura na golide vikeneranga kutumizgika ku mapiri gha mu Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco awo ŵakakhalako ŵakatorana na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ndipo ŵakacemekanga Arma panji Ruma. Ŵakajiŵika mu Timbuktu nga ni gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likaŵa na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Pakati pa vivulupi ivi, magulu ghanyake ghakamba kujikhwimiska, kusazgapo Ŵafulani ŵa ku Futa Tooro awo ŵakiza kufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ufumu wa Bambara, umoza mwa maufumu agho ghakafumako ku Songhai, ukaparanya Gao. Mu 1737, ŵa Tuareg ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵa ku Arma.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=88–89}}{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=100–102, 179–181}} ===== Sokoto Caliphate ===== {{Main|Sokoto Caliphate#History}} [[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913]] Ŵafulani ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakusamukira kunyake. Ŵakafuma ku Mauritania na kwamba kukhala ku Futa Tooro, Futa Djallon, na ku vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kuzakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 14 C.E., ŵakaŵa kuti ŵamba kusopa Ciislam. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵakafika ku Macina, kumwera kwa Mali. Mu ma 1670, ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵachitenge jihad ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu yayi. Nkhondo izi zikawovwira kuti paŵe vyaru vinandi nga ni Futa Toro, Futa Djallon, Macina, Oualia, na Bundu. Boma lakuzirwa comene pa maboma agha likaŵa la Sokoto Caliphate panji Ufumu wa Fulani. Mu tawuni ya Gobir, Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817) wakasuska ŵalongozgi ŵa Hausa kuti ŵakulondezga chisopa chautesi cha Chisilamu kweniso kuti mbambura kwenelera. Mu 1804, wakambiska Nkhondo ya Fulani, iyo yikaŵa nkhondo ya chigaluka pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakwenyelera chifukwa cha misonkho yikuru kweniso ŵakakondwa yayi na ŵalongozgi ŵawo. Ku Northern Nigeria kukaŵa nkhondo ya Jihad, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Fulani na Hausa ŵakakolerana nayo chomene. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Usman wakapanga ufumu uwo ukaŵa na vigaŵa vinyake vya kumpoto kwa Nigeria, Benin, na Cameroon, ndipo msumba wake ukuru ukaŵa Sokoto. Wakaleka nchito yake ya kusambizga na kulemba ndipo wakapeleka ufumu kwa mwana wake Muhammed Bello. Ufumu wa Sokoto ukakhala m'paka mu 1903, apo ŵa ku Britain ŵakapoka kumpoto kwa Nigeria.{{sfnp|Lye|2002|p=188}} ==== Forest empires and states ==== ===== Akan kingdoms and emergence of Asante Empire ===== {{Further|Akan people#Origin and ethnogenesis|Bono state#Origin|Ashanti Empire#History|List of rulers of Asante}} [[File:Kent_wove.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kent_wove.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Ashanti_people|Ashanti]] [[:en:Kente_cloth|Kente cloth]] patterns]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Akan ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Kwa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya Kwa ŵakagomezgeka kuti ŵakafuma ku East/Central Africa, pambere ŵandafike ku Sahel. Kuzakafika m'ma 1200 C.E., Ufumu wa Akan wa Bonoman (Bono State) ukaŵako. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., apo migodi ya golide mu Mali yikamba kumara, boma la Bonoman na maufumu ghanyake gha Akan ghakamba kutchuka chomene pa nkhani ya malonda gha golide. Ufumu wa Bonoman na maufumu ghanyake gha Ŵaakan nga ni Denkyira, Akyem, na Akwamu ndiwo ghakaŵa pakwamba, ndipo pamanyuma pake ufumu wa Ashanti ukababika. Nyengo na umo Ashante wakafikira ku malo agha vikususkana. Icho tikumanya nchakuti mu ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Akan ŵakamanyikwa kuti ŵakakhalanga mu cigaŵa ca Kwaaman. Malo agha ghakaŵa kumpoto kwa Nyanja ya Bosomtwe. Ndalama izo boma likasanganga zikafumanga ku malonda gha golide na kola, kweniso kuzenga makuni kuti ŵabase yamsungwi. Ŵakazenga matawuni pakati pa milonga ya Pra na Ofin. Ŵakapangana kuti ŵajivikilire na kupeleka msonkho ku charu cha Denkyira. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Ashante ŵakamba kusintha chomene, kusazgapo ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi chifukwa cha kulima vyakumera vya mu charu chiphya nga ni manicure na chimanga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 C.E., Osei Kofi Tutu I (c. 1695 1717), na wovwiri wa Okomfo Anokye, ŵakakolerana na mtundu wa Ashante. Osei Tutu wakalutilira kusazgirako chigaŵa chake. Wakazenga gulu la ŵasilikari la Ashante ilo likajintha pa boma la Akwamu, wakambiska gulu liphya na kuzgora gulu la ŵasilikari kuti liŵe la nkhondo. Mu 1701, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ashante ŵakathereska charu cha Denkyira, ndipo ŵakamba kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene ŵa ku Dutch. Opoku Ware I (1720-1745) wakalutilira kusazgirako ufumu wake na kusazgirako vyaru vinyake vya kumwera kwa Akan. Wakazgokera kumpoto na kusazgako Techiman, Banda, Gyaaman, na Gonja, vyaru ivyo vili mumphepete mwa Black Volta. Pakati pa 1744 na 1745, Asantehene Opoku wakawukira chigaŵa chakumpoto cha Dagomba, ndipo wakawusa nthowa zakuzirwa zakwendamo mu charu cha Niger. Kusi Obodom (1750-1764) ndiyo wakatora malo gha Opoku. Wakakhozga vyaru ivyo wakaŵa kuti wapoka. Osei Kwadwo (1777-1803) wakapangiska vyakuti ufumu wake wendenge makora na kulutilira kukura. Osei Kwame Panyin (1777-1803), Osei Tutu Kwame (1804-1807), na Osei Bonsu (1807-1824) ŵakalutilira kukhozga na kusazgirako vigaŵa vyawo. Ufumu wa Ashante ukaŵa na chigaŵa chose icho sono chikuchemeka Ghana na vigaŵa vinandi vya Ivory Coast.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=140}} Ashantehene wakapokera udindo wake kufuma kwa anyina. Ku Kumasi, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi, wakaŵanga na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyanga chomene malonda, ndyali, na usilikari. Ŵanalume ŵakufuma ku Arabia, Sudan, na Europe ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu boma, ndipo wose ŵakimikikanga na Ashantehene. Mu msumba ukuru na mu matawuni ghanyake, ŵapolisi ŵapadera ŵakagwiranga nchito nga mbalinda ŵa Ashantehene, nga ni awo ŵakamanyanga vinthu, ndiposo kuti ŵamazge kugaluka. Mu ufumu wose uwu mukaŵa misewu iyo yikendanga kufupi na nyanja m'paka pakati pa Niger. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ufumu wa Ashante ukaŵa wankhongono chomene. Mu 1900, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakawukira msumba uwu..{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|p=242}} ===== Dahomey ===== {{Main|History of the Kingdom of Dahomey}} {{Further|Aja people#History}} [[File:Dahomey_amazon2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dahomey_amazon2.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Dahomey_Amazons|Dahomey Amazons]], an all-women fighting unit]] Ufumu wa Dahomey ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Aja ŵa mu ufumu wa Allada ŵakasamira kumpoto na kukhala na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Fon. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vicoko waka, ŵakamba kuwusa. Ntheura ŵakambiska ufumu wa Dahomey, uwo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Agbome. Fumu Houegbadja (c. 1645 ‡ 1685) yikapangiska Dahomey kuŵa ufumu wankhongono. Wakayowoya kuti malo ghose nga themba ndipo ghakeneranga kupelekeka msonkho. Ŵakaŵaso na mazaza gha kuwusa nga ni ŵana ŵakwamba. Pakaŵa "kusopa ufumu". Chaka chilichose, ŵazga ŵakeneranga kupelekeka sembe kuti ŵachindike ŵasekuru ŵa themba. Mu ma 1720, boma la Dahomey likapoka vigaŵa vya Whydah na Allada, ivyo vikawovwira kuti Dahomey wasange ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga. Themba Agadja (1708-1740) likayezga kumazga malonda gha ŵazga mwa kusunga ŵazga pa malo agho ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kupanga mafuta gha makuni gha maolive, kweni vyandulo ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakasanganga na ŵazga kweniso umo Dahomey wakagomezgekeranga ku vilwero vikaŵa vikuru comene. Mu 1730, mu nyengo ya Themba Agaja, Ufumu wa Oyo ukathereska Dahomey, ndipo Dahomey wakeneranga kupeleka msonkho. Ŵazga ŵakaŵapelekanga msonkho mu viŵiya vya viŵeto. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, mafuta gha makuni gha maolive ghakaŵa ghakukhumbikwa chomene pa malonda.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=191–192}} France yikathereska Dahomey mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku France na Dahomey (1892-1894) ndipo yikakhazikiska boma la vyaru vinyake. Ŵanandi mwa ŵasilikari awo ŵakarwa nkhondo na Dahomey ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa. ===== Yoruba ===== {{Main|History of the Yoruba people}} {{Further|List of rulers of the Yoruba state of Oyo}} [[File:WestAfrica1625.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WestAfrica1625.png|right|thumb|Oyo Empire and surrounding states, c. 1625]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Yoruba ŵakajiwonanga kuti mbanthu ŵa mu ufumu umoza, mwakupambana na umo vinthu viliri mazuŵa ghano. Zina ili likufuma ku lizgu la Chihausa ilo likung'anamura Ufumu wa Oyo. Boma lakwamba la Ŵayoruba likaŵa la Ile-Ife, ilo likayowoyeka kuti likazengeka cha m'ma 1000 C.E. na munthu munyake wauzimu, zina lake Oduduwa. Ŵana ŵa Oduduwa ndiwo ŵakambiska misumba yakupambanapambana ya Ŵayoruba, ndipo ŵana ŵake ŵasungwana ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵamama ŵa ma obas, panji mafumu gha Ŵayoruba. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, misumba ya Yoruba yikaŵa na wupu wakulongozga. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, misumba iyi yikamba kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo ma obas ghawo ghakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa vyauzimu. Ŵanthu ŵa mu misumba iyi ŵakamba kupindana chomene.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=131–132}} Ufumu wa Oyo ukayamba kulamulira mu ma 1500. Mu 1550, ufumu wa Nupe ukathereska boma la Oyo, ilo likaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa pa mahachi. Themba la Oyo likatolekera ku caru cinyake. Wakati wawerako ku nkhondo, Alafin Orompoto (c. 1560-1580) wakazenga ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero vikuruvikuru. Ici cikaŵapangiska kuti ŵaleke kutonda nkhondo mu vipalamba vya kumpoto na mu nkhorongo. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Oyo wakasazgirako chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Niger ku mapiri gha Togo, Yoruba ku Ketu, Dahomey, na Fon. Wupu wakulongozga ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa ufumu. Chigaŵa chilichose icho ŵakapanga chikaŵa na mulongozgi. Mbumba zinyake zikateŵeteranga nga ni mafumu. Oyo wakaŵa ufumu wa ku mpoto kwa Yoruba, ndipo wakendeskanga malonda pakati pa kumpoto na kumwera kwa charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Yoruba ŵakapanganga vyakuvwara, vyakupangira visulo, na vyakupangira viŵiya, ndipo ŵakaguliskanga mchere, vikumba, na mahachi kufuma ku Sudan kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na ŵasilikari. Oyo wakalutilira kuŵa wankhongono kwa vilimika 200.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=173–174}}{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=134}} Mu 1888, charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain, ndipo pamanyuma chikagaŵikana. Boma la Oyo likamara kuwusa mu 1896.<ref>Stride, G.T. & C. Ifeka (1971). ''Peoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000–1800''. Edinburgh: Nelson. {{ISBN|0-17-511448-X}}.</ref> ===== Benin ===== {{Main|Kingdom of Benin#History}} {{Further|Oba of Benin}} [[File:Benin_bronze_Louvre_A97-14-1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Benin_bronze_Louvre_A97-14-1.jpg|right|thumb|"Benin Bronze" (brass)]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Kwa Niger na Congo awo ŵakakhalanga ku Edo ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Benin m'ma 1500. Kufuma waka pakwamba, boma ili likalutilira kusazgikira ndyali. Mu nyengo ya Themba Ewuare (c. 1450 - 1480 C.E.), boma likaŵa lakunozgekera kuwukira. Wakakhozga mazaza gha boma na kwamba nkhondo ya vilimika 30 na ŵazengezgani ŵake. Wakati wafwa, ufumu wa Benin ukafika ku Dahomey kumanjiliro gha dazi, ku Niger Delta kumafumiro gha dazi, mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, na ku misumba ya Ŵayoruba kumpoto. Muzukuru wa Ewuare, Oba Esigie (1504-1550), wakathereska mazaza gha uzama (bungwe la boma) na kusazgirako malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene Ŵapwitikizi awo ŵakapanga mkuwa kuti uŵawovwire pa nyumba ya themba. Ŵanalume aŵa ŵakalongozgekanga na Uzama, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa mbumba zakukhora kweniso mulongozgi wa tawuni. Pamanyuma pake, mazaza ghake ghakacepa cifukwa ca kuŵika ŵamazaza. Ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa na mazaza. Fumukazi iyo yikababa oba, yikaŵa na mazaza ghanandi. Buku la Alan Ryder lakuti Benin and the Europeans likulongora kuti caru ca Benin cikaguliskanga comene ŵazga yayi. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, msumba uwu ukaparanyika cifukwa ca nkhondo za ufumu na za mukati. Ndipouli, likambaso kuŵa na nkhongono mu nyengo ya Themba Oba Eresoyen na Themba Oba Akengbuda. Mu ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Benin ŵakatumizganga vyakurya nga ni phura, njovu, gemu, na salu ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal na Dutch. Mu 1897, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakapoka msumba uwu.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=188–189}} ===== Niger Delta and Igbo ===== {{Further|Igbo people#History|Kingdom of Bonny#Early history|Kalabari Kingdom#History|Kingdom of Warri#History|Kingdom of Nri#History|List of rulers of Nri}}{{Igbo land labelled map}}Chigaŵa cha Niger Delta chikaŵa na misumba yinandi iyo yikaŵa na maboma ghanandi. Malo agha ghakavikilirikanga na maji na vyakumera vinandi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda mu chigaŵa ichi. Vyaru ivyo vikaŵa mu chigaŵa ichi vikaŵa nga ni vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ku East Africa. Ŵanyake, nga ni Bonny, Kalabari, na Warri, ŵakaŵa na mafumu. Vinyake, nga ni Brass, vikaŵa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na maparamendi ghachoko, ndipo ku Cross River na Old Calabar, ŵamalonda ŵa Ekpe ndiwo ŵakalamuliranga. Wupu uwu ndiwo ukendeskanga malonda ndipo ukapanganga malango gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga nawo. Nyumba zinyake nga ni izo ŵakazenganga ku Bonny, zikamanyikwanga chomene ku America na ku Europe. ŴaIgbo ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa dambo la Nile (kweni pamoza na ŴaAnioma kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Niger). Ufumu wa Nri ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ndipo Eze Nri ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wake. Chikaŵa chigaŵa cha ndyali icho chikaŵa na vikaya, ndipo chikaya chilichose chikaŵa na chigaŵa na zina lake. Mu mizi mukaŵanga mazaza gha ŵanalume, ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakalongozganga. Mu malaro gha ku Igbo-Ukwu (800 C.E.) mukaŵa vinthu vya mkuŵa ivyo vikapangika ku malo agha kweniso magalasi ghakufuma ku Eguputo na India.{{sfnp|Martin|O'Meara|1995|p=95}}{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=137}} == 19th century == {{Further|History of West Africa#Slave trade|History of Central Africa#Slave trade|History of East Africa#Slave trade|History of Southern Africa#Slave trade|History of North Africa#European colonial period|History of West Africa#Colonial period|History of Central Africa#Colonial period|History of East Africa#Colonial period|History of Southern Africa#Colonial period}} === Southern Africa === {{Main|Southern Africa#History}} Kuzakafika m'ma 1850, ŵamishonale na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Britain na Germany ŵakanjira mu Namibia. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Nama ŵakakwesananga pa nkhani ya futi na vilwero. Ŵajeremani ŵakaŵa ŵakukhora comene kuluska ŵa ku Britain mu cigaŵa ici. Kuzakafika mu 1884, Ŵachijeremani ŵakayowoya kuti chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja kufuma ku Mlonga wa Orange m'paka ku Mlonga wa Kunene, ntchigaŵa cha Ŵachijeremani. Ŵakachitanga vinthu mwaukali kuti ŵasazgireko malo gha ŵazungu. Ŵakacita nthena cifukwa ca mphindano pakati pa Ŵanaama na Ŵaherero.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=218, 327–329, 340–342}} TŴaherero ŵakakolerana na Ŵachijeremani, ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵangaŵawukira. Ŵachijeremani ŵakakhazikiska msasa mu msumba ukuru wa Herero ndipo ŵakamba kupeleka malo gha Ŵaherero ku ŵanthu ŵatuŵa, kusazgapo malo ghawemi chomene ghakuliskako viŵeto mu chigaŵa chapakati. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Ovambanderu ŵakagaluka, kweni ŵakathereskeka. Mu vyaka vya pakati pa 1896 na 1897, nthenda ya nthenda ya ng'ombe yikasuzga chomene ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Nama. Ŵachijeremani ŵakalutilira na ndondomeko yawo ya kuzgora Namibia kuŵa malo ghakukhalamo ŵazungu mwa kupoka malo na viŵeto vyawo, kweniso ŵakayezga kutolera ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero ku South Africa.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=218, 327}} Mu 1904, Ŵaherero ŵakambaso kugaluka. Lothar von Trotha, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Germany, wakambiska nkhondo ya Waterberg, iyo yikachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa mapopa gha Kalahari. Paumaliro wa 1905, pakaŵa ŵanthu 16,000 pera ŵa mtundu wa Herero. Mu 1907, gulu la Nama likathereskeka. Viŵeto vyose vya Nama na Herero na malo vikaŵa vya ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene, ndipo Nama na Herero awo ŵakakhalapo ŵakaŵa pasi pa ŵanthu aŵa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ovambo ndiwo ŵakeneranga kugwira nchito.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=218, 327}} === Nguniland === {{Main|Nguni people#History}} [[File:Dance_of_Landeens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dance_of_Landeens.jpg|thumb|Zulu warriors]] Mu nyengo ya Mfecane, panji kuti "kuswa", kukaŵa vivulupi vinandi kumwera kwa Africa. Ufumu wa Nguni wa kumpoto wa Mthethwa, Ndwandwe, na Swaziland ndiwo ukambiska nkhondo iyi chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa vyakurya na njara. Dingiswayo wa ku Mthethwa wakati wafwa, Shaka wa ku Zulu ndiyo wakatora ufumu. Wakakhazikiska ufumu wa Zulu, ndipo wakawusa Ŵandwandwe na kusunkhunya Ŵaswazi kumpoto. Ŵandu ŵa ku Ndwandwe ni ŵa ku Swazi ŵajinjile m'cilambo capasi, mwantheura ŵa Mfecane ŵakamba kuthandazgika. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1820, Shaka wakasazgirako ufumu wake mu vigaŵa vyose vya ku Drakensberg. Wakasinthiska ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru ivyo ŵakathereskeka na kuŵika induna. Wakaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵakugomezgeka, ŵakugomezgeka, na ŵamahara, awo ŵakamanyikwanga yayi mu chigaŵa ichi. Mu 1828, Shaka wakakomeka na munung'una wake Dingane, uyo wakaŵavya mahara gha nkhondo na maluso gha kulongozga nga ni Shaka. Mu 1838, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Voortrekkers ŵakayezga kupoka caru ca Ŵazulu. Mu myezi yakwambilira ŵakathereskeka, kweni awo ŵakapona ŵakawungana pa Mlonga wa Ncome na kuthereska Ŵazulu. Ndipouli, Ŵavoretker ŵakaŵavya cikanga kuti ŵakhale mu caru ca Ŵazulu. Dingane wakakomeka mu 1840 pa nyengo ya nkhondo. Mubali wake Mpande ndiyo wakatora ufumu na kukhozga vigaŵa vya Ŵazulu kumpoto. Mu 1879, Britain yikawukira ufumu wa Zulu kuti yikawuse caru cose ca South Africa. Ufumu wa Zulu ukathereska nkhondo ya Isandlwana, kweni ukathereskeka ku Ulundi. Limoza mwa vyaru vikuru ivyo vikafuma mu Mfecane likaŵa Ufumu wa Ŵasotho uwo ukazengeka ku Thaba Bosiu na Moshoeshoe I pakati pa 1821 na 1822. Wakaŵa wupu wa maboma ghakupambanapambana uwo ukazomera mazaza gha Moshoeshoe. Mu ma 1830, ufumu uwu ukacemanga ŵamishonale kuti ŵize na vilwero na mahachi ku Cape. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, boma la Orange Free State likalutilira kunanga ufumu uwu, kweni likamalizga yayi kuwuthereska. Mu 1868, Moshoeshoe wakapempha kuti Ufumu wa Sotho uŵikike mu mawoko gha Britain kuti waponoske awo ŵakakhalako. Malo agha ghakazgoka malo ghakulongozgeka na Britain gha Basutoland.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=261–262, 271}} === Sotho-Tswana === {{Main|Sotho people#History|Tswana people#History}} Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chitswana ŵakamba kuwusa chigaŵa ichi (kwambira ku Mlonga wa Vaal m'paka ku Botswana). Malo ghakurughakuru agha ghakakhalanga makora m'paka mu 1300 C.E. Ŵanthu wose aŵa ŵakendanga mu nthowa za malonda izo zikendanga kufuma ku Limpopo River m'paka ku Indian Ocean. Mabuku ghakwambilira ghakulongosora vya charu cha Botswana ghakalembeka mu 1824. Ivyo vikalembeka apa vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bangwaketse ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene mu cigaŵa ici. Mu muwuso wa Makaba II, ŵanthu ŵa ku Bangwaketse ŵakasunganga viŵeto vinandi mu malo gha mu mapopa agho ghakaŵa ghakuvikilirika. Pa nyengo iyi, mafumu ghanyake gha mu chigaŵa ichi ghakaŵa na ŵanthu 10,000 ndipo ghakaŵa na vinthu vinandi. Mu nyengo ya Mfecane, mu 1823-1843, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakanjira mu charu ichi. Nangauli Ŵangwaketse ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Bakololo mu 1826, kweni nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Botswana ŵakaŵawukira, ŵakaŵatimbanizga, na kuŵasuzga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakololo na Amandebele ŵakaŵawukiranga kanandi waka, ndipo ŵakatora ng'ombe zinandi, ŵanakazi, na ŵana kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Kweni pamanyuma pa 1843, apo Ŵamandebele ŵakasamukira kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zimbabwe, suzgo ili likamara. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1840 na 1850, ŵamalonda awo ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kwenda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Bangwato, na Batawana ŵakagwilira lumoza ntchito yakuguliska njovu, ndipo ndalama izo ŵakaguliskanga ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakuguliska mahachi na futi. Mu 1880, vinthu vikasintha chomene, ndipo Ŵabatswana ŵakamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa ku Bushmen, Bakalanga, Bakgalagadi, Batswapong, na mitundu yinyake. Pamanyuma pa ulendo uwu, ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kukhala ku mphaka za Botswana mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal. Mu 1852 gulu la mafumu gha ku Tswana ilo likaŵa na Sechele I, likathereska Ŵafrika, ndipo pamanyuma pa vyaka 8, ŵakafika pa phangano la mtende ku Potchefstroom mu 1860. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵakazomerezga kuti paŵe mphaka pakati pa South Africa na Botswana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika na ŵa ku Batswana ŵakaguliskana vinthu na kugwira ntchito pamoza mwamtende. Mu ma 1820, ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo awo ŵakafuma ku charu cha Zulu awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Shaka, ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa Basotho awo ŵakakhalanga ku mapiri. Mu 1823, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kololo ŵakasamira kumpoto, kujumpha mu chipalamba cha Okavango na kujumpha mu mlonga wa Zambezi. Mu 1845, Ŵakololo ŵakapoka caru ca Barotseland. Pa nyengo yeneyira, Ŵaburu ŵakamba kunjira mu caru ca Basotho. Nkhondo za Napoleon zikati zamara, charu cha Cape Colony chikapelekeka ku Britain.<ref name="Ross 2009">{{cite book|last=Ross|first=R.|year=2009|title=A Concise History of South Africa|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}.</ref><ref name="Thompson 2001">{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=L.|year=2001|title=A History of South Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsouthaf00thom_0|url-access=registration|publisher=Yale University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780300087765}}.</ref> Pa nyengo iyi, Moshoeshoe I wakayamba kuwusa maufumu gha Basotho gha kumwera kwa Highveld. Ŵanthu ŵakamulumba comene cifukwa ca luso lake na maluso ghake. Ulongozgi wake ukawovwira kuti mtundu wake upone ku ngozi na viyezgo ivyo vikaŵapo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Mu 1822, Moshoeshoe wakimika msumba wake ukuru ku Butha-Buthe, phiri ilo likaŵa mu mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Drakensberg. Pamanyuma, likuru lake likasamukira ku Thaba Bosiu. Kuti waŵawovwire, Moshoeshoe wakaciskanga ŵamishonale ŵa ku France kuti ŵacite uteŵeti wa umishonale mu ufumu wake. Ŵamishonale awo ŵakatumika na Paris Evangelical Missionary Society ŵakapeleka ulongozgi ku Themba pa nkhani za vyaru vinyake na kovwira kuti liŵe na vilwero vyamazuŵa ghano. Padera pa kuŵa ŵalaŵiliri ŵa boma, ŵamishonale (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Casalis na Arbousset) ŵakawovwira chomene pakulongosora kalembero ka Chisotho na kusindikizga mabuku gha Chisotho pakati pa 1837 na 1855. Baibolo lakwamba mu Chisotho likafuma mu 1878. Mu 1868, wakati wataya vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Boers mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za Basotho; Moshoeshoe wakapempha Fumukazi Victoria kuti yipharazge kuti Lesotho (iyo yikachemekanga Basutoland) yikaŵa boma la Britain ndipo boma la Britain likaŵa ku Maseru, uko kukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Lesotho. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ivi ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa vinthu vya mukati, apo Britain ndiyo wakalamuliranga vyakuthupi na kuvikilira charu. Mu 1869, ŵa ku Britain ŵakanozga vyakuti ŵamanye mphaka za Basutoland. Nangauli mafuko ghanandi ghakaŵa na vigaŵa mukati mwa Basutoland, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyanga Chisotho ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivyo vikapelekeka ku Orange Free State. === Voortrekkers === [[File:Charles_Bell_-_Zoeloe-aanval_op_'n_Boerelaer_-_1838.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Bell_-_Zoeloe-aanval_op_'n_Boerelaer_-_1838.jpg|thumb|Depiction of a [[:en:Weenen_massacre|Zulu attack]] on a [[:en:Boer|Boer]] camp in February 1838]] Mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakamba ulendo wawo wa kupanjilira kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga Ukuru wa Somba mu Zuurveld. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵachemanga kuti "Ŵa Voortrekkers". Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, vigaŵa vinandi vya Khoikhoi vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Ŵaburu. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakataya wanangwa wawo pa nkhani za ndyali na za cuma, ndipo ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero ca ciAfrikaans, ico cikafuma ku ciyowoyero ca ku Dutch. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakagwiranga nchito nga ni ŵasilikari ŵa boma pa kuwukira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi na ŵa Xhosa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoi, ŵazga, na ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakachemekanga kuti Cape Coloured, nawo ŵakaŵako. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi awo ŵakakhalanga kutali na mphaka ŵakaŵa Kora, Oorlams, na Griqua. Mu 1795, ŵa ku Britain ŵakapoka malo agha ku ŵa ku Dutch. Mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakamba kusama, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga Ukuru wa Somba na kunjira mu Zuurveld. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵachemanga kuti "Ŵa Voortrekkers". Ŵakazenga vyaru vya Transvaal na Orange Free State, comenecomene mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵachoko comene. Mwakupambana na Khoisan, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya Bantu ŵakathereskeka yayi na Ŵafrika chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu. Kweniso ŵakamba kujipangira vilwero ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Cape. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nga umo vikaŵira pa Nkhondo za Xhosa na Boer, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakafumiskikanga mu vyaru vya Xhosa. Pakakhumbikwanga ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Mu 1901, caru ca Boer cikathereskeka na Britain mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Boer. Kuwina uku kukakoma maboma ghanandi gha Transvaal na Orange Free State, chomenechomene mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene. Mwakupambana na Khoisan, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya Bantu ŵakathereskeka yayi na Ŵafrika chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu. Kweniso ŵakamba kujipangira vilwero ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Cape. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nga umo vikaŵira pa Nkhondo za Xhosa na Boer, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakafumiskikanga mu vyaru vya Xhosa. Pakakhumbikwanga ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Mu 1901, caru ca Boer cikathereskeka na Britain mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Boer. Kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Afrika ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca kutondeka.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=274–275}}{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=268–271}} === European trade, exploration and conquest === {{Further|European exploration of Africa|African slave trade|Scramble for Africa}} [[File:Maxim_machine_gun_Megapixie.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maxim_machine_gun_Megapixie.jpg|right|thumb|1895 .303 tripod mounted Maxim machine gun]] Pakati pa 1878 na 1898, vyaru vya ku Europe vikagaŵikana na kupoka vigaŵa vinandi vya Africa. Kwa vilimika 400, vyaru vya ku Europe vikagwiranga waka nchito mu malo gha malonda agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa Africa. Ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵako pa nyengo iyi ŵakathereskeka ndipo ŵakawelera ku nyanja. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangika pa nyengo iyi vikawovwira kuti suzgo ili lileke kuŵapo. Yimoza mwa nthowa izi yikaŵa ya kupanga futi izo zikang'anamulikanga, izo zikanyanyekanga luŵiro kuluska futi. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira nchito comene futi. Mu 1885, Hiram S. Maxim wakapangiska futi yakuchemeka Maxim, iyo ni ciyerezgero ca futi ya mazuŵa ghano. Vyaru vya ku Europe vikasunga vilwero ivi pakati pawo pakukana kuguliska vilwero ivi ku ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Africa. Matenda gha ku Africa ghakatora umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ndipo ghakatimbanizga ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kukhazikika mu vyaru ivi. Matenda nga ni yellow fever, nthenda ya kugona, nthenda ya yaws, na vyoni ghakacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵaleke kuzgoŵera kuluta ku Africa. Ulwari wakukoma comene ukaŵa maleriya, uwo ukazara comene mu vyaru vya mu Africa. Mu 1854, ŵanthu ŵakasanga quinine na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵambe kuwusa charu. Ŵakaŵa na vifukwa vyakupulikikwa vya kuwukira caru ca Africa. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa pa mafakitale gha ku Europe. Ku Europe, kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinthu vikasintha chomene. Ŵakaŵa na mtima wa kutemwana na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru cawo. Para ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵatoranga vyaru vinyake ŵakalongoranga ŵalwani ŵawo kuti mtundu wawo ngankhongono. Vinthu ivi ndivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=265}} [[File:David_Livingstone_attacked_by_a_lion_in_Africa._Lithograph._Wellcome_V0018847.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David_Livingstone_attacked_by_a_lion_in_Africa._Lithograph._Wellcome_V0018847.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:David_Livingstone|David Livingstone]], early European explorer of the interior of Africa, is attacked by a [[:en:Lion|lion]].]] [[File:A_journey_to_Ashango-Land,_and_further_penetration_into_equatorial_Africa_(1874)_(14594947249).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_journey_to_Ashango-Land,_and_further_penetration_into_equatorial_Africa_(1874)_(14594947249).jpg|thumb|French explorer [[:en:Paul_Du_Chaillu|Paul Du Chaillu]] confirmed the existence of [[:en:Pygmy_peoples|Pygmy peoples]] of central Africa]] Ŵanthu ŵakamba kumanya vinandi vya mu Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kusanda charu ichi. Munda wa Mungo ukambukanga Mlonga wa Niger. James Bruce wakenda mu Ethiopia ndipo wakasanga uko kukafuma mlonga wa Blue Nile. Richard Francis Burton wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kufika pa Nyanja ya Tanganyika. Samuel White Baker wakasanda Mlonga wa Nayelo. John Hanning Speke wakasanga maji gha mu Mlonga wa Nayelo pa Nyanja ya Victoria. Ŵalendo ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe ŵakaŵa Heinrich Barth, Henry Morton Stanley (uyo wakalemba mazgu ghakuti "Dark Continent" (Dark Continent) pakuyowoya za Africa mu buku linyake la mu 1878), Silva Porto, Alexandre de Serpa Pinto, Rene Caille, Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs, Gustav Nachtigal, George Schweinfurth, na Joseph Thomson. Munthu wakumanyikwa comene uyo wakaluta ku Africa ni David Livingstone. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Europe ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ŵalongozgi na ŵateŵeti ŵa ku Africa, ndipo ŵakendanga mitunda yitali. Ŵamishonale awo ŵakayezga kupharazga Cikhristu ŵakasazgirako kumanya vinthu vya ku Africa. Pakati pa 1884 na 1885, vyaru vya ku Europe vikakumana pa ungano wa ku Berlin ku West Africa kuti viphalirane umo vyaru vya mu Africa vigaŵikenge. Ŵakakolerana kuti ŵeneco ŵa ku Europe ŵamanyenge kuti ŵali na mazaza pa vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa pekha para ŵa ku Europe ŵacita nchito yawo. Mu nyengo ya 1890 na 1891, pakaŵa mapangano ghanandi agho ghakaŵa na mphaka ya vyaru. Vyaru vyose vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara vikaŵa vya ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe, kupaturako Ethiopia (Abyssinia) na Liberia. Maufumu gha ku Europe ghakakhazikiska maboma ghakupambanapambana mu Africa. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nga ni vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Britain ku West Africa, ufumu wa Britain ukaŵa na mazaza ghachoko waka ndipo ukaŵa na chilato chakuti ŵanthu ŵasange ndalama, ŵachitenge vinthu mwamahara, panji kuŵa na pulani ya nyengo yitali. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakachiskikanga kuti ŵakhalenge mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakiza mu vigaŵa vichoko waka. Mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, mukaŵa vyaru vya East Africa (ivyo sono ni Kenya), Northern na Southern Rhodesia (Zambia na Zimbabwe), na South Africa, uko kukaŵa kale ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi. France wakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Algeria chiŵe na ŵanthu ŵanandi ndipo paumaliro chiŵe chigaŵa cha France. Pakuti charu cha Algeria chikaŵa pafupi na Nyanja ya Meditereniyani, ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kupanga mapulani ghanthena agha. Mu vigaŵa vinandi, maboma ghakaŵa na ŵanthu yayi panji vinthu vyakukhumbikwa kuti ghalamulire malo agha. Gulu linyake likagwiliskiranga ntchito fundo iyi kuti liŵe na mazaza mu vyaru vyawo. Cinthu cimoza ico Terence Ranger wakacema kuti "kupangiska maluso". Kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵamanye kuti ŵali na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vyawo, ŵakachitanga viphikiro panji kuchita vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵali na mazaza. Cifukwa ca ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika cifukwa ca ndondomeko yiphya. Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya ku Africa, maboma ghanandi ghakaŵikapo mtima kuti ghaleke kugwiliskira ntchito ŵazga. Paumaliro wa nyengo ya ukoloni, ŵakamba kuchita makora chomene, nangauli mu Africa mukaŵa wuzga.<ref>Lovejoy, Paul E. 2012</ref> === France versus Britain: the Fashoda crisis of 1898 === {{Further|French colonial empire}} [[File:Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg|right|thumb|Central and east Africa, 1898, during the [[:en:Fashoda_Incident|Fashoda Incident]]]] Pakuŵa cigaŵa ca Nkhondo ya ku Africa, caru ca France cikaŵa na cilato cakuti cikhazikiske mphepo ya kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, mwakupambana na mphepo ya kumpoto na kumwera kwa Britain. Mu Africa, mphindano pakati pa Britain na France zikafika paheni comene. Mu vigaŵa vinandi nkhondo yikaŵa yakuti yingacitika, kweni yikacitika yayi. Cakucitika cikuru comene cikaŵa ca Fashoda Incident ca 1898. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakayezga kupoka chigaŵa ku Southern Sudan, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵankhongono comene ŵakiza kuti ŵaŵawukire. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵafumemo mu msumba uwu. Pa nyengo iyi, boma la France ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa caru ca Morocco, kweni likathereskeka.<ref>D.W. Brogan, ''France under the Republic: The Development of Modern France (1870–1930)'' (1940) pp. 321–326</ref><ref>William L. Langer, ''The diplomacy of imperialism: 1890–1902'' (1951) pp. 537–580</ref>{{clear}} === European colonial territories === [[File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-8-36.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-8-36.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Aerial view of one of the Dhulbahante garad & Darawiish king [[:en:Las_Anod#Diiriye_Guure|Diiriye Guure]]'s [[:en:Dhulbahante_Garesa|Dhulbahante Garesa]]'s (forts) in [[:en:Taleh|Taleh]], [[:en:Somalia|Somalia]], the capital of his [[:en:Dervish_State|Dervish State]]. [[:en:Dhulbahante_garesa|Dhulbahante garesas]] were the first places to be airstriked in African history]] [[File:Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg|right|thumb|Areas controlled by European colonial powers on the African continent in 1914; modern-day borders are shown]] '''Belgium''' * [[:en:Congo_Free_State|Congo Free State]] and [[:en:Belgian_Congo|Belgian Congo]] (today's [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]) * [[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruanda-Urundi]] (comprising modern [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] and [[:en:Burundi|Burundi]], between 1916 and 1960) '''France''' {{div col|colwidth=23em}} * [[French West Africa]]: ** [[Mauritania]] ** [[Senegal]] ** [[French Sudan]] (now [[Mali]]) ** [[French Guinea]] (now [[Guinea]]) ** [[Ivory Coast]] ** [[Colony of Niger|Niger]] ** [[French Upper Volta]] (now [[Burkina Faso]]) ** [[French Dahomey]] (now [[Benin]]) * [[French Algeria]] (now [[Algeria]]) * [[French occupation of Tunisia|Tunisia]] * [[French Morocco]] * [[French Somaliland]] (now [[Djibouti]]) * [[Madagascar]] * [[Comoros]] * [[French Equatorial Africa]]: ** [[Gabon]] ** [[Middle Congo]] (now the [[Republic of the Congo]]) ** [[Oubangi-Chari]] (now the [[Central African Republic]]) ** [[Colonial Chad|Chad]] {{div col end}} '''Germany''' * [[:en:German_Kamerun|German Kamerun]] (now [[:en:Cameroon|Cameroon]] and part of [[:en:Nigeria|Nigeria]]) * [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] (now [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]], [[:en:Burundi|Burundi]] and most of [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]) * [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German South West Africa]] (now [[:en:Namibia|Namibia]]) * [[:en:German_Togoland|German Togoland]] (now [[:en:Togo|Togo]] and eastern part of [[:en:Ghana|Ghana]]) [[File:Cartolina_Giovanni_Pastorelli.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cartolina_Giovanni_Pastorelli.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Italian_invasion_of_Libya|Italian invasion of Libya]] in 1911: propaganda postcard made by Italian Army]] '''Italy''' * [[:en:Italian_North_Africa|Italian North Africa]] (now [[:en:Libya|Libya]]) * [[:en:Eritrea|Eritrea]] * [[:en:Italian_Somaliland|Italian Somaliland]] (now part of [[:en:Somalia|Somalia]]) '''Portugal''' {{div col|colwidth=27em}} * [[Portuguese West Africa]] (now [[Angola]]) ** Mainland [[Angola]] ** [[Portuguese Congo]] (now [[Cabinda Province]] of [[Angola]]) * [[Portuguese East Africa]] (now [[Mozambique]]) * [[Portuguese Guinea]] (now [[Guinea-Bissau]]) * [[Cape Verde Islands]] * [[São Tomé e Príncipe]] ** [[São Tomé Island]] ** [[Príncipe Island]] ** [[Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá]] (now [[Ouidah]], in [[Benin]]) {{div col end}} '''Spain''' [[File:Riffian_rebels_during_the_Rif_War_1922.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Riffian_rebels_during_the_Rif_War_1922.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Rif_Republic|Riffian rebels]] during the [[:en:Rif_War|Rif War]] in [[:en:Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco|Spanish Morocco]], 1922]] {{div col|colwidth=27em}} * [[Spanish Sahara]] (now [[Western Sahara]]) ** [[Río de Oro]] ** [[Saguia el-Hamra]] * [[Spanish Morocco]] ** [[Tarfaya Strip]] ** [[Ifni]] * [[Spanish Guinea]] (now [[Equatorial Guinea]]) ** [[Bioko|Fernando Po]] ** [[Río Muni]] ** [[Annobón]] {{div col end}} '''United Kingdom''' [[File:Resa_del_bacino_del_Brandewater.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Resa_del_bacino_del_Brandewater.jpg|thumb|The result of the [[:en:Boer_Wars|Boer Wars]] was the annexation of the [[:en:Boer_Republics|Boer Republics]] to the British Empire in 1902]] {{div col|colwidth=27em}} * [[Egypt]] * [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] (now [[Sudan]]) * [[British Somaliland]] (now part of [[Somalia]]) * [[British East Africa]]: ** [[Kenya]] ** [[Uganda Protectorate]] (now [[Uganda]]) ** [[Tanganyika Territory|Tanganyika]] (1919–1961, now part of [[Tanzania]]) * [[Zanzibar]] (now part of [[Tanzania]]) * [[Bechuanaland]] (now [[Botswana]]) * [[Southern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zimbabwe]]) * [[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]]) * [[Union of South Africa|British South Africa]] (now [[South Africa]]) ** [[Transvaal Colony|Transvaal]] (now part of [[South Africa]]) ** [[British Cape Colony|Cape Colony]] (now part of South Africa) ** [[Colony of Natal]] (now part of South Africa) ** [[Orange Free State]] (now part of South Africa) * [[The Gambia]] * [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Colonial Nigeria|Nigeria]] * [[Cameroons]] (now parts of [[Cameroon]] and [[Nigeria]]) * [[British Gold Coast]] (now [[Ghana]]) * [[Nyasaland]] (now [[Malawi]]) * [[Basutoland]] (now [[Lesotho]]) * [[Swaziland]] {{div col end}} '''Independent states''' * [[:en:Liberia|Liberia]], founded by the [[:en:American_Colonization_Society|American Colonization Society]] of the United States in 1821; declared independence in 1847 * [[:en:Ethiopian_Empire|Ethiopian Empire]] (Abyssinia) had its borders re-drawn with [[:en:Italian_Eritrea|Italian Eritrea]] and [[:en:French_Somaliland|French Somaliland]] (modern [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]]), briefly occupied by Italy from 1936 to 1941 during the [[:en:Abyssinia_Crisis|Abyssinia Crisis]]; * [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]], independent under [[:en:Muhammad_Ahmad|Mahdi]] rule between 1885 and 1899. It was then under British rule from 1899 to 1956.{{sfnp|Martin|O'Meara|1995|pp=135–138}} == 20th century == Mu ma 1880, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe ŵakagaŵikana pafupifupi charu chose cha Africa. Ŵakawusa m'paka Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara apo mtima wa kutemwa caru ukakura comene. Mu ma 1950 na 1960, vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa maboma agha vikazgoka vyaru vyakujiyimira. Nangauli nyengo iyi yikaŵa yamtende, kweni pakaŵaso nkhondo zinandi zakukhora na zakuthiska ndopa, nga ni izo zikacitika ku Algeria, Kenya, na kunyake. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa vyaru vyawo cifukwa ca maluso agho ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru ivi ŵakasambira ku ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, France, na ŵasilikari ŵanyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe mawupu agho ghakaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵakoloni yayi. Magulu gha ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru ghakamba kulimbana na vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵasilikari ndipo pamasinda ŵakavileka. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kuwusa apo boma la ku Europe likafumako. Ŵanandi ŵakalutilira kuwusa kwa vyaka vinandi. Vinthu ivi ni ndyali, masukulu, visopa, na mawupu ghanyake. Mu virimika vyasonosono apa, vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vyathereskeka cifukwa ca mtima wa kutemwera caru, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti boma lileke kuŵa na mazaza.<ref>Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, ''The Politics of the Developing Areas'' (1971)</ref><ref>Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, ''Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa'' (University Press of America, 1977).</ref><ref>Thomas Hodgkin, ''Nationalism in Colonial Africa'' (1956)</ref> [[File:1916-Africa-political-map.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1916-Africa-political-map.jpg|right|thumb|1916 political map of Africa]] === World War I === [[File:Der_Durchbruch_der_Schutztruppe_Deutsch-Ostafrika_über_den_Rowuma_MItte_November_1917._Darstellung_von_Carl_Arriens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Der_Durchbruch_der_Schutztruppe_Deutsch-Ostafrika_%C3%BCber_den_Rowuma_MItte_November_1917._Darstellung_von_Carl_Arriens.jpg|thumb|The [[:en:Battle_of_Ngomano|Battle of Ngomano]] in November 1917]] Pakuti chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa maboma gha ku Europe, Nkhondo za Caru Cose zikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene mu mdauko wa Africa. Mu Africa mukaŵa nkhondo zinandi ndipo nkhondo zose ziŵiri zikacitikanga. Kweni chakuzirwa chomene ntchakuti mu vigaŵa vinandi, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pawo. Mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ku Africa kukacitika nkhondo zinandi, kusazgapo nkhondo ya ku Togo, nkhondo ya ku Kamerun, nkhondo ya ku South West Africa, na nkhondo ya ku East Africa. Pa nkhondo yiliyose iyi, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ŵa ku Britain, kweniso ŵa ku France, Belgium, South Africa, na Portugal, ŵakayezga kufumiska Ŵajamani mu vyaru ivyo ŵakaŵa. Mu vyaru vyose ivi, ŵasilikari ŵa Germany ŵakaŵa ŵacoko comene, ndipo cifukwa cakuti ŵa Germany ŵakathereska vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pawo. Ŵasilikari ŵa Germany ku East Africa ŵakaleka kujipeleka mu nkhondo yose iyi, nangauli ŵakathereska vigaŵa vinyake mu 1917. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, caru ca France, Belgium, na Britain vikamba kulamulira vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Germany. Vinthu vyakuthupi na vya ndyali mu Africa mu 1929 Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, maboma agho ghakalamuliranga caru ca Africa ghakalutilira kukhozga mazaza ghawo pa vyaru vyawo. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, comenecomene kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake ŵakakhozga kuti boma liŵawovwire, ndipo ŵakaŵachema kuti "ŵanthu ŵa mu nyumba zawo". Mu vyaru vinandi, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakaŵasuzganga chomene ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, ndipo ŵakaŵawonanga kuti mbanthu awo ŵangapoka mazaza gha ndyali. Nkhondo iyi yikakhwaska chomene chuma cha mu Africa, icho chikagwiranga ntchito pa malonda gha ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Apo unandi wa vyakurya ukakuranga m'ma 1930, chuma cha mu Africa nacho chikakwera. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1930, caru ca Africa cikaŵa cimoza mwa vyaru ivyo Ŵafasisi ŵakambiska. Italy wakayezga kuti wapoke Ethiopia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890, kweni ŵakamukana mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia. Ethiopia yikaŵa pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Italy, ivyo ni Somaliland na Eritrea. Mu Meyi 1936, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakanjira mu Addis Ababa, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi. Ethiopia na vyaru vinyake ivyo ŵakakhalanga vikasazgika pamoza na Italy mu East Africa. === World War II: Political === [[File:Map_of_Africa_in_1939.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Africa_in_1939.svg|right|thumb|Areas controlled by European powers in 1939. British (red) and Belgian (marroon) colonies fought with the Allies. Italian (light green) with the Axis. French colonies (dark blue) fought alongside the Allies until the Fall of France in June 1940. Vichy was in control until the Free French prevailed in late 1942. Portuguese (dark green) and Spanish (yellow) colonies remained neutral.]] Africa yikaŵa caru cikuru comene ico cikaŵa pa malo ghakwenelera nkhondo. Ku North Africa ndiko kukacitika nkhondo yikuru ya Britain na America kwimikana na Italy na Germany. Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakutowa chomene ndipo ghakaŵa na nthowa zikuruzikuru zakwendamo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakendanga pa nyanja kuzingilira charu cha South Africa, nangauli ŵakeneranga kwenda mazuŵa ghanyake 40 kuti ŵajumphe mu Suez. Kanandi katundu uyo Lend Lease wakizanga nayo ku Russia wakendanga mu nthowa iyi. Mu vyaru vinyake, misewu iyo yikaŵa kutali na misewu ya njanji yikawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵachitenge makora nkhondo. Boma la South Africa likaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose ndipo likajilamuliranga lekha. Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Charu cha Belgian Congo, na vyaru vinyake viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Belgium, vikaŵa vyaru vikuru ivyo vikaguliskanga vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵa ŵanandi chomene ndipo ŵakaŵa na chuma. Ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa vya Africa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ŵakayezgayezga chomene kunozga vinthu vya mu Africa, kukhozgera ulimi, kusazga vyaru vya mu Africa na vya mu caru cose, na kusanga ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha hafu ya miliyoni.{{sfnp|Jackson|2006|pp=171–239}}<ref>David Killingray and Richard Rathbone, edfs. ''Africa and the Second World War'' (1986).</ref> Pambere nkhondo iyi yindambe, caru ca Britain cikaŵa na mapulani ghacoko comene ghakwendeskera vyaru vya ku Africa, kweni cikakhazikiska mwaluŵiro maofesi gha ŵalongozgi. Gulu la ŵasilikari la ku West Africa likakhazikiska gulu la ŵasilikari 200,000. Mu Seputembala 1941, boma la East Africa Command likapangika kuti liwovwire ŵasilikari ŵa Middle East. Wakapeleka ŵanalume ŵanandi comene, ŵakujumpha 320,000, comenecomene ŵa ku Kenya, Tanganyika, na Uganda. Boma la South Africa ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa boma ili. Wupu wa Royal Navy ukakhazikiska ofesi ya South Atlantic Command ku Sierra Leone, iyo yikaŵa malo ghakuru ghakusonkhanira magaleta. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo la Royal Air Force (RAF) ilo likalamuliranga vyaru vya mumphepete mwa nyanja (Coastal Command) likagwiranga ntchito yikuru ya kupenja sitima za pasi pa nyanja (submarine hunting) mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, apo gulu linyake likagwiranga ntchito ya kupenja sitima za pasi pa nyanja (submarine hunting) mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean. Ntchito yikuru ya ŵasilikari ŵa ku Western Desert Air Force yikaŵa yakuyegha ndege kufuma ku North America na Britain. Kweniso ŵasilikari ŵachoko ŵakaŵanga na mawoko ghaŵiri. Pambere chaka cha 1939 chindafike, ŵasilikari ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene mu Britain, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵazungu. Nkhondo yikati yamba waka, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ŵakambiska magulu gha nkhondo. Kanandi awo ŵakasangikanga ŵakaŵa ŵakujipeleka ndipo ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na ŵalongozgi ŵa mafuko. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo, ŵasilikari ŵakapokeranga ndalama zinandi chomene kuluska izo ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakapokeranga. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakaŵa mu magulu ghakuzenga agho ghakachemekanga kuti ŵapayiniya, ndipo ŵakaŵa 82,000. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo nawo ŵakacitanga vinthu vinyake. Ŵabali na ŵadumbu 80,000 ŵakateŵetera ku Middle East. Ŵakaŵikapo mtima comene kuti ŵaleke kususka mazaza gha ŵazungu, comenecomene pambere nkhondo yindambe. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakasambizgika na kulondezga fundo za ku Europe, ŵakaphalirika vinthu vinandi vyautesi, kweniso ŵakasambira umo ŵangacitira vinthu mwamahara na umo ŵanganozgera vinthu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakakwiyapo pachoko, kweni pakaŵavya suzgo. Kweni mu 1939, Jan Smuts, uyo wakaŵa Mufurikaner, uyo wakaŵa wakutemwa chomene Ufumu wa Britain, ndiyo wakanjira mu malo gha nduna yikuru ya Afrika. Boma lake likakolerana comene na boma la London ndipo likaŵawovwira ŵanthu 340,000 awo ŵakajipeleka (190,000 ŵakaŵa ŵazungu, panji pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ŵanalume ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera).{{sfnp|Jackson|2006|pp=240–245}} ==== French Africa ==== Kukwambilira kwa 1857, ŵa ku France ŵakakhazikiska magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵafipa mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara. Ŵakacitako nkhondo mu caru cose ico cikalamuliranga, kusazgapo ŵasilikari 171,000 mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose na 160,000 mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 90,000 ŵakakoleka wuzga ku Germany. Ŵakaŵawovwira comene pa nkhondo iyo yikacitika ku France. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ku West Africa ŵakaphalira boma la Vichy kuti ŵathembenge boma la Vichy, nga umo ŵakacitira ŵasilikari ŵa boma la French Gabon. Mu Novembala 1940, Gabon wakathereskeka na ŵa Free France, kweni vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa vikaŵa pasi pa Vichy m'paka mu Novembala 1942. Ŵasilikari ŵa Vichy ŵakayezga kuti ŵaleke kuwukira ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku North Africa mu Novembala 1942. Mwamabuci Admiral François Darlan wa ku Vichy wakasintha gulu ndipo nkhondo yikamara. Ŵalwani ŵakamupa Darlan mazaza pa ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵa ku North Africa kuti waŵawovwire. Vichy sono yikaŵa kuti yindacitikepo mu Africa. Mu Disembala, Darlan wakakomeka, ndipo magulu ghaŵiri gha Free French, agho ghakalongozgekanga na Charles de Gaulle na Henri Giraud, ghakamba kulimbana kuti ghaŵe na mazaza. Paumaliro De Gaulle wakathereska.<ref>Arthur Layton Funk, ''Charles de Gaulle: the crucial years, 1943–1944'' (1959).</ref> === World War II: Military === Pakuti ku Germany kukaŵavya vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Africa, Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikatora malo gha ku Africa. Pa Juni 25, charu cha France chikati chawa, maboma gha Vichy ghakamba kulamulira vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaŵa kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pamasinda pakuti caru ca France cawa, caru ca Africa ndico cikaŵa cimoza pera ico ŵakalwerapo nkhondo mpaka apo ŵa ku Italy ŵakanjilira mu Greece mu Okutobala. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Western Desert, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanjire mu Eguputo. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakathereska malo ghanyake gha ku Britain agho ghakaŵa ku Somaliland na ku Kenya. Apo Italy yikayezgayezga kuti yipoke Eguputo na Sudan, ŵakasoŵa nthowa yakwendeskera vyakurya ku Italy. Mu 1941, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na South Africa ŵakathereska charu cha Italy ku East Africa. Ku North Africa, Mwaluŵiro ŵa Italy ŵakapempha wovwiri ku ŵa German awo ŵakatuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi pasi pa muwuso wa Jenerale Rommel. Na wovwiri wa ŵa German, ŵasilikari ŵa Axis ŵakambaso kuwusa, kweni ŵakatondeka kuthereska ŵasilikari ŵa Britain pa El Alamein. Kuumaliro wa 1942, ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ŵa ku America na ku Canada, ŵakanjira mu vyaru vya ku France ivyo vikaŵa ku North Africa. Nkhondo yaciŵiri yikasuska ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ku Egypt awo ŵakamba kusunkhunyika kumanjiliro gha dazi kuti ŵakumane na ŵasilikari ŵa Torch. Mu May 1942, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakanjira mu charu cha Madagascar, icho chikaŵa pasi pa France. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France awo ŵakaŵa ku Madagascar ŵakajipeleka mu Novembala 1942. === Post-war Africa: decolonization === {{Further|Historical African place names|Decolonisation of Africa|Neocolonialism}} [[File:Africa_independence_dates.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Africa_independence_dates.svg|right|thumb|Dates of independence of African countries]] Mu 1951, charu cha Libya ndicho chikamba kusuzga ŵanthu kuti ŵafumemo mu vyaru vyawo. Vyaru vinandi vikamulondezga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1950 na 1960, ndipo mu 1960 vikaŵa na chaka cha Africa, apo vyaru 17 vya mu Africa vikapharazga kuti vyafwatuka. Vyaru vinandi ivyo vikakhalako vikapokera wanangwa mu m'ma 1960, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake (mwakudumura Portugal) ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuleka mazaza ghawo, ntheura nkhondo zikamara. Vyaru vyaumaliro vya mu Africa ivyo vikajiyimira pavyekha ni Guinea-Bissau (1974), Mozambique (1975) na Angola (1975) kufuma ku Portugal; Djibouti kufuma ku France mu 1977; Zimbabwe kufuma ku United Kingdom mu 1980; na Namibia kufuma ku South Africa mu 1990. Mu 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikapatuka ku Ethiopia.<ref>Henry S. Wilson, ''African decolonization'' (E. Arnold, 1994).</ref> ==== East Africa ==== {{Main|History of East Africa#Post-colonial period}} Nkhondo ya Mau Mau yikacitika mu Kenya kufuma mu 1952 mpaka mu 1956 kweni yikakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain na ŵa ku malo agha. Boma likapeleka dango lakuti paŵe vyenjezgo mpaka mu 1960. Mu 1963, charu cha Kenya chikamba kujiwusa chekha, ndipo Jomo Kenyatta ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba. Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1960, kukaŵa nkhondo yikuru pakati pa Ŵahutu na Ŵakututsi mu Rwanda na Burundi. Mu 1994, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 800,000 ŵakakomeka ku Rwanda.<ref>Christopher C. Taylor, ''Sacrifice as terror: the Rwandan genocide of 1994'' (Berg Publishers, 1999).</ref> ==== North Africa ==== {{Main|History of North Africa#Post-colonial period}} Mu ma 1930, ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakamba kutemwana chomene. Mu 1953, themba la Morocco, Mohammed V, likapempha kuti charu ichi chijiyimire paŵekha. Pa Malichi 2, 1956, charu cha Morocco chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Mohammed V wakaŵa fumu ya Morocco. Mu 1954, charu cha Algeria chikapangika na gulu la National Liberation Front (FLN). Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo ya ku Algeria, iyo yikatora nyengo yitali m'paka mu 1962, apo charu cha Algeria chikapokera wanangwa. Muhammad Ahmed Ben Bella wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti wa Algeria. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni ŵa ku France, comenecomene ŵa mtundu wa Pied-Noirs, ŵakafumamo mu caru ici, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ndalama zileke kwenda makora. Mu 1934, chipani cha "Neo Destour" (Bungwe Liphya) chikapangika na Habib Bourguiba uyo wakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Tunisia chiŵe na wanangwa. Mu 1955, charu cha Tunisia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Muwusi wawo wakathereskeka ndipo Habib Bourguiba wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa Tunisia. Mu 1954, Gamal Abdel Nasser wakawuskapo muwuso wa ufumu wa Eguputo mu 1952 ndipo wakamba kuwusa. Muammar Gaddafi ndiyo wakalongozga boma la Libya mu 1969 ilo likathereska Idris wa ku Libya. Gaddafi wakalutilira kuwusa mpaka apo wakafwira mu nkhondo ya ku Libya mu 2011. Eguputo wakarwa nkhondo zinandi na Israyeli ndipo wakakolerana na vyaru vinyake vya Ŵaarabu. Cakwamba cikaŵa Nkhondo ya Ŵaarabu na Ŵaisrayeli ya mu 1948, pamanyuma pakuti boma la Israyeli lasangika. Mu 1967, Eguputo wakambaso nkhondo ya mazuŵa 6 ndipo Israyeli wakataya chigaŵa cha Sinai. Ŵakaweleraso ku nkhondo ya Yom Kippur mu 1973. Mu 1979, pulezidenti wa ku Eguputo Anwar Sadat na nduna yikuru ya ku Israyeli Menachem Begin ŵakasazga mapangano gha Camp David Accords, agho ghakawezgera chigaŵa cha Sinai ku Eguputo. Mapangano agha ghacali kugwira nchito lero. Mu 1981, Sadat wakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la Islamic Jihad la ku Eguputo ilo likawusikanga na Khalid Islambouli. Awo ŵakamukoma ŵakaŵa ŵa chisopa ca Ciislam awo ŵakakhumbanga kukoma Sadat cifukwa ca kulemba mapangano agha..<ref>Joseph Finklestone, ''Anwar Sadat: visionary who dared'' (Routledge, 2013).</ref> [[File:South_Africa_Border_War_Map.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:South_Africa_Border_War_Map.png|thumb|South African-occupied [[:en:South_West_Africa|South West Africa]] (1915–1990) and maximum extent of [[:en:South_African_Border_War|South African]] and [[:en:UNITA|UNITA]] operations in Angola and Zambia during the [[:en:Angolan_Civil_War|Angolan Civil War]]]] ==== Southern Africa ==== {{Main|History of Southern Africa#Post-colonial period}} Mu 1948, boma la South Africa likamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu unyake. Ivi vikaŵa vyakukolerana na ndondomeko iyo yikaŵapo kale; kweni pakaŵa mphambano pakati pa ndondomeko ya "kusintha kwapadera" (Apartheid). Apo ndyali izo zikaŵapo kale zikaŵa zakupambanapambana pakuyezgayezga kugwiliskira nchito ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Africa, Apartheid yikaŵa visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo yikapangiska kuti paŵe kugaŵikana pakati pa ŵanthu. Mu 1994, apartheid yikamara, ndipo Nelson Mandela wa African National Congress wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti pamanyuma pa mavoti gha ku South Africa mu 1994, mavoti ghakwamba gha caru ici agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana.<ref>Rita Barnard, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela'' (Cambridge UP, 2014).</ref> ==== Central Africa ==== {{Main|History of Central Africa#Post-colonial period}} [[File:Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Southern_Cameroons.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Southern_Cameroons.svg|thumb|[[:en:Ambazonian|Ambazonian]] nationalism gained steam in 1982]] Malo gha pakati pa Africa ghakaŵa pakati pa Kilwa na mlomo wa mlonga wa Zambesi. Chifukwa chakuti malo agha ghali kutali chomene na nyanja, ŵanthu ŵakumanya vya mdauko wa ku Africa ŵakughanaghanirapo viŵi yayi vya malo agha. Kweniso yikaŵa na umoza mwa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Europe, kusazgapo Germany ku Cameroon, Britain ku Northern Cameroons, Belgium ku Congo, na France ku CAF. Cifukwa ca malo ghake, pakati pa vyaru vyakucemeka kuti Central Africa pali vyaru ivyo vikwenda mu malo gha vyaru vyakututuka. Kwambira mu 1982, suzgo likuru comene mu Central Africa ndakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Ambazonia ŵakukhumba kujipatura. Nkhondo ya pakati pa Cameroon na Ambazonia yikakura comene mu 1992 apo Fon Gorji-Dinka wakazenga mulandu wa pa caru cose kwimikana na Cameroon, wakati caru ici cikukhala mu malo gha Ambazonia kwambura kuzomerezgeka. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 15, suzgo ili likakura comene apo boma la Abmazonia likamba kujilongora kuti ni Federal Republic of Ambazonia.<ref>Hennebel, Ludovic. "Chronique des Décisions du Comité des Droits de L'Homme des Nations Unies (2007/2010)(United Nations Human Rights Committee's Case-Law Review (2007/2010))." Law Review (2010): 545.</ref> ==== West Africa ==== {{Main|History of West Africa#Post-colonial period}} Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikati yamara, mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa mukawuka vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene mu Ghana. Mu 1957, charu cha Ghana ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kujiyimira paŵekha kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kwambira apo vyaru vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa vikapokera wanangwa wawo, vikatimbanizgika na vimbundi na vinthu vyambura kwenda makora. Vyaru vinandi vikutondeka kukura nangauli vili na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi.<ref>David Apter, ''Ghana in transition'' (Princeton University Press, 2015).</ref><ref>David Owusu-Ansah, ''Historical dictionary of Ghana'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014)</ref><!--See also [[2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone]], [[2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Guinea]], and [[2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Liberia]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/history/2014-2016-outbreak/index.html|title=2014–2016 Ebola Outbreak in West Africa {{!}} History {{!}} Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) {{!}} CDC|date=2019-03-29|website=www.cdc.gov|access-date=2019-06-01}}</ref>--> == Mbiri ya Kuzenga kwa ku Africa == {{Main|Architecture of Africa}} == History of science and technology in Africa == {{Main|History of science and technology in Africa}} == Economic history of Africa == {{Main|Economic history of Africa}} == Military history of Africa == {{Main|Military history of Africa}} == Genetic history of Africa == {{Main|Genetic history of Africa}} == Historiography == {{Main|African historiography}} === Historiography of British Africa === Kafukufuku wakwamba wakulongosora mdauko mu Cingelezi wakacitika mu ma 1890, ndipo wakalondezga nthowa zinayi. 1) Kanandi nkhani ya chigaŵa yikalembeka na msilikari panji wantchito wa boma uyo wakawonanga chomene ivyo wakawona. 2) "Apologia" yikaŵa nkhani izo zikalongosoranga umo boma la Britain likenderanga. 3) Awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵamanye unenesko ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵamanye unenesko. 4) Compendia yikapangika kuti yikolerane na masambiro gha ku yunivesite. Pafupifupi mu 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira vya bizinesi, ndipo kanandi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mabuku gha boma na mabuku ghanyake. Mu ma 1930, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa iyi kuti ŵalongosore umo vinthu vyasinthira mu vyaka 50 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu 1935, William L. Langer wakafumiska buku lakuti The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890~1902, ilo lichali kuzunulika comene. Mu 1939, pulofesa wa ku Oxford, Reginald Coupland wakalemba buku linyake lakucemeka The Exploitation of East Africa, 1856-1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikapangiska kuti ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵaghanaghanirenge chomene vya nkhondo. Mu ma 1950, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵakasambiranga ku yunivesite za ku Britain, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga masambiro ghaphya, ndipo nawo ŵakamba kughapeleka. Yunivesite ya Oxford yikazgoka likuru la masambiro gha vya mu Africa, kweniso ku Cambridge University na London School of Economics. Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma la Britain na ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kutemwa chomene vinthu vya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, chomenechomene vya kusankhana mitundu. Ivyo Ronald Robinson na John Andrew Gallagher ŵakachita vikovwira chomene pa nkhani ya malonda mu Africa. Mu 1985, buku la The Oxford History of South Africa (2 vols.) likalembeka, ndipo likayezga kupangiska mabuku agho ghakaŵapo. Mu 2013, ŵakafumiska buku la Oxford Handbook of Modern African History. === Historiographic and Conceptual Problems === Kumwera kwa Sahara ku Africa. Pakuti golide ndilo likawovwira kuti Ŵasaidi ŵanjire mu Ufumu wa Songhai, ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Ufumu uwu ŵambe kuwona ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Black nga mbanthu ŵa ku Africa. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa kachitiro ka ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵa khungu lakuda, ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghrebi ŵa khungu lakuda ŵakaŵakoleka mwankhongono mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Ismail Ibn Sharif nga ni Black Guard, chifukwa ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵakafuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga. Suzgo likuru ilo Mohamed (2010/2012) wakalongosora pa nkhani ya masambiro gha ku Africa ni chisopa, chisopa cha ku Orientalis, na ufumu wa ku Africa. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Africa na ku America nawo ŵali na udindo wakukhozga fundo iyi. Pakulondezga fundo izo Leo Africanus na Hegel ŵakayowoya za Africa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakagaŵa Africa kuŵa vigaŵa viŵiri. Charu cha Sub-Saharan Africa, nga ni malo ghakusankhana mitundu, ni chigaŵa cha "Africa proper", "Africa noire", panji "Black Africa". Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa ŵakuwonekaso kuti mbanthu ŵa mtundu umoza na ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa. Kumpoto kwa Africa kuli chigaŵa cha "Afurika wa ku Europe" icho chili kutali na vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa, ndipo chili pafupi na Middle East, Asia, na Islamic world. Chifukwa cha kusankhana mitundu na kupatukana kwa vyaru vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakukhala ku Maghreb kwa nyengo yitali, nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Haratin, awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa Sahara yayi, ŵali kutali chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa. Nangauli zina lakuti "Haratin" likamba kumanyikwa makora yayi, kweni likwenera kuti likafuma mu nyengo ya m'ma 1700 C.E. ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipirwa ndiwo ŵakalizunuranga. Pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti Haratin kuti ŵamanyiske ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito lizgu lakuti bidan panji bayd (mutuŵa), sumr/asmar, suud/aswad, panji Sudan/sudani (mufipa/swesi) nga ni lizgu la Chiarabu ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kuti ŵamanyiske ŵanthu ŵa khungu lakufipa. "Haratin" ni lizgu ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakuliwona kuti likukhuŵazga. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Morocco ŵakuliwona kuti ndakukhuŵazga. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti Haratin ni mtundu wa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Africa chiŵe na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti Haratin. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipirwa ŵakakolerananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Saadi. Ŵakusanda mdauko ŵa Shurafa ŵa mu nyengo yasono ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vyakucitika ivi mu nkhani zakukhwaskana na kufwatulika kwa ŵazga ŵa "Hartani" (mazgu ghambura kupulikikwa, agho ghakukhumbikwira kulongosoreka makora, ndipo mbukaboni wakuti mbukaboni wakuti vinthu vikacitika nadi. Nkhani izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Shurafa ŵakalemba, zikati zamara, zikaŵa nga ni nkhani za ku America (nga ni za malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Sahara, ŵazga ŵa ku Sub-Saharan West Africa, ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipirwa) izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano. M'malo mwa kupangika na kafukufuku wa pa malo, kuyana kwa ivyo vikuchitika mazuŵa ghano mu charu cha Europe, uko kukupatura ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa, na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa mu charu chose cha Chisilamu. Chifukwa chake, mbiri yodalirika, mosiyana ndi mbiri yakale yofananira, yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda. Chigaŵa chinyake cha malemba ghakusambizga kuti munthu wakuŵa na thupi lakufipirwa para wababa muteŵeti. Chiphunzitso cha ku Europe cha ku Africa chikugwiliskira ntchito fundo iyi pakuzenga nthano za ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipa (mwachiyelezgero, ŵazga ŵakufuma ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara). Ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Chisilamu ŵakuŵa na khungu lakufipirwa, ndipo nkhani zinyake izo zikulembeka zikuyowoya za malonda gha ŵazga agho ghakachitikanga mu charu cha Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya ku North Africa awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene (nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene kweniso awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene), ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Chisilamu awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene, na awo ŵakuguliska ŵazga mu charu cha Sahara, wose ŵakaŵa ŵazga.<ref name="Mohamed">{{cite journal|last=Mohamed|first=Mohamed Hassan|title=Africanists and Africans of the Maghrib: casualties of Analogy|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629387.2010.486573|journal=The Journal of North African Studies|year=2010|volume=15|issue=3|pages=349–374|doi=10.1080/13629387.2010.486573|s2cid=145782335}}</ref> Kuguliska ŵazga mu charu cha Trans-Saharan, ni nthowa iyo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pakulemba nkhani izo zikulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ŵakambira. Ŵanthu ŵakuyaniska magaleta na ngalaŵa za ŵazga, ndipo ŵakuyowoya kuti unandi wa ŵazga ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakatolekera ku caru ca Sahara ukuyana waka na unandi wa ŵazga ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakatolekera ku nyanja ya Atlantic. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya vikususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ŵakuyowoya. Mu nyengo yakale, ku Eguputo kukaŵaso minda. Cinthu cinyake ico ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pa nkhani iyi nchakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi ŵakughanaghana kuti Ŵamoabu, ŵanakazi ŵankhondi, na ŵanalume ŵantchito ndiwo ŵakugonana comene. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanakazi ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵali nga mbana ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ndiwo ŵakugwiliskirika ntchito. Ŵalinda aŵa ŵakalindanga nyumba izi. Nkhani iyi yikukolerana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakaŵa Ŵaberi, awo ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake chifukwa cha kupambaniskana mitundu na ŵanakazi ŵa mitundu yinyake. Nkhani ya chisopa iyo yikulongosora masuzgo agho Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakumana nagho chifukwa cha malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Barbary, yikukolerana na nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga. Nangauli nkhani za chisopa izo zikalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, zikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana ŵakukolerana yayi na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakuyowoya. Nkhani za chisopa izo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ŵakayowoyanga za ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na ŵa ku Africa (nga ni nkhani zakukhwaskana na chisopa) zikukhalilira waka chete, kweni zikulutilira kusungika. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi, ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Mowabu awo ŵakaŵa na nkharo iyi ŵakafuma mu Baibolo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu vileke kunangika mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito fundo za mu Baibolo. Cingaŵa kuti cilato ca mabuku agha cikaŵa cakuti ŵanthu ŵamanye kuti Baibolo ndakuluska Koran, kweniso kuti ŵamanye maghanoghano gha awo ŵakaŵazganga mabuku agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu vileke kunangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ŵakamba kuyowoya vya chisopa chawo chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakalemba. Kuyowoya za ŵanakazi awo ŵakutemwa kugonana chomene na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi awo ŵakutemwa kugonana chomene na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵambura kutemwana na ŵanakazi awo ŵakuchemeka kuti Ŵamoabu, nkhwakuyana waka na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakachitiranga mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira. Chifukwa cha kusowa kwa chitukuko mu kafukufuku wa m'munda wokhudzana ndi ukapolo m'magulu a Chisilamu, izi zapangitsa kuti mtundu wamakono wa ku Ulaya wa ku Africa uzidalira malingaliro osadalirika a malonda a akapolo a Trans-Saharan. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca kupeleŵera kwa vinthu, ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kugwiliskira nchito fundo za ku Europe izo zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukondwa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb, chomenechomene ŵa ku Morocco, ŵakukwiya chomene na umo ŵasayansi ŵakuŵalongolera lusungu. M'malo mwa kulutilira kugomezga pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano, Mohamed (2012) wakuchiska kuti ŵasinthe na kunozga ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakuchita sono (nga nkhusanda uko kukafuma ulendo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Sahara; kughanaghaniraso ivyo vikupangiska kuti malonda gha ŵazga gha mu Sahara ghaŵe ghakupambana na malonda gha ŵazga gha mu Atlantic; kughanaghanirapo ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakuchita).<ref name="Mohamed II">{{cite journal|last=Mohamed|first=Mohamed Hassan|title=Africanists and Africans of the Maghrib II: casualties of secularity|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629387.2011.635450|journal=The Journal of North African Studies|year=2012|volume=17|issue=3|pages=409–431|doi=10.1080/13629387.2011.635450|s2cid=144763718}}</ref> === Conceptual Problems === Merolla (2017) wakalongosora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakasambira vya vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa na North Africa, ndipo ivyo ŵakasambira vikulongora kuti vyaru vya ku North Africa vikukolerana na vyaru vya Middle East na vyaru vya ku Arab. Ndondomeko ya kupatukana kwa Africa mu vigaŵa viŵiri ndiposo umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira vya umo vinthu viliri mu vigaŵa vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa yikulutilira m'paka sono. Ndipouli, cifukwa cakuti suzgo ili likulutilira kumanyikwa, ŵanthu ŵakamba kudumbiskana za umo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵaliri ŵakupambana. Charu cha Sahara chili nga ni malo agho ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵakukhala. Awo ŵakulemba mabuku ŵakufuma mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana (nga ni Algeria, Cameroon, Sudan) mu Africa ŵakususka fundo yakuti Sahara ni chigoti cha vigaŵa, ndipo ŵakususka fundo izo zikulongora kuti Africa yikukolerana. Mu vigaŵa vinandi, mazgu ghakuti "Africa" ghakung'anamura "Africa ya ku Black Africa", "Africa South of the Sahara", na "Africa Sub-Saharan". Kumpoto kwa Africa kuli "mafumiro gha dazi" ndipo kuli kupatukana na vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa. Nangauli umo vinthu vikaŵira vikamba kuwoneka mu nyengo yitali, kweni umo vinthu vikaŵira (nga ni umo vikaŵira, umo vikaŵira) vikalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana pa nkhani ya kusankhana mitundu. Pa nkhani ya mabuku gha mu Africa na mu viyowoyero vya ku Berber, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya yayi umo mabuku agha ghakalembekera. Para ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi na Chifurenchi ŵakuwona kuti charu cha Africa chili kutali chomene na charu cha Africa, ŵakughanaghana kuti charu cha Africa chili kutali chomene na charu chawo. Apo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi ŵakulondezga chomene fundo yakuti charu cha Africa chipatukane, ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi ŵakuchita vinthu mwakupambanapambana. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ndiwo ŵakamba kusambira vya chiyowoyero ichi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukana kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiarabu chikaŵa cha ku Africa. Pa kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu vyaru ivyo vikuyowoya Chifurenchi, ŵanthu ŵakukana panji kuchepeska ivyo vikuchitika pakati pa vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa na vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara, apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Middle East na kumpoto kwa Africa ŵakukana panji kuchepeska ivyo vikuchitika pakati pa vyaru ivi. Mu vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi, vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, nga ni Black Africa (Afirika ŵa ku Sub-Saharan) na White Africa (Afirika ŵa ku North, nga ni Berbers na Ŵaarabu), navyo vili kukura. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana mu Africa (nga ni North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa) kuti ŵakanizge mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ku North Africa kuti ŵakanizge mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ku Arabia na Islamu. Nangauli masambiro gha chi Berber ghakukhumba chomene kukhozga ubwezi pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber na kumpoto kwa Africa na Ŵaarabu na Middle East, Merolla (2017) wakalongora kuti milimo ya kukhozga ubwezi pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber na kumpoto kwa Africa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sub-Saharan Africa na Sub-Saharan Africa yayamba sonosono apa.<ref name="Merolla">{{cite web |last1=Merolla |first1=Daniela |title=Beyond 'two Africas' in African and Berber literary studies |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2722003/view |website=Scholarly Publications Leiden University |publisher=African Studies Centre Leiden}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Africa|History}} * [[:en:Economic_history_of_Africa|Economic history of Africa]] * [[:en:African_historiography|African historiography]] * [[:en:Category:Historians_of_Africa|Historians of Africa]] * [[:en:List_of_history_journals#Africa|List of history journals#Africa]] * [[:en:List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa|List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa]] * [[:en:List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Africa|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa]] * [[:en:Outline_of_Africa#History_of_Africa|Outline of Africa#History of Africa]] * [[:en:Africa-Europe_relations|Africa-Europe relations]] * [[:en:Africa-United_States_relations|Africa-United States relations]] * [[:en:Africa–China_relations|Africa–China relations]] * [[:en:Soviet_Union-Africa_relations|Soviet Union-Africa relations]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Mabuku == * {{cite book|last1=Akyeampong|first1=Emmanuel|last2=Bates|first2=Robert H.|last3=Nunn|first3=Nathan|last4=Robinson|first4=James|title=Africa's Development in Historical Perspective|date=11 August 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-04115-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kv4OBAAAQBAJ|language=en}} * {{cite book|last1=Appiah|last2=Gates|date=2010}}{{full citation needed|date=April 2020}} * 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Ehret|last=Ehret|first=Christopher|year=2002|title=The Civilizations of Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/civilizationsofa0000ehre|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|publisher=University of Virginia|isbn=0-8139-2085-X}} * {{cite book|last=Falola|first=Toyin|title=A History of Nigeria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XygZjbNRap0C&pg=PA27|access-date=2013-05-06|date=2008-04-24|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-47203-6}} * {{cite book|last1=Grimal|first1=Nicolas|title=A History of Ancient Egypt|year=1988|publisher=Librairie Arthéme Fayard}} * {{cite journal|last1=Habachi|first1=Labib|year=1963|title=King Nebhepetre Menthuhotep: his monuments, place in history, deification and unusual representations in form of gods|journal=Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte|volume=19|pages=16–52}} * {{cite book|last1=Iliffe|first1=John|year=2007|title=Africans: The History of a Continent|url=https://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo0000ilif_e7r2|edition=2nd|location=NY|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-68297-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Ashley|title=The British Empire and the Second World War|date=9 March 2006|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-8264-4049-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cghbp0WbhxAC|language=en}} * {{Cite book|editor-last=Lye|editor-first=Keith|date=2002|title=Encyclopedia of African Nations and Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofaf0000unse_u8g7|location=New York|publisher=Diagram Group|isbn=0-8160-4568-2|series=Facts on File library of world history}} * {{cite journal|last1=Manning|first1=Patrick|year=2014|title=The African Diaspora: Slavery, Modernity, and Globalization|url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-3335703931/the-african-diaspora-slavery-modernity-and-globalization|journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|volume=47|issue=1|page=147}} * {{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|year=2009|title=The African Diaspora: A History Through Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/africandiasporah0000mann|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press}} Looks at the slave trade, the adaptation of Africans to new conditions, their struggle for freedom and equality, and the establishment of a "black" diaspora and its local influence around the world; covers 1430 to 2001. * {{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Phyllis M.|last2=O'Meara|first2=Patrick|title=Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/africa00mart|date=1995|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=0-253-20984-6|edition=3rd}} * {{cite book|last1=Nicholson|first1=Paul T.|first2=Ian|last2=Shaw|year=2000|title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45257-1}} * {{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|date=2001|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500–1850)|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofaf0000page_r6w4|location=New York|publisher=Learning Source Books|isbn=0-8160-4472-4}} * {{cite book|last=Shillington|first=Kevin|author-link=Kevin Shillington|year=2005|title=History of Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofafrica0002shil|edition=Revised 2nd|location=New York City|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-333-59957-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Diamond|first1=Jared M.|title=Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies|date=1997|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-03891-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLKTa_OeoNIC|language=en}} * {{Cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged|editor=[[Peter Stearns|Stearns, Peter]]|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|oclc=644651969|year=2001|title-link=Encyclopedia of World History}} * {{cite book|last1=Udo|date=1970}}{{full citation needed|date=April 2020}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Africa|volume=1|pages=320–358}} == Further reading == * Byfield, Judith A. et al. eds. ''Africa and World War II'' (Cambridge UP, 2015). * [[:en:John_Desmond_Clark|Clark, J. Desmond]] (1970). ''The Prehistory of Africa''. Thames and Hudson * [[:en:Basil_Davidson|Davidson, Basil]] (1964). ''The African Past''. Penguin, Harmondsworth * Devermont, Judd. "World Is Coming to Sub-Saharan Africa. Where Is the United States?" (Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2018) [http://dehai.org/dehai/assets/dehai/2020/277087-The%20World%20Is%20Coming%20to%20Sub-Saharan%20Africa.%20Where%20Is%20the%20United%20States.pdf online]. * Duignan, P., and L. H. Gann. ''The United States and Africa: A History'' (Cambridge University Press, 1984) * Fage, J.D. and Roland Oliver, eds. ''[[:en:The_Cambridge_History_of_Africa|The Cambridge History of Africa]]'' (8 vol 1975–1986) * Falola, Toyin. ''Africa'', Volumes 1–5. * FitzSimons, William. "Sizing Up the 'Small Wars' of African Empire: An Assessment of the Context and Legacies of Nineteenth-Century Colonial Warfare". ''Journal of African Military History'' 2#1 (2018): 63–78. {{doi|10.1163/24680966-0020100}} * {{Cite book|last=French|first=Howard|year=2021|title=Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War|url=https://archive.org/details/borninblacknessa0000howa|location=New York|publisher=Liveright Publishing Company|isbn=9781631495823|oclc=1268921040}} * [[:en:Bill_Freund_(historian)|Freund, Bill]] (1998). ''The Making of Contemporary Africa'', Lynne Rienner, Boulder (including a substantial "Annotated Bibliography" pp.&nbsp;269–316). * Herbertson, A. J. and O. J. R. Howarth. eds. ''The Oxford Survey Of The British Empire'' (6 vol 1914) [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.172714/page/n1/mode/2up|on Africa]]; 550pp; comprehensive coverage of South Africa and British colonies * July, Robert (1998). ''A History of the African People'', (Waveland Press, 1998). * Killingray, David, and Richard Rathbone, eds. ''Africa and the Second World War'' (Springer, 1986). * Lamphear, John, ed. ''African Military History'' (Routledge, 2007). * [[:en:Théophile_Obenga|Obenga, Théophile]] (1980). ''Pour une Nouvelle Histoire'' [[:en:Présence_Africaine|Présence Africaine]], Paris * Reader, John (1997). ''Africa: A Biography of the Continent''. Hamish Hamilton. {{ISBN|0-241-13047-6}} * Roberts, Stephen H. ''History of French Colonial Policy (1870–1925)'' (2 vols., 1929) [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.84402|vol 1 online]] also [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.89866|vol 2 online]]; comprehensive scholarly history * Shillington, Kevin (1989). ''History of Africa'', New York: St. Martin's. * Thornton, John K. ''Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800'' (Routledge, 1999). * [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] (1980–1994). ''[[:en:General_History_of_Africa|General History of Africa]]'' {{free access}}. 8 volumes. * Worden, Nigel (1995). ''The Making of Modern South Africa'', Oxford UK, Cambridge US: Blackwell. === Atlases === * Ajayi, A.J.F. and Michael Crowder. ''Historical Atlas of Africa'' (1985); 300 color maps. * Fage, J.D. ''Atlas of African History'' (1978) * Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. ''The New Atlas of African History'' (1991). * Kwamena-Poh, Michael, et al. ''African history in Maps'' (Longman, 1982). * McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed. 1996). [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0140513213/ excerpt] === Historiography === * Boyd, Kelly, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers'' (Rutledge, 1999) 1:4–14. * {{citation|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114212226/http://www.manning.pitt.edu/pdf/2013.Manning.JAH.pdf|doi=10.1017/S0021853713000753|title=African and World Historiography|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=54|issue=3|pages=319–330|year=2013|last1=Manning|first1=Patrick|s2cid=33615987}} * {{cite journal|last1=Manning|first1=Patrick|year=2016|title=Locating Africans on the World Stage: A Problem in World History|journal=Journal of World History|volume=27|issue=3|pages=605–637}} * [[:en:John_Edward_Philips|Philips, John Edward, ed.]] ''Writing African History'' (2005) == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == * "[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/race-evolution-and-the-science-of-human-origins/ Race, Evolution and the Science of Human Origins]" by Allison Hopper, ''[[:en:Scientific_American|Scientific American]]'' (5 July 2021). * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100815022804/http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa Worldtimelines.org.uk – Africa] [[:en:The_British_Museum|The British Museum]]. 2005 * [http://historyscoper.com/africahistoryscope.html The Historyscoper]. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index.shtml The Story of Africa] BBC World Service. * [https://www.pbs.org/wonders/fr_wn.htm Wonders of the African World], [[:en:PBS|PBS]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100527200833/http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CIVAFRCA/ABOUT.HTM#Purpose Civilization of Africa by Richard Hooker], [[:en:Washington_State_University|Washington State University]]. * [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hi/te_index.asp?i=Africa African Art] Metropolitan Museum of Art. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190519102901/http://www.africankingdoms.com/ African Kingdoms, by Khaleel Muhammad]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120401181050/http://web.up.ac.za/default.asp?ipkCategoryID=12651%2F Mapungubwe Museum] at the [[:en:University_of_Pretoria|University of Pretoria]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20211018021941/https://www.omarviktor.com/project-diaspora Project Diaspora]. * [http://www.kushcom.co.uk/history-of-africa/programme-information/ Kush Communications | Media Production Company London]. {{History of Africa}}{{Africa topics}}{{History by continent}} p42ztdfrf995kno68z4uj49o3ya6828 0 25643 122352 118814 2026-09-25T01:24:26Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122352 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Capital of Zambia}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2017}} {{EngvarB|date=July 2021}} {{other uses}}{{Infobox settlement | official_name = Lusaka | native_name = Mwalusaka | nickname = | settlement_type = City | motto = | image_skyline = {{photomontage | photo1a =Lusaka, Zambia at Night.jpg | photo2a =Downtown Lusaka.JPG | photo3a = | photo3b = | size = 280 | spacing = 1 | position = centre | border = 0 | color = white }} | imagesize = 300px | image_caption = '''From top''': Lusaka city at night; Downtown Lusaka; and Lusaka National Museum | image_flag = | flag_size = | image_seal = | seal_size = | image_shield = | shield_size = | city_logo = | citylogo_size = | image_map = | mapsize = | map_caption = | image_map1 = | mapsize1 = | map_caption1 = | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = | dot_y = | pushpin_map = Zambia#Africa <!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --> | pushpin_relief = 1 | pushpin_label_position = <!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --> | pushpin_map_caption = Location of Lusaka in Zambia | pushpin_mapsize = | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[Zambia]] | subdivision_type = | subdivision_name = Zambian Kwacha | subdivision_type2 = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Lusaka Province]] | subdivision_type3 = [[Districts of Zambia#Lusaka Province|District]] | subdivision_name3 = [[Lusaka District]] | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = | government_footnotes = | government_type = [[Mayor-council government]] | leader_title = [[Mayor of Lusaka|Mayor]] | leader_name = Chilando Chitangala [[Patriotic Front (Zambia)|(PF)]] | leader_title1 = | leader_name1 = | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | established_title = Established | established_date = 1905 | established_title2 = <!-- Incorporated (town) --> | established_date2 = | established_title3 = City status | established_date3 = 25 August 1960 | unit_pref = <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--> = | area_footnotes = <ref>[http://www.lcc.gov.zm/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=72 City of Lusaka Website] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420091956/http://www.lcc.gov.zm/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=72 |date=20 April 2012}}</ref> | area_total_km2 = 360 <!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--> | area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--> | area_water_km2 = | area_total_sq_mi = | area_land_sq_mi = | population_as_of = 2010 Census | population_footnotes = | population_note = | population_total = 1,747,152<ref>{{cite web |author=Central Statistical Office |title=Population and Demography of Zambia |url=https://zambia.opendataforafrica.org/ZMPAD21016/population-and-demography-of-zambia |access-date=20 September 2020}}</ref> | population_metro = 2,238,569 | population_density_km2 = auto | population_density_sq_mi = | population_density_metro_km2 = | population_density_metro_sq_mi = | timezone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]] | utc_offset = +2 | coordinates = {{coord|15|25|S|28|17|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}} | elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use <ref> tags--> | elevation_m = 1279<ref>Airport altitude, http://climexp.knmi.nl/ Retrieved 7 March 2015</ref> | elevation_ft = 4190 | postal_code_type = 10101 <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> | postal_code = | area_code = 0211<ref>{{cite web |title=Zambia |work=[[International Telecommunication Union]] |date=14 November 2019 |access-date=15 July 2021 |url=https://www.itu.int/oth/T02020000E8/en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915203403/http://www.itu.int/oth/T02020000E8/en |archive-date=15 September 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> | blank_name_sec1 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2018) | blank_info_sec1 = 0.664<ref name="GlobalDataLab">{{cite web |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |website=hdi.globaldatalab.org |access-date=13 September 2018}}</ref><br/>{{color|#FFD215|Medium}} | blank_name = [[Köppen climate classification|Climate]] | blank_info = [[Humid subtropical climate|Cwa]] | website = http://www.lcc.gov.zm | footnotes = | name = | population_est = 2,731,696<ref>{{cite web |author=Central Statistical Office |title=Population and Demographic Projections |url=https://zambia.opendataforafrica.org/ZMPHC2015/population-and-demographic-projections-2011-2035 |access-date=20 September 2020}}</ref> | pop_est_as_of = 2020 }} '''Lusaka''' ni msumba ukuru wa [[Zambia]]. Msumba uwu ndiwo ukukura mwaluŵiro comene mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa [[Afilika|Africa]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Africa's fastest-growing cities |url=https://www.dw.com/en/africas-fastest-growing-cities/g-49895423 |access-date=12 April 2021 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]]}}</ref>Msumba wa Lusaka uli kumwera kwa chigaŵa chapakati pa mapiri ndipo uli pa mtunda wa mamita 1,279. Mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni iyi ŵakaŵa 3.3 miliyoni, apo mu 2018 ŵanthu ŵa mu matawuni agha ŵakaŵa 2.5 miliyoni.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zambia Population 2020 (Live) |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/zambia-population/ |access-date=28 April 2020 |website=worldpopulationreview.com}}</ref>Msumba wa Lusaka ndiwo uli pakatikati pa vyamalonda na boma mu Zambia. Chiyowoyero cha boma mu tawuni iyi ni Chingelezi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya mu misewu nga ni Bemba, Tonga, Lenje, Soli, Lozi, na Nyanja. Ukaboni wakwambilira wakuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ni wa m'ma 500 C.E., ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu chigaŵa ichi m'ma 1000 C.E. Kufuma mu 17 panji 18 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Lenje na Soli ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu. Msumba uwu ukazengeka mu 1905, apo ukaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain ilo likalamuliranga Northern Rhodesia. Gulu la BSAC likazenga njanji iyo yikakhwaskananga migodi yawo ya Copperbelt na Cape Town ndipo Lusaka ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghakukhazikako maji pa msewu uwu. Pamanyuma, ŵalimi ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakamba kukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ndipo ŵakamba kuchita malonda mu Lusaka. Mu 1929, pati pajumpha vyaka vinkhondi kufuma apo boma la Britain likapokelera charu cha Northern Rhodesia, likasintha msumba ukuru wa charu ichi kufuma ku Livingstone kuya ku malo ghanyake. Ŵanthu awo ŵakanozganga vinthu vya mu tawuni iyi, kusazgapo Stanley Adshead, ndiwo ŵakazenga msumba uwu. Mu 1953, msumba wa Lusaka ukazgoka msumba ukuru wa charu cha Rhodesia na Nyasaland, ndipo sono ni Harare mu charu cha Zimbabwe. Kweni mu 1964, msumba uwu ukazgoka msumba ukuru wa Zambia. Pamanyuma, ŵakazenga nyumba zinandi mu msumba uwu, kusazgapo nyumba za boma, Yunivesite ya Zambia, na chiŵanja cha ndege chiphya. Ku Lusaka kuli malo ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafumanga ku vigaŵa vinyake vya Zambia pambere charu chindafume mu mawoko gha boma, kweniso pamanyuma pakuti charu cha Zambia chafwatuka. == Mbili == {{see also|Nyengo ya Lusaka}} [[File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-3-235.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-3-235.jpg|left|thumb|Nyumba ya Boma, yakuzengera Kazembe wa Northern Rhodesia]] === Mbiri Yakwambilira === Ukaboni wakwamba wakuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu malo agho sono ni Lusaka ni wa m'ma 600 C.E. Msumba wakwambilira uwo tikumanya ni uwo ukazengeka m'ma 1100 C.E., ndipo ukaŵa pafupi na msumba wa Olympia. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵakasintha chomene mu chigaŵa ichi m'paka apo ŵanthu ŵa Lenje na Soli ŵakafikira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 panji 1800.{{sfn|Myers|2016|p=48}} Ŵasayansi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soli ŵakafika mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba ŵakasamanga mu Mlonga wa Luapula. Mazuŵa ghano, Lusaka wali pa mphaka ya vigaŵa vya magulu ghaŵiri agha. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na ku Europe awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga ŵakamba kwiza kufuma ku vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ku Tanzania, Mozambique, na Angola. Chifukwa chakuti ŵakeneranga kugega ŵanthu aŵa, kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ulimi wakuseŵa, ŵakasamukiranga ku malo ghanyake pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soli na Lenje. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Cecil Rhodes, uyo wakaŵa wa ku Britain kweniso wandale, wakambiska kampani yakuchemeka British South African Company (BSAC). Rhodes wakagomezganga chomene kuti pali njanji yakufuma ku Cape kuya ku Cairo, nangauli German East Africa yikaŵa kuti yikujandizga nthowa yakuya kumpoto kwa BSAC, kweni wakatondeka kuyiyambiska apo wakaŵa wamoyo. Rhodes wakawoneseska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵalutilire kuŵa na wanangwa wa kusopa, ndipo wakalutilira kusazgirako ufumu wake m'paka ku Salisbury (uko sono ni Harare mu Zimbabwe). Gulu la BSAC likamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Lusaka mu 1899. Pakwamba msumba uwu ukaŵa ku Kalomo, ndipo mu 1907 ukasamukira ku Livingstone. Mu 1911, chigaŵa ichi chikasazgikana na chigaŵa cha North-Eastern Rhodesia kuti chiŵe Northern Rhodesia. Pakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakugalukira boma lawo, kweniso kuti vinthu vikwenda makora yayi mu charu ichi, kweniso kuti ŵakukhumba kusazgirako migodi ya ku Copperbelt, kumpoto kwa Zambia, BSAC yikalutilira kuzenga njanji yakufuma ku South Africa kuya ku Northern Rhodesia. Msumba wa Lusaka ukazengeka mu 1905, ndipo ukachemekanga Lusaaka, mulongozgi wa muzi wa Lenje. Chigaŵa icho chikajumphanga mu Lusaka chikazengeka na Mashonaland Railway Company, ndipo chikaŵa mtunda wa makilomita 452 kufuma ku Kalomo m'paka ku tawuni ya Broken Hill (iyo sono ni Kabwe). Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵalimi ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakamba kukhala mu chigaŵa ichi. Kuzakafika mu 1913, mashopu ghanandi na hotelo vikaŵa kuti vyajulika, ndipo ŵakakhorweska BSAC kuti Lusaka waŵe msumba wakuzomerezgeka na kuŵapa mazaza pa vinthu vya mu msumba. Msumba wakwambilira uwu ukawusikanga na Lusaka Village Management Board, uyo wakasankhika na ŵalimi, ndipo ukaŵa na malo ghakukwana makilomita 5 mu utali na makilomita 1.5 mu usani.{{sfn|Mulenga|2003|p=2}} Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, caru ca United Kingdom cikamba kuwusa Tanganyika (uyo sono ni Tanzania). Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakhalenge mu vyaru vinandi kufuma ku South Africa m'paka ku Egypt. Mu 1924, boma la Britain likamba kulamulira kumpoto kwa Rhodesia kwizira mu kazembe na wupu wakulongozga, kweni BSAC yikalutilira kuŵa na wanangwa wa kunozga migodi. Boma liphya likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵajilamulirenge ŵekha, nangauli ŵakaŵavya wanangwa. Makampani gha migodi, kweniso ŵalimi ŵa ku Lusaka ŵakakondwa yayi na kusintha uku. Boma likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge mu matawuni ghakupambanapambana kuti ŵalongore mazaza ghawo.{{sfn|Home|2013|p=7}} === Kucemeka msumba ukuru wa Northern Rhodesia === Mu Malichi 1929, ofesi ya ku Britain yikatumizga uthenga ku boma la Northern Rhodesia kuti likusamure msumba ukuru wa charu ichi. Ndipouli, pa nyengo iyo, ŵakamanyiskapo yayi cifukwa ico ŵakasamira ku caru cinyake. James Maxwell, uyo wakaŵa dokotala ndipo wakaŵa kazembe wa charu ichi kwambira mu 1927, wakiza na David Alexander, uyo nayo wakaŵa kazembe wa charu ichi. Pakukhumba kuti mizi iyo yikaŵa pafupi na migodi yileke kuzengeka, Alexander wakawona kuti ntchiwemi kusanga munthu wakunozga mapulani gha msumba. Pamanyuma, Maxwell na Alexander ŵakasanda malo gha msumba uphya uwu, ndipo paumaliro ŵakasankha Lusaka chifukwa chakuti ukaŵa pa msewu wa njanji kweniso pa mphambano ya Great North Road na Great East Road. Maxwell wakapempha ofesi ya Colonial Office kuti yimupenge munthu wakunozga vinthu vya mu tawuni. Adshead wakasanda malo ghanandi agho likuru la charu ichi likate likhalengemo, ndipo paumaliro wakamanya kuti Lusaka ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghakwenelera. Iyo wakaghanaghananga vya kuŵika msumba ukuru mu Copperbelt, kweni cifukwa cakuti maboma na mabungwe gha migodi ghakamugomezgana yayi, wose ŵakakhumbanga kuti msumba ukuru uleke kuŵa kutali na migodi. Munthu uyo wakumanya vya maji wakati wasanda, wakasanga kuti pasi pa maji pakaŵa maji ghakukwana, ndipo mu Julayi 1931, wupu wakulongozga ukazomerezga kuti Lusaka ndiyo uŵe msumba ukuru.{{sfn|Home|2013|p=8}}<ref name="hans_Nort">{{Cite web |date=19 April 1932 |title=Northern Rhodesia - Tuesday 19 April 1932 |url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/1932-04-19/debates/1f41fb52-1c18-4352-b5e4-c0f545d159f3/NorthernRhodesia |access-date=14 June 2021 |work=[[Hansard]] |publisher=[[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]}}</ref> Mu 1932, Ronald Storrs ndiyo wakanjira mu malo gha Maxwell pakuŵa kazembe, kweni cifukwa ca suzgo likuru la vya ndalama, ndalama zikakhalanga pachoko ndipo vinthu vikenda makora yayi mu Lusaka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵakaluta ku msumba uwu kukapenja nchito ya kuzenga, kweni kukaŵavya nchito, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵaŵe ŵakavu, ŵanjara, na kugaluka. Ivyo Storrs wakakhumbanga comene pa mulimo uwu ni nyumba ya boma, iyo yikayananga waka na iyo wakambiska apo wakaŵa kazembe wa ku Cyprus. Pakukhumba kulondezga nyumba ya ku Cyprus, kweniso nyumba ya themba ku New Delhi iyo yikaŵa kuti yamara waka kuzengeka, Storrs wakapempha ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyikwanga comene kuti ndiwo ŵanozge pulani iyi. Ndalama izo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti zizagwire ntchito ya kuzenga nyumba iyi zikaŵa pafupifupi mapaundi 43,000. Nyengo yicoko waka Storrs wakaleka udindo wake pakuŵa kazembe cifukwa ca ulwari. Pa nyengo iyi, mulimo uwu ukaŵa kuti wamalizgika waka, ndipo ukaŵa na misewu yichoko waka (nga ni Cairo Road, iyo yikachemeka nthena chifukwa cha malo agho yikaŵa pa Cape to Cairo Road) kweniso nyumba na nyumba za ŵantchito ŵa boma. Storrs wakasankhika na Hubert Winthrop Young, uyo wakaŵa kazembe wa charu cha Nyasaland (lero ni Malawi). Mu Epulero 1934, Themba George, mwana wachinayi wa Themba George V, wakiza ku Lusaka. Pa nyengo iyi, George wakaŵika libwe la fawundeshoni la nyumba za boma za ku Lusaka, kweniso wakajura misewu iyo yikathya mazina gha adada ŵake na ghake. Pamanyuma pa ulendo wacifumu, Young wakalembera kalata ofesi ya Colonial Office kuti "wakukhorwa na ivyo vicitikirenge Lusaka munthazi", ndipo wakasankha Eric Dutton kuti ndiyo walongozge mulimo uwu. Ŵazungu ŵa mu tawuni ya Livingstone ŵakasuskanga comene cifukwa cakuti ŵakaghanaghananga kuti msumba uzamuparanyika. Nangauli Young wakakana kuŵapa ndalama izo ŵakakhumbanga, kweni wakakhumba kuŵakhozga mwa kuŵika msumba wa Livingstone kuŵa likuru la vyalo vya ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda. Mu 1935, Lusaka wakaŵa msumba ukuru wa charu ichi. Boma likapeleka sitima yapadera, iyo yikanyamura ŵantchito wose ŵa boma kufuma ku Livingstone kuluta ku Lusaka mu sabata yimoza. Kuyana na ivyo Adshead wakakhumbanga, Lusaka wakeneranga kuŵa msumba wakuzirwa comene, wambura mafakitale panji ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa. Kuyana na ndondomeko iyo Bowling wakanozga, kukaŵa malo ghakugwilira nchito ya vyamaseŵero vikuru na vikuru. Wakakhozga comene ciŵanja ca ndege, kweniso nyumba ya boma, nangauli yikaŵa yipusu kuluska iyo Storrs wakakhumbanga. Ŵanalume ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakagaŵa tawuni iyi mu vigaŵa vya "ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi" na "ŵambura mu charu ichi". Nangauli Adshead na Bowling ŵakalemba mapulani agha, kweni ŵakafumamo mu Rhodesia pambere sabata ya Lusaka yindakwane. Msumba uwu ukaŵa ukuru comene nangauli ukaŵa kuti undazengekepo. Ichi chikaŵa chigaŵa cha ndondomeko iyo Adshead wakambiska kuti ŵanthu ŵalutilire kukura mu msumba m'malo mwa kuzenga msumba ukuru.{{sfn|Home|2013|p=16}}<ref>{{cite news|work=[[The Ithaca Journal]]|date=4 June 1935|page=9|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79818324/|via=Newspapers.com|title=Modern City New African Colony Seat}}</ref> === Vyaka vyakunthazi vya koloni === Kuzenga kwa Lusaka kukalutilira mu hafu yaciŵiri ya m'ma 1930, kweni vinthu vikalutilira yayi cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama. Boma la Northern Rhodesia likakhumbanga kusanga ndalama kwizira mu msonkho wa makampani gha migodi, kweni ghanandi mwa makampani agha ghakalembeka mu United Kingdom ndipo ghakalipanga msonkho wose pa ndalama izo ghakasanganga. Kabungwe ka Beit Trust kakaŵavikilira ndalama izo ŵakagulira ntchito iyi, kweni pakaŵavya malo ghakukwana ghakuzengera vinthu vinyake. Mu 1938, boma la United Kingdom likamba kufufuza usange vyaru vya Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, na Nyasaland vingaŵa pamoza. Ici cikapangiska kuti boma ndilo liŵe na ndalama zinandi.<ref>{{cite news|work=[[The Windsor Star]]|date=2 February 1938|page=4|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79814592/the-windsor-star/|access-date=18 June 2021|via=Newspapers.com|title=Politics – and Other Subjects: Rhodesia}}</ref>Kweniso mu 1938, boma la Northern Rhodesia likapempha Alan Pim kuti walembe lipoti lakukhwaskana na ndalama. Ivi vikalongora kuti nangauli msonkho wa migodi ukaŵa wapachanya, boma (ilo likathembanga chomene ndalama izo likasanganga) likapokeranga yayi. Pim wakadandawuraso umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakakhalanga mu Lusaka, wakati pa ŵanthu 10,000 awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu, ŵanthu 1,500 pera ndiwo ŵakaŵa na nyumba zakukhalamo. Pa nyengo iyo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakazomerezgekanga kukhala mu msumba uwu cifukwa ca kupika wanangwa wa kugwira nchito kwa nyengo yicoko waka. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, nchito ya mkuŵa yikakura comene cifukwa ca kukhumba visulo. Kukura kwa vinthu kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakhalenge mu matawuni. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba wa Lusaka ŵakakwera kufuma pa ŵanthu 2,000 mu 1931 kufika pa ŵanthu 19,000 mu 1946, ndipo ŵakakuranga na 15 peresenti pa chaka. Mu 1948, boma likapeleka dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵakhalenge mu nyumba za ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Ŵaganyu ŵakeneranga kulipira nyumba za ŵantchito ŵawo. Ŵalara ŵa tawuni iyi ŵakambiska wupu wa African Housing Board. Ŵantchito ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakakhalanga mu Lusaka ŵakaŵa ŵambura maluso, kweni ŵakasanga chandulo yayi nga umo vikaŵira ku Copperbelt, uko kukaŵavya ŵanthu ŵaluso ŵakugwira ntchito mu migodi. Mu 1952, boma likapeleka ndondomeko ya umo lingazengera msumba wa Lusaka. Ndondomeko iyi yikayowoya kuti malo ghanandi gha mu vigaŵa vya ku Africa ghazengekenge, kweni pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu ivi ndicho chikazengeka. Mu 1953, boma la Britain likazomerezga kuti Northern Rhodesia yikanjire pamoza na vyaru viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na charu ichi. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ku London ŵakayowoyapo kuti charu ichi chiŵenge na ndalama zinandi ndipo ŵakagomezganga kuti charu ichi chizamuŵa "charu cha mitundu yinandi" kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kusankhana mitundu mu South Africa. Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi, chomenechomene ku Southern Rhodesia, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakasuskanga chomene. Lusaka wakaŵa msumba ukuru wa Northern Rhodesia, kweni maofesi ghanandi gha boma kweniso makampani ghanyake ghakasamukira ku Salisbury. Ivi vikapangiska kuti chuma cha Lusaka chambe kunangika. Kuchepa kwa chuma uku, pamoza na kukhira kwa mtengo wa mkuwa mu ma 1950, kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa na ku Lusaka ŵaleke ntchito. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kusazgikira, cifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamanga ku mizi na kuluta ku malo ghanyake. Mwakupambana na caru ca South Africa, uko boma likaŵaparanyanga nyengo na nyengo, boma la Rhodesia likalekelera ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi nangauli ŵakaŵavya nchito.{{sfn|Hansen|1982|p=124}} === Msumba ukuru wa Zambia === Apo ŵanthu ŵakakhorwa yayi na umo charu ichi chikaŵira, gulu liphya la ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Africa likawuka kuumaliro wa m'ma 1950, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kuti Northern Rhodesia yiŵe na mazaza ghanandi kweniso kuti yiŵe yakujiyimira payekha nga umo vikaŵira ku Ghana. Pamanyuma pa kugaluka kwa ŵanthu mu 1962, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na gulu la Kenneth Kaunda la United National Independence Party (UNIP), boma la Britain likazomera dango liphya ilo likazomerezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ndiwo ŵalongozgenge boma. Mu 1963, charu ichi chikamara, ndipo mu 1964, charu cha Northern Rhodesia chikajiyimira pachekha. Lusaka ndiyo yikaŵa msumba ukuru wa Zambia. Pamanyuma pake, ŵakazenga nyumba zinandi mu msumba uwu, kusazgapo nyumba za boma, Yunivesite ya Zambia na chiŵanja cha ndege chiphya. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kusama kufuma ku mizi na kuluta ku Lusaka. Mu ma 1960, boma likazenga nyumba zinandi, kusazgapo nyumba za New Kamwala na Chilenje South. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵazengere nyumba za mtundu uwemi izo zikaŵa na vinthu vyakovwira ŵanthu.<ref name="BlackPast">{{Cite web |last=Wade |first=Evan |date=3 November 2014 |title=Lusaka, Zambia (1913–) |url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/places-global-african-history/lusaka-zambia-1913/ |access-date=30 June 2021 |work=[[Blackpast.org]]}}</ref> Nangauli Zambia, Malawi, na Tanzania vikaŵa kuti vyafwatuka mu 1960, kweni vigaŵa vinyake vya Mozambique, Angola, Southern Rhodesia, na South Africa vikaŵa kuti vichali pasi pa mazaza gha ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. Ŵanandi awo ŵakachitanga vinthu mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakasamira ku Lusaka, ndipo pamanyuma, Evan Wade, wakulemba mdauko wa ku America, wakati Lusaka "ntchigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Africa". Mu 1969, msumba uwu ukaŵa na ungano wa nambara 5 wa vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya pakati pa Africa. Pa ungano uwu pakalembeka chikalata chakuchemeka Lusaka Manifesto, icho chikulongora kuti awo ŵakasazgapo ŵakaŵanga ŵakukolerana pakuyezgayezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kulamulira kumwera kwa Africa. Chikaŵa na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵadumbiskane m'malo mwa kuchita nkhaza. Mu 1965, charu cha Southern Rhodesia chikapika wanangwa wa kujilongozga, ndipo pamasinda UN yikaŵakanizga kuluta ku charu ichi. Mu mazuŵa ghakwambilira gha kujiwombora, cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi izo zikafumanga ku vyakurya ivyo vikaguliskikanga mu vyaru vinyake, ŵasayansi ŵakalongosora kuti Zambia ni "caru ca ndalama zicoko comene" ico cingaŵa na mwaŵi wa kukura comene. Ndipouli, kwamba mu ma 1970, chuma cha Zambia chikamba kunangika cifukwa ca kukhira kwa mtengo wa mkuŵa na mafuta. Ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakasanganga zikakhira na 50% pakati pa 1974 na 1994. Kuchepeska uku kukalongoraso ivyo nkhwantha ya vya ndyali ya ku America John Harbeson wakalongosora kuti ni "vigaŵa vikuruvikuru na vyambura kuyana na boma kweniso boma likutemwa chomene vinthu vya mu matawuni". Cifukwa ca kusoŵa nchito, ŵanthu ŵakasamukira ku misumba mu Zambia, kweni cifukwa ca kunangika kwa makampani gha mkuŵa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku Lusaka kufuma ku misumba ya ku Copperbelt. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, ŵanthu ŵa mu Lusaka ŵakure pafupifupi 4%, ndipo ichi chikaluska cha mu charu chose. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chuma cha Zambia chikakura chomene, ndipo boma likambiska mapulojekiti ghakovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge makora mu Lusaka. Mu vyaru ivi mukaŵa ndondomeko yikuru yakuzenga matawuni, iyo yikalembeka na boma la Zambia na wupu wakuwona vya ku Japan (JICA). Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu malo ghambura kunozgekerathu, ndipo mu 2015 ŵanthu 70 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha. Mu 2018, boma la msumba uwu likamba kunozga misewu kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kunjira chomene mu misewu, kweni mu 2021 ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusuzgika chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa nyumba zakukwana.{{sfn|Chigudu|2021|pp=6–7}} == Makhalilo == [[File:Kafue_round_about.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_round_about.jpg|thumb|Kuwona msewu wa Cairo Road ndi kumpoto chakumadzulo kwa Lusaka kuchokera ku nyumba ya Zanaco]] Malo gha ku Zambia ghali na mapiri ghanandi. Lusaka ili pa chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Zambia pa 15°25′S 28°17′E, pa mtunda wa mamita 1,280 (4,200 ft). Ili pa mtunda wa makilomita 472 (293 mi) kumpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa likuru la vyalo, Livingstone, na makilomita 362 (225 mi) kufuma ku Kitwe pa Copperbelt, msumba ukuru waciŵiri mu Zambia. Mpulungu, tawuni yikuru ya Zambia iyo yili kutali comene na Lusaka, yili pa mtunda wa makilomita 1,074 (667 mi) mumphepete mwa Nyanja ya Tanganyika. Msumba wa Lusaka uli pafupi na chigaŵa cha Lusaka, ndipo ndiwo msumba ukuru wa chigaŵa cha Lusaka, icho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu Zambia. Chigaŵa cha Lusaka chili na mphaka na chigaŵa cha Chilanga kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera, chigaŵa cha Kafue kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi na chigaŵa cha Chongwe kumafumiro gha dazi, vyose vili mu chigaŵa cha Lusaka. Kweniso lili na mphaka na chigaŵa cha Chibombo kumpoto.<ref name="LusakaCityCouncil">{{cite web |author= |date= |title=About Lusaka |url=https://www.lcc.gov.zm/AboutLusaka.aspx |access-date=27 June 2021 |publisher=Lusaka City Council}}</ref> Charu cha Lusaka chili na malibwe ghakupambanapambana agho ghakusangika ku mpoto, na malibwe gha malibwe gha dolomiti kumwera. Malibwe agha ghakupambika maji ghanandi gha pasi kuluska malibwe gha mu malo gha pasi agho ghali na viswaswa vinandi comene mu Zambia. Mu vigaŵa vya malibwe gha malibwe gha malibwe gha kaliki muli malo gha pasi pa charu agho maji ghakufuma mu maji, ntheura palije milonga yikuruyikuru. Msumba uwu uli pa chigaŵa cha maji, ndipo maji agho ghali kumpoto kwa msumba uwu ghakukhira mu mlonga wa Chongwe, kwizira mu milonga ya Ngwerere na Chalimbana. Mlonga wa Chongwe na wa Kafue wose ukufuma mu maji na kukhira mu mlonga wa Zambezi. Dongo lake ni leptosols mu chigaŵa cha shaist na phaeozems pa dolomite. Chifukwa cha dongo la dongo yayi ili, maji gha mu nthaka ghakwenda makora yayi pambere ghandafike mu maji.{{sfn|Grönwall|Mulenga|McGranahan|2010|p=50}} === Mkati mwa msumba === [[File:LusakaSuburbs.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LusakaSuburbs.jpg|thumb|Malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ghachi tauni]] Chigaŵa cha bizinesi cha Lusaka (CBD) chili pafupi na Cairo Road, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zambia Railways line kufuma ku Livingstone kuya ku Copperbelt. Iyi ni malo ghakale apo tawuni yakwambilira yikapangika kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1900. Cairo Road, msewu wa kumpoto-kumwera wa makilomita ghanayi (2+1⁄2 mi) mu utali, ni msewu ukuru wa CBD, uwo uli na maofesi kweniso mashopu, malo ghakusungirako vyakurya na malonda ghanyake. Ndipouli, magalimoto ghakutalulira (malori) ngakukanizgika kwenda pa msewu wa Cairo Road (ŵakuciskika kuti ŵagwiliskirenge nchito msewu wa Lumumba kuti ŵajumphe msewu uwu para ŵakwenda kumpoto na kumwera). Nyumba zinayi zikuruzikuru za mu Zambia zili pa Cairo Road, kusazgapo nyumba yikuru chomene, Findeco House ya mamita 90. Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Cairo Road kuli misika yikuru yiŵiri, Central Market na New City Market. Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa CBD kuli boma, kusazgapo Nyumba ya Ufumu na maofesi ghakupambanapambana, kuzingilizga Cathedral Hill na Ridgeway. Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa msumba uwu, mumphepete mwa Independence Avenue, kuli malo ghakucemeka Woodlands, agho ŵanthu ŵasambazi ŵa ku Lusaka ŵakukhalamo. Malo ghanyake gha ku mpoto kwa msumba uwu ni Makeni, Ibex Hill, na Rhodes Park. Malo ghanyake agho ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵanandi ni Kalingalinga, Kamwala, Kabwata, Olympia Park, Roma, Fairview, na Northmead. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Lusaka ŵakukhala mu malo ghambura kunozgekera, agho ghali kumanjiliro gha dazi, kumwera na kumpoto kwa msumba. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni Matero, Chilenje, na Libala. Mu nthowa ya Great East Road muli malo ghakurughakuru ghatatu gha ku Zambia: Arcades shopping mall (na malo ghakusungiramo vinthu), East Park shopping mall na Manda Hill shopping mall (malo ghakusungiramo vinthu), agho ghakazengekaso ndipo muli mashopu ghanandi gha ku vyaru vinyake na malo ghakurughakuru. Pa msewu wa Katimamulilo, pafupi na hotelo ya Radisson Blu pali Sun Share Tower. Nyumba iyi yikaŵa na msinkhu wa mamita 58. Vimanyikwiro na vimanyikwiro vya chalo mu Lusaka vikusazgapo National Museum, nyumba za boma kuzingilizga CBD, African Freedom statue na chikumbusko ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakomeka na ndege iyo yikawa mu 1993 ku Zambia, iyo yili pa National Heroes Stadium.{{sfn|Myers|Subulwa|2018|p=124}} === Nyengo === Chifukwa cha kutalika kwake, Lusaka ali ndi nyengo yonyowa ya subtropical (Cwa) malinga ndi kuphatikiza kwa Köppen. Mwezi wakuzizima comene ni Julayi, ndipo pa mwezi uliwose, muhanya wose ŵakuzizima comene. Mu Lusaka, nyengo ya chihanya yikuŵa yakuzizima chomene ndipo nyengo ya chiwuvi yikuŵa yakuzizima. Mwezi wakotcha chomene ni Okutobala, ndipo zuŵa lililose mu mwezi uwu, ŵakuzizima chomene. Nyengo zikupambana mu vigaŵa vitatu: nyengo yakuzizima pakati pa Novembala na Malichi, nyengo yakuzizima pakati pa Epulero na Ogasiti, kweniso nyengo yakuzizima mu Seputembala na Okutobala.{{Weather box|width=auto|location=Lusaka|metric first=yes|single line=yes|Jan record high C=39.6|Feb record high C=36.4|Mar record high C=33.6|Apr record high C=33.0|May record high C=32.0|Jun record high C=29.9|Jul record high C=29.7|Aug record high C=33.5|Sep record high C=38.5|Oct record high C=37.2|Nov record high C=38.6|Dec record high C=33.9|year record high C=39.6|Jan high C=27.4|Feb high C=27.4|Mar high C=27.5|Apr high C=27.1|May high C=25.8|Jun high C=23.8|Jul high C=24.0|Aug high C=26.5|Sep high C=30.3|Oct high C=31.7|Nov high C=30.4|Dec high C=27.7|year high C=27.5|Jan mean C=21.5|Feb mean C=21.5|Mar mean C=21.1|Apr mean C=19.9|May mean C=17.4|Jun mean C=15.2|Jul mean C=14.9|Aug mean C=17.3|Sep mean C=21.3|Oct mean C=23.5|Nov mean C=23.4|Dec mean C=21.7|year mean C=19.9|Jan low C=17.6|Feb low C=17.4|Mar low C=16.4|Apr low C=14.0|May low C=10.7|Jun low C=7.8|Jul low C=7.2|Aug low C=9.2|Sep low C=12.9|Oct low C=16.2|Nov low C=17.4|Dec low C=17.8|year low C=13.7|Jan record low C=13.0|Feb record low C=12.9|Mar record low C=10.0|Apr record low C=8.0|May record low C=5.4|Jun record low C=0.2|Jul record low C=0.7|Aug record low C=2.8|Sep record low C=5.8|Oct record low C=9.0|Nov record low C=10.8|Dec record low C=10.4|year record low C=0.2|precipitation colour=green|Jan precipitation mm=245.4|Feb precipitation mm=185.9|Mar precipitation mm=95.0|Apr precipitation mm=34.7|May precipitation mm=3.1|Jun precipitation mm=0.0|Jul precipitation mm=0.1|Aug precipitation mm=0.4|Sep precipitation mm=1.7|Oct precipitation mm=18.4|Nov precipitation mm=89.3|Dec precipitation mm=208.1|year precipitation mm=882.1|Jan humidity=82.3|Feb humidity=82.5|Mar humidity=80.7|Apr humidity=75.8|May humidity=69.3|Jun humidity=65.2|Jul humidity=61.1|Aug humidity=53.6|Sep humidity=46.3|Oct humidity=48.6|Nov humidity=60.2|Dec humidity=78.6|year humidity=67.0|unit precipitation days=1.0 mm|Jan precipitation days=18|Feb precipitation days=15|Mar precipitation days=10|Apr precipitation days=3|May precipitation days=0|Jun precipitation days=0|Jul precipitation days=0|Aug precipitation days=0|Sep precipitation days=0|Oct precipitation days=2|Nov precipitation days=8|Dec precipitation days=16|Jan sun=176.7|Feb sun=168.0|Mar sun=220.1|Apr sun=246.0|May sun=275.9|Jun sun=270.0|Jul sun=294.5|Aug sun=303.8|Sep sun=291.0|Oct sun=272.8|Nov sun=234.0|Dec sun=182.9|source 1=NOAA<ref name=NOAA>{{cite web |url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/RA-I/ZA/67665.TXT |title = LUSAKA INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT Climate Normals 1961-1990 |publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |access-date = 6 November 2012 |df = dmy-all }}</ref>|date=August 2010}} == Ŵanthu == Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2010, ŵanthu ŵa mu Lusaka ŵakaŵa 1,715,032, ndipo 838,210 ŵakaŵa ŵanalume ndipo 876,822 ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi. Ivi vikulongora kuti chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu chikukwera chomene kufuma mu 2000, ndipo msumba uwu ukukura mwaluŵiro chomene. Nangauli malo agha ghakaŵa pa mphaka pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Soli na Lenje, kweni sono mu Lusaka mulije mtundu uwo ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Zambia ŵakwimira. Ivi vikucitika cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakufuma mu vigaŵa vyose vya caru ici awo ŵakuluta mu msumba uwu, kweniso cifukwa ca ndondomeko ya boma ya "Zambia Yimoza, Mtundu Umoza" iyo yikuciska ŵantchito ŵa boma kuti ŵagwirenge nchito mu caru cose kwambura kupwelerako uko ŵakufuma. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Lusaka mba ku Africa ndipo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakukhala mu Lusaka ŵakukhala nyengo yitali. Ŵanthu aŵa ni ŵazungu, ŵana ŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kufupi na njanji iyi mu nyengo iyo charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa mawoko gha boma, kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku India awo ŵakuyowoya Chigujarati. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku Zambia.<ref name="BritannicaPeople">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Zambia – People|last=Roberts|first=Andrew D.|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|date=15 April 2021|access-date=1 July 2021|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia/People}}</ref> === Viyowoyelo === Nga umo vikuŵira mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Zambia, chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi ndicho chikuyowoyeka mu Lusaka. Kweniso ni ciyowoyero ico ŵamalonda, manyuzipepara ghanandi, na maboma ghakuyowoya. Chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga mu tawuni iyi m'paka m'ma 1980 chikaŵa Chiyanja. Ndipouli, kufuma nyengo yira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufumako ku Copperbelt ndipo ŵakamba kuyowoya chiyowoyero ichi. Viyowoyero vitatu ivi vikapangiska kuti mu Lusaka muŵe chiyowoyero chinyake chakuchemeka Town Nyanja. Buku ili lili kufuma ku chiyowoyero cha Nyanja, kweni lili na mazgu gha Chingelezi na Chibemba kweniso Nsenga.{{sfn|Mutunda|2007|p=2}} == Boma == [[File:Zambia_Supreme_Court.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia_Supreme_Court.JPG|thumb|Khoti Likuru Chomene mu Zambia]] Pakuŵa msumba ukuru wa charu ichi, Lusaka ndiwo uli na maboma gha malango, gha ŵalara, na gha ŵeruzgi. Nyumba iyi yili mu nyumba ya Nyumba ya Ufumu, iyo yili na vipinda 15. Msumba uwu ndiwo uli likuru la chigaŵa cha Lusaka, icho chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa vigaŵa 10 vya charu ichi. Bungwe la mzindawu likutsogoleredwa ndi Meya wa Lusaka, pomwe Chilando Chitangala ndiye woyang'anira kuyambira 2021. <ref>{{cite web |date=21 September 2021 |title=Chilando Chitangala Was Duly Elected As Lusaka Mayor ~ |url=https://www.znbc.co.zm/news/chilando-chitangala-was-duly-elected-as-lusaka-mayor/ |access-date=25 January 2022 |language=en-GB}}</ref> == Msambilo == [[File:University_of_Zambia_Sports_Centre_and_Clinic.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:University_of_Zambia_Sports_Centre_and_Clinic.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|Yunivesite ya Zambia]] Yunivesite ya Zambia ndiyo ni yunivesite yakale comene na yikuru comene ya ku Zambia. Ma yunivesite na makoleji ghanyake agho ghali mu Lusaka ni: University of Lusaka (UNILUS), Zambian Open University (ZAOU), Chainama Hills College, Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce, Zambia Centre for Accountancy Studies University (ZCASU), Natural Resources Development College (NRDC), National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA), Cavendish University, Lusaka Apex Medical University and DMI-St. Yunivesite ya Eugene. Lusaka wali na masukulu ghanyake ghawemi chomene mu Zambia, nga ni American International School of Lusaka, Rhodes Park School, Lusaka International Community School, French International School, Italian international School, Lusaka Islamic Cultural, and Educational Foundation (LICEF), Chinese International School, Lusaka Russian Embassy School, na Baobab College. Sukulu ya Rhodes Park ni sukulu ya caru cose yayi, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Angola, Nigeria, Congo, South Africa, na China ŵakusangika. Ŵana ŵa pulezidenti Levy Mwanawasa, kweniso ŵana ŵa mulara wa pulezidenti George Kunda, ŵakasambiranga ku sukulu ya Rhodes Park. Masukulu ghanyake agho ghakumanyikwa chomene mu Lusaka ni Matero Boys' Secondary School (MaBoys), Parklands High School, Roma Girls' Secondary School, Munali Boys' and Girls' Secondary Schools, Chudleigh House School, Kabulonga Boys' and Girls' Secondary Schools, Lake Road PTA School, David Kaunda Technical School (DK), Ibex Hill School, Kamwala Secondary, Libala Secondary, Silverest Secondary School and St. Sukulu ya Mary's Secondary. == Malo ghakusoperapo == [[File:Zambia_Lusaka_catholic_church_Krzysztof_Błażyca_2011_P01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia_Lusaka_catholic_church_Krzysztof_B%C5%82a%C5%BCyca_2011_P01.jpg|right|thumb|Lusaka Catholic church]] Pa malo agha, pali matchalitchi ghanandi gha Cikhristu nga ni: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lusaka (Chisopa ca Katolika), icho chili pa Cathedral of the Child Jesus; Anglican Cathedral of the Holy Cross mu Cathedral Hill; Seventh-day Adventist (SDA); United Church in Zambia (World Communion of Reformed Churches); New Apostolic Church; Reformed Church in Zambia (World Communion of Reformed Churches); Baptist Union of Zambia (Baptist World Alliance); na Assemblies of God. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova na matchalitchi gha LDS ghose ghali na mipingo yinandi. Paliso nyumba zikuruzikuru za visopa kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu muzi uwu ŵasopenge. Ku malo agha kulije masunagoge. == Mwambo == Pa malo agha, pali matchalitchi ghanandi gha Cikhristu nga ni: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lusaka (Chisopa ca Katolika), icho chili pa Cathedral of the Child Jesus; Anglican Cathedral of the Holy Cross mu Cathedral Hill; Seventh-day Adventist (SDA); United Church in Zambia (World Communion of Reformed Churches); New Apostolic Church; Reformed Church in Zambia (World Communion of Reformed Churches); Baptist Union of Zambia (Baptist World Alliance); na Assemblies of God. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova na matchalitchi gha LDS ghose ghali na mipingo yinandi. Paliso nyumba zikuruzikuru za visopa kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu muzi uwu ŵasopenge. Ku malo agha kulije masunagoge. == Chuma == Lusaka ni msumba ukuru wa vyachuma na vya ndalama wa Zambia, ndipo ni malo ghakuru chomene ghakwendako ku vyaru vinyake. Nangauli mu Zambia mulije viŵelengero vya GDP pa chigaŵa, kweni chigaŵa cha Lusaka ndicho chikaŵa na GDP yikuru chomene mu Zambia mu 2014, ndipo chikaŵa na 27.2% ya GDP ya charu chose. Mwakupambana na Zambia yose, umo kulimilira na migodi ni vyakuzirwa comene, mu Lusaka vinthu vikwenda makora comene cifukwa ca malonda. Mu tawuni iyi muli nchito zinandi, nga ni ndalama, inshuwalansi, katundu, kwendeska, kwendeska mawoko, kwendeska mawoko, nkhongono, kuzenga, na kupanga vinthu vinyake. Mu msumba uwu ndimo muli maofesi gha mabanki gha ku Zambia, kweniso Lusaka Stock Exchange, iyo yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 1993.{{sfn|United Nations|2011|p=19}} === Kuodeska katundu === {{see also|Mndandanda wa malo ogulitsira ku Zambia}} Lusaka is home to the largest and most numerous shopping centres in the country, including [[:en:List_of_shopping_centres_in_Zambia|Manda Hill, Levy Junction, EastPark, Cosmopolitan]], and the smaller but well-known Arcade Shopping Centre. It also has newly built shopping malls such as Lewanika shopping mall, Centro mall, Novare Pinnacle malls in Woodlands and along the Great North Road. == Nyumba == === Transport === [[File:Lusaka_International_Airport.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lusaka_International_Airport.jpg|left|thumb|Kenneth Kaunda International Airport, main terminal]] [[File:Lusaka_Intercity_Bus_stand.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lusaka_Intercity_Bus_stand.jpg|alt=Lusaka Intercity Bus Station|thumb|Lusaka Intercity Bus Station]] [[File:Public_transport-01.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Public_transport-01.jpg|thumb|Pedestrian getting on minibus at the local bus stop in Lusaka]] Ku Lusaka ndiko kuli chiŵanja cha ndege cha Kenneth Kaunda International Airport (chomwe chikugwiliskirika ntchito pa ntchito za ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari). Paliso chiŵanja cha ndege cha Lusaka City Airport, icho chikugwiliskirika nchito na mawumba gha nkhondo gha Zambia. Msumba uwu uli na vigaŵa vya Cape to Cairo Railway, ivyo vikukolerana na Lubumbashi na Bulawayo. Malo gha ndege gha pa caru cose ghakukolerana na njanji. Msumba uwu ukujumpha pa Trans-African Highway 9 (TAH 9), iyo yikukolerana na misumba ya Harare na Lubumbashi, kweniso pa Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4), iyo yikukolerana na Dodoma na Bulawayo. Msumba wa Lusaka uli pa mphambano ya misewu yikuru yitatu, Great North Road (T2), Great East Road (T4) na Mongu Road (M9). Msewu wa Great North Road ukwendera kumpoto kwa Kabwe, Mpika na ku Tanzania (kufumako ku Ndola, Kitwe na DR Congo) na kumwera kwa Choma, Livingstone na Zimbabwe. Msewu wa Great East Road ukulazga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Chipata na Malawi (na msewu unyake uwo ukulazga ku Mozambique). Msewu wa Mongu ukwendera kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Kaoma na Mongu (ndipo unganjira mu Angola kwizira mu msewu wa Barotse Floodplain Causeway). Ŵanthu ŵakwenda mu mabasi ghakurughakuru, kweniso mabasi ghakurughakuru na matekisi. Pa misewu yinandi, magalimoto ghakwenda pakati pa vigaŵa vinyake vya msumba uwu na malo ghanayi agho ghali mu chigaŵa cha bizinesi (ghakuchemeka Town): Kulima Tower, City Market, Millennium na Lumumba. Mu Lusaka mulije mapu gha msewu wakwendamo ŵanthu, kweni mu 2014 ŵanthu ŵakamba kupanga mapu gha msewu. Vinthu vyose vyakwendeskera mendero mu Lusaka vikwendeskeka na ŵanthu ŵekha. Mabasi agho ghakwendera mu vigaŵa vya Lusaka, CBD, na matawuni ghakuzingilizga Lusaka, nga ni Siavonga na Chirundu, ghakugwiliskira ntchito siteshoni ya mabasi ya Lusaka City Market, Inter-city Bus Terminus, Millennium Bus Station, na Kulima Tower Station. === Healthcare === Ku Zambia kuli vipatala vinkhondi, ndipo viŵiri vili ku Lusaka. Chipatala chikuru chomene pa vyose ivi ni cha University Teaching Hospital (UTH), icho chili na mabedi 1655 na malo gha ŵana 250. Chipatala ichi chili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 2 miliyoni. Kweniso chikupeleka ŵanthu ku maofesi ghanyake mu charu chose. Likuteŵetera nga ni malo ghakuru gha Zambia ghakusambizgirako ŵadokotala na ŵantchito ŵa mu vipatala. Chipatala chachiŵiri cha Lusaka ni cha Chainama Hills, icho chili na vipatala 210 na vipatala 167 vyambura kuzomerezgeka. Malo gha ku Chainama Hills ghakugwiraso nchito nga ni malo ghakusambizgirako ŵantchito ŵa ku Zambia. Mu 2007, mu Lusaka mukaŵa vipatala 34 vya boma, kweniso 134 vya boma. Boma la Lusaka likukhumba kuti ŵapharazgi ŵalutilire kupeleka wovwiri wa munthavi kufuma ku Unduna wa vyaumoyo. Mu 2007, chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa na matenda gha maleriya, matenda gha kufumiska ŵana, maleriya, vyoni, HIV na matenda ghanyake agho ghakwambukira pa kugonana. Boma la Zambia lili na chilato cha nyengo yitali cha kupeleka wovwiri wa vyaumoyo ku ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Zambia. Kufumira mu 2017, boma likaŵa kuti lapeleka wovwiri wa vyaumoyo kwa waliyose kwambura kulipiliska, kweni ŵanthu ŵakaŵavya nkhongono. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo ili, Unduna wa vyaumoyo ukakolerana na JICA pa mulimo wa kutora nthowa zakukhumbikwa kuti ŵafiske UHC..<ref name="idsi_Univ">{{cite web |last=Turner |first=Claire |date=7 August 2017 |title=Universal Health Coverage: what can the Republic of Zambia learn from Thailand? |url=https://idsihealth.org/blog/universal-health-coverage-what-can-the-republic-of-zambia-learn-from-thailand/ |access-date=10 July 2021 |work=iDSI}}</ref> == Vyamasewela == Malo ghakurughakuru gha maseŵero mu Lusaka ni National Heroes Stadium, agho ghakazengeka na wovwiri na ndalama za ku China. Malo agha ghakazunulika kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa pa ngozi ya ndege iyo yikachitikira timu ya ku Zambia mu 1993, ndipo ghakajulika mu 2014. Sitediyamu iyi yikugwiliskirika nchito pakunozgekera maseŵera gha timu ya mpira ya Zambia, ndipo yikaŵa yimoza mwa malo ghaŵiri agho kukacitikira nkhonyo ya Africa U-20 mu 2017 ku Zambia, pamoza na Sitediyamu ya Levy Mwanawasa ku Ndola. Mpikisano uwu ukathereskeka na Zambia pa National Heroes Stadium, ndipo ŵakathereska Senegal pa chigonjetso cha 2-0. Sitediyamu iyi yikugwiliskirika nchito pa maseŵero gha maseŵero gha palipose, kusazgapo maseŵero gha 2021 All Comers Tournament. Kufika mu chaka cha 2021, magulu 6 mwa magulu 18 mu mpikisano wa mpira wa Zambia Super League ali ku Lusaka. Gulu lakutchuka chomene mu tawuni iyi ni Zanaco F.C., ilo lapambana maudindo 7 pa charu chose, laumaliro likaŵa mu 2016. Zanaco yikakhazikiskika mu chaka cha 1978 nga ni timu ya Zambia National Commercial Bank, ndipo yikamba kuseŵera mu chigaŵa chapachanya kufuma mu chaka cha 1989. Gulu linyake la ku Lusaka ilo likutonda chomene ni Green Buffaloes. Kuwonjezera pa sitediyamu ya National Heroes, magulu a mpira a Lusaka amasewera masewera awo kunyumba ku Nkoloma Stadium, Sunset Stadium ndi Woodlands Stadium.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zambian Super League Fixtures & Results: 27th June 2021 – 3rd July 2021 |url=https://www.espn.co.uk/football/fixtures/_/date/20210627/league/zam.1 |access-date=10 July 2021 |publisher=[[ESPN]]}}</ref> Ku Lusaka ndiko kuli timu ya basketball ya UNZA Pacers, iyo yili ku University of Zambia. == Vinthu vya pa caru cose == Lusaka wali maphaska na: * {{flagicon|TJK}} [[:en:Dushanbe|Dushanbe]], [[:en:Tajikistan|Tajikistan]], since 1966 * {{flagicon|LIB}} [[:en:Beirut|Beirut]], [[:en:Lebanon|Lebanon]], (2018) * {{flagdeco|THA}} [[:en:Udon_Thani|Udon Thani]], Thailand, (2015) * {{flagicon|USA}} [[:en:Los_Angeles|Los Angeles]], [[:en:United_States|United States]], since 1968 * {{flagicon|RUS}} [[:en:Izhevsk|Izhevsk]], Russia == Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa == * The [[:en:Rugby_union|rugby]] union players [[:en:Corné_Krige|Corné Krige]] and [[:en:George_Gregan|George Gregan]], who respectively captained the {{nrut|South Africa}}n and {{nrut|Australia}}n teams in both the [[:en:2002_Tri_Nations_Series|2002]] and [[:en:2002_Tri_Nations_Series|2003]] [[:en:Tri_Nations_Series|Tri Nations Series]], were coincidentally born in the same hospital in Lusaka.<ref>{{cite web |title=George Gregan - Player Profile |url=http://www.georgegregan.com/george/ggprofile.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081109095618/http://www.georgegregan.com/george/ggprofile.html |archive-date=9 November 2008 |access-date=13 November 2008 |publisher=Georgegregan.com}}</ref><ref name="Courageous">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110717001407/http://www.thegoal.com/players/rugby/krige_corne/captain.html "Captain Courageous: Corné Krige"] {{webarchive|url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110726204312/http://www.thegoal.com/players/rugby/krige_corne/captain.html|date=26 July 2011}}, ''TheGoal.com'', retrieved 26 June 2006.</ref><ref name="SA World Cup 2003">[http://sport.guardian.co.uk/rugbyworldcup2003/story/0,,1054302,00.html "Rugby Union World Cup Special Reports: South Africa"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119034506/http://sport.guardian.co.uk/rugbyworldcup2003/story/0,,1054302,00.html|date=19 January 2008}}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', 6 October 2003.</ref> * The former [[:en:Zimbabwe_national_cricket_team|Zimbabwe]] [[:en:Cricketer|cricketer]] [[:en:Henry_Olonga|Henry Olonga]] was also born in Lusaka. He was the first black cricketer – and the youngest person – to play for Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 September 1999 |title=Henry Olonga- a short biography |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/zimbabwe/content/story/83938.html |access-date=4 September 2018 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> * Lusaka is the hometown and place of residence of [[:en:Joseph_and_Luka_Banda|Joseph and Luka Banda]], the first [[:en:Conjoined_twins|conjoined twins]] to be successfully separated by [[:en:Ben_Carson|Ben Carson]] and his team.<ref name="Terris13Nov">{{cite news|last1=Terris|first1=Ben|last2=Kirchner|first2=Stephanie|title=The Story of the Surgery that made Ben Carson Famous|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/the-story-of-the-surgery-that-made-ben-carson-famous--and-its-complicated-aftermath/2015/11/13/15b5f900-88c1-11e5-be39-0034bb576eee_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=13 November 2015|access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> * Former professional [[:en:Association_football|footballer]] [[:en:Enock_Mwepu|Enock Mwepu]] was born in Lusaka. * Zambian model [[:en:Lukundo_Nalungwe|Lukundo Nalungwe]] grew up in Lusaka. == Wonaniso == {{portal|Zambia|Cities}} * [[:en:Southern_Africa_Freedom_Trail|Southern Africa Freedom Trail]] * [[:en:Kafue_Railway_Bridge|Kafue Railway Bridge]] (railway bridge from [[:en:Livingstone,_Zambia|Livingstone]] to Lusaka) * [[:en:Komboni|Komboni]] == Vyakulemba == <references group="lower-alpha" responsive="1"></references> == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Bibliography == * {{cite book|last1=Auzias|first1=Dominique|last2=Labourdette|first2=Jean-Paul|publisher=Petit Futé|year=2017|title=Zambie – Escapade au Malawi|language=fr|isbn=979-1-03314-501-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gI0BDgAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book|author=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)|author-link=Central Intelligence Agency|year=2007|title=The World Factbook 2007|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=978-0-16-078580-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&pg=PA479|ref={{sfnref|CIA|2007}}}} * {{cite web |author=Central Statistical Office, Republic of Zambia |year=2017 |title=Research Paper on Provincial Gross Domestic Product |url=https://www.zamstats.gov.zm/phocadownload/National_Accounts/RESEARCH%20PAPER%20ON%20PROVINCIAL%20GROSS%20DOMESTIC%20PRODUCT.pdf |access-date=12 July 2021 |ref={{sfnref|Central Statistical Office|2017}}}} * {{cite web |author=Central Statistical Office, Republic of Zambia |year=2018 |title=Zambia in Figures |url=https://www.zamstats.gov.zm/phocadownload/Dissemination/Zambia%20in%20Figure%202018.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712183520/https://www.zamstats.gov.zm/phocadownload/Dissemination/Zambia%20in%20Figure%202018.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2021 |access-date=12 July 2021 |ref={{sfnref|Central Statistical Office|2018}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Chigudu|first=Andrew|year=2021|title=The Changing Institutional and Legislative Planning Framework of Zambia and Zimbabwe: Nuances for Urban Development|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104941|volume=100|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343213616|journal=Land Use Policy|page=104941|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last=Chongo|first=Clarence|year=2016|title=A Good Measure of Sacrifice: Aspects of Zambia's Contribution to the Liberation Wars in Southern Africa, 1964-1975|journal=Zambia Social Science Journal|volume=6|number=1|at=Article 3}} * {{cite journal|last=Clough|first=G.D.|title=The Constitutional Changes in Northern Rhodesia and Matters Incidental to the Transition|journal=Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law|year=1924|series=3|volume=6|number=4|pages=278–282|publisher=Cambridge University Press on behalf of the British Institute of International and Comparative Law|jstor=752781|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/752781}} * {{cite journal|last=Fagan|first=B.M.|title=A Collection of Nineteenth-Century Soli Ironwork from the Lusaka Area of Northern Rhodesia|year=1961|volume=91|number=2|journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|pages=228–250|doi=10.2307/2844415|jstor=2844415|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2844415}} * {{cite journal|last=Fox|first=H. Wilson|title=The Cape-to-Cairo Railway and Train Ferries|journal=The Geographical Journal|date=February 1920|volume=55|number=2|pages=73–101|publisher=The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)|doi=10.2307/1781582|jstor=1781582|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1781582}} * {{cite journal|last=Frischkorn|first=Rebecca|journal=Economic Anthropology|year=2015|volume=2|pages=205–223|title=Political Economy of Control: Urban Refugees and the Regulation of Space in Lusaka, Zambia|doi=10.1002/sea2.12025}} * {{cite book|last1=Grönwall|first1=Jenny T.|last2=Mulenga|first2=Martin|last3=McGranahan|first3=Gordon|title=Groundwater, self-supply and poor urban dwellers: A review with case studies of Bangalore and Lusaka|publisher=[[International Institute for Environment and Development]]|year=2010}} * {{cite journal|last=Hansen|first=Karen Tranberg|title=Lusaka's Squatters: Past and Present|journal=African Studies Review|year=1982|volume=25|number=2–3|pages=117–136|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.2307/524213|jstor=524213|s2cid=145505993|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/524213}} * {{cite journal|last=Hamonga|first=Paul|title=Lusaka|journal=[[BBC Focus on Africa]]|publisher=BBC African Service|year=1996|volume=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZUtAQAAIAAJ}} * {{cite journal|last=Hunt|first=B.L.|volume=4|number=1|year=1959|title=Kalomo–Livingstone in 1907|journal=[[Northern Rhodesia Journal]]|publisher=Northern Rhodesian Government Printer}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Home|editor-first=Robert|isbn=978-0-415-82868-0|title=Lusaka: The New Capital of Northern Rhodesia|publisher=Routledge|year=2013}} * {{cite journal|last=Katzenellenbogen|first=Simon|title=Zambia and Rhodesia: Prisoners of the Past: A Note on the History of Railway Politics in Central Africa|journal=African Affairs|date=January 1974|volume=73|number=290|pages=63–66|publisher=Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal African Society|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a096455|jstor=720981|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/720981}} * {{cite journal|last=Lunn|first=Jon|title=The Political Economy of Primary Railway Construction in the Rhodesias, 1890-1911|journal=The Journal of African History|year=1992|volume=33|number=2|pages=239–254|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S0021853700032229|jstor=183000|s2cid=162300534|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/183000}} * {{cite book|author1=Lusaka City Council|author2=Environmental Council of Zambia|year=2008|title=Lusaka City State of Environment Report|isbn=978-9982-861-01-4}} * {{cite book|last=McIntyre|first=Chris|year=2016|title=Zambia – The Bradt Travel Guide|edition=6th|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1-78477-012-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=69c5DAAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Muchimba|first=Jerry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i1_9CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA213|title=Godfrey 'Ucar' Chitalu|year=2015|publisher=Troubador Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-1-78462-220-6}} * {{cite web |last=Mulenga |first=Chileshe L. |year=2003 |title=Urban slums reports: The case of Lusaka, Zambia |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620125930/https://www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu-projects/Global_Report/pdfs/Lusaka.pdf |access-date=12 June 2021 |work=Understanding Slums: Case Studies for the Global Report on Human Settlements |publisher=Institute of Economic and Social Research, [[University of Zambia]] |via=[[University College London]]}} * {{cite book|last=Mulenga|first=Chileshe L.|title=The State of Food Insecurity in Lusaka, Zambia: Issue 19 of Urban food security series|publisher=Southern African Migration Programme|year=2016|isbn=978-1-92059-710-8}} * {{cite journal|last1=Mulenga|first1=Lloyd B.|last2=Hines|first2=Jonas Z.|last3=Fwoloshi|first3=Sombo|last4=Chirwa|first4=Lameck|last5=Siwingwa|first5=Mpanji|last6=Yingst|first6=Samuel|last7=Wolkon|first7=Adam|last8=Barradas|first8=Danielle T.|last9=Favaloro|first9=Jennifer|last10=Zulu|first10=James E.|last11=Banda|first11=Dabwitso|last12=Nikoi|first12=Kotey I.|last13=Kampamba|first13=Davies|last14=Banda|first14=Ngawo|last15=Chilopa|first15=Batista|last16=Hanunka|first16=Brave|last17=Stevens Jr.|first17=Thomas L.|last18=Shibemba|first18=Aaron|last19=Mwale|first19=Consity|last20=Sivile|first20=Suilanji|last21=Zyambo|first21=Khozya D.|last22=Makupe|first22=Alex|last23=Kapina|first23=Muzala|last24=Mweemba|first24=Aggrey|last25=Sinyange|first25=Nyambe|last26=Kapata|first26=Nathan|last27=Zulu|first27=Paul M.|last28=Chanda|first28=Duncan|last29=Mupeta|first29=Francis|last30=Chilufya|first30=Chitalu|last31=Mukonka|first31=Victor|last32=Agolory|first32=Simon|last33=Malama|first33=Kennedy|year=2021|title=Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in six districts in Zambia in July, 2020: a cross-sectional cluster sample survey|volume=9|doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00053-X|journal=The Lancet Global Health|issue=6|pages=e773–e781|pmid=33711262|pmc=8382844|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349972689|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last1=Mandyata|first1=Chomba Brian|last2=Olowski|first2=Linda Kampata|last3=Mutale|first3=Wilbroad|title=Challenges of implementing the integrated disease surveillance and response strategy in Zambia: a health worker perspective|journal=BMC Public Health|date=December 2017|volume=17|issue=1|pages=746|doi=10.1186/s12889-017-4791-9|pmid=28950834|pmc=5615443}} * {{cite journal|last=Mutunda|first=Sylvester|year=2007|journal=The International Journal of Language Society and Culture|editor1-first=Thao|editor1-last=Lê|editor2-first=Quynh|editor2-last=Lê|issn=1327-774X|title=Language Behavior in Lusaka: The Use of Nyanja Slang}} * {{cite journal|last1=Mwape|first1=Lonia|last2=Sikwese|first2=Alice|last3=Kapungwe|first3=Augustus|last4=Mwanza|first4=Jason|last5=Flisher|first5=Alan|last6=Lund|first6=Crick|last7=Cooper|first7=Sara|title=Integrating mental health into primary health care in Zambia: a care provider's perspective|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|date=2010|volume=4|issue=1|pages=21|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-21|pmid=20653981|pmc=2919445}} * {{cite book|last=Myers|first=Garth A.|editor-last1=Loeb|editor-first1=Carolyn|editor-last2=Luescher|editor-first2=Andreas|chapter=Remaking the Edges: Surveillance and Flows in Sub-Saharan Africa's New Suburbs|title=The Design of Frontier Spaces: Control and Ambiguity|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-1-31703-607-4}} * {{cite book|last1=Myers|first1=Garth A.|last2=Subulwa|first2=Angela G.|chapter=The Cityscapes of Lusaka and Mongu: Narrating National Symbolism in Zambia|editor1-last=Diener|editor1-first=Alexander C.|editor2-last=Hagen|editor2-first=Joshua|title=The City as Power: Urban Space, Place, and National Identity|url=https://archive.org/details/cityaspowerurban0000unse|year=2018|isbn=9781538118276}} * {{cite journal|last=Ranger|first=Terence|title=Making Northern Rhodesia Imperial: Variations on a Royal Theme, 1924-1938|journal=African Affairs|date=July 1980|volume=79|number=316|pages=349–373|publisher=Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal African Society|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097229|jstor=722045|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/722045}} * {{cite journal|last=Roberts|first=Andrew D.|title=Notes towards a Financial History of Copper Mining in Northern Rhodesia|journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies|year=1982|volume=16|number=2|pages=347–359|publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Canadian Association of African Studies|doi=10.2307/484302|jstor=484302|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/484302}} * {{cite web |author=United Nations |author-link=United Nations |year=2011 |title=An Investment Guide to Zambia: Opportunities and Conditions |url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/diaepcb201008_en.pdf |access-date=12 July 2021}} * {{cite journal|editor-last=Winchester|editor-first=Clarence|publisher=Amalgamated Press|url=https://www.railwaywondersoftheworld.com/rhodesia-railways.html|title=Progress in Rhodesia: An important railway system in the heart of Africa|journal=Railway Wonders of the World|date=2 August 1935|volume=27|ref={{sfnref|Winchester|1935a}}}} * {{cite journal|editor-last=Winchester|editor-first=Clarence|publisher=Amalgamated Press|url=https://www.railwaywondersoftheworld.com/rhodesia-railways.html|title=Progress in Rhodesia: An important railway system in the heart of Africa|journal=Railway Wonders of the World|date=9 August 1935|volume=28|ref={{sfnref|Winchester|1935b}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Wragg|first1=Emma|last2=Lim|first2=Regina|year=2014|title=Urban visions from Lusaka, Zambia|volume=46|journal=Habitat International|pages=260–270|doi=10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.10.005}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == {{Commons category|Lusaka}} * {{Wikivoyage-inline|Lusaka}} * [http://www.lcc.gov.zm/ Lusaka City Council] * [http://www.zambiatourism.com/travel/cities/lusaka.htm Zambia Tourism page on Lusaka] {{List of African capitals}}{{Largest cities of Zambia}}{{Authority control}}<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> 05qvvarx9ytcouvogp5dbdf2up6xtk3 0 26515 122343 119324 2026-09-25T00:29:38Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 5 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122343 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Chinese philosopher and politician (551–479 BCE)}}{{Nkhani iwemi}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Infobox philosopher|name=Confucius|native_name={{nobold|孔子}}|region=[[Chinese philosophy]]|era=[[Hundred Schools of Thought]]<br />([[Ancient philosophy]])|image=Confucius Tang Dynasty.jpg|caption=Imaginary portrait by [[Wu Daozi]] (685–758), [[Tang dynasty]]|birth_name=Kǒng Qiū|birth_date={{circa|551 BCE}}|birth_place=Zou, [[Lu (state)|State of Lu]]<br />(modern-day {{ill|南辛镇|zh|lt=Nanxin}}, [[Qufu]], [[Shandong]], [[China]])|death_date={{circa|479 BCE}} (aged 71–72)|death_place=[[Si River]], [[Lu (state)|State of Lu]]|death_cause=|resting_place=[[Cemetery of Confucius]], [[Lu (state)|State of Lu]]|resting_place_coordinates=|spouse=[[Lady Qiguan]]|partner=|children=[[Kong Li]] (son) <br /> Kong Jiao (daughter)|family=[[Shuliang He]] (father) <br /> [[Yan Zhengzai]] (mother)|school_tradition=[[Confucianism]]|notable_students=[[Yan Hui]], [[Zengzi]]<br />[[Disciples of Confucius]]|main_interests=[[Moral philosophy|Ethics]], [[education]], [[music]],<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|last=Kirkendall|first=Jensen Armstrong|title=The Well-Ordered Heart: Confucius on Harmony, Music, and Ritual|url=https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/998/2018/11/JensenKirkendall-TheWellOrderedHeart.pdf|date=2017-12-14|access-date=2021-04-13|archive-date=2021-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413045728/https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/998/2018/11/JensenKirkendall-TheWellOrderedHeart.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[poetry]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cai|first=Zong-qi|title=In Quest of Harmony: Plato and Confucius on Poetry|journal=Philosophy East and West|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399898|date=July 1999|volume=49|issue=3|pages=317–345|doi=10.2307/1399898|jstor=1399898|access-date=2021-04-13|archive-date=2021-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601212134/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399898|url-status=live}}</ref> [[political philosophy]], [[Social philosophy]]|influences={{flatlist| * Cultural values of the [[Xia dynasty|Xia]], [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Western Zhou dynasty|Western Zhou dynasties]]{{sfn|Fung|2008|p=163}} * ''[[I Ching]]'' * ''[[Book of Rites]]'' * ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' }}|influenced={{longitem|Virtually all subsequent [[Chinese philosophy]], particularly [[Mencius]], [[Xun Kuang]], [[Zhu Xi]], [[Wang Yangming|Wang Shouren]], the [[Neotaoism|Neotaoists]], as well as [[Han Yu]] and the [[Neoconfucianism|Neoconfucians]]. Also influenced multiple [[Western philosophy|Western thinkers]] including [[Niels Bohr]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Allinson|first=Robert E.|title=Complementarity as a Model for Eastwest Integrative Philosophy |url=https://philarchive.org/archive/ROBCAA-5v1|date=December 1998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Christianity and Confucianism: Culture, Faith and Politics|date=2020|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKYFEAAAQBAJ&q=niels+bohr+confucius+schiller+only+wholeness+leads+to+clarity&pg=PA382|location=[[London, United Kingdom]]|page=382|isbn=9780567657688|access-date=2021-05-03|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809162059/https://books.google.com/books?id=xKYFEAAAQBAJ&q=niels+bohr+confucius+schiller+only+wholeness+leads+to+clarity&pg=PA382|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holton|first=Gerald|title=Niels Bohr and the Integrity of Science: Integrity in science involves not merely the avoidance of dishonorable behavior but also some principles of action that are exemplified in the life and work of Niels Bohr|journal=American Scientist|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27854096|date=June 1986|volume=74|issue=3|pages=237–243|jstor=27854096|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161834/https://www.jstor.org/stable/27854096|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Benjamin Franklin]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wang|first=Dave|title=Benjamin Franklin and China|url=http://www.benfranklin300.org/_etc_pdf/franklinchina.pdf|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411003104/http://www.benfranklin300.org/_etc_pdf/franklinchina.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Hornung|first=Alfred|title=Confucius and Benjamin Franklin: Chinese Ideas in the Foundation of the United States|url=https://owllife.kennesaw.edu/event/2893541|date=November 2018|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411003104/https://owllife.kennesaw.edu/event/2893541|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Confucius and Benjamin Franklin|url=https://larouchepub.com/eiw/public/2017/eirv44n17-20170428/33-34_4417.pdf|date=2017-04-28|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725073702/https://larouchepub.com/eiw/public/2017/eirv44n17-20170428/33-34_4417.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Allen Ginsberg]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ginsberg and China|url=https://allenginsberg.org/2017/09/s-s-9/|date=9 September 2017|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412010951/https://allenginsberg.org/2017/09/s-s-9/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Brian|title=Modernist Looking: Surreal Impressions in the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg|journal=Texas Studies in Literature and Language|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40928069|date=September 2010|volume=52|issue=3|pages=298–323|doi=10.1353/tsl.2010.0003|jstor=40928069|s2cid=162063608|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161613/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40928069|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Chan|first=Tsz Shan|title=Visions of Enlightenment: Aspects of Buddhism in Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48550408.pdf|date=January 2011|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412010948/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48550408.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Thomas Jefferson]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burstein|first=Andrew|title=Review: Jefferson in Confucian Relief|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25096753|date=October 2007|jstor=25096753|journal=[[William and Mary Quarterly]]|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161930/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25096753|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Confucius influenced America's founding fathers: scholar|url=http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2017-09/26/content_41649958.htm|date=2017-09-26|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161834/http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2017-09/26/content_41649958.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Thompson|first=Kirill|title=Traditional Chinese Concepts and 17th–18th Century Enlightenment Ideals: Reflections on the IHS Conference on Freedom, Equality, Democracy, and the Rise of Market Economy, October 2015|url=http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~ntuihs/10publications02_3806kirill.htm|date=October 2015|access-date=2021-01-01|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412010950/http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~ntuihs/10publications02_3806kirill.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[Robert Cummings Neville]], [[Alexander Pope]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Warburton|first=William|title=The works of Alexander Pope ... With notes by Dr. Warburton, and ilustrations on steel by eminent artists. From designs by Weigall, Heath, & others.|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&view=text&rgn=main&idno=ABJ8179.0001.001|date=1779|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2022-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121173839/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&view=text&rgn=main&idno=ABJ8179.0001.001|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Feng|first=Dong|title=The Great Harmony: An Essay on Man and Confucianism|url=https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/86514/1/2(1)p53-97.pdf|date=December 2008|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411181331/https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/86514/1/2(1)p53-97.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ezra Pound]], [[François Quesnay]], [[Friedrich Schiller]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danton|first=George|title=Schiller and Confucius|journal=The German Quarterly|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/400763|date=November 1943|volume=16|issue=4|pages=173–182|doi=10.2307/400763|jstor=400763|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161803/https://www.jstor.org/stable/400763|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiller|first=Friedrich|title=Proverbs of Confucius|journal=The Open Court|url=https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/ocj/vol1905/iss5/9/|date=2010-11-18|volume=1905|issue=5|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412010950/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/ocj/vol1905/iss5/9/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Von Schiller|first=Johann Christian Friedrich|title=Proverbs of Confucius|url=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/proverbs-confucius-1access=date-2021-03-02}}{{Dead link|date=May 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Voltaire]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=China, the Confucian Ideal, and the European Age of Enlightenment|url=https://moodle2.units.it/pluginfile.php/198219/mod_resource/content/1/Davis_China%2C%20the%20Confucian%20Ideal%2C%20and%20the%20European%20Age%20of%20Enlightenment_JHI_1983.pdf|date=December 1983|access-date=2021-04-10|archive-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410160144/https://moodle2.units.it/pluginfile.php/198219/mod_resource/content/1/Davis_China,%20the%20Confucian%20Ideal,%20and%20the%20European%20Age%20of%20Enlightenment_JHI_1983.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rowbotham|first=Arnold H.|title=Voltaire, Sinophile|journal=PMLA|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/457929|date=December 1932|volume=47|issue=4|pages=1050–1065|doi=10.2307/457929|jstor=457929|s2cid=251028175 |access-date=2021-04-10|archive-date=2021-05-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503044603/https://www.jstor.org/stable/457929|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bailey|first=Paul|title=Voltaire and Confucius: French attitudes towards China in the early twentieth century|journal=History of European Ideas|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/019165999290168C|date=2002-07-19|volume=14|issue=6|pages=817–837|doi=10.1016/0191-6599(92)90168-C|access-date=2021-04-10|archive-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410160142/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/019165999290168C|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]]}}|notable_ideas=[[Confucianism]], [[Silver Rule]]}} {{Infobox Chinese||pic=Kongzi (Chinese characters).svg|piccap="Confucius (''Kǒngzǐ'')" in [[seal script]] (top) and [[kaishu|regular]] (bottom) Chinese characters|picupright=0.425|c={{linktext|孔子}}|l="Master Kǒng"|p=Kǒngzǐ|bpmf=ㄎㄨㄥˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄗˇ|w=Kʻung³-tzŭ³|mi={{IPAc-cmn|k|ong|2|.|zi|3}}|gr=Koongtzyy|myr=Kǔngd|j=Hung2zi2|y=Húngjí|ci={{IPAc-yue|h|ung|2|.|z|i|2}}|wuu=Khon-tzy|poj=Khóng-chú|tl=Khóng-tsú|mc=khúwng tsí|oc-b92=*{{IPA|khongʔ tsɨʔ}}|oc-bs=*{{IPA|[k]ʰˤoŋʔ tsəʔ}}|altname=Kong Qiu|c2={{linktext|孔|丘}}|p2=Kǒng Qiū|bpmf2=ㄎㄨㄥˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄑㄧㄡ|w2=Kʻung³ Chʻiu¹|mi2={{IPAc-cmn|k|ong|3|-|q|you|1}}|gr2=Koong Chiou|myr2=Kǔng Chyōu|j2=Hung2 Jau1|ci2={{IPAc-yue|h|ung|2|-|j|au|1}}|y2=Húng Yāu|h2=Kung³ Hiu¹|poj2=Khóng Khiu|tl2=Khóng Khiu|wuu2=Khon Chieu|mc2=K^húwng K^hjuw|oc-bs2=*{{IPA|[k]ʰˤoŋʔ [k]ʷʰə}}|showflag=p|hanja=|hangul=|rr=|mr=|koreanipa={{IPA-ko|ko(ː)ŋ.dʑa|}}|kanji=|hiragana=|romaji=|vie=|hn=孔子}} '''Confucius''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ən|ˈ|f|j|uː|ʃ|ə|s}} {{respell|kən|FEW|shəs}}; {{lang-zh|s={{linktext|孔|夫|子}}|p=Kǒng Fūzǐ}}, "'''Master Kǒng'''"; or commonly {{lang-zh|s={{linktext|孔|子}}|p=Kǒngzǐ|labels=no}}; {{circa|551}} – {{circa|479 BCE}}) wakaŵa wavinjeru na wandale wa ku [[China]] wa nyengo ya [[Chigumula]] na Chigumula uyo kanandi wakuwoneka nga ni munthu wakuzirwa chomene pa ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵa ku China. Visambizgo vya Confucius na vinjeru vyake ndivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku East Asia ŵakhalenge makora.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Life and Significance of Confucius |url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/confucius.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227143137/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/confucius.htm |archive-date=2019-12-27 |access-date=2017-09-27 |website=www.sjsu.edu}}</ref> Confucius wakajiwonanga kuti ni munthu uyo wakachitanga vinthu ivyo vikaŵa mu nyengo yakale, kweni wakati ŵanthu ŵakavileka. Visambizgo vyake vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu, ivyo vikumanyikwa kuti Confucianism, vikayowoyanga chomene za nkharo yiwemi ya munthu na ya boma, umo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kucitira vinthu, urunji, lusungu, na kugomezgeka. Ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakasuskananga na masukulu ghanyake ghanandi mu nyengo ya Masukulu Ghakukwana 100 gha Maghanoghano. Ufumu wa Qin ukati wabwangandulika, ndipo ufumu wa Han ukati watonda boma la Chu, fundo za Confucius zikazomerezgeka na boma liphya. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵa Tang na Song, chisopa cha Confucian chikamba kuwoneka ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Chisopa cha Confucius chikaŵa chigaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵa ku China. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuti Confucius ndiyo wakalemba panji kung'anamura mabuku ghanandi gha ku China, kusazgapo mabuku gha Classics ghankhondi. Vinyake ivyo wakasambizganga vikaŵa vyakale chomene.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophers of the Warring States |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/ancient-medieval/zhou-qin-han-china/a/the-philosophers-of-the-warring-states |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=[[Khan Academy]] |language=en}}</ref> Mu buku la Analects mukalembeka mazgu ghakukhwaskana na visambizgo vyake, kweni ghakalembeka pati pajumpha vyaka vinandi kufuma apo wakafwira. Fundo za Confucius zikuyana na za ŵanthu ŵa ku China. Cifukwa ca kutemwa comene Ciuta, wakaciska kuti mbumba yiŵe yakugomezgeka, ŵana ŵawo ŵacindikenge ŵapapi ŵawo, ndipo ŵawoli ŵawo ŵacindikenge ŵacekuru. Iyo wakazomera fundo yakuti: "Lekani kuchitira ŵanyinu ivyo mungatemwa yayi kuti ŵamuchitirani". == Zina == {{anchor|Etymology|Name|Titles}} Zina lakuti "Confucius" lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chilatini lakuti Kǒng Fūzǐ (孔夫子, "Master Kong"), ndipo likaŵako m'ma 1500. Zina la mbumba ya Confucius likaŵa Kong ({{Old Chinese|kʰˤoŋʔ|孔|suppress_reconstruction_link=yes|show_lang=no}}) Zina lake lakwamba likaŵa Qiu({{Old Chinese|[k]ʷʰə|丘|suppress_reconstruction_link=yes|show_lang=no}}). Zina lake lakuti Zhongni, ilo likwenera kuti ndilo ŵanthu wose ŵakamumanyanga, likaŵa lakuti Zhongni ({{Old Chinese|N-‍truŋ-‍s nr[əj]|仲尼|suppress_reconstruction_link=yes|show_lang=no}}), "Zhòng" wakulongora kuti wakaŵa mwana wachiŵiri mu mbumba yake.{{sfn|Nivison|1999|p=752}}{{sfn|Wilkinson|2015|p=133}} {{anchor|Biography|History}} == Umoyo == === Umoyo wakwamba === [[File:Chinese_plain_5c._BC-en.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_plain_5c._BC-en.svg|left|thumb|300x300px|Lu wakuwoneka kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa China.]] Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Confucius wakababika pa Seputembala 28, 551 B.C.E., mu msumba wa Zou. Chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha mathemba gha ku Zhou, kweni chikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Lu, awo ŵakalamuliranga kufuma ku msumba wa Qufu. Dada wake Kong He (panji Shuliang He) wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Lu. Mbumba yake yikamba kufuma ku fuko la Song m'paka ku fuko la Shang ilo likaŵako pambere fuko la Zhou lindaŵeko. Nkhani za umoyo wa Confucius zikulongora kuti sekuru wa Kong He wakasamuska mbumba yake kufuma ku Song kuya ku Lu. Ŵasambiri wose ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakugomezga yayi kuti Confucius wakafuma mu mbumba ya Song. Kong wakafwa apo Confucius wakaŵa na vilimika vitatu, ndipo Confucius wakalereka na anyina Yan Zhengzai (顏徵在) mu ukavu. Pamasinda, anyina ŵakafwa apo ŵakaŵa na vilimika 40. Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 19, wakatora mwanakazi munyake zina lake Qiguan, ndipo pakati pajumpha chaka, ŵakaŵa na mwana wawo wakwamba, Kong Li. Qiguan na Confucius ŵakaŵa na ŵana ŵasungwana ŵaŵiri, yumoza wakafwa apo wakaŵa mwana ndipo munyake zina lake wakaŵa Kong Jiao. Confucius wakasambira mu masukulu gha ŵanthu bweka, uko wakasambiranga maluso 6. Confucius wakababikira mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka shi (士). Ŵakayowoya kuti wakagwiranga nchito zinandi za boma apo wakaŵa na vyaka vya m'ma 20, kweniso wakaŵa wakulemba mabuku na kupwelelera mberere na mahachi. Para anyina ŵafwa, Confucius (wa vilimika 23) wakayowoyeka kuti wakalira kwa vilimika vitatu, nga ni umo ŵakacitiranga kale.<ref name="buryl">{{cite book|last1=Burgan|first1=Michael|title=Confucius: Chinese Philosopher and Teacher|date=2008|publisher=Capstone|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vM8GCpBncjEC&pg=PT12|access-date=August 12, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416230252/https://books.google.com/books?id=vM8GCpBncjEC&pg=PT12|archive-date=April 16, 2017|isbn=978-0-7565-3832-3}}</ref> === Ndale === Mu nyengo ya Confucius, ufumu wa Lu ukalongozgekanga na mbumba ya mafumu. Mu nyumba ya kazembe mukaŵa mbumba zitatu za ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika. Mbumba ya Ji yikaŵa na udindo wa "Nduna ya Ŵanthu", iyo yikaŵaso "Nduna Yikuru". Mbumba ya Meng yikaŵa na udindo wa "Nduna ya Ntchito". Mu cihanya ca {{BCE|505}}, Muwukirano munyake, zina lake Yang Hu, wakawukira mbumba ya Ji na kupoka mazaza. Ndipouli, mu cihanya ca {{BCE|501}}, Mbumba zitatu izi zikaŵa kuti zafumiska Yang Hu mu Lu. Pa nyengo iyi, Confucius wakaŵa kuti wamanyikwa comene cifukwa ca visambizgo vyake, ndipo mbumba zikamanya kuzirwa kwa nkharo yiwemi na urunji, mwakuti zileke kugomezgeka ku boma. Ntheura, mu caka ici, Confucius wakasankhika kuŵa kazembe wa msumba. Pamanyuma, wakazgoka nduna yakuwona vya vigeŵenga. Confucius wakakhumbanga kuwezgera mazaza gha boma kwa fumu mwa kuwuskapo vigongwe vya msumba ivyo vikaŵa vya mbumba zitatu. Mu nthowa iyi, wangakhazikiska boma lakuŵa na mazaza. Ndipouli, Confucius wakagomezganga waka pa ndyali cifukwa wakaŵa na mazaza yayi pa nkhani ya nkhondo. Mu {{BCE|500}}, Hou Fan, kazembe wa Hou, wakagalukira fumu yake ya mbumba ya Shu. Nangauli mbumba za Meng na Shu zikatondeka kuzingilizga Hou, kweni munthu munyake wakugomezgeka wakawukira ŵanthu ŵa Hou na kuchichizga Hou Fan kuti wachimbilire ku chigaŵa cha Qi. Vinthu vikwenera kuti vikamwendera makora Confucius cifukwa ici cikapangiska kuti Confucius na ŵasambiri ŵake ŵakhorweske ŵanthu ŵacindami kuti ŵaparanyenge mizi yawo. Paumaliro, pamanyuma pa cilimika cimoza na hafu, Confucius na ŵasambiri ŵake ŵakakhorweska mbumba ya Shu kuti yiparanye viliŵa vya Hou, mbumba ya Ji kuti yiparanye viliŵa vya Bi, ndipo mbumba ya Meng kuti yiparanye viliŵa vya Cheng. Cakwamba, mbumba ya Shu yikalongozga ŵasilikari kuluta ku msumba wawo wa Hou na kubwangandura viliŵa vyake. mu {{BCE|498}}.{{sfn|Dubs|1946|p=277}} {{multiple image|align=right|image1=Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|width1=200|alt1=|caption1=|image2=Confucius and Laozi, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|width2=220|alt2=|caption2=|footer=Fresco ya kumadzulo kwa Han (BCE 202) yojambula Confucius (ndi Laozi), kuchokera ku manda a Dongping County, chigawo cha Shandong, China}} SPamanyuma pake, Gongshan Furao (uyo wakumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Gongshan Buniu), uyo wakaŵa wa mbumba ya Ji, wakawukira na kuwusa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Bi. Nyengo yeneyiyo wakawukira msumba wa Lu. Kumanyuma uku, Gongshan wakaluta kwa Confucius kuti waŵe nayo lumoza, ndipo Confucius wakawona kuti ni mwaŵi wakwendeskera fundo zake, kweni paumaliro wakaleka. Confucius wakazomerezga yayi kuti ŵanthu ŵachitenge viwawa, nangauli mbumba ya Ji yikaŵa na mazaza pa boma la Lu kwa vyaka vinandi. Creel (1949) wakayowoya kuti, mwakupambana na muwukirano Yang Hu, Gongshan wakwenera kuti wakakhumbanga kuparanya mbumba zitatu zakuthupi na kuwezgerapo mazaza gha fumu. Ndipouli, Dubs (1946) wakayowoya kuti Viscount Ji Huan ndiyo wakachiska Gongshan kuti waparanyenge linga la Bi. Mulimose umo vinthu vikaŵira, Gongshan wakawonekanga kuti ni munthu wakunyoloka uyo wakalutilira kuvikilira boma la Lu, nangauli wakacimbira. Pa nyengo ya kugaluka kwa Gongshan, Zhong You wakasunga kazembe na ma Viscount ghatatu pamoza pa nyumba ya ufumu. Zhong You wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵasambiri ŵa Confucius ndipo Confucius wakanozga vyakuti waŵe kazembe wa mbumba ya Ji. Confucius wakati wapulika za ciwukirano ici, wakapempha Viscount Ji Huan kuti wazomerezge kuti kazembe na nyumba yake yacifumu ŵafumemo mu nyumba yake. Pamanyuma, ŵalongozgi ŵa mbumba zitatu na fumu ŵakawelera ku nyumba ya fumu ya ku Ji na kukwelera ku Wuzi Terrace. Confucius wakaphalira ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri kuti ŵadangilire kuwukira ŵakugaluka. Pa ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri aŵa, yumoza wakaŵa muteŵeti wa mbumba ya Ji, kweni ŵakatondeka kukana ulongozgi uwu apo ŵakaŵapo na Duke, Viscounts, na khoti. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵalondezga na kuŵathereska pa nkhondo ya ku Gu. Nyengo yeneyiyo, mbumba ya Ji yikaparanya viliŵa vya msumba wa Bi. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakawelera nyuma ŵakati ŵamanya kuti ŵagalukirenge boma na fumu yawo. Kwizira mu ivyo Confucius wakacita, ŵalara ŵa boma la Bi ŵakagalukira fumu yawo, ntheura vikapangiska Viscount Ji Huan kuti waparanye viliŵa vya Bi (pakuti mphanyi vikaŵa na ŵakugaluka aŵa) panji kuzomera kuti ndiyo wakacitiska suzgo ili. Dubs (1949) wakayowoya kuti cakucitika ici cikavumbura umo Confucius wakawoneranga vinthu, maluso ghake gha ndyali, ndiposo umo wakawoneranga mikhaliro ya ŵanthu. Apo nyengo yikakwana yakuti ŵabwangandure viliŵa vya msumba wa Meng, kazembe wakakhumbanga yayi kuti viliŵa vya msumba wake vibwanganduke. Zuozhuan wakukumbuka kuti kazembe wakaphalira ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kubwangandura viliŵa vya msumba uwu, cifukwa wakati ichi chingapangiska kuti Cheng waŵe wambura kuvikilirika na boma la Qi. Nangauli Viscount Meng Yi wakalayizga kuti waleke kunjilirapo pa nkhondo, kweni wakaleka kufiska ivyo wakalayizga. Pamanyuma, Duke Ding wakalongozgana na ŵasilikari ŵake kukaka msumba wa Cheng, kweni wakatondeka. Ntheura, Confucius wakatondeka kufiska ivyo wakakhumbanga, kusazgapo kuwezgerapo muwuso wa fumu. Wakaŵa na ŵalwani ŵankhongono mu boma, comenecomene Viscount Ji Huan, cifukwa ca ivyo wakacita. Kuyana na buku la Zuozhuan na Shiji, Confucius wakafumako ku caru cake mu {{BCE|497}} after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families.{{sfn|Riegel|1986|p=13}} He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.<ref name="dubs46-281">{{Harvnb|Dubs|1946|loc=281}}.</ref> === Kuchimbizgika mu uzga === [[File:Journey_of_Confucius.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Journey_of_Confucius.png|left|thumb|300x300px|Mapu agho ghakulongora ulendo wa Confucius pakati pa 497 BCE na 484 BCE]] Shiji wakayowoya kuti boma la Qi ilo likaŵa pafupi nalo likafipanga mtima kuti Lu waŵenge wankhongono chomene apo Confucius wakaŵa mu boma la Lu. Kuyana na nkhani iyi, Qi wakakhumbanga kutimbanizga ndondomeko ya Lu mwa kutuma mahachi 100 na ŵasungwana 80 ŵakutowa kuti ŵakambe kuvina. Duke wakacitanga waka vyakusanguluska ndipo wakagwira nchito yayi kwa mazuŵa ghatatu. Confucius wakakhuŵara comene ndipo wakakhumbanga kuleka Lu na kupenja mwaŵi uwemi, kweni para wangafumapo mwaluŵiro mbwenu nkharo yiheni ya fumu yingavumbukwa. Ntheura Confucius wakalindilira kuti kazembe uyu wapange ubudi ucoko. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, kazembe uyu wakaleka kutuma kwa Confucius cigaŵa ca nyama iyo wakeneranga kupeleka sembe mwakuyana na kaluso, ndipo Confucius wakagwiliskira nchito mwaŵi uwu kuti waleke nchito yake na caru ca Lu. Confucius wakati wafumapo, wakamba ulendo utali kuzingilira vyaru vya kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa China. Ku makhoti gha mu vyaru ivi, wakalongosoranga vigomezgo vyake vya ndyali kweni wakaviwona yayi kuti vikufiskika.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient China: Confucius Biography |url=https://www.ducksters.com/history/china/confucius.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602174710/https://www.ducksters.com/history/china/confucius.php |archive-date=2022-06-02 |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=www.ducksters.com}}</ref> === Kuwelerani ku nyumba === [[File:Confuciustombqufu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Confuciustombqufu.jpg|thumb|Dindi la Confucius mu dindi la Kong Lin, Qufu, chigaŵa cha Shandong]] Buku la Zuozhuan likuti Confucius wakawelera kukwake ku Lu apo wakaŵa na vyaka 68, wati wachemeka na Ji Kangzi, nduna yikuru ya ku Lu. Buku la Analects likulongosora kuti mu vyaka vyake vyaumaliro wakasambizganga ŵasambiri 72 panji 77 na kuŵasambizga vinjeru vyakale. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Apo wakaweranga, Confucius wakawovwiranga ŵalara ŵa boma ku Lu, kusazgapo Ji Kangzi, pa nkhani za muwuso na kuswa malango. Wakaŵa na citima comene cifukwa ca nyifwa ya mwana wake na ŵasambiri ŵake, ndipo wakafwa na nthenda iyi apo wakaŵa na vilimika 71 panji 72. Confucius wakasungika mu dindi la Kong Lin ilo lili mu chigaŵa cha Qufu mu chigaŵa cha Shandong. Manda ghakwambilira agho ghakazengeka pa Mlonga wa Sishui, ghakaŵa ghakuyana na nkhwantha. Kweniso kunthazi kwa cikumbusko pali malo gha njerwa agho ŵanthu ŵakupelekerapo vyakununkhira na vipasi. == Filosofi == {{Confucianism}} {{Main|Confucianism}} Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵakulondezga cisopa ca Confucianism, kweni ŵanandi ŵakuti cisambizgo ici nchambura kuzomerezgeka na ŵantu. Ndipouli, awo ŵakukhozgera cisambizgo ici ŵakuti nangauli cisambizgo ca Confucian cikuyowoya vya caru, kweni cikujintha pa cisambizgo ca cisopa.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Berger|first=Peter|url=http://www.the-american-interest.com/2012/02/15/is-confucianism-a-religion/|title=Is Confucianism a Religion?|magazine=The American Interest|date=February 15, 2012|access-date=August 13, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817062142/http://www.the-american-interest.com/2012/02/15/is-confucianism-a-religion/|archive-date=August 17, 2015}}</ref> Chisopa cha Confucian chikudumbiskana vya umoyo wa munthazi na ivyo vikuchitika kuchanya, kweni chikuyowoyapo yayi vya vinthu vyauzimu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuviwona kuti ni vyakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya chisopa. Mu buku lake la Analects, Confucius wakujiyowoya kuti ni "munthu uyo wakapharazga kwambura kupanga cinthu". Iyo wakuŵika mtima comene pa nkhani ya kusambira, ndipo cilembo ca ku China ico cikung'anamura kusambira (學) ndico cikujura nkhani iyi. M'malo mwa kughanaghana vya kuzenga fundo za mu Baibolo, iyo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵasambiri ŵake ŵamanye makora mabuku ghakale chomene mwakuti ŵamanye umo ŵangalongosolera masuzgo agho ŵanthu ŵakukumana nagho mazuŵa ghano. === Makhaliro === {{Main|Confucian ethics}} [[File:Rongo_Analects_02.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rongo_Analects_02.jpg|left|thumb|Buku la Analects]] Cimoza mwa visambizgo vikuru comene vya Confucius cingaŵa cakuti ciyelezgero ca munthu yumoza nchakuzirwa comene kuluska malango ghakudunjika. Visambizgo vyake vya makhaliro vikayowoyanga comene za kujisambizga, kuyezga ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na makhaliro ghawemi, ndiposo kumanya umo munthu wangacitira vinthu m'malo mwa kumanya malango. Ntheura, fundo za Confucius zingawoneka nga ni za nkharo yiwemi. Visambizgo vyake vikuthemba pa fundo zakupulikikwa yayi, ndipo fundo zaurunji na nthowa zake zikuyowoyeka mwakudunjika yayi. Kuti tipulikiske ivyo wakasambizganga, tikwenera kusanda nkhani yose. Cakuwonerapo ciwemi nchakuti: {{blockquote|{{lang|zh|廄焚。子退朝，曰：傷人乎？不問馬。| size = 110% }} Apo viŵaya vikawotcheka, Confucius wakati wawerako ku nyumba yacifumu, wakati: "Kasi walipo uyo wapwetekeka?" Wakafumbapo yayi za mahachi.|''Analects'' X.11 (tr. [[Arthur Waley|Waley]]), 10–13 (tr. [[James Legge|Legge]]), or X-17 (tr. [[D.C. Lau|Lau]])}} Para Confucius wakuleka kufumba za mahachi, wakulongora kuti munthu wavinjeru wakuzirwiska chomene ŵanthu kuluska katundu. Yimoza mwa visambizgo vyake yikaŵa fundo yinyake ya mu Baibolo iyo yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti Golden Rule. {{blockquote|{{lang|zh|子貢問曰：有一言而可以終身行之者乎？子曰：其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。| size = 110% }} Zi Gong [musambiri] wakafumba kuti: "Kasi pali lizgu limoza ilo lingalongozga munthu mu umoyo wake wose?" Fumu yikazgora kuti: "Wuli pakuyowoya za 'kuwezgera'? Lekani kuphalira ŵanyinu vinthu ivyo imwe mungatemwa yayi".|''Analects'' XV.24, tr. David Hinton}} Kanandi ŵanthu awo ŵakulondezga fundo za Confucius ŵakuzirwiska yayi vinthu viwemi ivyo munthu wakuchita. Kucita vinthu viwemi na ŵanji kukwamba na kughanaghana vinthu viwemi na vyaunenesko. Munthu uyo wali na nkharo yiwemi kwambura kumanya vinthu, wangasuzgika, ndipo kucita nkharo yiwemi kwambura mtima wose ni urunji waunenesko yayi. Kuŵa na umanyi ndiposo mtima wakufikapo nkhwakuzirwa cifukwa ca munthu; munthu muwemi wakutemwa kusambira cifukwa ca kusambira ndiposo urunji cifukwa ca urunji. Fundo ya Confucius yakukhwaskana na nkharo, nga umo yiliri mu nkhani ya lǐ (禮), yikukolerana na fundo zitatu zakuzirwa za umoyo: (a) viphikiro vyakukhwaskana na kupeleka sembe ku ŵasekuru na ŵachiuta ŵamitundu yakupambanapambana, (b) vinthu vya ndyali na vya ndyali, na (c) nkharo ya zuŵa na zuŵa. Ŵanyake ŵakagomezganga kuti liyi likafuma kuchanya, kweni Confucius wakadidimizga kuti liyi likapangika na ŵanthu ŵavinjeru. Ivyo wakayowoya pa nkhani ya lǐ vikulongora kuti lizgu ili likung'anamura vinthu vyose ivyo munthu wakuchita kuti waŵe na umoyo uwemi. Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya Chikonfyushasi, lǐ wakachitanga vinthu vyakwenelera pa nyengo yakwenelera; wakayezganga kusungilira fundo izo zilipo kuti vinthu viŵe makora, na kuziphwanya kuti vinthu viŵe makora. Para munthu wakusambira mu Baibolo, wakuŵa na mikhaliro yiwemi iyo yikovwira kuti waŵe na nkharo yiwemi. Mu cisopa ca Confucian, lizgu lakuti li likuyana comene na lizgu lakuti yì (義), ilo likujintha pa fundo yakuti munthu wakuŵa wakuyana na munyake. Yì lingang'anamulika kuti urunji, nangauli lingang'anamura ico nchakwenelera kucita mu nyengo yinyake. Lizgu ili likupambana na ivyo munthu wakucita cifukwa ca kujighanaghanira yekha. Nangauli munthu wangaŵa muheni yayi usange wakulondezga vyakukhumba vyake pera, kweni wangaŵa muwemi ndiposo murunji usange wakulondezga nthowa iyo yikovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ntheura chilato cha yì nkhucita ico nchiwemi cifukwa ca cifukwa ciwemi. Nga umo kachitiro ka vinthu kuyana na lǐ kakwenera kukolerana na khumbo la kulondezga yì, ntheura yì wakukolerana na fundo yikuru ya rén (仁). Rén wali na mikhaliro yinkhondi yakuzirwa: kucita vinthu mwamahara, kuŵa na mtima wakupa, kuŵa wakugomezgeka, kulimbikira, na lusungu. Lizgu lakuti Rén likung'anamura kuti munthu wakucita makora milimo yake ku ŵanji, ndipo kanandi likung'anamulika kuti "lusungu", "mtima wacitemwa", panji "mtima wacitemwa". Fundo za Confucius zikukolerana na lusungu na kupulikiska ŵanji, m'malo mwa kulondezga malango gha Ciuta. Kuti munthu waŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera pa nkhani ya "rén" mwakuti wachitengepo kanthu mwamahara, chikaŵa chiwemi chomene kuluska kuŵa na nkharo ya "yi". Confucius wakati nkharo yiwemi njakwenelera. Mwachiyelezgero, munthu uyo ngwakupa wakupeleka mwakuyana na ndalama izo wakukhumbikwira, kweni wakupeleka zinandi yayi panji zichoko.<ref name="Bonevac09-40">{{Harvnb|Bonevac|Phillips|2009|loc=40}}.</ref> === Vya ndale === Fundo za Confucius za ndyali zikujintha pa fundo zaurunji. Wakayowoya kuti boma liwemi ni ilo likulongozga kwizira mu "maluso" (lǐ) na nkharo yiwemi ya ŵanthu. Wakalongosora kuti ici nchimoza mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa comene: "Usange ŵanthu ŵakulongozgeka na malango, ndipo ŵakukhumba kuti ŵalangike mwakuyana waka, ŵayezgenge kuti ŵaleke kulangika, kweni ŵakucita soni yayi. Usange ŵakulongozgeka na nkharo yiwemi, ndiposo usange ŵakukhumba kuti vinthu viŵayenderenge umo ŵakukhumbira, ŵazamukhozgeka soni yayi, kweniso ŵazamuŵa ŵarunji". (Ŵerengani 2.3, tr. M'malo mwake, ŵakasuzgikanga. "Mtima wa soni" uwu ni mulimo uwo munthu wakuchita, apo cilango cikulondezgapo yayi para wacita cinthu ciheni, kweni para wacita mwakuyana na dango. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Confucius wakalaŵiska ku mazuŵa ghakwambilira, ndipo wakaciska Ŵachinayi, comenecomene awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza gha ndyali, kuti ŵacitenge nga ni umo ŵakacitiranga kale. Mu nyengo iyo kukaŵa kugaŵikana, vivulupi, na nkhondo pakati pa ŵamazaza, iyo wakakhumbanga kuwezgerapo Ufumu wa Kuchanya (天命) uwo ukakolerananga "charu" (天下, "chose icho chili kusi ku kuchanya") na kupeleka mtende na usambazi ku ŵanthu. Chifukwa chakuti kawonero kake ka vinthu viwemi na vyakukondweska ŵanthu kakaŵa ka kuwuskako ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yakale, kanandi Confucius wakuwoneka kuti wakutemwa chomene vinthu vyachikale, kweni para tingawona mwakupwelelera ivyo wakuyowoya, tingamanya kuti wakagwiliskiranga ntchito malango na maluso gha mu nyengo yakale kuti waŵike maghanoghano ghake pa ndyali. Ŵazamuŵa ŵalongozgi awo ŵakujipeleka ku ŵanthu ŵawo, ŵakuyezgayezga kuti vinthu viŵayenderenge makora, ndipo ŵazamupharazga mikhaliro yiwemi m'malo mwa kuŵika malango na malango ghakwenelera. Nangauli Confucius wakakhozgera fundo yakuti fumu yiwemi ndiyo yilongozgenge boma, kweni fundo zake zikaŵa na fundo zinandi zakukanizgira ŵamazaza mazaza ghawo. Wakayowoya kuti unenesko ukwenera kulongosoreka mu kayowoyero, ndipo kugomezgeka nkhwakuzirwa comene. Nanga ni para munthu wakuyowoya, nyengo zose wakwenera kuyowoya unenesko. Confucius wakagomezganga kuti usange muwusi wakukhumba kulongozga makora, ntheura ntchakukhumbikwa yayi kuŵika malango. Pakuyowoya za ubwezi uwo ukaŵanga pakati pa fumu na ŵanthu ŵake (panji pakati pa dada na mwana wake), wakalongora kuti nchakuzirwa comene kucindika ŵamazaza. Ici cikang'anamuranga kuti awo ŵali pasi ŵakwenera kuphalira awo ŵakuŵalongozga usange ŵakuwona kuti ŵakucita cinthu ciheni. Confucius wakagomezganga kuti munthu wakwenera kulongora ciyelezgero ciwemi. Usange munthu wakulongozga makora, ntchakukhumbikwa yayi kumukanizga panji kumulanga.<ref>{{cite web |last=Violatti |first=Cristian |date=August 31, 2013 |title=Confucianism |url=http://www.worldhistory.org/Confucianism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818150049/http://www.worldhistory.org/Confucianism/ |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=August 17, 2015 |publisher=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref> === Sumu na ndakatulo === {{Main|Ritual and music system}} [[File:Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn Manuscript from Shanghai Museum 1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn Manuscript from Shanghai Museum 1.jpg|left|thumb|Shijing, panji Buku la Sumu]] Confucius wakaciska comene sumu kuti ziŵe zakovwira pakusopa. Nkhwantha yinyake zina lake Li Zehou, yikati cisopa ca Confucian cikujintha pa maluso. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti maluso agha ndigho ghakovwira munthu waliyose kuti waŵe na umoyo uwemi. Cifukwa ca fundo iyi, Confucius wakagomezganga kuti "nyimbo zikukolerana pakati pa kucanya na caru capasi; maluso ni ndondomeko ya kucanya na caru capasi". Mwantheura, kwimba sumu mu maluso kukupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora. Buku la Shijing na la Classic of Music ndilo likawovwira chomene ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye sumu za Confucius. Buku la Shijing ndimoza mwa mabuku ghakale chomene gha Chikonfyushasi. Ŵanthu ŵakuti Confucius ndiyo wakalemba mabuku agha. Mu buku lake la Analects, Confucius wakalongosora kuzirwa kwa luso pa umo ŵanthu ŵangakulira:<ref name="Confucius, The Analects - 17">{{Cite web |date=1901-12-13 |title=Confucius, The Analects - 17 |url=https://china.usc.edu/confucius-analects-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413045737/https://china.usc.edu/confucius-analects-17 |archive-date=2021-04-13 |access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> {{poemquote|The Master said, "My children, why do you not study the Book of Poetry? "The Odes serve to stimulate the mind. "They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation. "They teach the art of sociability. "They show how to regulate feelings of resentment. "From them you learn the more immediate duty of serving one's father, and the remoter one of serving one's prince. "From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants."<ref name="Confucius, The Analects - 17"/>}} == Chiharo == {{More citations needed section|date=August 2018}} [[File:Louvre_Conseil_Etat_Confucius.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louvre_Conseil_Etat_Confucius.jpg|thumb|Confucius pamoza na Mozesi na Muhammad pakati pa ŵalembi ŵa malango ŵakumanyikwa comene, na Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse (1827), Louvre Palace]] Pamanyuma ŵasambiri na ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵanandi ŵakazgora visambizgo vya Confucius kuŵa malango na vyakucita. Ŵasambiri ŵa Confucius na muzukuru wake yumoza pera, Zisi, ŵakalutilira kusambira vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Ivi vikawovwira kuti visambizgo vya Confucius vifike na ku ŵasambiri awo ŵakazgoka ŵantchito mu nyumba zacifumu ku China. Ŵalondezgi ŵaŵiri ŵa Confucius awo ŵakamanyikwa comene ŵakayowoya fundo zakupambana comene. Mu vyaka vinandi pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, Mencius (孟子) na Xunzi (??子) wose ŵakalemba visambizgo vyakuzirwa ivyo vikulongosora fundo izo Confucius wakasambizga. Mencius ({{BCE|4th century}}) Wakalongosora uwemi uwo uli mu ŵanthu nga ni umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira pa nkhani ya nkharo ({{BCE|3rd century}}) Buku la Confucius likavumbura fundo zaunenesko na zakukhumbikwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, mabuku ghawo pamoza na mabuku ghanyake ghakaŵa nga ni Analects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-20 |title=Confucianism |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/confucianism |access-date=2023-04-30 |website= |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |language=en}}</ref> Kusintha uku mu kaghanaghaniro ka Confucius kukaŵa kwakuyana waka na kusanduka kwa Legalism, uko kukawonanga kuti kusopa kwa mwana ni kupenja vyakukhumba vya iyomwene, ndipo kukaŵa kwakovwira yayi kuti muwusi wapange boma lakwenelera. Kuyana yayi pakati pa visambizgo viŵiri ivi kukakura comene mu {{BCE|223}} apo boma la Qin likapoka caru cose ca China. Li Si, nduna yikuru ya muwuso wa Qin, wakapangiska Qin Shi Huang kuti waleke kughanaghana kuti ŵanthu ŵa Confucius ŵapelekenge malo ghakuyana waka na gha muwuso wa Zhou. Ŵalongozgi ŵa Confucius ŵakati ŵafika pa fundo yawo, Li Si wakakoma ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵa Confucius na kotcha mabuku ghawo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Han na Tang, fundo za Confucius zikamba kumanyikwa chomene. Mu muwuso wa Wudi, mabuku gha Confucius ghakazgoka visambizgo vya ufumu ndipo ghakaŵa ghakwenelera kuŵazgika pa viyezgelero vya uteŵeti wa boma. {{BCE|140}} ndipo ivi vikalutilira mpaka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Apo chisopa cha Mohism chikapulikikwanga yayi mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Han, ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga chisopa ichi ŵakaŵa ŵa Legalism, awo Confucian wakati ŵali kuchigwiliskira ntchito, visambizgo vya Laozi, awo ŵakaŵikapo mtima pa vinthu vyauzimu. Ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga chomene fundo za Confucius kweniso ŵamazaza awo ŵakasambizgika na Confucius mu muwuso wa Ming na Yuan, nangauli Kublai Khan wakakananga kuŵapa mazaza gha vigaŵa. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Song, nkhwantha yinyake zina lake Zhu Xi ({{CE|1130–1200}}) wakasazgirapo fundo za cisopa ca Dao na ca Chibuda mu cisopa ca Confucian. Mu umoyo wake wose, ŵanthu ŵakamupulikiskanga yayi Zhu Xi, kweni pamanyuma pakuti wafwa, maghanoghano ghake ghakazgoka maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake pa nkhani ya ng'anamuro la mabuku gha Confucius. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda mdauko mazuŵa ghano ŵakuti Zhu Xi wali kulenga chinthu chinyake chakupambana na ichi. Chikhulupiriro cha Neo-Confucian chikalutilira mu China, Japan, Korea, na Vietnam m'paka mu ma 1800. [[File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg|thumb|Buku la Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, likalembeka na ŵamishonale ŵa Yesuit ku Paris mu 1687]] Ŵamishonale ŵa Yesuit ndiwo ŵakang'anamura mabuku gha Confucius mu viyowoyero vya ku Europe. Munthu wakwamba uyo wakang'anamura Baibolo ili wakaŵa Michele Ruggieri, uyo wakawelera ku Italy mu 1588 ndipo wakalutilira kung'anamura apo wakakhalanga ku Salerno. Matteo Ricci wakamba kulemba ivyo Confucius wakaghanaghananga, ndipo gulu la ŵa Jesuit - Prospero Intorcetta, Philippe Couplet, na ŵanyake ŵaŵiri - ŵakafumiska mabuku ghakung'anamura mabuku gha Confucius mu 1687. François Noël, wakati watondeka kukhorweska Clement XI kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵakusopa ŵasekuru ŵawo na Confucius yayi, wakamalizga kulemba buku la Confucius ku Prague mu 1711, ndipo wakalemba mabuku ghanyake na kung'anamura mabuku gha Mencius. Ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti mabuku agha ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene ku ŵanthu awo ŵakagomezganga kuti Chiuta waliko kweniso ku ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵasambizgenge vinthu vyaunenesko. Mu nyengo yithu yino, visambizgo vya Confucianism, nga ni New Confucianism, vichalipo, kweni mu nyengo ya Cultural Revolution, visambizgo vya Confucianism kanandi vikasuzgikanga na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa mu chipani cha Communist Party cha China. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵavinjeru na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵambe kususka chisopa cha Confucian m'ma 1900. Ŵasambiri ŵa mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Asia ŵakusambira mabuku gha Confucius, chomenechomene ŵa ku China nga ni Korea, Japan, na Vietnam. Vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici vicali kucita ciphikiro ici caka cilicose. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tibet ŵakutemwa kusopa Confucius, uyo ni themba lituŵa kweniso wakumanya vya masalamusi, kuwukwa, na vya nyenyezi. Ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Chibuda ŵakumuwona kuti wakusambira kuwukwa kwa Buddha Manjushri (ndipo vinjeru ivi vikaluta ku Tibet kwizira mwa Mfumukazi Wencheng), apo ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Bon ŵakumuwona kuti ni Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, uyo wakambiska chisopa ichi. Ŵa Ahmadiyya ŵakugomezga kuti Confucius wakaŵa nchimi ya Ciuta, nga umo vikaŵira na Lao-Tzu na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuzirwa ŵa ku China. Mu nyengo yithu yino, cinthu cinyake cakucemeka Asteroid 7853, "Confucius", cikacemeka na zina la munthu munyake wa ku China.<ref>[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=7853IAU IAU Minor Planet Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121173846/https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search|date=2022-01-21}}. ''International Astronomical Union Minor Planet Center''. Accessed 12 September 2018.</ref> === Walondezgi === {{main|Disciples of Confucius}} [[File:The_Classic_of_Filial_Piety_(開宗明義章_畫).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Classic_of_Filial_Piety_(%E9%96%8B%E5%AE%97%E6%98%8E%E7%BE%A9%E7%AB%A0_%E7%95%AB).jpg|thumb|Zengzi (kumalyero) wakujikama panthazi pa Confucius (pakati), nga ni umo viliri pa cithuzithuzi ca mu buku la Chiyelezgero Cakuyowoya za Kujipeleka kwa Ŵana, la muwuso wa Song]] Confucius wakamba kusambizga ŵanthu apo wakaŵa na vilimika 30, ndipo wakasambizga ŵasambiri ŵakujumpha 3,000, ndipo 70 ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene. Ŵasambiri ŵake na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga chisambizgo cha Confucius ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono chomene mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za ku Europe na America. Munthu munyake wakulemba mdauko zina lake Sima Qian, wakalemba vya ŵasambiri ŵa Confucius. Sima Qian wakalemba mazina gha ŵasambiri 77 mu buku lake, apo Kongzi Jiayu wakalemba mazina 76. Mabuku ghaŵiri agha ghakuzunura mazina gha ŵasambiri 96. Mabuku gha Analects ghakuzunura mabuku 22 ndipo Mencius wakulemba 24. Confucius wakatoranga ndalama yayi, ndipo wakapemphanga waka kuti waliyose uyo wakukhumba kuŵa msambiri wake wamupenge nyama yakomira. Zigong, msambiri wake, wakati msambizgi wake wakacitiranga ŵasambiri ŵake vinthu nga umo ŵadokotala ŵakucitira na ŵalwari. Ŵanandi ŵakafumanga ku Lu, uko kukaŵa kwawo kwa Confucius, ndipo pakaŵa ŵasambiri 43, kweni wakazomera ŵasambiri kufuma mu vyaru vyose vya ku China. Confucius wakawonanga kuti ivyo ŵasambiri ŵake ŵakasambiranga ni vyakuzirwa yayi, ndipo wakazomerezganga ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika, ŵanthu bweka, na ŵakugaluka nga ni Yan Zhuoju na Gongye Chang. Ŵasambiri ŵake awo ŵakaŵa ŵasambazi ŵakeneranga kupeleka ndalama zakukwana na usambazi wawo. Msambiri uyo Confucius wakatemwanga comene wakaŵa Yan Hui, uyo wakwenera kuti wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakavu comene. Mwakupambana na Yan Hui, Sima Niu wakafuma ku mbumba ya fuko la Song. Mu visambizgo vya Confucius, ŵasambiri ŵakamanya makora fundo na nthowa za boma. Kanandi wakadumbiskananga na ŵasambiri ŵake, ndipo wakazirwiskanga chomene nkhani za mdauko, sumu, na maluso. Confucius wakasambizganga kuti tikwenera kugomezgeka ku fundo za mu Baibolo m'malo mwa kugomezgeka ku vinjeru vithu. Nangauli Confucius wakaŵasuska cifukwa ca nkharo zawo, kweni ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵakakondwa comene na fundo yakuti ŵaŵe na ŵamazaza ŵakugomezgeka awo ŵakasambizgika makhaliro ghawemi. Nakuti msambiri wake zina lake Zilu wakafwa apo wakavikiliranga fumu yake ku Wey. Yang Hu, uyo wakaŵa pasi pa fuko la Ji, ndiyo wakawusa boma la Lu kwambira mu 505 m'paka mu 502. Cifukwa ca ici, ŵasambiri ŵakwamba ŵa Confucius ŵakimikika mu mauteŵeti gha boma. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵa Confucius ŵakamba kuŵa na maudindo ghapacanya, ndipo ŵanyake Confucius ndiyo wakaŵapa. Apo Confucius wakaŵa na vilimika 50, mbumba ya Ji yikaŵa kuti yakhozga mazaza ghawo mu caru ca Lu. Nangauli mbumba ya Ji yikacitanga vinthu ivyo Confucius wakakolerana navyo yayi, kweni ŵasambiri ŵa Confucius ŵakasanganga nchito zinandi. Confucius wakalutilira kukumbuska ŵasambiri ŵake kuti ŵalutilire kugomezgeka ku fundo zawo ndipo wakakananga awo ŵakachitanga nthena yayi..{{sfn|Creel|1949|pp=32–33}} === Visual portraits === [[File:孔子聖蹟圖.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90%E8%81%96%E8%B9%9F%E5%9C%96.png|thumb|Chithunzi cha Qiu Ying (1494-1552), Ming dynasty]] Palije vithuzithuzi vya Confucius ivyo vilipo mazuŵa ghano, ndipo vikulongora waka umo wakawonekeranga mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Han. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakujambura vithuzithuzi ivyo vikulongora umo wakakumaniranga na Laozi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulongora kuti Confucius wakaŵa munthu muwemi chomene. Mu mutu wakuti "Vinthu Vyakuwaro" muli mazgu ghakwambilira gha Confucius ({{zh|labels=no|c=外物|p=Wàiwù}}) mu buku la Zhuangzi ({{zh|labels=no|c=莊子|p=Zhuāngzǐ}}), Wakamalizga kuzingilira mu 3 C.E., pati pajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo Confucius wakafwira. Cithuzithuzi cakale comene ca Confucius cavumbukwa mu dindi la fumu ya Han, Marquis of Haihun (kufwa {{BCE|59}}). Chithuzithuzi ichi ŵakachijambura pa khuni ilo likaŵa pa gilasi la mkuŵa. Mu nyengo yakale, ŵanthu ŵakachitanga kuŵika vithuzithuzi mu tempile la Confucius. Kweni mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Hongwu Emperor (Taizu) wa muwuso wa Ming, ŵakawona kuti chithuzithuzi cha Confucius chikwenera kuŵa mu tempile la ku tawuni yake ya Qufu mu Shandong. Mu visopa vinyake, Confucius wakuzunulika pa libwe. Mu 2006, China Confucius Foundation yikapempha kuti paŵe chithuzithuzi cha Confucius chakuyana na cha Wu Daozi. Cikhuni ca ku South Wall mu khoti la Supreme Court of the United States cikulongora Confucius nga ni msambizgi wa mtende, kusambira, na nkharo yiwemi.<ref>{{cite web |title=US Supreme Court Courtroom Friezes |url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/northandsouthwalls.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713031226/https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/northandsouthwalls.pdf |archive-date=13 July 2019 |access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> === Vinthu vyautesi === Pali mafilimu ghaŵiri agho ghakulongosora vya umoyo wa Confucius: la Confucius la mu 1940 ilo Tang Huaiqiu ndiyo wakalilemba, na la Confucius la mu 2010 ilo Chow Yun-fat ndiyo wakalilemba.<ref>{{IMDb title|tt1397498|Confucius}}</ref> === Malo ghakukumbukirako === [[File:First_Entrance_Gate_of_the_Temple_of_Confucius,_Ching-hai.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Entrance_Gate_of_the_Temple_of_Confucius,_Ching-hai.jpg|thumb|Chipata chakwamba cha tempile la Confucius ku Zhenhai]] [[File:20130918-嘉定孔庙-2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20130918-%E5%98%89%E5%AE%9A%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%99-2.jpg|thumb|Tempile la Confucius ku Jiading, sono ni tawuni ya ku Shanghai. Sono mu tempile la Confucius ku Jiading muli nyumba yakusungiramo vinthu vyakale iyo yikulongosora ivyo vikachitikanga pa maungano gha ufumu.]] Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka kufuma apo Confucius wakafwira, msumba wa Qufu, uwo ukaŵa kukwake, ukazgoka malo ghakusoperako na kukumbuka ŵanthu. Mu buku la Han Dynasty Records of the Grand Historian muli nkhani izo zikulongora kuti msumba uwu ukaŵa kale malo ghakusoperapo ŵasembe. Ni malo agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta kukawona visopa. Mu visopa vya Cinic, muli visopa vinandi ivyo vili na vikozgo vya Buddha, Laozi, na Confucius. Paliso matempile ghanandi agho ghakazunulika kwa iyo. Awo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Confucian ŵakutemwa kuchita viphikiro vya kukumbukira Confucius chaka chilichose. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, kaluso aka kakamara kwa vyaka vinandi mu charu cha China, uko chipani cha Communist na boma vikazomerezganga kuti ivyo Confucius na Confucianism ŵakagomezganga vikukolerana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga. Ntheura, viphikiro vyose ivi vikakanizgika. Mu ma 1990, ŵakaŵaso na ciphikiro ici. Pakuti pasono ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ntchakuzirwa kusopa mbiri na mitheto ya ku China, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵapo nanga ŵangaŵa ŵa chipani cha Communist. Ku Taiwan, uko chipani cha Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) chikakhozgeranga chomene vigomezgo vya Confucius pa nkhani ya makhaliro na nkharo, boma likukhozgera kaluso ka kukumbukira Confucius (祭孔). Nangauli ni holide ya caru cara, kweni yikuwoneka pa kalendara yiliyose, nga ni umo viliri na Zuŵa la Ŵadada panji Khisimasi ku vyaru vya ku Western. Ku South Korea, pa zuŵa la kubabika kwa Confucius na pa zuŵa la nyifwa yake, ŵakuchita viphikiro vikuruvikuru vya Seokjeon Daeje.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dunbar |first1=Jon |title=Sungkyunkwan Confucian Ceremony |url=http://www.raskb.com/content/confirmed-pls-pay-upon-registration-sungkyunkwan-confucian-ceremony |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418040456/http://www.raskb.com/content/confirmed-pls-pay-upon-registration-sungkyunkwan-confucian-ceremony |archive-date=18 April 2015 |website=RASKB |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch |accessdate=8 April 2015}}</ref> === Ŵana === {{See also|Family tree of Confucius in the main line of descent}} Ŵana ŵa Confucius ŵakamanyikwanga kanandi waka na kucindikwa na maboma ghacifumu. Ŵakapika udindo wa marquis maulendo 35 kufuma apo ŵakacitira Gaozu mu muwuso wa Han, ndipo ŵakakwezgeka kuŵa duke maulendo 42 kufuma mu muwuso wa Tang mpaka mu muwuso wa Qing. Themba Xuanzong la ku Tang ndilo likaŵa lakwamba kumupa zina lakuti "Duke Wenxuan" Kong Suizhi wa muwiro wa 35. Mu 1055, Themba Renzong la ku Song likapeleka zina lakuti "Duke Yansheng" kwa Kong Zongyuan wa muwiro wa 46. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa muwuso wa Southern Song, Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou wakachimbilira kumwera pamoza na Emperor Song ku Quzhou ku Zhejiang, apo muwuso wa Jin (1115-1234) uwo ukakhazikiskika mwasonosono kumpoto ukimika Kong Duanyou mubali wake Kong Duancao uyo wakakhala ku Qufu kuŵa Duke Yansheng. Kufuma pa nyengo iyi m'paka mu muwuso wa Yuan, kukaŵa mafumu ghaŵiri gha Yansheng, limoza kumpoto ku Qufu ndipo linyake kumwera ku Quzhou. Themba Kublai Khan la muwuso wa Yuan likamuchema kuti wawelere ku Qufu. Mbumba ya kumwera yikaleka kuŵa na zina ili chifukwa chakuti Kong Zhu wakakana, ntheura mbumba ya kumpoto yikalutilira kuŵa na zina lakuti Duke Yansheng. Munthavi wa kumwera ukakhala mu msumba wa Quzhou, uko ŵakukhala m'paka lero. Ŵana ŵa Confucius mu Quzhou pera ŵalipo 30,000. Muwuso wa Hanlin Academy wa Wujing boshi 五經博士 ukapelekeka ku munthavi wa kumwera ku Quzhou na Fumu ya Ming apo munthavi wa kumpoto ku Qufu ukaŵa na zina lakuti Duke Yansheng. Mulongozgi wa cigaŵa ca kumwera ni 孔祥 Kong Xiangkai. Mu 1351, mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Fumu Toghon Temür wa muwuso wa Yuan, mwana waciŵiri wa muwuso wa Kong Huan (孔??) Kong Shao (孔昭) wakasama kufuma ku China kuya ku Korea mu muwuso wa Goryeo, ndipo wakapokelereka makora na Mfumukazi Noguk (muwoli wa Themba Gongmin uyo wakababika ku Mongolia). Wakati waŵa mwenekaya wa charu cha Korea, wakasintha zina lake kufuma pa "昭" kuŵa "紹" ({{Korean|공여|孔帤}}), 1329–1397), ntheura wakambiska mbumba ya Changwon Gong ({{Korean|창원 공씨|昌原 孔氏}}), malo agho ŵakakhalanga ghakaŵa ku Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province. Kufuma apo, mbumba iyi yikamba kuŵa na maudindo ghapachanya mu muwuso wa Joseon.<ref>{{cite web |date=2014-05-19 |title=Descendants of Confucius in South Korea Seek Roots in Quzhou |url=http://www.qz.gov.cn/English/Recent/201405/t20140519_278510.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150204113943/http://www.qz.gov.cn/English/Recent/201405/t20140519_278510.htm |archive-date=2015-02-04 |access-date=February 4, 2015 |website=Quzhou.China}}</ref> Mu 1794, mu nyengo ya Themba Jeongjo, mbumba iyi yikasintha zina kuŵa Gokbu Gong ({{Korean|곡부 공씨|曲阜 孔氏}}) Ku Qufu uko kukababikira Confucius ({{ko-hhrm|곡부|曲阜|Gokbu}}).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Doosan Encyclopedia 공 孔|publisher=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]]|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1062982&cid=200000000&categoryId=200000185&mobile|access-date=2017-10-20|archive-date=2022-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121173837/https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?docId=1062982&mobile=&cid=40942&categoryId=31639|url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵana ŵake ŵakumanyikwa ni Gong Yoo (zina lake leneko Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) na Gong Hyo-jin (공효진); na ŵanthu nga ni Gongchan (zina lake leneko Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), Minzy (zina lake leneko Gong Min-ji (공민지)), kweniso ŵadadavyara, awo ŵakwimba ŵanthu. {{ill|Gong Ok-jin|ko|공옥진}} (공옥진). Nangauli mu China mukaŵa kusintha kwa muwuso, kweni zina lakuti Duke Yansheng likapelekeka ku miwiro yakulondezgapo ya mphapu yake m'paka apo likamara kulembekera mu 1935. Munthu waumaliro uyo wakaŵa na zina ili, Kung Te-cheng wa mu muwiro wa 77, ndiyo wakasankhika kuŵa Mulara wa Kupeleka Sembe kwa Confucius. Kung Te-cheng wakafwa mu Okutobala 2008, ndipo mwana wake, Kung Wei-yi, uyo wakaŵa wa nambara 78, wakafwa mu 1989. Muzukuru wa Kung Te-cheng, Kung Tsui-chang, uyo wakaŵa wa mu mzere wa 79, wakababika mu 1975. Mudumbu wa Te-cheng, Kong Demao, wakukhala ku China ndipo wali kulemba buku lakulongosora ivyo vikamucitikira apo wakakuranga mu nyumba ya mbumba yake ku Qufu. Mudumbu munyake, Kong Deqi, wakafwa wacali mwana mucoko. Ŵana ŵanandi ŵa Confucius ŵachali kukhala mu msumba wa Qufu. H. wakaŵa wa mphapu ya Confucius. H. Kung, wakaŵa Mulara wa Boma la China. Yumoza wa ŵana ŵake, {{ill|Kong Lingjie|zh|孔令傑}}(孔令傑), wakatora Debra Paget uyo wakababa Gregory Kung (孔德基). Mbumba ya Confucius, ya Kong, ndiyo yili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene pa caru capasi. Mbumba iyi yili mu muwiro wake wa nambara 83, ndipo yili kufuma kwa Confucius. Wupu wakuwona vya miwiro ya ŵanthu (Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee, CGCC) ukati Confucius wali na ŵana mamiliyoni ghaŵiri, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi mamiliyoni ghatatu. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, masauzandi ghanandi ghakukhala kuwaro kwa China. Mu vilimika vya m'ma 1400, munthu munyake wa fuko la Kong wakaluta ku Korea, uko mazuŵa ghano kuli ŵanthu ŵakukwana 34,000 awo mbana ŵa Confucius. Yumoza wa ŵanthu aŵa wakachimbira ku Qufu mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakukhora ya ku China mu 1940, ndipo paumaliro wakakhazikika ku Taiwan. Paliso minthavi yinyake ya mbumba ya Kong iyo yikang'anamukira ku Cisilamu pamanyuma pa kutengwa ku ŵanakazi ŵa Cisilamu, mu Dachuan mu cigaŵa ca Gansu mu ma 1800, ndiposo mu 1715 mu Xuanwei mu cigaŵa ca Yunnan. Ŵanandi mwa Ŵasilamu awo ŵali kufuma kwa Confucius ŵali kufuma ku nthengwa ya Ma Jiaga (馬甲??), mwanakazi Musulumani, na Kong Yanrong (孔??), muwiro wa 59 wa Confucius mu chaka cha 1480, ndipo ŵakusangika pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa Hui na Dongxiang. Mu mdauko uphya uwu muli Ŵasilamu. Kong Dejun (孔德軍) ni nkhwantha ya Chisilamu yakufuma ku chigaŵa cha Qinghai. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene mbumba ya Confucius, ku China kukaŵa pulogiramu ya kuyezga DNA ya ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵali mu mbumba za Confucius. Ivi vingawovwira kuti ŵasayansi ŵamanye kuti ŵana ŵanalume ŵa Confucius ŵali na chikhomozomu chakuchemeka Y. Usange mphapu ya munthu yikufuma ku dada kuya ku mwana, kufuma mu nyengo ya Confucius, ŵanalume wose mu mbumba iyi ŵaŵenge na chikhomozomu chakuyana waka na cha munthu uyo ŵali kufuma kwa iyo. Chilato cha kuyezgelera majini chikaŵa chakuti kovwire ŵanthu awo ŵali ku chigaŵa chinyake mu charu cha China awo ŵali kutaya mbiri yawo kuti ŵalongore kuti mbanthu ŵa mu mbumba yawo. Ndipouli, mu 2009, maofesi ghanandi ghakazomera yayi kuyezga DNA. Bryan Sykes, pulofesa wa sayansi ya majini pa Yunivesite ya Oxford, wakapulikiska fundo iyi. Ni fumbo la sayansi pera yayi". Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵasazgireko ŵanthu ŵaphya mu mbumba ya Confucius. Ŵabali awo ŵakachimbilira ku Taiwan ŵakakhwaskika yayi na DNA. Mu 2013, ŵanthu ŵa mu mbumba yinyake ŵakachita kafukufuku wa DNA ndipo ŵakasanga kuti wose ŵakaŵa na chikhomozomu chakuyana na cha Y. Buku la Confucius genealogy la nambara 5 na laumaliro likasindikizgika na CGCC. Chikavumbukwa pa ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Qufu pa Seputembala 24, 2009. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanakazi nawo ŵalipo..<ref>{{Harvnb|China Daily|2007|loc=[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-02/02/content_800011.htm online]}}.</ref> == Ukaboni == <references group="lower-alpha" responsive="1"></references> === Maghu ghakulembeka === <references group="" responsive="0"></references> === Mabuku ghanyake === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite web |last=Ahmad |first=Mirza Tahir |year=n.d. |title=Confucianism |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/revelation/part_2_section_3.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003035638/http://www.alislam.org/library/books/revelation/part_2_section_3.html |archive-date=3 October 2012 |access-date=7 November 2010 |publisher=Ahmadiyya Muslim Community}} * {{cite book|last1=Bonevac|first1=Daniel|last2=Phillips|first2=Stephen|title=Introduction to world philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontowo0000bone|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-515231-9}} * {{cite book|last=Chin|first=Ann-ping|title=The Authentic Confucius: A Life of Thought and Politics|year=2007|publisher=Scribner|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7432-4618-7|url=https://archive.org/details/authenticconfuci00chin}} * {{cite web |date=21 August 2007 |title=Confucius Descendants Say DNA Testing Plan Lacks Wisdom |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707013208/http://eng.bandao.cn/newsdetail.asp?id=4644 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707013208/https://web.archive.org/web/20110707013208/http://eng.bandao.cn/newsdetail.asp?id=4644 |archive-date=7 July 2011 |publisher=Bandao |ref={{harvid|Bandao|2007}}}} * {{cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-02/02/content_800011.htm|title=Confucius Family Tree to Record Female Kin|newspaper=China Daily|date=2 February 2007|ref={{harvid|China Daily|2007}}|access-date=30 May 2009|archive-date=2 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602095336/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-02/02/content_800011.htm|url-status=live}} * {{cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-09/24/content_8733256.htm|title=Confucius' Family Tree Recorded Biggest|newspaper=China Daily|date=24 September 2009|ref={{harvid|China Daily|2009}}|access-date=24 September 2009|archive-date=24 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024075013/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-09/24/content_8733256.htm|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Creel|first=H. 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* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Hutton|first=Eric L.|date=11 June 2019|orig-date=26 May 2016|encyclopedia=[[Oxford Bibliographies Online|Oxford Bibliographies]]: Philosophy|title=Confucius|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|doi=10.1093/OBO/9780195396577-0290|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0290.xml|url-access=subscription|access-date=8 March 2022|archive-date=8 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308003431/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0290.xml|url-status=live}}{{subscription}} * {{cite book|last1=Jansen|first1=Thomas|last2=Klein|first2=Thoralf|last3=Meyer|first3=Christian|year=2014|title=Globalization and the Making of Religious Modernity in China: Transnational Religions, Local Agents, and the Study of Religion, 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2018|encyclopedia=[[Oxford Bibliographies Online|Oxford Bibliographies]]: Chinese Studies|title=Confucius|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|doi=10.1093/OBO/9780199920082-0163|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0163.xml|url-access=subscription|access-date=8 March 2022|archive-date=8 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308003435/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0163.xml|url-status=live}}{{subscription}} * {{cite journal|last=Riegel|first=Jeffrey K.|title=Poetry and the legend of Confucius's exile|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_january-march-1986_106_1/page/13|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=1986|volume=106|issue=1|pages=13–22|jstor=602359|doi=10.2307/602359}} * {{cite journal|last=Riegel|first=Jeffrey|title=Confucius|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/confucius/|website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2012|publisher=Stanford University|access-date=2012-03-25|archive-date=2013-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202061214/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/confucius/|url-status=live}} * {{cite web |last=Qiu |first=Jane |author-link=Jane Qiu |date=13 August 2008 |title=Inheriting Confucius |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029141657/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/inheriting_confucius/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722140229/https://web.archive.org/web/20121029141657/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/inheriting_confucius/ |archive-date=22 July 2009 |access-date=31 May 2009 |publisher=Seed Magazine}} * {{cite book|last=Shen|first=Vincent|title=Dao Companion to Classical Confucian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|year=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-2936-2|access-date=2018-12-04|archive-date=2019-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011233113/https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|first=Endymion|last=Wilkinson|author-link=Endymion Wilkinson|title=Chinese History: A New Manual|edition=4th|year=2015|location=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|isbn=978-0-674-08846-7}} * {{cite web |last=Yan |first=Liang |date=16 February 2008 |title=Updated Confucius family tree has two million members |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022002217/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-02/16/content_7616027.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022002217/https://web.archive.org/web/20121022002217/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-02/16/content_7616027.htm |archive-date=22 October 2012 |access-date=30 May 2009 |publisher=Xinhua}} * {{cite book|last=Yao|first=Xinzhong|title=Confucianism and Christianity: A Comparative Study of Jen and Agape|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton|year=1997|isbn=978-1-898723-76-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BN47m0BHtLkC|access-date=2015-11-07|archive-date=2020-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021150349/https://books.google.com/books?id=BN47m0BHtLkC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Yao|first=Xinzhong|title=An Introduction to Confucianism|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2000|isbn=978-0-521-64430-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tAE2OJ9bPG0C|access-date=2015-11-07|archive-date=2020-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729120529/https://books.google.com/books?id=tAE2OJ9bPG0C|url-status=live}} * {{cite news|last=Zhou|first=Jing|title=New Confucius Genealogy out next year|url=http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_16696029.htm|date=31 October 2008|publisher=China Internet Information Center|access-date=1 November 2008|archive-date=3 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081103060844/http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_16696029.htm|url-status=live}} {{refend}} == Mabuku == ''See {{harvnb|Richey|2018}} and {{harvnb|Hutton|2019}} for extensive bibliographies'' {{refbegin}} * [[Jonathan Clements|Clements, Jonathan]] (2008). ''Confucius: A Biography''. Stroud, Gloucestershire, England: Sutton Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-7509-4775-6}}. * Confucius (1997). ''Lun yu'', (in English ''The Analects of Confucius''). Translation and notes by Simon Leys. New York: W.W. Norton. {{ISBN|0-393-04019-4}}. * Confucius (2003). ''Confucius: Analects – With Selections from Traditional Commentaries''. Translated by E. Slingerland. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. (Original work published c. {{BCE|551–479}}) {{ISBN|0-87220-635-1}}. * [[Herrlee Glessner Creel|Creel, Herrlee Glessner]] (1949). ''Confucius and the Chinese Way''. New York: Harper. * {{cite book|last=Creel|first=Herrlee Glessner|author-link=Herrlee Glessner Creel|title=Chinese Thought from Confucius to Mao Tse-tung|url=https://archive.org/details/chinesethoughtfr00cree|url-access=registration|year=1953|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}} * Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). "Confucianism: An Overview". In Encyclopedia'' of Religion'' (Vol. C, pp.&nbsp;1890–1905). Detroit: MacMillan Reference * {{cite book|last=Dawson|first=Raymond|title=Confucius|url=https://archive.org/details/confucius0000daws|year=1982|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-287536-5}} * {{cite book|last=Fingarette|first=Hebert|title=Confucius : the secular as sacred|year=1998|publisher=Waveland Press|location=Long Grove, Ill.|isbn=978-1-57766-010-1|url=https://archive.org/details/confuciussecular00fing}} * {{cite book|last=Kaizuka|first=Shigeki|title=Confucius. His life and thought|year=1956|publisher=G. Allen and Unwin|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Ssu-ma Ch'ien|title=Records of the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/recordsofhistori0000szum_i5a5|year=1974|publisher=Commercial Press|location=Hong Kong|others=Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang, trans}} * Sterckx, Roel. ''Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding.'' London: Penguin, 2019. * Van Norden, B.W., ed. (2001). ''Confucius and the Analects: New Essays''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-513396-X}}. {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == {{Sister project links|v=no|n=no|s=Author:Confucius|b=Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/Confucius and Confucianism|c=Category:Confucius}} * {{cite SEP|url-id=confucius|title=Confucius|last=Csikszentmihalyi|first=Mark}} * {{cite IEP|url-id=confuciu|title=Confucius}} * {{In Our Time|Confucius|p00547k8|Confucius}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130124210603/http://confucius.org/ Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171020011747/http://faculty.vassar.edu/brvannor/Mypapers/DaoofKongzi.pdf The Dao of Kongzi], introduction to the thought of Confucius. * {{Gutenberg author|id=1180}} * {{Internet Archive author}} * {{Librivox author|id=3104}} * [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4094 Confucian Analects] (Project Gutenberg release of James Legge's Translation) * [http://www.wfu.edu/~moran/zhexuejialu/Analects_PEM.html Core philosophical passages] in the ''Analects of Confucius''. {{Navboxes|title=Links to related articles|list1={{Chinese philosophy}} {{philosophy of language}} {{Ethics}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Qin list}} {{Religious Confucianism}}}}{{Portal bar|China|Biography|Philosophy}}{{Authority control}} mezc5trtx18lfkg78ja7dm2g817j43s 0 26563 122332 119309 2026-09-24T23:54:20Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 5 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122332 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath (384–322 BC)}} {{other uses}} {{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}} {{Infobox philosopher | name=Aristotle | image=Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg | caption=Roman copy (in marble) of a [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek bronze]] bust of Aristotle by [[Lysippos]] ({{circa|330 BC}}), with modern alabaster mantle. | birth_date=384 BC | birth_place=[[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidian League]] | death_date={{nowrap|322 BC (aged 61–62)}} | death_place=[[Chalcis]], [[Euboea]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Empire|Macedonian Empire]] | education=[[Platonic Academy]] | era=[[Ancient Greek philosophy]] | region=[[Western philosophy]] | school_tradition={{Flatlist}} * [[Peripatetic school]] {{Endflatlist}} | notable_students = [[Alexander the Great]], [[Theophrastus]], [[Aristoxenus]] | main_interests={{Flatlist}} * [[Logic]] * [[Physis|Natural Philosophy]] * [[Metaphysics]] * [[Ethics]] * [[Politics]] * [[Rhetoric]] * [[Aesthetics|Poetics]] {{Endflatlist}} | notable_ideas=[[Aristotelianism]] {{collapsible list | title = Theoretical philosophy | [[Aristotelian logic]], [[syllogism]] | [[Four causes]] | [[Genus–differentia definition|Genus and differentia]] | [[Hylomorphism]], [[substance theory|substance]], [[essence]], [[accident (philosophy)|accident]] | [[Hypokeimenon]] | [[Potentiality and actuality]] | [[Aristotle's theory of universals|Theory of universals]] | [[Unmoved mover]] }} {{collapsible list | title = Natural philosophy | [[Aristotelian biology]] | [[Aristotelian physics]] | [[Common sense]] | [[Eternity of the world]] | [[Five wits]] | ''[[Horror vacui (physics)|Horror vacui]]'' | [[Classical elements#Aristotle|Theory of elements]], [[Aether (classical element)|aether]] | [[Rational animal]] }} {{collapsible list | title = Practical philosophy | [[Aristotelian ethics]] | [[Catharsis]] | [[Deliberative rhetoric|Deliberative]], [[epideictic]] and [[forensic rhetoric|forensic]] [[rhetoric]] | [[Enthymeme]] and [[Paradeigma]] | [[Family as a model for the state]] | [[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden mean]] | [[Kyklos#Aristotle|Kyklos]] | [[Magnanimity]] | [[Mimesis]] | [[Natural slavery]] | [[Intellectual virtue]]s: [[sophia (wisdom)|sophia]], [[episteme]], [[nous]], [[phronesis]], [[techne]] | [[Three appeals]]: [[ethos]], [[logos]], [[pathos]] | [[Aristotle's views on women|Views on women]] }} | influences={{Flatlist}} * [[Plato]] * [[Socrates]] * [[Heraclitus]] * [[Parmenides]] * [[Empedocles]] * [[Phaleas of Chalcedon|Phaleas]] * [[Hippodamus of Miletus|Hippodamus]] * [[Hippias]] {{Endflatlist}} | influenced={{longitem| [[Averroism]], [[Avicennism]], [[Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)|Literary Neo-Aristotelianism]], [[Maimonideanism]], [[Objectivism]], [[Peripatetics]], [[Scholasticism]] ([[Llullism]], [[Neo-scholasticism|Neo]], [[Scotism]], [[Second scholasticism|Second]], [[Thomism]], etc.), additionally [[Middle Platonism]] and [[Neoplatonism]]. See: [[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]], [[Commentaries on Aristotle]], [[Pseudo-Aristotle]] }} |notable_works= {{Flatlist}} *''[[Organon]]'' *[[Physics (Aristotle)|''Physics'']] *[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|''Metaphysics'']] *''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' *[[Politics (Aristotle)|''Politics'']] *[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|''Rhetoric'']] *[[Poetics (Aristotle)|''Poetics'']] {{Endflatlist}} }} '''Aristotle''' (/ˈærɪstɒtəl/; Greek, 384-322 B.C.) wakaŵa munthu wavinjeru wa ku [[Greece]]. Mu mabuku ghake muli nkhani zinandi, nga ni za sayansi, za umoyo, za vinyama, za vinthu vyakuthupi, za kaghanaghaniro, za makhaliro, za kawonekero, za sumu, za maseŵero, za sumu, za kuyowoya, za maghanoghano, za malulimi, za vyachuma, ndyali, vya nyengo, vya charu, na vya boma. Pakuŵa uyo wakambiska sukulu ya Peripatetic ya vinjeru vya ŵanthu ku Lyceum ku Athens, wakambiska cisambizgo ca Aristotle ico cikapangiska kuti sayansi yasinthe. Tikumanya vinandi yayi vya Aristotle. Wakababikira mu msumba wa Stagira kumpoto kwa Greece. Wiske wake, Nicomachus, wakafwa apo Aristotle wakaŵa mwana mucoko, ndipo wakalereka na munthu munyake. Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 17 panji 18, wakanjira sukulu ya Plato ku Athens ndipo wakakhala kwenekura m'paka apo wakaŵa na vyaka 37. 347 B.C.E.). Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo Plato wakafwira, Aristotle wakafumako ku Ateni ndipo pa pempho la Philip II wa ku Makedoniya, wakasambizga mwana wake Alexander Mukuru kwamba mu 343 B.C.E. Wakambiska layibulare ku Lyceum iyo yikamovwira kupanga mabuku ghanandi agho wakalemba pa mipukutu ya papyrus. Nangauli Aristotle wakalemba mabuku ghanandi kuti ghalembeke, kweni vigaŵa vitatu pera ndivyo vichalipo. Aristotle wakalongosora makora visambizgo vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikaŵako pambere iyo wandaŵeko. Cikaŵa cifukwa ca visambizgo vyake kuti caru ca ku virwa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi cikapokera lizgu lake la vinjeru, kweniso masuzgo na nthowa zake zakufufuzira. Lekani vinjeru vyake vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E. Sayansi ya vyaumoyo yikathandazgika kufuma mu nyengo ya kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 m'paka mu nyengo ya Renaissance, ndipo yikasintha yayi m'paka apo vinthu vikasinthira. Ŵanthu ŵakagomezga yayi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba pa nkhani ya viŵeto, nga ni ivyo wakalemba pa chiŵaro cha chibenene icho chikubaba ŵana. Wakakhwaskaso visambizgo vya Chiyuda na Chisilamu mu nyengo ya ku Middle Ages, kweniso visambizgo vya Chikhristu, chomenechomene vya chisopa cha Katolika. Ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu ŵakamuchindikanga chomene Aristotle ndipo ŵakamuchemanga kuti "Msambizgi Wakwamba". Mu mabuku ghake ndimo mukaŵa fundo zakwambilira izo zikulongosora vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Aristotle wakalutilira kovwira ŵanthu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Kweniso fundo zake za makhaliro, nangauli zikaŵa zakovwira comene, zikamba kukhumbikwa comene mu nyengo yasono. == Umoyo == Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Aristotle. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalembanga kale vikulongora waka ivyo vikachitika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakukolerana pa fundo zichoko waka.{{efn-ua | See {{harvnb|Shields|2012|pp=3–16}}; {{harvnb|Düring|1957}} covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.}} Aristotle wakababika mu 384 B.C.E. ku Stagira, Chalcidice, mtunda wa makilomita 55 kumafumiro gha dazi kwa msumba wa Tesalonika. Wiske wake, Nicomachus, wakaŵa dokotala wa Themba Amyntas la ku Makedoniya. Apo wakaŵa muwukirano, Aristotle wakasambira vya umoyo na munkhwala kufuma kwa awiske. Ŵapapi ŵa Aristotle wose ŵakafwa apo wakaŵa na vilimika pafupifupi 13, ndipo Proxenus wa ku Atarneus ndiyo wakaŵa mulinda wake. Nangauli pasono palije vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Aristotle apo wakaŵa mwana, kweni wakwenera kuti wakakhalako kanyengo kanyake mu nyumba ya ufumu wa Makedoniya, uko wakamba kucezga na ŵanthu ŵa ufumu wa Makedoniya.{{sfn|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=4}} [[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg|thumb|left|Sukulu ya Aristotle ku Mieza, Macedonia, Greece]] Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 17 panji 18, Aristotle wakasamira ku Ateni kuti wakalutilire kusambira pa sukulu ya Plato. Wakwenera kuti wakakumanapo na vinthu vyamabuchi ivyo vikachitika ku Eleusinian Mysteries. Aristotle wakakhala mu Ateni vyaka pafupifupi 20 pambere wandafumeko mu 348/47 B.C.E. Nkhani yakukhwaskana na kufuma kwake yikulongora kuti wakakhuŵara na ivyo vikachitikanga ku sukulu iyi apo muwuso wake ukaluta kwa Speusippus, mwana wa mubali wa Plato. Pamanyuma pake Aristotle wakaluta na Xenocrates ku nyumba ya mubwezi wake Hermias wa ku Atarneus ku Asia Minor. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Hermias, Aristotle wakaluta na msambiri wake Theophrastus ku cirwa ca Lesbos, uko ŵakasambira vyakumera na vyamoyo vya pa cirwa ici. Apo wakaŵa ku Lesbos, Aristotle wakatora Pythias, mwana wa Hermias panji muzukuru wake. Wakababa mwana msungwana, uyo ŵakamuthya zina lakuti Pythias. Mu 343 B.C.E., Philip II wa ku Makedoniya wakachema Aristotle kuti waŵe msambizgi wa mwana wake Alexander. Aristotle ndiyo wakaŵa mulara wa sukulu ya ku Makedoniya. Apo Aristotle wakaŵa ku nyumba yacifumu ku Makedoniya, wakasambizga Alekizanda kweniso mathemba ghanyake ghaŵiri: Ptolemy na Cassander. Aristotle wakaciska Alexander kuti watore vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi, ndipo Aristotle nayo wakatemwanga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu ciyelezgero cimoza cakumanyikwa comene, wakaphalira Alexander kuti waŵe "mulongozgi wa Ŵagiriki na muwusi wa ŵanthu ŵankhaza, kuti wapwelelerenge Ŵagiriki nga ni ŵabwezi na ŵabali ŵake, ndipo waŵapwelelerenge nga ni nyama panji vyakumera". Kuzakafika mu 335 B.C.E., Aristotle wakawelera ku Ateni, ndipo wakazenga sukulu yake yakuchemeka Lyceum. Aristotle wakasambizganga sukulu iyi vyaka 12. Apo wakaŵa ku Ateni, muwoli wake Pythias wakafwa ndipo Aristotle wakatorana na Herpyllis wa ku Stagira. Usange buku la Suda, ilo ni buku ilo likalembeka mu nyengo ya ŵapositole, likuneneska, ndikuti wakwenera kuti wakaŵaso na erômenos, Palaephatus wa ku Abydus. Chithuzithuzi cha Aristote; buku la Ufumu wa Roma (cha m'ma 100 panji 200 C.E.) la chikozgo cha Lysippos Nyengo iyi yikaŵa pakati pa 335 na 323 B.C.E. apo Aristotle wakalemba mabuku ghake ghanandi. Iyo wakalemba nkhani zinandi izo zilipo m'paka sono. Mu mabuku agha muli mabuku ghanandi agho ghakalembeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Mabuku ghake ghakuzirwa comene ni Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle wakasambira chomene vya sayansi ndipo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu pa nkhani ya "kulondezga fundo za mu Baibolo, masamu, sayansi, vyamoyo, vyakumera, makhaliro, ndyali, ulimi, munkhwala, kuvina, na vyakusanguluska". Kuumaliro wa umoyo wake, Alexander na Aristotle ŵakamba kutemwana cifukwa ca ubwezi uwo wakaŵa nawo na Ŵaperesiya. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu nyengo yakale ŵakagomezganga kuti Aristotle ndiyo wakacitiska kuti Alekizanda wafwe. Kweni ukaboni wa fundo iyi ngwakuti wakacita ivi pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Alexander, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni ŵakamba kutinkha Ŵaroma. Mu 322 B.C.E., Demophilus na Eurymedon the Hierophant ŵakayowoya kuti Aristotle wakaŵa wambura kopa Chiuta, ndipo ŵakamuchiska kuti wachimbilire ku nyumba ya anyina ku Chalcis, ku Euboea. Wakafwira ku Chalcis, Euboea, mu chaka chenechicho, ndipo wakasankha Antipater kuti waŵe mulara wake.{{sfn|Haase|1992|p=3862}} == Fundo za kuganiza == === Vyamaganizo === {{Main|Term logic}} {{further | Non-Aristotelian logic}} Aristotle ndiyo wakalemba buku la Prior Analytics, ndipo ndiyo wakamba kusambira chomene vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Kant wakayowoya mu buku lake lakuti Critique of Pure Reason kuti Aristotle ndiyo wakawovwira kuti fundo za Aristotle zifiskike. ==== ''Organon'' ==== {{Main|Organon}} {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ One of Aristotle's [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]]{{efn-ua|This [[Syllogism#Types|type of syllogism]], with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) [[mnemonic]] [[Baralipton|Barbara]].{{sfn|Lagerlund|2016}}}} ! In words !! In<br /> terms{{efn-ua|M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).{{sfn|Lagerlund|2016}}}} !! In equations{{efn-ua|The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'{{sfn|Predicate Logic}}}} |- |&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;All men are mortal.<br /><br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;All Greeks are men.<br /><br />[[Therefore sign|∴]] All Greeks are mortal.||M a P<br /><br />S a M<br /><br />S a P||[[File:Modus Barbara Equations.svg|180px]] |} Ivyo mazuŵa ghano vikuchemeka kuti Aristotle's logic na mitundu yake ya syllogism (nthowa zakugwiliskira ntchito fundo zaunenesko), Aristotle ndiyo wakavichema kuti "analytics". Mazgu ghakuti "logica" wakaghaŵika kuti ghangang'anamuraso kuyowoya. Vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikwenera kuti vikaŵako yayi, chifukwa vikalembeka na ŵasambiri kweniso ŵasambizgi. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikalembeka mu mabuku 6 ghakuchemeka Organon, ndipo Andronicus wa ku Rhodes panji ŵanyake awo ŵakamulondezganga ŵakalemba mabuku agha mu 40 B.C.{{sfn| Pickover | 2009 | page=52}}Mabuku agha ni agha: # ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]'' # ''[[On Interpretation]]'' # ''[[Prior Analytics]]'' # ''[[Posterior Analytics]]'' # ''[[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]]'' # ''[[On Sophistical Refutations]]'' [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg| thumb | upright | Plato (kumazere) na Aristotle pa cithuzithuzi ico Raphael wakajambura mu 1509 pa The School of Athens. Aristotle wakuyowoya fundo za mu buku lake la Nicomachean Ethics, ndipo wakuyowoya na charu chapasi, kulongora umo wakuwonera vinthu, apo Plato wakuyowoya na kuchanya, kulongora fundo yake ya Theory of Forms, ndipo wakuyowoya na buku lake la Timaeus.{{sfn| School of Athens}}{{sfn|Stewart|2019}}]] Ntchakumanyikwa yayi umo mabuku agha ghakalembekera, kweni fundo izo zili mu mabuku agha zikafuma mu ivyo Aristotle wakalemba. Likufuma ku fundo zakwamba, kusanda mazgu ghapusu mu vigaŵa, kusanda fundo na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukolerana mu buku la On Interpretation, na kusanda mitundu yakusuzga chomene, nga ni syllogisms (mu Analytics) na dialectics (mu Topics and Sophistical Refutations). Mabuku ghatatu ghakwambilira agha ndigho ghakovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Buku la The Rhetoric likusangikamo yayi, kweni likuyowoya kuti likuthemba pa Nkhani.{{sfn| Smith | 2017}} === Vinthu vyakuthupi === {{Main|Metaphysics (Aristotle)}} Lizgu lakuti "metaphysics" likwenera kuti likapangika na mulembi munyake wa m'ma 100 C.E. uyo wakawunjika mabuku gha Aristotle mu buku la Metaphysics. Aristotle wakalimanya kuti "filosofi yakwamba", ndipo wakalipatura ku masamu na sayansi ya cilengiwa (physics) nga ni filosofi ya kughanaghanirapo (theoretikē) iyo ni "ciuta" ndipo yikusanda vya Ciuta. Mu buku lake la Metaphysics (1026a16) wakalemba kuti: {{blockquote |Usange palije vinthu vinyake vyakujiyimira vyekha padera pa vinthu vyakujiyimira vyekha, mbwenu kusanda cilengiwa ndiyo ni nthowa yakwamba ya kumanya vinthu. Kweni usange pali cinthu cinyake cakujiyimira ca, ndipo nchakuzirwa comene, ndipo nchakuzirwa comene. Ndipo nchinthu ca mtundu uwu ca vinjeru vya ŵanthu kuti ŵasambire umo vinthu viliri, ndiposo ivyo vikuŵako cifukwa ca umo vinthu viliri.}} ==== Chinthu ==== {{see | Hylomorphism }} Mu buku lake la Metaphysics (Buku VII), Aristotle wakalongosora fundo ya substance (ousia) na essence (to ti ên einai, "icho chikaŵa kuti chiŵeko") ndipo wakati chinthu chinyake ntchakusazgikana na vinthu vinyake. Mu buku la nambara 8, wakuyowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vili mu thupi ni vyakuthupi. Mwaciyerezgero, vinthu vya nyumba ni njerwa, malibwe, mathabwa, na vinyake, panji cilicose ico cikupangiska nyumba iyo yilipo, apo kawonekero ka vinthu ni nyumba yeneco, panji kuti 'kuvwara mathupi na vinthu vinyake' panji cilicose ico cikulongora kuti cinthu ni nyumba. Fomula ilo likuyowoya za vigaŵa ivi likuyowoya za vinthu, ndipo fomu iyo yikuyowoya za upusikizgi yikuyowoya za umo vinthu viliri.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1043a 10–30}}{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}} ===== Kuwona vinthu mwakwenelera ===== {{Main|Aristotle's theory of universals}} [[File:Platonic and Aristotelian Forms.svg| thumb | upright=1.5 | Vinthu ivyo Plato wakalemba vikaŵa vya palipose, nga umo vikuŵira na apulo. Kwa Aristotle, vinthu na kawonekero ni vinthu vya munthu (hylomorphism).]] Nga ni msambizgi wake Plato, Aristotle nayo wakasambizganga vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Fundo ya Aristotle yikulongora kuti vinthu vya pa charu chose (katholou) vili mu vinthu vyapadera (kath' hekaston), vinthu ivyo vili mu charu, apo Plato wakati vinthu vya pa charu chose ni vinthu ivyo vikuyana waka. Kwa Aristotle, "kawonekero" kakaŵa waka ka vinthu ivyo vikuchitika, kweni "kaŵa ka vinthu" mu chinthu chinyake. Plato wakati vinthu vyose vili na kawonekero kake, ndipo kawonekero kake nkhanthu kanyake panji kukolerana na vinthu vinyake. Mwaciyerezgero, para munthu wakulaŵiska pa cipambi, wakuwona cipambi, ndipo wangasanda kawonekero kake. Pa mphambano iyi, pali apulo limoza na mtundu unyake. Kweniso munthu wangaŵika apulo pafupi na buku, mwakuti buku na apulo viŵe pafupi. Plato wakayowoya kuti pali mitundu yinyake ya vinthu ivyo vikuchitika pa charu chose. Mwaciyelezgero, cingaŵa kuti palije ciwemi ico cilipo, kweni "ciwemi" ni cigaŵa ca vinthu vyose. Aristotle wakakolerana yayi na Plato pa fundo iyi, wakati vinthu vyose ivyo vikuchitika pa charu chapasi vikuchitika mu nyengo yinyake, ndipo palije vinthu ivyo vikuchitika pa charu chapasi ivyo vikukolerana yayi na vinthu ivyo vikaŵako kale. Kweniso Aristotle wakakolerana yayi na Plato pa nkhani ya malo agho kuli vinthu vyose. Apo Plato wakayowoyanga za umo vinthu viliri kupaturako ku vinthu ivyo vilimo, Aristotle wakati vinthu vyose ivyo vilipo vikukolerana na ivyo vilipo. Ntheura, kuyana na Aristotle, kawonekero ka maapulo kali mu maapulo ghose, m'malo mwa kawonekero ka vinthu vinyake.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}}{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=43–47}} ===== Umo vinthu vingaŵira nadi ===== Pakuyowoya za umo vinthu vikusinthira (kinesis) na vifukwa vyake, nga umo wakulongosolera mu buku lake lakuti Physics and On Generation and Corruption (319b ̇320a), wakupambaniska pakati pa ivyo vikwiza (genesis, kung'anamulikaso kuti'mphapu') na: * Kukura na kuchepa, ndiko kuti, kusintha kwa unandi. * Kusintha kwa malo, ndipo * Kusintha, ndiko kuti, kusintha kwa mikhaliro. [[File:Flute-player dolphin Alcesti Group MAN.jpg| thumb | Aristotle wakayowoya kuti munthu wangasambira kuvina para wangakwaniska.]] Kuŵako ni kusintha uko chinthu icho chasintha chikusintha. Mu kusintha uku, wakambiska fundo ya nkhongono (dynamis) na unenesko (entelecheia) mu vinthu na kawonekero. Para tikuyowoya za nkhongono, tikung'anamura kuti chinthu chinyake chingachita panji kuchitapo kanthu usange vinthu vili makora ndipo palije icho chikutondeska. Mwaciyelezgero, mbuto ya cinthu ico cili mu dongo yikuŵa cinthu ico cikukura, ndipo para palije ico cikukanizga, cikuŵa cinthu ico cikukura. Vinthu ivyo vingaŵako vingaŵa kuti 'vikuchita' (poiein) panji 'vingachitikaso' (paschein), ndipo vingaŵa kuti vili kubabika panji kusambira. Mwaciyelezgero, maso ghali na nkhongono ya kuwona (kucita vinthu mwakuyana na umo munthu wakughanaghanira), kweni munthu wangamanya kuseŵera seŵero para wasambira (kucita maseŵero). Cakucitika nchakuti umaliro wa nkhongono ukufiskika. Cifukwa cakuti umaliro (telos) ndiwo nkharo ya kusintha kose, ndipo nkhongono zilipo cifukwa ca umaliro, ntheura unenesko ndiwo umaliro. Para tikughanaghanira za ciyelezgero cakwambilira, tingayowoya kuti cinthu ico cikucitika para cinyama cacita cinthu cimoza ico cinyama cikucita.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}} {{blockquote |Pakuti ico cinthu ciliri cifukwa caco, nchakwamba cake, ndipo ico cikuŵa cifukwa ca cilato; ndipo ico cilipo cifukwa ca cilato, ndipo cifukwa ca cilato ici ndipo nkhongono zikuŵa. Pakuti vinyama vikuwona yayi kuti viwone, kweni vikuwona kuti viwone.}} Kuyowoya mwakudumura, vinthu ivyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito kupanga nyumba vingaŵa kuti ni nyumba, ndipo mulimo wa kuzenga na umo nyumba yaumaliro yizamuŵira ni vinthu vyaunenesko, ivyo ni cifukwa caumaliro panji umaliro. Kufuma apo, Aristotle wakalutizga na kuyowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vikuchitika nadi ndivyo vikwamba kuchitika pambere vindachitike. Aristotle wakayezga kumazga suzgo la umo vinthu viliri, nga ni "ntchivichi chikupangiska munthu kuŵa yumoza"? Pakuti kuyana na ivyo Plato wakayowoya, pali vinthu viŵiri: cinyama na viŵeto viŵiri, kasi munthu wakuŵa wuli cigaŵa cimoza? Ndipouli, kuyana na Aristotle, vinthu ivyo vingawoneka (vinthu) na ivyo vikuwoneka (ntchinthu) ni cinthu cimoza.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}}{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1045a–b}} === Kuwona vinthu === Fundo ya Aristotle yakuti vinthu vikuchitika nadi yikung'anamura kuti ivyo wakumanya vikukolerana na ivyo vikuchitika mu charu, ndipo vikukwelera ku kumanya vinthu vyose, apo Plato wakati ivyo wakumanya vikwamba na kumanya vinthu vyose (panji maghanoghano) ndipo vikukwelera ku kumanya vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukolerana na ivyo vikuchitika. Aristotle wakugwiliskira ntchito viyelezgero pakuchita vinthu, apo Plato wakuthemba fundo za mu Baibolo.{{sfn|Smith|2017}} == Filosofi ya cilengiwa == "Vinthu vyakuthupi" ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikulongosora vinthu vinandi ivyo vikuchitika mu chilengiwa, kusazgapo vinthu ivyo pasono vikumanyikwa na sayansi ya vyaumoyo na sayansi zinyake. Kuyana na mazgu gha Aristotle, "nthanthi zacilengiwa" ni munthavi wa vinjeru vyacilengiwa uwo ukuwona vinthu ivyo vikucitika mu caru, ndipo ukuŵa na vigaŵa ivyo lero vikucemeka physics, biology, na vinyake. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikawovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Aristotle wakati vinjeru ni "sayansi". Ndipouli, mazgu ghakuti sayansi agho wakayowoya ghakupambana na ghakuti "masambiro gha sayansi". Kwa Aristotle, "sayansi yose (dianoia) njakovwira, yakulembeka, panji ya vinjeru" (Metaphysics 1025b25). Sayansi yake yikusazgapo nkharo na ndyali; sayansi yake ya vyamasalimo yikusazgapo kusambira vya maluso, kusazgapo vyamasalimo; sayansi yake ya vyamasalamusi yikusazgapo sayansi ya physics, mathematics na metaphysics.{{sfn|Wildberg|2016}} === Physics === [[File:Four Classical Elements in Burning Log.svg| thumb | The four [[classical element]]s (fire, air, water, earth) of [[Empedocles]] and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]] {{Main|Aristotelian physics}} ==== Five elements ==== {{Main|Classical element}} Mu buku lake lakuti On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle wakayaniska vinthu vinayi ivyo Empedocles wakayowoya, vyakuti caru, maji, mphepo, na moto, na vinthu viŵiri ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya, moto, kuzizima, kuthukira, na kuuma. Mu ndondomeko ya Empedoclean, vinthu vyose vikapangika na vinthu vinayi ivi. Aristotle wakasazgirapo mzimu wakucemeka ether, uwo ni mzimu wa Ciuta uwo ukupangiska vinthu vya kucanya, nyenyezi, na mapulaneti.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=133–139, 166–169}} {| class="wikitable" |+ [[Classical element|Aristotle's elements]]{{sfn|Lloyd|1968|pages=133–139, 166–169}} ! Element !!{{font color|red|Hot}}/{{font color|blue|Cold}} !!{{font color|green|Wet}}/{{font color|brown|Dry}} !! Motion !! Modern [[State of matter|state<br />of matter]] |- |'''[[Earth (classical element)|Earth]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Down||[[Solid]] |- |'''[[Water (classical element)|Water]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Down||[[Liquid]] |- |'''[[Air (classical element)|Air]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Up||[[Gas]] |- |'''[[Fire (classical element)|Fire]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Up||[[Plasma (physics)|Plasma]] |- |'''[[Aether (classical element)|Aether]]'''||(divine<br />substance)||—||Circular<br />(in heavens)||[[Vacuum]] |} ==== Motion ==== {{see | History of classical mechanics}} Aristotle wakalongosora za mitundu yiŵiri ya vyakuchitika: "vyakofya" panji "vyambura kwenelera", nga ni malibwe agho ghakuponyeka mu buku la Physics (254b10), kweniso "vyakuchitika", nga ni vinthu ivyo vikuwa mu buku la On the Heavens (300a20). Para munthu wakuchita vinthu mwakofya, para wakaleka waka kuchitiska, wakuleka kuchitaso vinthu vinyake. Para tapulikiska fundo iyi, tingamanya kuti nga umo Aristotle wakayowoyera, vinthu vizito vikukhumbikwira nkhongono zinandi kuti visendelere. Ici cikung'anamura kuti ciyerezgero ici :: <math>F=mv</math>, incorrect in modern physics.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}} Cinthu ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora cikuthemba pa umo vinthu viliri: Eteri wakuzingilira mtambo, apo vinthu vinayi vya Empedoclean vikukwelera muchanya (nga ni moto) panji pasi (nga ni caru) uko vikukhala. Malango gha Aristotle ghakukhwaskana na kwenda. Iyo wakati vinthu vikughanda mwaluŵiro chomene kuluska uzito wake ndipo vikughanda mwakuyana waka na unandi wa maji agho vili mu maji. Ici nchigaŵa cakwenelera ca vinthu ivyo vikwenda mu maji panji mu mphepo. Mu buku lake la Physics (215a25), Aristotle wakalemba dango la unandi, lakuti mlingo wa v, wa thupi ilo likuwa, ukuyana waka na uzito wake, W, ndipo ukuyana waka na unandi, ρ, wa maji agho likuwa;{{sfn|Rovelli|2015|pp=23–40}}{{sfn|Drabkin|1938|pp=60–84}} :: <math>v=c\frac{W}{\rho}</math> Aristotle wakang'anamuranga kuti para munthu wali mu malo ghambura kanthu, wakuwa mwaluŵiro chomene. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vyakupambana pa nkhani ya usange Aristotle wakakhumbanga kuyowoya malango ghakukhwaskana na unandi wa vinthu. Henri Carteron wakagomezganga kuti fundo ya Aristotle ya nkhongono njakovwira, kweni ŵanyake ŵakukana fundo iyi. Archimedes wakanozga fundo ya Aristotle yakuti mathupi ghakusendelera ku malo ghake ghakupumulirako; maboti gha visulo ghangayandukira para ghakusintha maji ghakukwana; mu ndondomeko ya Archimedes, kuyandukira kukuthemba pa unandi na unandi wa chinthu, ndipo nga umo Aristotle wakaghanaghaniranga yayi, umo chili kupangikira. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu m'paka mu nyengo yaumaliro. John Philoponus (mu nyengo yakale) na Galileo (mu nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano) ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakalongora kuti ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya kuti chinthu chikuru chikuwa luŵiro chomene kuluska chinyake ntchautesi. Carlo Rovelli wakayowoya fundo yinyake iyo yikususkana na fundo iyi. Iyo wakati fundo ya Aristotle yakuti vinthu vikwenda makora yikukolerana na fundo yakuti vinthu ivyo vikuŵa mu malo gha gravity pa charu chapasi vikuŵa mu maji nga ni mphepo. Mu cigaŵa ici, mathupi ghakututuŵa agho ghakuwa nyengo zose ghendanga luŵiro comene kuluska mathupi ghapusu, ndipo ghakuwa pacoko comene mu malo ghakututuŵa. Newton wakalongosora kuti para munthu wakugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono ya nkhongono iyi, wakuŵa na nkhongono yakuwuskira vinthu mu malo ghake. Kweni Aristotle wakati para munthu wakugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono iyi, wakuŵa na nkhongono yakuwuskira vinthu mu malo ghake. ==== Vifukwa vinayi ==== {{Main|Four causes}} [[File:Aristotle's Four Causes of a Table.svg| thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle wakayowoya kuti chinthu chikupangika chifukwa cha vinthu vinayi: pa tebulo, nkhuni izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito (kanthu ako kakupangiska kuti chinthu chipangike), umo chili kupangikira (kanthu ako kakupangiska kuti chinthu chipangike), vinthu ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito (kanthu ako kakupangiska kuti chinthu chipangike makora), kweniso chifukwa icho chikuchitira vinthu vinyake.]] Aristotle wakati pali vinthu vinayi ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu vichitike. Lizgu lakuti aitia likung'anamulika kuti "cifukwa", kweni ni nyengo zose yayi apo vinthu vikucitika mu nyengo yimoza..{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–107}}{{sfn| Hankinson | 1998 | page=159}} * Cinthu ico cikupangiska cinthu cikulongosora vinthu ivyo vilipo. Ntheura, mathabwa ndigho ghakupangiska kuti paŵe thebulu. Fundo njakuti tichitengepo kanthu yayi. Cikung'anamura kuti cimayi cimoza cikugadabura cinyake yayi.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–107}} * Cinthu ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nthena ni umo vinthu viliri. Likutiphalira umo cinthu ciliri, kuti cinthu cikulongosoreka na ng'anamuro lake, umo ciliri, umo ciliri, umo ciliri nadi, cigaŵa cake cose, umo ciliri, panji ciyelezgero cake cikuru. Likuyowoya za vifukwa ivyo vikupangiska vinthu mu fundo za mu Baibolo panji mu malango ghanyake, pakuti vyose (mwachiyelezgero, makrostructure) ni vifukwa ivyo vikupangiska vinthu vinyake. Kuyowoya mwakupulikikwa makora, cifukwa ico munthu wakupangira cikozgo ni maghanoghano agho wakuŵa nagho. Cakuwonerapo ciwemi comene ca cifukwa ico munthu wakupangira vinthu ni maghanoghano agho munthu wakucita kupanga vinthu, nga ni kujambura vinthu.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–107}} * Cinthu ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe ni "cinthu cakwamba", panji ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe. Likulongosora 'ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora na ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe' ndipo likulongora kuti pali vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe, kwali ni vyamoyo panji yayi. Pakuyowoya za umo ŵanthu ŵakupulikiskira fundo yakuti pali vifukwa na umaliro, fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti "vifukwa" ni munthu panji vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika. Para pali ma domino ghaŵiri, para yimoza yawa, yimoza nayo yikuwa. Ku vinyama, ciŵaro ici cikusazgikana na umo cikukulira kufuma ku sumbi na umo thupi likugwilira nchito.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–373}} * Chifukwa chaumaliro (telos) ni cilato cake, cifukwa ico cinthu ciliripo panji cakucitikira, kusazgapo vyakucita na vyakucita ivyo vili na cilato ndiposo ivyo vikucitika mwakuyana na umo vinthu viliri. Cinthu ico cikupangiska cinthu cinyake kuti cicitike ni cilato ico cinthu ici cikwenera kufiska. Fundo iyi yikusazgapo fundo za mazuŵa ghano izo zikulongora kuti munthu wali na khumbo. Para vikuyowoya za vyamoyo, chikung'anamura kuzgoŵera umoyo unyake.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–373}} ==== Kuwona vinthu ==== {{further | History of optics}} Aristotle wakalongosora ivyo wakachita pakusanda vinthu vya mu maso. Chiŵiya ichi chikaŵanga na chipinda chamdima icho chikaŵa na chijaro chichoko icho chikapelekanga ungweru. Wakawona kuti nanga wangaŵa na kawonekero wuli, kawonekero ka dazi kakulutilira kuŵa kazingilika. Wakayowoyaso kuti para munthu wakusazgirako mtunda pakati pa jiso lake na jiso la cikozgo, cikozgo cikukura comene..{{sfn| Lahanas}} ==== Mwaŵi na kuzgoka ==== {{further | Accident (philosophy)}} Kuyana na Aristotle, vinthu vinyake vikuchitika mwamabuchi panji mwamabuchi. Vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mwangozi vikuchitika mwangozi. Paliso mwaŵi unyake uwo Aristotle wakuwuthya kuti "mwaŵi", uwo ukuyowoya waka za nkharo ya ŵanthu.{{sfn| Miller | 1973 | pp=204–213}} === Sayansi ya vya mu mlengalenga === {{further | History of astronomy}} Aristotle wakasuska fundo ya Democritus yakuti mtambo wa Milky Way uli na "nyenyezi izo caru cikubenekelera na ungweru wa dazi". Iyo wakati usange "dazi likuru kuluska caru ndipo mtunda uwo ulipo pakati pa nyenyezi na caru ngukuru comene kuluska dazi, ipo... dazi likuŵala pa nyenyezi zose ndipo caru cikubenekelera yayi". === Geology na sayansi ya cilengiwa === {{further | History of geology}} [[File:Aerial image of Stromboli (view from the northeast).jpg| thumb | Aristotle wakawona kuti malo gha mu virwa vya Aeolian ghakasintha pambere vula yindaphye.]] Aristotle wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira kulemba ivyo ŵakawona. Wakayowoya kuti kusintha kwa malo kukucitika mwakucedwa comene mwakuti munthu yumoza wangaviwona yayi. Charles Lyell, wakalongosora kuti Aristotle wakalongosora umo vinthu vikasinthira, kusazgapo "maziŵa agho ghakawomira" na "mapopa agho ghakamira mu milonga". Aristotle wakawonaso vinthu vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umo maji ghakwendera kweniso umo vinthu vikuŵira pa charu chapasi. Mwaciyelezgero, wakawona kuti para maji gha mu nyanja ghakutentheka, maji gha mu nyanja ghakusunkhunyika, ndipo nyanja zikusunkhunyikaso na vula.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aristotle|translator-last=Lee|translator-first=H.D.P.|title=Meteorologica, Chapter II |year=1952 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=Cambridge, MA |page=156 |edition=Loeb Classical Library |url=http://archive.org/details/L397AristotleMeteorologica |access-date=22 January 2021}}</ref> === Vya umoyo === {{Main|Aristotle's biology}} [[File:Tremoctopus violaceus5.jpg| thumb | upright | Pakati pa vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakachita pakusanda vyamoyo, wakalongosora vya ciŵiya ca hectocotyl ico cikupanga viŵeto vya viyuni ivi.]] ==== Kafukufuku wakukhazikika ==== Aristotle ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kusambira vya umoyo, ndipo wakalemba vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo. Wakakhala vyaka viŵiri kuti wawone na kulongosora vyamoyo vya ku Lesbos na vyakumwera. Ivyo wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals, vikukolerana na ivyo wakawona, ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakumanya vinandi, nga mbalimi ŵa njuchi na ŵalovi, ŵakayowoya, kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakuyowoya. Ivyo wakalemba vyakukhwaskana na vyakumera na vinyama ni vyacilendo: mabuku ghake ghakukhwaskana na vyakumera ghali kutayika, kweni mabuku ghaŵiri ghakukhwaskana na vyakumera gha Theophrastus, uyo wakaŵa msambiri wake, ghachalipo. Aristotle wakalemba za vyamoyo vya mu nyanja ivyo vikawonekanga pa Lesbos na ivyo ŵalovi ŵakakora. Wakulongosora mwakukwana za somba za sumbi, magesi, na somba za nkhonyo. Wakulongosoraso za viyuni vinyake nga ni viyuni vya maphapu (octopus na paper nautilus). Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagomezga yayi ivyo wakayowoya pa nkhani ya mawoko gha viyuni vyambura mawoko, ivyo vikagwiranga ntchito pakuseŵa. Wakalongosora makora umo viŵaro vinayi vyakunthazi vya nyama izo zikukhweŵa vikuŵira, kweniso umo viŵaro ivi vikuŵira para munthu wafwa. Iyo wakuti thupi la nyama likukolerana makora na umo likugwilira ntchito, ntheura pakati pa viyuni, kankhongono ako kakukhala mu mathipa gha mathipa ghapusu ndipo kakukora somba, kali na singo yitali, malundi ghatali, na nthonga zakuthwa nga ni mkondo, uku bakambuku awo ŵakuthunda ŵali na malundi ghafupi na malundi gha viŵegha. Darwin nayo wakawona kuti pali mphambano pakati pa vinyama vyakupambanapambana, kweni wakakolerana yayi na Aristotle. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakuwona kuti ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikulongora kuti vinthu vikachita kusintha kufuma ku vinyake. Kuyana na Aristotle, vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mwamabuchi vikuyana waka na kuthukira kwa nyengo yakuzizima. Ntheura wakasuskanga fundo ya Empedocles yakuti vyamoyo na viŵaro vyawo vikuŵa na "umoyo". Kuti wayowoye maghanoghano ghake mu mazgu gha mazuŵa ghano, palije apo wakayowoyapo kuti vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana vingaŵa na dada yumoza, panji kuti mtundu unyake ungasintha kuŵa unyake, panji kuti mitundu yinyake yingamara.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=273}} ==== Nthowa ya sayansi ==== [[File:Two of Aristotle's Growth Laws.svg| thumb | left | upright=1.4 | Aristotle wakamanya kuti para munthu wakura, thupi lake likukwera, kweni para wakura wakwamba kubaba. Wakayowoya unenesko pa ivyo wakayowoyerathu, nanga vingaŵa vya vinyama vyakumera.]] Aristotle wakachitanga viyezgo nga umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira mazuŵa ghano yayi. Wakagwiliskiranga ntchito lizgu Lachigiriki lakuti pepeiramenoi kuti walongosore umo vinthu viliri, panji kuti umo ŵakuchitira pakusanda vinthu nga nkhupima. Mu buku lakuti Generation of Animals, wakusanga chiŵiya cha nkhuku icho chili na nthumbo ndipo wakuchijura kuti wawonenge umo mtima wa chiŵaro ichi ukuwira. M'malo mwake, wakasanda vinthu mwakupambana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira. Nthowa iyi njakumanyikwa chomene mu sayansi ya vinthu vyamoyo mazuŵa ghano, para ŵanthu ŵamanya vinandi pa nkhani yinyake nga ni genomics. Likuŵa lakugomezgeka yayi nga umo viliri na sayansi, kweni likulongosora fundo zakukhorweska na kulongosora ivyo vikuchitika. Mu fundo iyi, ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikukolerana na sayansi. Ivyo Aristotle wakasanga na kulemba vikamovwira kuti wamanye malango ghanandi ghakukhwaskana na umoyo wa viyuni ivyo wakasambiranga. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni ivi: Para munthu wakura, chiŵeto chikukwera, ntheura njovu yikuŵa na ŵana ŵachoko chomene (kanandi yumoza pera) kuluska mbeŵa. Umoyo wa njovu ukukura para zaŵa na nthumbo, kweniso para zaŵa na thupi likuru. Mwaciyelezgero caumaliro, para munthu wakukhala nyengo yitali, wakuŵa na ŵana ŵacoko comene.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=408}}{{-}} ==== Kusandula vyamoyo ==== {{further|Scala naturae}} [[File:Scyliorhinus retifer embryo.JPG|thumb |Aristotle wakalemba kuti nthumbo ya somba iyi yikaŵa na chingwe icho chikayegheka ku chiŵaro chinyake (placenta), nga ni nyama yinyake yapachanya.]] Aristotle wakalemba mitundu ya vinyama yakujumpha 500, ndipo mu buku lake la History of Animals wakalemba mitundu iyi kuti yiŵe yakufikapo. Vinyama ivi vikaŵa na magulu 11, kufuma pa viŵeto ivyo vikaŵa na nkhongono chomene kufika pa viŵeto ivyo vikaŵa na nkhongono zichoko chomene. Vinyama vikaŵa pachanya pa vyakumera, ndipo vyakumera navyo vikaŵa pachanya pa visomba. Iyo wakalemba kuti viŵeto vyambura msana ni "vyamoyo vyambura ndopa". Viŵeto ivyo vikaŵa na ndopa vikagaŵikanga mu viŵeto vyamoyo (vyakumera), na vyakumera (viyuni, vinyama vyakukhwaŵa, na somba). Viyuni ivyo vikaŵavya ndopa vikaŵa vibenene, vibenene (vyambura vibenene) na vibenene. Iyo wakawona kuti vinyama vikukolerana yayi na maselo, ndipo wakawona kuti pali vinyake ivyo vikupambana na maselo agha. Munthu munyake uyo wakusanda vya umoyo wa mazuŵa ghano wakuwona kuti ivyo Aristotle wakalemba ni vyautesi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda vya sayansi ŵakuti Aristotle wakakhumbanga yayi kusambira vya vinyama, kweni awo ŵakasambira vya vinyama mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵakaghanaghana vyakupambana. Iyo wakagomezganga kuti vinthu vyose ivyo vikucitika mu cilengiwa vikulongozgeka na cilato ico vili na cilato..{{sfn|Mason|1979|pp=43–44}} {|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%;" |+ Aristotle's ''[[Scala naturae]]'' (highest to lowest) ! Group !! Examples<br/>(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br/>(Rational,<br/>Sensitive,<br/>Vegetative) !! Qualities<br/>({{font color|red|Hot}}–{{font color|blue|Cold}},<br/>{{font color|green|Wet}}–{{font color|brown|Dry}}) |- |Man||Man||with&nbsp;blood||2 legs||R, S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- |[[Mammal|Live-bearing tetrapods]]||Cat, [[hare]]||with&nbsp;blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- |[[Cetaceans]]||[[Dolphin]], [[whale]]||with&nbsp;blood||none||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- |[[Birds]]||[[Bee-eater]], [[nightjar]]||with&nbsp;blood||2 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, except {{font color|brown|Dry}} eggs |- |[[Reptile|Egg-laying tetrapods]]||[[Chameleon]], [[crocodile]]||with&nbsp;blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs |- |[[Snakes]]||Water snake, [[Ottoman viper]]||with&nbsp;blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs |- |Egg-laying [[fish]]es||[[Sea bass]], [[Sparisoma cretense|parrotfish]]||with&nbsp;blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, including eggs |- |(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br />placental [[selachian]]s||[[Shark]], [[Skate (fish)|skate]]||with&nbsp;blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, but [[placenta]] like tetrapods |- |[[Crustaceans]]||[[Shrimp]], [[crab]]||without||many legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except shell |- |[[Cephalopods]]||[[Squid]], [[octopus]]||without||tentacles||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- |[[Mollusc|Hard-shelled animals]]||[[Cockle (bivalve)|Cockle]], [[Charonia variegata|trumpet snail]]||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} (mineral shell) |- |Larva-bearing insects||[[Ant]], [[cicada]]||without||6 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} |- |[[Spontaneous generation|Spontaneously generating]]||[[Sponges]], [[worm]]s||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} or {{font color|brown|Dry}}, from earth |- |[[Plants]]||[[Common fig|Fig]]||without||none||V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} |- |[[Mineral]]s||Iron||without||none||none||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} |} === Umoyo === ==== Mzimu ==== {{further | On the Soul}} [[File:Aristotelian Soul.png| thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle proposed a three-part [[Soul#Aristotle|structure for souls]] of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]] Aristotle wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti On the Soul (peri psychēs) kuti pali mitundu yitatu ya mzimu ("psyches"): mzimu wa vyakumera, mzimu wakujipulika, na mzimu wa vinjeru. Ŵanthu ŵali na mzimu wavinjeru. Umoyo wa munthu uli na nkhongono za mitundu yinyake: Nga ni mzimu wa vyakumera, ungakura na kujipwelelera; nga ni mzimu wakujipulika, ungapulikiska vinthu na kusunkhunyika. Cinthu capadera comene ico munthu wali naco, nchakuti wakumanya kupokelera vinthu vinyake na kuviyaniska. Kuyana na Aristotle, mzimu ni wunthu. Pakuti vyamoyo vyose ni vinthu vyakuyana waka, ntheura vyamoyo vili na mikhaliro iyo yikovwira kuti viŵe na nkhongono zakwendera. Mwakupambana na ŵavinjeru ŵakwambilira, kweni mwakuyana na Ŵaegupto, iyo wakaŵika mzimu wa munthu mu mtima, m'malo mwa mu wongo. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikupambana chomene na ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghananga. Mu buku lake lakuti On the Soul, Aristotle wakasuska fundo ya Plato yakuti munthu wali na umoyo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka ivyo Aristotle wakalemba mu buku lake la Timaeus. Ŵanyake ŵakuti munthu uyo wali na mzimu wakuŵa na nkhongono zakwendakwenda. Ŵasayansi ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakughanaghana kuti fundo ya Aristotle njakwenelera yayi. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikulongora kuti munthu uyo wababikaso wakuyana yayi na thupi lake. Fundo ya Aristotle yakuti mzimu ni cinthu ico cili na umoyo yikukhumba kuti munthu waleke kubabikaso.<ref>There's a large scholarly discussion of this dialectic between Plato and Aristotle here: Douglas R. Campbell, "The Soul's Tool: Plato on the Usefulness of the Body," ''Elenchos'' 43 (1): 7-27. 2022.</ref> ==== Kukumbukila ==== Kuyana na Aristotle, mu buku lake lakuti On the Soul, kukumbukira ni luso la kusungilira ivyo munthu wakuwona mu maghanoghano ghake na kupambaniska pakati pa "kuwoneka" kwake na ivyo vikacitika kumanyuma. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti munthu wangakumbuka vinthu vinyake. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti munthu wakusintha thupi lake kuti liŵe na ivyo wakukumbuka. Munthu wakukumbuka vinthu para vinthu ivyo wakuwona panji kupulika ni vyakusuzga chomene kuti wongo wake upokelere nyengo yimoza. Vinthu ivi vikuyana waka na ivyo vikuchitika para munthu wakughanaghana. Aristotle wakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti 'kukumbuka' kuti walongosore umo munthu wakukumbukirana vinthu ivyo vikamuchitikira. Kukumbuka vinthu ni vyakumasinda, kuyowoya vyamunthazi ni vyamunthazi, ndipo kupulika ni vya sono. Para munthu wawona vinthu ivyo vyalembeka, wangachita mwamabuchi yayi. Pakukhumbikwa nthowa yakwendamo ndipo yikwenera kuŵa mu ivyo vikacitikanga kumanyuma, kwali ni ivyo vikacitikanga kumanyuma panji ivyo vikucitika sono. Cifukwa cakuti Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵakupokera vinthu vyakupambanapambana na kuviwona nga ni vinthu ivyo ŵakuwona, ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kupanga vinthu viphya. Kuti munthu wasange vinthu ivi, wakughanaghanirapo pa ivyo wakukumbuka. Para munthu wakuwona cinthu cimoza mu malo mwa cinthu cinyake, wakukana cinthu ici mpaka wasange ico wakupenja. Para munthu wakumbuka vinthu vinyake, wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Usange "vinthu" ivi vikukhumbikwa, cinthu cimoza cikovwira cinyake. Para ŵanthu ŵakukumbuka ivyo vikaŵacitikira kumanyuma, ŵakukhozga ivyo vikaŵacitikira kumasinda mpaka kufika pa ivyo ŵakukhumba. Ntheura, munthu wakujikumbuska vinthu para wakuŵikapo mtima kuti wasange ivyo wasunga. Ŵanthu pera ndiwo ŵakukumbuka vinthu ivyo ŵakumanya, nga ni manambara na mazgu. Viyuni ivyo vikumanya nyengo vingaŵakumbuska ivyo vikawonanga kale. Kukumbuka kukung'anamura kumanya waka vinthu ivyo tikukumbuka ndiposo nyengo iyo yajumphapo. [[File:Aristotle Senses Perception Memory Dreams Action.svg| thumb | upright=2.25 | Maghanoghano, kaghanaghaniro, kukumbuka vinthu, maloto, kacitiro mu kaghanaghaniro ka Aristotle. Vinthu ivyo munthu wakuwona vikusungika mu mtima wake (sensorium), ndipo vikukolerana na malango ghake (kuyana, kupambaniska, na kukolerana).]] Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti maghanoghano agho ghakumalira pa kukumbuka vinthu vinyake, ghakakolerananga na vinthu vinyake nga ni kuyana, kupambaniska, na kukolerana. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti vinthu ivyo vikachitika kumanyuma vikubisika mu maghanoghano. Nkhongono yimoza yikuwuska vinthu vyakubisika kuti viwoneke makora. Kuyana na Aristotle, kukolerana ni nkhongono iyo munthu wali nayo mu maghanoghano, iyo yikugwira nchito pa vinthu vyambura kulongosoreka ivyo vikacitika kumasinda, ndipo yikumuzomerezga kuti waŵakumbuke.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=259}}{{sfn | Sorabji | 2006 | p=54}} ==== Maloto ==== {{see | Dream#Other}} Aristotle wakalongosora za tulo mu buku lake lakuti On Sleep and Wakefulness. Para munthu wakugona, wakugwiliskira ntchito chomene nkhongono zake zakugona. Para munthu wagona, vinthu vyakuzirwa nga nkhughanaghana, kupulika, kukumbuka, vikwenda makora yayi nga umo vikuŵira para wagona. Pakuti munthu wakuŵa wambura mahara para wagona, wangakhumba yayi vinthu vinyake. Kweni para munthu wagona, nkhongono zake zikugwira ntchito mwakupambana. Para tikulota tikuwona cinthu cinyake yayi. Mu maloto, para munthu wakulota wakupulikiska vinthu vinyake. Aristotle wakalongosora kuti para munthu wakulaŵiska pa maji, ndipo waleka kulaŵiska, chinthu icho wakuwona chikuwoneka kuti chikwenda. Para munthu wawona cinthu cinyake ico cikumukhuŵazga, ndipo cinthu ico cikumukhuŵazga nchakuti wakuciwona yayi, cinthu ici cikuŵa na kawonekero. Para thupi lili maso ndipo maghanoghano ghakugwira ntchito makora, munthu wakukumana na vinthu viphya ivyo vikupangiska kuti wapulikiske vinthu vinyake. Ndipouli, para munthu wakugona, wakuwona vinthu ivyo wawona zuŵa lose. Ntheura, maloto ghakucitika cifukwa ca vinthu ivi. Pakuti vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka mu maloto ni ivyo munthu wakuwona yayi, vikupambana na ivyo vikuchitika para munthu wagona. Para munthu wakugona, maghanoghano ghake ghakusintha. Aristotle wakayaniska munthu uyo wakugona na munthu uyo wakuŵa na citima comene. Mwaciyelezgero, munthu uyo wakutemwa comene munthu munyake wangamba kughanaghana kuti wakuwona munthu uyu kulikose cifukwa cakuti wakutemwa comene. Cifukwa cakuti munthu uyo wagona wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera ndipo wakumanya yayi kughanaghana, wakupusikika luŵiro na ivyo wakuwona mu maloto ghake, nga ni munthu uyo wali na citima. Ici cikupangiska munthu kugomezga kuti maloto ngaunenesko, nangauli ngambura kupulikikwa. Mu buku lake la De Anima iii 3, Aristotle wakayowoya kuti munthu wangapanga, kusunga, na kukumbuka vinthu para palije maghanoghano. Fundo yinyake iyo Aristotle wakayowoya yakukhwaskana na maloto yikususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga. Wakayowoya kuti maloto ghakuyowoya vyamunthazi yayi panji kutumika na Ciuta. Aristotle wakaghanaghananga kuti para maloto ghakuyana na ivyo vicitikenge munthazi vikucitika waka mwamwaŵi. Aristotle wakati maloto ghakwamba cifukwa cakuti munthu wakugona. Usange munthu wawona cinthu mu mdima, ici cikuwoneka nga ni loto yayi cifukwa wakaŵa maso apo cikacitikanga. Caciŵiri nchakuti para munthu wakugona, wakuwona vinthu vinyake yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, para munthu wakugona, cijaro cikujalika ndipo mu loto lake wakupulika kuti cijaro cajalika, mbwenu ciyezgo ici nchimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikucitika yayi. Paumaliro, vithuzithuzi ivyo munthu wakuwona mu maloto vikwenera kuŵa nga ni vinthu ivyo wakawona apo wakaŵa maso.{{sfn| Modrak | 2009 | pp=169–181}} == Fundo zinyake == Fundo za Aristotle zikovwira pa nkhani za makhaliro, ndyali, vyachuma, na kuyowoya.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}} {| class="wikitable floatright" align=right style="font-size: 80%;" |+ Virtues and their accompanying vices{{sfn|Humphreys|2009}} ! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much |- |Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory |- |Lack of purpose||Right ambition||Over-ambition |- |Spiritlessness||Good temper||Irascibility |- |Rudeness||Civility||Obsequiousness |- |Cowardice||Courage||Rashness |- |Insensibility||Self-control||Intemperance |- |Sarcasm||Sincerity||Boastfulness |- |Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery |- |Shamelessness||Modesty||Shyness |- |Callousness||Just resentment||Spitefulness |- |Pettiness||Generosity||Vulgarity |- |Meanness||Liberality||Wastefulness |} === Makhaliro === {{Main|Aristotelian ethics}} Aristotle wakawonanga kuti nkharo yiwemi njakovwira chomene m'malo mwa kughanaghana waka. Wakalemba mabuku ghanandi ghakulongosora makhaliro ghawemi, chomenechomene buku la Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle wakasambizganga kuti nkharo yiwemi yikukolerana na mulimo uwo munthu wakucita. Jiso likuŵa liwemi pekha para likuwona, cifukwa mulimo wake ngwakuwona. Aristotle wakati ŵanthu ŵakwenera kuŵa na mulimo unyake, ndipo mulimo uwu ukwenera kuŵa wa mzimu (psuchē) mwakuyana na fundo (logos). Aristotle wakawona kuti umoyo wa munthu ukuŵa na viwemi vinandi, panji kuti ukuŵa na viheni vinandi. Kuti munthu waŵe wakukondwa, wakwenera kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi (ēthikē aretē). Aristotle wakasambizganga kuti kuti munthu waŵe na nkharo yiwemi ndiposo wakondwenge, wakwenera kuŵa na mwaŵi wakuti waŵe na nkharo yiwemi. Para ŵanthu ŵawemi ŵakucita nthena, vinjeru vyawo (phronesis) na vinjeru vyawo (nous) vingapulikiskika na kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi comene, vinjeru vya munthu uyo wakughanaghana makora, panji wavinjeru. === Ndyali === {{Main|Politics (Aristotle)}} Padera pa kulemba vya munthu, Aristotle wakalemba vya msumba mu buku lake la Politics. Aristotle wakawonanga msumba kuŵa cigaŵa ca ŵanthu. Nakuti wakawonanga kuti msumba ngwakuzirwa comene kuluska mbumba, iyo nayo njakuzirwa comene kuluska munthu, "pakuti cilicose cikwenera kuŵa cakuzirwa comene kuluska cigaŵa". Wakayowoya kuti "munthu ni nyama ya ndyali" ndipo wakati munthu wakuchita vinthu mwamahara. Aristotle wakaghanaghananga kuti ndyali zili nga ni vyamoyo, m'malo mwa mashini. Aristotle wakawonanga msumba nga ni vinthu vyamoyo, ndipo wakuwoneka kuti ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kuwona msumba mu nthowa iyi.{{sfn| Ebenstein | Ebenstein | 2002 | page=59}} [[File:Aristotle's constitutions.svg| thumb|upright=1.5 | Ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya pa nkhani ya ndyali]] Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga pa nkhani ya ndyali ni vyakupambana chomene na ivyo Aristotle wakagomezganga. Nangauli wakamanyanga kuti maufumu ghakurughakuru ghakaŵako, kweni Aristotle wakati msumba (polis) ndiwo ukaŵa chigaŵa cha ndyali. Cilato ca msumba uwu nchakuti uleke kuŵa na vinthu vyambura urunji panji kuti ukhazikike pa vya cuma pera yayi, kweni kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu msumba uwu ŵaŵe na umoyo uwemi na kucita vinthu viwemi. Fundo iyi yikupambana na fundo za mazuŵa ghano, izo zikwamba na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakuchita phangano la umoyo wawo wose..{{efn-ua | For a different reading of social and economic processes in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''Politics'' see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in ''Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi'' ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.}} Mu buku la Protrepticus, munthu uyo wakuzunulika kuti 'Aristotle' wakuti:{{sfn| Hutchinson | Johnson | 2015 | p=22}} {{blockquote |Pakuti tose tikuzomerezga kuti munthu muwemi comene ndiyo wakwenera kuwusa, ndiko kuti, uyo ngwapacanya comene, ndiposo kuti dango ndilo likulongozga ndipo ndilo pera lili na mazaza; kweni dango ni vinjeru, ndiko kuti, kayowoyero ako kakujintha pa vinjeru. Kweniso, kasi tili na fundo wuli yakukhwaskana na viwemi iyo njakwenelera kuluska ya munthu wamahara? Pakuti vyose ivyo munthu uyu wakusankha, usange wakusankha mwakuyana na ivyo wakumanya, ni viwemi ndipo vyakupambana navyo ni viheni. Ndipo pakuti waliyose wakusankha comene ico cikukolerana na mikhaliro yake (munthu murunji wakusankha kuŵa murunji, munthu wacikanga kuti waŵe na cikanga, kweniso munthu wakujikora kuti waŵe na cikanga), nchakuwonekerathu kuti munthu wavinjeru wakusankha comene kuŵa wavinjeru; cifukwa ni ncito ya nkhongono iyi. Ntheura nchakuwonekerathu kuti, mwakuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira, vinjeru ni vinthu vyakuzirwa comene.}} Pakuŵa msambiri wa Plato, Aristotle wakasuskanga chomene demokilase, ndipo pakulondezga fundo za mu buku la Plato lakuti The Statesman, wakambiska fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na mazaza pa vinthu vyakupambanapambana. {{blockquote|Ni dango la boma kutolera ku ŵamazaza kuti maofesi ghakwenera kusankhika, ndipo ku demokilase kuti ivi vikwenera kucitika mwakuyana na katundu yayi. Ivi ndivyo vikucitika para ŵanthu ŵakusazga vinthu ivi, ndipo para munthu wangayowoya kuti pali dango limoza la demokilase na oligarchy, ndikuti wakuŵa na demokilase na oligarchy.|Aristotle. ''Politics'', Book 4, 1294b.10–18|source=}} Kuti walongosore makora fundo iyi, Aristotle wakayowoya fundo yakwamba pa nkhani ya mawerengero gha mavoti, nangauli yikalembeka mu malemba..{{sfn| Tangian | 2020 | pages=35-38}} === Vya Chuma === {{Main|Politics (Aristotle)}} Aristotle wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma, chomenechomene mu vyaka vyapakati. Mu buku lake lakuti Politics, Aristotle wakalemba vya msumba, katundu, na malonda. Kuyana na umo Lionel Robbins wakawonera, umo wakazgoleranga ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga vinthu vya ŵanthu ŵekha, vikalongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa pakati pa ŵasayansi na ŵasayansi ŵa vyachuma. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti nangauli vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita paŵekha vingawoneka nga ni viwemi ku ŵanthu, kweni viheni ivi vikufuma ku ŵanthu. Mu buku lake la Politics, Aristotle wakayowoyapo umo ndalama zikambira. Ndalama zikamba kugwira nchito cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuthemba ŵanyawo. Ŵanthu ŵakazomerezganga kugura vinthu ivyo vikaŵa vyakovwira kweniso vyakovwira, nga ni visulo na siliva. Ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya pa nkhani ya malonda na chiwongolara vikawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma mu vyaka vyapakati. Iyo wakawonanga malonda ghambura kwenelera, ndipo wakagomezganga kuti malonda gha malonda ghakovwira munthu kusanga phindu. Lekani likugwiliskira nchito vinthu nga ni nthowa yakufiskira cilato, m'malo mwa kuŵa cilato cake. Iyo wakagomezganga kuti malonda ghanthena agha ngaheni. Mwakuyana waka, Aristotle wakawonanga kuti kusanga chandulo na chiwundikiro ntchambura kwenelera, chifukwa ndalama zikovwira munthu kusanga chandulo. Aristotle wakalemba fundo yakulongosora ntchito ya ndalama iyo yikwenera kuti yikaŵa yiwemi chomene mu nyengo yake. Iyo wakalemba kuti cifukwa cakuti nchambura macitiko kumanya mtengo wa cinthu cilicose mwa kupenda unandi wa vinthu vinyake ivyo ni vyakuzirwa, ntheura pakukhumbikwa nthowa yimoza yakuyezgera. Ntheura, ndalama zikovwira kuti vinthu vyakupambanapambana viŵe pamoza ndipo vikuyana. Wakalutilira kuyowoya kuti ndalama ni zakovwira pa kusinthana vinthu munthazi. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti, "usange tikukhumba yayi cinthu sono, tingacisanga para tacisanga". === Kuyowoya na kuyowoya === {{Main|Rhetoric (Aristotle) | Poetics (Aristotle)}} [[File:Bénigne Gagneraux, The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods.jpg| thumb | upright=1.35 | The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) yakulembeka na Bénigne Gagneraux. Mu buku lake la Poetics, Aristotle wakugwiliskira ntchito nkhani ya Sophocles yakuyowoya vya Oedipus Tyrannus kuŵa ciyelezgero ca umo nkhani yiwemi yikwenera kuŵira, ndipo wakuŵa na munthu uyo wakwamba makora, kweni wakutaya vyose cifukwa ca kwananga.]] Buku la Aristotle la Rhetoric likuti munthu uyo wakuyowoya wangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zitatu kuti wakhorweske ŵanthu: ethos (kuyowoya na munthu uyo wakuyowoya), pathos (kuyowoya na ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya), na logos (kuyowoya na ŵanthu awo ŵakughanaghana makora). Kweniso wakapatura mazgu ghakuphakazgira mu vigaŵa vitatu: epideictic (mazgu ghakuyowoya vya malumbo panji kususka), forensic (mazgu ghakuyowoya vya mulandu panji kuleka mulandu), na deliberative (mazgu ghakuchema ŵategherezgi kuti ŵasankhe chakuchita pa nkhani yinyake). Aristotle wakalongosoraso vifukwa viŵiri vyakulongosolera mazgu: nthimeme (kulongosolera na mazgu) na paradeigma (kulongosolera na ciyelezgero). Aristotle wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti Poetics kuti sumu za nthano, zachitima, zakukondweska, zachitima, vyakujambura, vyakujambura, sumu, na kuvina, vyose ni vyakuyana waka. Iyo wakugwiliskira nchito lizgu lakuti mimesis pakuyowoya za mulimo wa luso kweniso ivyo munthu wakucita. Aristotle wakati ŵanthu ŵali na luso lwa kulondezga vinthu ivyo vili kulengeka. Pa cifukwa ici, Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti luso la kutolera vinthu likuŵa na ivyo Stephen Halliwell wakuvichema kuti "nthowa zapachanya zakufiskira vilato vyake". Mwaciyelezgero, sumu zikulongora umo sumu ziliri, uku kuvina kukulongora waka umo ziliri, ndipo sumu zikulongora umo mazgu gha mu Baibolo ghaliri. Vinthu ivi vikupambanaso pa nkhani ya kuvilondezga. Mwaciyelezgero, maseŵero ghakusekeska ghakulongora ŵanthu ŵaheni comene kuluska ŵanthu wose, apo masoka ghakulongora ŵanthu ŵaheni comene kuluska ŵanthu wose. Paumaliro, mitundu iyi yikupambana mu umo yikulondezgera vinthu, nga ni nkhani panji nkharo, kusintha panji kuleka kusintha, kweniso maseŵero panji kuleka kuseŵerezga. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti buku la Aristotle la Poetics likaŵa na mabuku ghaŵiri, limoza likulongosora vya vyakusekeska ndipo linyake likulongosora vya masoka. Aristotle wakasambizganga kuti nkhani zachitima zili na vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuzunulika mu ntharika iyi ŵakovwira waka kuti ntharika iyi yimare. Masoka ni vyakucita ivyo vikucitiska munthu kuŵa na citima na wofi, ndipo vikupangiska munthu kuti waŵe na citima. Aristotle wakamalizga buku la Poetics na kudumbiskana za nkhani iyo yikuluska zinyake. Iyo wakati chifukwa chakuti masoka ghali na mikhaliro yose ya sumu, panji ghali na mikhaliro yinyake nga ni sumu, ghakukolerana chomene, ndipo ghakufiska chilato chake. Aristotle wakatemwanga kuwunganya vidokoni, nkhani za ŵanthu, na ntharika. Iyo pamoza na awo ŵakasambiranga nawo ŵakatemwanga chomene vidokoni vya mu buku la Aesop.{{sfn| Aesop | 1998 | pages=Introduction, xi–xii}} === Umo ŵakawonera ŵanakazi === {{Main|Aristotle's views on women}} {{further | Aristotle's biology#Inheritance}} Aristotle wakalongosora kuti para mwanalume wakubaba, mzimu wake ukuwuska mwanakazi. Vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti thupi la mwanakazi liŵe lakutowa comene mwakuti lileke kufumiska ŵana. Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakulongozga ŵakuti Aristotle wakutinkha ŵanakazi. Ndipouli, Aristotle wakazirwiskanga comene cimwemwe ca ŵanakazi nga umo wakacitira na ca ŵanalume, ndipo mu buku lake la Rhetoric wakayowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vikupangiska munthu kuŵa wakukondwa vikwenera kuŵa mu ŵanakazi nga umo viliri mu ŵanalume..{{efn-ua | "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."{{sfn| Rhetoric | p=Book I, Chapter 5}}}} == Kuŵa na Nkhongono == {{see | List of writers influenced by Aristotle}} Nangauli pajumpha vyaka vyakujumpha 2,300 kufuma apo Aristotle wakafwira, kweni wachali munthu uyo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu. Iyo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye vinandi, ndipo wakambiska vinandi. Munthu munyake wavinjeru zina lake Bryan Magee wakati: "Palije munthu uyo wakumanya vinandi nga ni iyo". Padera pa vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakachita, ndiyo wakambiska fundo zaunenesko, wakambiska kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vyamoyo, kweniso wakawovwira chomene ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyanga vya sayansi. Taneli Kukkonen, uyo wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti The Classical Tradition, wakati ivyo wakachita pakwambiska masayansi ghaŵiri ni vyapadera chomene, ndipo wakakhwaska "vigaŵa vyose vya umanyi", kusazgapo visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Western vya makhaliro na ndyali, vya cisopa, kuyowoya, na kusanda mabuku. Kukkonen wakati chifukwa cha fundo iyi, munthu waliyose uyo wakusanda vinthu mazuŵa ghano "waŵenge na maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Jonathan Barnes wakalemba kuti: "Para munthu wangalongosora umo Aristotle wakajipulikiranga pamanyuma pa nyifwa, wangaŵa nga wakulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti Aristotle ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi, sayansi ya umoyo, sayansi ya ndyali, sayansi ya vinyama, sayansi ya viŵeto, malango gha chilengiwa, masambiro gha sayansi, kusambizga ŵanthu kuyowoya makora vinthu, sayansi ya maghanoghano gha ŵanthu, kusanda vinthu, kusanda munthu payekha, sayansi ya vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, na sayansi ya nyengo.{{refn|name=LitList|1= * "the father of logic": Wentzel Van Huyssteen, Encyclopedia of Science and Religion: A-I, p. 27 * "the father of biology": S. C. Datt, S. B. Srivastava, Science and society, p. 93.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=352}} * "the father of political science": N. Jayapalan, Aristotle, p. 12, Jonathan Wolff, Lectures on the History of Moral and Political Philosophy, p. 48. * the "father of zoology": Josef Rudolf Winkler, A Book of Beetles, p. 12 * "the father of embryology": D.R. Khanna, Text Book Of Embryology, p. 2 * "the father of natural law": {{cite journal |last=Shellens |first=Max Solomon |title=Aristotle on Natural Law |journal=Natural Law Forum |volume=4 |issue=1 |year=1959 |pages=72–100 |doi=10.1093/ajj/4.1.72 |url=https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nd_naturallaw_forum |ref=none}} * "the father of scientific method": {{cite news |first=Martyn |last=Shuttleworth |url=https://explorable.com/history-of-the-scientific-method/ |title=History of the Scientific Method |newspaper=Explorable |ref=none}}, Riccardo Pozzo (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=vayp8jxcPr0C&pg=PA41 ''The impact of Aristotelianism on modern philosophy'']. CUA Press. p. 41. {{ISBN|0-8132-1347-9}} * "the father of psychology": Margot Esther Borden, Psychology in the Light of the East, p. 4 * "the father of realism": Russell L. Hamm, Philosophy and Education: Alternatives in Theory and Practice, p. 58 * "the father of criticism": Nagendra Prasad, Personal Bias in Literary Criticism: Dr. Johnson, Matthew Arnold, T.S. Eliot, p. 70. [[Henry Home, Lord Kames|Lord Henry Home Kames]], Elements of Criticism, p. 237. * "the father of meteorology":{{cite news |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/what/what-is-meteorology|title=What is meteorology? |newspaper=Meteorological Office}}{{cite web |url=http://yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1994/5/94.05.01.x.html |title=94.05.01: Meteorology |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160721205842/http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1994/5/94.05.01.x.html |archive-date=21 July 2016 |url-status=dead}} * "the father of individualism": Allan Gotthelf, Gregory Salmieri, A Companion to Ayn Rand, p. 325. * "the father of teleology": Malcolm Owen Slavin, Daniel H. Kriegman, The Adaptive Design of the Human Psyche: Psychoanalysis, Evolutionary Biology, and the Therapeutic Process, p. 292.}} === Pa Theophrastus, uyo wakanjira mu malo ghake === {{Main|Theophrastus | Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)}} [[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg| thumb | upright | [[Book frontispiece|Frontispiece]] to a 1644 version of [[Theophrastus]]'s ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'', originally written around 300 BC]] Theophrastus, uyo wakaŵa msambiri wa Aristotle, wakalemba buku lakuti History of Plants. Mazuŵa ghano napo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazgu agha, nga ni carpel kufuma ku carpos, chipambi, na pericarp kufuma ku pericarpion, chipinda cha mbuto. Theophrastus wakafipiranga mtima yayi vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora kuluska Aristotle.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p= 46}} === Pa ŵasambizgi ŵa visopa ŵa ku Greece === {{further | Peripatetic school}} Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikakhwaska chomene sukulu iyi. Ŵasambiri ŵa Aristotle ŵakaŵa Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius wa ku Phalerum, Eudemos wa ku Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason wa ku Phocis, Nicomachus, na Theophrastus. Ivyo Aristotle wakachita vikulongora kuti Alexander Mukuru wakatora ŵanthu ŵanandi pa ulendo wake. Kweniso msambizgi wake wakamuphalira vya mitheto ya ku Peresiya. Nangauli wakaleka kuchindika Aristotle apo wakendanga, kweni wakati wawona kuti vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikaŵa vyautesi, wakachita chitima. === On Hellenistic science === {{further | Ancient Greek medicine}} Pamanyuma pa Theophrastus, Lyceum yikatondeka kupanga mabuku ghanyake. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kutemwa visambizgo vya Aristotle, kweni ŵanthu ŵakaviwonanga mwakupepuka. Mu nyengo ya Ptolemy, apo msumba wa Alexandria ukaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Ptolemy, ndimo vinthu vikasinthira chomene. Herophilus wa ku Chalcedon, uyo wakaŵa msambizgi wakwamba wa vyadokotala ku Alexandria, wakasintha maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Herophilus wakalongosoraso mphambano pakati pa misipa na misipa. Nangauli ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakale nga ni Lucretius ŵakasuskanga fundo ya Aristotle yakukhwaskana na umoyo, kweni Baibolo likayowoya kuti sayansi ya vinthu vyamunthazi ndiyo yikambiska vinthu ivi. Ernst Mayr wakati: "Pakati pa nyengo ya Lucretius na Galen m'paka mu nyengo ya Renaissance, pakaŵavya chinthu chakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya vyamoyo". === Pa ŵasambizgi ŵa ku Byzantine === {{See also|Commentaries on Aristotle | Byzantine Aristotelianism}} Ŵalembi Ŵachigiriki ŵakawovwira chomene kuti Aristotle waleke kufwa. Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyapo vya Aristotle ŵakaŵa Philoponus, Elias, na David, awo ŵakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. kweniso Stephen wa ku Alexandria, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 C.E. John Philoponus wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghakukhwaskana na umoyo wamuyirayira wa charu chapasi, umo vinthu vikwendera, kweniso fundo zinyake za Aristotle. Philoponus wakadandawura na ivyo Aristotle wakasambizganga pa nkhani ya sayansi, ndipo wakalembapo maubudi ghake. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, Eustratius na Michael ŵa ku Efeso ŵakalembapo fundo zinyake za mu Baibolo, ndipo zikuwoneka kuti Anna Comnena ndiyo wakalemba. === Nkhani ya Chisilamu cha mu nyengo ya ŵapositole === {{further|Logic in Islamic philosophy|Transmission of the Greek Classics}} [[File:Arabic aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright|Ivyo Ŵasilamu ŵakuyowoya vya Aristotle, c. 1220]] Aristotle wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika chomene ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mabuku ghanandi gha Aristotle agho ghachalipo, kweniso mabuku ghanyake gha Chigiriki agho ghakalembeka pakwambilira, ghakang'anamulika mu Chiarabic ndipo ŵanthu ŵavinjeru, ŵasayansi, na ŵasambizgi ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu ndiwo ŵakasambiranga. Averroes, Avicenna, na Alpharabius, awo ŵakalemba vya Aristotle, nawo ŵakakhwaska chomene Thomas Aquinas na ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵa Chikhristu. Alkindus wakazirwiskanga chomene vinjeru vya Aristotle, ndipo Averroes wakayowoya kuti Aristotle wakaŵa "ciyelezgero" ku ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhumbanga kusambira vinjeru. Ŵasambiri ŵa visopa vya Cisilamu ŵakacemanga Aristotle kuti "Msambizgi Wakwamba". Pamanyuma, ŵavinjeru ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi (nga umo viliri mu sumu ya Dante) ndiwo ŵakagwiliskira ntchito zina ili.{{sfn|Nasr|1996|pp=59–60}} === Mu mbili ya Europe mu nyengo za pakati === [[File:Aristotle and Phyllis.jpg| thumb | upright | left | Chithuzithuzi cha Aristotle wakwera pa Phyllis, Hans Baldung, 1515]] {{further|Aristotelianism|Syllogism#Medieval}} Ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira Chigiriki chakale chomene mu chigaŵa cha Latin West. 600 C.E. m'paka c. 1100 C.E. kupaturako Baibolo la Latin ilo Boethius wakang'anamura. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1300, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa chomene Aristotle, ndipo Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Latin ŵakang'anamura Baibolo kufuma mu Chiarabic, nga ni ilo Gerard wa ku Cremona wakang'anamura, kweniso kufuma mu Chigiriki chakwambilira, nga ni ilo la James wa ku Venice na William wa ku Moerbeke. Thomas Aquinas wakati walemba buku lake la Summa Theologica, wakalemba kufuma mu Mabaibolo agho Moerbeke wakang'anamura ndipo wakachemanga Aristotle kuti "The Philosopher". Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakasazga visambizgo vya Aristotle na Chikhristu, ndipo ŵakamba kughanaghana vya Ŵagiriki ŵa mu nyengo yakale. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake nga ni Boethius, Peter Abelard, na John Buridan ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya Aristotle. Mulembi munyake wa ku England, Chaucer, wakati msambiri wake wakakondwanga para wali na {{blockquote | <poem>Wakughanaghanira pa malo ghake ghakugona. Mabuku 20 ghakupakika na thete panji thete, Aristotle na vinjeru vyake,{{sfn| Allen|Fisher|2011|p=17}}</poem>}} Nkhani yinyake ya mu nyengo yakale yikulongora kuti Aristotle wakaphalira mwana wake Alexander kuti waleke kwenda na Phyllis, uyo wakaŵa wakutemweka wa themba. Phyllis wakaphalira Alexander mwakubisilizga ivyo wakeneranga kulindizga, ndipo wakawona apo Phyllis wakalongosoranga kuti nkhongono za mwanakazi zingatonda nanga ni vinjeru vya mwanalume uyo wakaŵa wavinjeru comene. Ŵaluso ŵanyake nga ni Hans Baldung, ŵakajambura vithuzithuzi vinandi vya nkhani iyi. Mulembi munyake wa ku Italy zina lake Dante wakayowoya za Aristotle mu buku lake lakuti The Divine Comedy kuti: {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ ! [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]<br />''L'Inferno'', Canto IV. 131–135 !! Translation<br />''Hell'' |- |<poem>{{lang|it|vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra filosofica famiglia. Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno: quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;}}</poem>||<poem>I saw the Master there of those who know, Amid the philosophic family, By all admired, and by all reverenced; There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, Who stood beside him closer than the rest. </poem> |} Padera pa ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako mabuku gha Dante, Aristotle ndiyo wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani iyi. Dante wakazenga vinjeru vya maseŵero agha na mabuku gha Aristotle, nga umo ŵasembe ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito Aristotle. Dante wakamumanyanga makora Aristotle kwizira mu mabuku agho wakang'anamura kufuma ku Chilatini. Nanga ni apo Virgil wakalongosora umo helo liliri, wakayowoya fundo za mu buku la Nicomachean Ethics.<ref>''Inferno'', Canto&nbsp;XI, lines 70-115, Mandelbaum translation.</ref> === Pa Ciyuda ca mu nyengo za pakati === Mozesi Maimonides (uyo wakuwoneka kuti wakaŵa munthu wakumanya vinandi comene pa nkhani ya Ciyuda ca mu nyengo yakale) wakazomera cisambizgo ca Aristote kufuma ku ŵasambizgi ŵa Cisilamu ndipo wakalemba buku lake lakuti Guide for the Perplexed. Maimonides nayo wakawonanga Aristotle kuŵa wavinjeru comene kuluska wose awo ŵali kuŵako. Kweniso, mu kalata iyo wakalembera Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides wakati Samuyeli wakeneranga yayi kusambira ivyo ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵakalemba pambere Aristotle wandababike cifukwa cakuti ivyo Aristotle wakalemba "ni vyakukwana ndipo ni vyapacanya kuluska vyose ivyo vikalembeka pambere iyo wandababike. Vinjeru vyake, vya Aristotle, ndivyo vikuluska vinjeru vyose vya ŵanthu, padera pa iyo, uyo mzimu wa Ciuta wafika m'paka pa kuŵa nga ni ucimi, ndipo palije cinthu cinyake capadera kuluska ici".<ref>Menachem Kellner, Maimonides on Judaism and the Jewish People, p. 77.</ref> === Ŵasayansi Ŵakale === [[File:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg| thumb | Buku la William Harvey lakuti De Motu Cordis, la mu 1628, likulongora kuti ndopa zikendanga, mwakupambana na umo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghaniranga.]] Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵasayansi nga ni William Harvey wa ku England na Galileo Galilei wa ku Italy, ŵakasuska fundo za Aristotle na ŵanyake awo ŵakaghanaghananga nga ni Galen. Harvey wakalongosora umo ndopa zikwendera, ndipo wakalongora kuti mtima ni mphepo yayi, kweni ni mphepo. Galileo wakagwiliskira nchito fundo zakukayikiska kuti wasuske fundo za Aristotle, wakati mathupi ghose ghakuwa mwaluŵiro lumoza, kwali ghaŵe na uzito wuli.{{sfn| Machamer | 2017}} === Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga vya m'ma 1700 na 1800 === Munthu munyake wa ku Germany, Friedrich Nietzsche, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, wakasambira vinjeru vya Aristotle pa nkhani ya ndyali. Aristotle wakapatura vyakuchita na kupanga, ndipo wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakwenera kuŵa ŵakujilambika ("ŵazga ŵa chilengiwa"), kweniso kuti ŵanyake ŵaŵe ŵakuzirwa chomene. Martin Heidegger ndiyo wakalongosora makora fundo ya Aristotle, ndipo ni Nietzsche yayi. Munthu munyake wa ku England, zina lake George Boole, wakazomera fundo za Aristotle, kweni mu buku lake la mu 1854 (The Laws of Thought) wakayowoya kuti fundo izi ni zautesi. Fundo iyi yikovwira masamu kuti ghaŵe na ma equation, ghakovwira kuti ghamare ma equation kweniso kuti ghaŵe ghakwenelera, kweniso yikovwira kuti ghamare masuzgo ghanandi. Charles Darwin wakawonanga Aristotle kuti ndiyo wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vyamoyo. Mu kalata yinyake iyo wakalemba mu 1882, wakati: "Linnaeus na Cuvier ŵakaŵa ŵachiuta ŵane ŵaŵiri, nangauli ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana, kweni ŵakaŵa waka ŵana ŵa sukulu kwa Aristotle". Kweniso mu buku la On the Origin of Species, Darwin wakalongosora umo vinthu vikasinthira kufuma ku vinyake m'paka ku Aristotle. James Joyce wakatemwanga chomene Aristotle, uyo wakamumanyanga kuti ni "munthu wamahara comene". Samuel Taylor Coleridge wakati: "Waliyose wakubabika kuŵa Platonist panji Aristotelian. Ayn Rand wakazomerezga kuti Aristotle ndiyo wakamovwira chomene ndipo wakayowoya kuti mu mbiri ya vinjeru vya ŵanthu wangapeleka waka ulongozgi wa "A" ghatatu: Aristotle, Aquinas, na Ayn Rand. Kweniso wakati Aristotle ndiyo wakaŵa wavinjeru chomene. Karl Marx wakati Aristotle wakaŵa "munthu wamahara chomene mu nyengo yakale" ndipo wakamumanyanga kuti "munthu wamahara chomene" kweniso "chisambizgi".<ref>F. Novotny, The Posthumous Life of Plato, p. 573</ref><ref>Matt Vidal, Tony Smith, Tomás Rotta, Paul Prew, The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx, p. 215.</ref><ref>Judith A. Swanson, C. David Corbin, Aristotle's 'Politics': A Reader's Guide, p. 146.</ref> === Modern rejection and rehabilitation === [[File:Alexander and Aristotle.jpg| thumb|upright=1.35 | "Ivyo vikulongora kuti Aristotle wakasambizganga Alexander". Chithunzi cha Charles Laplante [fr], 1866]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuska ivyo Aristotle wakalemba. Bertrand Russell wakati: "Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakusambira vikamba na kususka visambizgo vya Aristotle". Russell wakati fundo za Aristotle zikaŵa "zakukhozga yayi", ndipo wakayowoya kuti fundo zake "nkhakale chomene nga umo viliri na sayansi ya Ptolemy". Russell wakati maubudi agha ghakachitiska kuti Aristotle waleke kupulikiska ivyo vikachitika kale. Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis, wakulemba mdauko wa sayansi wa ku Netherlands, wakalemba kuti Aristotle na ŵanyake awo ŵakamuteŵeterapo ŵakalongora kuti sayansi njakusuzga chomene. Mu 1985, Peter Medawar, uyo wakumanya vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, wakayowoya kuti Aristotle wakalemba "vinthu viheni chomene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakawonanga kuti ni viwemi yayi, kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga". Kweni kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumughanaghanira chomene Aristotle. Kukkonen wakati: "Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Aristotle wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene. Alasdair MacIntyre wakayezga kusintha ivyo wakuchema kuti mitheto ya Aristote mu nthowa iyo yikususkana na ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakujikuzga. Kukkonen wakayowoyaso kuti "vinthu vyakukondweska chomene ivyo Aristotle wakachitanga pakusambizga Alexander" vikalutilira, nga umo vikaŵira mu filimu ya mu 2004 yakuchemeka Alexander. Ŵasayansi ŵa vinthu vyamoyo ŵachali kukhumba kumanya maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Armand Marie Leroi wakazengaso umoyo wa Aristotle, apo mafumbo ghanayi gha Niko Tinbergen, agho ghakajintha pa vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotle, ghakovwira kusanda nkharo ya vinyama.{{sfn|MacDougall-Shackleton|2011|pp=2076–2085}}{{sfn|Hladký|Havlíček|2013}} == Milimo iyo yikulutilira == === Corpus Aristotelicum === {{main|Corpus Aristotelicum}} [[File:Aristotelis De Moribus ad Nicomachum.jpg| thumb | upright | peji lakwamba la buku la 1566 la Nicomachean Ethics mu Cigiriki na Cilatini]] Mabuku gha Aristotle agho ghakapona kufuma mu nyengo yakale, ghakusangika mu buku la Corpus Aristotelicum. Malemba agha, ghakupambana na mabuku gha Aristotle agho ghakazgeŵa. Ŵakuzunurika mu buku la Immanuel Bekker la Royal Prussian Academy (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831~1870), ilo likujintha pa malemba ghakale gha milimo iyi..{{sfn|Aristotelis Opera}} === Kuzgeŵa na kusungika === {{see|Recovery of Aristotle}} Aristotle wakalembanga mabuku ghake pa mipukutu ya papyrus, iyo yikaŵa yakumanyikwa pa nyengo yira. Mabuku ghake ghakupambana mu magulu ghaŵiri: gha "exoteric", agho ghakulembekera ŵanthu wose, na gha "esoteric", agho ghakulembekera sukulu ya Lyceum. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikupambana chomene na ivyo vili kulembeka mu Baibolo. Nangauli mabuku agho ghakazgeŵa ghakulongora kuti ghakalembeka kuti ghazakalembeke pamanyuma, kweni ghanyake agho ghalipo ghali nga ni mabuku gha nkhani izo zikalembeka kuti zilembeke. Ivyo Cicero wakayowoya vya kalembero ka Aristotle kuti "mlonga wa golide" vikwenera kuti vikaŵa vya mabuku agho wakalemba. Fumbo likuru comene pa nkhani ya ivyo Aristotle wakalemba ni lakuti, kasi vikacitika wuli kuti mabuku gha mu Baibolo ghaleke kusangika? Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Andronicus wa ku Rhodes wakawunjika mabuku gha Aristotle agho ghakaŵa gha vigaŵa vichokovichoko, ndipo wakaŵapambaniska na mabuku gha Theophrastus na Peripatetics.{{sfn|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=16}}{{sfn|Barnes|1995|pp=10–15}}{{-}} == Chiharo == === Vyakulongola === ;Vyakupenta Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa chomene nga ni Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, na Francesco Hayez, ndiwo ŵakamujambura. Pa vithuzithuzi vyakumanyikwa comene ni ivyo Raphael wakajambura pa nyumba yake yakucemeka The School of Athens, mu Vatican's Apostolic Palace, apo ŵanthu ŵa Plato na Aristotle ŵali pa malo ghakuzirwa comene. Aristotle wa Rembrandt uyo wali na chiŵegha cha Homer nayo ni mulimo wakumanyikwa comene, wakulongora munthu wavinjeru na wachibulumutira Homer uyo wakaŵa muchoko: nga umo Jonathan Jones wakulembera, "ciŵegha ici cikhalilirenge cimoza mwa vyakuzizwiska comene pa caru cose, ndipo cikutikora na kumanya nyengo."{{sfn|Held|1969}}{{sfn|Jones|2002}} <gallery mode="packed" heights="170px"> Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg| ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' [[anachronism|anachronistically]] shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493 Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg| ''Aristotle'' by [[Justus van Gent]]. Oil on panel, c. 1476 Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg| ''Phyllis and Aristotle'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. Oil on panel, 1530 Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg| ''Aristotle'' by [[Paolo Veronese]], Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG| ''Aristotle and [[Campaspe]]'',{{efn-ua | Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.}} [[Alessandro Turchi]] (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713 Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg| ''[[Aristotle (Ribera painting)|Aristotle]]'' by [[Jusepe de Ribera]]. Oil on canvas, 1637 Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg| ''Aristotle with a Bust of [[Homer]]'' by [[Rembrandt]]. Oil on canvas, 1653 Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg| ''Aristotle'' by [[Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder]]. Oil on canvas, by 1813 (Venice) Aristotele by Francesco Hayez in gallerie Accademia Venice.jpg| ''Aristotle'' by [[Francesco Hayez]]. Oil on canvas, 1811 </gallery> ;Vyakuŵaja <gallery mode="packed" heights="170px"> Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by [[Lysippos]]. [[Louvre Museum]] DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by [[Luca della Robbia]], [[Florence Cathedral]], 1437–1439 Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, [[Gladstone's Library]], [[Hawarden]], Wales, 1899 Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|Bronze statue, [[University of Freiburg]], Germany, 1915 </gallery> === Mazina gha ŵanthu === Mapiri gha Aristotle agho ghali ku Antarctica ghali na zina la Aristotle. Mu buku lake la Meteorology, wakaŵa wakwamba kuyowoya kuti ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Antarctica kuli mtunda ukuru. Aristotle ni crater iyo yili pa mwezi ndipo yili na zina la Aristotle.{{sfn| Aristoteles}} == Wonaniso == * [[Aristotelian Society]] * [[Conimbricenses]] * [[Perfectionism (philosophy)|Perfectionism]] == Ukaboni == === Vyakulemba === {{notelist-ua | 30em}} === Citations === {{Reflist | colwidth=25em}} === Sources === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |author=Aesop |author-link=Aesop |title=The Complete Fables By Aesop |date=1998 |translator-last=Temple |translator-first=Olivia |translator-last2=Temple |translator-first2=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0-14-044649-4 }} * {{cite journal |last=Aird |first=W. C. |title=Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey |year=2011 |pages=118–129 |journal=Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis |volume=9 |doi=10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x |pmid=21781247 |s2cid=12092592}} * {{cite magazine |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=I'm So Totally Over Newton's Laws of Motion |magazine=Wired |date=21 March 2016 |url=https://www.wired.com/2016/03/im-totally-newtons-laws-motion/ |access-date=11 May 2018 }} * {{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Mark |last2=Fisher |first2=John H. |title=The Complete Poetry and Prose of Geoffrey Chaucer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eMSUXumf6psC&pg=PA17 |date=2011 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-15-506041-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Anagnostopoulos |first=Georgios |title=A Companion to Aristotle |year=2013 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-118-59243-4}} * {{cite book |last=Annas |first=Julia |title=Classical Greek Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientphilosoph0000anna |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285357-8}} * {{cite book |last=Aquinas |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Aquinas |title=Summa Theologica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YiJCBAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=e-artnow |isbn=978-80-7484-292-4 }} * {{cite web |editor-first=Immanuel |editor-last=Bekker |orig-year=1831 |url=http://archive.org/details/bub_gb_jMz9zVYu9Q0C |title=Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica Aristoteles graece |last=Aristoteles |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=apud Georgium Reimerum |access-date=31 January 2019 |via=Internet Archive |ref=CITEREFAristotelis Opera }} * {{cite web |title=Aristoteles |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/nomenclature/SearchResults;jsessionid=BE8F9834B709207DDD5D36EFA5506C7F |website=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. United States Geological Survey |access-date=19 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristoteles }} * {{cite web |title=Aristoteles-Park in Stagira |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810211755/http://www.dimosaristoteli.gr/en/sights/aristotle-park |publisher=Dimos Aristoteli |access-date=20 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristoteles-Park in Stagira }} * {{cite IEP |last=Humphreys |first=Justin |title=Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) |date=2009 | url-id=aristotl |issn=2161-0002 }} * {{cite web |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |website=Britannica.com |access-date=26 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |archive-date=22 April 2009 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFAristotle (Greek philosopher) }} * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Metaphysics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFMetaphysics }} * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Meteorology |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFMeteorology }} * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Nicomachean Ethics |author=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |ref=CITEREFNicomachean Ethics }} * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/soul.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=On the Soul |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFOn the Soul }} * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Physics |author=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=31 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPhysics }} * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Poetics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPoetics }} * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Politics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPolitics }} * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/prior.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Prior Analytics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |ref=CITEREFPrior Analytics }} * {{cite web |author=Aristotle |title=Rhetoric |translator-first=W. Rhys |translator-last=Roberts |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213075039/http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-5.html |archive-date=13 February 2015 |ref=CITEREFRhetoric |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213075039/https://web.archive.org/web/20150213075039/http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-5.html }} * {{cite web |title=Aristotle Mountains |url=https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=137410 |work=[[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research|SCAR]] [[Composite Antarctic Gazetteer]] |publisher=[[Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide]] |agency=[[Department of the Environment and Energy]], [[Australian Antarctic Division]], [[Australian Government]] |access-date=1 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle Mountains }} * {{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=Politics-Ethics, In Early Economic Thought: Selections from Economic Literature Prior to Adam Smith |date=1948 |editor=Monroe, Arthur E. |publisher=Harvard University Press}} * {{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=The Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/politics0000aris |url-access=registration |date=1984 |editor=Lord, Carnes |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-92184-6 }} * {{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/politics0000aris_d5v5 |date=2009 |others=Translated by Ernest Barker and revised with introduction and notes by R.F. Stalley |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953873-7 |edition=1st |orig-date=1995}} * {{cite book |author=Aristotle | translator-last1=Sachs | translator-first1=Joe |title=Aristotle's ''Metaphysics'' |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlesmetaph0000aris_m3c8 |year=1999 |publisher=Green Lion Press}} * {{cite web |title=Aristotle and Phyllis |url=http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/20121 |publisher=Art Institute Chicago |access-date=22 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle Phyllis }} * {{cite web |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aristotle |title=Aristotle definition and meaning |publisher=Collins English Dictionary |website=www.collinsdictionary.com |ref=CITEREFCollins English Dictionary }} * {{cite news |title=Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, Rembrandt (1653) |date=27 July 2002 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/jul/27/art.homer |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=23 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle with Bust2002 }} * {{cite book |last=Averroes |title=Commentarium Magnum in Aristotelis De Anima Libros|editor-last=Crawford|editor-first=F. Stuart |publisher=Mediaeval Academy of America |oclc=611422373 |date=1953}} * {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction |date=1982 |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285408-7}} * {{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |chapter=Life and Work |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle |date=1995 |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42294-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBqQOqM5dfsC }} * {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |last2=Griffin |first2=Miriam Tamara |title=Philosophia Togata: Plato and Aristotle at Rome. II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r18BAAAACAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-815222-4 }} * {{cite book |last1=Bergstrom |first1=Carl T. |last2=Dugatkin |first2=Lee Alan |title=Evolution |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeaEZwEACAAJ |publisher=Norton |isbn=978-0-393-92592-0 }} * {{cite journal |last=Blits |first=Kathleen C. |title=Aristotle: Form, function, and comparative anatomy |date=15 April 1999 |pages=58–63 |journal=The Anatomical Record |volume=257 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(19990415)257:2<58::AID-AR6>3.0.CO;2-I |pmid=10321433|doi-access=free }} * {{cite book |last=Bloch |first=David |title=Aristotle on Memory and Recollection |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwTHng_5RqAC&q=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection&pg=PR9 |isbn=978-90-04-16046-0 }} * {{cite book |chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/logic-ancient/ |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Susanne |last=Bobzien |chapter=Ancient Logic |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |date=2015 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy }} * {{cite book |last=Boole |first=George |author-link=George Boole |title=The Laws of Thought |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUEQAQAAIAAJ |year=2003 |orig-date=1854 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-59102-089-9 }} * {{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Michael |title=Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name "Aristotle" |url=http://www.behindthename.com/name/aristotle |website=Behind the Name |access-date=6 April 2012 }} * {{cite book |last=Carruthers |first=Mary |title=The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dntrAnqfIasC&q=The+book+of+memory:+the+study+of+memory+in+medieval+times&pg=PR8 |isbn=978-0-521-42973-3 }} * {{cite book |last1=Carteron |first1=Henri |title=Notion de Force dans le Systeme d'Aristote |date=1923 |publisher=J. Vrin |language=fr}} * {{cite book |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius |author-link=Cicero |chapter=Book II, chapter XXXVIII, §&nbsp;119 |title=The Academica of Cicero 106–43 BC |date=1874 | editor-first=James S. | editor-last=Reid |publisher=Macmillan}} * {{cite web |last1=Cohen |first1=S. Marc |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics |date=8 October 2000 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Winter 2016 |access-date=14 November 2018}}<!--edition based on access-date--> * {{cite journal |last=Corcoran |first=John |title=Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic |date=2009 |pages=1–20 |journal=History and Philosophy of Logic |volume=30|doi=10.1080/01445340802228362 |citeseerx=10.1.1.650.463|s2cid=8514675 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Day |first1=J. |title=Botany meets archaeology: people and plants in the past |year=2013 |pages=5805–5816 |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |volume=64 |issue=18 |doi=10.1093/jxb/ert068 |pmid=23669575|doi-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last=Degnan |first=Michael |title=Recent Work in Aristotle's Logic |date=1994 |pages=81–89 |journal=Philosophical Books |volume=35 |issue=2 (April 1994)|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0149.1994.tb02858.x}} * {{cite book |last1=Deslauriers |first1=Marguerite |last2=Destrée |first2=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haCyAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-00468-9 }} * {{cite book |last1=Dijksterhuis |first1=Eduard Jan |title=The Mechanization of the World Picture |date=1969 |translator=C. Dikshoorn |publisher=Princeton University Press}} * {{cite journal |last1=Drabkin |first1=Israel E. |title=Notes on the Laws of Motion in Aristotle |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-philology_1938_59_1/page/60 |date=1938 |pages=60–84 |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=59 |issue=1 |jstor=90584|doi=10.2307/290584}} * {{cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |title=The Story of Philosophy |date=2006 |author-link=Will Durant |orig-date=1926 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-73916-4 | title-link=The Story of Philosophy}} * {{cite book |last=Düring |first=Ingemar |title=Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition. By Ingemar Düring |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MnKAQwAACAAJ |year=1957 |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell in Komm. }} * {{cite book |last1=Ebenstein |first1=Alan |first2=William |last2=Ebenstein |title=Introduction to Political Thinkers |date=2002 | author-link=Alan O. Ebenstein |publisher=Wadsworth Group}} * {{cite journal |last=Evans |first=Nancy |s2cid=143750010 |date=2006 |title=Diotima and Demeter as Mystagogues in Plato's Symposium |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_hypatia_spring-2006_21_2/page/1 |journal=Hypatia |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.1111/j.1527-2001.2006.tb01091.x |issn=1527-2001}} * {{cite journal |last=Filonik |first=Jakub |title=Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal |date=2013 |pages=72–73 |journal=Dike |volume=16 |issue=16 |doi=10.13130/1128-8221/4290 | doi-access=free}} * {{cite book |last=Freeland |first=Cynthia A. |title=Feminist Interpretations of Aristotle |date=1998 |publisher=Penn State University Press |isbn=978-0-271-01730-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Garver |first1=Eugene |title=Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character |date=1994 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-28425-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2ldWwIQhHwC&q=Aristotle+ethos+pathos+logos }} * {{cite book |last=Gigon |first=Olof |title=Vita Aristotelis Marciana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a3ldDwAAQBAJ |date=2017 |orig-date=1965 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-082017-1 }} * {{cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |title=Alexander of Macedon |url=https://archive.org/details/alexanderofmaced0000gree |url-access=registration |date=1991 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-27586-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Grimaldi |first=William M. A. |chapter=Studies in the Philosophy of Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' |title=Landmark Essays on Aristotelian Rhetoric |date=1998 |page=71 |series=Landmark Essays |volume=14 |editor1-last=Enos |editor1-first=Richard Leo |editor2-last=Agnew |editor2-first=Lois Peters |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=978-1-880393-32-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMihW5GdDzoC&q=Aristotle+paradeigma+and+enthymeme&pg=PA71 }} * {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy Vol. 1 |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29420-1}} * {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. |title=A history of Greek philosophy Vol. 6: Aristotle: An Encounter |date=1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-38760-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Haase |first=Wolfgang |title=Philosophie, Wissenschaften, Technik. Philosophie (Doxographica &#91;Forts. &#93;) |year=1992 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifqGuiHo6eQC&pg=PA3862 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-013699-9 }} * {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Edith |title=Aristotle's Way: How Ancient Wisdom Can Change Your Life |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotleswayhow0000hall |date=2018 |publisher=[[The Bodley Head]] |isbn=978-1-84792-407-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Halliwell |first1=Stephen |chapter=Inside and Outside the Work of Art |title=The Aesthetics of Mimesis: Ancient Texts and Modern Problems |date=2002 |pages=152–59 |author-link=Stephen Halliwell (academic) |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-09258-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R8wctGFg12MC&q=Aristotle+mimesis }} * {{cite book |last=Hankinson |first=R.J. |title=Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/causeexplanation0000hank |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-823745-7 |doi=10.1093/0199246564.001.0001}} * {{cite SEP |last=Hasse |first=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |date=2014 | url-id=arabic-islamic-influence}} * {{cite book |last=Held |first=Julius |title=Rembrandt's Aristotle and Other Rembrandt Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/rembrandtsaristo0000held |url-access=registration |year=1969 |author-link=Julius S. Held |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-03862-9 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Hladký |first1=V. |last2=Havlíček |first2=J |year=2013 |url=http://ishe.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/HEB_2013_28_4_3-11.pdf |title=Was Tinbergen an Aristotelian? Comparison of Tinbergen's Four Whys and Aristotle's Four Causes |journal=Human Ethology Bulletin |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=3–11 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Holowchak |first1=Mark |title=Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out |date=1996 |pages=405–423 |journal=Ancient Philosophy |volume=16 |issue=2 |url=http://www.pdcnet.org/ancientphil/Ancient-Philosophy |doi=10.5840/ancientphil199616244 }} * {{cite book |last=Hooker |first=Sir William Jackson |author-link=William Jackson Hooker |title=The British Flora: Comprising the Phaenogamous, Or Flowering Plants, and the Ferns |year=1831 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-IYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219 |publisher=Longman |oclc=17317293 }} * {{cite book |last=House |first=Humphry |title=Aristotle's Poetics |date=1956 |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlespoetic032945mbp |publisher=Rupert Hart-Davis }} * {{cite web |last1=Hutchinson |first1=D. S. |last2=Johnson |first2=Monte Ransome |title=Exhortation to Philosophy |date=2015 |page=22 |url=http://www.protrepticus.info/protr2017x20.pdf |website=Protrepticus }} * {{cite book |title=Aristotle: Introductory Readings |editor-first1=Terence |editor-last1=Irwin |editor-first2=Gail |editor-last2=Fine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tx8zjmHZ2NMC |year=1996 |publisher=Hackett Pub. |isbn=978-0-87220-339-6 }} * {{cite news |last=Jones |first=Jonathan |title=Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, Rembrandt (1653) |date=27 July 2002 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/jul/27/art.homer |access-date=23 March 2018 |work=[[The Guardian]] }} * {{cite book |last=Jones |first=W. T. |title=The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy |date=1980 |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |isbn=978-0-15-538312-8}} * {{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |title=Critique of Pure Reason |date=1787 |edition=Second |oclc=2323615}} * {{cite book |last=Kantor |first=J. R. |title=The Scientific Evolution of Psychology, Volume I |year=1963 |publisher=Principia Press |isbn=978-0-911188-25-7}} * {{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter Arnold |title=Tragedy and Philosophy |date=1968 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02005-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTk9-180NbsC&q=Aristotle+Oedipus+the+King }} * {{cite book |last1=Kennedy-Day |first1=Kiki |chapter=Aristotelianism in Islamic philosophy |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1998 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-H002-1 |isbn=978-0-415-25069-6}} * {{cite book |last=Knight |first=Kelvin |title=Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics & Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotelianphil0000knig |date=2007 |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-0-7456-1977-4}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Kraut |first1=Richard |title=Aristotle's Ethics |date=1 May 2001 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=19 March 2018 }} * {{cite SEP |last=Kuhn |first=Heinrich |title=Aristotelianism in the Renaissance |date=2018 | url-id=aristotelianism-renaissance}} * {{cite book |last=Kukkonen |first=Taneli |title=The classical tradition |year=2010 | editor-last=Grafton | editor-first=Anthony | display-editors=etal |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03572-0}} * {{cite SEP |last=Lagerlund |first=Henrik |title=Medieval Theories of the Syllogism |date=2016 | url-id=medieval-syllogism}} * {{cite SEP |last=Lagerlund |first=Henrik |title=Medieval Theories of the Syllogism | url-id=medieval-syllogism}} * {{cite web |last=Lahanas |first=Michael |title=Optics and ancient Greeks |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |website=Mlahanas.de |access-date=26 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411051535/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |archive-date=11 April 2009 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Ellen Wardwell |last2=Robinson |first2=Anne |title=Indianapolis Museum of Art: Highlights of the Collection |year=2005 |publisher=[[Indianapolis Museum of Art]] |isbn=978-0-936260-77-8}} * {{cite web |last1=Leroi |first1=Armand Marie (Presenter) |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |title=Aristotle's Lagoon: Embryo Inside a Chicken's Egg |date=3 May 2011 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00gqlyy |publisher=BBC |access-date=17 November 2016 }} * {{cite book |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |date=2015 |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4}} * {{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David |title=The Beginnings of Western Science |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest00lind |url-access=registration |date=1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=G. E. R. |title=The critic of Plato |date=1968 |author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd |work=Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09456-6}} * {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=G. E. R. |title=Causes and correlations |date=1996 | author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd |work=Adversaries and Authorities: Investigations into ancient Greek and Chinese science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-55695-8}} * {{cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Arthur O. |title=The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea |date=31 January 1976 |author-link=Arthur O. Lovejoy |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36153-9}} * {{cite web | title=Lucas Cranach the Elder{{!}} Phyllis and Aristotle | url=http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2008/important-old-master-paintings-including-european-works-of-art-n08404/lot.78.html | publisher=[[Sotheby's]] | access-date=23 March 2018 | date=2008 | ref=CITEREFLucas Cranach the Elder }} * {{cite book |last=Lyell |first=Charles |title=Principles of Geology |date=1832 |author-link=Charles Lyell |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesgeolo01unkngoog |oclc=609586345 |publisher=J. Murray, 1832 }} * {{cite journal |last=MacDougall-Shackleton |first=Scott A. |title=The levels of analysis revisited |date=27 July 2011 |pages=2076–2085 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1574 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0363 |pmc=3130367 |pmid=21690126}} * {{cite SEP |last=Machamer |first=Peter |title=Galileo Galilei |date=2017 | url-id=galileo}} * {{cite book |last=Magee |first=Bryan |title=The Story of Philosophy |date=2010 |author-link=Bryan Magee |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-241-24126-4}} * {{cite book |last=Mason |first=Stephen F. |title=A History of the Sciences |date=1979 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLlMAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Collier Books |isbn=978-0-02-093400-4 |oclc=924760574 }} * {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr |url-access=registration |date=1982 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0-674-36446-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |date=1985 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36446-2}} * {{cite book |last=McLeisch |first=Kenneth Cole |title=Aristotle: The Great Philosophers |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-92392-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle00mcle }} * {{cite book |title=Aristotle to Zoos: a philosophical dictionary of biology |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotletozoos0000unse |year=1984 |last1=Medawar |first1=Peter B. |author-link=Peter Medawar |last2=Medawar |first2=J. S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-283043-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Willard M. |title=Aristotle on Necessity, Chance, and Spontaneity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-catholic-philosophical-quarterly_the-new-scholasticism_spring-1973_47_2/page/204 |year=1973 |pages=204–213 |journal=New Scholasticism |volume=47 |issue=2 |doi=10.5840/newscholas197347237}} * {{cite journal |last1=Modrak |first1=Deborah |title=Dreams and Method in Aristotle |date=2009 |pages=169–181 |journal=Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research |volume=20}} * {{cite book |last=Moore |first=Ruth |title=The Earth We Live On |url=https://archive.org/details/earthweliveonsto00moor |url-access=registration |year=1956 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |oclc=1024467091 }} * {{cite journal |last=Morsink |first=Johannes |title=Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist? |date=Spring 1979 |pages=83–112 |jstor=4330727 |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=12 |issue=1 |doi=10.1007/bf00128136 |pmid=11615776 |s2cid=6090923}} * {{cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia |date=1996 |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=978-0-7007-0314-2}} * {{cite web |last1=Phelan |first1=Joseph |title=The Philosopher as Hero: Raphael's The School of Athens |date=September 2002 |url=http://www.artcyclopedia.com/feature-2002-09.html |publisher=ArtCyclopedia |access-date=23 March 2018 }} * {{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811092041/https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/phyllis-and-aristotle |title=Phyllis and Aristotle |date=1 February 2019 |via=Musee du Louvre |ref=CITEREFPhyllis and Aristotle }} * {{cite book |last=Pickover |first=Clifford A. |title=The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA52 |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-1-4027-5796-9 }} * {{cite web |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/alexander*/3.html |title=Plutarch – Life of Alexander (Part 1 of 7) |date=1919 |publisher=Loeb Classical Library |website=penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=31 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPlutarch1919 }} * {{cite web |title=Predicate Logic |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329221535/https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |publisher=University of Texas |access-date=29 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329221535/https://web.archive.org/web/20180329221535/https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2018 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFPredicate Logic }} * {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Frank Harold Trevor |title=Evolution |date=1974 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWGt0bff8agC |publisher=Golden Press |isbn=978-0-307-64360-5 }} * {{cite book |last=Robbins |first=Lionel |title=A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures |date=2000 |editor1=Medema, Steven G. |editor2=Samuels, Warren J. |publisher=Princeton University Press}} * {{cite book |last1=Rorty |first1=Amélie Oksenberg |chapter=Structuring Rhetoric |date=1996 |title=Essays on Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' |editor-last=Rorty |editor-first=Amélie Oksenberg |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20227-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vd7fEb1wOmYC&q=Aristotle+deliberative+forensic+and+epideictic&pg=PA6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/essaysonaristotl0000unse }} * {{cite journal |last1=Rovelli |first1=Carlo |author-link=Carlo Rovelli |title=Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look |year=2015 |pages=23–40 |journal=Journal of the American Philosophical Association |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1017/apa.2014.11 |arxiv=1312.4057 |s2cid=44193681}} * {{cite book |last=Russell |first=Bertrand |title=A history of western philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RZc3AAAAIAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-31400-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Sedley |first=David |title=Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgRuJEfzUG8C |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25364-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Shields |first=Christopher |title=The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTVsrl0mnH4C |date=2012 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-518748-9 }} * {{cite SEP |last=Shields |first=Christopher |title=Aristotle's Psychology |date=2016 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/aristotle/ |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | editor-last=Zalta | editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Winter 2016}} * {{cite book |last1=Shute |first1=Clarence |title=The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being |date=1941 |publisher=Columbia University Press |oclc=936606202}} * {{cite book |last=Sikka |first=Sonya |title=Forms of Transcendence: Heidegger and Medieval Mystical Theology |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNYIDrA0zrYC&pg=PA265 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3345-4 }} * {{cite SEP |last=Smith |first=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |date=2017 | url-id=aristotle-logic}} * {{cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/dictionarygreek09smitgoog |title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |last=Smith |first=William George |orig-date=1869 |year=2007 |publisher=J. Walton |access-date=30 January 2019 |via=Internet Archive }} * {{cite book |last1=Sorabji |first1=R. |title=Aristotle on Memory |date=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=54 |edition=2nd |quote=And this is exactly why we hunt for the successor, starting in our thoughts from the present or from something else, and from something similar, or opposite, or neighbouring. By this means recollection occurs...}} * {{cite book |last=Sorabji |first=Richard |title=Aristotle Transformed |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotletransfo0000unse_s6y5 |date=1990 |author-link=Richard Sorabji |publisher=Duckworth |isbn=978-0-7156-2254-4}} * {{cite journal |last1=Staley |first1=Kevin |title=Al-Kindi on Creation: Aristotle's Challenge to Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-ideas_july-september-1989_50_3/page/355 |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1989 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=355–370 |jstor=2709566|doi=10.2307/2709566}} * {{cite web |last1=Susskind |first1=Leonard |title=Classical Mechanics, Lectures 2, 3 |date=3 October 2011 |author-link1=Leonard Susskind |url=http://theoreticalminimum.com/courses/classical-mechanics/2011/fall/lecture-2 |website=The Theoretical Minimum |access-date=11 May 2018 }} * {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Henry Osborn |chapter=Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology |title=Greek Biology and Medicine |date=1922 |author-link=Henry Osborn Taylor |archive-date=27 March 2006 |chapter-url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html |url-status=dead |access-date=3 January 2017 }} * {{cite web |title=The School of Athens by Raphael |url=http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/famous-paintings/school-of-athens.htm |publisher=Visual Arts Cork |access-date=22 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFSchool of Athens }} * {{cite web |last=Stewart |first=Jessica |title=The Story Behind Raphael's Masterpiece 'The School of Athens' |url=https://mymodernmet.com/school-of-athens-raphael/ |quote=Plato's gesture toward the sky is thought to indicate his Theory of Forms. ... Conversely, Aristotle's hand is a visual representation of his belief that knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism, as it is known, theorizes that humans must have concrete evidence to support their ideas |website=My Modern Met |year=2019 |access-date=29 March 2019 }} * {{cite book |last= Tangian |first=Andranik |date=2020 |title=Analytical theory of democracy. Vols. 1 and 2|series=Studies in Choice and Welfare |publisher=Springer |location=Cham, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-030-39690-9 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-39691-6 |s2cid=216190330 }} * {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=D'Arcy |author-link=D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson |title=Historia animalium |date=1910 |work=The works of Aristotle translated into English |editor1=Ross, W. D. |editor2=Smith, J. A. |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809140240/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html |oclc=39273217 |access-date=19 March 2018 |archive-date=9 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809140240/https://web.archive.org/web/20190809140240/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Warren |first=Howard C. |title=A History of the Association of Psychology |date=1921 |isbn=978-0-598-91975-5 |author-link=Howard C. Warren |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&q=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology&pg=PA3 |oclc=21010604 <!--dlc--> }} * {{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=Wilse |title=Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night |date=1990 |publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher |isbn=978-0-87477-594-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/dreamtimedreamwo00kriprich }} * {{cite news |title=When libraries were on a roll |date=19 May 2001 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Telegraph |access-date=29 June 2017 |ref=CITEREFWhen libraries were2001}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite SEP |last=Wildberg | first Christian |title=John Philoponus |date=2016 | url-id=philoponus}} * {{cite SEP |title=Aristotle's Influence |date=2018 | url-id=aristotle-influence |edition=Spring 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle's Influence2018}} * {{citation |last = Darwin |first = Charles |year = 1872 |title = The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life |edition = 6th |location = London |publisher = John Murray |url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |access-date = 9 January 2009 }} * {{cite book|title=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right|last=Burns|first=Jennifer|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-532487-7|title-link=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right}} * {{cite book|title=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical|last=Sciabarra|first=Chris Matthew|author-link=Chris Matthew Sciabarra|location=University Park, Pennsylvania|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-271-01440-1|title-link=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical}} {{refend}} == Further reading == The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection. {{refbegin|30em}} * [[J. L. Ackrill|Ackrill, J. L.]] (1997). ''Essays on Plato and Aristotle'', Oxford University Press. * {{cite book |last=Ackrill |first=J.L. |title=Aristotle the Philosopher |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlephiloso0000ackr |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1981 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Mortimer J. |author-link=Mortimer Adler |title=Aristotle for Everybody |publisher=Macmillan |date=1978 | title-link=Aristotle for Everybody |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Ammonius | editor1-last=Cohen | editor1-first=S. Marc | editor2-last=Matthews | editor2-first=Gareth B |title=On Aristotle's Categories |url=https://archive.org/details/onaristotlescate0000ammo |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1991 |isbn=978-0-8014-2688-9 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |date=1908–1952 |ref=none}} These translations are available in several places online; see External links. * Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). ''Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments'', Trafford Publishing, {{ISBN |978-1-4120-4843-9}}. * {{cite book |last=Bocheński |first=I. M. |title=Ancient Formal Logic |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientformallog0000jose |publisher=North-Holland |date=1951 |ref=none}} * Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. * [[Myles Burnyeat|Burnyeat, Myles F.]] ''et al.'' (1979). ''Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. * {{cite book | editor1-last=Cantor | editor1-first=Norman F. | editor2-first=Peter L. | editor2-last=Klein |title=Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle |volume=1 |series=Monuments of Western Thought |publisher=Blaisdell |date=1969 |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last1=Chappell |first1=V. |year=1973 |title=Aristotle's Conception of Matter |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-philosophy_1973-11-08_70_19/page/679 |journal=Journal of Philosophy |volume=70 |issue=19 |pages=679–696 |doi=10.2307/2025076 |jstor=2025076 |ref=none}} * Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. * {{cite web |last1=Cohen |first1=S. Marc |last2=Reeve |first2=C. D. C. |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics |date=21 November 2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Winter 2020 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=John |title=Aristotle |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle0000ferg |url-access=registration |publisher=Twayne Publishers |date=1972 |isbn=978-0-8057-2064-8 |ref=none}} * De Groot, Jean (2014). ''Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC'', Parmenides Publishing, {{ISBN |978-1-930972-83-4}}. * Frede, Michael (1987). ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. * {{cite book |last=Fuller |first=B.A.G. |author-link=Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller |series=History of Greek Philosophy |volume=3 |title=Aristotle |publisher=Cape |date=1923 |ref=none}} * [[Eugene Gendlin|Gendlin, Eugene T.]] (2012). ''[http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327012857/http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ |date=27 March 2017 |ref=none}}'', Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute. * Gill, Mary Louise (1989). ''Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton University Press. * {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W.K.C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy |volume=6 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1981 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Halper |first=Edward C. |year=2009 |title=One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta |publisher=Parmenides Publishing |isbn=978-1-930972-21-6 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Halper |first=Edward C. |year=2005 |title=One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books |url=https://archive.org/details/onemanyinaristot0000halp |publisher=Parmenides Publishing |isbn=978-1-930972-05-6 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |author-link=Terence Irwin |last=Irwin |first=Terence H. |year=1988 |title=Aristotle's First Principles |place=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-824290-5 |ref=none |url=http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf}} * {{cite book |last=Jaeger |first=Werner |title=Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development | editor-first=Richard | editor-last=Robinson |edition=2nd |publisher=Clarendon Press |date=1948 |ref=none}} * [[Alberto Jori|Jori, Alberto]] (2003). ''Aristotele'', Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "[[International Academy of the History of Science]]"), {{ISBN |978-88-424-9737-0}}. * {{cite book | editor-last=Kiernan | editor-first=Thomas P. |title=Aristotle Dictionary | url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W9-CUZ-418 |publisher=Philosophical Library |date=1962 |ref=none}} * Knight, Kelvin (2007). ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press. * Lewis, Frank A. (1991). ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge University Press. * Lord, Carnes (1984). ''Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle''. Chicago University Press. * Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) ''Reading Aristotle: Physics'' VII. 3: ''What is Alteration?'' ''Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference'', Parmenides Publishing. {{ISBN |978-1-930972-73-5}}. * {{cite book |last=McKeon |first=Richard |title=Introduction to Aristotle |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1973 |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last=Owen |first=G. E. L. |year=1965c |title=The Platonism of Aristotle |journal=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=50 |pages=125–150 |ref=none}} [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). ''Articles on Aristotle'' Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] * {{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511498282 |title=Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship |year=2002 |last=Pangle |first=Lorraine Smith |isbn=978-0-511-49828-2 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Plato |author-link=Plato |title=The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle | editor1-first=Harold Joseph | editor1-last=Allen | editor2-first=James B | editor2-last=Wilbur |publisher=Prometheus Books |date=1979 |ref=none}} * Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). ''Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Hackett. * {{cite book |last=Rose |first=Lynn E. |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_KS-042-806 |publisher=Charles C Thomas |date=1968 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Sir David |author-link=W. D. Ross |title=Aristotle |publisher=Routledge |edition=6th |date=1995 |ref=none}} * Scaltsas, T. (1994). ''Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Cornell University Press. * Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's ''Politics''", in ''The City and Man'', Rand McNally. * {{cite book |last=Swanson |first=Judith |title=The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/publicprivateina00swan |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-8014-2319-2 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Veatch |first=Henry B. |author-link=Henry Babcock Veatch |title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlecontemp0000veat |publisher=Indiana University Press |date=1974 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Woods |first=M. J. |year=1991b |chapter=Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics |series=[[Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy]] |title=Aristotle and the Later Tradition |volume=Suppl |pages=41–56 |ref=none}} {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links | b=no | n=no | s=Author:Aristotle}} {{Wikisourcelang | el | Αριστοτέλης | Ἀριστοτέλης}} {{Library resources box | by=yes | onlinebooks=yes | others=yes | about=yes | label=Aristotle | viaf= | lccn= | lcheading= | wikititle= }} * {{PhilPapers|category|aristotle}} * {{InPho | thinker | 2553}} * At the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ Aristotle (general article)] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/ Biology] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/ Ethics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ Logic] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/ Metaphysics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ Motion and its Place in Nature] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/ Poetics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ Politics]}} * At the [https://web.archive.org/web/20230127142051/http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html Internet Classics Archive] * From the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle Aristotle (general article)] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/ Aristotle in the Renaissance] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/ Biology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/ Causality] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/ Commentators on Aristotle] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Ethics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Logic] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ Mathematics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ Metaphysics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/ Natural philosophy] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/ Non-contradiction] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/ Political theory] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Psychology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Rhetoric]}} * {{cite CE1913 | first=William | last=Turner | wstitle=Aristotle | volume=1 | short=x |ref=none}} * {{cite LotEP |chapter=Aristotle |ref=none}} ;Collections of works * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle}} * At [https://web.archive.org/web/20110106124653/http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology] * {{Gutenberg author | id=2747}} * {{Internet Archive author}} * {{Librivox author | id=602}} * {{OL author | OL22105A}} * {{in lang|en|el}} [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at [[Tufts University]] * At the [https://web.archive.org/web/20170215160252/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215160252/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ |date=15 February 2017 }} * {{in lang|el|fr}} [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle] * The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([https://web.archive.org/web/20221124034819/http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF]{{dot}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU]) {{Aristotelianism}} {{Navboxes|list= {{Peripatetics}} {{Metaphysics}} {{Ethics}} {{Natural history}} {{History of biology}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Philosophy of language}} {{Jurisprudence}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Litcrit}} {{Ancient Greece topics}} }} {{Portal bar|Physics|Biology|Earth science|Psychology|Philosophy|Politics|Economics|Literature|Biography|Ancient Greece|History of science}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aristotle| ]] [[Category:Aristotelianism|*]] [[Category:384 BC births]] [[Category:322 BC deaths]] [[Category:4th-century BC mathematicians]] [[Category:4th-century BC philosophers]] [[Category:4th-century BC writers]] [[Category:Academic philosophers]] [[Category:Acting theorists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek biologists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek epistemologists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek ethicists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek logicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek metaphysicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of language]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of mind]] [[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek political philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek political refugees]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of art]] [[Category:Ancient literary critics]] [[Category:Ancient Stagirites]] [[Category:Aphorists]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]] [[Category:Attic Greek writers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek cosmologists]] [[Category:Greek male writers]] [[Category:Greek geologists]] [[Category:Greek meteorologists]] [[Category:Greek social commentators]] [[Category:Humor researchers]] [[Category:Irony theorists]] [[Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens]] [[Category:Natural philosophers]] [[Category:Ontologists]] [[Category:Peripatetic philosophers]] [[Category:Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great]] [[Category:Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice]] [[Category:Philosophers of culture]] [[Category:Philosophers of education]] [[Category:Philosophers of history]] [[Category:Philosophers of law]] [[Category:Philosophers of literature]] [[Category:Philosophers of logic]] [[Category:Philosophers of love]] [[Category:Philosophers of psychology]] [[Category:Philosophers of science]] [[Category:Philosophers of time]] [[Category:Philosophers of sexuality]] [[Category:Philosophers of technology]] [[Category:Philosophical logic]] [[Category:Philosophical theists]] [[Category:Philosophy academics]] [[Category:Philosophy writers]] [[Category:Rhetoric theorists]] [[Category:Social philosophers]] [[Category:Students of Plato]] [[Category:Trope theorists]] [[Category:Virtue ethicists]] [[Category:Zoologists]] [[Category:Natural law ethicists]] d62lfq2jlk63z7pr5hoon9xw8wz30dk 0 29161 122367 77083 2026-09-25T02:29:24Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122367 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox venue|name=Stediyamu ya Kamuzu|image=Kamuzu Stadium exterior.JPG|caption=Kuwalo kwa sitediyamu|location=[[Blantyre]], Malawi|opened=1964|renovated=1968, 2004|surface=[[Act Global]] [[Artificial Turf]], FIFA Certified|tenants=[[Nyasa Big Bullets FC]]<br>[[Mighty Wanderers FC]]<br>[[Malawi national football team]] (until 2017)}} '''Stediyamu ya Kamuzu''' ni sitediyamu ya ntchito zinandi ku [[Blantyre]], [[Malawi]]. Pasono malo agha ghakugwiliskirika nchito pa maseŵero gha bola. Malo agha ghali na ŵanthu 65,000. Vinthu ivi vingaŵa vyakukanizgika cifukwa ca kuvikilira umoyo. Big Bullets na Be Forward Wanderers ndiwo ŵakukhalamo.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 January 2016 |title=Top 10 Largest Stadiums in Africa 2016 |url=http://www.africaranking.com/top-10-largest-stadiums-in-africa/2/}}</ref> == Mbili == Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa [[Britain]], malo agha ghakachemekanga [[Rangeley Stadium]]. J. Wakayama Rangeley. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, malo agha ghakacemeka Kamuzu Stadium, kutolera zina la pulezidenti wakwamba wa ku Malawi, [[Hastings Kamuzu Banda]]. L. Jeffery na [[Steve Price]] ndiwo ŵakapanga vyakuwonerapo vikuruvikuru. Pambuyo pa utsogoleri wa Kamuzu, dzina lake linasinthidwa kukhala Chichiri Stadium pansi pa Purezidenti [[Bakili Muluzi]]; kwene, pansi pakunjila m'malo mwa Muluzi, Bingu wa Mutharika, zina la Kamuzu Stadium likayambilaso mu 2004.<ref>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-13370512_ITM "Malawian president orders three facilities named after founding father Banda"], BBC Monitoring International Reports, September 15, 2004.</ref> [[FIFA]] yikovwira kuti malo agha ghazgoke malo ghakupangira bola. Malo agha ghakuchemeka Xtreme Turf, ndipo ghakapangika na Act Global. Ungano wa kujura kwa Pulezidenti Peter Mutharika ukachitikira ku Kamuzu Stadium pa 2 June 2014.<ref>Zawadi Chilunga, [https://web.archive.org/web/20140606212425/http://www.nyasatimes.com/2014/06/02/mutharika-regrets-jbs-snub-in-power-handover-muluzi-cheered/ "Mutharika regrets JB's snub in power handover: Muluzi cheered"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606212425/http://www.nyasatimes.com/2014/06/02/mutharika-regrets-jbs-snub-in-power-handover-muluzi-cheered/|date=2014-06-06}}, ''Nyasa Times'', 2 June 2014.</ref> == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070313200324/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/specials/1333_malawi_fifa/ Illustrated BBC World Service story about an AIDS awareness event held at Kamuzu] * [https://cafe.daum.net/stade/Dlwn/14 Photos] at [https://cafe.daum.net/stade/ cafe.daum.net/stade] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180711090630/http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_pictures/africa/malawi/blantyre_kamuzu.shtml Photos] at [https://web.archive.org/web/20060316095418/http://www.worldstadiums.com/ worldstadiums.com] {{coord|15|47|56|S|35|2|4.2|E|type:landmark|display=title}} {{Malawi-sports-venue-stub}} bxi08lr200gyfpvgyf5q0bn512ke89p 0 29286 122374 118868 2026-09-25T03:04:53Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122374 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Descendants of Afrikaners beyond the Cape Colony frontier}} {{Nkhani iwemi}} {{Redirect|Boer|the surname|Boer (surname)|other uses|Boer (disambiguation)}} {{Distinguish|text=[[Dutch Surinamese|Boeroe]]s, descendants of Dutch settlers in [[Suriname]]}} {{See also|Afrikaners|Cape Dutch}} {{Use South African English|date=August 2017}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Ŵanthu ŵachi Buwa | native_name = {{native name|af|Boere|paren= omit}} | image = Boerfamily1886.jpg | caption = Mbumba ya ŵa Boer mu 1886 | pop = {{circa|1.5 million}}<ref>{{cite book|url= http://www.pology.com/article/051213.html|first= Jan|last= Stürmann|title= New Coffins, Old Flags, Microorganisms and the Future of the Boer|year= 2005|access-date= 2011-12-02}}</ref> | languages = [[Afrikaans]] | religions = [[Protestant Christianity]] | related = {{hlist|[[Afrikaners]]| [[Basters]]|{{nowrap|[[Cape Coloureds]]}}| {{nowrap|[[Cape Dutch]]}}|[[Griquas]]}} }} '''Ŵanthu ŵachi Buwa''', panjni kuti, '''Boers,''' pachiZungu ({{IPAc-en|b|uːr|z}} {{respell|BOORZ}}; {{lang-af|Boere}} ({{IPA-af|ˈbuːrə}})) ŵanthu aŵa mbana ŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Ciholanji awo ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Cape]], kumwera kwa Africa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, 18 na 19. Kufuma mu 1652 m'paka mu 1795, kampani ya Dutch East India Company ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa malo agha, kweni mu 1806 charu cha United Kingdom chikagwiliskira ntchito malo agha. Zina la gulu ili lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti "boer", ilo likung'anamura "mulimi" mu Ciholandi na Cifurikansi.<ref name="isbn0-624-00533-X">{{cite book|author1=Bosman, D. B.|author2=Van der Merwe, I. W.|author3=Hiemstra, L. W.|title=Tweetalige Woordeboek Afrikaans-Engels|url=https://archive.org/details/tweetaligewoorde0000bosm|publisher=Tafelberg-uitgewers|year=1984|isbn=0-624-00533-X}}</ref> Kweniso, lizgu lakuti Boeren likang'anamuraso awo ŵakafumako ku Cape Colony mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 kuti ŵakakhalenge mu Orange Free State, Transvaal, na ku Natal. Ŵakafumako ku Cape kuti ŵakhalenge kutali na boma la Britain, ndipo cifukwa cikuru ico ŵakacitira nthena cikaŵa cifukwa ca dango liphya la cikaya ilo likaŵa mu ciyowoyero ca Cingelezi ndiposo cifukwa ca kulekeska wuzga mu 1833.<ref name="Cameron 1991">{{cite book|author1=Trewhella Cameron|author2=S. B. Spies|title=A new illustrated history of South Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FqcvAQAAIAAJ|date=October 1991|publisher=Southern Book Publishers|isbn=9781868123612}}</ref>{{qn|date=September 2018}}<ref>Compare:{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Eric Anderson|author-link1=Eric A. Walker (historian)|chapter=14: The Formation of new states, 1835–1854|editor1-last=Walker|editor1-first=Eric Anderson|editor1-link=Eric A. Walker (historian)|title=The Cambridge History of the British Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISg9AAAAIAAJ|volume=8: South Africa, Rhodesia and the protectorates|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1936|pages=320–321|access-date=2018-09-15|quote=In the latter part of 1834, the frontier districts were full of talk of a mass trek. Exploring parties rode out to South-West Africa, to the north-eastern Transvaal, and along the coast belt to Natal. [...] These preparations are conclusive evidence against the traditional idea that the two primary causes of the Great Trek were the inadequate compensation paid for emancipated slaves and the upsetting of D'Urban's settlement of the eastern frontier after the Kaffir War of 1834–5 by the combined forces of Downing Street and Exeter Hall. It is true that many Trekkers, and those the most vocal, came from the eastern frontier lands, but others came from the northern districts where there was no Kaffir menace. The overthrow of the settlement was only a subsidiary cause though a powerful one.}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti Ŵafrikaans panji ŵanthu ŵa Afrikaans<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pollak|first=Sorcha|title='The Irish remind me of Afrikaans people. They're quite reserved'|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/the-irish-remind-me-of-afrikaans-people-they-re-quite-reserved-1.4154039|access-date=2021-06-21|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en}}</ref><ref name="iolDontCallMeBoer">{{Cite news|title=Don't call me a boer|url=https://www.iol.co.za/pretoria-news/opinion/dont-call-me-a-boer-1610759|access-date=2021-06-21|website=www.iol.co.za|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Afrikaans culture (ZA) |url=https://www.southafrica.net/za/en/travel/article/the-rich-and-diverse-afrikaans-culture |access-date=2021-06-21 |website=www.southafrica.net}}</ref>likugwiliskirika nchito mu nyengo yithu yino ku South Africa pakuyowoya za ŵanthu ŵazungu awo ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero ca ciAfrikaans (wo ni gulu likuru comene la ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵa ku South Africa) kweniso ŵana ŵanyake ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Dutch awo ŵakaluta yayi ku Africa. Ndipouli, lizgu ili likusazgapo yayi ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer awo ŵakujiwona kuti mbanthu ŵa mtundu unyake. == Kwiza == === Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe === [[File:Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company.svg|thumb|Ndembera ya Dutch East India Company]] Kampani ya Dutch East India Company (Dutch) yikapangika mu charu cha Netherlands mu 1602, ndipo pa nyengo iyi, ŵa Dutch ŵakamba kuphalizgana pa nkhani ya malonda gha ku Southeast Asia. Paumaliro wa Nkhondo ya Vyaka Makumi Ghatatu mu 1648, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Europe na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakachimbilira ku vyaru vinyake ŵakambininikira mu vyaru vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Germany, Scandinavia, na Switzerland ŵakaluta ku Netherlands na cigomezgo cakuti ŵasangenge nchito ku VOC. Mu caka cenecici pera, ngaraŵa yawo yimoza yikanjira mu Table Bay kufupi na uko kukazgoka Cape Town. Ŵakazizwa comene na usambazi wa caru ici mwakuti ŵakati ŵawelera ku caru cawo, ŵakalongosolera ŵalongozgi ŵa VOC umo vinthu vikaŵira viwemi ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Dutch East uko ŵakaguliskanga vinthu. Ntheura, mu 1652, VOC yikatuma ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Jan van Riebeek, awo ŵakazenga linga na kuzenga minda ya mpheska pa Table Bay. Wakati wafika ku Table Bay, Van Riebeek wakathereska msumba wa Cape Town, ndipo mu 1662, wakati walongozga tawuni iyi kwa vyaka 10 na mwezi umoza, Jan van Riebeeck wakafumapo pa udindo wake. === Ŵanthu Ŵakufwatuka === {{Main|Free Burghers}} VOC yikakondwanga na fundo yakuti ku Cape kuŵe ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka, ndipo ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa VOC ŵakapempha kuti ŵaŵaleke kuti ŵaŵe ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka. Pa cifukwa ici, Jan van Riebeeck wakazomerezga fundo yakuti vinthu viŵe makora, ndipo mu 1657, wakapatura malo ghaŵiri kufupi na mlonga wa Liesbeek kuti ghaŵe gha kulima. Vigaŵa viŵiri ivyo vikapelekeka ku ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka, vikachemekanga Groeneveld na Dutch Garden. Malo agha ghakapambananga na mlonga wa Amstel (Liesbeek). Ŵanthu 9 awo ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera kusanga malo ŵakasankhika kuti ŵakagwiliskirenge nchito ulimi. Ntheura ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵa VOC ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵateŵeti ŵake yayi. Mu 1671, ŵa Dutch ŵakagura malo kufuma ku Khoikhoi, agho ghakaŵa kuwaro kwa linga ilo likazengeka na Van Riebeek. Mu 1685, mulara wa boma wakawona kuti ntchiwemi kusanga ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵakhalenge makora mu charu ichi. Ŵakaŵa mu gulu la ŵantchito awo ŵakachemekanga vrijlieden, panji kuti vrijburgers ("ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka"). Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku vrijburg ŵakamba kulimira ŵekha ndipo ŵakapempha boma la VOC kuti liŵape malo, mbuto, na vyakukhumbikwa vinyake.<ref name="Hunt1">{{cite book|last=Hunt|first=John|editor-last=Campbell|editor-first=Heather-Ann|title=Dutch South Africa: Early Settlers at the Cape, 1652–1708|date=2005|pages=13–35|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1904744955}}</ref> === Ŵalendo ŵakufuma ku Netherlands === Ŵalara ŵa boma la VOC ŵakayezgayezga kukhuŵilizga ŵalimi na ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko kuti ŵafume ku Europe na kuluta ku South Africa, kweni ŵakatondeka. Ŵakaŵa na mbumba zicoko waka izo zikaŵa na vinthu vinandi, kweni Cape yikaŵa yambura kukondweska pakuyaniska na iwo. Kweni mu Okutobala 1670, Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Amsterdam yikapharazga kuti mbumba zinyake zikukhumba kuluta ku Cape na Mauritius mu Disembala. Ŵanyake awo ŵakamba kuchemeka ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni iyi ŵakaŵa Jacob na Dirk van Niekerk, Johannes van As, Francois Villion, Jacob Brouwer, Jan van Eden, Hermanus Potgieter, Albertus Gildenhuis, na Jacobus van den Berg.<ref>G. M. Theal (1888). ''History of South Africa''. London. pp. 205–206</ref> === Ŵa Huguenot ŵa ku France === Mu 1688 na 1689, ŵanthu pafupifupi 200 ŵa ku France awo ŵakacemekanga kuti Ŵaguenot ŵakafika mu France. Ŵakakolerana na maboma gha Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Franschhoek na Paarl. Ŵaguguenot ŵakakhwaska comene nkharo ya ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici, ntheura mu 1701 VOC yikadumura kuti mu masukulu mukwenera kusambizgika Ciholanishi pera. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Huguenot ŵanjire mu caru cawo ca Cifurenci pakati pa vilimika vya m'ma 1800. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, malo agha ghakafika kumafumiro gha dazi, ndipo mu 1754, malo agho ghakafika ku Algoa Bay ghakaŵamo. Pa nyengo iyi, ku Europe kukaŵa ŵanthu pakati pa 8,000 na 10,000. Ŵakaŵa na ŵazga ŵanandi, ŵakakuranga tirigu unandi mwakuti ŵakaguliskanga ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo ŵakamanyikwanga na vinyo lawo liwemi. Kweni usambazi wawo ukuru ukaŵa wa viŵeto. Ŵakaŵa na vinthu vinandi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, pakaŵa masuzgo pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi na boma. Ndondomeko yake yikaŵa yakuti yikondweske VOC yayi. VOC yikajara malo agha kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kwiza, yikasungilira malonda ghose mu mawoko ghake, yikasazga mauteŵeti, malango, na vyeruzgi mu wupu umoza. === Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Trekboers === {{Main|Trekboers}}Nyengo na nyengo, ŵateŵeti ŵa VOC awo ŵakagwiranga nchito pa nchito ŵakaŵanga na wanangwa wa kuŵa ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka, kweni VOC yikaŵa na mazaza gha kuŵakanizga kuti ŵambeso kuteŵetera para ŵacita nthena. Wanangwa uwu wa kuŵagwiliska nchito ŵanthu awo ŵakamukwiyiska kazembe panji ŵalara ŵa boma, ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵekha yayi. Kweni boma likayowoyanga kuti ŵana ŵawo nawo ŵakeneranga kugwiliskirika nchito. Nanga ni apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda mu 1700 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kukhuŵara chifukwa cha nkhaza. Mu 1780, Joachim van Plettenberg, kazembe wa cigaŵa ici, wakapharazga kuti Sneeuberge ndiyo ni mphaka ya kumpoto ya cigaŵa ici, ndipo wakayowoya kuti "wakulindilira kuti cigaŵa ici cileke kusazgikaso, kweniso kuti ŵalimi ŵambura kwenelera ŵalangike comene". Mu 1789, ŵanthu ŵa mu msumba uwu ŵakakwiya comene mwakuti ŵakatuma ŵanthu kufuma ku Cape kuti ŵakayowoye na ŵalara ŵa boma ku Amsterdam. Pamanyuma pakuti ŵafumiskapo, ŵakasintha vinthu vinyake.<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px"> File:Burchell02.jpg|Wakukhilira ku Sneeuberge, pafupi na Graaff-Reinet, Burchell File:Charles_Michell03.jpg|Kujumpha pa Cradock Pass, Outeniqua Mountains, na Charles Collier Michell File:Daniell_Trekboer.jpg|Buku la Samuel Daniell la ŵanthu ŵa ku Trekboers awo ŵakazenga misasa File:TrekBoers_crossing_the_Karoo.jpg|Ŵalendo ŵakujumpha mu Karoo na Charles Davidson Bell </gallery>Ŵalimi ŵakendanga kutali na boma kuti ŵaleke kuyuzgika. VOC yikakhazikiska boma ku Swellendam mu 1745 na ku Graaff Reinet mu 1786. Mu 1740, mlonga wa Gamtoos ndiwo ukaŵa mphaka ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa malo agha, kweni mwaluŵiro ŵakamalizga. Ndipouli, mu 1780, ŵa ku Dutch ŵakazomerezga kuti ŵakumane na ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu. Mu 1795, ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vyapafupi na mphaka awo ŵakaŵa na misonkho yinandi, ŵakachimbizga ŵamazaza ŵa VOC na kukhazikiska maboma ghaŵekha ku Swellendam na Graaff Reinet. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi m'ma 1800{{who|date=February 2021}} Ŵakaŵa ŵa mphapu ya Trekboers ya mu ma 1800. Paumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, boma la VOC mu Transvaal likambaso kulondezga fundo za ŵanthu ŵankhaza. Usange fundo yakuti, "Mu vinthu vyose vya ndyali, muwuso wa ŵamazaza pera; mu vinthu vyose vya malonda, muwuso wa ŵamazaza pera", yikaŵa yaunenesko ku boma la VOC mu virimika vya m'ma 1800, yikaŵaso yaunenesko ku boma la Kruger mu virimika vya kuumaliro wa virimika vya m'ma 1900. Cinthu ico cikapangiska kuti ulendo uwu ucitike nchakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands awo ŵakakhalanga ku vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici, ŵakaliskanga viŵeto vyawo yayi, kweni ŵakaliskanga viŵeto vyawo. Ŵanthu aŵa, awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinandi, ŵakakhala nyengo yitali kwambura kukanizgika na dango, mwakuti mu 1815, apo "Makomiti Ghakwendakwenda" ghakawovwira kuti ŵeruzgi ŵafike kufupi na nyumba zawo, ŵakasanga milandu yakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands awo ŵakakhalanga ku vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ŵakafumako ku boma ndipo ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi. Ndipouli, mu 1815 "Makomiti gha Circuit" ghakazomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵeruzgike pa milandu iyo ŵakachitanga. Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakakondwa yayi na milandu iyi, ndipo ŵakawonanga kuti yikuŵatimbanizga.<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px"> File:Trekboer_migration_map.png|Mapu agho ghakulongora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Trekboers ŵakakulira (1700-1800) File:Nederlandse_Kaapkolonie.svg|Umo Vinthu Vikaŵira ku Dutch Cape Colony (1700-1800) File:Kapkolonie_1795.jpg|Malo ghakulongozgera mu Dutch Cape Colony </gallery><!--Quote is too big. Either convert to prose or remove (August 2018) {{Quote box |quote = The Dutch colony prospered to the extent that the Cape Town market for agricultural produce became glutted. With market stagnation and with slaves providing most of the manual labour in the colony, there were few economic opportunities for the burgeoning white population. Eventually more than half of these people turned to the self-sufficient life of the trekboeren (literally “wandering farmers” but perhaps better translated as "dispersed ranchers").<br>The Boers were hostile toward indigenous African peoples, with whom they fought frequent range wars, and toward the government of the Cape, which was attempting to control Boer movements and commerce. They overtly compared their way of life to that of the Israel patriarchs of the Bible, developing independent patriarchal communities based upon a mobile pastoralist economy. Staunch Calvinists, they saw themselves as the children of God in the wilderness, a Christian elect divinely ordained to rule the land and the backward natives therein. By the end of the 18th century the cultural links between the Boers and their urban counterparts were diminishing, although both groups continued to speak a type of Flemish.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/71276/Boer Encyclopædia Britannica Online] Boer (people)</ref> |source = [[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |align = right |width = 45em }}--> == Kuwukira Charu cha Cape == {{Main|Invasion of the Cape Colony}} Nkhondo ya ku Cape Colony yikaŵa nkhondo ya ŵasilikari ŵa Britain iyo yikamba mu 1795 kwimikana na ŵa Dutch ku Cape of Good Hope. Charu cha Netherlands chikaŵa pasi pa boma la France, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Jenerale Sir James Henry Craig ŵakatumika ku Cape Town kuti ŵakavikilire malo agha ku Ŵafarisi. Pakwamba kazembe wa ku Cape Town wakakana kupulikira ivyo fumu yikamuphalira, kweni apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kunyamura ŵasilikari, wakajipeleka. Wakacita nthena cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi, awo ŵakacimbiranga ku ŵazga ŵawo, ŵakamba kulondezga fundo za Britain. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Graaff Reinet ŵakagongowa yayi m'paka apo ŵasilikari ŵakaŵatumira. Mu 1799 na 1801, ŵakagaluka. Mu Febuluwale 1803, cifukwa ca mtende wa ku Amiens (February 1803), malo agha ghakapelekeka ku Batavian Republic, ilo likasintha vinthu vinandi, nga umo vikaŵira na ŵa ku Britain mu vilimika vinkhondi na vitatu ivyo ŵakalongozganga. Cimoza mwa vinthu vyakwamba ivyo Jenerale Craig wakacita cikaŵa cakuti walekeske kutambuzga ŵanthu. Charu ichi chikaŵa cha Ŵadachi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene. Pa nyengo iyi, ndalama izo boma la Britain likagwiliskiranga nchito pa mulimo uwu zikaŵa mapaundi 16,000,000. Boma la Batavia likaŵa na maghanoghano ghakupulikikwa makora pa nkhani ya kwendeska caru, kweni likaŵa na mwaŵi ucoko comene wa kughalondezga. Nkhondo ya Cigaŵa Cacitatu yikati yamba mu 1803, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakiza ku Cape. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo (January 1806) mumphepete mwa Table Bay, ŵasilikari ŵa Dutch ŵa Castle of Good Hope ŵakajipeleka ku Britain, ndipo mu 1814 phangano la Anglo-Dutch likati malo agha ghapelekekenge ku Britain. Pa nyengo iyi, malo agha ghakaŵa na mapiri agho ghakavikiliranga chigaŵa chikuru cha pakati, ndipo ghakachemekanga Bushmansland (zina la ŵanthu ŵa ku San). === Wakutinkha Ufumu wa Britain === Nangauli malo agha ghakaŵa ghakutowa, kweni ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakakondwa yayi na boma la Britain nga umo ŵakaŵira na boma la VOC. Mu 1792, ku Moravia kukaŵa ŵamishonale awo ŵakakhumbanga kovwira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi, ndipo mu 1799 gulu la London Missionary Society likamba kovwira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi na Bantu. Ŵamishonale ŵakakwiya chomene na ivyo Ŵakoyokoy ŵakachitanga. Mu 1812 dango likapelekeka ilo likapeleka mazaza ku ŵeruzgi kuti ŵakake ŵana ŵa Ŵakoyokoy kuŵa ŵana ŵa sukulu. Nyengo yeneyiyo, gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵazga ŵaleke kugwira ntchito ku England likakura chomene. === Mphepete mwa Chipata cha Slachter === Mulimi munyake zina lake Frederick Bezuidenhout wakakana kupulikira dango la Khoikhoi, ndipo wakati watuma ŵanthu kuti ŵakamukore, ŵakamukoma. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mu 1815, paŵe chigaluka chichoko waka, chakuchemeka Slachters Nek, icho Henry Cloete wakachilongosora kuti "ntchimoza mwa viyezgo viheni chomene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakayezgapo kuti ŵambiske nkhondo na themba lawo". Ŵalongozgi ŵankhondi ŵakakomeka pa malo agho ŵakalapa kuti ŵafumiskengepo "ŵanalume ŵankhaza ŵa ku England". Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca umo ŵakakomekera, cifukwa cikhwangwani ico ŵakugalukira ŵakakhomekerapo pa nyengo yimoza cikaphyoka cifukwa ca kulemera kwawo, ndipo pamanyuma pake ŵakakomeka yumoza na munyake. Mu 1827, khoti likadumura kuti makhoti ghakale gha ku Netherlands gha landdrost na heemraden ghaleke kugwira ntchito, ndipo kufuma pa nyengo iyi, milandu yose yikeneranga kucitika mu Cingelezi. Mu 1828, cifukwa ca ivyo ŵamishonale ŵakayowoya, Khoikhoi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵa ŵanangwa ŵakapika wanangwa wakuyana na wa ŵazungu, mu 1830 ŵakalangika comene cifukwa ca kucitira nkhaza ŵazga, ndipo mu 1834 ŵazga ŵakafwatulika. Kweniso, awo ŵakagwiranga ŵazga ŵakawona kuti malipiro agho ŵakapelekanga ghakaŵa ghambura kwenelera cifukwa ca kufwatura ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakendanga nyengo yitali mu vyaru vinyake kwa vyaka 150, kweni sono ŵakendanga chomene. == Nkhondo za ku Cape Frontier (1779-1879) == {{main|Nkhondo za Chixhosa}} [[File:Cape_Colony00.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cape_Colony00.jpg|thumb|Mapu gha charu cha Cape Colony mu 1809, nyengo yakwambilira ya muwuso wa Britain]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa ŵakati ŵafumako ku Cape Colony na kuluta ku Eastern Cape ku South Africa, ŵakambiska nkhondo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer na Xhosa. Mu 1775, boma la Cape likakhazikiska mphaka pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku trekboer na ŵa ku Xhosas pa milonga ya Bushman na Upper Fish. Ŵa Boer na ŵa Xhosas ŵakasuskanga mphaka, ndipo wose ŵakakhalanga ku chigaŵa chimoza na chinyake. Kazembe Van Plettenberg wakayezga kuphalira magulu ghose ghaŵiri kuti ghasungilire mphaka, kweni wakatondeka. Ŵa Xhosas ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakwiba viŵeto ndipo mu 1779 pakawuka nkhondo zinandi pa mphaka izo zikambiska Nkhondo Yakwamba. Mphepete mwa charu ichi mukaŵa masuzgo ghanandi, ndipo mu 1789 Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Mphepete mwa Charu yikamba. Ŵasilikari ŵa Boer na ŵa Xhosas ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu mu chigaŵa ichi. Mu 1795, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakiza na kuwukira charu cha Cape Colony. Pamanyuma pakuti boma la Britain lakora charu, ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain ŵakamba kunozga ndondomeko ya kumazga mphaka. Ndondomeko iyi yikapangiska kuti mafuko gha Khoisan ghasangane na ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa Xhosa pakurwa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachitatu ya ku Frontier (1799-1803). Mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵaso mtende apo Ŵacigiriki ŵakawezgera Cape Colony ku Dutch Batavian Republic mu 1803. Mu Janyuwale 1806, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakawukira malo agha. Vinthu vikasuzga chomene mu Zuurveld, ndipo boma na ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakachimbizga mafuko ghanandi gha Xhosa. Nkhondo ya pa mphaka ya pakati pa Ŵakhosa yikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo Yachinkhondi mu 1819. Chifukwa cha kukwiya na ivyo boma likakhumbanga pa nkhani ya malo agho ŵakakhalanga, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosas ŵakamba kwiba viŵeto pa mphaka. Boma la Cape likapeleka ulongozgi wa nkhondo. Mu 1834, ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa ŵakanjira mu charu cha Cape, ndipo ivi vikambiska Nkhondo ya Nambara 6. Boma likazengaso vigongwe vinyake, ndipo ŵasilikari awo ŵakendanga pa mahachi ŵakakondwa yayi na Ŵakhosa, awo ŵakalutilira kuwukira minda mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Nambara 7 (1846-1847). Nkhondo ya Nambara 8 (1850-1853) na ya Nambara 9 (1877-1878) yikalutilira nga umo vikaŵira na nkhondo zinyake. Paumaliro, Ŵachixosa ŵakathereskeka ndipo vigaŵa vyose vikapika mazaza gha Britain..<ref name="SMSA">"A short chronicle of warfare in South Africa", Compiled by the Military Information Bureau, Published: ''Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies'', Vol. 16, Nr. 13, 1986</ref> == Ulendo Ukuru == {{Main|Ulendo Ukuru}} [[File:Great_Trek_map_full.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Trek_map_full.png|thumb|Mapu agho ghakulongosora nthowa izo ŵanthu ŵakendangamo pa ulendo wakwamba wa Great Trek (1835-1840) pamoza na nkhondo zikuruzikuru.]] Nkhondo iyi yikacitika pakati pa 1835 na 1840. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer ŵakukwana 12,000 m'paka 14,000, kusazgapo ŵanakazi na ŵana, ŵakafumako ku Cape Colony na kuluta ku vidika vikuru ivyo vikaŵa kusirya kwa Mlonga wa Orange. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku East Cape ŵakaŵa ŵambura kukhazikika. Ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga ku mphaka ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Cape ŵakazgoka Ŵagrensboere ("ŵalimi ŵa ku mphaka"). Ŵa Boer ŵakalembera makalata ghanandi boma la Britain pambere ŵandafumeko ku Cape Colony. Piet Retief, yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵa Boer pa nyengo iyi, wakalembera kalata boma pa 22 Janyuwale 1837 mu Grahamstown kulongora kuti ŵa Boer ŵakawonanga yayi mtende panji cimwemwe ku ŵana ŵawo mu caru ico mukaŵa masuzgo ghanthena agha. Retief wakadandawuraso cifukwa ca masuzgo ghakuru agho ŵakaŵa nagho cifukwa ca malango gha boma la Britain. Nangauli ŵakaŵapa ndalama kuti ŵaŵafwature, kweni ŵakawona kuti zikaŵa zakukwana yayi. Kweniso ŵakawonanga kuti tchalitchi la Chingelezi likakolerananga yayi na la Dutch Reformed Church. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵa Boer ŵakaŵa kuti ŵanozga kale malango ghanyake kuti ŵanozgekere ulendo wawo ukuru. Retief wakamalizga kalata yake na mazgu ghakuti: "Tikufumamo mu koloni ili na cigomezgo cose kuti boma la England likukhumba cinthu cilicose yayi kwa ise, ndipo litovwirenge kuti tijilamulirenge tekha kwambura kunjilirapo".<ref>History of the Emigrant Boers in South Africa, 2nd ed, G.M. Theal, London 1888.</ref> == Vyaru na vyaru vya Boer == {{Main|Maboma gha Boer}} [[File:BoerGriquaRepublics.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BoerGriquaRepublics.svg|thumb|Maboma gha Boer na Griqua]] Apo Ŵavorekker ŵakalutanga ku vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu, ŵakalutilira kukhazikiska vyaru vya Ŵabura mu charu cha South Africa. {| class="wikitable" !Kulongosola !Siku !Malo |- |{{flagi|Flag of the Netherlands.svg}} [[:en:Swellendam|Republic of Swellendam]] |17 June - 4 November 1795 |[[:en:Swellendam,_Western_Cape|Swellendam, Western Cape]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of the Netherlands.svg}} [[:en:Graaff-Reinet|Republic of Graaff-Reinet]] |1 February 1795–November 1796 |[[:en:Graaff-Reinet,_Eastern_Cape|Graaff-Reinet, Eastern Cape]] |- |{{flagi|Voortrekker Flag.svg}} [[:en:Zoutpansberg|Zoutpansberg]] |1835–1864 |[[:en:Limpopo|Limpopo]] |- |{{flagi|Voortrekker Flag.svg}} [[:en:Winburg|Winburg]] |1836–1844 |[[:en:Free_State_(province)|Free State]] |- |{{flagi|South African Burgers Flag.svg}} [[:en:Potchefstroom|Potchefstroom]] |1837–1844 |[[:en:North_West_(South_African_province)|North West]] |- |{{flag|Natalia Republic}} |1839–1902 |[[:en:Eastern_Cape|Eastern Cape]] |- |{{flagi|South African Burgers Flag.svg}} [[:en:Potchefstroom|Winburg-Potchefstroom]] |1844–1843 |[[:en:Potchefstroom,_North_West|Potchefstroom, North West]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of Natalia Republic.svg}} [[:en:KwaZulu-Natal|Republic of Klip River]] |1847–1848 |[[:en:Ladysmith,_KwaZulu-Natal|Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of the Netherlands.svg}} [[:en:Lydenburg_Republic|Lydenburg Republic]] |1849–1860 |[[:en:Lydenburg,_Mpumalanga|Lydenburg, Mpumalanga]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of the Netherlands.svg}} [[:en:Utrecht_Republic|Utrecht Republic]] |1852–1858 |[[:en:Utrecht,_KwaZulu-Natal|Utrecht, KwaZulu-Natal]] |- |{{flag|South African Republic}} |1852–1877, 1881–1902 |[[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]], [[:en:Limpopo|Limpopo]] |- |{{flag|Orange Free State}} |1854–1902 |[[:en:Free_State_(province)|Free State]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of Transvaal.svg}} [[:en:Klein_Vrystaat|Klein Vrystaat]] |1876–1891 |[[:en:Piet_Retief,_Mpumalanga|Piet Retief, Mpumalanga]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of the Republic of Goshen.svg}} [[:en:State_of_Goshen|State of Goshen]] |1882–1883 |[[:en:North_West_(South_African_province)|North West]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of Stellaland (early 1883).svg}} [[:en:Republic_of_Stellaland|Republic of Stellaland]] |1882–1883 |[[:en:North_West_(South_African_province)|North West]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of Stellaland (1883-5).svg}} United States of Stellaland |1883–1885 |[[:en:North_West_(South_African_province)|North West]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of Nieuwe Republiek.svg}} [[:en:Nieuwe_Republiek|New Republic]] |1884–1888 |[[:en:Vryheid,_KwaZulu-Natal|Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal]] |- |{{flagi|Flag of the German Empire.svg}} [[:en:Upingtonia|Republic of Upingtonia/Lijdensrust]] |1885–1887 |[[:en:Namibia|Namibia]] |} == Anglo-Boer wars == {{Main|First Boer War|Second Boer War}} [[File:Boer_Family_with_a_wagon_-_false_colour_image.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boer_Family_with_a_wagon_-_false_colour_image.jpg|thumb|Mbumba ya ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Boer, ŵakwenda pa ngolo yakujalika cha m'ma 1900]] Pamanyuma pakuti ŵa ku Britain ŵanjira mu Transvaal mu 1877, Paul Kruger wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa comene pakunozga nkhondo ya ku Boer iyo yikapangiska kuti ŵa ku Britain ŵafumemo mu Transvaal. Ŵa Boer ŵakarwa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ŵa Boer kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 kwimikana na ŵa ku Britain kuti ŵaŵe na boma la Transvaal (Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek) na Orange Free State..<ref>{{cite book|first=Martin|last=Meredith|title=Diamonds, Gold, and War: The British, the Boers, and the Making of South Africa|publisher=Public Affairs|year=2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/diamondsgoldwarb00mere/page/74 74]|isbn=978-1-58648-473-6|url=https://archive.org/details/diamondsgoldwarb00mere/page/74}}</ref> === Nkhondo ya ku Boer === {{See also|Afrikaner#Post Boer War diaspora|l1=Nkhondo ya ku Boer}} Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Boer, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakafuma mu vyaru vinyake. Kwambira mu 1903, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku Argentina na Brazil. Gulu linyake likafumira ku Kenya, uko ŵanandi ŵakawelera ku South Africa mu ma 1930, apo gulu lacitatu lakulongozgeka na Jenerale Ben Viljoen likafumira ku Mexico na New Mexico na Texas kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa United States. == Kuwukira kwa Ŵabuwa mu 1914 == {{Main|Maritz Rebellion}} Kuwukira kwa Maritz (uko kukumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Boer Revolt, Five Shilling Rebellion panji Third Boer War) kukacitika mu 1914 pakwamba Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Boer ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Germany, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu boma ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Boer awo ŵakarwa nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa ku Maritz. Louis Botha na Jan Smuts ndiwo ŵakakoma ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma. Yumoza wawo wakaŵa Jopie Fourie, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa boma la South Africa, ndipo ŵakamupa mulandu wa upusikizgi apo wakakana kukolerana na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. == Makhaliro == === Chiyowoyero === {{Main|ChiAfrikaans}} ChiAfrikaans ni chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ku South Africa na Namibia. Lizgu ili likafuma ku chiyowoyero cha ku South Holland (Dutch dialect) icho ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakayowoyanga. Ntheura, ni chiyowoyero cha ŵana ŵa Chidachi, ndipo pakwamba chikachemekanga kuti Chidachi cha ku Cape (pakuyowoya za ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku Cape) panji Chidachi cha ku khitchini (zina ilo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakwamba). Ndipouli, likuyowoyeka mwakuyana waka (nangauli ndambura kupulikikwa makora) nga ni chiyowoyero cha Creole panji chiyowoyero icho chili na viyowoyero vinyake. Lizgu ili lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachidachi lakuti Afrikaans-Hollands, ilo likung'anamura kuti Chidachi cha ku Africa. === Mwambo === [[File:THE_BULLOCK-WAGONS_WOUND_SLOWLY_OVER_THE_BILLOWY_PLAINS.gif|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:THE_BULLOCK-WAGONS_WOUND_SLOWLY_OVER_THE_BILLOWY_PLAINS.gif|thumb|Chithuzithuzi icho chikulongora magileta gha Bullock ghakujumpha mu vidika, 2 Janyuwale 1860]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakutemwa kwendendeka. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamanyikwa chomene m'ma 1700, apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Trekboer ŵakamba kukhala kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Cape, kweniso mu nyengo ya Great Trek apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Voortrekkers ŵakafumanga ku Eastern Cape, kweniso apo ŵakazenga vyaru vikuruvikuru mu nyengo ya Thirstland ('Dorsland') Trek. Munthu munyake uyo wakaluta ku caru cinyake wakati: "Tikaŵa na mzimu wakwendendeka mu mitima yithu, ndipo tikawumanyanga yayi. Tikaguliska minda yithu ndipo tikaluta kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kukapenja nyumba yiphya". Ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakamba kuŵa na mikhaliro na maluso gha ku mizi apo ŵakakhalanga ku mizi ya ŵazungu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakakhumbanga kujithemba, ndipo ŵakambapo kale kupharazga vya charu chawo pambere ŵa ku Britain ŵandafike.<ref name="Mills">{{cite web |last=Mills |first=Wallace G. |title=White Settlers in South Africa to 1870 |url=http://husky1.smu.ca/~wmills/course316/18White_Settlers.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926235742/http://husky1.smu.ca/~wmills/course316/18White_Settlers.html |archive-date=26 September 2007 |access-date=2011-12-02}}</ref> === Chigomezgo === Ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi iyi ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyimira ŵekha, ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono, ŵakamanyikwanga kuti mbakujiyimira ŵekha. Ŵa Boer ŵakaleka kukolerana na ŵa ku Europe apo ŵakafumanga mu gulu la Trekboer. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakaŵa Ŵaprotesitanti, ndipo ŵanandi ŵa iwo ŵakaŵa ŵa tchalitchi la Reformed. Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk ('Tchalitchi la Dutch Reformed Church') likaŵa tchalitchi la ku South Africa (1852-1902). Chigaŵa cha Orange Free State (1854-1902) chikachemeka kuyana na nyumba ya Orange ku Netherlands. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer ŵakulondezga malango gha boma na kuzomera masuzgo nga ni mulimo wawo wa Cikhristu. Kufuma nyengo yira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Boer ŵali kuzgoka ndipo sono ŵali mu matchalitchi gha Baptist, Charismatic, Pentecostal, na Lutheran. == Kugwiliskira nchito mazuŵa ghano == Mu nyengo yasono, comenecomene mu nyengo ya kusinthika kwa muwuso wa katangale na mu nyengo iyo yikati yajumpha mu 1994, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵazungu awo ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ca ciAfrikaans, comenecomene awo ŵali na vigomezgo vya ndyali, ndiposo awo mba Trekboer na Voortrekker, ŵasankha kucemeka kuti Mbaboere, m'malo mwa Ŵafrikaans, kuti ŵamanyikwe makora. Iwo ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa fuko la Voortrekker ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wa kuzgoka ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu. Iwo ŵakughanaghana kuti ivi vikacitika pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Anglo-Boer na kukhazikiskika kwa South Africa mu 1910. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakutemwa ndyali ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakujiwona kuti mbanthu ŵakumanjiliro yayi. Iwo ŵakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa na Orange Free State ŵakazomerezgeka kuŵa ŵanthu panji gulu la mitheto mwakuyana na malango gha charu chose na Sand River Convention (iyo yikapangiska South African Republic mu 1852), Bloemfontein Convention (iyo yikapangiska Orange Free State Republic mu 1854), Pretoria Convention (iyo yikakhazikiskaso wanangwa wa South African Republic mu 1881), London Convention (iyo yikapeleka wanangwa ku South African Republic mu 1884), na Vereeniging Peace Treaty, iyo yikamazga nkhondo yaciŵiri ya Anglo-Boer pa 31 May 1902. Kweni ŵanyake ŵakuti mapangano agha ghakukhwaskana waka na ivyo maboma ghakuchita, ndipo ghakung'anamura kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakumanya yayi umo ŵaliri. Awo ŵakukhozgera fundo izi ŵakugomezga kuti kufuma mu ma 1930, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchema ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake kuti Ŵafrikaans. Kufuma waka apo nkhondo ya Anglo-Boer yikambira, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana ŵakamba kuzunura waka lizgu lakuti Boerevolk mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boerevolk ndiwo ŵakambaso kugwiliskira ntchito zina ili. Awo ŵakukhozgera zina la Chiburu ŵakuwona kuti lizgu lakuti Afrikaner ni lizgu la ndyali ilo likovwira ŵanthu kumanya mbiri yawo na mitheto yawo. Iwo ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Western Cape awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi, awo ŵasekuru ŵawo ŵakendanga yayi kumafumiro gha dazi panji kumpoto, ŵakagwiliskira ntchito uheni uwo Ŵaburu ŵakakumana nawo. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika ŵakayezga kuti ŵaŵasange ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080422063509/http://www.chico.mweb.co.za/art/2007/2007mar/070309-bang.html Yolandi Groenewald. Bang bang – you're dead."], ''Mail & Guardian Online,'' March 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.oulitnet.co.za/seminarroom/marais_swart.asp Sandra Swart. ''Journal of Southern African Studies.'' 30.4, Dec 2004] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308014642/http://www.oulitnet.co.za/seminarroom/marais_swart.asp|date=8 March 2010}}.</ref><ref>Adriana Stuijt (former South African journalist). "Boer, Afrikaner Or White – Which Are You?" 2004.</ref> Mazuŵa ghano mu South Africa, ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero ivi kanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito viyowoyero vinyake.{{dubious|date=May 2018}} Ŵa Boer ndiwo mbachoko chomene pa ŵanthu awo ŵakuchemeka Ŵafrikaans, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Dutch mbanandi chomene. Mu ciyowoyero ici, lizgu lakuti Afrikaans likung'anamura ŵanthu wose awo ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ici. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer mba gulu linyake ilo likuyowoya Chifurikansi. Mu nyengo ya apartheid, ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga apartheid ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito lizgu lakuti Boer mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, kung'anamura mabungwe nga ni National Party; panji magulu gha ŵanthu nga ni ŵapolisi, ŵasilikari, ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika, panji ŵazungu ŵa ku South Africa.<ref name="mg1">{{Cite web |last=Quintal |first=Genevieve |date=19 May 2011 |title='Shoot the boer': Lost in translation? |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-05-19-shoot-the-boer-lost-in-translation/ |access-date=2019-03-16 |website=The M&G Online |language=en}}</ref><ref name="dmh">{{Cite web |last=Brkic |first=Branko |date=29 March 2010 |title='Kill the Boer': a brief history |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2010-03-29-kill-the-boer-a-brief-history/ |access-date=2019-03-16 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti mazgu agha ghakukhuŵazga ŵanthu mu South Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Boer - definition of Boer in A Dictionary of South African English - DSAE |url=https://dsae.co.za/entry/boer/e00946 |access-date=2021-06-21 |website=dsae.co.za}}</ref><ref name="iolDontCallMeBoer" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=ConCourt rules 'boer' not offensive racist term {{!}} eNCA |url=https://www.enca.com/news/concourt-rules-boer-not-offensive-racist-term |access-date=2021-06-21 |website=www.enca.com |language=en}}</ref> === Ndale === * [[:en:Boere-Vryheidsbeweging|Boere-Vryheidsbeweging]] * [[:en:Boerestaat_Party|Boerestaat Party]] * [[:en:Freedom_Front_Plus|Freedom Front Plus]] * [[:en:Front_National_(South_Africa)|Front National]] * [[:en:Herstigte_Nasionale_Party|Herstigte Nasionale Party]] * [[:en:National_Conservative_Party_of_South_Africa|National Conservative Party of South Africa]] === Msambilo === Movement for Christian-National Education ni wupu uwo uli na masukulu 47 gha Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova, comenecomene mu Free State na Transvaal..<ref>{{cite web |title=Beweging vir Christelik Volkseie Onderwys |url=http://www.bcvo.co.za/ |access-date=2011-12-01}}</ref> === Wayilesi === Ma wayilesi ghanyake ghakuthandazga fundo za ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer, nga ni Radio Rosestad 100.6 FM (mu Bloemfontein), Overvaal Stereo na Radio Pretoria. Wayilesi ya Boerevolk Radio, iyo yikupharazga pa Intaneti, yikovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer kuti ŵapatukane na ŵanyawo. === Vigaŵa === {{See also|Volkstaat}} Vigaŵa vya Boerestaat ("Boma la Boer") vikupangika kuŵa malo ghakukhalamo ŵa Boer/Afrikaner pera, comenecomene Orania ku Northern Cape na Kleinfontein kufupi na Pretoria. == Ŵanthu Ŵakuzirwa ŵa ku Boer ==<!--This section is linked from [[Lists of people by nationality]]--> '''Voortrekker leaders''' * [[:en:Sarel_Cilliers|Sarel Cilliers]] * [[:en:Andries_Hendrik_Potgieter|Andries Hendrik Potgieter]] * [[:en:Andries_Pretorius|Andries Pretorius]] * [[:en:Piet_Retief|Piet Retief]] '''Great trek''' * [[:en:Racheltjie_de_Beer|Racheltjie de Beer]] * [[:en:Dirkie_Uys|Dirkie Uys]] * [[:en:Marthinus_Jacobus_Oosthuizen|Marthinus Jacobus Oosthuizen]] '''Participants in the Second Anglo-Boer War''' * [[:en:Koos_de_la_Rey|Koos de la Rey]], general; regarded as being one of the great military leaders of the Second Anglo-Boer War * [[:en:Danie_Theron|Danie Theron]], soldier * [[:en:Christiaan_Rudolf_de_Wet|Christiaan Rudolf de Wet]], general * [[:en:Siener_van_Rensburg|Siener van Rensburg]], considered a prophet by some '''Politicians''' * [[:en:Louis_Botha|Louis Botha]], first prime minister of South Africa (1910–1919) and former Boer general * [[:en:Petrus_Jacobus_Joubert|Petrus Jacobus Joubert]], general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic * [[:en:Paul_Kruger|Paul Kruger]], president of the [[:en:Transvaal_Republic|Transvaal Republic]] * [[:en:Martinus_Theunis_Steyn|Martinus Theunis Steyn]], 6th State President of the [[:en:Orange_Free_State|Orange Free State]] '''Spies''' * [[:en:Robey_Leibbrandt|Robey Leibbrandt]] * [[:en:Fritz_Joubert_Duquesne|Fritz Joubert Duquesne]], Boer captain known as the ''Black Panther'' who served in the [[:en:Second_Boer_War|Second Boer War]] == Mu mabuku gha mazuŵa ghano == Mu 1980, mulembi munyake wa ku America zina lake James A. Michener. == Wonaniso == {{columns-list|* [[Boerboel]] * ''[[Boerehaat]]'' * [[Boer goat]] * [[Boer music]] * [[Great Trek]] * [[Natalia Republic]] * [[Orange Free State]] * [[South African farm attacks]] * [[South African Republic]] * [[Transvaal civil war]] * [[Transvaal Colony]] * [[Volkstaat]] * [[Voortrekker]]|colwidth=18em}} == Vyakulemba == <references group="n" responsive="1"></references> == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> === Vyakulemba vinyake === {{refbegin|2}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_q14xoaXj1UC|title=Nations, language, and citizenship|first=Norman|last=Berdichevsky|year=2004|publisher=Norman Berdichevsky|isbn=9780786427000|access-date=31 May 2010}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LT6E6YdAh-MC|title=The Phonology of Dutch.|first=Geert|last=Booij|work=Oxford Linguistics|year=1999|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=0-19-823869-X|access-date=24 May 2010}} * {{Citation|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503201606/http://cs.engr.uky.edu/~gstump/periphrasispapers/Progressive.pdf|title=Constructional idioms and periphrasis: the progressive construction in Dutch.|first=Geert|last=Booij|work=Paradigms and Periphrasis|year=2003|publisher=[[University of Kentucky]]|access-date=19 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503201606/https://web.archive.org/web/20110503201606/http://cs.engr.uky.edu/~gstump/periphrasispapers/Progressive.pdf|archive-date=3 May 2011}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3fSsa7DPlNQC|title=The final stages of deflection – The case of Afrikaans "het"|work=Historical Linguistics 2005|access-date=29 May 2010|first=C. Jac|last=Conradie|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|year=2005|isbn=9027247994}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYNHubXRzJAC|title=Standardization and social networks – The emergence and diffusion of standard Afrikaans|work=Standardization – Studies from the Germanic languages|access-date=29 May 2010|first=Ana|last=Deumert|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|year=2002|isbn=9027247471}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-qM3Wk4nZ0C&pg=PA15|title=Germanic standardizations: past to present|access-date=28 May 2010|first1=Ana|last1=Deumert|first2=Wim|last2=Vandenbussche|work=Trends in Linguistics|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|year=2003|isbn=9027218560}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wawGFWNuHiwC|title=Pluricentric languages: differing norms in different nations|access-date=19 May 2010|first1=G.|last1=Geerts|first2=Michael G.|last2=Clyne|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|year=1992|isbn=9783110128550}} * {{Citation|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429011940/http://www.let.rug.nl/~heeringa/dialectology/papers/prasa08.pdf|title=The origin of Afrikaans pronunciation: a comparison to west Germanic languages and Dutch dialects|first1=Wilbert|last1=Heeringa|first2=Febe|last2=de Wet|pages=445–467|year=2007|publisher=[[University of Groningen]]|access-date=19 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429011940/https://web.archive.org/web/20110429011940/http://www.let.rug.nl/~heeringa/dialectology/papers/prasa08.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011}} * {{Citation|url=http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fss/linguistics/staff/kerswill/pkpubs/HinskensAuerKerswill2005Conv.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fss/linguistics/staff/kerswill/pkpubs/HinskensAuerKerswill2005Conv.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=The study of dialect convergence and divergence: conceptual and methodological considerations.|first1=Frans|last1=Hiskens|first2=Peter|last2=Auer|first3=Paul|last3=Kerswill|year=2005|publisher=[[Lancaster University]]|access-date=19 May 2010}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PcD7p9y3EIcC|title=Pidgins and Creoles: References survey|access-date=19 May 2010|first=John A.|last=Holm|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1989|isbn=9780521359405}} * {{Citation|url=http://dare.ubn.kun.nl/dspace/bitstream/2066/56692/1/56692_JS&N20070001.pdf|title=The influence of spelling conventions on perceived plurality in compounds. A comparison of Afrikaans and Dutch.|first1=Carel|last1=Jansen|first2=Robert|last2=Schreuder|first3=Anneke|last3=Neijt|work=Written Language & Literacy 10:2|year=2007|publisher=[[Radboud University Nijmegen]]|access-date=19 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429011926/http://dare.ubn.kun.nl/dspace/bitstream/2066/56692/1/56692_JS%26N20070001.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011}} * {{Citation|url=https://eresearch.qmu.ac.uk/handle/20.500.12289/152|title=Acquisition of Dutch phonology: an overview|first1=Ineke|last1=Mennen|first2=Clara|last2=Levelt|first3=Ellen|last3=Gerrits|work=Speech Science Research Centre Working Paper WP10|year=2006|publisher=[[Queen Margaret University College]]|access-date=19 May 2010}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIivedw-oZYC|title=Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics|access-date=23 August 2008|first=Rajend|last=Mesthrie|publisher=New Africa Books|year=1995|isbn=9780864862808}} * {{Citation|url=http://academic.sun.ac.za/su_clast/documents/SALALS2005.pdf|first1=Thomas|last1=Niesler|first2=Philippa|last2=Louw|first3=Justus|last3=Roux|year=2005|title=Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases|journal=Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies|volume=23|issue=4|pages=459–474|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221175729/http://academic.sun.ac.za/su_clast/documents/SALALS2005.pdf|archive-date=21 December 2012|doi=10.2989/16073610509486401|s2cid=7138676}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9uNEf_FPVoC|title=Linguistic purism in the Germanic languages|access-date=28 May 2010|first1=Nils|last1=Langer|first2=Winifred V.|last2=Davies|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|year=2005|isbn=9783110183375}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRT_jZl39AMC|title=Contact languages: pidgins and creoles|access-date=19 May 2010|first=Mark|last=Sebba|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|year=1997|isbn=9780312175719}} * {{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHgsfADZF9IC|title=Spelling and society: the culture and politics of orthography around the world|access-date=19 May 2010|first=Mark|last=Sebba|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2007|isbn=9781139462020}} {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Wikiquote}} * {{Commons category-inline|Boers}} * {{cite EB1911|wstitle=South Africa|display=South Africa § III. History|volume=25|pages=469–81|short=x}} * {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Boer|year=1905|short=x}} {{Ethnic groups in South Africa}}{{Authority control}} t6s1224oy5lk2rxg9ofe443rzk8vhb5 0 29350 122372 118610 2026-09-25T03:01:56Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Video-sharing platform owned by Google}} {{Nkhani iwemi}} {{For|the company's channel on YouTube|YouTube (channel)}} {{Pp|small=yes}} {{Pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=December 2022}} {{Infobox website|name=YouTube LLC|logo=YouTube Logo 2017.svg|logo_caption=Logo used since 2017|logo_size=250px|logo_alt=The YouTube logo is made of a red round-rectangular box with a white "play" button inside and the word "YouTube" written in black.|screenshot=YouTube homepage.png|caption=Screenshot of homepage on November 2, 2022|collapsible=<!-- the "no" setting neither works nor prevents collapse -->|company_type=[[Subsidiary]]|type=[[Online video platform]]|founded={{start date and age|2005|2|14}}|location=901 Cherry Avenue<br />[[San Bruno, California]]|country=United States|area_served=Worldwide (excluding [[censorship of YouTube|blocked countries]])|owner=[[Google LLC]]|founder={{ubl|[[Steve Chen]]|[[Chad Hurley]]|[[Jawed Karim]]}}|key_people={{ubl|[[Neal Mohan]] (CEO)| Matt Halprin (vice president)|Chad Hurley (advisor)}}|industry={{ubl|[[Internet]]|[[Video hosting service]]}}|products={{ubl||[[YouTube Kids]]|[[YouTube Music]]|[[YouTube Premium]]|[[YouTube Shorts]]|[[YouTube TV]]}}|revenue={{increase}} {{USD|28.8 billion}} (2021)<ref name="Weprin">{{Cite web |last=Weprin |first=Alex |date=February 1, 2022 |title=YouTube Ad Revenue Tops $8.6B, Beating Netflix in the Quarter |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/youtube-ad-revenue-tops-8-6b-beating-netflix-in-the-quarter-1235085391/ |access-date=June 11, 2022 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |language=en-US}}</ref>|parent=[[Google LLC]] (2006–present)|url={{URL|https://www.youtube.com/|youtube.com}}<br />(see [[#International_and_localization|list of localized domain names]])|content_license=Uploader holds copyright (standard license); [[Creative Commons]] can be selected.|programming_language=[[Python (programming language)|Python]] (core/API),<ref>{{cite web|last1=Claburn |first1=Thomas |title=Google's Grumpy code makes Python Go |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/01/05/googles_grumpy_makes_python_go/ |website=The Register |access-date=September 16, 2017 |language=en |date=January 5, 2017}}</ref> [[C (programming language)|C]] (through [[CPython]]), [[C++]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]] (through [[Guice]] platform),<ref>{{cite web|first=Jesse |last=Wilson |title=Guice Deuce |url=https://googlecode.blogspot.no/2009/05/guice-deuce.html |website=Official Google Code Blog |date=May 19, 2009 |access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://highscalability.com/blog/2008/3/12/youtube-architecture.html |title=YouTube Architecture |publisher=High Scalability |access-date=October 13, 2014 |archive-date=October 4, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004091618/http://highscalability.com/blog/2008/3/12/youtube-architecture.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Go (programming language)|Go]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Golang Vitess: a database wrapper written in Go as used by Youtube |website=[[GitHub]]|url=https://github.com/youtube/vitess|date=October 23, 2018}}</ref> [[JavaScript]] (UI)|advertising=[[Google AdSense]]|registration={{Collapsible list | titlestyle = font-weight:normal; text-align:left; background-color:transparent | title = Optional | Not required to watch most videos; required for certain tasks such as uploading videos, viewing flagged (18+) videos, creating playlists, liking or disliking videos, and posting comments }}|users={{increase}} 2.562 billion [[Monthly active user|MAU]] (January 2022)<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=January 2022 |title=Most used social media 2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-by-number-of-users// |access-date= January 5, 2023 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref>|launched={{start date and age|2005|02|14}}|current_status=Active}} '''YouTube''' ni kampani yaku [[America]] iyo yikupanga mavidiyo pa intaneti ndipo yikukhala ku [[San Bruno]], [[California]], United States. Wakapangika pa Febuluwale 14, 2005, na Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, na Jawed Karim. Webusayiti iyi njakovwira chomene pa Intaneti. Pa mwezi, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2.5 biliyoni ŵakuwonelera mavidiyo pa YouTube. Mu Meyi 2019, mavidiyo ghakaŵanga na maora ghakujumpha 500 pa miniti.<ref name="500 hours per minute">{{cite news|author=Loke Hale, James|date=May 7, 2019|title=More Than 500 Hours Of Content Are Now Being Uploaded To YouTube Every Minute|work=[[TubeFilter]]|location=Los Angeles, CA|url=https://www.tubefilter.com/2019/05/07/number-hours-video-uploaded-to-youtube-per-minute/|access-date=June 10, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Neufeld |first=Dorothy |date=January 27, 2021 |title=The 50 Most Visited Websites in the World |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/the-50-most-visited-websites-in-the-world/ |access-date=December 6, 2021 |website=Visual Capitalist |language=en-US}}</ref> <!-- History -->Mu Okutobala 2006, Google yikagura YouTube pa mtengo wa madola 1.65 biliyoni. Google yikati yamba kugwiliskira ntchito YouTube, yikamba kupanga malonda ghanandi chomene. Kweniso likupeleka YouTube Premium, nthowa yakulipira kuti munthu wawonelerenge vinthu kwambura malonda. Kweniso YouTube yikazomerezga awo ŵakulemba nkhani kuti ŵachiteko nawo ntchito ya Google ya AdSense, iyo yikukhumba kuti wose ŵawovwirepo. Mu 2022, YouTube yikapeleka ndalama zakukwana $29.2 billion. Mu 2021, ndalama zakupanga malonda pa YouTube zakwera mpaka $ 28.8 biliyoni, kuwonjezeka kwa ndalama za 9 biliyoni kuchokera chaka chatha.<ref name="Weprin">{{Cite web |last=Weprin |first=Alex |date=February 1, 2022 |title=YouTube Ad Revenue Tops $8.6B, Beating Netflix in the Quarter |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/youtube-ad-revenue-tops-8-6b-beating-netflix-in-the-quarter-1235085391/ |access-date=June 11, 2022 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |language=en-US}}</ref><!-- Content and operations --> Kufuma waka apo Google yikagulira YouTube, yikasazgikira kujumpha pa webusayiti yakwamba na kuŵa na ma app gha pa mafoni, ma TV gha pa Intaneti, kweniso yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye vinandi. Mavidiyo agho ghali pa YouTube ni mavidiyo gha sumu, mavidiyo, nkhani, mafilimu ghapafupi, mafilimu, sumu, mavidiyo ghapang'anamuliro gha mafilimu, ma teaser, ma livestreams, vlog, na vinyake vinandi. Vinthu vinandi vikupangika na ŵanthu ŵekhaŵekha, kusazgapo awo ŵakuwungana na makampani. Makampani agho ghakumanyikwa chomene nga ni Disney, Paramount, NBCUniversal, na Warner Bros. Kweniso ŵakamba na kusazgirako mawayilesi ghawo gha pa YouTube kuti ŵapharazgirenge ŵanthu ŵanandi. YouTube yikupangiska ŵanthu kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene, yikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kutemwana pa Intaneti. Nangauli YouTube yikukura chomene ndipo yikwenda makora, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka. Ŵanthu awo ŵakususka YouTube ŵakugwiliskira ntchito webusayiti iyi kuti ŵapharazge mautesi, kuswa malango gha ŵanthu, kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa pa webusayiti iyi. == {{Anchor|Company history}}{{Anchor|Website history}}Mbiri == {{Main|Mbiri ya YouTube}} === Kukhazikiska na kukura kwapakwamba (2005~2006) === [[File:Youtube_founders.jpg|thumb|Kufuma kumazere kuya kumalyero: Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, na Jawed Karim, awo ŵakambiska YouTube]] YouTube yikapangika na Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, na Jawed Karim. Ŵanalume ŵatatu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵantchito ŵakwambilira ŵa PayPal, ndipo ŵakasambazga comene pamanyuma pakuti kampani iyi yagulika na eBay. Hurley wakasambira vya kupanga vinthu pa yunivesite ya Indiana ku Pennsylvania, ndipo Chen na Karim ŵakasambira vya kompyuta pa yunivesite ya Illinois ku Urbana-Champaign. Kuyana na nkhani iyo yikayowoyeka kanandi waka mu manyuzipepara, Hurley na Chen ŵakapanga pulani ya YouTube mu myezi yakwambilira ya 2005, pamanyuma pakuti ŵakasangana na masuzgo pakugwiliskira nchito mavidiyo agho ŵakajambura pa ciphikiro ca mu nyumba ya Chen ku San Francisco. Karim wakaluta yayi ku ciphikiro ici ndipo wakakana kuti vikacitika nadi, kweni Chen wakati maghanoghano ghakuti YouTube yikapangika pamanyuma pa ciphikiro "ghakwenera kuti ghakakhozga comene maghanoghano gha malonda ghakukhwaskana na kulenga nkhani iyo yikwenera kuti yikasangika makora". Karim wakati chenjezgo la YouTube likamba kufuma ku nkhani ya Super Bowl XXXVIII apo chifuŵa cha Janet Jackson chikavumbukwa na Justin Timberlake. Karim wakawona kuti ntchipusu yayi kusanga mavidiyo gha chindindindi icho chikachitika mu 2004 pa Intaneti. Hurley na Chen ŵakayowoya kuti maghanoghano ghakwambilira gha YouTube ghakaŵa gha chigaŵa cha mavidiyo gha pa Intaneti ndipo ghakafuma pa webusayiti ya Hot or Not. Ŵakalemba nkhani pa Craigslist, kupempha ŵanakazi ŵakutowa kuti ŵaŵikenge mavidiyo ghawo pa YouTube kuti ŵaŵape ndalama zakukwana madola 100. Chifukwa cha suzgo la kusanga mavidiyo ghakukwana gha ŵanthu ŵakutorana, ŵakasintha ivyo ŵakakhumbanga kuchita.<ref>{{cite news|first=Stuart|last=Dredge|title=YouTube was meant to be a video-dating website|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/16/youtube-past-video-dating-website|work=The Guardian|date=March 16, 2016|access-date=March 15, 2019}}</ref> [[File:Youtube_logo.jpg|thumb|Chizindikiro cha YouTube chomwe chinagwiritsidwa ntchito kuyambira pomwe chinayambika mpaka 2007; chinabwerera mu 2008 chisanachotsedwe kachiwiri mu 2010. Chizindikiro chinyake icho pakaŵavya mazgu ghakuti "Sindikizgani Mwekha" chikagwiranga ntchito m'paka mu 2011.]] YouTube yikamba kuŵa kampani iyo yikagwiliskiranga nchito vinthu vya teknoloji. Pakati pa Novembala 2005 na Epulero 2006, kampani iyi yikasanga ndalama kufuma ku ŵamalonda ŵakupambanapambana, ndipo Sequoia Capital, $11.5 miliyoni, na Artis Capital Management, $8 miliyoni, ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakuru chomene. Malo ghakwambilira gha YouTube ghakaŵa pachanya pa malo gha pizza na malo gha vyakurya gha ku Japan mu San Mateo, California. Mu Febuluwale 2005, kampani iyi yikajura webusayiti ya www.youtube.com. Vidiyo yakwamba yikaŵa pa Epulero 23, 2005. Chithunzichi chili ndi mutu wakuti "Ine ku zoo" ndipo chikusonyeza woyambitsa mnzake Jawed Karim ku San Diego Zoo ndipo chikhoza kuwonedwabe pa webusaitiyi. Mu Meyi, kampani iyi yikambiska beta ya ŵanthu wose ndipo mu Novembala, chipharazgo cha Nike icho muli Ronaldinho chikaŵa vidiyo yakwamba kuwoneka pa intaneti. Webusayiti iyi yikamba kugwira ntchito pa Disembala 15, 2005, ndipo pa nyengo iyi ŵanthu 8 miliyoni ŵakayiwonanga zuŵa lililose. Pa nyengo iyo, vithuzithuzi ivi vikaŵa vya mameghabayiti 100, panji kuti masekondi 30. YouTube yikaŵa malo ghakwamba yayi kugaŵirako mavidiyo pa Intaneti. Vimeo yikambiska mu Novembala 2004, nangauli pa nyengo iyo, malo agha ghakaŵa ghapusu yayi. Sabata iyo YouTube yikambira, pa NBC-Universal pa Saturday Night Live pakaŵa sumu ya The Lonely Island yakuchemeka "Lazy Sunday". Padera pa kovwira kuti Saturday Night Live yiŵe na ŵanthu ŵanandi, "Lazy Sunday" yikawovwira kuti YouTube yiŵe malo ghakuzirwa. Pa February 2006, vidiyo iyi yikawonekerathu pa YouTube ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 5 miliyoni ŵakawonelera pambere ŵandayiwuskemo. Nangauli paumaliro ŵakawuskapo vidiyo iyi, kweni yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye vinandi pa YouTube. Webusayiti iyi yikakura mwaluŵiro chomene. Mu Julayi 2006, kampani iyi yikapharazga kuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 65,000 ŵakujura mavidiyo zuŵa lililose. Kusankha zina lakuti www.youtube.com kukapangiska kuti webusayiti yinyake yiŵe na zina lakuyana waka lakuti www.youtube.com. Mweneko wa webusayiti iyi, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, wakadandawura na YouTube mu Novembala 2006 chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhumbanga waka kuwonelera vidiyo iyi. Universal Tube wakasintha webusayiti yake kuŵa www. utubeonline .com.<ref>{{cite news|title=Help! YouTube is killing my business!|author=Zappone, Christian|publisher=CNN|url=https://money.cnn.com/2006/10/12/news/companies/utube/index.htm|access-date=November 29, 2008|date=October 12, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Utube sues YouTube|author=Blakely, Rhys|work=The Times|location=London|url=https://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/media/article623050.ece|access-date=November 29, 2008|date=November 2, 2006|archive-date=April 3, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403234216/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/media/article623050.ece|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Broadcast Yourself (2006~2013) === [[File:901_Cherry_Avenue.jpg|left|thumb|Likulu la YouTube ku San Bruno, California]] Pa Okutobala 9, 2006, Google yikapharazga kuti yagura YouTube pa mtengo wa $1.65 biliyoni. Phangano ili likamara pa Novembala 13, 2006. IAC, iyo sono yikaŵa na Vimeo, yikamba kovwira awo ŵakupangiska mavidiyo kuti ŵapatukeko ku YouTube. Pa nyengo iyi, YouTube yikamba kuyowoya mazgu ghakuti "Jipharazgirani". Kampani iyi yikakura mwaluŵiro. The Daily Telegraph yikalemba kuti mu 2007, YouTube yikagwiliskiranga nchito bandwidth yinandi comene nga ni Intaneti yose mu 2000. Kufika mu 2010, kampani iyi yikaŵa na chiŵelengero cha mavidiyo pafupifupi 43 peresenti, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuwonelera mavidiyo ghakujumpha 14 biliyoni. Chaka chenechicho, kampani iyi yikasintha vinthu vinyake kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge nyengo yitali pa webusayiti iyi. Mu 2011, ŵanthu ŵakawoneleranga mavidiyo ghakujumpha mabiliyoni ghatatu zuŵa lililose. Ndipouli, mavidiyo ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakawonanga ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene. Mu chaka chenechicho, kampani iyi yikasinthaso chigaŵa chake ndipo nyengo yeneyiyo, yikapelekaso logo yiphya ya mdima wakufipa. Mu 2013, pakaŵaso kusintha kwa kompyuta, TV, na foni. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga pa Intaneti maora ghakujumpha 100 pa miniti yiliyose.<ref>{{cite web |last=Welch |first=Chris |date=May 19, 2013 |title=YouTube users now upload 100 hours of video every minute |url=https://www.theverge.com/2013/5/19/4345514/youtube-users-upload-100-hours-video-every-minute |access-date=March 26, 2017 |website=[[The Verge]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=E. Solsman |first=Joan |date=November 12, 2014 |title=YouTube's Music Key: Can paid streaming finally hook the masses? |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/youtube-music-key-googles-stab-at-taking-paid-streaming-songs-mainstream/ |access-date=March 25, 2017 |website=[[CNET]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]]}}</ref> [[File:Logo_of_YouTube_(2015-2017).svg|thumb|Chizindikiro cha YouTube kuyambira 2015 mpaka 2017]] Pa nyengo iyi, gulu likasintha vinthu vinyake. Mu Okutobala 2006, YouTube wakasamira ku ofesi yiphya ku San Bruno, California. Hurley wakapharazga kuti wafumengepo pa udindo wa CEO wa YouTube kuti waŵe na udindo wa kuphalira ŵanthu vya YouTube. Mu Disembala 2009, YouTube yikakolerana na Vevo. Mu Epulero 2010, sumu ya Lady Gaga ya "Bad Romance" yikaŵa vidiyo iyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakawonelera chomene, ndipo yikaŵa yakwamba kuwonelera ŵanthu mamiliyoni 200 pa Meyi 9, 2010.<ref>{{cite news|date=May 9, 2010|url=https://pulse2.com/bad-romance-by-lady-gaga-becomes-first-youtube-video-to-hit-200-million-views/|title=Bad Romance By Lady Gaga Becomes First YouTube Video To Hit 200 Million Views}}</ref> === Susan Wojcicki and going mainstream (2014–2018) === [[File:YouTube_Logo_2017.svg|thumb|Chizindikiro cha YouTube kuyambira 2017]] Susan Wojcicki wakasankhika kuŵa CEO wa YouTube mu Febuluwale 2014. Mu Janyuwale 2016, YouTube yikasazgirako ofesi yake yikuru ku San Bruno mwa kugura malo gha maofesi gha $215 miliyoni. Malo agha ghali na malo ghakukwana mamita 51,468 ndipo ghangakwana ŵanthu 2,800. YouTube yikamba kupanga vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukolerana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pa Intaneti. Mu nyengo iyi, YouTube yikayezga nthowa zinandi zakupambanapambana kuti yisangirepo ndalama. Mu 2013, YouTube yikambiska pulogiramu ya viwoneskero kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakupanga vinthu vya pa Intaneti ŵapelekenge ma TV ghapachanya. Ntchito iyi yikamara mu Janyuwale 2018 ndipo yikambaso mu Juni, na maubwezi gha US$4.99. Kulembeska pa wayilesi iyi kukakhozga nthowa ya Super Chat, iyo yikamba mu 2017, iyo yikovwira kuti awo ŵakuwonelera ŵapeleke ndalama zakukwana $1 na $500 kuti ŵawonenge ivyo ŵakuyowoya. Mu 2014, YouTube yikapharazga za "Music Key", iyo yikaŵa na nkhani za sumu pa YouTube. Mu 2015, YouTube yikapharazga vya YouTube Red, yeneiyo yikaŵa nthowa yiphya yakupharazgira ŵanthu kwambura kuŵika malonda pa Intaneti. Kweniso YouTube yikafumiska YouTube Music, app yacitatu iyo yikovwira ŵanthu kumanya sumu izo zili pa YouTube. Kweniso kampani iyi yikayezga kupanga vinthu vyakuti viŵawovwire. Mu 2015, YouTube yikafumiska pulogiramu ya pa foni yakuchemeka YouTube Kids. Lili na nthowa yipusu yakugwiliskira ntchito TV iyi, na mavidiyo ghakwenelera ŵana awo ŵafika pa msinkhu wawo. Kweniso mu 2015, YouTube yikambiska YouTube Gaming, app ya mavidiyo na mavidyo gha pa Intaneti. Kampaniyi idaukiridwa pa Epulo 3, 2018, pomwe kuwombera kunachitika ku likulu la YouTube ku San Bruno, California, komwe kudavulaza anayi ndikupangitsa munthu m'modzi kufa (womenya).<ref name="shooting">{{Cite news|date=April 4, 2018|title=YouTube shooting: Suspect visited shooting range before attack|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-43645812|access-date=April 9, 2018}}</ref> === Mbiri yaposachedwapa (2019~pano) === Kuzakafika mu Febuluwale 2017, maora 1 biliyoni gha mavidiyo gha pa YouTube ghakawoneleranga zuŵa lililose, ndipo maora 400 gha mavidiyo ghakaŵikikanga pa intaneti miniti yiliyose. Pakati pajumpha vyaka viŵiri, ŵanthu ŵakakweranga mavidiyo agha maora ghakujumpha 500 pa miniti. Mu nyengo ya nthenda ya COVID-19, apo caru cose cikaŵa pasi pa dango la kukhala pa nyumba, kugwiliskira nchito vinthu nga ni YouTube kukakwera comene. Kampani yimoza ya data yikati YouTube yikupangiska 15% ya intaneti yose, kaŵiri kuluska umo yikaŵira pambere nthenda iyi yindambe. Pakuzgora ku ŵamazaza ŵa EU awo ŵakapempha kuti mautumiki agha ghachepeske bandwidth kuti ŵasimikizge kuti ŵantchito ŵa ku chipatala ŵali na bandwidth yakukwana kuti ŵagaŵiranenge fundo, YouTube na Netflix ŵakayowoya kuti ŵalutilirenge kuchepeska umanyi wa ma TV kwa mazuŵa 30 kuti ŵapepuske bandwidth ya mautumiki ghawo na 25%. Pamanyuma, YouTube yikati yilutizgenge mulimo uwu pa caru cose: "Tikulutilira kwenderana na maboma na ŵantchito ŵa pa caru cose kuti tileke kusuzgika comene na vinthu ivi". Pamasinda pa kudandawura uko kukacitika mu 2018 cifukwa ca kuswa malango gha Child's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), kampani iyi yikapika cilango ca $170 miliyoni na FTC cifukwa ca kupokera fundo za ŵanthu ŵacoko comene. Kweniso boma likalangura kuti YouTube yipange nthowa zakovwilira ŵana kuti ŵaleke kufipa mtima. Pamanyuma pa kususkika cifukwa ca ivyo vikacitika, pa Janyuwale 6, 2020, YouTube yikamba kuwona mavidiyo ghose agho ghakaŵa "ghakupangikira ŵana" nga nga nga nga nga ni malango gha COPPA. Pakunjira mu app ya YouTube Kids, kampani iyi yikapangiska kuti mu 2021 paŵe nthowa yakuwonera, iyo yikunozgekera ŵawukirano. Kweniso kuti yikolere TikTok, YouTube yikamba kupanga vidiyo yifupi yakuchemeka YouTube Shorts. Mu nyengo iyi, YouTube yikamba kulimbana na makampani ghanyake gha vya tekinoloje. Kwa chaka chimoza, mu 2018 na 2019, pakaŵavya app ya YouTube iyo yikagwiliskirika pa Amazon Fire. Mu 2020, Roku wakawuskamo app ya YouTube TV mu sitoro yake chifukwa chakuti makampani ghaŵiri agha ghakatondeka kukolerana. Pambuyo poyesa kale mu 2021, YouTube idachotsa kuwonetsera pagulu kwa kusakonda kwamavidiyo mu Novembala 2021, ponena kuti chifukwa chochotsera chinali, kutengera kafukufuku wake wamkati, kuti ogwiritsa ntchito nthawi zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito kusakonda ngati njira yochitira nkhanza pa intaneti. Nangauli ŵanyake ŵakulumba kuti nthowa iyi yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kutinkhana, kweni ŵanyake ŵakuti para munthu wangaleka kutinkhana, vingapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuwona mavidiyo ghambura kovwira. Uyo wakawovwira kukhazikiska YouTube, Jawed Karim, wakati kusintha uku "nkhuzeleza", ndipo cifukwa ceneko ca kusintha uku "nkhwakwenelera yayi, ndipo nchakuti ŵanthu ŵamanyenge yayi". Iyo wakawona kuti nchakuzirwa comene kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito Intaneti ŵamanye vinthu viheni. Iyo wakati: "Nthowa iyi yikugwira nchito, ndipo yili na zina lakuti vinjeru vya ŵanthu ŵanandi. Para pulogiramu yikususka, ndondomeko iyi yikumara. Para vyaŵa nthena, pulatifomu yikuleka kugwira ntchito". Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, Dmitry Selivanov, uyo wakapanganga mapulogiramu gha pa kompyuta, wakambiska pulogiramu ya Return YouTube Dislike. Mu kalata iyo yikapharazgika pa January 25, 2022 na Susan Wojcicki, CEO wa YouTube, wakazomerezga kuti kuwuskamo ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa yayi nkhani iyi chikaŵa chakujandizga, kweni wakawerezgapo kuti wakukhalilira na fundo iyi, wakati "yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kutinkhana". Mu 2022, YouTube yikamba kuyezga umo yikulongolera ŵanthu awo ŵakuwonelera mavidiyo ghatali pa TV, malonda ghafupi ghambura kujumpha. Pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵakwiya chomene chifukwa cha unandi wa mapulogiramu ghaphya agho ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga yayi, pa Seputembala 19 wa chaka chenechichi, YouTube "yikamalizga" ntchito iyi. Mu Okutobala, YouTube yikapharazga kuti yizenge na vigaŵa vyakugwiliskira ntchito (nga ni @MrBeast6000) kusazgapo mazina gha wayilesi, agho ghangazgokaso ma URL gha wayilesi. Pa Febuluwale 16, 2023, Wojcicki wakapharazga kuti wafumenge pa udindo wake wa CEO, ndipo Neal Mohan ndiyo wamupenge malo. Wojcicki wazamovwira Google na Alphabet.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last1=Peters |first1=Jay |last2=Roth |first2=Emma |date=January 16, 2023 |title=YouTube CEO Susan Wojcicki steps down after nine years at the helm |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/2/16/23602759/youtube-ceo-susan-wojcicki-stepping-down-neal-mohan-google |access-date=February 16, 2023 |website=[[The Verge]]}}</ref> == Ŵalara ŵa kamupani == YouTube yikulongozgeka na CEO kufuma waka apo yikambira mu 2005, ndipo yikalutilira kuŵa na mulongozgi nangauli Google yikayigura. CEO wa sono ni Neal Mohan, uyo wakasankhika pa February 16, 2023.<ref name=":15" /> === Mndandanda wa ma CEO === # [[Chad Hurley]] (2005–2010) # [[Salar Kamangar]] (2010–2014) # [[Susan Wojcicki]] (2014–2023)<ref name=":15" /> # [[Neal Mohan]] (since February 2023)<ref name=":15" /> == Vinthu vyake == === Vidiyo === YouTube yikugwiliskira nchito VP9 na H.264/MPEG-4 AVC codecs, na Dynamic Adaptive Streaming pa HTTP protocol. MPEG-4 Part 2 streams izo zili mu 3GP containers nazo zikupelekeka pa bandwidth yachepa. Mu Janyuwale 2019, YouTube yikamba kupanga mavidiyo mu AV1. Mu 2021, ŵakayowoya kuti kampani iyi yikughanaghana vya kukhumba AV1 mu hardware ya streaming kuti yichepeske bandwidth na kusazgirako quality. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mavidiyo pamoza na Opus na AAC. Pakwamba mu 2005, kuti munthu wawone mavidiyo gha pa YouTube pa kompyuta, wakeneranga kuŵa na Adobe Flash Player. Mu Janyuwale 2010, YouTube yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito webusayiti iyi pa chiyezgo. Ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵawonenge mavidiyo kwambura kuŵika Adobe Flash Player panji pulogini yinyake. Pa Janyuwale 27, 2015, YouTube yikapharazga kuti HTML5 ndiyo yizamuŵa nthowa yakulondezgera pa ma browser. Mavidiyo gha HTML5 ghakugwiliskira ntchito Dynamic Adaptive Streaming pa HTTP (MPEG-DASH), nthowa yakugwiliskira ntchito HTTP iyo yikovwira kuti munthu waŵe na vithuzi vinandi. Pa foni iyi, ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mavidiyo gha pa Intaneti gha mtundu wa 144p. Ungweru uwu ungasinthika mwakuyana na luŵiro lwa foni panji ungasinthika na mawoko. Kwambira mu 2008 m'paka mu 2017, ŵanthu ŵakaŵanga na mwaŵi wa kusazgako "mavidiyo" ku mavidiyo ghawo, nga ni mauthenga gha pa kompyuta na ma hyperlink. Kufika mu 2019 mazgu ghose gha mu mavidiyo ghakafumiskikapo, ndipo mavidiyo ghanyake ghakaŵa ghambura ntchito. YouTube yikamba kupanga vinthu vinyake kuti viwovwire ŵanthu pa Intaneti, nga ni vithuzithuzi vyakumalizgira. Mu 2018, YouTube yikazgoka rejisitala ya ISNI, ndipo yikapharazga kuti yikukhumba kwamba kupanga vimanyikwiro vya ISNI kuti yimanyiske ŵanyimbo awo mavidiyo ghawo ghalipo. Awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito foni iyi ŵakumanya kuti ŵangawoneseska kuti nkhani yawo njaunenesko. Apo YouTube yikambanga mu 2005, vikaŵa vyamachitiko kuŵika mavidiyo ghatali, kweni mu Malichi 2006 ŵakaŵikamo nyengo ya maminiti 10 pamanyuma pakuti YouTube yamanya kuti mavidiyo ghanandi agho ghakaŵa ghatali chomene ghakaŵa ghambura kuzomerezgeka. Mu Julayi 2010, nyengo ya maminiti 10 yikakwera kufika pa maminiti 15. Mavidiyo ghangaŵa ghakukwana 256 GB panji maora 12, kuyana na unandi wake. Kufumira mu 2021, mavidiyo agho ghali na mazgu agho ghangalembeka mu viyowoyero 13, ndipo ghangalembeka na mashini. YouTube yikupelekaso mazgu ghakupangika na ŵanthu nga ntchigaŵa cha makompyuta. Kale YouTube yikapelekanga fundo yakuti 'Community Captions' apo awo ŵakulaŵilira mavidiyo ŵakeneranga kulemba na kupeleka mazgu ghakupulikizga para munthu uyo wakujura mavidiyo wazomerezga. Kweni mu Seputembala 2020 ŵakaleka. YouTube yikuzomera mafayilo gha mtundu wa MP4, Matroska, FLV, AVI, WebM, 3GP, MPEG-PS, na QuickTime. Vyakupanga mavidiyo vinyake (nga ni ProRes) navyo vikuzomerezgeka. YouTube yikuphalira ŵanthu umo ŵangakopera. Vidiyo yiliyose yikumanyikwa na alphanumerical Base64 string ya vilembo 11 mu Uniform Resource Locator (URL) iyo yingaŵa na vilembo, manambara, chakukhozgera (_), na dash (-). Mu 2018, YouTube yikaŵaso na chigaŵa chakuchemeka Premiere icho chikupeleka uthenga kwa munthu uyo wakugwiliskira ntchito vidiyo. Para nyengo yakutemeka yakwana, vidiyo iyi yikuŵa pa TV ndipo yikutora maminiti ghaŵiri. Para mungakhumba, mungamba kuwonelera nyengo yeneyiyo.<ref>{{cite web |title=What are YouTube Premieres, and How Do You Use Them? |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/367588/what-are-youtube-premiers-and-how-do-you-use-them/}}</ref> ==== Maonekelo ==== Pakwamba YouTube yikapelekanga mavidiyo gha mtundu umoza pera, agho ghakaŵa na ma pixels 320×240 pakugwiliskira nchito codec ya Sorenson Spark (iyo ni H.263), pamoza na sumu za MP3 za mtundu umoza. Mu Juni 2007, YouTube yikaŵaso na mwaŵi wa kuwonelera mavidiyo mu 3GP pa mafoni. Mu Malichi 2008, ŵakasazgirako mtundu wa high-quality mode, uwo ukasazgirako ma pixels 480×360. Mu Disembala 2008, ŵakasazgirako vidiyo ya 720p. Pa nyengo ya kukhazikiskika kwa 720p, YouTube player yikasinthika kufuma ku 4:3 aspect ratio kuya ku widescreen 16:9. Na fundo iyi, YouTube yikamba kusintha kuti yiŵe na H.264/MPEG-4 AVC. Mu Novembala 2009, ŵakasazgirako vidiyo ya 1080p. Mu Julayi 2010, YouTube yikapharazga kuti yapanga mavidiyo ghanandi gha mtundu wa 4K, agho ghangaŵa na vithuzithuzi vyakukwana 4096×3072. Mu Julayi 2010, ŵakasazgirako vidiyo ya mtundu wa 4K. Mu Juni 2015, ŵakasazgirako vidiyo ya 8K, ndipo mavidiyo agha ghakaŵa na vithuzithuzi 7680×4320. Mu Novembala 2016, ŵakasazgirako vidiyo ya HDR iyo yingalembeka na HLG panji PQ. Vidiyo ya HDR yingalembeka na mtundu wa Rec. 2020. Mu Juni 2014, YouTube yikamba kovwirapo pa mavidiyo gha vithuzithuzi ivyo vikuŵa na vithuzithuzi vyakukwana vithuzithuzi 60 pa sekondi. YouTube yikati ivi viwovwirenge kuti ŵanthu ŵawonenge makora mavidiyo agho ghali na vithuzithuzi vinandi. Mavidiyo gha pa YouTube ghalipo mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuwonelera ŵakukhwaska waka kawonekero ka vidiyo. Mu mafoni agha, ŵanthu ŵakusankhapo "Auto", iyo yikusintha umo vinthu viliri pa Intaneti, "High Picture Quality" iyo yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵawonenge makora mavidiyo, "Data saver" iyo yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito makora mavidiyo, na "Advanced" iyo yikovwira kuti munthu wasankhenge makora. Pa kompyuta, ŵanthu ŵakusankha "Auto" panji mtundu unyake. Munthu uyo wakuwonelera vidiyo iyi wangasankha yayi vithuzi ivyo vili na vithuzi vinandi. Kwambira mu 2009, ŵanthu ŵakuwonelera mavidiyo gha 3D. Mu 2015, YouTube yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito mavidiyo gha madigiri 360. Kufuma mu Epulero 2016, yikapeleka mwaŵi wa kuwonelera mavidiyo gha pa 360°, kweniso mavidiyo gha pa 360° na gha pa 1440p. Chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakawoneleranga pa digirii zakujumpha 90, yikamba kukhozgera vidiyo yinyake yakuchemeka VR180. Chifukwa cha ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakulaŵilira mavidiyo agha, YouTube yikasintha nyengo yichoko waka. YouTube yikapanga chip chake, chakuchemeka Argos, kuti chiwovwire pakukopera mavidiyo ghapachanya mu 2021. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, YouTube yikovwira munthu uyo wakujura kuti wasinthe mavidiyo agho ghakaŵako kale chomene. Ubwezi unyake uwo ŵakachita na Universal Music Group ukaŵa wa kupanga mavidiyo 1,000.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=June 19, 2019 |title=YouTube partners with Universal to upgrade nearly 1,000 classic music videos to HD |url=https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/19/youtube-partners-with-universal-to-upgrade-nearly-1000-classic-music-videos-to-hd/ |access-date=March 9, 2022 |website=TechCrunch |language=en}}</ref> ==== Kuŵerenga pa Intaneti ==== YouTube yikachita viyezgo vyakwambilira pa nkhani ya kuwonelera vinthu vyamuyirayira, kusazgapo ungano wa U2 mu 2009, na ungano wa mafumbo na mazgoro na pulezidenti wa ku United States Barack Obama mu Febuluwale 2010. Kuyezgelera uku kukajintha pa maukadaulo gha ŵabwezi ŵachitatu, kweni mu Seputembala 2010, YouTube yikamba kuyezga nthowa yake yakwendeskera. Mu Epulero 2011, YouTube yikapharazga kuti yivulenge YouTube Live. Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵekha ndiwo ŵakawoneleranga vidiyo iyi. Kanema uyu wakagwiliskirika ntchito pa nkhani za pa nyengo yake nga ni maseŵero gha ku London mu 2012. Mu Okutobala 2012, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 8 miliyoni ŵakawonelera umo Felix Baumgartner wakadukira kufuma ku mphepete mwa mlengalenga. Mu Meyi 2013, ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na chiŵelengero chakukwana 1,000 ndiwo ŵakazomerezgekanga kuwonelera pa Intaneti. Mu Febuluwale 2017, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwonelera vidiyo iyi pa foni. Pakwamba, ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito foni iyi ŵakaŵa waka na ŵanthu 10,000, kweni mu 2017 ŵakachepeskeka kufika pa ŵanthu 100. Vidiyo iyi yikovwira kuti munthu wawonenge vinthu mu HDR.<ref name="Verge 2016">{{cite web |last=Garun |first=Natt |date=November 30, 2016 |title=YouTube now supports 4K live-streaming for both 360-degree and standard video |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/11/30/13783272/youtube-update-4k-live-streaming-support-360-video |website=[[The Verge]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Porter |first=Jon |date=December 8, 2020 |title=YouTube live streams now support HDR |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/12/8/22162889/youtube-live-stream-hdr-support |access-date=May 10, 2021 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref> === Vinthu vya mugwiliski === ==== Comment system <span class="anchor" id="User_comments"></span> ==== {{See also|Criticism of Google#YouTube user comments}} Mu 2006, magazini ya Time yikalumba Web 2.0 cifukwa ca kovwira "ŵanthu kuti ŵateŵeterenge lumoza na kucitirana vinthu pamoza mu nthowa iyo yindacitikepo nakale", ndipo yikasazgirapo kuti YouTube "yikugwiliskira nchito ucindere wa ŵanthu kweniso vinjeru vyawo. Vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pa YouTube vikupangiska munthu kulira chifukwa cha umo ŵanthu ŵakulemberana, kweniso chifukwa cha viheni ivyo ŵakuyowoya". Mu 2009, nyuzipepara ya The Guardian yikati:<ref>{{cite news|last=Owen|first=Paul|date=November 3, 2009|title=Our top 10 funniest YouTube comments – what are yours?|work=The Guardian|location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2009/nov/03/youtube-funniest-comments|access-date=March 13, 2014}}</ref> {{blockquote|Ŵawukirano, ŵankhaza, ŵambura kupulikiska makora, ŵakususkana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi, ŵakutemwa ŵanthu ŵanyawo, ŵakukwiya chomene na ivyo vili mu vidiyo ndipo ŵakulongosora mwakupwelelera, ndipo pamasinda ŵakulemba mazgu ghakukhozga soni.}} Mu Seputembala 2008, nyuzipepara ya Daily Telegraph yikati YouTube "njakumanyikwa chomene" chifukwa cha "mauthenga ghakupambanapambana pa Intaneti". Mu Epulero 2012, nyuzipepara ya Huffington Post yikati ntchakusuzga yayi kusanga mazgu pa YouTube agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti "ngaheni, ngaubendezi, kweniso ngaheni". Pa Novembala 6, 2013, Google yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa yakuyowoyera pa Google+ iyo yikukhumba kuti wose awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito Google+ kuti ŵayowoyepo pa mavidiyo. Chilato cha kusintha uku chikaŵa chakuti awo ŵakulemba nkhani ŵasangenge nkhongono zakumazgira na kujandizga mazgu, na kumazga viheni ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya. Ndondomeko yiphya iyi yikawovwira kuti ma URL ghaŵeso mu mazgu, agho ghakaŵa kuti ghafumiskikapo chifukwa cha masuzgo. Pakuzgora, uyo wakambiska YouTube, Jawed Karim wakalemba fumbo lakuti "chifukwa wuli nkhwenera kuŵa na akaunti ya Google+ kuti niyowoyepo pa vidiyo?" pa YouTube kuti walongosore maghanoghano ghake ghambura kwenelera. Pa YouTube, ŵanthu 20,097 ŵakazomera ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 32,000 ŵakayowoyapo mu mazuŵa ghaŵiri. Chase Melvin wakalemba mu magazini ya Newsday ya Silicon Island kuti "Google+ njakutchuka yayi nga ni Facebook, kweni yikupangiska ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube kuti ŵaleke kuleka kuyowoyapo pa mavidiyo". Mu nkhani yeneyiyi, Melvin wakalutilira kuyowoya kuti:<ref>{{cite news|last=Chase|first=Melvin|date=November 20, 2013|title=YouTube comments require Google+ account, Google faces uproar|newspaper=Newsday|url=https://www.newsday.com/business/technology/silicon-island-1.1521604/youtube-comments-require-google-account-google-faces-uproar-1.6429420}} {{subscription}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000813/https://www.amny.com/silicon-island-1.1521604/youtube-comments-require-google-account-google-faces-uproar-1.6429420 Alternate link] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000813/https://www.amny.com/silicon-island-1.1521604/youtube-comments-require-google-account-google-faces-uproar-1.6429420|date=December 3, 2013}}.</ref> {{blockquote|Panyake ŵanthu ŵakudandawura, kweni fundo ya kunozgaso ndondomeko yakale njakofya yayi. Ghanaghanirani waka za vinthu viheni ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pa YouTube mu vyaka 8 ivyo vyajumpha. Kasi palije cinthu cinyake ico tingacita kuti tileke kusesa ŵanthu? Ndondomeko iyi njambura kufikapo, kweni Google yikwenera kulumbika cifukwa ca kuyezga kuchepeska masuzgo agho ghakwiza cifukwa ca kukwiya kwa ŵanthu ŵa pa YouTubers awo ŵakujibisa na kutondeka kumanyikwa.}} Pamanyuma, pa Julayi 27, 2015, Google yikapharazga mu blog kuti yizamuwuskapo dango lakuti munthu wakwenera kuŵa na akaunti ya Google+ kuti walembepo ivyo wakuyowoya pa YouTube. Pa Novembala 3, 2016, YouTube yikapharazga ndondomeko ya kuyezga iyo yikovwira awo ŵakupanga mavidiyo kuti ŵasankhepo ŵekha usange ŵakukhumba kuzomerezga, kubisa, panji kupeleka lipoti pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya. Awo ŵakulemba nkhani ŵangasankha kusunga panji kufumiska mazgu agho ghali na maulayizgano panji ma hashtag kuti ŵaleke kutumizga mauthenga ghaheni. Ŵangazomerezgaso ŵanthu ŵanyake kuti ŵaŵikengepo maghanoghano ghawo. Mu Disembala 2020, vikaŵa vyakuti YouTube yizenge na fundo yiphya iyo yizamucenjezga awo ŵakulemba mazgu agho "ngangaŵa ghakukhuŵazga ŵanji".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=December 3, 2020 |title=YouTube will ask commenters to rethink posting if their message seems offensive |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/12/3/22150197/youtube-comments-posting-hurtful-hate-videos-discrimination-monetization-search |access-date=December 9, 2020 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 3, 2020 |title=YouTube introduces new feature to address toxic comments |url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2020/12/03/youtube-introduces-new-features-to-address-toxic-comments/ |access-date=December 9, 2020 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref> ==== Mulimo wa kuzenga ==== Pa Seputembala 13, 2016, YouTube yikambiska chigaŵa cha "Community", icho chikovwira ŵanthu kutuma mauthenga, vithuzithuzi (nga ni GIF), mavidiyo, na vinyake mu chigaŵa cha "Community". Pambere ŵandafumiske vidiyo iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafumbika kuti ŵayowoyepo ivyo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa Vlogbrothers, AsapScience, Lilly Singh, The Game Theorists, Karmin, The Key of Awesome, The Kloons, Peter Hollens, Rosianna Halse Rojas, Sam Tsui, Threadbanger na Vsauce3. Chithunzi:Chinthu chinanso chofunikira Para chigaŵa ichi chafumiskika, chigaŵa ichi chikuŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali na chigaŵa ichi. Pa nyengo iyi, chiŵelengero ichi chikakhira kufuma pa 10,000 kufika pa 1,500, kufuma pa 1,000 kufika pa 500. Malo agho gulu la ŵanthu likugwirako ntchito, ghazamumazga kudumbiskana kwawo, m'malo mwa kukhala pamoza panji kusama.<ref name="community-help">{{Cite web |title=Engage with creators on Community posts – Computer – YouTube Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/7124175?co=GENIE.Platform=Desktop |website=support.google.com}}</ref> ==== TestTube ==== Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika pa YouTube mungaviwona pa webusayiti iyi. Mwachiyelezgero, mu Okutobala 2009, pakapangika pulogiramu yakupenja mazgu mu chigaŵa cha /comment_search. Kweni pamasinda ŵakawuskamo. Mu chaka chenechichi, YouTube Feather yikamba kugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni webusayiti yiphya ku vyaru ivyo vikuŵavya Intaneti.<ref>{{cite web |date=December 7, 2009 |title=Slow YouTube? Try Feather, Made for India |url=https://www.gtricks.com/youtube/slow-youtube-feather-india/ |website=Gtricks}}</ref> === Kuŵa na mwaŵi wa kuŵerenga === YouTube yikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵawonenge mavidiyo ghake pa Intaneti. Vidiyo yiliyose ya pa YouTube yili na code ya HTML iyo mungaŵika pa webusayiti yiliyose. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa iyi kuti ŵaŵikenge mavidiyo gha pa YouTube pa Intaneti. Awo ŵakukhumba kutumizga vidiyo iyo yikulongosora vya munthu munyake, panji iyo yikukolerana na vidiyo yake, ŵangalemba "video response". Chizindikiro cha mavidiyo a YouTube cha zilembo khumi ndi chimodzi (64 zilembo zomwe zingagwiritsidwe ntchito pamalo aliwonse), zimalola chiwerengero chapamwamba cha 6411 kapena pafupifupi 73.8 quintillion (73.8 biliyoni biliyoni) ma ID apadera. Pa Ogasiti 27, 2013, YouTube yikapharazga kuti yizamuwuskapo mavidiyo agho ghakulongora ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Uyo wali na vidiyo wangatondeska kuŵikamo, kuŵika, na kuzgora. Kanandi YouTube yikupeleka yayi mavidiyo ghake kuti ghaŵikike pa Intaneti, ndipo yikukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵawone pa webusayiti yake. Mavidiyo ghachoko waka ghangakopereka nga ni MP4. Mawebusayiti ghanandi gha ŵanyawo, na mapulogiramu agho ghakovwira kuti munthu wawonenge mavidiyo gha pa YouTube. Mu Febuluwale 2009, YouTube yikapharazga vya uteŵeti wa kuyezgelera, uwo ukazomerezganga ŵantchito ŵanyake kuti ŵapelekenge mavidiyo kwaulere panji kulipira malipiro kwizira mu Google Checkout. Mu Juni 2012, Google yikatumizga makalata ghakukanizga mawebusaiti ghanyake kuti ghatolere na kusintha mavidiyo gha pa YouTube. Pakuzgora, Zamzar wakawuskapo mwaŵi wa kukopera mavidiyo gha pa YouTube. Awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito YouTube ŵakuŵa na wanangwa wa kugwiliskira nchito vinthu ivyo ŵali navyo mwakuyana na laisensi ya YouTube, kweni ŵangasankha kugwiliskira nchito vinthu vinyake mwakuyana na laisensi yiliyose iyo ŵangasankha. Kwambira mu Julayi 2012, ŵanthu ŵangasankha Creative Commons kuti ŵaŵe na layisensi yakupangira vinthu. ==== Malo ghakuliskako ŵanthu ==== Mazuŵa ghano, mafoni ghanandi gha m'manja ghangawoneska mavidiyo gha pa YouTube, kwali ni mu app panji pa webusayiti. YouTube Mobile yikamba kugwira ntchito mu Juni 2007, ndipo yikagwiliskiranga ntchito RTSP pakutumizga mavidiyo. Ni mavidiyo ghose yayi gha pa YouTube agho ghali pa foni. Kwambira mu Juni 2007, mavidiyo gha pa YouTube ghakusangika pa Apple. Ivi vikang'anamuranga kuti ivyo vikaŵa pa YouTube vikwenera kung'anamulika mu H.264 (H.264 standard) iyo Apple yikutemwa. Mavidiyo gha pa YouTube ghangawoneskeka pa vinthu nga ni Apple TV, iPod Touch na iPhone. Webusayiti iyi yikaŵa ya mafoni ndipo yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito HTML5 mu Julayi 2010. Kweniso pa foni pali app ya Android. Mu Seputembala 2012, YouTube yikambiska app yake yakwamba ya iPhone, pamanyuma pa kusankha kuleka YouTube nga ni app yimoza ya pre-loaded mu iPhone 5 na iOS 6. Kuyana na GlobalWebIndex, pa ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mafoni gha m'manja, 35% ŵakagwiliskira ntchito YouTube pakati pa Epulero na Juni 2013. Mu Julayi 2008, TiVo yikasintha ntchito yake ndipo yikatora mavidiyo gha pa YouTube. Mu Janyuwale 2009, YouTube yikambiska "YouTube for TV", mtundu wa webusayiti wakunozgekera ma set-top boxes na ma TV ghanyake agho ghali na ma web browser, ndipo pakwamba yikapeleka mwaŵi wakuti mavidiyo ghake ghawonekenge pa PlayStation 3 na Wii. Mu Juni chaka chenechichi, YouTube XL yikamba kusangika pa Intaneti. YouTube yikusangikaso nga ni app pa Xbox Live. Pa Novembala 15, 2012, Google yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito app ya Wii, iyo yikovwira ŵanthu kuwonelera mavidiyo gha pa YouTube kufuma pa Wii. Pakaŵa app ya Wii U na Nintendo 3DS, kweni yikamara mu Ogasiti 2019. Mavidiyo ghangawonekaso pa Wii U Internet Browser na HTML5. Google yikapanga YouTube pa Roku player pa December 17, 2013, ndipo, mu October 2014, pa Sony PlayStation 4. YouTube yikamba kugwiliskirika ntchito pa Nintendo Switch mu Novembala 2018. ==== Kufumira ku vyaru vinyake ==== Pa Juni 19, 2007, mulara wa Google, Eric Schmidt, wakawonekera ku Paris kuti wazakambiske nthowa yiphya yakupharazgira. Pa webusayiti iyi pali mabuku gha viyowoyero vinyake mu vyaru 104, chigaŵa chimoza (Hong Kong) na pa charu chose.<ref>See the YouTube localization list at the bottom of the YouTube website.</ref> {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="margin: 1em auto;" |+Countries with YouTube localization | colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" |[[File:YouTube_Localisation.svg|600x600px]] |- ! scope="col" |Charu ! scope="col" style="width: 25% " |Viyowoyelo ! scope="col" data-sort-type="date" |Siku lakuyambiskila ! scope="col" |{{Reference heading}} |- ! scope="row" |[[United States]] (and worldwide launch) |[[American English|English]], [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |February 14, 2005 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Brazil]] |[[Brazilian Portuguese|Portuguese]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2007 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[France]] |[[French language|French]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Basque language|Basque]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2007 |<ref name="local">{{cite news|first=Peter|last=Sayer|url=https://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/news/index.cfm?NewsID=9772|title=Google launches YouTube France News|publisher=PC Advisor|date=June 19, 2007|access-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] |[[Hiberno-English|English]], [[Irish language|Irish]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2007 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Italy]] |[[Italian language|Italian]], [[German language|German]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2007 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Japan]] |[[Japanese language|Japanese]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2007 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Netherlands]] |[[Dutch language|Dutch]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2007 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Poland]] |[[Polish language|Polish]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2007 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Spain]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Basque language|Basque]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2007 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[United Kingdom]] |[[British English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2007 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Mexico]] |[[Mexican Spanish|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 11, 2007 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/articulos/43235.html|title=Presentan hoy YouTube México|newspaper=[[El Universal (Mexico City)|El Universal]]|date=October 11, 2007|access-date=September 9, 2010|language=es|trans-title=YouTube México launched today|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516063924/https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/articulos/43235.html|archive-date=May 16, 2009}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Hong Kong]] |[[Traditional Chinese characters|Chinese]], [[Hong Kong English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 17, 2007 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://stanley5.blogspot.com/2007/10/youtube.html|title=中文上線&nbsp;– YouTube 香港中文版登場！|publisher=Stanley5|date=October 17, 2007|access-date=January 2, 2012|archive-date=October 11, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011221455/https://stanley5.blogspot.com/2007/10/youtube.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Taiwan]] |[[Traditional Chinese characters|Chinese]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 18, 2007 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Australia]] |[[Australian English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 22, 2007 |<ref name="AUS-NZ">{{cite news|first=Kristen|last=Nicole|url=https://mashable.com/2007/10/22/youtube-australia-new-zealand/|title=YouTube Launches in Australia & New Zealand|publisher=[[Mashable]]|date=October 22, 2007|access-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[New Zealand]] |[[New Zealand English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 22, 2007 |<ref name="AUS-NZ" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Canada]] |[[Canadian English|English]], [[Canadian French|French]] | style="text-align: right;" |November 6, 2007 |<ref>{{cite news|first=Kristen|last=Nicole|url=https://mashable.com/2007/11/06/youtube-canada/|title=YouTube Canada Now Live|date=November 6, 2007|publisher=[[Mashable]]|access-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Germany]] |[[German language|German]] | style="text-align: right;" |November 8, 2007 |<ref>{{cite news|first=Adam|last=Ostrow|url=https://mashable.com/2007/11/08/youtube-germany/|title=YouTube Germany Launches|publisher=[[Mashable]]|date=November 8, 2007|access-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Russia]] |[[Russian language|Russian]] | style="text-align: right;" |November 13, 2007 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/824940/|title=YouTube перевелся на русский|language=ru|publisher=Kommersant Moscow|date=November 14, 2007|access-date=March 22, 2012}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[South Korea]] |[[Korean language|Korean]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 23, 2008 |<ref>{{cite magazine|first=Martyn|last=Williams|url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/141684/youtube_launches_korean_site.html|magazine=[[PC World]]|date=January 23, 2008|access-date=March 22, 2012|title=YouTube Launches Korean Site|archive-date=April 28, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428184917/http://www.pcworld.com/article/141684/youtube_launches_korean_site.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[India]] |[[Hindi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Indian English|English]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Urdu]] | style="text-align: right;" |May 7, 2008 |<ref>{{cite news|first=Sandeep|last=Joshi|url=https://www.hindu.com/2008/05/08/stories/2008050857242200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510222042/https://www.hindu.com/2008/05/08/stories/2008050857242200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 10, 2008|title=YouTube now has an Indian incarnation|date=May 8, 2008|access-date=August 3, 2009|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Israel]] |[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Arabic language in Israel|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |September 16, 2008 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Czech Republic]] |[[Czech language|Czech]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 9, 2008 |<ref>{{cite news|first=Petr|last=Bokuvka|url=https://czechdaily.wordpress.com/2008/10/12/czech-version-of-youtube-launched-and-its-crap-it-sucks/|title=Czech version of YouTube launched. And it's crap. It sucks|work=The Czech Daily Word|publisher=Wordpress.com|date=October 12, 2008|access-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Sweden]] |[[Swedish language|Swedish]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 22, 2008 |<ref>[https://www.kullin.net/2008/10/launch-video-unavailable-when-youtube-opens-up-in-sweden/ Launch video unavailable when YouTube opens up in Sweden] October 23, 2008. Retrieved December 7, 2012.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[South Africa]] |[[South African English|English]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Zulu language|Zulu]] | style="text-align: right;" |May 17, 2010 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Argentina]] |[[Rioplatense Spanish|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |September 8, 2010 |<ref name="countries">{{cite web |date=September 9, 2010 |title=YouTube launches in Argentina |url=https://www.typeboard.com/2010/09/youtube-launches-in-argentina/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100912172902/https://www.typeboard.com/2010/09/youtube-launches-in-argentina/ |archive-date=September 12, 2010 |access-date=September 9, 2010}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Algeria]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]], [[French language|French]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 9, 2011 |<ref name="arabcrunch1">{{cite web |title=YouTube Launches Local Version For Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia and Yemen |url=https://arabcrunch.com/2011/03/youtube-launches-local-version-for-algeria-egypt-jordan-morocco-saudi-arabia-tunisia-and-yemen.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314234447/https://arabcrunch.com/2011/03/youtube-launches-local-version-for-algeria-egypt-jordan-morocco-saudi-arabia-tunisia-and-yemen.html |archive-date=March 14, 2011 |access-date=March 13, 2011 |publisher=ArabCrunch}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 9, 2011 |<ref name="arabcrunch1" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Jordan]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 9, 2011 |<ref name="arabcrunch1" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Morocco]] |[[French language|French]], [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 9, 2011 |<ref name="arabcrunch1" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Saudi Arabia]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 9, 2011 |<ref name="arabcrunch1" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Tunisia]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]], [[French language|French]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 9, 2011 |<ref name="arabcrunch1" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Yemen]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 9, 2011 |<ref name="arabcrunch1" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] |[[English language|English]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] | style="text-align: right;" |September 1, 2011 |<ref>{{cite news|first=Nmachi|last=Jidenma|url=https://thenextweb.com/africa/2011/10/05/google-launches-youtube-in-kenya/|title=Google launches YouTube in Kenya|publisher=The Next Web|date=September 1, 2011|access-date=March 22, 2012}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Philippines]] |[[Filipino language|Filipino]], [[Philippine English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 13, 2011 |<ref name="philippines">{{cite news|first=Tam|last=Nod|url=https://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=737018&publicationSubCategoryId=200|title=YouTube launches 'The Philippines'|newspaper=The Philippine Star|date=October 13, 2011|access-date=October 13, 2011}}{{Dead link|date=March 2022|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Singapore]] |[[Singapore English|English]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Simplified Chinese characters|Chinese]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 20, 2011 |<ref name="singapore">{{cite news|title=YouTube Launches Singapore Site|url=https://www.todayonline.com/Singapore/EDC111020-0000359/YouTube-launches-Singapore-site|access-date=September 23, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021221603/https://www.todayonline.com/Singapore/EDC111020-0000359/YouTube-launches-Singapore-site|archive-date=October 21, 2011}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Belgium]] |[[Belgian French|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[German language|German]] | style="text-align: right;" |November 16, 2011 |<ref name="local" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Colombia]] |[[Colombian Spanish|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |November 30, 2011 |<ref>[https://thenextweb.com/la/2011/12/01/youtube-launches-localized-website-for-columbia/ YouTube launches localized website for Colombia] December 1, 2011. Retrieved December 1, 2011.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Uganda]] |[[Ugandan English|English]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] | style="text-align: right;" |December 2, 2011 |<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120104043549/http://pctechmagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1069%3Agoogle-launches-youtube-uganda&catid=1%3Alatest-news&Itemid=162 Google Launches YouTube Uganda] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104043549/https://pctechmagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1069%3Agoogle-launches-youtube-uganda&catid=1%3Alatest-news&Itemid=162|date=January 4, 2012}} December 2, 2011. Retrieved January 15, 2012.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Nigeria]] |[[Nigerian Standard English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |December 7, 2011 |<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120108001623/http://www.techmtaa.com/2011/12/07/google-to-launch-youtube-nigeria-today Google to Launch YouTube Nigeria Today] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108001623/https://www.techmtaa.com/2011/12/07/google-to-launch-youtube-nigeria-today|date=January 8, 2012}} December 7, 2011. Retrieved January 15, 2012.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Chile]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 20, 2012 |<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120325080121/http://nextvlatam.com/index.php/5-otts/google-launches-youtube-chile/ Google launches YouTube Chile] March 19, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2012. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325080121/https://nextvlatam.com/index.php/5-otts/google-launches-youtube-chile/|date=March 25, 2012}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Hungary]] |[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] | style="text-align: right;" |February 29, 2012 |<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130117060628/http://kultura.hu/main.php?folderID=1094&articleID=323455&ctag=&iid=11 Google Launches Hungarian YouTube] March 12, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2012. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117060628/https://kultura.hu/main.php?folderID=1094&articleID=323455&ctag=&iid=11|date=January 17, 2013}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Malaysia]] |[[Malaysian language|Malay]], [[Malaysian English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 22, 2012 |<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20171010094750/https://www.webpronews.com/youtube-launches-local-domain-for-malaysia-2012-03/ YouTube Launches Local Domain For Malaysia] March 22, 2012. Retrieved March 22, 2012.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Peru]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 25, 2012 |<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20171010095458/https://www.webpronews.com/youtube-peru-launched-expansion-continues-2012-03/ YouTube Peru Launched, Expansion continues] March 27, 2012. Retrieved April 1, 2012.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[United Arab Emirates]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]], [[English language|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |April 1, 2012 |<ref>{{cite web |author=Bindu Suresh Rai |date=April 2, 2012 |title=UAE version of YouTube launched |url=https://www.emirates247.com/business/technology/uae-version-of-youtube-launched-2012-04-02-1.451741 |access-date=February 14, 2014 |publisher=Emirates 247}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Greece]] |[[Greek language|Greek]] | style="text-align: right;" |May 1, 2012 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Indonesia]] |[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[English language|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |May 17, 2012 |<ref>[https://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/youtube-launches-indonesian-version/524443 "YouTube Launches Indonesian Version"], June 15, 2012. Retrieved July 8, 2012.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Ghana]] |[[English language|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 5, 2012 |<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120624232254/http://www.humanipo.com/blog/713/Google-launches-YouTube-in-Ghana "Google launches YouTube in Ghana"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624232254/https://www.humanipo.com/blog/713/Google-launches-YouTube-in-Ghana|date=June 24, 2012}}, June 22, 2012. Retrieved July 8, 2012.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Senegal]] |[[French language|French]], [[English language|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |July 4, 2012 |<ref>[https://www.telecompaper.com/news/youtube-launches-local-portal-in-senegal "YouTube launches local portal in Senegal"], <br /> {{note|media_type_table_note_3}}[3] itag 120 is for live streaming and has metadata referring to "Elemental Technologies Live". July 16, 2012. Retrieved July 25, 2012.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Turkey]] |[[Turkish language|Turkish]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 1, 2012 |<ref>[https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkiye/86446--g "YouTube's Turkish version goes into service"], October 1, 2012. Retrieved October 1, 2012.</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Ukraine]] |[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] | style="text-align: right;" |December 13, 2012 |<ref>{{cite news|first=Maryna|last=Tarasova|url=https://google-ukraine-blog.blogspot.com/2012/12/youtube.html|publisher=Google Ukraine Blog|title=YouTube приходить в Україну! (YouTube comes in Ukraine!)|date=December 13, 2012|location=Ukraine|language=uk}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Denmark]] |[[Danish language|Danish]] | style="text-align: right;" |February 1, 2013 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.iprospect.dk/youtube-lanceres-i-danmark|publisher=iProspect|title=YouTube lanceres i Danmark|access-date=April 17, 2013|location=Denmark|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507094859/https://www.iprospect.dk/youtube-lanceres-i-danmark|archive-date=May 7, 2013}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Finland]] |[[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]] | style="text-align: right;" |February 1, 2013 |<ref>{{cite news|first=Vilja|last=Sormunen|url=https://www.klok.fi/blog/youtube-launches-in-the-nordics/|publisher=KLOK|title=YouTube Launches in the Nordics|date=February 6, 2013|access-date=February 11, 2013|location=Nordic|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728163345/https://www.klok.fi/blog/youtube-launches-in-the-nordics/|archive-date=July 28, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Norway]] |[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] | style="text-align: right;" |February 1, 2013 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.tono.no/YouTube+lansert+i+Norge.12888.cms|publisher=[[TONO]]|title=YouTube Launched in Norway|access-date=April 17, 2013|location=Norway|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420134320/https://www.tono.no/YouTube+lansert+i+Norge.12888.cms|archive-date=April 20, 2013}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Switzerland]] |[[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 29, 2013 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/YouTube_goes_Swiss.html?cid=35450210|publisher=[[swissinfo]]|title=YouTube goes Swiss|access-date=April 17, 2013|location=Swiss}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Austria]] |[[German language|German]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 29, 2013 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wienerzeitung.at/themen_channel/wz_digital/digital_news/538498_YouTube.at-seit-Donnerstag-online.html|publisher=[[Wiener Zeitung]]|title=YouTube.at since Thursday online|access-date=April 17, 2013|location=Austria}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Romania]] |[[Romanian language|Romanian]] | style="text-align: right;" |April 18, 2013 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.zf.ro/zf-24/youtube-romania-se-lanseaza-intr-o-saptamana-10764820|publisher=ZF.ro|title=Youtube România se lansează într-o săptămână|access-date=May 14, 2013|location=Romania}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Portugal]] |[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] | style="text-align: right;" |April 25, 2013 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.lusonoticias.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27764:google-lanca-versao-lusa-do-youtube&catid=343&Itemid=159|publisher=Luso Noticias|title=Google lança versão lusa do YouTube|access-date=May 14, 2013|location=Portugal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003223/https://www.lusonoticias.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27764:google-lanca-versao-lusa-do-youtube&catid=343&Itemid=159|archive-date=December 3, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Slovakia]] |[[Slovak language|Slovak]] | style="text-align: right;" |April 25, 2013 |<ref>{{cite web |author=tš |date=May 21, 2013 |title=Slováci už môžu oficiálne zarábať na tvorbe videí pre YouTube |url=https://vat.pravda.sk/obraz-a-zvuk/clanok/281254-slovaci-uz-mozu-oficialne-zarabat-na-tvorbe-videi-pre-youtube/ |access-date=February 14, 2014 |publisher=Vat Pravda |language=sk}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Bahrain]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |August 16, 2013 |<ref name="gcc">{{cite web |author=Nick Rego |date=September 16, 2013 |title=YouTube expands monetization and partnership in GCC |url=https://www.tbreak.ae/news/youtube-expands-monetization-partnership-gcc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140213233858/http://www.tbreak.ae/news/youtube-expands-monetization-partnership-gcc |archive-date=February 13, 2014 |access-date=February 14, 2014 |publisher=tbreak Media}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Kuwait]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |August 16, 2013 |<ref name="gcc" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Oman]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |August 16, 2013 |<ref name="gcc" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Qatar]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |August 16, 2013 |<ref name="gcc" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] |[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Bulgaria]] |[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |<ref>{{cite web |author=Ивелина Атанасова |date=March 18, 2014 |title=YouTube рекламата става достъпна и за България |url=https://newtrend.bg/digital-company/youtube/youtube-reklama-bulgaria |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407082809/https://newtrend.bg/digital-company/youtube/youtube-reklama-bulgaria |archive-date=April 7, 2014 |access-date=April 5, 2014 |publisher=New Trend |language=bg}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Croatia]] |[[Croatian language|Croatian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |<ref>{{cite web |date=March 19, 2014 |title=Oglašavanje na video platformi YouTube od sad dostupno i u Hrvatskoj |url=https://liderpress.hr/poslovna-znanja/oglasavanje-na-video-platformi-youtube-od-sad-dostupno-i-u-hrvatskoj/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111014509/https://liderpress.hr/poslovna-znanja/oglasavanje-na-video-platformi-youtube-od-sad-dostupno-i-u-hrvatskoj/ |archive-date=January 11, 2015 |access-date=April 5, 2014 |publisher=Lider |language=hr}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Estonia]] |[[Estonian language|Estonian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |<ref>{{cite web |last=Oden |first=Siiri |date=March 19, 2014 |title=Youtube reklaamid – uued võimalused nüüd ka Eestis! |url=https://www.meedium.ee/blog/youtube-reklaamid-eestis |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407094928/https://www.meedium.ee/blog/youtube-reklaamid-eestis |archive-date=April 7, 2014 |access-date=April 5, 2014 |publisher=Meedium |language=et}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Latvia]] |[[Latvian language|Latvian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |<ref>{{cite web |author=Marta |date=March 18, 2014 |title=Tagad reklāmas iespējas Youtube kanālā iespējams izmantot arī Latvijā |url=https://marketing.lv/tagad-reklamas-iespejas-youtube-kanala-iespejams-izmantot-ari-latvija/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321170116/https://marketing.lv/tagad-reklamas-iespejas-youtube-kanala-iespejams-izmantot-ari-latvija/ |archive-date=March 21, 2014 |access-date=April 5, 2014 |publisher=Marketing |language=lv}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Lithuania]] |[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[North Macedonia]] |[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Montenegro]] |[[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Serbia]] |[[Serbian language|Serbian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Slovenia]] |[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 17, 2014 |<ref>{{cite web |author=STA |date=March 18, 2014 |title=Na Youtube prihajajo tudi slovenski video oglasi |url=https://www.dnevnik.si/magazin/znanost-in-tehnologija/na-youtube-prihajajo-tudi-slovenski-video-oglasi |access-date=April 5, 2014 |publisher=[[Dnevnik (Slovenia)|Dnevnik]] |language=sl}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Thailand]] |[[Thai language|Thai]] | style="text-align: right;" |April 1, 2014 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/YouTube-introduces-homepage-especially-30230795.html|title=YouTube introduces homepage especially|newspaper=[[The Nation (Thailand)|The Nation]]|date=April 3, 2014|access-date=April 4, 2014|first=Asina|last=Pornwasin|archive-date=July 25, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725161948/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/YouTube-introduces-homepage-especially-30230795.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Lebanon]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |May 1, 2014 |<ref name="gcc" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Puerto Rico]] |[[Puerto Rican Spanish|Spanish]], [[American English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |August 23, 2014 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Iceland]] |[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] | style="text-align: right;" |2014 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Luxembourg]] |[[French language|French]], [[German language|German]] | style="text-align: right;" |2014 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Vietnam]] |[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 1, 2014 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Libya]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |February 1, 2015 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] |[[English language|English]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 2, 2015 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Zimbabwe]] |[[English language|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 2, 2015 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Azerbaijan]] |[[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 12, 2015 |<ref name="adriatics baltics">{{cite web |last=Hall |first=Stephen |date=October 12, 2015 |title=YouTube continues global expansion w/ versions of its site in 7 new locales |url=https://9to5google.com/2015/10/12/youtube-global-7-new-countries/ |access-date=March 18, 2016 |publisher=9to5 Google}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Belarus]] |[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Russian language|Russian]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 12, 2015 |<ref name="adriatics baltics" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] |[[Georgian language|Georgian]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 12, 2015 |<ref name="adriatics baltics" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Kazakhstan]] |[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Russian language|Russian]] | style="text-align: right;" |October 12, 2015 |<ref name="adriatics baltics" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Iraq]] |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] | style="text-align: right;" |November 9, 2015 |{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Nepal]] |[[Nepali language|Nepali]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 12, 2016 |<ref name="himalayan">{{cite news|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/entertainment/youtube-launches-specific-homepages-for-nepal-pakistan-sri-lanka/|title=YouTube launches Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka-specific homepages|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|date=January 13, 2016|access-date=January 31, 2016}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Pakistan]] |[[Urdu]], [[Pakistani English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 12, 2016 |<ref>{{cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1026164/youtube-launches-country-specific-homepages-for-pakistan/|title=YouTube launches country-specific homepage for Pakistan|newspaper=[[The Express Tribune]]|date=January 12, 2016|access-date=January 31, 2016}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Sri Lanka]] |[[Sinhala language|Sinhala]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Sri Lankan English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 12, 2016 |<ref name="himalayan" /> |- ! scope="row" |[[Jamaica]] |[[Jamaican English|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |August 4, 2016 |{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Malta]] |[[English language|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |June 19, 2018 |<ref>{{Cite web |title=YouTube Launches Local Domain For Malta |url=https://www.maltachamber.org.mt/en/youtube-launches-local-domain-for-malta |access-date=2023-02-15 |website=www.maltachamber.org.mt |language=en}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |[[Bolivia]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 30, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Costa Rica]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 30, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Ecuador]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 30, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[El Salvador]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 30, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Guatemala]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 30, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Honduras]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 30, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Nicaragua]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 30, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Panama]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 30, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Uruguay]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |January 30, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Paraguay]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Guarani language|Guarani]] | style="text-align: right;" |February 21, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Dominican Republic]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |February 21, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Cyprus]] |[[Greek language|Greek]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 13, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Liechtenstein]] |[[German language|German]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 13, 2019 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Venezuela]] |[[Spanish language|Spanish]] | style="text-align: right;" |March 10, 2020 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Papua New Guinea]] |[[English language|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |2020 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Bangladesh]] |[[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]] | style="text-align: right;" |September 2, 2020 |{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Cambodia]] |[[Khmer language|Khmer]] | style="text-align: right;" |August 25, 2022 |{{citation needed|date=October 2022}} |- ! scope="row" |[[Laos]] |[[Lao language|Lao]] | style="text-align: right;" |August 25, 2022 |{{citation needed|date=October 2022}} |} Pa Intaneti, munthu wakusankha vidiyo iyo yikukolerana na adiresi ya IP ya munthu. Nyengo zinyake mungawona uthenga wakuti "Vidiyo iyi njambura kusangika mu caru cinu" cifukwa cakuti mulije wanangwa wa kupanga panji muli vinthu vinyake vyambura kwenelera. Webusayiti ya YouTube yili na viyowoyero 76, kusazgapo Chiamharic, Chialbaniya, Chiarmenia, Chibirma, Kyrgyz, Chimongoliya, Chiperesiya, na Chiuzbeki. Ku Turkey, YouTube yikajalika pakati pa 2008 na 2010, chifukwa cha nkhani zakukwesana pa nkhani ya kutumizga mavidiyo agho ghakaŵa ghakuyuyura Mustafa Kemal Atatürk na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikasuzga Ŵasilamu. Mu Okutobala 2012, YouTube yikamba kugwira ntchito ku Turkey, ndipo yikamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti youtube.com.tr. Baibolo ili likukolerana na malango gha ku Turkey. Mu Malichi 2009, mphindano pakati pa YouTube na wupu wa British royalty collection agency PRS for Music ukapangiska kuti mavidiyo gha sumu gha premium ghaleke kugwiliskirika ntchito na ŵanthu ŵa ku United Kingdom. Ŵakapoka mavidiyo agho ghakalembeka na makampani ghakurughakuru gha vyakwimba para ŵaleka kukolerana. Nkhani iyi yikamara mu Seputembala 2009. Mu Epulero 2009, mphindano yakuyana waka yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany ŵaleke kuwonelera mavidiyo gha sumu.<ref>{{cite news|title=Now YouTube stops the music in Germany|work=The Guardian|location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/pda/2009/apr/01/youtube-digital-music-and-audio|date=April 1, 2009|access-date=April 2, 2009}}</ref> == Ma vidiyo == Mu Janyuwale 2012, ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube ŵakugwiliskira ntchito maminiti 15 pa zuŵa. Mu 2017, ŵanthu awo ŵakawoneleranga pa foni ŵakawoneleranga pa YouTube kwa ora limoza zuŵa lililose. Mu Disembala 2012, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 2 biliyoni ŵakawonelera mavidiyo gha sumu gha Universal na Sony pa YouTube. Billboard yikasuska fundo iyi, yikati mavidiyo agho ŵanthu ŵakawonelera ghakafika pa Vevo, chifukwa pa YouTube pakaŵavya. Pa Ogasiti 5, 2015, YouTube yikamazga suzgo ilo likapangiska kuti vidiyo yiŵe na vithuzi 301 (panyuma pake "301+") m'paka apo yikapelekekera. Ŵakuwonelera pa YouTube ŵakuŵerenga nyengo yeneyiyo. Kwambira mu Seputembala 2019, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakulembeska chikuŵa chichoko. Ŵanthu ŵakuwona waka manambara ghatatu gha chiŵelengero cha awo ŵakutegherezga pa wayilesi iyi, ndipo ichi chikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuwona vinthu nga ni Social Blade. Awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu YouTube Studio ndiwo ŵangamanya unandi wawo. Pa Novembala 11, 2021, pamanyuma pa kuyezga kusintha uku mu Malichi chaka chenechichi, YouTube yikapharazga kuti yikwamba kubisa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutinkha pa mavidiyo, mwakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuwona. Kampani iyi yikati yikasankha nthena cifukwa ca kuyezgayezga uko kukalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵacoko waka awo ŵakupangiska mavidiyo gha pa YouTube ŵakusuzgika comene. Awo ŵakulemba nkhani ŵazamuwona unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakuŵatemwa na awo ŵakuŵatinkha mu YouTube Studio.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Spangler |first=Todd |date=March 30, 2021 |title=YouTube Launches Test to Hide Video 'Dislike' Counts |url=https://variety.com/2021/digital/news/youtube-test-hide-dislike-counts-1234940845/ |access-date=March 30, 2021 |website=Variety |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=March 30, 2021 |title=YouTube tests hiding dislike counts on videos |url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2021/03/30/youtube-tests-hiding-dislike-counts-on-videos/ |access-date=March 30, 2021 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 11, 2021 |title=YouTube to hide dislike counts for all videos on the platform: Here's all you need to know |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/money/topstories/youtube-to-hide-dislike-counts-for-all-videos-on-the-platform-heres-all-you-need-to-know/ar-AAQAxJc |access-date=November 11, 2021 |website=MSN |language=en-US}}</ref> === Nkhani za Copyright === {{main|YouTube copyright issues}} {{further|#Revenue to copyright holders}} YouTube yikasangana na masuzgo ghanandi na kususkika pa ivyo yikakhumbanga kuchita pa nkhani ya copyright, kusazgapo vidiyo yakwamba ya pa webusayiti iyi, Lazy Sunday, iyo yikenera kuwuskikapo cifukwa ca kufipa mtima na nkhani za copyright. Para munthu waŵika vidiyo pa Intaneti, pa YouTube pakulongora uthenga wakuti waleke kuswa malango gha copyright. Nangauli pali ulongozgi uwu, kweni mavidiyo ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵandazomerezgeke kughaŵika pa YouTube. YouTube yikuwonelera yayi mavidiyo pambere ghandatumizgike pa Intaneti, ndipo awo ŵali na wanangwa uwu ndiwo ŵakwenera kukanizga munthu kuti waŵikemo pa Intaneti. Para munthu wazomera kudandawura cifukwa ca kuswa malango gha pa kompyuta, YouTube yikumususka. Para munthu walemba madandaulo ghatatu pa nkhani ya kuswa wanangwa wa munthu, nkhani yake na mavidiyo ghose agho walemba ghafumiskikenge. Kwambira mu 2007 m'paka mu 2009, mawupu ghanyake nga ni Viacom, Mediaset, na English Premier League, ghakatolera YouTube ku khoti, chifukwa ghakatenge yindachiteko kanthu kalikose kuti yivikilire vinthu ivyo vili na copyright. Mu Ogasiti 2008, khoti la ku United States likadumura mulandu wa Lenz v. Wupu wa Universal Music Corp. ukati awo ŵali na wanangwa uwu ŵangazomerezga yayi kuti nkhani yifumiskike pa Intaneti kwambura kumanya usange nkhani iyo yalembeka njakwenelera. Google, mwenecho wa YouTube, wakapharazga mu Novembala 2015 kuti ŵawovwirenge kulipira milandu iyo ŵakugomezga kuti njakwenelera. Mu 2011, mulandu wa Smith v. Summit Entertainment LLC, wakwimba Matt Smith wakadandawura ku Summit Entertainment cifukwa ca kugwiliskira nchito mwambura kwenelera mauthenga ghakufumiska vinthu pa YouTube. Wakadandawura pa milandu yinkhondi na yiŵiri, ndipo yinayi yikamovwira Smith. Mu Epulero 2012, khoti linyake ku Hamburg likadumura kuti YouTube ndiyo yikwenera kuŵa na mulandu pa nkhani izo ŵanthu ŵakulemba. Pa Novembala 1, 2016, mphindano na GEMA yikamara, ndipo Google content ID yikagwiliskirika nchito kuti yivwire kuŵika malonda pa mavidiyo agho ghali na fundo izo GEMA yikuvikilira. Mu Epulero 2013, vikayowoyeka kuti Universal Music Group na YouTube ŵali na phangano ilo likukanizga kuti vinthu ivyo vyajalika pa YouTube na UMG viwezgepo, nanga ni para munthu uyo wakugwiliskira ntchito vidiyo iyi walembapo dango lakuyana na dango la DMCA. Mu 2017, Universal na YouTube ŵakakolerana na mabungwe ghanyake ghakurughakuru kuti ŵagulirenge sumu pa YouTube. Kufika mu 2019, awo ŵakalenga mavidiyo ŵakamba kuwuskamo panji kulekeska kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama para Content ID yawona kuti sumu izo zili na copyright zili mu mavidiyo ghatali. Ŵadokotala ŵakasanga kuti vinyake mwa vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyakwenelera kugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=May 24, 2019 |title=YouTubers and record labels are fighting, and record labels keep winning |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/5/24/18635904/copyright-youtube-creators-dmca-takedown-fair-use-music-cover |access-date=April 22, 2021 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref> ==== Content ID ==== {{main|Content ID (system)}} Mu Juni 2007, YouTube yikamba kuyezga pulogiramu yakumanyirathu mavidiyo agho ghakuswa malango. Mubali Eric Schmidt, mulara wa Google, wakati nthowa iyi njakukhumbikwa kuti ŵeruzgenge milandu nga ni iyo yikamba na Viacom. Pakwamba, nthowa iyi yikachemekanga kuti "Video Identification" ndipo pamanyuma yikamanyikwa kuti Content ID. Para munthu waŵika vidiyo pa Intaneti, yikwendeskeka na database, ndipo para yikukolerana na ivyo walemba, yikulongora kuti yabuda. Para ivi vyacitika, mwenecho wa vidiyo wangasankha kujandizga vidiyo kuti waleke kuyiwonelera, panji kuŵikapo malonda. Mu 2009, munthu munyake wakayezga sumu yimoza pa YouTube, ndipo wakasanga kuti nangauli nthowa iyi yikaŵa "yakukhozga chomene" pakusanga vinthu ivyo vikuswa malango gha ŵanthu pa nkhani ya mavidiyo, kweni yikaŵa yambura kwananga. Kugwiliskira ntchito Content ID kuti munthu wafumiskemo vinthu vinyake mwamabuchi, kwapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano chifukwa ŵanthu ŵandawone usange mavidiyo agha ngawemi kugwiliskira ntchito. Usange munthu uyo wakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube wakususka ivyo Content ID yasankha, wangalemba fomu. Pambere chaka cha 2016 chindafike, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mavidiyo yayi kuti ŵasange ndalama. Kwambira mu Epulero 2016, mavidiyo ghakulutilira kusanga ndalama para mulandu uli mukati. Usange munthu uyo wakujura vidiyo wakukhumba kusanga ndalama pa vidiyo iyi, wangawuskamo mazgu agho ŵakususkana nagho mu "Video Manager". YouTube yikuyowoya kuti Content ID njimoza mwa vifukwa ivyo vikapangiska kuti mu Disembala 2010 ŵasinthe malango gha pa webusayiti iyi kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵaŵikenge mavidiyo ghambura kumara.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Siegel |first1=Joshua |last2=Mayle |first2=Doug |date=December 9, 2010 |title=Up, Up and Away – Long videos for more users |url=https://youtube.googleblog.com/2010/12/up-up-and-away-long-videos-for-more.html |access-date=March 25, 2017 |website=Official YouTube Blog}}</ref> === Kuŵa ŵakuzika na kuyuyura === {{See also|Criticism of Google#YouTube|Censorship by Google#YouTube}} YouTube yili na malango ghakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kusuzgika na vinthu vinyake. Kuŵika mavidiyo agho ghali na nkhani za kutuka, vyauzeleza, na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukhozgera nkharo ziheni kukukanizgika na "Malango gha YouTube". Vinthu ivyo vikukanizgika ni nkhani za kugonana, mavidiyo gha nkhaza za vinyama, mavidiyo ghakukhozga soni, nkhani izo zaŵikika pa Intaneti kwambura kuzomerezgeka na mwenecho wa nkhani, nkhani za kutinkhana, mauthenga ghaheni, na nkharo za kutinkhana. Ŵateŵeti ŵa pa YouTube ŵakuwona mavidiyo agho ghalembeka kuti ghaleke kukolerana na fundo za pa Intaneti. Nangauli pali ulongozgi uwu, kweni YouTube yikususkika cifukwa ca milimo yake, ndondomeko yake ya kucenjezga iyo yikovwira kuti mavidiyo agho ghakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵagomezge fundo za uryarya ghaleke kunangika, kuŵika mavidiyo agho ghakulongora kuti ghakuyowoya vya ŵana kweni ghakuyowoya vya nkhaza panji vya kugonana. Makampani gha pa YouTube ghakulemba ŵalaŵiliri ŵa vinthu, awo ŵakuwona kuti vinthu ivyo vyalembeka vikususkana na fundo za pa YouTube ndipo ŵakumanya usange vikwenera kuwuskikapo. Mu Seputembala 2020, munthu munyake uyo wakachitanga ntchito iyi wakapeleka dandawuro lakuti wali na suzgo la post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Mwanakazi uyu wakati kanandi waka wakawoneleranga vithuzi vyamuziro kwa maora ghanayi pa zuŵa. Pa mulandu uwu, ŵantchito ŵa pa YouTube ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakaŵasambizga viŵi yayi panji kuŵawovwira yayi pa nkhani ya umoyo wa maghanoghano wa awo ŵakuŵawovwira, ŵakaŵachichizga kuti ŵasayinire chikalata chakuphalira ŵantchito kuti ŵaleke kumanyikwa pambere ŵandaŵalongore nkhani izo ŵangaghanaghanirapo, kweniso ŵakaŵavikilira pa nkhani za masuzgo agho ŵanthu ŵakukumana nagho. Likayowoyaso kuti YouTube yikakana kupempha kuti nkhani izo zili na vithuzithuzi viheni chomene zifipiskike, kuchepeskeko ukuru wake, panji kuŵa za mtundu umoza. Kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupuluskika na nkhani zautesi pa YouTube, ŵali na ndondomeko yikuru ya umo ŵangachitira na mavidiyo ghakubudika. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakususkana navyo ni ivyo vikuyowoya za ŵanthu awo ŵakukana kuti kuli Ciwowota ca Ŵayuda na soka la ku Hillsborough, apo ŵanthu 96 ŵa ku Liverpool ŵakakomeka mu 1989. Mu Julayi 2008, Komiti ya vya Chikhalidwe na Vyakuyowoya ya Nyumba ya Commons ya United Kingdom yikati "yikatondeka kukondwa" na ndondomeko ya YouTube ya kulaŵilira mavidiyo ghake, ndipo yikati "kuweleramo mwakukhazikika pa ivyo vili mu vidiyo kuyenera kuŵa kachitiro kawemi pa malo agho ghakuŵa na mavidiyo gha ŵanthu". YouTube yikazgora kuti: {{blockquote|Tili na malango ghakudunjika pa ivyo tingazomerezga, ndiposo ndondomeko iyo yikovwira waliyose uyo wawona vinthu vyambura kwenelera kuti wapharazge ku gulu lithu la awo ŵakuwona nkhani za mu nyuzipepara. Tikupharazgira ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa chithu pa malango agha na kuŵika chigaŵa chakudunjika kufuma pa peji lililose la YouTube kuti chiŵe chipusu kwa awo ŵakujambura. Chifukwa cha unandi wa mavidiyo agho ghakusangika pa webusayiti yithu, tikughanaghana kuti iyi ndiyo nthowa yiwemi chomene yakovwilira kuti mavidiyo ghachoko waka agho ghakuswa malango gha pa webusayiti ghasangike mwaluŵiro.<ref>{{cite news|first1=James |last1=Kirkup |first2=Nicole |last2=Martin |title=YouTube attacked by MPs over sex and violence footage |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/3358061/YouTube-attacked-by-MPs-over-sex-and-violence-footage.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/3358061/YouTube-attacked-by-MPs-over-sex-and-violence-footage.html |archive-date=2022-01-10 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=July 31, 2008 |access-date=March 26, 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> (July 2008)}} Mu Okutobala 2010, Muwupu wa United States Anthony Weiner wakapempha YouTube kuti yiwuskemo mavidiyo gha Imam Anwar al-Awlaki pa webusayiti yake. Mu 2018, YouTube yikayambiska ndondomeko iyo yikasazgirako mabokosi gha fundo ku mavidiyo agho ma algorithms ghake ghakasanga kuti ghangaŵikapo fundo za chiwembu na nkhani zinyake zautesi, ndipo yikasazgirapo fundo za mu buku la Encyclopædia Britannica na Wikipedia kuti yikamanyiske ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kusambizga ŵanthu unenesko kwambura kukhwaska wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Pakumalira moto wa Notre-Dame pa Epulero 15, 2019, ma video ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakasungilira gha moto uwu ghakalembeka na ndondomeko ya YouTube. Pa April 18, 2023, YouTube yikaphara kusintha kwa ivyo yikusintha pa nkhani ya vyakurya. Pa social media platform iyi Community Guidelines sono yikuletsa vyakurya ivyo vingapangiska kuti ŵanthu awo ŵali na suzgo la kurya vinthu vinyake yayi. Vinthu ivi vikusazgapo vyakuchita ivyo vikulongora kuti munthu wakulondezga chomene calorie na kufumiska vyakurya. Kweni mavidiyo agho ghakuŵa na nkharo yiwemi nga nkhusanga kuti munthu wakuwona vinthu vinyake, ghazomerezgeka pa webusayiti iyi mu vinthu viŵiri - uyo wali na akaunti yakugwiliskira ntchito ndipo wakwenera kuŵa na vyaka vyakujumpha 18. ==== Kutinkhana na ŵanthu ŵanyawo ==== Ŵalongozgi ŵankhondi awo ŵakapangiska nkhani za ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa LGBTQ+ ŵakadandawura ku boma la YouTube mu Ogasiti 2019, chifukwa ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ivyo YouTube yikugwiliskira ntchito vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kusanga vinthu ivyo vikusangika pa Intaneti. Mu Juni 2022, Media Matters, gulu ilo likuwona vya vyapa media, likati nkhani za ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kugonana na ŵanthu ŵanyawo (homophobic and transphobic content) izo zikuphalira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa LGBT kuti "predators" na "groomers" zikulutilira kusangika pa YouTube..<ref name="lawton_20220623">{{Cite web |last1=Lawton |first1=Sophie |date=June 23, 2022 |title=Right-wing clickbait pushing anti-LGBTQ 'groomer' smears are increasingly popular on YouTube |url=https://www.mediamatters.org/google/right-wing-clickbait-pushing-anti-lgbtq-groomer-smears-are-increasingly-popular-youtube |access-date=October 23, 2022 |website=Media Matters}}</ref> ==== YouTube ngati chida cholimbikitsira malingaliro a chiwembu ndi zokhutira ndi ufulu{{anchor|Promotion_of_conspiracy_theories_and_fringe_discourse|Conspiracy_theories_and_fringe_discourse}} ==== YouTube yikususkika cifukwa cakuti yikugwiliskira nchito nthowa iyo yikovwira kuti mavidiyo agho ghakukhuŵilizga vigomezgo vya uryarya, utesi, na nkhani zautesi ghaŵe pa malo ghapacanya. Mwakuyana na kafukufuku wa The Wall Street Journal, "Kanandi ivyo YouTube yikuphalira ŵanthu vikuŵalongozgera ku ma TV agho ghakuyowoya vya vimbundi, maghanoghano gha ŵandyali, na mavidiyo ghakupuluska, nangauli ŵanthu aŵa ŵakukhumba yayi kuwona nkhani izi. Para ŵanthu ŵakutemwa vya ndyali pa ivyo ŵakutemwa kuwonelera, YouTube yikuŵaphalira kuti ŵawonelerenge mavidiyo agho ghakukolerana na ivyo ŵakutemwa". Para ŵanthu ŵakupenja mazgu gha ndyali panji gha sayansi, pa YouTube ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mautesi. YouTube yikati yapulika ŵanthu ŵakufumba nkhani zautesi pa nkhani ya kuwombera ŵanthu ku Las Vegas mu 2017, yikakwiya chomene chifukwa cha kuŵika chomene nkhani zautesi na za chiŵembu. Mu 2018, ŵanthu ŵakayowoya kuti pa YouTube pali nkhani zinyake izo zikuyowoya vya nyifwa ya Anthony Bourdain. Mu 2017, vikavumbukwa kuti ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga mavidiyo gha ŵanthu ŵakutemwa vinthu vyakututuzga. Pamanyuma pa nkhani iyi, makampani ghakamba kuleka kutandazga pa YouTube, ndipo YouTube yikadandawura na kuyowoya kuti yingawovwira makampani kuti ghaŵe na mazaza pa malo agho ghakutandazgira. Alex Jones, uyo wakumanyikwa cifukwa ca fundo zake za uryarya, wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi pa YouTube. Mu 2018, YouTube yikadandawura apo yikawuskapo vidiyo iyo yikaŵa na mazgu ghaheni agho Jones wakayowoya. Kweni pa Ogasiti 6, 2018, YouTube yikawuskapo nkhani ya Alex Jones. Pulofesa munyake wa pa Yunivesite ya North Carolina, zina lake Zeynep Tufekci, wakati YouTube ni "nyambo yikuru yakupangiska ŵanthu kuŵa ŵankhaza". Jonathan Albright wa ku Tow Center for Digital Journalism ku Columbia University wakati YouTube ni "malo gha chiŵembu". Mu Janyuwale 2019, YouTube yikayowoya kuti yili na ndondomeko yiphya iyo yikamba kugwira ntchito ku United States. Pa YouTube pakaŵa nkhani za charu chachanya, vyakuchizga vyakuzizwiska, na vya pa Seputembala 11. Ivyo YouTube yikachita kuti yileke kuphalirako ŵanthu mavidiyo gha ŵanthu ŵakujikuzga agho ghakususkana na fundo zautesi, na kulondezga umo ŵanthu ŵakutemwera, ŵakakana chifukwa vikatimbanizganga ŵanthu. Kuumaliro wa chaka cha 2019, webusayiti iyi yikamba kuchita vinthu vyakovwira kuti "ŵanthu ŵamanye vinandi kweniso kuti ŵaleke kupuluskika". Kafukufuku munyake wakulongora kuti pa YouTube pali nkhani zinyake izo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya zautesi. Mu kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu Julayi 2019 ndipo wakalongosora ivyo ŵanthu 10 ŵakachita pa YouTube pa nkhani ya kusintha kwa nyengo. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika na BBC mu 2019 pa nkhani ya kupenja vinthu pa YouTube mu viyowoyero 10, wakalongora kuti YouTube yikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wawo. Ku Brazil, YouTube yikukolerana na kusambizga ŵanthu vinthu vyautesi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa ŵanthu, kweniso nkhani zakukhwaskana na viyezgo. Ku Philippines, mawayilesi ghanandi ghakapharazga uthenga wautesi wakukhwaskana na mavoti gha mu 2022. Kweniso, kafukufuku uyo wakachitika pa nkhani ya kuthandazga vigomezgo vya charu chapasi pa Intaneti, wakulongora kuti pa YouTube, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti ivyo ŵakugomezga ni vyaunenesko.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Diaz Ruiz|first1=Carlos|last2=Nilsson|first2=Tomas|date=August 8, 2022|title=Disinformation and Echo Chambers: How Disinformation Circulates on Social Media Through Identity-Driven Controversies|journal=Journal of Public Policy & Marketing|volume=42|language=en|pages=18–35|doi=10.1177/07439156221103852|s2cid=248934562|issn=0743-9156|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==== Kugwiliskira nchito pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kusankhana mitundu ==== Pambere chaka cha 2019 chindafike, YouTube yikawuskapo mavidiyo panji tumavidiyo uto tukasuskanga fundo za ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa chomene kusankhana mitundu. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa masisiteri ku Christchurch mu Malichi 2019, YouTube na mawebusayiti ghanyake nga ni Facebook na Twitter agho ghakazomerezganga ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito ghakatambuzgika cifukwa ca kucita vinandi yayi kuti ŵaleke kutinkha ŵanthu. Mapulatifomu agha ghakacizgika kuti ghawuskemo vinthu ivi, kweni mu nkhani iyo wakapeleka ku nyuzipepara ya The New York Times, mulara wa YouTube, Neal Mohan, wakati, mwakupambana na mavidiyo gha ISIS agho ghali na mtundu unyake ndipo ghangawoneka makora na kompyuta, mazgu ghakutinkha ŵanthu ghakaŵa ghakusuzga kughapulika na kughapulikira. Mu Meyi 2019, YouTube yikajibatika ku chilato cha France na New Zealand pamoza na vyaru vinyake na makampani gha vya tekinoloje kuti ŵasange nthowa zakugwiliskira nchito kuti ŵaleke kutinkha ŵanthu pa intaneti na kupanga malango agho ghakwendeskeka pa caru cose. Pamanyuma, pa Juni 5, 2019, YouTube yikapharazga kuti yingasintha chomene malango ghake, "kwambura kuzomerezga mavidiyo agho ghakulongora kuti gulu linyake ndakuzirwa chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kusankhana mitundu, kupatulika, panji kusankhana chifukwa cha msinkhu wawo, mtundu wawo, mtundu, chisopa, kugonana kwawo, panji chifukwa cha umo ŵakuchitira". Pa YouTube pakaŵa mavidiyo ghanyake agho "ghakukhozga panji kuchindika visambizgo vya Nazi, ivyo ni vyakusankhana". YouTube yikayowoyaso kuti "yiwuskenge nkhani izo zikukana kuti vinthu vyakofya ivyo vili kulembeka makora, nga ni Holocaust panji kuwombera ku sukulu ya Sandy Hook, vikacitika". Mu Juni 2020, YouTube yikakanizga mawayilesi ghanandi agho ghakukolerana na kusankhana mitundu. Spencer, apo wakayowoyanga kuti mawayilesi agha ghakususkana na fundo zawo za kutinkha ŵanthu. Kulekelera uku kukacitika zuŵa leneilo Reddit yikapharazga kuti yikanizga maforamu gha nkhani za kutinkhana, kusazgapo r/The_Donald.<ref>{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=June 29, 2020 |title=YouTube bans Stefan Molyneux, David Duke, Richard Spencer, and more for hate speech |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/6/29/21307303/youtube-bans-molyneux-duke-richard-spencer-conduct-hate-speech |access-date=June 29, 2020 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref> ==== Umo tingachitira na nthenda ya COVID-19 na mauthenga ghanyake ghakubudika ==== Pamanyuma pa kutandazga pa YouTube mauthenga ghautesi ghakukhwaskana na nthenda ya COVID-19 kuti 5G technology ndiyo yikapangiska nthenda ya coronavirus 2019 iyo yikapangiska kuti 5G towers zinandi mu United Kingdom zikomeke na ŵaboma, YouTube yikawuskapo mavidiyo ghose agho ghakulongosora vya 5G na coronavirus mu nthowa iyi. YouTube yikasazgirako ndondomeko iyi mu Seputembala 2021 kuti yikore mavidiyo agho ghakupharazga uthenga wautesi wakukhwaskana na munkhwala uliwose, kusazgapo awo ŵavomerezgeka nyengo yitali kuti ŵakomenge nthomba panji Hepatitis B, awo ŵavomerezgeka na wupu wa vyaumoyo panji wupu wa vyaumoyo pa charu chose. Webusayiti iyi yikawuskamo nkhani za ŵanthu awo ŵakususka katemera nga ni Robert F. Kennedy Jr. na Joseph Mercola pa nyengo iyi. Maakaunti ghaŵiri agho ghakakolerana na RT Deutsch, wayilesi ya ku Germany ya RT ku Russia, ghakafumiskikaso chifukwa cha kuswa malango gha YouTube. Google na YouTube ŵakakhazikiska ndondomeko mu Okutobala 2021 kuti ŵaleke kupeleka ndalama panji ndalama ku ŵanthu awo ŵakupharazga panji awo ŵakupanga vinthu ivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakane kusintha kwa nyengo. Mu Julayi 2022, YouTube yikapharazga fundo izo zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kumanya vinandi pa nkhani ya kufumiska nthumbo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Elias |first=Jennifer |date=July 21, 2022 |title=YouTube says it will crack down on abortion misinformation and remove videos with false claims |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/07/21/youtube-says-it-will-crack-down-on-abortion-misinformation.html |access-date=July 21, 2022 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> ==== Child safety and wellbeing ==== {{See also|FamilyOFive|Fantastic Adventures scandal|Elsagate}} Leading into 2017, there was a significant increase in the number of videos related to children, coupled between the popularity of parents vlogging their family's activities, and previous content creators moving away from content that often was criticized or demonetized into family-friendly material. In 2017, YouTube reported that time watching family vloggers had increased by 90%.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Luscombe|first=Belinda|date=May 18, 2017|title=The YouTube Parents Who are Turning Family Moments into Big Bucks|url=https://time.com/4783215/growing-up-in-public/|access-date=June 21, 2019|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=June 21, 2019 |title=YouTube can't remove kid videos without tearing a hole in the entire creator ecosystem |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/6/21/18651223/youtube-kids-harmful-content-predator-comments-family-vlogging |access-date=June 21, 2019 |work=[[The Verge]]}}</ref> However, with the increase in videos featuring children, the site began to face several controversies related to [[Child protection|child safety]]. During Q2 2017, the owners of popular channel [[FamilyOFive]], which featured themselves playing "pranks" on their children, were accused of [[child abuse]]. Their videos were eventually deleted, and two of their children were removed from their custody.<ref name="Ohlheiser2017">{{cite news|last=Ohlheiser|first=Abby|date=April 26, 2017|title=The saga of a YouTube family who pulled disturbing pranks on their own kids|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2017/04/25/the-saga-of-a-youtube-family-who-pulled-disturbing-pranks-on-their-own-kids/|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref name="Cresci2017">{{Cite news|last=Cresci|first=Elena|date=May 7, 2017|title=Mean stream: how YouTube prank channel DaddyOFive enraged the internet|language=en-GB|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/shortcuts/2017/may/07/when-youtube-pranks-go-horribly-wrong|access-date=June 7, 2017|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="Dunphy2017">{{cite web |last=Dunphy |first=Rachel |date=April 28, 2017 |title=The Abusive 'Pranks' of YouTube Family Vloggers |url=https://nymag.com/selectall/2017/04/daddyofive-youtube-abuse-controversy-explained.html |access-date=July 9, 2017 |work=Select All |publisher=[[New York (magazine)|New York Magazine]]}}</ref><ref name="Gajanan2017">{{cite magazine|last=Gajanan|first=Mahita|date=May 3, 2017|title=YouTube Star DaddyOFive Loses Custody of 2 Children Shown in 'Prank' Videos|url=https://time.com/4763981/daddyofive-mike-martin-heather-martin-youtube-prank-custody/|access-date=July 9, 2017|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> A similar case happened in 2019 when the owners of the channel [[Fantastic Adventures scandal|Fantastic Adventures]] was accused of abusing her adopted children. Her videos would later be deleted.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Levenson |first1=Eric |last2=Alonso |first2=Mel |date=March 20, 2019 |title=A mom on a popular YouTube show is accused of pepper-spraying her kids when they flubbed their lines |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/03/20/us/youtube-fantastic-adventures-mom-arrest-trnd/index.html |website=CNN}}</ref> Later that year, YouTube came under criticism for showing inappropriate videos targeted at children and often featuring popular characters in violent, sexual or otherwise disturbing situations, many of which appeared on [[YouTube Kids]] and attracted millions of views. The term "[[Elsagate]]" was coined on the Internet and then used by various news outlets to refer to this controversy.<ref>Ben Popper, [https://www.theverge.com/2017/2/20/14489052/youtube-kids-videos-superheroes-disney-characters-fart-jokes Adults dressed as superheroes is YouTube's new, strange, and massively popular genre], ''The Verge'', February 4, 2017</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=March 31, 2017 |title=Report: Thousands of videos mimicking popular cartoons on YouTube Kids contain inappropriate content |url=https://news10.com/2017/03/31/report-thousands-of-videos-mimicking-popular-cartoons-on-youtube-kids-contain-inappropriate-content/ |access-date=April 30, 2017 |website=NEWS10 ABC}}</ref><ref name="NYT">{{Cite web |last=Maheshwari |first=Sapna |date=2017-11-04 |title=Child Friendly? Startling Videos Slip Past Filters |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/04/business/media/youtube-kids-paw-patrol.html |url-access=limited |website=The New York Times |id={{ProQuest|2463387110}}}}</ref><ref name="forbes">Dani Di Placido, [https://www.forbes.com/sites/danidiplacido/2017/11/28/youtubes-elsagate-illuminates-the-unintended-horrors-of-the-digital-age/#431289ed6ba7 YouTube's "Elsagate" Illuminates The Unintended Horrors Of The Digital Age], ''[[Forbes (magazine)|Forbes]]'', November 28, 2017</ref> On November 11, 2017, YouTube announced it was strengthening site security to protect children from unsuitable content. Later that month, the company started to mass delete videos and channels that made improper use of family-friendly characters. As part of a broader concern regarding child safety on YouTube, the wave of deletions also targeted channels that showed children taking part in inappropriate or dangerous activities under the guidance of adults. Most notably, the company removed ''[[Toy Freaks]]'', a channel with over 8.5&nbsp;million subscribers, that featured a father and his two daughters in odd and upsetting situations.<ref name="auto">Todd Spangler, [https://variety.com/2017/digital/news/youtube-toy-freaks-channel-terminated-1202617834/ YouTube Terminates Toy Freaks Channel Amid Broader Crackdown on Disturbing Kids' Content], ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'', November 17, 2017</ref><ref name="verge">{{cite news|last=Popper|first=Ben|date=November 9, 2017|title=YouTube says it will crack down on bizarre videos targeting children|work=[[The Verge]]|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/11/9/16629788/youtube-kids-distrubing-inappropriate-flag-age-restrict|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116090955/https://www.theverge.com/2017/11/9/16629788/youtube-kids-distrubing-inappropriate-flag-age-restrict|archive-date=November 16, 2017|quote=In August of this year, YouTube announced that it would no longer allow creators to monetize videos which "made inappropriate use of family-friendly characters." Today it's taking another step to try to police this genre.}}</ref><ref>Sarah Templeton, [https://web.archive.org/web/20240401031704/https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/entertainment/2017/11/disturbing-elsagate-toy-freaks-videos-removed-from-youtube-after-abuse-allegations.html Disturbing 'ElsaGate', 'Toy Freaks' videos removed from YouTube after abuse allegations], ''[[Newshub]]'', November 22, 2017</ref><ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/US/youtube-crack-videos-showing-child-endangerment/story?id=51336368 YouTube to crack down on videos showing child endangerment], ''[[ABC News]]'', November 22, 2017</ref><ref>Charlie Warzel, [https://www.buzzfeed.com/charliewarzel/youtube-is-addressing-its-massive-child-exploitation-problem YouTube Is Addressing Its Massive Child Exploitation Problem] [[BuzzFeed]], November 22, 2017</ref> According to analytics specialist SocialBlade, it earned up to £8.7&nbsp;million annually prior to its deletion.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Bridge|first1=Mark|last2=Mostrous|first2=Alexi|date=November 18, 2017|title=Child abuse on YouTube|newspaper=The Times|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/child-abuse-on-youtube-q3x9zfkch|url-access=subscription|access-date=November 28, 2017}}</ref> Even for content that appears to be aimed at children and appears to contain only child-friendly content, YouTube's system allows for anonymity of who uploads these videos. These questions have been raised in the past, as YouTube has had to remove channels with children's content which, after becoming popular, then suddenly include inappropriate content masked as children's content.<ref name="WSJ kids love">{{Cite news|last1=Koh|first1=Yoree|last2=Morris|first2=Betsy|date=April 11, 2019|title=Kids Love These YouTube Channels. Who Creates Them Is a Mystery.|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/kids-love-these-youtube-channels-who-creates-them-is-a-mystery-11554975000|url-access=registration|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814180500/https://www.wsj.com/articles/kids-love-these-youtube-channels-who-creates-them-is-a-mystery-11554975000|archive-date=August 14, 2019|access-date=August 14, 2019}}</ref> Alternative, some of the most-watched children's programming on YouTube comes from channels that have no identifiable owners, raising concerns of intent and purpose. One channel that had been of concern was "[[Cocomelon – Nursery Rhymes|Cocomelon]]" which provided numerous mass-produced animated videos aimed at children. Up through 2019, it had drawn up to {{USD|10 million}} a month in ad revenue and was one of the largest kid-friendly channels on YouTube before 2020. Ownership of Cocomelon was unclear outside of its ties to "Treasure Studio", itself an unknown entity, raising questions as to the channel's purpose,<ref name="WSJ kids love" /><ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Martineau|first=Paris|title=YouTube Has Kid Troubles Because Kids Are a Core Audience|url=https://www.wired.com/story/youtube-kid-troubles-kids-core-audience/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811205146/https://www.wired.com/story/youtube-kid-troubles-kids-core-audience/|archive-date=August 11, 2019|access-date=August 14, 2019|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=Jefferson |date=June 22, 2019 |title=Why YouTube's kid issues are so serious |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/talkingtech/2019/06/22/nursery-rhymes-i-toy-story-porn-youtube-thats-kid-problem/1529724001/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814181002/https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/talkingtech/2019/06/22/nursery-rhymes-i-toy-story-porn-youtube-thats-kid-problem/1529724001/ |archive-date=August 14, 2019 |access-date=August 14, 2019 |website=USA Today}}</ref> but ''[[Bloomberg News]]'' had been able to confirm and interview the small team of American owners in February 2020 regarding "Cocomelon", who stated their goal for the channel was to simply entertain children, wanting to keep to themselves to avoid attention from outside investors.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bergan|first1=Mark|last2=Shaw|first2=Lucas|date=February 10, 2020|title=YouTube's Secretive Top Kids Channel Expands Into Merchandise|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-10/popular-youtube-kids-channel-cocomelon-gets-into-merch-and-toys|access-date=June 15, 2020|work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> The anonymity of such channel raise concerns because of the lack of knowledge of what purpose they are trying to serve.<ref name="vice kids content">{{Cite web |last=Haskins |first=Caroline |date=March 19, 2019 |title=YouTubers Are Fighting Algorithms to Make Good Content for Kids |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/mbznpy/youtubers-are-fighting-algorithms-to-make-good-content-for-kids |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814182839/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/mbznpy/youtubers-are-fighting-algorithms-to-make-good-content-for-kids |archive-date=August 14, 2019 |access-date=August 14, 2019 |website=[[Vice Media|Vice]]}}</ref> The difficulty to identify who operates these channels "adds to the lack of accountability", according to Josh Golin of the [[Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood]], and educational consultant Renée Chernow-O'Leary found the videos were designed to entertain with no intent to educate, all leading to critics and parents to be concerned for their children becoming too enraptured by the content from these channels.<ref name="WSJ kids love" /> Content creators that earnestly make child-friendly videos have found it difficult to compete with larger channels, unable to produce content at the same rate as them, and lacking the same means of being promoted through YouTube's recommendation algorithms that the larger animated channel networks have shared.<ref name="vice kids content" /> In January 2019, YouTube officially banned videos containing "challenges that encourage acts that have an inherent risk of severe physical harm" (such as the [[Consumption of Tide Pods|Tide Pod Challenge]]) and videos featuring pranks that "make victims believe they're in physical danger" or cause emotional distress in children.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Palladino |first=Valentina |date=January 16, 2019 |title=YouTube updates policies to explicitly ban dangerous pranks, challenges |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/01/youtube-updates-policies-to-explicitly-ban-dangerous-pranks-challenges/ |access-date=January 16, 2019 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref> ===== Sexualization of children and pedophilia ===== {{see also|Elsagate}} Kweniso mu Novembala 2017, ŵapharazgi ŵakavumbura kuti mavidiyo ghanandi agho ghakulongosora vya ŵana, agho kanandi ghakutumika na ŵana ŵambura kufikapo, kweniso agho ghakulongora ŵana ŵakuseŵera na vyakusanguluska, ghakakopanga ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kugonana na ŵana. Mavidiyo ghanyake agho ghakulongosora vya ŵana agho ghakaŵa pa YouTube ghakamba kuthandazgika pa webusayiti iyi. Chifukwa cha mphindano izi, izo zikasazgirako kwenjerwa pa nkhani ya "Elsagate", ŵapharazgi ŵanandi awo ŵakapharazganga na mavidiyo agha ŵakaleka kugwiliskira nchito YouTube. Mu Disembala 2018, nyuzipepara ya The Times yikasanga milandu yakujumpha 100 iyo ŵana ŵakachitiranga vinthu vyambura kwenelera (nga nkhuvura malaya, kujitozga mwakujumphizga, na kukhwaska ŵana ŵanyawo mwambura kwenelera). Mutolamakani munyake wakati wawona mavidiyo agha, hafu yikafumiskika. Mu Febuluwale 2019, munthu munyake uyo wakulemba mavidiyo pa YouTube, zina lake Matt Watson, wakamanya kuti pa YouTube pali "chidolo" icho chikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵawonenge mavidiyo agha. Mavidiyo ghanandi agha ghakaŵa na mazgu gha ŵanthu awo ŵakachitiranga nkhaza ŵana ŵawo. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakaŵikangaso mavidiyo agha mu nthowa yinyake, kweni ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mavidiyo ghanyake. Pamanyuma pa nkhani iyi, wupu uwu ukati wafumiskapo ma TV ghakujumpha 400 na mauthenga mamiliyoni ghanandi. Muyowoyeri munyake wakalongosora kuti "vinthu vyose ivyo vingananga umoyo wa ŵana ni viheni ndipo tili na malango ghakukanizga pa YouTube. Paliso vinandi vyakuti tichite, ndipo tikulutilira kuyezgayezga kuti tiŵawovwire kuti ŵamanye luŵiro ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika". Nangauli pakaŵa vinthu ivi, kweni AT&T, Disney, Dr. Oetker, Epic Games, na Nestlé wose ŵakafumiska malonda ghawo pa YouTube. Pamasinda, YouTube yikamba kulekeska malonda gha mavidiyo agho ghakaŵa na mazgu ghakutinkha ŵanthu. Wupu uwu ukalongosora kuti uwu ukaŵa wovwiri wakanyengo kachoko waka apo ŵakaghanaghaniranga nthowa zinyake zakumazgira suzgo ili. Kweniso YouTube yikamba kujara masiteshoni agho ghakuŵa na ŵana. "Ŵabwezi ŵakugomezgeka" ŵangapempha kuti ŵambeso kuyowoyapo, kweni para ŵamara kuyowoyapo, iyo ndiyo wazamupwelelera. Vinthu ivi vikovwira chomene ŵana ŵachoko, kweni ŵana ŵalara na ŵawukirano nawo ŵangavikilirika usange ŵakuchita vinthu ivyo vingawoneka nga ni vya kugonana, nga ni maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi. YouTube yikayowoya kuti yikugwiraso nchito pa nthowa yiwemi yakuwuskirapo ma comment pa masiteshoni ghanyake agho ghakukolerana na umo ŵanthu ŵakusuzgira ŵana. Kuyezga kulembapo mavidiyo agho ghakulongosora vya "CP" (chidule cha vithuzithuzi vyamuziro vya ŵana) kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye nkhani zinyake izo zikukolerana yayi na mavidiyo agha. YouTube yikadandawura na kuwezgerapo mavidiyo. Kweniso, ŵanthu awo ŵakuguliska mavidiyo pa Intaneti ŵakukhumba kuti mavidiyo ghawo ghafumiskike panji kuwuskikapo. YouTube yikayowoya kuti yikuchitapo kanthu yayi pa mavidiyo agho ghali na mazgu agha, kweni pa mavidiyo agho ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakuchita vinthu na ŵana. Mu Juni 2019, nyuzipepara ya The New York Times yikalemba vya ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasanga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakuwonelera mavidiyo gha vyauzeleza ŵangapika mavidiyo gha ŵana. Pa cifukwa ici, Senator Josh Hawley wakayowoya kuti wakukhumba kukhazikiska dango ilo lingakanizga YouTube na mawebusayiti ghanyake kuti ghaleke kulongora mavidiyo agho ghakulongora ŵana ŵacoko waka. YouTube yikayowoya kuti yikukhumba kuwuskamo mavidiyo ghose agho ghakulongora ŵana pa malo ghakuru gha YouTube na kughaŵika pa malo gha YouTube Kids uko ŵangakhozga chomene ndondomeko ya ndondomeko ya mavidiyo, kweniso kusintha vinyake vikuru pa malo ghakuru gha YouTube..<ref>{{cite web |last=Copeland |first=Rob |date=June 19, 2019 |title=YouTube, Under Fire, Considers Major Changes to Kids' Content |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/youtube-under-fire-considers-major-changes-to-kids-content-11560953721 |access-date=June 19, 2019 |work=[[Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> ==== Misogyny ==== Lipoti la mu Janyuwale 2022 la kampani ya Social Media Analytics Bot Sentinel likati ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube kuti ŵalembepo vinthu viheni vyakukhwaskana na Prince Harry na Meghan, kusazgapo fundo za chiŵembu vyakukhwaskana na banalume aŵa. Bot Sentinel nayo wakasanga kuti nkhani yinyake iyo yikayowoyanga kuti Meghan wakaŵa na nthumbo yayi, yikawoneka pafupifupi 19 miliyoni ndipo yikasanganga ndalama pafupifupi $44,000 pa chaka. Mu Malichi, YouTube yikajandizga nkhani iyi. Lipoti la mu Ogasiti 2022 ilo likapelekeka na wupu wa ku Britain wakuchemeka Center for Countering Digital Hate, likati kusuzga ŵanakazi kwazara chomene pa YouTube. Likayowoya kuti mawayilesi agho ghakukolerana na ivyo Andrew Tate wakuchita ghakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube kuti ghasazgireko ŵanthu awo ŵakughawonelera. Mu bukhu lake la 2022 Like, Comment, Subscribe: Inside YouTube's Chaotic Rise to World Domination, mtolankhani wa Bloomberg Mark Bergen wakati ŵanakazi ŵanandi awo ŵakupangiska nkhani ŵakusuzgika, kusuzgika na kusuzgika.<ref name=":14">{{Cite news|last=Lorenz|first=Taylor|author-link=Taylor Lorenz|date=September 18, 2022|title=YouTube remains rife with misogyny and harassment, creators say|language=en-US|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/09/18/you-tube-mysogyny-women-hate/|access-date=2022-12-26|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> === April Fools gags === {{See also|List of Google April Fools' Day jokes}} Pa YouTube pakaŵa nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵakujikuzga pa April Fools pa April 1, chaka chilichose kufuma mu 2008 m'paka 2016. Mu 2008, mavidiyo ghose agho ghakaŵa pa peji lakwamba ghakaŵa na vidiyo ya Rick Astley ya sumu yakuti "Never Gonna Give You Up". Chaka chakulondezgapo, para munthu wakudodoliska pa vidiyo pa peji lakwamba, peji lose likazgoka, ndipo YouTube yikati ni "ndondomeko yiphya". Mu 2010, YouTube yikafumiska nthowa ya "TEXTp" iyo yikung'anamura vithuzi mu ASCII kuti "vichepeske mtengo wa bandwidth na $1 pa sekondi". Chaka chakulondezgapo, malo agha ghakakondwelera "chaka cha 100" na mafilimu ghanandi ghambura mazgu gha kuuyambiro wa ma 1900, kusazgapo na gha Keyboard Cat. Mu 2012, para munthu wakudumura pa DVD iyo yili pafupi na logo ya webusayiti iyi, wakawonanga vidiyo iyo yikulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube kuti ŵapeleke mavidiyo ghose pa DVD. Mu 2013, YouTube yikakolerana na kampani ya nyuzipepara yakuchemeka The Onion, ndipo yikati pa vidiyo iyo yikaŵa pa webusayiti iyi, yikayowoya kuti yikamba na mpikisano. Mu vidiyo iyi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa pa YouTube, kusazgapo Antoine Dodson. Vidiyo ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri awo ŵakapharazga vya mavidiyo agho ghakapelekeka ku ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake, yikalongoreka kwa maora 12. Mu 2014, YouTube yikapharazga kuti ndiyo yikapangiska mavidiyo ghose agho ghakathandazgika pa Intaneti, ndipo yikavumbura mavidiyo ghanyake nga ni "Clocking", "Kissing Dad", na "Glub Glub Water Dance". Chaka chakulondezgapo, YouTube yikasazgirako batani la sumu ku vidiyo iyo yikaseŵeranga sumu ya Darude ya "Sandstorm". Mu 2016, YouTube yikapeleka mwaŵi wa kuwonelera mavidiyo ghose pa pulatifomu mu 360-degree mode na Snoop Dogg.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sini|first=Rozina|date=April 1, 2016|title=Snoopavision and other April Fools jokes going viral|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-35941866|access-date=April 1, 2016}}</ref> == Services == === YouTube Premium === Nkhani ikulu: [[YouTube Premium]] YouTube Premium (yomwe kale yikaŵa YouTube Red) ni YouTube's premium subscription service. Yikuŵa yambura malonda, yikutora mavidiyo gha pa foni. YouTube Premium yikayowoyeka pa Novembala 12, 2014, nga ni "Music Key", ntchito ya kusindikiza sumu, ndipo yikaŵa yakuti yinganjilira mu Google Play Music "All Access". Pa Okutobala 28, 2015, YouTube Red yikambaso kupelekeka, ndipo yikupharazga mavidiyo ghose kwambura malonda. Mu Novembala 2016, ŵapharazgi ŵakukwana 1.5 miliyoni, ndipo ŵanyake 1 miliyoni ŵakuchita ivi kwaulere. Mu Juni 2017, nyengo yakwamba ya YouTube Originals yikawoneka na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 250 miliyoni. === YouTube ya Ŵana === Nkhani ikulu: YouTube Kids YouTube Kids ni vidiyo ya ŵana ya ku America iyo yikupangika na YouTube, kampani ya Google. App iyi yikapangika cifukwa cakuti ŵapapi na boma ŵakulaŵilira ivyo ŵana ŵangasambira. App iyi yikovwira ŵana kuti ŵawonenge mavidiyo ghakwenelera yayi, ndipo yikovwira kuti ŵapapi ŵachitenge vinthu mwamahara. Pakwamba yikang'anamulika pa Febuluwale 15, 2015, nga ni app ya Android na iOS, kufuma apo yikang'anamulika pa LG, Samsung, na Sony smart TV, kweniso pa Android TV. Pa Meyi 27, 2020, yikamba kusangika pa Apple TV. Kufika mu Seputembala 2019, app iyi yilipo mu vyaru 69, kusazgapo Hong Kong na Macau, na chigaŵa chimoza. Pa Ogasiti 30, 2019, YouTube yikamba ntchito ya pa intaneti ya YouTube Kids. === Sumu pa YouTube === Nkhani ikulu: YouTube Music Pa Seputembala 28, 2016, YouTube yikasankha Lyor Cohen, uyo wali kukhazikiska kampani ya 300 Entertainment ndipo wakaŵa mulara wa Warner Music Group, kuŵa mulara wa Global Head of Music. Kukwambilira kwa chaka cha 2018, Cohen wakamba kuyowoyapo kuti YouTube yingaŵa na pulogiramu yiphya ya sumu, iyo yinganjilirapo pa mpikisano na vinyake nga ni Spotify na Apple Music. Pa Meyi 22, 2018, wakajura YouTube Music. === Mafilimu gha pa YouTube === YouTube Movies ni uteŵeti wa YouTube uwo ukulongora mafilimu kwizira mu webusayiti yake. Pafupifupi mafilimu 100 500 ghakusangika kwaulere, pamoza na malonda. Mavidiyo ghanyake ghakusazgikako ndipo ghanyake ghakufumiskika, kwambura kuphalirika. YouTube TV Nkhani ikulu: [[YouTube TV]] Pa February 28, 2017, mu chipharazgo ku YouTube Space ku Los Angeles, YouTube yikapharazga za YouTube TV, yeneiyo yikaŵa ntchito ya kulembeska ya MVPD. Pakwamba kukhazikiska mu misika yikuru yinkhondi (New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia na San Francisco) pa Epulero 5, 2017, uteŵeti uwu ukupeleka vyalo vyamoyo vya mapulogiramu kufuma ku mabungwe ghankhondi ghakurughakuru (ABC, CBS, The CW, Fox na NBC), pamoza na ma TV pafupifupi 40 agho ghali na mabungwe ghakuru gha mabungwe agha, The Walt Disney Company, CBS Corporation, 21st Century Fox, NBCUniversal na Turner Broadcasting System (mwaŵanyake Bravo, USA Network, Syfy, Disney Channel, CNN, Cartoon Network, E!, Fox Sports 1, Freeform, FX na ESPN). Awo ŵali na mapulogiramu gha pa TV iyi, ŵangapokeraso mapulogiramu gha pa TV gha Showtime na Fox Soccer Plus. .<ref>{{cite news|title=YouTube takes on cable with new TV service|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-39124092|first=Dave|last=Lee|publisher=BBC|date=March 1, 2017|access-date=March 1, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://fortune.com/2017/02/28/youtube-tv-live-streaming-subscription/|title=Meet YouTube TV: Google's Live TV Subscription Service|first=Tom Jr|last=Huddleston|work=Fortune|date=March 1, 2017|access-date=March 1, 2017}}</ref> === YouTube Go === [[File:YouTube_Go.svg|thumb|Chizindikiro cha YouTube Go]] YouTube Go yikaŵa app ya Android iyo yikapangika kuti yikovwire ŵanthu kusanga makora YouTube pa mafoni. Vidiyo iyi yikaŵa yakupambana na app yikuru ya Android ndipo yikapelekanga mwaŵi wakuti ŵanthu ŵaŵikengeko mavidiyo. Kweniso yikovwira ŵanthu kuwonelera mavidiyo, kugaŵana mavidiyo agho ŵali kukopera kwizira pa Bluetooth, kweniso yikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye umo ŵangachitira na mavidiyo. Mu Meyi 2022, Google yikapharazga kuti yizamujara YouTube Go mu Ogasiti 2022. YouTube yikapharazga vya pulogiramu iyi mu Seputembala 2016 pa ungano uwo ukacitikira ku India. Iyo yikamba kugwira ntchito ku India mu Febuluwale 2017, ndipo mu Novembala 2017 yikasazgikira mu vyaru vinyake 14, kusazgapo Nigeria, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Philippines, Kenya, na South Africa. Pa Febuluwale 1, 2018, vidiyo iyi yikamba kusangika mu vyaru vyakujumpha 130, kusazgapo Brazil, Mexico, Turkey, na Iraq. Pambere yindaleke kugwira ntchito, ŵanthu pafupifupi 60 pa 100 pa caru cose ŵakaŵa na app iyi.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://techcrunch.com/2018/02/01/googles-data-friendly-app-youtube-go-expands-to-over-130-countries-now-supports-higher-quality-videos/|title=Google's data-friendly app YouTube Go expands to over 130 countries, now supports higher quality&nbsp;videos|last=Perez|first=Sarah|work=TechCrunch|access-date=February 2, 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=February 2018 |title=Google's 'offline first' YouTube Go app launches in 130 new markets, but not the U.S. |url=https://venturebeat.com/2018/02/01/googles-offline-first-youtube-go-app-launches-globally/ |access-date=February 2, 2018 |website=VentureBeat}}</ref> === YouTube Shorts === {{main|YouTube Shorts}} [[File:TikTok_and_YouTube_Shorts_example.webm|right|thumb|Chitsanzo cha vidiyo yomwe ili yoyenera pa YouTube Shorts, yomwe ikuwonetsa Crew Dragon Endeavour ikugwira ntchito pa International Space Station]] Mu Seputembala 2020, YouTube yikapharazga kuti yizenge na beta version ya vidiyo ya masekondi 15, yakuyana na TikTok, yakuchemeka YouTube Shorts. Pakwamba, pulogiramu iyi yikayezgeka mu India, kweni mu Malichi 2021 yikasazgikira ku vyaru vinyake nga ni United States. Pulogiramu iyi njekha yayi, kweni yikukolerana na app yikuru ya YouTube. Nga ni TikTok, yikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito vinthu vinyake, kusazgapo kuŵikamo sumu izo zili na laisensi mu mavidiyo ghawo. Mu Julayi 2021, kabuku aka kakamba kusangika pa charu chose. === Nkhani za YouTube === Mu 2018, YouTube yikamba kuyezga nthowa yiphya yakuchemeka "YouTube Reels". Chigaŵa ichi chili nga ni nkhani za pa Instagram na Snapchat. Pamanyuma, YouTube yikasintha zina lakuti "Nkhani za pa YouTube". Ŵekha awo ŵali na ŵabwezi ŵakujumpha 10,000 ndiwo ŵangawoneska vidiyo iyi. ==== Vinthu Vyakovwira Ŵanthu ==== Nkhani ikulu: Mmene YouTube Imakhudzira Anthu Ŵanthu na makampani ghakurughakuru ghakugwiliskira nchito YouTube kuti ŵamanye ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakulemba nkhani za mu manyuzipepara na pa wayilesi ŵali na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuŵalondezga kwambura kulipira ndalama zinandi. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito pa YouTube ŵakamba kusamira pa webusayiti iyi. Nangauli "Partner Program" ya YouTube yikovwira kuti munthu wasange ndalama zinandi pakuŵa mulembi wa mavidiyo, kweni ŵabwezi ŵake 500 awo waliyose wakusanga ndalama zakujumpha $100,000 pa chaka, kweniso masiteshoni 10 agho ghakusanga ndalama zinandi chomene, ghakusanga ndalama zakukwana $2.5 miliyoni m'paka $12 miliyoni. Mu 2012, mulembi wa nkhani za malonda wa CMU wakalemba kuti YouTube ni "pulogalamu yakupharazgira ŵanthu awo ŵakulemba sumu". Mu 2013, Katheryn Thayer wa pa Forbes wakati ntchito ya ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵa mu nyengo ya digito yikwenera kuŵa yapachanya chomene, kweniso yikwenera kukopa ŵanthu pa YouTube na pa Intaneti. Mavidiyo gha ŵanthu 2.5% awo ŵali mu gulu la "mega", "mainstream" na "medium-sized" ghakaŵa na vithuzithuzi 90.3% pa YouTube na Vevo. Kuuyambiro wa 2013, Billboard yikapharazga kuti yikugwiliskira nchito fundo za pa YouTube pakupanga mapu gha Billboard Hot 100 na ghanyake.<ref name="Billboard20130220">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1549399/hot-100-news-billboard-and-nielsen-add-youtube-video-streaming-to-platforms|title=Hot 100 News: Billboard and Nielsen Add YouTube Video Streaming to Platforms|author=''Billboard'' staff|date=February 20, 2013|magazine=Billboard|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129170847/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1549399/hot-100-news-billboard-and-nielsen-add-youtube-video-streaming-to-platforms|archive-date=January 29, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[File:Jordan_Hoffner_at_the_68th_Annual_Peabody_Awards_for_YouTube.jpg|thumb|Jordan Hoffner at the 68th Annual [[Peabody Awards]] accepting for YouTube]] Pakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵakudumbiskana maso na maso nga ni umo vikuŵira na mavidiyo gha pa Intaneti, "ŵali kusintha comene kwa vyaka vinandi", Chris Anderson, uyo wakulongozga pa TED, wakazunura ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba pa YouTube ndipo wakati: "Ivyo Gutenberg wakacita pakulemba mabuku, sono mavidiyo gha pa Intaneti ghangatovwira kuti tidumbiskane maso na maso". Anderson wakati ntchakubendera yayi kuyowoya kuti mavidiyo gha pa Intaneti ghapangiskenge kuti sayansi yilute panthazi chomene, ndipo awo ŵakujambura mavidiyo agha ŵangamba "kusambira vinthu vinandi chomene". Mwaciyelezgero, pa nkhani ya masambiro, sukulu ya Khan Academy yikakura kufuma pa vidiyo ya pa YouTube iyo yikasambizgiranga mubali wa Salman Khan ndipo yikamba kucemeka "sukulu yikuru comene pa caru cose". Mu 2008, YouTube wakapokera chawanangwa chakuchemeka George Foster Peabody Award, ndipo webusayiti iyi yikulongosoreka kuti ni malo ghakusambizgirako ŵanthu. Nyuzipepara ya Washington Post yikati pa YouTube pali ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakutemwa kuwonelera ma TV. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika ku Pew Research Center, wakalongosora kuti "ŵanthu ŵakuwona ivyo vikuchitika mu nyuzipepara", ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakuwona ivyo vikuchitika kweniso mawupu agho ghakupharazga nkhani, ndiwo ghakupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora. Kafukufuku uyu wakalongoraso kuti YouTube yikamba kuŵa nthowa yikuru yakuti ŵanthu ŵamanye nkhani. YouTube yawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵayowoyenge na boma, nga umo vikaŵira pa nkhani ya maungano gha CNN na YouTube (2007) apo ŵanthu ŵakafumbira mafumbo awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa boma la United States. Pakulongosora vya nyengo ya Arab Spring (2010~2012), Philip N. Howard wakalemba mazgu gha munthu munyake uyo wakachitanga vinthu mwakukolerana na ivyo vikachitikanga. Mu 2012, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha hafu ku United States Nyumba ya Senate yikapeleka fundo yakususka Joseph Kony pati pajumpha mazuŵa 16 kufuma apo vidiyo ya "Kony 2012" yikapelekeka pa YouTube, ndipo Senator Lindsey Graham uyo wakawovwirapo pa fundo iyi wakati vidiyo iyi "yichitenge vinandi kuti (Kony) wafwe kuluska vyose".<ref name="Politico20120322">{{cite web |last=Wong |first=Scott |date=March 22, 2012 |title=Joseph Kony captures Congress' attention |url=https://dyn.politico.com/printstory.cfm?uuid=76ECD47B-6BE4-4703-BC79-E7955A4DE0D6 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108184459/https://dyn.politico.com/printstory.cfm?uuid=76ECD47B-6BE4-4703-BC79-E7955A4DE0D6 |archive-date=January 8, 2014 |website=Politico}}</ref> [[File:ObamaYouTubers307.png|right|thumb|Leading YouTube content creators met at the White House with U.S. President Obama to discuss how government could better connect with the "YouTube generation."<ref name="Tubefilter20140302">{{cite web |last=Cohen |first=Joshua |date=March 2, 2014 |title=Obama Meets With YouTube Advisors on How To Reach Online Audiences |url=https://www.tubefilter.com/2014/03/02/obama-meets-with-youtube-advisors-on-how-to-reach-online-audiences/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306020608/https://www.tubefilter.com/2014/03/02/obama-meets-with-youtube-advisors-on-how-to-reach-online-audiences/ |archive-date=March 6, 2014 |website=Tubefilter}}</ref><ref name="WhiteHouse20140306">{{cite web |last=Jenkins |first=Brad L. |date=March 6, 2014 |title=YouTube Stars Talk Health Care (and Make History) at the White House |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2014/03/06/youtube-stars-talk-health-care-and-make-history-white-house |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128005716/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2014/03/06/youtube-stars-talk-health-care-and-make-history-white-house |archive-date=January 28, 2017 |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |location=Washington, D.C. |via=[[NARA|National Archives]]}}</ref>]] Kweniso, YouTube yawovwira boma kuti lipulikiskenge makora ŵanthu. Mu 2012, ofesi ya White House ndiyo yikaŵa pa malo gha nambara 7 pa malo gha nkhani pa YouTube. Mu 2013, kampani yinyake ya vyaumoyo yikapempha munthu munyake uyo wakujiyaniska na Obama, zina lake Iman Crosson, kuti waŵe na vidiyo ya sumu ya pa YouTube. Mu Febuluwale 2014, U.S. Pulezidenti Obama wakachita ungano ku White House na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene pa YouTube kuti ŵamanyiske ŵanthu vya Obamacare kweniso kuti ŵamanye umo boma lingacitira kuti liŵe paubwezi na ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa YouTube. Nangauli YouTube yikovwira kuti ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵaŵe paubwezi na ŵanthu bweka, kweni awo ŵakupangiska vinthu pa YouTube ŵakamanya kuti ntchakukhumbikwa chomene kuti ŵamanye makora umo ŵangapharazgira. Mavidiyo ghanyake gha pa YouTube ghakakhwaska chomene vinthu ivyo vikachitikanga pa charu, nga ni nkhani ya Innocence of Muslims (2012) iyo yikapangiska kuti pa charu chose paŵe vivulupi. Chris Anderson, mulongozgi wa pa TED, wakalongosora umo ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana ŵakugwiliskira ntchito maluso ghawo mu mavidiyo gha pa YouTube. Mu nyuzipepara ya The New York Times, Virginia Heffernan wakati mavidiyo agha "ghakukondweska comene" ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa sumu za ndembera. Nkhani yinyake ya mu 2017 mu magazini ya The New York Times Magazine yikati YouTube yazgoka "wayilesi yiphya iyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyapo" ku ŵanthu ŵa ku malo ghakutali. Pafupifupi chaka chimoza pambere YouTube yindapharazge mu Janyuwale 2019 kuti yikwamba "kusintha pachokopachoko" kuti "yichepeske ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa na ivyo vingaŵapweteka", Zeynep Tufekci wakalemba mu nyuzipepara ya The New York Times kuti, "Chifukwa cha ŵanthu mabiliyoni ghanandi awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube, yingaŵa yimoza mwa vinthu vyakofya chomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000". Chifukwa chakuti YouTube yikasintha nthowa yake yakupangira mauthenga, nthowa iyo yikayowoyeka chomene yikasintha kufuma kwa Alex Jones mu 2016 kuya ku Fox News mu 2019. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2020, "ŵapharazgi ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti vidiyo njakukhumbikwa chomene, kweni tikugomezga kuti ni viŵi yayi. M'malo mwake, tikukhumba kuti pa YouTube tiwonenge ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pa nkhani za ndyali". Kafukufuku munyake wa mu 2022 wakulongora kuti "nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukayika kuti YouTube yikupeleka mavidiyo ghakukhuŵazga ŵanthu, kweni palije ukaboni wakukwana wakukhozgera fundo iyi", "ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuwonelera mavidiyo gha ŵanthu ŵambura kutemwana na ŵankhongono pa YouTube". Gulu la Ŵalendo Ŵakupambanapambana na gulu la YouTube Symphony Orchestra ŵakasankha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa mu gulu ili chifukwa cha mavidiyo agho ŵanthu ŵakawoneleranga. Kuwonjezera apo, vidiyo yachitukuko ya "We Are the World 25 for Haiti (YouTube edition) " yikapangika mwa kusakaniza machitidwe a oyimba 57 omwe amagawidwa padziko lonse lapansi mu ntchito imodzi ya nyimbo, ndi The Tokyo Times ikuwona kanema wa YouTube "Tipemphere kwa Inu" monga chitsanzo cha chizoloŵezi chogwiritsira ntchito gulu la anthu pazinthu zachifundo. Mu mwezi umoza pera, vidiyo iyi yikawovwira ŵawukirano ŵanandi ŵa LGBT awo ŵakakhumbanga kujikoma. Pulezidenti Barack Obama, Wachiŵiri kwa Pulezidenti Biden, ŵantchito ŵa ku White House, na ŵantchito ŵanyake ŵa mu nduna. Mwakuyana waka, cifukwa ca vidiyo ya Amanda Todd wa vyaka 15 yakucemeka "My story: Struggling, bullying, suicide, self-harm", boma likati lacitapo kanthu mwaluŵiro kuti lisambire umo ŵanthu ŵakusuzgikira na kupanga ndondomeko yakumazgira suzgo ili. Mu Meyi 2018, apo ŵapolisi ŵa ku London ŵakayowoya kuti mavidiyo gha sumu izo zikukhozga nkhaza zikachitiska kuti paŵe nkhaza za magulu gha vigeŵenga, YouTube yikawuskapo mavidiyo 30.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/may/29/youtube-deletes-30-music-videos-after-met-link-with-gang-violence|title=YouTube deletes 30 music videos after Met link with gang violence|last=Waterson|first=Jim|date=May 28, 2018|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321160833/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/may/29/youtube-deletes-30-music-videos-after-met-link-with-gang-violence|archive-date=March 21, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> == Environmental impacts == {{Main|Sustainability}} YouTube yikovwira kuti vinthu viŵe makora. Mphamvu ya YouTube yikufuma ku Google Data Centers, iyo yikugwiliskirika nchito na magesi gha Renewable Energy kufuma mu 2017. Pa nyengo yasono, kampani iyi yapanga vyakukwana "kuti vileke kunanga vyakumera vyose kufuma apo tikambira mu 1998". Mu Ogasiti 2023, kampani iyi yikapeleka ngongole zakukwana madola 5.75 biliyoni. Google yikukhumba "kuŵa kampani yikuru comene iyo yizamupeleka magesi kwambura vyakununkhira mu 2030".<ref>{{cite web |title=Advancing sustainability |url=https://www.youtube.com/howyoutubeworks/progress-impact/sustainability/ |access-date=7 May 2023 |website=Youtube}}</ref> == Finances == Pambere chaka cha 2020 chindafike, Google yikatondeka kupeleka manambara ghakukhwaskana na ndalama izo YouTube yikagwiliskiranga ntchito, ndipo ndalama izo YouTube yikasanganga mu 2007 zikaŵa zakuzirwa yayi. Mu Juni 2008, magazini ya Forbes yikalemba kuti mu 2008 ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga zikaŵa madola 200 miliyoni. Mu 2012, YouTube yikasanga ndalama zakukwana madola 3.7 biliyoni kufuma ku malonda agho ghakupanga. Mu 2013, ndalama izi zikasazgikira pafupifupi kaŵiri ndipo zikafika pa madola 5.6 biliyoni. Mavidiyo ghanandi gha pa YouTube ni ghaulere ndipo ghakwendeskeka na malonda. Mu Meyi 2013, YouTube yikapeleka nthowa yakuyezgelera ya mathirakiti 53 agho ghakaŵa na mtengo wa madola 0.99 m'paka 6.99 pa mwezi. Ŵanthu ŵakawonanga kuti nthowa iyi yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye umo ŵangagwilira ntchito pa Intaneti nga ni Netflix, Amazon Prime, na Hulu. Google yikamba kufumiska ndalama izo yikasanga pa YouTube mu Febuluwale 2020 mu lipoti la ndalama la Alphabet. Kuyana na Google, YouTube yikasanga ndalama zakukwana $15.1 biliyoni mu 2019 pakususkana na $8.1 biliyoni mu 2017 na $11.1 biliyoni mu 2018. Ndalama izo YouTube yikasanga zikaŵa pafupifupi 10% ya ndalama zose izo Alphabet yikasanga mu 2019. Ndalama izi zikawovwira ŵanthu pafupifupi 20 miliyoni awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube Premium na YouTube Music, kweniso ŵanthu 2 miliyoni awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube TV. YouTube yikasanga ndalama zakukwana $19.8 billion mu 2020.<ref name="2020revenue">{{Cite web |last=Alphabet Inc. |date=January 26, 2021 |title=Alphabet Inc. Form 10-K (2020) |url=https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204421000010/goog-20201231.htm |access-date=April 16, 2021 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> === Partnership with corporations === Mu Juni 2006, YouTube yikachita ubwezi na NBC. Mu Malichi 2007, yikapangana na BBC kuti yiŵe na masiteshoni ghatatu, limoza la nkhani ndipo ghanyake ghaŵiri gha vyakusanguluska. Mu Novembala 2008, YouTube yikakolerana na MGM, Lions Gate Entertainment, na CBS, ndipo yikapeleka mwaŵi ku makampani agha kuti ghaŵikenge mafilimu na mavidiyo pa webusayiti iyi. Chilato cha ndondomeko iyi chikaŵa chakuti ŵanthu ŵachitenge mpikisano na mawebusayiti nga ni Hulu, agho ghakuŵa na nkhani za pa NBC, Fox, na Disney. Mu Novembala 2009, YouTube yikambiska chigaŵa cha "Shows" icho chikasangika ku ŵanthu ŵa ku UK, ndipo chikapelekanga vigaŵa 4,000 vyakufuma ku ŵabwezi ŵakujumpha 60. Mu Janyuwale 2010, YouTube yikamba kupeleka mavidiyo gha pa Intaneti, agho ghakovwira waka ŵanthu ŵa ku United States, Canada, na United Kingdom. Pa webusayiti iyi pali mafilimu ghakujumpha 6,000.<ref>{{cite web |last=Tsotsis |first=Alexia |date=May 9, 2011 |title=Google Partners With Sony Pictures, Universal And Warner Brothers For YouTube Movies |url=https://techcrunch.com/2011/05/09/google-partners-with-sony-pictures-nbc-universal-and-warner-brothers-for-youtube-movies/ |access-date=March 26, 2017 |website=[[TechCrunch]] |publisher=[[AOL]]}}</ref> ==== 2017 advertiser boycott ==== Mu Malichi 2017, boma la United Kingdom likafumiskapo malonda ghake pa YouTube, pamanyuma pakuti ŵapharazgi ŵayowoya kuti malonda agha ghakaŵa pa mavidiyo ghautesi. Boma likakhumbanga kuti ŵapharazgi ŵaŵasimikizgire kuti ŵapharazgi aŵa "ŵapharazgenge makora". Nyuzipepara ya The Guardian, pamoza na maburandi ghanyake ghakurughakuru gha ku Britain na ku America, nawo ŵakakanizga kutandazga pa YouTube cifukwa ca nkhani izo zikaŵa zakukwiyiska. Google yikati "yamba kughanaghanirapo comene pa ndondomeko yithu ya malonda ndipo yaŵikapo mtima kuti yivikilirenge malonda ghawo". Mu Epulero 2017, YouTube channel h3h3Productions yikapeleka ukaboni wakuti nkhani ya mu Wall Street Journal yikaŵa na vithuzithuzi ivyo vikulongora malonda gha vyamaseŵera pa vidiyo iyo yikaŵa na sumu za Johnny Rebel. Vidiyo iyi yikafumiskika pamanyuma pakuti ŵasanga kuti mapulogiramu agha ghakaŵako cifukwa ca kugwiliskira nchito vinthu ivyo vili na copyright. Pa April 6, 2017, YouTube yikapharazga kuti kuti "yiwoneseskenge kuti ndalama zikwendera waka ku ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita vinthu mwakuyana na malango", yikasinthenge nthowa zake kuti yikhumbiske kuti wayilesi yiŵe na ndondomeko yakuwonerapo, kweniso kuti yiŵe na ŵanthu 10,000 awo ŵayiwonelera pa umoyo wawo wose pambere ŵandaŵepo mu Pulogiramu ya Ŵabali.<ref name="verge-10kviewsrule">{{cite web |date=April 6, 2017 |title=YouTube will no longer allow creators to make money until they reach 10,000 views |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/6/15209220/youtube-partner-program-rule-change-monetize-ads-10000-views |access-date=April 6, 2017 |website=The Verge |publisher=Vox Media}}</ref> === YouTuber earnings === [[File:2017-_Top_earners_on_YouTube_-_column_chart.svg|thumb| ''Forbes'' has reported the total annual earnings of the top ten YouTuber accounts, and the income of the single highest-earning account.]] Mu Meyi 2007, YouTube yikambiska pulogiramu ya kuchezga nayo (Partner Program) (YPP), ndondomeko iyo yikukolerana na AdSense iyo yikovwira munthu uyo wakujura vidiyo kuti waŵe na mwaŵi wa kugaŵa ndalama izo zikufuma ku malonda pa webusayiti iyi. Kanandi YouTube yikutora 45 peresenti ya ndalama izo yikusangika na ŵanthu awo ŵakujambura mavidiyo. Pali ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni awo ŵali mu gulu la YouTube. Kuyana na TubeMogul, mu 2013, malonda agho ghakuŵa pa YouTube pambere vidiyo yindayambe, ghakaŵanga na mtengo wa madola 7.60 pa ŵanthu 1,000. Kanandi pa mavidiyo agha, ghaŵiri pera ndigho ghakuŵa na pharazgo pambere vidiyo yindambe kuwonekera. Ndondomeko ya YouTube yikukanizga vinthu vinyake kuti vileke kusangika mu mavidiyo agho ghakuŵa na ndalama chifukwa cha malonda, kusazgapo mavidiyo agho ghali na nkhaza, kayowoyero kaheni, vya kugonana, "vinthu vyakukhuŵazga panji vyakupweteka, kusazgapo vinthu vyakukhwaskana na nkhondo, viwawa vya ndyali, masoka ghacilengiwa na masoka, nanga ni para palije vithuzithuzi vyambura kulongosoreka" (panji usange ivyo vili mu mavidiyo agha "ni vya nkhani panji vyakusekeska ndipo uyo wakuvipanga wakukhumba kuvumbura panji kusanguluska"), ndiposo mavidiyo agho mazgu gha awo ŵakuvigwiliskira ntchito ghali na vinthu "vyambura kwenelera". Mu 2013, YouTube yikamba kupeleka mwaŵi wakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakuwonelera mavidiyo awo ŵali na ŵalembeska 1,000, ŵaŵikengepo ndalama. Mu Epulero 2017, YouTube yikakhazikiska fundo yakuti munthu wakwenera kuwonelera vidiyo 10,000 pa umoyo wake wose. Pa Janyuwale 16, 2018, ŵakasintha fundo yakuti munthu wakwenera kuwonelera TV kwa maora 4,000 mu myezi 12 iyo yajumpha na kuŵa na ŵanthu 1,000. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona kuti fundo iyi yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukwesana pa nkhani ya mavidiyo. YouTube Play Buttons, chigaŵa cha YouTube Creator Rewards, ntchawanangwa icho YouTube wakupeleka ku ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kuwonelera mavidiyo. Vinthu ivi vikupelekeka ku ma TV agho ghali na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 100,000, miliyoni, 10 miliyoni, 50 miliyoni, na 100 miliyoni. Ndondomeko ya YouTube pa nkhani ya "vinthu vyakovwira awo ŵakupharazga" yikukanizga ivyo vingaŵikika mu mavidiyo agho ghakwendeskeka na ndalama; ivi vikusazgapo nkhaza, kayowoyero, vya kugonana, na "vinthu vyakukhuŵazga panji vyakusuzga, kusazgapo vinthu vyakukhwaskana na nkhondo, viwawa vya ndyali, masoka ghacilengiwa na masoka, nangauli vithuzithuzi vyambura kulongosoreka", pekha usange ivyo vili mu mavidiyo "ni vya nkhani panji vyakusekeska ndipo uyo wakuvipanga wakukhumba kumanya panji kusanguluska". Mu Seputembala 2016, pamanyuma pa kukhazikiska ndondomeko yakupharazga yakusazgikira kuti yivumbulire ŵanthu za viheni ivi, malango gha YouTube ghakatambuzgika na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa, kusazgapo Phillip DeFranco na Vlogbrothers. DeFranco wakati para munthu wakutondeka kusanga ndalama pa mavidiyo agha, ndikuti "wakutondeka kujikora". Muyowoyi wa YouTube wakati nangauli fundo iyi yikaŵa yiphya yayi, kweni iyo "yikasintha ndondomeko ya kupempha wovwiri kuti ŵapharazgi ŵayowoyenge makora". Boing Boing yikalemba mu 2019 kuti mazgu gha LGBT ghakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama. Kufumira mu Novembala 2020 ku United States na Juni 2021 pa charu chose, YouTube yili na wanangwa wa kupanga ndalama pa vidiyo yiliyose pa pulatifomu, nangauli uyo wakuyiŵika pa intaneti ni munyawo yayi wa YouTube Partner Program. Ivi vicitikenge pa masiteshoni agho ghakuwoneka kuti "ghakukondweska ŵanthu", ndipo ndalama zose zizamuluta ku Google kwambura kupeleka ku awo ŵakujura.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=Megan |date=November 19, 2020 |title=YouTube will put ads on non-partner videos but won't pay the creators |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/11/19/youtube-will-put-ads-on-non-partner-videos-but-wont-pay-the-creators.html |access-date=May 23, 2021 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> === Revenue to copyright holders === {{further|#Copyrighted material}} Ndalama zinandi izo YouTube yikusanga chifukwa cha malonda zikuluta ku ŵanthu awo ŵakulemba mavidiyo na kupanga mavidiyo. Mu 2010, vikaŵa vyakuti pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya mavidiyo agho ghakaŵa na malonda, ghakaŵikika pa Intaneti kwambura kuzomerezgeka na awo ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kupanga. YouTube yikupeleka mwaŵi ku awo ŵali na wanangwa wa kuwonelera mavidiyo kuti ŵamanye uko kuli mavidiyo ghawo na kughafumiska. Mu Meyi 2013, Nintendo wakamba kuvikilira wanangwa wake wa kupanga mavidiyo na kupoka ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Mu Febuluwale 2015, Nintendo wakazomerezga kugaŵana ndalama na awo ŵakalenga mavidiyo kwizira mu Nintendo Creators Program. Pa Malichi 20, 2019, Nintendo wakapharazga pa Twitter kuti kampani iyi yimarenge pulogiramu ya Creators. Mapulogalamuwa anasiya kugwira ntchito pa March 20, 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Plunkett |first=Luke |date=November 28, 2018 |title=Nintendo's Controversial Creators Program Is Shutting Down |url=https://kotaku.com/nintendos-controversial-creators-program-is-shutting-do-1830728813 |access-date=October 20, 2021 |website=Kotaku |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kent |first=Emma |date=November 29, 2018 |title=Nintendo scraps controversial Creators Program, making life easier for YouTubers |url=https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2018-11-29-nintendo-scraps-creators-program-making-life-much-easier-for-youtubers |access-date=October 20, 2021 |website=Eurogamer |language=en}}</ref> == Censorship and bans == {{Main|Censorship of YouTube}} [[File:YouTube_Availability_2021.png|thumb|300x300px|Availability of YouTube as of January 2021:<br /> {{legend|#008000|Has local YouTube version}} {{legend|#B2B2B2|Accessible}} {{legend|#FF0000|Currently blocked}} {{legend|#FF8888|Previously blocked}}]] YouTube has been censored, filtered, or banned for a variety of reasons, including:<ref name="ONIYouTubeCensored">[https://opennet.net/youtube-censored-a-recent-history "YouTube Censored: A Recent History"], OpenNet Initiative. Retrieved September 23, 2012.</ref> * Limiting public access and exposure to content that may ignite social or political unrest. * Preventing criticism of a ruler (e.g. in [[North Korea]]), government (e.g. in [[Internet censorship in China|China]]) or its actions (e.g. in [[Morocco]]), government officials (e.g. in [[Turkey]] and [[Libya]]), or religion (e.g. in [[Pakistan]]). * Morality-based laws, e.g. in [[Internet censorship in Iran|Iran]]. Nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakutondeka kuwonelera mavidiyo ghanyake chifukwa cha malango ghakukhwaskana na kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu (ku Germany), kuswa malango ghakukhwaskana na nkhani za kutinkha ŵanthu, na kutondeska kuwonelera mavidiyo agho ghakwenelera yayi ŵawukirano. Makampani, masukulu, maboma, na mawupu ghanyake ghakupambanapambana kanandi ghakukana mawebusayiti gha pa Intaneti, kusazgapo YouTube, chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa bandwidth kweniso kuti ghangatimbanizga ŵanthu. Kufumira mu 2018, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito YouTube mu vyaru vinandi, kusazgapo China, North Korea, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Eritrea, Sudan na South Sudan. Mu vyaru vinyake, YouTube yikujalika kwa nyengo yichoko waka, nga ni para kuli vivulupi, pambere mavoti ghandambe, panji chifukwa cha viphikiro vya ndyali. Para webusayiti yose ya YouTube yalekeskeka chifukwa cha vidiyo yimoza, kanandi YouTube yikuzomerezga kuwuskamo panji kuchepeska nthowa yakugwiliskira ntchito vidiyo iyi. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti kwambira mu Okutobala 2019, mazgu agho ghalembeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku China agho ghakuyuyura chipani cha Communist Party of China (共?? panji kuti "chipani cha Communist bandit") panji (五毛 panji kuti "50 Cent Party", kung'anamura awo ŵakulemba nkhani izo boma likuŵawovwira) ghakufumiskika mu masekondi 15. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vyachitika apo YouTube yikakanizgika ni ivi: * [[Thailand]] blocked access in April 2007 over a video said to be insulting the [[Monarchy of Thailand|Thai king]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Thailand Bans YouTube|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/05/business/worldbusiness/05tube.html|work=The New York Times|date=April 5, 2007}}</ref> * Morocco blocked access in May 2007, possibly as a result of videos critical of [[Political status of Western Sahara|Morocco's occupation of Western Sahara]].<ref>{{cite news|title=YouTube site 'blocked' in Morocco|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6702973.stm|access-date=December 25, 2013|date=May 29, 2007}}</ref> YouTube became accessible again on May 30, 2007, after ''Maroc Telecom'' unofficially announced that the denied access to the website was a mere "technical glitch".<ref>{{cite web |date=May 30, 2007 |title=''YouTube again accessible via Maroc Telecom'' |url=https://ar.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=22322 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130416003945/http://ar.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=22322 |archive-date=April 16, 2013 |access-date=May 30, 2007 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}</ref> * Turkey blocked access between 2008 and 2010 after controversy over videos deemed insulting to [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Jeffrey|last=Rosen|title=Google's Gatekeepers|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/30/magazine/30google-t.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 28, 2008|access-date=March 26, 2017|id={{ProQuest|905061951}}}}</ref><ref name="bbc turkey">{{cite news|title=Turkey goes into battle with Google|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/10480877.stm|work=BBC News|date=July 2, 2010|access-date=July 3, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Turkey lifts two-year ban on YouTube|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-11659816|date=October 30, 2010|access-date=October 31, 2010}}</ref> In November 2010, a video of the Turkish politician [[Deniz Baykal]] caused the site to be blocked again briefly, and the site was threatened with a new shutdown if it did not remove the video.<ref>{{cite news|title=Turkey Reinstates YouTube Ban|work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704462704575590420251199614.html?mod=googlenews_wsj|date=November 2, 2010|access-date=November 2, 2010|first=Marc|last=Champion}}</ref> During the two and a half-year block of YouTube, the video-sharing website remained the eighth-most-accessed site in Turkey.<ref>[https://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2012/turkey#_ftn21 "Turkey report"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927235933/https://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2012/turkey#_ftn21|date=September 27, 2012}}, ''Freedom on the Net 2012'', Freedom House, September 24, 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Top Sites in Turkey |url=https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/TR |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217112619/https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/TR |archive-date=February 17, 2022 |access-date=February 17, 2022 |publisher=[[Alexa Internet]]}}</ref> In 2014, Turkey blocked the access for the second time, after "a high-level intelligence leak."<ref>{{cite web |last=B. Kelley |first=Michael |date=March 27, 2014 |title=YouTube Blocked in Turkey Amid High-Level Intelligence Leak |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/youtube-blocked-in-turkey-2014-3 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |website=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26773702|title=Turkey moves to block YouTube access after 'audio leak'|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=March 27, 2014|access-date=March 27, 2014|newspaper=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Wagstaff, Keith |date=March 27, 2014 |title=YouTube Banned in Turkey |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/youtube-banned-turkey-n63776 |access-date=March 27, 2014 |work=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> * Pakistan blocked access on February 23, 2008, because of "offensive material" towards the Islamic faith, including display of the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy|Danish cartoons]] of [[Muhammad]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan blocks YouTube website|publisher=BBC|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7261727.stm|access-date=November 30, 2008|date=February 24, 2008}}</ref> This led to a near global blackout of the YouTube site for around two hours, as the Pakistani block was inadvertently transferred to other countries. On February 26, 2008, the ban was lifted after the website had removed the objectionable content from its servers at the request of the government.<ref name="PAK-ban-lifted">{{cite news|title=Pakistan lifts YouTube ban|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/02/27/2173501.htm?section=world|agency=AFP|publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)]]|date=February 26, 2008|access-date=February 26, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan lifts the ban on YouTube|publisher=BBC|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7262071.stm|access-date=November 30, 2008|date=February 26, 2008}}</ref> Many Pakistanis circumvented the three-day block by using [[virtual private network]] software.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pakistan web users get round YouTube ban |url=https://www.siliconrepublic.com/news/news.nv?storyid=single10381 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629065235/https://www.siliconrepublic.com/news/news.nv?storyid=single10381 |archive-date=June 29, 2008 |access-date=November 30, 2008 |publisher=Silicon Republic}}</ref> In May 2010, following the [[Everybody Draw Mohammed Day]], Pakistan again blocked access to YouTube, citing "growing sacrilegious content".<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan blocks access to YouTube in internet crackdown|work=BBC News|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/10130195.stm|access-date=May 20, 2010|date=May 20, 2010}}</ref> The ban was lifted on May 27, 2010, after the website removed the objectionable content from its servers at the request of the government. However, individual videos deemed offensive to Muslims posted on YouTube will continue to be blocked.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100722062958/http://www.metro.co.uk/news/828161-youtube-ban-lifted-by-pakistan-authorities "YouTube ban lifted by Pakistan authorities"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722062958/http://www.metro.co.uk/news/828161-youtube-ban-lifted-by-pakistan-authorities|date=July 22, 2010}}, Joanne McCabe, ''Metro'' (Associated Newspapers Limited, UK), May 27, 2010. Retrieved September 18, 2012</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130507082318/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-27/pakistan/28304621_1_blasphemous-caricatures-blasphemous-material-sacrilegious-content "Pakistan lifts ban on YouTube"], ''The Times of India'', May 27, 2010</ref> Pakistan again placed a ban on YouTube in September 2012, after the site refused to remove the film ''[[Innocence of Muslims]]''. The ban was lifted in January 2016 after YouTube launched a Pakistan-specific version.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan unblocks access to YouTube|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35345872|access-date=January 27, 2016|work=BBC News|date=January 18, 2016}}</ref> * Libya blocked access on January 24, 2010, because of videos that featured demonstrations in the city of [[Benghazi]] by families of detainees who were killed in [[Abu Salim prison]] in 1996, and videos of family members of Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]] at parties. The blocking was criticized by [[Human Rights Watch]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gMqNCaIpcd74x_33F16sT_6IDriw|title=Watchdog urges Libya to stop blocking websites|agency=Agence France-Presse|access-date=February 7, 2010}}</ref> In November 2011, after the [[2011 Libyan Civil War|Libyan Civil War]], YouTube was once again allowed in Libya.<ref>[https://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2012/libya "Libya"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927235826/https://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2012/libya|date=September 27, 2012}}, ''Freedom on the Net 2012'', Freedom House, September 24, 2012</ref> * [[Afghanistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Sudan]] blocked access in September 2012 following [[Reactions to Innocence of Muslims|controversy]] over a 14-minute trailer for the film ''[[Innocence of Muslims]]'' which had been posted on the site.<ref>[https://www.afghanistantimes.af/news_details.php?id=1654&&cid=1 "Afghanistan to unblock YouTube – Afghanistan Times"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117060611/https://www.afghanistantimes.af/news_details.php?id=1654&&cid=1|date=January 17, 2013}}, December 1, 2012.</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-youtube-idUSBRE88B0SC20120912 "Afghanistan bans YouTube to block anti-Muslim film"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924170643/https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/12/us-afghanistan-youtube-idUSBRE88B0SC20120912|date=September 24, 2015}}, Miriam Arghandiwal, Reuters (Kabul), September 12, 2012.</ref><ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/youtube-blocked-in-bangladesh-over-prophet-mohamed-video-8152056.html "YouTube blocked in Bangladesh over Prophet Mohamed video"], ''The Independent'' (AP), September 18, 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Haley|last=Tsukayama|title=YouTube blocked in Pakistan|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/youtube-blocked-in-pakistan/2012/09/17/30081fa2-00ea-11e2-b257-e1c2b3548a4a_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=September 17, 2012|access-date=March 26, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan, Bangladesh Block YouTube Amid Islam Film Protests|publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]]|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-09-18/pakistan-bangladesh-block-youtube-to-restrict-anti-islam-film.html|access-date=September 18, 2012|date=September 18, 2012|first=Arun|last=Devnath}}</ref> A court in the southern Russian Republic of [[Chechnya]] ruled that ''Innocence of Muslims'' should be banned.<ref>{{cite news|title=Russian court bans anti-Islam film|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-1-134721-Russian-court-bans-anti-Islam-film|newspaper=The News|date=September 29, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117060611/https://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-1-134721-Russian-court-bans-anti-Islam-film|archive-date=January 17, 2013}}</ref> In Libya and [[Egypt]], it was blamed for violent protests. YouTube stated: "This video—which is widely available on the Web—is clearly within our guidelines and so will stay on YouTube. However, given the very difficult situation in Libya and Egypt we have temporarily restricted access in both countries."<ref>{{cite news|title='Innocence of Muslims': Mystery shrouds film's California origins|work=Los Angeles Times|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/12/world/la-fg-libya-filmmaker-20120913|access-date=March 1, 2019|date=September 12, 2012|first1=Phil|last1=Willon|first2=Rebecca|last2=Keegan}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=YouTube restricts video access over Libyan violence|publisher=CNN|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/12/tech/web/youtube-violence-libya/index.html?hpt=hp_c3|access-date=September 13, 2012|date=September 12, 2012}}</ref> * Russia threatened to ban YouTube after the platform deleted two German RT channels in September 2021.<ref>{{Cite news|date=September 29, 2021|title=Russia threatens YouTube ban for deleting RT channels|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-58737433|access-date=February 27, 2022}}</ref> Following the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in February 2022, YouTube announced on March 1 the immediate removal of RT (and other Russian-government funded outlets) from its platform in Europe.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/youtube-block-channels-linked-russias-rt-sputnik-across-europe-2022-03-01/|title=YouTube to block channels linked to Russia's RT and Sputnik across Europe|work=Reuters|date=March 1, 2022|access-date=March 1, 2022}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Spoken Wikipedia|Youtube spoken word.ogg|date=March 26, 2011}} {{Portal|Companies|Internet|San Francisco Bay Area|United States}} {{div col}} * [[Alternative media]] * [[BookTube]] * [[BreadTube]] * [[CNN/YouTube presidential debates]] * [[Comparison of video hosting services]] * [[List of Google Easter eggs#YouTube]] * [[List of Internet phenomena]] * [[List of most-viewed online videos in the first 24 hours]] * [[List of most-disliked YouTube videos]] * [[List of most-liked YouTube videos]] * [[List of most-viewed YouTube videos]] * [[List of most-subscribed YouTube channels]] * [[List of online video platforms]] * [[List of YouTubers]] * ''[[Ouellette v. Viacom International Inc.]]'' * [[Reply girl]] * ''[[Viacom International Inc. v. YouTube, Inc.]]'' * [[YouTube Awards]] * [[YouTube Creator Awards]] * [[YouTube Instant]] * [[YouTube Live]] * [[Multi-channel network]] * [[YouTube Music Awards]] * [[YouTube Rewind]] * [[YouTube Theater]] * [[YouTube Poop]] {{div col end}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist|30em}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|last=Bergen|first=Mark|year=2022|title=Like, Comment, Subscribe: Inside YouTube's Chaotic Rise to World Dominance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1zhTEAAAQBAJ|location=New York|publisher=Viking|isbn=9780593296349|oclc=1289250597}}* {{Cite web |last=Dickey |first=Megan Rose |date=February 15, 2013 |title=The 22 Key Turning Points in the History of YouTube |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/key-turning-points-history-of-youtube-2013-2 |access-date=March 25, 2017 |website=[[Business Insider]]}} * {{Cite web |last=Haran |first=Brady |author-link=Brady Haran |author2=Hamilton, Ted |title=Why do YouTube views freeze at 301? |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226033151/https://www.numberphile.com/videos/301_views.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226033151/https://web.archive.org/web/20161226033151/https://www.numberphile.com/videos/301_views.html |archive-date=December 26, 2016 |access-date=April 8, 2013 |work=Numberphile |publisher=Brady Haran}} * {{Cite book|last=Kelsey|first=Todd|title=Social Networking Spaces: From Facebook to Twitter and Everything In Between|url=https://archive.org/details/socialnetworking0000kels|url-access=registration|year=2010|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=978-1-4302-2596-6}} * {{Cite book|last=Lacy|first=Sarah|title=The Stories of Facebook, YouTube and MySpace: The People, the Hype and the Deals Behind the Giants of Web 2.0|url=https://archive.org/details/storiesoffaceboo0000lacy|year=2008|publisher=Crimson|location=Richmond|isbn=978-1-85458-453-3}} * {{Cite news|last=Walker|first=Rob|title=On YouTube, Amateur Is the New Pro|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/01/magazine/on-youtube-amateur-is-the-new-pro.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=June 28, 2012|access-date=March 26, 2017}} {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links}} {{Scholia|topic}} * {{Official website}} {{YouTube navigation}} {{Google Inc.}} {{Alphabet Inc.}} {{Video digital distribution platforms}} {{Authority control}} {{Video game live streaming services}} [[Category:YouTube| ]] [[Category:2005 establishments in California]] [[Category:2006 mergers and acquisitions]] [[Category:Advertising video on demand]] [[Category:Alphabet Inc.]] [[Category:American companies established in 2005]] [[Category:Android (operating system) software]] [[Category:Companies based in San Mateo County, California]] [[Category:Go (programming language) software]] [[Category:Google acquisitions]] [[Category:Google services]] [[Category:Internet properties established in 2005]] [[Category:IOS software]] [[Category:Multilingual websites]] [[Category:PlayStation 4 software]] [[Category:PlayStation 5 software]] [[Category:Recommender systems]] [[Category:Social media]] [[Category:Transactional video on demand]] [[Category:Video game streaming services]] [[Category:Video hosting]] 7fy1x5ne6zzlnlvxvnmcyf3ogyj5c0p 0 29587 122341 118890 2026-09-25T00:20:19Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122341 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Bantu language}} {{Infobox language|name=Chiluvale|states=[[Angola]], [[Zambia]]|region=|ethnicity=[[Lovale]]|speakers={{sigfig|635,000|2}}|date=2001–2010|ref=e18|familycolor=Niger-Congo|fam2=[[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]|fam3=[[Volta-Congo]]|fam4=[[Benue–Congo languages|Benue–Congo]]|fam5=[[Bantoid languages|Bantoid]]|fam6=[[Southern Bantoid]]|fam7=[[Bantu languages|Bantu]] ([[Guthrie classification of Bantu languages#Zone K|Zone K]])|fam8=[[Chokwe–Luchazi languages|Chokwe–Luchazi]] (K.10)|minority=[[Zambia]]|script=[[Latin script|Latin]] (Luvale alphabet)<br>[[Luvale Braille]]|iso3=lue|glotto=luva1239|glottorefname=Luvale|guthrie=K.14}} '''ChiLuvale''' (panji Chiluvale, Lovale, Lubale, Luena, Lwena) ni chiyowoyero cha Bantu icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa Lovale ku [[Angola]] na [[Zambia]]. Chiyowoyero ichi chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu 168,000 mu Zambia. Luvale wakugwiliskira ntchito vilembo vya Cilatini.<ref>{{cite web |title=Luvale (Chiluvale) |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/luvale.htm |access-date=23 May 2022 |website=Omniglot}}</ref> Luvale wakukolerana comene na Chokwe. == Mazgu == Lili na mazgu ghanandi agho ghali kuwombokwa kufuma ku Ciphwitikizi kufuma ku vyaru vinyake mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900,<ref name="Tracing">{{cite book|last1=Albaugh|first1=Ericka A.|last2=de Luna|first2=Kathryn M.|title=Tracing language movement in Africa|date=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York, NY|isbn=9780190657550|pages=263, 267, 269, 271}}</ref> ngati ni: {| class="wikitable" !ChiLuvale ![[Chiphwitikizi]] ![[ChiZungu|Chizungu]] |- |''xikata'' |''escada'' |ladder |- |''xikitelu'' |''mosquitero'' |mosquito net |- |''ngatwe'' |''gato'' |cat |- |''mbalili'' |''barril'' |powder keg (lit. barrel) |- |''kaluwaxa'' |''carro'' |bicyle |- |''semana'' |''semana'' |week |} == Kuyowoya mazgu == === Kafumilo ka mazgu mu mlomo === {| class="wikitable" |+Kafumilo ka mazgu mu mlomo ka Chiluvale<ref name="phoible">{{cite web |last1=Moran |first1=Steven |last2=McCloy |first2=Daniel |title=Inventory Luvale (SPA 146) |url=https://phoible.org/inventories/view/146#tipa |access-date=29 May 2022 |website=PHOIBLE 2.0}}</ref> ! ![[:en:Bilabial_consonant|Bilabial]] ![[:en:Labiodental_consonant|Labio-dental]] ![[:en:Alveolar_consonant|Alveolar]] ![[:en:Postalveolar_consonant|Post-alveolar]] ![[:en:Palatal_consonant|Palatal]] ![[:en:Velar_consonant|Velar]] ![[:en:Glottal_consonant|Glottal]] |- |[[:en:Nasal_consonant|Nasal]] |[[:en:Voiced_bilabial_nasal| m]] | |[[:en:Voiced_alveolar_nasal| n]] | |[[:en:Voiced_palatal_nasal| ɲ]] |[[:en:Voiced_velar_nasal| ŋ]] | |- |[[:en:Plosive|Plosive]] |[[:en:Voiceless_bilabial_plosive| p]] | |[[:en:Voiceless_alveolar_plosive| t]] | | |[[:en:Voiceless_velar_plosive| k]] | |- |Sibilant [[:en:Fricative|fricative]] | | |[[:en:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative| s]] [[:en:Voiced_alveolar_fricative| z]] |[[:en:Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative| ʃ]] [[:en:Voiced_postalveolar_fricative| ʒ]] | | | |- |Non-sibilant fricative | |[[:en:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative| f]] | | | | |[[:en:Voiceless_glottal_fricative| h]] |- |[[:en:Approximant|Approximant]] | |[[:en:Voiced_labiodental_approximant| ʋ]] | | |[[:en:Voiced_palatal_approximant| j]] | | |} === Lemba === {| class="wikitable" |+Mavawelo gha Luvale<ref name="phoible" /> ! !Front !Back |- |Close |iː i |u uː |- |Close-mid |eː e |oː o |- |Open |aː a | |} == Ŵakuyowoya == * [[:en:Bernard_K._Mbenga|Bernard K. Mbenga]] * [[:en:Samba_Yonga|Samba Yonga]] * [[:en:Mokoomba|Mokoomba]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Vinandi == {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book|last=Horton|first=A. E.|title=A Grammar of Luvale|url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofluvale0000hort|date=1949|publisher=Witwatersrand University Press|location=Johannesburg|language=en}} * {{Cite book|last=Horton|first=Albert E.|title=A Dictionary of Luvale|date=1953|publisher=Lithographed by Rahn Bros. Print. & Lithographing|location=El Monte, Calif.|language=en}} {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == * {{Cite web |title=Luvale Reading Lessons |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621183747/http://lubutocollections.org/items/show/81 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621183747/https://web.archive.org/web/20150621183747/http://lubutocollections.org/items/show/81 |archive-date=2015-06-21 |access-date=2014-05-04 |website=Lubuto Library Special Collections |language=en}} * Moses C.B. Mulongesa, ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20150621021714/http://lubutocollections.org/items/show/74 Vishimo vya Kuuko],'' Lubuto Library Special Collections, accessed May 3, 2014. * [https://archive.today/20140504014129/http://lubutocollections.org/items/browse?search=luvale&submit_search=Search Luvale language books], Lubuto Library Special Collections * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230430044535/http://www.language-archives.org/language/lue OLAC resources in and about the Luvale language] {{Languages of Angola}}{{Languages of Zambia}}{{Narrow Bantu languages|J-M}}{{Authority control}} {{Angola-stub}} {{Zambia-stub}} {{Bantu-lang-stub}} 9c7os14ch1l0o44f296nj43obf2knos 0 30259 122351 118839 2026-09-25T01:13:07Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122351 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Former President of Zambia (1948–2008)}} {{Nkhani iwemi}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}{{Infobox officeholder|name=Levy Mwanawasa|image=Levy Mwanawasa small.jpg|caption=Mwanawasa pa 16 Malichi 2006|order=3rd [[President of Zambia]]|vicepresident=[[Enoch Kavindele]]<br />[[Nevers Mumba]]<br />[[Lupando Mwape]]<br />[[Rupiah Banda]]|term_start=2 January 2002|term_end=19 August 2008|predecessor=[[Frederick Chiluba]]|successor=[[Rupiah Banda]]|order2=4th [[Wachiwiri kwa Purezidenti wa Zambia]]|president2=[[Frederick Chiluba]]|term_start2=7 November 1991|term_end2=3 July 1994|predecessor2=''Office restored''|successor2=[[Godfrey Miyanda]]|birth_date={{birth date|df=yes|1948|09|03}}|birth_place=[[Mufulira]], Loangwa, [[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]])|death_date={{death date and age|df=yes|2008|08|19|1948|09|03}}|death_place=[[Clamart]], [[France]]|death_cause=[[Stroke]]|restingplace=Embassy Park, [[Lusaka]]|party=[[Movement for Multiparty Democracy|MMD]]|spouse=[[Maureen Mwanawasa]]|children=7|profession=Lawyer}} '''Levy Patrick Mwanawasa''' (3 Sekutembala 1948 - 19 Ogasiti 2008) wakaŵa purezidenti wachitatu wa [[Zambia]]. Wakaŵa pulezidenti kwamba mu Janyuwale 2002 m'paka apo wakafwira mu Ogasiti 2008. Mwanawasa wakuwoneka kuti ndiyo wakambiska kampeni yakuwuskamo vimbundi mu Zambia mu nyengo iyo wakaŵa na mazaza.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7488623.stm|title=Obituary: Zambia's Levy Mwanawasa|work=[[BBC News]]|date=19 August 2008}}</ref>Pambere Mwanawasa wandasankhike, wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti wa Zambia kufuma mu Novembala 1991 mpaka Julayi 1994, apo wakaŵa wa [[Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Zambia|Nyumba ya Malamulo]] wa [[Chifubu Constituency]]. == Umoyo Wakwambilira == Mwanawasa wakababikira ku Mufulira, [[Rhodesia Wakumpoto|Northern Rhodesia]]. Wakaŵa na digiri ya vya malango pa Yunivesite ya Zambia. Wakagwiranga nchito mu maofesi gha malango kufuma mu 1974 mpaka mu 1978 apo wakapangiska kampani yake: Mwanawasa & Company. Mu 1985, Mwanawasa wakaŵa loya mu boma la Zambia kweni wakawelera ku private practice mu 1986.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baylies|first1=Carolyn|last2=Szeftel|first2=Morris|date=1992|title=The Fall and Rise of Multi-Party Politics in Zambia|journal=Review of African Political Economy|volume=19|issue=54|pages=75–91|doi=10.1080/03056249208703954|jstor=4006169|issn=0305-6244}}</ref> [[File:Levy_Mwanawasa_2004-09-23.jpg|thumb|Levy Patrick Mwanawasa]] Mu 1989, wakalongozga gulu lakuvikilira Lt. Gen. [[Christon Tembo]], uyo boma la [[Kenneth Kaunda]] likamupa mulandu wakuti wakakhumbanga kuwuskapo boma, ndipo wakeruzgika kuti ni munthu wakwendera mphiska. [[Frederick Chiluba]] wakati wasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti, wakasankha Mwanawasa kuŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti mu Novembala 1991. Mwanawasa wakaleka nchito yake mu Malici 1992. == Ngozi == Pambere ungano wa chipani chake wa 1990, Mwanawasa wakaphalirika kuti waŵe pulezidenti wa [[Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD)]] kweni wakakana, chifukwa cha uwukirano wake na kuleka kumanya vinandi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Remembering Levy Mwanawasa – Zambia Daily Mail |url=http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/remembering-levy-mwanawasa/ |access-date=2019-07-05 |website=www.daily-mail.co.zm}}</ref> M'malo mwake wakasankha kunjira mu nyumba ya malango ndipo wakathereska ŵanthu ŵanandi. Pa Disembala 8, 1991, Mwanawasa wakachita ngozi yikuru ya pa msewu iyo yikakoma movwiri wake. Wakaŵa na vilonda vinandi ndipo wakatolekera ku Johannesburg, South Africa kuti wakapike munkhwala. Wakakhala mu cipatala myezi yitatu. Chifukwa cha ngozi iyi, wakayowoya makora yayi. Pakaŵaso komiti yakudandawura kuti yamanye uyo wakakhumbanga kukoma munthu uyu. == Ndyali == Mwanawasa wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti mpaka apo wakafumako mu Julayi 1994.<ref name="chronology">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVrVK2ElINMC&pg=PA704|title=Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997|first1=Jacqueline Audrey|last1=Kalley|first2=Elna|last2=Schoeman|first3=Lydia Eve|last3=Andor|date=November 28, 1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313302473|via=Google Books}}</ref>Mu 1996, wakawina mpikisano wa Chiluba kuti waŵe pulezidenti wa Movement for Multiparty Democracy. Mwanawasa wakati watondeka, wakafumapo mu ndyali m'paka apo wakasankhikira mu chaka cha 2001. == Chisankho cha 2001 == Mu Ogasiti 2001, Komiti ya National Executive ya MMD yikasankha Mwanawasa kuŵa mulongozgi wawo pa mavoti gha 2001. Wakathereska pa mavoti agho ghakachitika pa 27 Disembala, 2001, na 29% chifukwa cha mavoti gha Zambia agho ghakaŵa ghakudumura, ndipo wakathereska banthu ŵanyake 10 kusazgapo ŵaŵiri awo ŵakaŵa vice president (Godfrey Miyanda na Gen. Christon Tembo); Anderson Mazoka wali pa chigaŵa chachiŵiri na 27%, kuyana na ma results gha boma. Mwanawasa wakamba kuwusa pa 2 January 2002. Ndipouli, ivyo vikacitika pa mavoti vikaŵa vyakukayikiska na magulu ghakurughakuru gha ŵakususka, kusazgapo chipani ca Mazoka cha United Party for National Development, ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona vinthu ŵakuyowoya kuti cikathereska nadi mavoti. Ŵalinda ŵa pa caru cose na ŵa ku vyaru vinyake ŵakayowoya kuti pakaŵa vinthu vyambura kwenelera ivyo vikacitika pa kampeni na pa mavoti, kusazgapo kunanga mavoti, kulembeska mavoti mwambura kwenelera, kuŵika nkhani zautesi mu manyuzipepara, kweniso kuti MMD yikagwiliskira nchito uheni ndalama za boma. Mu Janyuwale 2002, ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵakususka boma ŵakachita apilu ku Khoti Likuru Chomene kuti Mwanawasa wathereskeke. Nangauli khoti likakolerana na fundo yakuti mavoti ghakaŵa ghakubudika, kweni mu Febuluwale 2005, likadumura kuti vinthu ivi vikakhwaska yayi ivyo vikachitika.<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/inc/content/pubs/fiw/inc_country_detail.cfm?year=2006&country=7091&pf Freedom in the World&nbsp;— Zambia (2006)].</ref> == Nyengo yakwamba kuŵa pulezidenti == Mu February 2002, boma la Mwanawasa likapeleka mulandu wa kusesa zina la mulembi wa Zambia Post, Fred M'membe na mphala ya malango ya chipani chakususka Dipak Patel chifukwa cha nkhani iyo M'membe wakalemba apo Patel wakachemanga Mwanawasa kuti ni "kavuchi". Ndipouli, Mwanawasa wakalongosora kuti wakayezga kukhozga "kuphemana kwa fuko", Mwanawasa wakasora ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakususka boma mu ofesi yake mu Febuluwale 2003, kusazgapo Patel wa FDD kuŵa Minisita wa vya Malonda, Malonda, na Makampani, na Sylvia Masebo wa ZRP kuŵa Minisita wa Boma. Ndipouli, Godfrey Miyanda, uyo nayo wakaŵa wa chipani chakususka, wakasuska ndipo wakawofya kuti wamususka. Mu Janyuwale 2005, Mwanawasa wakaphepiska ku chalo chifukwa cha kutondeka kumazga ukavu mu Zambia. Pafupifupi ŵanthu 75 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose mu charu ichi ŵakakhalanga na ndalama zakukwana dola limoza pa zuŵa. Wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa MMD kwa nyengo ya vilimika vinkhondi mu 2005.<ref name="VOA6">James Butty, [https://archive.today/20110522154932/http://voanews.com/english/Africa/2008-07-21-voa6.cfm "Zambia's Ruling Party Is Not Seeking Mwanawasa's Replacement, Spokesman Said"], VOA News, 21 July 2008.</ref> == Chisankho cha 2006 == Mwanawasa wakajipeleka ku mavoti ghaciŵiri mu mavoti gha purezidenti agho ghakacitika pa 28 September 2006. Michael Sata wa ku Patriotic Front ndiyo wakawonekanga kuti ni mulwani wake mukuru. Wakasoleka pa 2 Okutobala; mwakuyana na mavoti gha boma, wakapokera mavoti 42.98%. Wakapika mazaza ghanyake pa Okutobala 3. Pakati pajumpha mazuŵa ghachoko waka, wakasora nduna ziphya na kwimika Rupiah Banda kuŵa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti.<ref>Shapi Shacinda, [http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=68&art_id=qw1160400961250B251 "Mwanawasa warns challenger, names new cabinet"], Reuters (''IOL''), 9 October 2006.</ref> == Ndondomeko == [[File:Rodrigo_and_Mwanawasa.jpg|thumb|Levy Mwanawasa wakakumana na mulara wa IMF Rodrigo Rato mu 2006]] [[File:Laura_Bush_with_Zambian_President_Levy_Mwanawasa_and_First_Lady_Maureen_Mwanawasa.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Muwoli wakwamba wa boma la United States Laura Bush (L) na Pulezidenti Levy Mwanawasa (pakati) pamoza na muwoli wake, Muwoli wakwamba Maureen Mwanawasa mu 2007]] Awo ŵakuguliska ndalama ku vyaru vinyake ŵakamutemwanga Mwanawasa, chifukwa cha kulimbana na vimbundi. Pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa pulezidenti, Zambia yikapokera ndalama kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Cinthu cikuru ico cikapangiska kuti vinthu vyakuthupi vyambe kwenda makora cikaŵa migodi. Ndondomeko ya Mwanawasa yikawovwira kuchepeska unandi wa ndalama na kovwira ŵakavu. Ŵalendo na ŵalimi ŵazungu ŵakafumako ku Zimbabwe na kovwira ndyali ya Zambia. Mwanawasa wakazgora tawuni ya Livingstone, kufupi na Victoria Falls, kuŵa malo ghakwendakwenda. Zambia yikapokera wovwiri unandi comene na kucepeskako ngongoli cifukwa ca kusintha vinthu na "nkhongono za Mwanawasa". Pafupifupi, ciŵelengero ca cuma cikakura kufika pa 6% pa caka. Mwanawasa wakasuska pulezidenti Robert Mugabe wa Zimbabwe. Mwanawasa wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵakwamba ŵa mu Africa kucita nthena. Mwanawasa wakati wafwa, mulongozgi wa chipani cha Zimbabwe Morgan Tsvangirai wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwamba kulongora chitima. Mwanawasa wakaguliska Konkola Copper Mines ku Vedanta pa mtengo wa madola 25 miliyoni nangauli pakwamba ŵakamupempha madola 400 miliyoni. Ndalama izo kampani iyi yikasanga mu myezi yitatu yikakwana $25 miliyoni. Pamanyuma yikasanga phindu la $500 miliyoni pa chaka nangauli yikafipiska malo. Mwanawasa wakaŵa wakunozgeka kupokelera ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Kiribati awo ŵakwiza ku Zambia chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo, ndipo wakaphalira Anote Tong kuti caru ici cili na "malo ghanandi" kweni palije umoza uwo wafiskika.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vince|first=Gaia|author-link=Gaia Vince|date=2014|title=Adventures in the Anthropocene|url=https://archive.org/details/adventuresinanth0000vinc|publisher=[[Milkweed Editions]]|isbn=978-1-57131-357-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/adventuresinanth0000vinc/page/157 157]}}</ref> == Umoyo == Mu Epulero 2006, Mwanawasa wakasuzgika na sitiroku. Pa 29 Juni 2008, apo wakaŵa ku Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, ku ungano wa African Union, Mwanawasa wakagonekeka mu chipatala chifukwa cha sitiroko yachiŵiri. Pa Julayi 1, wupu wa International SOS ukamutolera ku France kuti wakatozgeke. Mulara wa chipatala cha ku Eguputo uko Mwanawasa wakatolekera, wakati ŵadokotala ŵakamuleka yayi kuthiska ndopa mu wongo. Wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti Banda wakayowoya kuti umoyo wake uli makora, ndipo nduna ya vya makani Mike Mulongoti yikati Mwanawasa wakaŵa na nthenda ya kuthukira kwa ndopa. Mulongoti wakayowoyaso kuti Mwanawasa wakaŵa "munthu wakulimbikira ntchito" ndipo wakati ici cingaŵa cifukwa. Chifukwa chakuti Mwanawasa wakaŵa wambura nkhongono, Banda wakazgoka pulezidenti wakwendakwenda.<ref name="VOA">James Butty, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080707001704/http://voanews.com/english/Africa/2008-07-01-voa8.cfm "Zambian President Has Had a History of Hypertension, Says Information Minister"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080707001704/http://voanews.com/english/Africa/2008-07-01-voa8.cfm|date=7 July 2008}}, VOA News, 2 July 2008.</ref> === Malipoti gha nyifwa === Pa 3 July 2008 nyuzipepala yikamba kulemba kuti Mwanawasa wakafwira mu chipatala ku Paris chifukwa cha sitiroko. Nkhani iyi yikamba pa 702 Talk Radio ya ku Johannesburg, iyo yikayowoya vya Malone Zaza, uyo wakati ndiyo wakwendeska ndondomeko pa ofesi ya Zambia ku Pretoria, South Africa. Kweni komiti iyi yikakana kuti pali munthu munyake uyo wali na zina ili. Mulongoti, uyo wakuyowoya m'malo mwa boma, wakati nkhani ya nyifwa ya Mwanawasa "ni yautesi", ndipo wakaciska ŵapharazgi ŵa ku South Africa kuti ŵaŵe ŵakujikora pakulemba nkhani zawo. Apo nkhani izi zikapharazgikanga, Pulezidenti wa South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, wakachema kuti Mwanawasa wakumbukirike kwa nyengo yitali.<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=13&art_id=nw20080703180911345C945113 "False death reports cover globe"], Sapa (''IOL''), 3 July 2008.</ref> === Umo Ŵakagwilira Ntchito ku France === Mwanawasa wakagonekeka mu cipatala ca Percy Military Hospital ku Clamart, kufupi na Paris. Mu mazgu gha pa 7 July 2008, Banda wakayowoya kuti Mwanawasa "wakukhalilira mu umoyo wakukhora" kweni wakeneranga kuchitika opareshoni, iyo Banda wakati yikaŵa yichoko, kuti wamazge suzgo la kupumura. Pa Julayi 8, Banda wakayowoya kuti mulimo uwu ukaŵa wakwenda makora. Pa Julayi 11, Banda wakayowoya kuti Mwanawasa wali makora ndipo ŵadokotala "ŵakukhorwa na umo waliri sono". Benny Tetamashimba, mulongozgi wa MMD wa Information and Publicity, wakayowoya kuti MMD "yikwenela kwamba kupenja munthu wakunjira mu malo mwa Mwanawasa pakuŵa mulongozgi wa MMD". Mulongoti wakayowoya pa wayilesi ya boma pa Julayi 14, wakati fundo ya Tetamashimba yikukolerana yayi na maghanoghano gha boma. Mtsogoleri wa United Party for National Development Hakainde Hichilema adati kulephera kwa Mwanawasa kwalemaza ntchito za boma. Pa 15 July, mulongozgi wa Patriotic Front, Michael Sata wakadandawura na ivyo boma likayowoya vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Mwanawasa, ndipo wakapempha kuti boma litume ŵadokotala kuti ŵakamuwone Mwanawasa. Pa Julayi 17, MMD yikapharazga kuti Tetamashimba wangakaŵa na chilango, kusazgapo kuti wangasezgeka mu chipani. Tetamashimba wakati ŵanthu ŵakamupulikiska yayi. Wakayowoyaso kuti umoyo wa Mwanawasa ukwenda makora ndipo "wakuzomera kupokera munkhwala", kweni wakati boma likugwira makora ntchito ndipo wakususka ivyo boma likuyowoya kuti ŵadokotala ŵapeleke lipoti la umoyo wa Mwanawasa. Banda wakapeleka uthenga unyake wakukhwaskana na umo Mwanawasa waliri pa Julayi 24, ndipo wakati "wakulutilira makora". Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagomezga yayi ivyo Banda wakayowoya. Nduna ya zaumoyo Brian Chituwo, pakuyowoya panthazi pa National Assembly pa 8 August, yikati Mwanawasa "kuchizgika kwake kuzamuŵa kwa nyengo yitali" chifukwa cha "nthenda yake yikuru".<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=3045&art_id=nw20080808171949487C364197 "Zambia president 'facing long recuperation'"], Sapa-AFP, 8 August 2008.</ref> === Kufwa === Wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti Banda wakayowoya pa Ogasiti 18 kuti umoyo wa Mwanawasa ukahenipa mwamabuci ndipo wakakhumbikwiranga munkhwala mwaluŵiro. Kuyana na ivyo Banda wakayowoya, wovwiri uwu ukaŵa wakovwira, kweni Mwanawasa wakaŵa mu suzgo yikuru. Pa Ogasiti 19, munthu munyake wa mu mbumba ya Mwanawasa uyo wakakhumba yayi kuzunulika zina lake, wakati Mwanawasa wakafwa mulenji wenewura. Nkhani ya nyifwa ya Mwanawasa yikakhozgeka na Banda kwizira mu wayilesi ya Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC). Iyo wakaphalira mtundu kuti Mwanawasa wakafwa mulenji wenewura pa 10:30 (8:30 GMT) ku Percy Military Hospital ku Paris. Pakulongosora "chitima chikuru na chitima chikuru", Banda wakapharazga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia ŵaŵe na citengero kwa mazuŵa ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ndipo wakaŵachiska kuti "ŵalutilire kuŵa ŵakufwasa na kulira pulezidenti withu mwantchindi". Pa Ogasiti 21, nyengo ya kulira maliro yikatora mazuŵa 21.<ref name="Arrangements">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080910051407/http://www.statehouse.gov.zm/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=416&Itemid=47 "STATE FUNERAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE LATE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF ZAMBIA, DR. LEVY P MWANAWASA SC"], Zambian Presidency website, 21 August 2008.</ref> Wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa Zambia kufwa uku wali pa udindo wake. === Umo munthu wakujipulikira para wafwa === Michael Sata wa Patriotic Front wakayowoya kuti nyifwa ya Mwanawasa ni "masoka gha chalo", ndipo wakachiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia kuti ŵakhale chete. Nyuzipepara yinyake ya boma yakucemeka Zambia Daily Mail yikati nyifwa yake ni "zuŵa la mdima comene ku Zambia". Apo caru cikaŵa mu citima, ndipo ndembera zikaŵa pasi, ungano wa National Assembly uwo ukaŵa mukati ukayimiskika; ŵadokotala ŵakamba kunjira mu ciyezgo, maseŵero gha maseŵero ghakaŵikika, ndipo viphikiro vyose vya ŵanthu, nthengwa na viphikiro vya mazuŵa ghakubabikira, vikaŵikika. Mu nyumba za ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia na mu mabara mukaŵavya sumu za cimwemwe. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, nyuzipepara na manyuzipepara vikawona kuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa pulezidenti wawo. Pulezidenti wakale Kenneth Kaunda wakawonga Mwanawasa, wakati wakaŵa "muteŵeti waunenesko wa ŵanthu awo ŵakateŵetera caru ici na nchindi. Wakalondezganga dango na kulimbana na vimbundi. ...Tasoŵa mulongozgi muwemi uyo wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera pa nkhani ya ulongozgi na masuzgo agho caru cikukumana nagho".<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=68&art_id=nw20080820123610470C605654 "Zambia mourns its president"], Sapa-Associated Press (''IOL''), 20 August 2008.</ref> === Panyifwa === Mulara wa boma Banda wakapharazga ndondomeko ya nyifwa ya Mwanawasa pa 21 August. Kuyana na pulogiramu iyi, para thupi la Mwanawasa lawelera ku Zambia, lizamugona ku Mulungushi International Conference Centre ku Lusaka, msumba ukuru. Kufuma apo, pa Ogasiti 25 m'paka 29, wupu uwu uzamuluta ku vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Ŵakamusunga pa zuŵa ilo wakababikira. Mwanawasa wakeneranga kufiska vyaka 60 pa zuŵa ili. Thupi la Mwanawasa likafika ku Lusaka kufuma ku France pa ndege ya nkhondo ya France pa 23 August. Ŵakapokelereka na ntchindi zikuru comene; Banda na Kaunda ŵakaŵapo pa ciphikiro ici, ndipo ŵakawuska futi 21 na ndege za nkhondo. Kufuma apo, ŵakaluta nalo ku misumba yikuru yose ya ku Zambia, uko ŵanthu ŵakakumbuka nyifwa yake. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani icho chikulongozga na awo ŵakususka boma, pamoza na mbumba yakwamba, ŵakaluta nayo. Mwambo wa kusungika kwa Mwanawasa ukachitika pa 3 Seputembala ku Embassy Park pafupi na ofesi ya nduna ya Zambia. Pa nyifwa iyi pakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru 14 vya mu Africa, kusazgapo Mbeki, Robert Mugabe wa ku Zimbabwe, na Jakaya Kikwete wa ku Tanzania. Pa nyifwa ya mfumu wake, Maureen Mwanawasa wakayowoya kuti: "Mukafwa pa nchito. Mukafwa na citima cifukwa cakuti palije uyo wakazirwiska sembe zinu. Usange muŵengepo, mphanyi mukakondwa chomene".<ref name="Unappreciated">[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/09/03/africa/AF-Zambia-Presidents-Funeral.php "Zambian leader's wife says he died unappreciated"], Associated Press (''International Herald Tribune''), 3 September 2008.</ref> ==== Ivyo Ŵanthu Ŵakuyowoya ==== * Wupu wa African Union  African Union Chairman of the commission Jean Ping wakadandawura pa 19 August, wakati nyifwa ya Mwanawasa yikaŵa "njakuŵinya chomene kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia pera yayi kweniso ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Africa na charu chose cha Africa". Wapampando wa African Union, Jakaya Kikwete (uyo ni purezidenti wa Tanzania), wakati "Africa yikumbukenge Mwanawasa cifukwa ca mulimo wake wa kumazga mphindano za mu Africa comenecomene apo wakaŵa wapampando wa Southern African Development Community".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080822221741/http://www.news24.com/News24/Africa/News/0,,2-11-1447_2379008,00.html "Africa mourns Mwanawasa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822221741/http://www.news24.com/News24/Africa/News/0,,2-11-1447_2379008,00.html|date=22 August 2008}}, AFP (News24), 19 August 2008.</ref> * Commonwealth of Nations Secretary-General Kamalesh Sharma: "Wakajipeleka comene ku vilato vya Commonwealth vya kuti ŵanthu wose ŵakure na kuŵa na umoyo uwemi, kweniso fundo zake za demokilase, muwuso uwemi, wanangwa wa ŵanthu na dango. Wakafwilirapo kufiska vilato ivi mu Zambia na mu cigaŵa ici, comenecomene pakuŵa Mulara wa Wupu wa Southern African Development Community". * {{flag|France}}&nbsp;– President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]]: "The president of the Republic presents in his own name and in the name of the French people, his most saddened condolences to his family and the Zambian people." * {{flag|Kenya}}&nbsp;– President [[Mwai Kibaki]]: "During struggle for plural politics in Zambia, the late Mwanawasa played a pivotal role and was not only a source of inspiration and encouragement to the people but also displayed tremendous powers of the application of the rule of law." * {{flag|Namibia}}&nbsp;– President [[Hifikepunye Pohamba]]: "On behalf of the Government of the Republic of Namibia and indeed on my own behalf and that of the First Lady HE Mrs Penehupifo Pohamba, I wish to convey our deepest and most sincere condolences to the widow, HE Mrs Maureen Mwanawasa, the entire family and to the Government and people of the Republic of Zambia." * {{RSA}}&nbsp;– South African President [[Thabo Mbeki]] expressed "heartfelt condolences to the government and people of Zambia and to his widow Maureen Mwanawasa and the children".<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=13&art_id=nw20080820143441323C417934 "Mbeki offers condolences to Zambia"], Sapa (''IOL''), 20 August 2008.</ref> Later, at Mwanawasa's funeral, he said that Mwanawasa had contributed to "the restoration and strengthening of regional political unity and cohesion".<ref name="Unappreciated" /> * {{flag|Tanzania}}&nbsp;– At Mwanawasa's funeral, Tanzanian President [[Jakaya Kikwete]] said that Mwanawasa was "a great leader, a true pan-Africanist and a champion of the poor".<ref name="Unappreciated" /> * {{flag|Uganda}}&nbsp;– State Minister for Foreign Affairs [[Okello Oryem]] said Ugandans "share Zambia's sorrow during this period of mourning," while the Leader of the Opposition in Parliament Prof. [[Ogenga Latigo]] stated, "Mr Mwanawasa will be remembered for his contribution in the fight against corruption." * {{flag|United Nations}}&nbsp;– Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]]: "Mr. Mwanawasa was at the forefront of Zambian politics at a time of exceptional challenge and change in his country." * {{flag|United Nations}}&nbsp;– The [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] observed a minute silence and several ambassadors spoke in tribute of his life on behalf of various groups of nations.<ref>{{UN document|docid=A-62-PV.117|body=General Assembly|type=Verbatim Report|session=62|meeting=117|page=1|anchor=pg001-bk02|date=4 September 2008|accessdate=8 November 2008|title=Tribute to the memory of His Excellency Levy Patrick Mwanawasa, President of the Republic of Zambia}}</ref> * {{USA}}&nbsp;– President [[George W. Bush]]: "As Chairman of the Southern African Development Community, President Mwanawasa worked tirelessly to uphold the values of good governance, speaking out against human rights abuses and threats to democracy when many others were silent." * {{flag|Zimbabwe}}&nbsp;– Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe said at the funeral: "Mwanawasa was a very courageous leader. He was very frank and wanted to change not only his country but the entire southern African region. We will greatly miss him."<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=68&art_id=nw20080903091035367C177763 "Mugabe pays tribute to his arch-critic"], Sapa-AFP (''IOL''), 3 September 2008.</ref> == Umoyo wa munthu == Mwanawasa wakatora Maureen Mwanawasa pa 7 May 1987, ndipo ŵakakhalira lumoza mpaka nyifwa yake. Wakaŵa na ŵana 7: Miriam, Patrick, Lorna, Chipokota Mwanawasa, Matolo, Lubona na Ntembe. Miriam na Patrick ŵakaŵa ŵa mu nthengwa yakwamba. Muwoli wake wakaŵa Kaboni wa Yehova, kweni pamanyuma wakafumiskika mu mpingo cifukwa ca kunjilirapo comene mu ndyali. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵakukana kunjilirapo pa ndyali. Wakabapatizika mu 2005 ku tchalitchi la Twin Palm Baptist ku Lusaka. Mu Seputembala 2007, Mwanawasa wakaluta ku Arkansas ku United States kukayowoya nkhani ku Harding University ku Searcy ndipo wakapokera digiri ya udokotala ku koleji. Apo wakaŵa ku Arkansas, wakayowoya na ŵana ŵa sukulu na ŵapharazgi pa University of Arkansas Clinton School of Public Service pa nkhani ya umoyo wa ŵanthu, vyachuma na vya ndyali mu Zambia na chigaŵa ichi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clinton School Speaker Series |url=http://www.clintonschoolspeakers.com |access-date=15 September 2009 |publisher=Clintonschoolspeakers.com}}</ref> == Ukaboni == {{reflist|30em}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Commons category-inline}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100524092935/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article4567418.ece The Times: Levy Mwanawasa: Zambian President (Obituary)] * [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/2586928/Levy-Mwanawasa.html The Telegraph: Levy Mwanawasa, President of Zambia who stood out among African leaders in his condemnation of the regime of Robert Mugabe] {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Frederick Chiluba]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of Zambia]]|years=2002–2008}} {{s-aft|after=[[Rupiah Banda]]}} {{s-bef|before=''Office restored''}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Vice-President of Zambia]]|years=1991–1994}} {{s-aft|after=[[Godfrey Miyanda]]}} {{s-end}} {{ZambianPresidents}} {{ZambianVicePresidents}} {{2001 presidential candidates, Zambia}} {{2006 presidential candidates, Zambia}} {{African Union chairpersons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mwanawasa, Levy}} [[Category:1948 births]] [[Category:2008 deaths]] [[Category:People from Mufulira]] [[Category:Zambian Baptists]] [[Category:Movement for Multi-Party Democracy politicians]] [[Category:Presidents of Zambia]] [[Category:Vice-presidents of Zambia]] [[Category:Members of the National Assembly of Zambia]] [[Category:20th-century Zambian lawyers]] [[Category:University of Zambia alumni]] [[Category:20th-century Baptists]] a3uktrez3xr1ezj8k1sjg00x404wepu 0 37570 122358 118873 2026-09-25T01:40:51Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122358 wikitext text/x-wiki {{nkhaniiwemi}} {{History of Zambia}} '''Mbiri ya Zambia''' yili na vigaŵa vinandi, kwamba pa nyengo iyo yikaŵa pasi pa [[Britain]] m'paka apo yikafwatukira ku Britain pa Okutobala 24, 1964. [[Northern Rhodesia]] yikazgoka chigaŵa cha Britain mu malo agho sono ni Zambia mu 1888, ndipo yikapharazgika kuti ni boma la Britain mu 1924. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, vyaru vya [[Southern Rhodesia]], Northern Rhodesia, na [[Nyasaland]] vikasazgikana na kuzgoka [[British Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]]. Kuzakafika mu 1960, Harold Macmillan, nduna yikuru ya Britain, yikati muwuso wa ŵasilikari ŵa caru ca Africa uli pafupi kumara. Paumaliro, mu Disembala 1963, wupu uwu ukamara, ndipo pa Okutobala 24, 1964, Republic of Zambia yikapangika kufuma ku Northern Rhodesia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambia Gains its Independence From the U.K. |url=https://aaregistry.org/story/zambia-gains-independence/ |access-date=2022-04-17 |website=African American Registry |language=en}}</ref> ==Mbili== [[File:Rhodesian Man.jpg|thumb|left|Mutu wa munthu wa ku Broken Hill ukasangika ku Kabwe.]] ===Prehistoric era=== Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura mu Dambo la Zambezi na ku Kalambo Falls vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo ghakupambanapambana. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa malo ghakukhalapo pafupi na maji gha Kalambo, ŵali kusanga kuti ni vyaka vyakujumpha 36,000. Viwangwa vya munthu wa ku Broken Hill, ivyo vikusangika pakati pa vyaka 300,000 na 125,000 B.C.E., vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Malcolm Southwood, Bruce Cairncross & Mike S. Rumsey|date=2019|title=Minerals of the Kabwe ("Broken Hill") Mine, Central Province, Zambia, Rocks & Minerals|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00357529.2019.1530038|journal=Rocks & Minerals|volume=94:2|pages=114–149|doi=10.1080/00357529.2019.1530038|s2cid=135446729}}</ref> === Khoisan na Batwa === [[File:NsaluCave.jpg|thumb|Vinthu vyakale (kweni vili kulembeka pa malibwe) mu mphanji ya Nsalu, Kasanka National Park ku North-Central Zambia.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Khoisan na Batwa ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu charu cha Zambia m'paka cha m'ma 300 C.E. apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakafuma ku [[East Africa]] ndipo ŵakamba kukhala kumwera vyaka pafupifupi 150,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Twa ŵakagaŵikana mu magulu ghaŵiri: Kafwe Twa ŵakakhalanga kufupi na Kafue flat apo ŵa mtundu wa Lukanga Twa ŵakakhalanga kufupi na [[Lukanga Swamp]]. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikalembeka mu miyala vyakale ku Zambia, nga ni vyakujambura vya mu miyala vya ku Mwela, mphanji za Mumbwa, na mphanji za Nachikufu, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵalwani. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan, chomenechomene ŵa mtundu wa Twa, ŵakakhalanga pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto mu charu cha Central na Southern Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Holmes|first=Timothy|title=Cultures of the World: Zambia|publisher=Times Books International|year=1998|isbn=978-0-7614-0694-5|location=Tarrytown, New York|pages=19–20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-30|title=Twa|url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/pre-bantu-invasion/twa/|access-date=2020-10-27|website=Zambia's Traditional History|language=en}}</ref> ===The Bantu (Abantu)=== Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu panji Abantu (ŵanthu awo ŵakung'anamura ŵanthu) ni ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ndipo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi, kumwera, na ku Central Africa. Cifukwa cakuti Zambia yili pa mphambano ya Central Africa, Southern Africa, na African Great Lakes, ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu Zambia mazuŵa ghano ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vitatu ivi. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika mu vigaŵa vitatu ivi vikacitika nyengo yimoza. Ntheura, nga ni umo viliri na vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, mbiri ya Zambia yingalembeka mwakudumura yayi. Mbiri yakwambilira ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia yikusangika mu mabuku agho ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pamulomo, ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale, na mu mabuku agho ŵanthu awo ŵakalembako yayi ndiwo ŵakalemba.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Taylor|first1=Scott D.|title=Culture and Customs of Zambia|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/scott_d._taylor_culture_and_customs_of_zambia_cbook4you.pdf|publisher=Greenwood Press|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref> ====Bantu origins==== Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakakhalanga ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 4,000 na 3,000, ŵakamba kuthandazgika mu vyaru vinandi. Cinthu ici cikacemeka Bantu Expansion, ico nchimoza mwa vinthu vikuru comene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakasamira mu caru. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kunjizga visulo mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakendanga mu nthowa ziŵiri: yimoza yikaŵa ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwizira mu Congo Basin ndipo yinyake yikaŵa ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwizira mu Nyanja zikuru za ku Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bostoen|first=Koen|date=2018-04-26|title=The Bantu Expansion|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-191|access-date=2020-10-27|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.191|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> ====First Bantu settlement==== [[File:Ba-Ila man.jpg|left|thumb|Mwana wa Ila Headman ku Southern Zambia, ng'ombe zikaŵa zakuzirwa comene mu mbumba yawo.]] Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Bantu awo ŵakiza ku Zambia ŵakafuma kumafumiro gha dazi na kwiza ku Africa. Malo ghakuru gha Ba-Ila. Ŵasayansi ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakutemwa chomene masamu chifukwa cha umo ŵakuchitira. Ŵakafika mu nyengo ya 1 C.E. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Tonga (ŵakucemekaso kuti Ba-Tonga, "Ba-" kung'anamura "ŵanalume") na ŵa Ba-Ila na magulu ghanyake agho ghakakhalanga kufupi na kumwera kwa Zambia kufupi na Zimbabwe. Kuyana na mabuku gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Ba-Tonga, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakafuma kumafumiro gha dazi kufupi na "nyanja yikuru". Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ba-Tumbuka nawo ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia na Malawi. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu mizi yikuruyikuru. Ŵakaŵavya mulongozgi panji mulongozgi ndipo ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na kovwirana pakunozga vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵakasamukanga kanandi waka chifukwa chakuti charu chikamba kunangika chifukwa cha kulima vyakumera. Ŵakaŵaso na viŵeto vikuruvikuru ivyo vikaŵa vyakuzirwa chomene mu umoyo wawo. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ku Zambia ŵakaŵa ŵakujitemwa comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakumana nawo ŵakakondwa comene na umo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalira. Ŵamishonale ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhazikika kumwera kwa Zambia ŵakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyimira paŵekha.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of South and South Central Africa, by H. Frances Davidson.|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37728/37728-h/37728-h.htm#CHAPTER_IXPART2|access-date=2020-10-29|website=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref>[[File:Ingombe.jpg|thumb|Ingombe Ilede yikaŵa malo ghakuguliskirako malonda kumwera kwa Zambia.]] "Usange munthu [wa ku Tonga] wakukhumba vilwero vya nkhondo, kuvina, panji vya mu nyumba, wakuluta ku mapiri na kukumba mpaka wasange visulo. Wakusongonora visulo ivi na kupanga nkhwantha, vyakulimira, na vinthu vinyake vyakovwira. Wakotcha makuni na kupanga makala gha makuni. Viŵiya ivyo wakugwiliskira ntchito ni vikumba vya nyama, ndipo viŵiya vyake ni dongo, ndipo viŵiya vyake ni visulo. Wakuwumba, kuwotcha, kupanga, na kucita milimo yose iyo wakucita".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-01-12|title=Ila|url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/early-bantu-settlers/ila/|access-date=2020-10-27|website=Zambia's Traditional History|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Batonga women.png|left|thumb|Ŵalovi ŵa ku Batonga ku Southern Zambia. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanakazi ŵakucita milimo yakuzirwa comene.]] [[File:Great-Zimbabwe-ruins-outer-walls-3-1200.jpg|thumb|Vinthu ivyo vikaŵa mu charu cha Great Zimbabwe vikaŵa vyakubisika.]] Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku malo ghakuchemeka Ingombe Ilede (kung'anamura ng'ombe yakugona mu Chi-Tonga chifukwa khuni la baobab likuwoneka nga ni ng'ombe) ku Southern Zambia. Ingombe Ilede ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghakuzirwa chomene ghakwendeskera malonda gha mafumu gha ku Great Zimbabwe. Vinthu ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Ingombe Ilede vikaŵa: salu, mphete, golide, na mabangili. Vinthu vinyake vikafuma ku vigaŵa ivyo sono ni kumwera kwa Democratic Republic of Congo na Kilwa Kisiwani, apo vinyake vikafuma ku vigaŵa vyakutali nga ni India, China, na vyaru vya Ŵaarabu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Ŵapwitikizi nawo ŵakiza ku Africa. Kuchepa kwa ufumu wa Great Zimbabwe, chifukwa cha mpikisano wa malonda kuchokera ku maufumu ena a Kalanga/Shona monga Khami ndi Mutapa, kunatanthauzira kutha kwa Ingombe Ilede.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Origins of trade - Zambia Travel Guide|url=http://www.zambia-travel-guide.com/bradt_guide.asp?bradt=1084|access-date=2020-10-28|website=www.zambia-travel-guide.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pikirayi|first=Innocent|date=August 2017|title=Ingombe Ilede and the demise of Great Zimbabwe|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003598X17000953/type/journal_article|journal=Antiquity|language=en|volume=91|issue=358|pages=1085–1086|doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.95|s2cid=158120419|issn=0003-598X}}</ref> ====Second Bantu settlement==== Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala ku Zambia, ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakenda nthowa ya kumanjiliro gha dazi ya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Democratic Republic of the Congo ndipo ndiwo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia. [[File:(Kibango) Luba peoples The Metropolitan Museum of Art.png|left|thumb|Ŵanakazi awo ŵakakhalanga pa mpando (Kibango), ŵakawonekanga na mafumu gha Luba. Mu cikaya ca Luba, mathupi gha ŵanakazi ghakawonekanga nga ni ciŵiya ca nkhongono yauzimu.]] Nangauli pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Bemba panji AbaBemba ŵali na ubwezi wakukhora na Ufumu wa Kongo kwizira mwa Mwene Kongo VIII Mvemba uyo wakaŵa fumu ya BaKongo, kweni ukaboni uwu ulipo yayi. '''Luba-Lunda States''' [[File:Brooklyn Museum 76.20.4 Lukasa Memory Board.jpg|thumbnail|Lukasa memory board, yikagwiliskirika nchito na mamembala gha Mbudye (bungwe la banthu awo ŵakumanya kusunga mbiri ya Baluba)]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bemba, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Lamba, Bisa, Senga, Kaonde, Swaka, Nkoya na Soli, ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu Ufumu wa Luba ku Upemba mu Democratic Republic of Congo. Malo agho Ufumu wa Luba ukakhalanga ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakulima na ŵantchito ŵa visulo kwamba m'ma 300 C.E. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakasambira kugwiliskira nchito mikwawu, vyakuponyera visulo, kupanga maboti, kujura migelo mu mathipa, na kupanga madamu gha mamita 2.5. Ntheura ŵakamba kuguliska somba, mkuŵa, na visulo, kweniso mchere kuti ŵaguliske vinthu ku vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa nga ni Swahili Coast na ku Portugal. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ufumu wa Luba ukafuma mu ŵanthu aŵa.<ref name="metmuseum.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/luba/hd_luba.htm|title=Kingdoms of the Savanna: The Luba and Lunda Empires|access-date=2020-11-07|website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-08|title=Luba|url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/second-bantu-invasion/luba/|access-date=2020-11-07|website=Zambia's Traditional History|language=en}}</ref> Ufumu wa Luba ukaŵa ufumu ukuru uwo ukaŵa na boma likuru kweniso mafumu ghachoko waka. Chikaŵa na mawupu ghakurughakuru gha malonda agho ghakakolerananga nkhorongo za mu Congo Basin na mapiri gha ku Copperbelt Province, agho sono ghali na vinthu vinandi. Mu ufumu uwu, ŵanthu ŵakazirwiskanga comene maluso, ndipo ŵantchito nawo ŵakazirwiskikanga comene.<ref name="metmuseum.org"/> [[File:Mwata.jpg|thumb|Chithuzi cha mulongozgi wa Lunda, Mwata Kazembe, wakupokelera Ŵapwitikizi mu luŵaza lwa ufumu mu ma 1800.]] Mabuku gha Ufumu gha ku Luba nagho ghakasangika makora. Nkhani yinyake yakumanyikwa ya umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba ŵakababikira yikulongosora mphambano pakati pa mitundu yiŵiri ya mafumu gha ku Luba. Nkongolo Mwamba, fumu yiswesi, na Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, karonga wa mtundu wakufipa. Nkongolo Mwamba ni mulongozgi wa nkhaza na wakuloŵera, Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, fumu yakuzika. Nkongolo the red ni munthu wambura nkharo, munthu uyo wakurya pa wumba, wakuloŵera, ndipo wakumanya yayi kujikora, apo Mbidi Kiluwe ni munthu wakujivikilira, wakutemwa nkharo yiwemi; wakurya yayi pa wumba, wakulamulira kayowoyero kake na kacitiro kake, ndipo wakujipatura ku makhaliro ghaheni na viheni vya ŵanthu bweka. Nkongolo Mwamba wakwimira nkhaza, apo Mbidi Kiluwe wakulutilira kuŵa munthu wacitemwa ndiposo walusungu".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Luba {{!}} people|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Luba-people|access-date=2020-11-07|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>[[File:Lunda houses-1854.jpg|thumb|left|Cithuzithuzi ca nyumba za ku Lunda cakulembeka na munthu wa ku Portugal. Utali wa vipata vikulongora ukuru wa nyumba.]] Mu chigaŵa chenechicho cha kumwera kwa Congo ŵanthu ŵa Lunda ŵakazgoka chigaŵa cha ufumu wa Luba ndipo ŵakamba kulondezga mitheto ya ŵanthu ŵa Luba. Kuyana na nthano za Lunda, Chibinda Ilunga, mwana wa Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, uyo wakaŵa mulwani wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba, ndiyo wakambiska ndondomeko ya boma ku Lunda. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba, ŵakaŵa mu ufumu wa Luba. Ndipouli, mafumu gha Lunda ghakaŵa ghakupambana na mafumu ghanyake ndipo ghakalutilira kuthereska ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi.[[File:Young-awemba-girls-1932-bemba.webp|thumb|Ŵasungwana ŵa mtundu wa Bemba. Ŵanakazi ŵa ku AbaBemba ŵakapanganga na kutozga majuda kuti ŵaŵe ŵakutowa kweniso kuti ŵawonenge kuti mbanthu ŵa mu cikaya cawo.]] Lunda, nga ni boma la Luba, nalo likaguliskanga vinthu ku nyanja za Atlantic na Indian Ocean. Na muwuso wa Mwaant Yaav Naweej wakambiska nthowa zakwendera ku nyanja ya Atlantic ndipo wakambiska kukolerana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga ŵazga na vyakurya vya mu nkhorongo.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/luba/hd_luba.htm|title=Kingdoms of the Savanna: The Luba and Lunda Empires|access-date=2020-11-29|website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref> Vyaru vya Luba-Lunda vikamara chifukwa cha malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Atlantic kumanjiliro gha dazi na ku Indian Ocean kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chokwe, awo ŵakaŵa ŵabali ŵa Luvale ndipo ŵakakhalanga ku Lunda, ŵakasuzgikanga na ŵazga awo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhumbanga, kweni ŵakati ŵafumako ku Lunda, ŵakazgoka ŵamalonda ŵa ŵazga. Paumaliro Ŵachokwe ŵakathereskeka na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake kweniso Ŵapwitikizi. Ivi vikapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Luba-Lunda uparanyike, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakambukira ku vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya Zambia kufuma ku Democratic Republic of Congo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵali kufuma ku mbumba ya Luba-Lunda na ku vyaru vinyake vya ku Central Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-08|title=Luba|url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/second-bantu-invasion/luba/|access-date=2020-11-30|website=Zambia's Traditional History|language=en}}</ref> '''The Maravi Confederacy'''<ref>{{Cite book|last=Azuonye|first=Chukwuma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ejao3vG6nfsC&pg=PA11|title=Chokwe: (Angola, Zambia)|date=1996-12-15|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc|isbn=978-0-8239-1990-1|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Nyau-mask.webp|thumb|Mtundu uwu wa visalu vya Nyau ivyo vikaŵa na nthenga zikuruzikuru, ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pakusambizga mizimu. Zina lake ni Nchawa.]] Mu ma 1200, pambere boma la Luba-Lunda lindambe, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku Congo kuya ku nyanja ya Mweru. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Upemba, Democratic Republic of Congo. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, magulu agha ghakacemekanga Maravi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene ŵakaŵa ŵa Chewa.<ref name="Team">{{Cite web|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=2018-12-26|title=The Maravi Confederacy|url=https://thinkafrica.net/maravi-confederacy/|access-date=2020-12-13|website=Think Africa|language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:Kalonga.jpg|thumb|left|Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chewa ŵali kufuma ku Kalonga (ŵawusi) ŵa Ufumu wa Maravi.]] Mu 1480 Ufumu wa Maravi ukakhazikiskika na Kalonga (mkulu wa Maravi) kufuma ku phiri clans umoza mwa mafuko ghakuru na ghanyake agho ni Banda, Mwale na Nkhoma. Ufumu wa Maravi ukaŵa kufuma ku nyanja ya Indian Ocean na kujumpha mu charu icho sono ni Mozambique m'paka ku Zambia na vigaŵa vinandi vya Malawi. Gulu la ndyali la ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi likaŵa nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba ndipo ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵakafuma ku malo agha. Kweniso ŵakacitanga na kutumizga visulo. Mu 1590 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵatore malonda gha ku Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi ku Lundu ŵakakwiya chomene na ivyo ŵakachita ndipo ŵakafumiska ŵasilikari ŵa WaZimba. Ŵa WaZimba ŵakathereska matawuni gha Tete, Sena, na matawuni ghanyake gha ku Portugal. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Ŵamaravi ndiwo ŵakiza na mitheto iyo yikazgoka gulu lakubisika la Nyau kufuma ku Upemba. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nyau ndiwo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nyau ŵakutemwa kuvina na visalu ivyo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Maravi ŵakamba kusuzgika chifukwa cha kulimbana kwa mtundu uwu, kuwukira kwa Ŵangoni, na kuwukira kwa ŵazga kufuma ku Yao.<ref name="Team"/><ref name="Team" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Maptia|title=The Secret Cult of Nyau Dancers|url=https://maptia.com/vlad_sokhin/stories/the-secret-cult-of-nyau-dancers|access-date=2021-01-03|website=Maptia|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Team" /> '''Ufumu wa Mutapa na Mfecane''' [[File:Ngoni Chiefs.jpg|thumb|Ŵalongozgi ŵatatu ŵa Ŵangoni. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ngoni ŵakiza ku Eastern Zambia kufuma ku KwaZulu ku South Africa. Paumaliro ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake.]] Apo caru ca Great Zimbabwe cikaŵa mu suzgo. Yumoza wa ŵakaronga ŵake, Nyatsimba Mutota, wakafumako ku ufumu uwu na kupanga ufumu uphya wakucemeka Mutapa. Mwene Mutapa, kung'anamura "Wakupankhura Vyaru", ndiyo wakapika zina ili pamoza na mafumu ghanyake agho ghakiza pamanyuma pake. Ufumu wa Mutapa ukaŵa pakati pa milonga ya Zambezi na Limpopo, mu vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Zambia, Zimbabwe, na Mozambique. Mu nyengo iyi, Mutapa wakaŵa kuti wapoka chigaŵa cha Dande ku Tonga na Tavara. Ufumu wa Mutapa ukaguliskanga vinthu mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean na ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. Ŵakafumiskanga golide na njovu mu vyaru vya ku Asia.<ref name="Mutapa" /> Nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku Maravi, Mutapa nayo wakasuzgika na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Portugal. Ubwezi wawo ukafika pachanya apo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kuti ŵajinthe vinthu vya mu ufumu wawo. Ivi vikakwiyiska chomene Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Swahili awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu. Ivi vikawovwira kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵambe kuwukira ufumu wa Eguputo na kuwukira migodi ya golide na misewu yakufumira ku vigaŵa vya ku Eguputo. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathera chifukwa cha matenda agho ghakawira mu mlonga wa Zambezi. Mu ma 1600, mphindano za mukati na nkhondo za mukati zikapangiska kuti Mutapa waleke kwenda makora. Paumaliro, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathereska ufumu uwu, ndipo pamasinda ŵakawukira maufumu ghanyake gha Ŵashona.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mwene Matapa {{!}} historical dynastic title, southern Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mwene-Matapa|access-date=2020-12-31|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Mutapa">{{Cite web|title=Mutapa|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Mutapa/|access-date=2021-01-01|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Mutapa|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Mutapa/|access-date=2020-12-31|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]}}</ref>[[File:Litunga.jpg|thumb|left|Mu nyumba ya Litunga, muwusi wa Lozi. Chifukwa cha kututuka kwa maji mu mlonga wa Zambezi, Litungga wali na nyumba ziŵiri zacifumu. Ŵakuchita viphikiro vya ku Kuomboka pakukumbukira kuti Litunga wakaluta ku malo ghapacanya]] Julian Cobbing wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga kweniso awo ŵakayezganga kuti ŵajikorenge vinthu mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya mu Africa, ndiwo ŵakambiska nkhondo. Ici tingaciwona na nkhondo ya WaZimba iyo yikacitika mu Maravi, iyo yikati yatonda Ŵapwitikizi, yikalutilira kuŵa ya nkhondo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Rozvi, uwo ukaŵa wa Mutapa, uŵeko. Mulongozgi wa mafuko gha Rozvi, Changamire Dombo, wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵankhongono comene mu South-Central Africa. Mu muwuso wake, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Rozvi ŵakathereska Ŵapwitikizi na kuŵachimbizga ku malo agho ŵakaguliskiranga vinthu mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Zambezi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rozwi {{!}} historical state, Africa|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Rozwi-historical-state-Africa|access-date=2021-01-02|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>[[File:Makishi.jpg|thumb|Ŵakuwona kuti mu malo ghanyake ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zambia, muli makishi agho ghakwimira mizimu ya ŵakufwa awo ŵakuwelera kuti ŵawovwire ŵamoyo]] Kweni ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa comene pa nkhani iyi nchakuti Ŵazulu ŵakamba kulamulira na Shaka. Ŵanthu ŵa ku England awo ŵakakhalanga ku Cape ŵakamba kuŵasuzga chomene ndipo Ŵazulu ŵakamba kuŵa ŵankhondo. Ŵazulu ŵakasazgikiranga mwa kupokelera ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵa mafuko agho ŵakathereska. Usange ŵanalume ŵa mafuko agha ŵakapona, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa za ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵazulu kuti ŵawukire mafuko ghanyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafumemo mu vikaya vyawo, nkhondo na kuwukira mu vyaru vya kumwera, pakati na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵanguni awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Zwagendaba ŵakambuka mlonga wa Zambezi kulazga kumpoto. Ŵangoni ndiwo ŵakakoma ufumu wa Maravi uwo ukaŵa kuti wanangika kale. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Nguni ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, na Tanzania, ndipo ŵakakolerana na mitundu yinyake iyo yikaŵa pafupi.<ref name="Mfecane {{!}} African history"/><ref name="Mfecane {{!}} African history">{{Cite web|title=Mfecane {{!}} African history|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Mfecane|access-date=2021-01-02|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> Ku Western Zambia, gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakukhala ku Sotho-Tswana ŵakuchemeka Kololo, ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha awo ŵakafuma ku charu cha Luba na Lunda. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Luyana ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Barotse pa malo agho mukaŵa maji gha Zambezi ŵakati ŵafika kufuma ku Katanga. Mu nyengo ya Kololo, chiyowoyero cha Kololo chikapelekeka ku Luyana m'paka apo Luyana wakagalukira na kuwuskapo Kololo. Pa nyengo iyi chiyowoyero cha Luyana chikaluwa ndipo chiyowoyero chiphya cha hybrid chikawoneka. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ŵambunda ŵanyake ŵakasamukira ku Barotseland, Mongu. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Aluyi na mulongozgi wawo, Litunga Mulambwa, ŵakazirwiskanga comene Mbunda cifukwa ca luso lwawo lwa kurwa nkhondo. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵakakhala mu vigaŵa ivyo ŵakukhala sono.<ref>'' The elites of Barotseland, 1878–1969: a political history of Zambia's Western Province'': a. Gerald L. Caplan, C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1970, {{ISBN|978-0-900966-38-5}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140411045127/http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/zonek.html Bantu-Languages.com], citing Maniacky 1997</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lozi {{!}} people|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lozi|access-date=2021-01-02|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> ==Colonial period== [[Image:CecilRhodes.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Cecil Rhodes]].]] {{main|Northern Rhodesia}} Mu 1888, Cecil Rhodes, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa vyamalonda na ndyali ku Central Africa, wakapokera wanangwa wa kusanga migodi ku ŵalongozgi ŵa ku malo agha. Mu caka cenecici, vyaru vya Northern na Southern Rhodesia, ivyo sono ni Zambia na Zimbabwe, vikapharazgika kuti ni vyaru vya Britain. Pakwamba, malo agha ghakaŵa gha British South Africa Company (BSAC) ya ku Rhodes, iyo yikakhumbanga yayi kuwona chigaŵa ichi. Cinthu cakuzirwa comene ico cikapangiska kuti caru ici ciŵe na ndalama zinandi cikaŵa mkuŵa. Munthu munyake wa ku America, zina lake Frederick Russell Burnham, ndiyo wakabowozga vinthu ivi. Mu 1895, wakadangilira na kulaŵilira mulimo ukuru wa Northern Territories (BSA) Exploration Co. uwo ukalongora kuti mu Central Africa mukaŵa mkuŵa. Pa mlonga wa Kafue, uwo ukaŵa ku Northern Rhodesia, Burnham wakawona kuti malo agha ghakupambana na malo ghanyake gha mkuwa agho wakagwirapo nchito ku United States. Mu 1923, boma la Britain likakana kuwezgerapo wanangwa wa kampani iyi. Pa cifukwa ici, caru ca Southern Rhodesia cikapokelereka na kuŵa na mazaza mu 1923. Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana, boma la Northern Rhodesia likapelekeka ku ofesi ya British Colonial Office mu 1924 nga ni malo ghakulongozga, ndipo Livingstone wakaŵa msumba ukuru. Mu 1935, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi ŵakaluta nawo ku Lusaka. Wupu wakulongozga ukaŵapo, ndipo ŵanthu ŵankhondi ŵakasankhika na ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaŵa ŵachoko (ŵanthu 4,000 pera).<ref>{{Cite news|last=Walubita|first=Moses|date=September 8, 2015|title=Lusaka has come a long way|work=Zambia dailymail|url=http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/lusaka-come-long-way/|access-date=June 1, 2021}}</ref><ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web |title=Zambia - Colonial rule {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia/Colonial-rule |access-date=2022-05-26 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Flag of Northern Rhodesia (1939–1964).svg|thumb|200px|left|Mbendela ya [[Northern Rhodesia]].]] Mu 1928, ŵanthu ŵakasanga mkuŵa unandi chomene mu chigaŵa ichi. Ici cikapangiska kuti caru ca Northern Rhodesia cileke kuŵa malo agho ŵalimi ŵazungu ŵakakhalanga. Kuzakafika mu 1938, charu ichi chikapanganga mkuwa wakukwana 13% pa charu chose. Gulu ili likapangika na makampani ghaŵiri: Anglo American Corporation (AAC) na South African Rhodesian Selection Trust (RST), agho ghakaŵa na mazaza pa gulu ili m'paka apo likapokera wanangwa. Cifukwa cakuti ŵaganyu ŵakakhalanga makora yayi kweniso misonkho yikakwera, mu 1935, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakamba kugwentha migodi. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakalekeska ntchito iyi ndipo ŵanthu 6 ŵakakomeka. Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, mu 1940, ŵantchito ŵa mu migodi ŵakaleka kugwira ntchito. Pakumanya kuti vinthu ivyo ŵakapanga vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene pa nkhondo, ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵapike malipiro ghanandi. Ŵaganyu ŵa ku Africa ŵakalondezgapo.[[File:Rodésia e Niassalândia 32.jpg|thumb|Sitampu iyo yili na cithuzithuzi ca Fumukazi Elizabeth II, 1955]] Nanga ni apo nkhondo yikaŵa kuti yindambe, pakaŵa kudumbiskana vya kunjizga ma Rhodesia ghaŵiri agha, kweni boma la Britain likalekeska. Paumaliro, mu 1953, vyaru vyose viŵiri ivi vikasazgikana na Nyasaland (sono ni Malawi) na kupanga Central African Federation. <ref>{{Cite book |jstor=j.ctv6mtdm4.10 |jstor-access=free |chapter=The Politicization of Black Labor |last1=Parpart |first1=Jane L. |last2=Freund |first2=Bill |title=Labor and Capital on the African Copperbelt |url=https://archive.org/details/laborcapitalonaf0000parp |year=1983 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/laborcapitalonaf0000parp/page/54 54]–74 |publisher=Temple University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv6mtdm4.10 }}</ref>Ku Northern Rhodesia ndiko kukaŵa masuzgo ghanandi agho ghakaŵapo mu vyaka vyaumaliro vya wupu uwu. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachiteko vinthu mu boma, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakawopanga kuti ŵalutilirenge kulamulira.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History|url=https://www.nws.gov.zm/?page_id=4385|last=Provincial administration}}</ref> Pa vigaŵa viŵiri, mu Okutobala na Disembala 1962, pakaŵa mavoti ghanandi gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa mu wupu wakulamulira. Pa 31 Disembala, 1963, chiphapha ichi chikamara, ndipo Northern Rhodesia yikazgoka Republic of Zambia pa 24 Okutobala, 1964.<ref name="britannica.com" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Southern Africa - European and African interaction in the 19th century {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Southern-Africa/European-and-African-interaction-in-the-19th-century |access-date=2022-05-26 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name="britannica.com" /> ==Kujiyimila== [[Image:Zambia Ind000.jpg|thumb|130px|right|A book published by the government upon independence.]] Apo Zambia wakapokera wanangwa wake, wakaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi. Pa caru cose, pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa ku Zambia awo ŵakasambizgika makora ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera kwendeska boma. Vyaru vinandi ivyo vili kufupi na Zambia vikaŵa vyakulongozgeka na ŵazungu. Chipani cha United National Independence Party (UNIP) chikapambana pa mavoti agho ghakachitika pambere charu chindambe kujiyimira, ndipo chikapokera vithuzithuzi 55 pa vithuzithuzi 75. Chipani cha African National Congress cha ku Zambia chikapokera vithuzithuzi 10, ndipo chipani cha National Progressive Party chikapokera vithuzithuzi vyose 10 ivyo vikaŵa vya ŵazungu. Kenneth Kaunda wakasankhika kuŵa nduna yikuru, ndipo pamasinda mu chaka chenechicho wakaŵa pulezidenti. Kaunda wakapulikira fundo ya wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ku Africa, yakuyana na ya Julius Nyerere wa ku Tanzania. Ndondomeko za vya cuma zikaghanaghaniranga comene vya kunozga vyaru, ndipo boma likakhazikiskanga cipani cimoza.<ref>There were only eight indigenous Graduates in the country at Independence</ref><ref name="elections">{{cite web | url = http://africanelections.tripod.com/zm.html | title = Elections in Zambia | publisher = African Elections Database | access-date = 2006-10-11 }}</ref> === Kuyana na muwuso wa chipani cimoza === Mu 1968, Kaunda wakasankhikaso kuŵa pulezidenti. Mu vilimika vyakulondezgapo, Zambia yikamba kulamulira na cipani cimoza. Mu 1972, magulu ghose gha ndyali, kupaturako UNIP, ghakazomerezgeka yayi. Ndondomeko iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe boma la chipani chimoza ilo likuŵa na wanangwa wakuwungana. Chikaŵa na pulezidenti wankhongono na wupu wa National Assembly. Komiti Yikuru ya UNIP ndiyo yikapanganga fundo za boma. Boma likalondezganga fundo za komiti yikuru. Pa maungano gha boma, ŵanthu ŵekha awo ŵakasankhika na UNIP ndiwo ŵakazomerezgekanga. Nangauli pakaŵavya mphindano pakati pa vipani, kweni ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana chomene kuti ŵatore malo mu UNIP. Pa mavoti gha pulezidenti, munthu yekha uyo wakazomerezgekanga kwimilira wakaŵa uyo wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa UNIP pa ungano ukuru wa chipani. Ntheura Kaunda wakasankhikaso mu 1973, 1978, 1983, na 1988 kwambura kususkika.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1973-12-07 |title=Kaunda, Unopposed, Re‐elected Zambian President for 3d Term |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/12/07/archives/kaunda-unopposed-reelected-zambian-president-for-3d-term-antikaunda.html |access-date=2022-05-29 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> [[File:Chisembele, S.M..jpg|thumb|right|100px|S.M. Chisembele, Nduna ya Western Province.]] Ndipouli, ici cikang'anamuranga kuti pakaŵavya kususkana na dango la chipani cimoza mu caru panji mukati mwa UNIP. Sylvester Mwamba Chisembele uyo wakaŵa nduna ya Western Province (kale yikaŵa Barotse Province) pamoza na ŵalongozgi ŵa UNIP kufuma ku vigaŵa 7 pa vigaŵa 8 ŵakakhazikiska komiti ya ŵanthu 14. Cakulinga ca Komiti ya 14 iyo yikaŵa na ŵalongozgi ŵaŵiri kufuma mu vigaŵa vyose 7 cikaŵa cakuti paŵe wupu wa ŵalongozgi ŵaŵiri kufuma mu chigaŵa chilichose. Usange ivi vicitikenge, mphanyi nkhongono zose izo Pulezidenti Kaunda wakaŵa nazo zikamara. Komiti ya 14 yikaluta ku ungano ku State House uko Pulezidenti Kaunda wakazomera kughanaghanira fundo zawo. Ndipouli, pamasinda wakazomerezga yayi kuti Komiti ya 14 yiŵepo, ndipo Sylvester Chisembele wakathereskeka. Pamanyuma Chisembele wakaweleraso ku nduna ya vyaru nga nduna yakuwona vya chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi ndipo pamanyuma pa vyaka viŵiri mu 1977 wakasamukira ku chigaŵa cha Copperbelt uko vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi, chomenechomene chifukwa cha mavoti agho ghakaŵa pafupi kuchitika. Simon M. Kapwepwe na Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula, awo pambere boma la chipani chimoza lindambe kulamulira, ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa UPP na ANC. Ndipouli, chiyezgo chawo cha kupempha Pulezidenti Kaunda kuti waŵe pulezidenti pa tikiti ya UNIP chikatondeka cifukwa wose ŵakakanizgika na kulekeskeka cifukwa ca ivyo Pulezidenti Kaunda wakacita. Simon Kapwepwe na Harry Nkumbula ŵakasuska ivyo vikachitika mu 1978 apo Pulezidenti Kaunda wakasankhika ku Khoti Likuru, kweni ivyo ŵakachita vikaŵa vyambura phindu.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Zambia Daily Mail|date=21 April 1971}}</ref> === Chuma na suzgo la mkuŵa === Pamanyuma pakuti Zambia wapokera wanangwa wake, wakamba kulondezga fundo za ku mphepete. Pa nyengo iyi, vinthu vikendanga makora yayi. Makampani ghanyake ghakaŵa gha boma ndipo ghakazgoka mabungwe ghakurughakuru gha boma. Boma likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵafiske ivyo likukhumba kwizira mu vyakurya ivyo likaguliskanga. Pakwamba, vyose vikenda makora ndipo chuma chikakura. Kweni pakati pa ma 1970, vinthu vikamba kunangika chomene. Mu nyengo ya pakati pa 1975 na 1990, chuma cha Zambia chikakhira na 30%. Kuti ŵamarane na suzgo ili, Zambia yikatora ngongoli zinandi kufuma ku International Monetary Fund na World Bank mu cigomezgo cakuti mtengo wa mkuwa ukwelerengeso mwaluŵiro, m'malo mwa kusintha vinthu.<ref name="EconomyDrop">{{cite web | url = http://www.bized.co.uk/virtual/dc/back/econ.htm | title = Zambia - Economic History | publisher = Biz/ed | access-date = 2006-10-11 }}</ref> === Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake === Pa caru cose, ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia ŵakakolerana na awo ŵakususka muwuso wa ŵazungu. Mu vyaka 10 vyakulondezgapo, wupu uwu ukawovwira magulu nga ni National Unions for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Angola na nkhondo ya pawenenawene, Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) mu Southern Rhodesia, na African National Congress (ANC) mu kulimbana kwawo na apartheid mu South Africa, na South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) mu kulimbana kwawo kuti Namibia yipoke wanangwa. Kweniso ku Zambia ndiko kukachitika maungano ghanyake. Mwaciyelezgero, ofesi yikuru ya ANC yikaŵa ku Lusaka, ndipo ZAPU yikaŵa na msasa wa ŵasilikari mu Zambia. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe masuzgo gha vyaumoyo, cifukwa caru ca South Africa na Southern Rhodesia vikapoka vinthu mu Zambia. Ntchito za ku Rhodesia zakususkana na chigaluka zikafika mu Zambia pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵa Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) ŵakakoma ndege ziŵiri za Vickers Viscount (Air Rhodesia Flight 825 pa 3 September 1978 na Air Rhodesia Flight 827 pa 12 February 1979) na mabomba gha SA-7 gha Soviet. Pakuwezgera cifukwa ca kuwombera ndege ya 825 mu Seputembala 1978, mawupu gha Rhodesian Air Force ghakawukira gulu la ZIPRA pa famu ya Westlands kufupi na Lusaka mu Okutobala 1978, kuchenjezga ŵasilikari ŵa Zambia pa wayilesi kuti ŵaleke kunjilirapo. Nkhondo izo zikacitika na caru ca Rhodesia zikapangiska kuti mphaka za Zambia na caru ici zijarike. Ndipouli, siteshoni ya Kariba iyo yili pa Mlonga wa Zambezi, yikaŵa na magesi ghakukwana kuti charu chiŵe na magesi. TAZARA, njanji yakuya ku dowoko la ku Tanzania la Dar es Salaam, iyo yikazengeka na wovwiri wa ku China, yikawovwira kuti Zambia yileke kuthemba njanji iyo yikendanga kumwera kwa South Africa na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Angola. Nkhondo za mukati mu caru ca Mozambique na Angola zikacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵacimbilire ku Zambia. Ku vyaru vinyake, Zambia wakaŵa yumoza wa vyaru ivyo vikukolerana yayi (Non-Aligned Movement, NAM), ndipo mu 1970 ku Lusaka kukacitika ungano wa ŵalara ŵa vyaru. Kenneth Kaunda wakaŵa mulongozgi wa gulu ili mu 1970-1973. Pakati pa vyaru vya NAM, Zambia yikaŵa pafupi comene na Yugoslavia. Kuwaro kwa NAM, Zambia nayo wakaŵa paubwezi na China. Mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Congo, Zambia yikawovwira Zimbabwe na Congo kweni yikaŵapo yayi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Republic of Zambia|url=https://www.szi.gov.zm/epamodzi/?page_id=4561|website=Republic of Zambia e-Pamodzi portal}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RESOLUTIONSOF THETHIRD CONFERENCE OF NON-ALIGNED STATES With Selected Conference Statements and Comments|url=https://media.africaportal.org/documents/SAIIA_RESOLUTIONS_OF_THE_THIRD_CONFERENCE_OF_NON-ALIGNED_STATES.pdf|date=1970|website=Africaportal.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Rhodesian War: A Military History |last1=Moorcraft |first1=Paul L. |author-link1=Paul Moorcraft |last2=McLaughlin |first2=Peter |author-link2=Peter McLaughlin |date=2008 |orig-year=1982 |location=Barnsley |publisher=[[Pen and Sword Books]] |isbn=978-1-84415-694-8 |pages=140–143}}</ref> == Ndondomeko ya vipani vinandi == === Umaliro wa muwuso wa chipani chimoza === Ŵanthu ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca muwuso wa chipani cimoza ndiposo suzgo la cuma. Mu 1981, mu caru cose mukacitika viwawa vinandi. Boma likakaka ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa wupu uwu, kusazgapo Frederick Chiluba. Mu 1986 na 1987, ku Lusaka na ku Copperbelt kukaŵaso viwawa. Ivi vikalondezgana na vivulupi ivyo vikacitika mu 1990 cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mtengo wa vyakurya. Mu chaka chenechicho, wayilesi ya boma yikati Kaunda walekeskeka na ŵasilikari. Ici cikaŵa cautesi, ndipo ciyezgo ca kuwukira boma ku Zambia mu 1990 cikatondeka. Kaunda wakawona kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kusintha vinthu. Iyo wakalayizga kuti wazamunozga vyaru vinandi ndipo wakalekeska vyaru ivyo vikazomerezgekanga yayi. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe vipani viphya 11. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, ŵakumanyikwa comene ni Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD), awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Frederick Chiluba, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa wupu wa vyamalonda. Pamanyuma pakuti maboma ghaphya ghakanjilirapo, ŵanthu ŵakazomerezga yayi kuti paŵe mavoti gha vipani vinandi.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-09 |title=Kenneth Kaunda: The dove which triumphed over hawks and vultures, By Owei Lakemfa |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/472583-kenneth-kaunda-the-dove-which-triumphed-over-hawks-and-vultures-by-owei-lakemfa.html |access-date=2022-05-26 |language=en-GB}}</ref> ===Frederick Chiluba na MMD=== Paumaliro, mu 1991, ŵakalemba dango liphya la boma. Ŵanthu ŵakatenge mavoti agha nga wanangwa kweniso ngaurunji, ndipo Chiluba wakapokera 76% ya mavoti gha pulezidenti. Nangauli Chiluba wakaŵa mulongozgi wa wupu wa vyachuma, kweni wakaŵa ku woko lamalyero la Kaunda. Na wovwiri wa International Monetary Fund na World Bank, uko Zambia wakaŵa na ngongoli zinandi, wakawoneseska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu vyaru vyawo mwa kukanizga boma kunjilirapo, kuwoneseska kuti mabungwe gha boma ghawelere ku maboma ghawo, nga ni vyamkuŵa, na kuwuskapo wovwiri pa vinthu vyakupambanapambana, comenecomene tirigu. Apo boma la chipani cimoza likamara mu 1991, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagomezganga kuti Zambia yizamuŵa na demokilase. Ndipouli, ivyo ŵakaghanaghananga vikaŵa vyambura kupulikikwa chifukwa cha umo MMD yikachitira na ŵakususka. Vinthu vyakukayikiska ivyo vikachitika pa nkhani ya kusintha malango na kukaka ŵanthu awo ŵakususka ndyali, vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵadandawurenge.<ref name="elections" /> ==== Kuwukira boma ==== Mu 1993, nyuzipepara ya boma ya The Times of Zambia, yikalemba nkhani yakukhwaskana na pulani ya UNIP ya kuwukira boma mwakuyana na dango yayi. Ndondomeko iyi yikasazgapo vivulupi vya mu vyalo, kukhozgera nkhaza, na kwambiska viwawa vya ŵanthu ŵanandi. UNIP yikakana yayi kuti pali pulani iyi, kweni yikayowoya kuti yikaŵa cigaŵa ca ndondomeko yawo yayi, kweni maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵankhaza mu chipani. Boma likapharazga kuti kuli suzgo yikuru ndipo ŵanthu 26 ŵakajalirika mu jele. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, 7 kusazgapo mwana wa Kenneth Kaunda zina lake Wezi Kaunda ŵakeruzgika na milandu yakususkana na wanangwa wa boma. Ŵanyake wose ŵakaŵafumiska. Pambere vyaru vindachite mavoti mu 1996, UNIP yikakolerana na vipani vinyake vinkhondi na cimoza. Kenneth Kaunda wakaŵa kuti wafumapo kale mu ndyali, kweni pamanyuma pa suzgo mu chipani chifukwa cha "Zero Option Plan", wakawelera, ndipo wakasintha Kesby Musokotwane. Kufuma apo, boma la Chiluba likasintha dango la boma, ndipo likazomerezga yayi kuti ŵanthu awo ŵapapi ŵawo mbazengezgani ŵa Zambia ŵaŵe pulezidenti. Mazgu agha ghakaŵa ghakuyowoya na Kaunda, uyo ŵapapi ŵake wose ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Malawi. Pakususka, UNIP na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵakacicizga mavoti, agho Chiluba na MMD ŵakatonda. Mu 1997, vinthu vikasintha. Pa Okutobala 28, boma likayezga kutimbanizga boma, ndipo gulu la ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari likapoka wayilesi ya boma, ndipo ŵakapharazga uthenga wakuti Chiluba ni pulezidenti yayi. Nkhondo iyi yikamara cifukwa cakuti Chiluba wakapharazgaso kuti kuli suzgo. Munthu yumoza wakafwa pa nyengo ya mulimo uwu. Ŵapolisi ŵakakora ŵanthu ŵakukwana 84 awo ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakakhwaskika. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa Kenneth Kaunda na Dean Mungomba, mulongozgi wa chipani cha Zambia Democratic Congress. Ŵanthu ŵakasuska na kususka ivyo ŵakachita, ŵakati ni vyambura kuzomerezgeka mu Zambia na kuwaro kwa charu. Kaunda wakafwatulika mu Juni chaka chakulondezgapo, kweni ŵasilikari 44 awo ŵakachitako chipani ichi ŵakeruzgika kuti ŵakomeke mu 2003.<ref name="AI">{{cite web |url = http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR630022003?open&of=ENG-ZMB |title = Zambia: Forty-four soldiers to be executed |publisher = Amnesty |access-date = 2006-10-16 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061017234552/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR630022003?open&of=ENG-ZMB |archive-date = 2006-10-17 |url-status = dead }}</ref> === Chisankho cha 2001 === Pambere ŵandalute ku mavoti mu 2001, Chiluba wakayezga kusintha malango gha boma kuti wazakaŵepo pa mavoti ghachitatu. Iyo wakacicizgika kuti walekepo pa fundo iyi pamanyuma pa kugazgana kufuma mukati mwa chipani kweniso ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia. Wakayezga kusintha malango gha boma kuti wazakaŵepo pa mavoti ghachitatu mu 2001, kweni wakaleka ntchito iyi pamanyuma pa kugazgana kukuru. Munthu uyo wakamusankhira malo wakaŵa Levy Patrick Mwanawasa.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bearak|first=Barry|date=2008-08-20|title=Levy Mwanawasa, Zambia President, Dies at 59|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/20/world/africa/20mwanawasa.html|access-date=2021-10-05|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> === Kufuma mu 2008 === Kufuma mu 2011 mpaka 2014, pulezidenti wa Zambia wakaŵa Michael Sata, mpaka apo Sata wakafwira pa 28 Okutobala 2014.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2011-09-23|title=TEXT-Zambian President Banda's concession speech|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/zambia-election-banda-idAFL5E7KN1PN20110923|access-date=2021-10-05}}</ref> Wakaŵa mulongozgi waciŵiri wa Zambia uyo wakafwira pa udindo wake pamanyuma pa Levy Mwanawasa mu 2008. Rupiah Banda wakaŵa purezidenti wa Zambia pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Mwanawasa kufuma mu 2008 mpaka 2011. Wakathereskeka na Michael Sata mu 2011. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Sata, Vice President Guy Scott, wa ku Zambia uyo wakafuma ku Scotland, ndiyo wakaŵa President wa Zambia. Pa 24 Janyuwale 2015, wakapharazga kuti Edgar Chagwa Lungu watonda pa chisankho kuti waŵe pulezidenti wa 6. Mu mwezi wa Ogasiti 2016 pa chisankho cha Zambia, pulezidenti Edgar Lungu wakathereskeka mu chigaŵa chakwamba. Chipani chakususka chikaŵa na milandu ya upusikizgi ndipo chipani cha Patriotic Front (PF) chikakana ivyo chipani cha UPND chikayowoya.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-08-15|title=Zambia's President Edgar Lungu declared election winner|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-37086365|access-date=2021-10-05}}</ref> Pa chisankho cha pulezidenti mu Ogasiti 2021, mulongozgi wa chipani chakususka Hakainde Hichilema wakathereska pulezidenti Edgar Lungu. Pa 24 Ogasiti 2021, Hakainde Hichilema wakalapa kuŵa purezidenti muphya wa Zambia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/08/24/africa/zambia-president-hichilema-inauguration-intl/index.html|title = Zambia's Hakainde Hichilema sworn in as President in rare victory for an African opposition leader| date=24 August 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-08-16|title=Zambia election: Hakainde Hichilema beats President Edgar Lungu|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58226695|access-date=2021-10-05}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== *[[Prime Minister of Zambia]] *[[History of Africa]] *[[History of Southern Africa]] *[[Kazembe]] *[[Kenneth Kaunda]] *[[List of presidents of Zambia]] *[[Monuments and Historic Sites of Zambia]] *[[Politics of Zambia]] * Lusaka [[Lusaka#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Lusaka|timeline]] ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == *{{cite encyclopedia | title = Zambia | encyclopedia = Nationalencyklopedin | volume = 20 | pages = 270 | publisher = Bokförlaget Bra Böcker | year = 1996 | edition = 1 }} *{{cite encyclopedia | url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-44137/Zambia | title = Zambia > History > Archaelology and early history | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica Online | access-date = 2006-10-19 }} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{commons category|History of Zambia}} *{{cite web| url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2359.htm| title = U.S. Relations With Zambia| publisher = U.S. Department of State}} *{{cite web |url = http://www.thezambian.com/history/ |title = The History of Zambia |publisher = The Zambian |access-date = |first = Tim |last = Holmes |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061120224255/http://www.thezambian.com/history/ |archive-date = 2006-11-20 |url-status = dead | ref=none }} *{{cite journal | url = http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/0j58j1nz | title = Deriving Ethno-geographical Clusters for Comparing Ethnic Differentials in Zambia | publisher = World Cultures Journal | access-date = | first = Kambidima | last = Wotela | journal = World Cultures eJournal | date = 2 June 2010 | volume = 17 | issue = 2 |ref=none }} *{{cite web | url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091125104121/http://www.localhistories.org/zambia.html | title = A Short History of Zambia | first = Tim | last = Lambert | access-date = | ref = none }} *{{cite web | url = http://www.bized.co.uk/virtual/dc/back/econ.htm | title = Zambia - Economic History | website= Biz/ed | publisher = [[Cengage]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150710093416/http://www.bized.co.uk/virtual/dc/back/econ.htm | archive-date = 2015-07-10 | url-status = dead | access-date = }} * {{cite web|title = Zambia - Elections and Human Rights in the Third Republic| url = http://hrw.org/reports/1996/Zambia.htm#P165_20378| publisher = Human Rights Watch| access-date = }} *{{cite web|title=Zambia |url=http://www.barnfonden.se/country_show.asp?id=7&type=n_history |publisher=Barnfonden (The Children's Fund) |language=sv |access-date= |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050220003659/http://www.barnfonden.se/country_show.asp?id=7&type=n_history |archive-date=February 20, 2005 }} *{{cite web |title = ZAMBIA: Coup attempt must not lead to arbitrary arrests and ill-treatment |url = http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR630101997?open&of=ENG-ZMB |publisher = Amnesty |access-date = |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061017234501/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR630101997?open&of=ENG-ZMB |archive-date = 2006-10-17 |url-status = dead }} {{Years in Zambia}} {{History of Africa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Zambia}} [[Category:History of Zambia| ]] fq5nkwd4634t72cv2xe6p7mg1lj2v1m 0 37781 122331 119327 2026-09-24T23:53:53Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122331 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country on the west coast of Southern Africa}} {{about|the modern country since 1992|the former country from 1975 to 1992|People's Republic of Angola}} {{About|the country}} {{Pp-move}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Angola | common_name = Angola | native_name = {{native name|pt|República de Angola}}<br> | image_flag = Flag of Angola.svg<!-- DO NOT ADD the proposed flag; you WILL be reverted and warned! --> | image_coat = Emblem of Angola.svg | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = {{vunblist|{{native phrase|la|Virtus Unita Fortior|italics=on|nolink=on}}|({{lang-en|"Virtue is stronger when united"}})}} | national_anthem = "[[Angola Avante]]"<br />({{Lang-en|"Onwards Angola"}}) | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Angola (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Angola AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|[[File:Angola - Location Map (2013) - AGO - UNOCHA.svg|frameless]]|Show map of Angola|default=1}} | map_caption = | capital = [[Luanda]] | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |92.9% [[Christianity]] |—53.9% [[Catholic Church in Angola|Roman Catholic]] |—27.4% [[Protestant]] |—11.6% Other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] |5.1% [[African Traditional Religion|Traditional faiths]] |1.1% [[Islam]] |0.9% [[Religion in Angola|Other]] / [[Irreligion|None]] }} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Angola: Major World Religions (1900 - 2050) |url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=7c |access-date=2022-10-08 |website=[[The Association of Religion Data Archives]]}}</ref> | coordinates = {{Coord|8|50|S|13|20|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | languages = [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese]] | languages_type = Official language | languages2_type = National languages | languages2 = {{unbulleted list | [[Kimbundu]] | [[Umbundu]] | [[Chokwe language|Chokwe]] | [[Kongo language|Kikongo]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 37% [[Ovimbundu]] | 25% [[Ambundu]] | 13% [[Kongo people|Bakongo]] | 21% Other African | 2% [[Mestiço]] (mixed European and African) | 1% [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] | 1% [[White Africans of European ancestry|European]]}} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{cite web|title=Main ethnic groups in Angola 2021 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1202261/share-of-ethnic-groups-in-angola/|website=Statista}}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2021 | demonym = {{unbulleted list |[[Demographics of Angola|Angolan]]}} | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Angola|President]] | leader_name1 = [[João Lourenço]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Angola|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Esperança da Costa]]<ref name="RNA 15-9-22">[https://rna.ao/rna.ao/2022/09/15/investidura-do-presidente-da-republica/ Investidura do Presidente da República]. Rádio Nacional de Angola. 15 September 2022.</ref> | legislature = [[National Assembly (Angola)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Angola|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Angolan War of Independence|Independence]] from [[Portugal]], under [[People's Republic of Angola|Communist rule]] | established_date1 = 11 November 1975 | established_event2 = [[United Nations]] [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 397|full membership]] | established_date2 = 22 November 1976 | established_event3 = [[Constitution of Angola|Current constitution]] | established_date3 = 21 January 2010 | p1 = People's Republic of Angola | flag_p1 = Flag of Angola.svg | area_km2 = 1246700 | area_rank = 22nd | area_sq_mi = 481354 | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 34,795,287<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Angola|access-date=24 September 2022|year=2022}}</ref> | population_census = 25,789,024<ref name="INE Angola">{{Citation |title=Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da População e da Habitação de Angola 2014 |date=March 2016 |url=http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf |trans-title=Final Results of the General Census of Population and Housing of Angola 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506013702/http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estatística |language=pt |archive-date=6 May 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 42nd | population_census_year = 2014 | population_density_km2 = 24.97 | population_density_sq_mi = 64.65 | population_density_rank = 157th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$245.44&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 62nd | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$7,455<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 129th | GDP_nominal ={{increase}} $124.79 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 61st | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$3,791<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 125th | Gini = 51.3 | Gini_year = 2018 | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) - Angola |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=AO |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=22 March 2020 |archive-date=7 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607003448/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI%3Flocations%3DAO |url-status=live }}</ref> | HDI = 0.588<!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> | HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 146th | currency = [[Angolan kwanza]] | currency_code = AOA | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = Right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Angola|+244]] | cctld = [[.ao]] }} '''Angola''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-Angola-pronunciation.ogg|æ|n|ˈ|ɡ|oʊ|l|ə}}; {{IPA-pt|ɐ̃ˈɡɔlɐ|lang}}; {{lang-kg|Ngola}}, {{IPA-kg|ŋɔla|pron}}), mwaboma, '''Charu cha Angola''' ({{lang-pt|República de Angola}}),ni chalo icho chili ku mpoto kwa [[Africa]]. Ni caru caciŵiri pa vyaru vyose ivyo vikuyowoya [[Ciphwitikizi]] pa caru cose ndiposo pa unandi wa ŵanthu. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Namibia]], kumpoto na [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Zambia]], ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Angola wali na chigaŵa chakuchemeka [[Cabinda]], icho chili mumphepete mwa charu cha [[Democratic Republic of Congo|Congo]] na Democratic Republic of Congo. Msumba ukuru wa charu ichi ni [[Luanda]]. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi kwamba mu [[nyengo ya Paleolitiki]]. Charu ichi chikamba kuwumbika na Ŵapwitikizi mu ma 1500 C.E. Ŵakapanga mizi mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Europe]] ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha. Charu cha [[Portugal]] icho chikazgoka Angola, chikaŵa na mphaka zake yayi m'paka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, chifukwa cha ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa ichi nga mba [[Cuamato]], Kwanyama, na [[Mbunda]]. Pambuyo pa nkhondo ya nyengo yitali, Angola yikatora wanangwa mu 1975 nga ni Republic ya Marxist-Leninist. Charu ichi chikamba nkhondo ya boma chaka chimoza, pakati pa People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), iyo yikaŵa na wovwiri wa [[Soviet Union]] na [[Cuba]], [[National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]], iyo yikaŵa ya Maoist ndipo pamanyuma yikakanizga chikomyunizimu iyo yikaŵa nayo boma la [[United States]] na South Africa, na gulu la National Liberation Front of Angola, ilo likaŵa na wovwirapo wa [[Zaire]]. Angola yili na vyakununkhira vinandi na mafuta, ndipo caru ici cili pakati pa vyakununkha comene pa caru cose, comenecomene kufuma apo nkhondo ya mukati yikamalira.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=13 April 2010|title=Transparency and Accountability in Angola|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/04/13/transparency-and-accountability-angola|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006051053/http://www.hrw.org/report/2010/04/13/transparency-and-accountability-angola|archive-date=6 October 2015|access-date=1 April 2016|website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Angola ŵakukhala umoyo wambura kukhumbikwa. Kwambira mu 2017, boma la João Lourenço laŵika mtima pa kulimbana na vimbundi. Nangauli ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakumanya kuti mulimo uwu ngwakuzomerezgeka, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakususka ŵakuwona kuti ni vyakucitika vya ndyali.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/africa/angolas-anti-corruption-drive-real-or-cosmetic|title=Is Angola's Anti-Corruption Drive Real or Cosmetic?|website=VOA News|date=10 January 2020|access-date=24 June 2021|archive-date=28 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628000708/https://www.voanews.com/africa/angolas-anti-corruption-drive-real-or-cosmetic|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.angop.ao/en/noticias/politica/diplomata-reconhece-esforcos-na-luta-contra-corrupcao/|title=Diplomat recognizes government's effort in fight against corruption|date=30 June 2021|access-date=5 July 2021|publisher=Agéncia Angola Press|archive-date=6 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006061359/https://www.angop.ao/en/noticias/politica/diplomata-reconhece-esforcos-na-luta-contra-corrupcao/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth|year=2014|work=World Fact Book|publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html|access-date=4 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120024054/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html|archive-date=20 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Charu cha Angola chili mu wupu wa United Nations, OPEC, African Union, Community of Portuguese Language Countries, na Southern African Development Community. Mu 2021, ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakukwana 32.87 miliyoni. Angola ni caru ca ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakamba kuyowoya Ciphwitikizi kwa vyaka vinandi. ==Zina== Zina lakut''i Angola'' likufuma ku lizgu lakuti [[Reino de Angola]], ilo likafuma ku Chiphwitikizi, ndipo likalembeka mu chikalata cha mu 1571..<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Heywood |first1=Linda M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S42CypbRTlQC&pg=PA82 |title=Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585-1660 |last2=Thornton |first2=John K. |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521770651 |page=82 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320074507/http://books.google.com/books?id=S42CypbRTlQC&pg=PA82 |archive-date=20 March 2015}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ndiwo ŵakalemba zina ili kufuma ku zina lakuti ngola. Ndongo mu vigaŵa vya mapiri, pakati pa milonga ya Kwanza na Lucala, yikaŵa chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Kongo, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, yikakhumbanga kujithemba.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914 |title=Kingdom of Kongo 1390–1914 |last=Leander |date=18 May 2016 |website=South African History Online |access-date=25 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223184815/https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914 |archive-date=23 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Angola}} === Kusamukira ku vyaru vinyake na magulu gha ndyali === [[File:Jean_Roy_de_Congo.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[João I of Kongo|King João I]], [[Manikongo]] of the [[Kingdom of Kongo]]]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Angola ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Khoi na San pambere ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵandambe kusama. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoi na San ŵakaliskanga viŵeto yayi panji kulima, kweni ŵakaliskanga na kuvuna. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafumako ku chigaŵa ichi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Nigeria. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kulima banane na taro, kweniso viŵeto vikuruvikuru mu chigaŵa chapakati cha Angola. Pakaŵa maboma ghanandi agho ghakakhazikiskika. Ghakumanyikwa chomene ni Ufumu wa Kongo, uwo ukaŵa ku Angola. Chikatora nthowa zakwendakwenda na maboma ghanyake na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, kweniso na charu cha Great Zimbabwe na Mutapa. Kumwera kwake kukaŵa Ufumu wa Ndongo, uwo nyengo zinyake ukachemekanga Dongo.<ref name=EB1878>{{cite EB9 |mode=cs2 |wstitle=Angola |volume=2 |page=45 }}</ref> === Chikoloni cha Ŵapwitikizi === {{Main|Colonial history of Angola|Portuguese Angola}} [[File:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Kongo.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Coat of arms granted to King [[Afonso I of Kongo]] by King [[Manuel I of Portugal]]]] Munthu munyake wa ku Portugal zina lake Diogo Cão wakafika mu chigaŵa ichi mu 1484.<ref name=EB1878/> Chaka chamara, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kukolerana na charu cha Kongo, icho pa nyengo iyo chikaŵa kufuma ku Gabon, kumpoto, m'paka ku Mlonga wa Kwanza, kumwera. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhazikiska msika wawo ku Soyo, uwo sono ni msumba wa kumpoto comene mu Angola padera pa Cabinda. Mu 1575, Paulo Dias de Novais wakazenga msumba wa São Paulo de Loanda (Luanda) pamoza na mbumba 100 na ŵasilikari 400. Mu 1587, msumba wa Benguela ukaŵa na malinga ndipo mu 1617 ukazgoka tawuni. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhazikiska malo ghanyake ghakukhalamo, vigongwe, na malo ghakuguliskirako vinthu mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Angola. Ŵamalonda ŵa ku malo agha ndiwo ŵakapelekanga ŵazga ŵanandi ku ufumu wa Portugal, ndipo kanandi ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku Europe.<ref>{{cite book|title=Angola in the Eighteenth Century: Slave trading in the 1700s|url=https://archive.org/details/angolapresidentj0000usai|work=Angola President Jose Eduardo Dos Santos Handbook|author=Global Investment and Business Center|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|date=1 January 2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/angolapresidentj0000usai/page/153 153]|isbn=0739716069}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|access-date=14 May 2016|page=27|url= http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/africa-brazil-bridging-chapter2.pdf |title=The History of Brazil–Africa Relations|author=World Bank|work=Bridging the Atlantic|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530153221/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/africa-brazil-bridging-chapter2.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Chigaŵa ichi cha malonda gha ŵazga mu nyanja ya Atlantic chikalutilira m'paka apo charu cha Brazil chikapokera wanangwa mu 1820. Nangauli charu cha Portugal chikaŵa na mazaza pa charu cha Angola, kweni chikaŵa na mazaza ghachoko waka pa vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, charu cha Portugal chikamba kulamulira mumphepete mwa nyanja iyi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakasuzgikanga ndipo vinthu vikendanga makora yayi. John Iliffe wakati: "Mazgu gha ku Portugal agho ghakalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ghakulongora kuti njara yikuru yikaŵanga mu vigaŵa vyose vya charu cha Angola, ndipo para njara iyi yachitika, yikatenge yikomenge ŵanthu ŵakukwana hafu ya ŵanthu wose.<ref>Iliffe, John (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC ''Africans: the history of a continent''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610211914/https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC |date=10 June 2016 }}. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. {{ISBN|0-521-68297-5}}. For valuable complements for the 16th and 17th centuries see Beatrix Heintze, ''Studien zur Geschichte Angolas im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert'', Colónia/Alemanha: Köppe, 1996</ref> Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Portugal, kampani ya Dutch West India Company yikawukira msumba wa Luanda mu 1641. Mu 1648, ŵasilikari ŵa Salvador de Sá ŵakatora Luanda. Mu 1649, pakalembeka mapangano ghaphya na charu cha Kongo. Kupoka msumba wa Pungo Andongo mu 1671 kukaŵa kwaumaliro kwa Ŵapwitikizi kufuma ku Luanda, cifukwa ŵakayezga kuti ŵanjire mu Congo mu 1670 na Matamba mu 1681 kweni ŵakatondeka. Malo agho ŵakakolerananga nagho ghakathandazgikiranga kufuma ku Benguela, kweni m'paka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, malo agho ŵakakolerananga nagho ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene. Cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, caru ca Portugal cikachedwa comene kupoka caru ca Angola.<ref name="Handbook">{{Cite book |title=Angola, a Country Study |publisher=Department of the Army, [[American University]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-0160308444 |editor-last=Collelo |editor-first=Thomas |edition=Third |series=Area Handbook Series |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=14–26}}</ref> [[File:Cadornega.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''History of Angola''; written in Luanda in 1680.]] Mu 1836, malonda gha ŵazga ghakalekeka mu Angola, ndipo mu 1854 boma la ku Angola likafwatura ŵazga wose. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinayi, boma la Portugal likamazga wuzga. <ref name="Handbook" />Ndipouli, malango agha ghakaŵa ghambura kufiskika, ndipo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathembanga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain kuti ŵaŵawovwire kukanizga malonda gha ŵazga. Ici cikacitika pa nyengo iyo ŵasilikari ŵakambiraso ulendo wawo wa ku nkhorongo.<ref name="Handbook" /> Kuzakafika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, caru ca Portugal cikaŵa kuti capanga ufumu wake kumpoto m'paka ku Mlonga wa Congo na kumwera m'paka ku Mossâmedes. Kuzakafika kuumaliro wa ma 1880, Portugal yikaghanaghananga vya kukolerana na Angola na Mozambique, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain na Belgium ŵakakana. Mu nyengo iyi, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakumana na mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ŵanthu ŵakugaluka mu Angola.<ref>See René Pélissier, ''Les guerres grises: Résistance et revoltes en Angola, (1845-1941)'', Éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1977</ref> Ungano wa ku Berlin mu 1884-1885 ukaŵa na mphaka za charu ichi, ndipo ukalongosora mphaka za Ŵapwitikizi ku Angola.<ref>See René Pélissier, ''La colonie du Minotaure. Nationalismes et révoltes en Angola (1926–1961)'', éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1979</ref> Malonda pakati pa Portugal na vyaru vya ku Africa ghakasazgikira comene cifukwa ca msonkho wa msonkho uwo ukapangiska kuti caru ciŵe na vinthu vinandi, kweniso cifukwa ca ŵeneco ŵa ku Portugal awo ŵakaluta ku caru ici.<ref name="Corrado">{{cite book |last=Corrado |first=Jacopo |title=The Creole Elite and the Rise of Angolan Protonationalism: 1870–1920 |date=2008 |publisher=Cambria Press |isbn=978-1604975291 |location=Amherst, New York |pages=11–13}}</ref> Pakati pa 1939 na 1943, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakacitiska nkhondo ŵanthu ŵa ku Mucubal, awo ŵakasuskikanga kuti ŵakugaluka. Awo ŵakapona ŵakakakika mu misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu, ŵakatumika ku misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu, uko ŵanandi ŵakafwa cifukwa ca nkhaza za ŵantchito, kusoŵa cakurya cakukwana, na kukomeka.<ref>Rafael Coca de Campos ''Kakombola. O genocídio dos Mucubais na Angola colonial, 1930-1943'', Ponta Grossa, 2021.</ref> === Kujiyimira kwa Angola === {{Main|Angolan War of Independence|Portuguese Colonial War}} [[File:Luanda,desfilemilitar (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Portuguese Armed Forces]] marching in Luanda during the [[Portuguese Colonial War]]s (1961–74).]] Kuyana na dango la ku Angola, ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kunjilirapo pa ndyali panji kuzenga mabungwe. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusankhana mitundu. Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1960, wupu unyake uwo ukacitanga milimo yakovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ukaŵawovwira. Chifukwa chakuti Portugal yikakana kupulikira ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakakhumbanga, nkhondo yikamba mu 1961 apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Baixa de Cassanje ŵakagaluka. Mu nyengo yose ya nkhondo iyi, magulu ghatatu ghakwimikana na ŵasilikari ghakafuma mu nkhondo pakati pa boma la Portugal na ŵasilikari ŵa ku malo agha.<ref name="Chabal">{{cite book |last=Chabal |first=Patrick |title=A History of Postcolonial Lusophone Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpostcol0000chab |date=2002 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0253215659 |location=Bloomington |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpostcol0000chab/page/142 142]}}</ref> Gulu la National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) likulemba ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira ku Bakongo mu Zaire. Pakuwona umo vinthu vikaŵira mu msumba wa Léopoldville, kweniso mphaka iyo yikaŵa na Zaire, ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola awo ŵakakoleka ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakafumanga mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵa ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vya mphaka ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana ndipo ŵakakondwanga na ufumu wa Kongo. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake awo ŵakaŵa na maluso ghapachanya ŵakatondekanga kusanga nchito mu boma la Mobutu Sese Seko, kweni ŵanyake ŵakasanganga nchito ya kuŵa ŵimiliri ŵa ŵeneco ŵa makampani ghakupambanapambana. Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakambiska gulu la FNLA na cilato cakuti para ŵafika ku Angola ŵasangire mazaza.<ref name="Chabal"/>[[File:FNLA1973.jpg|thumb|upright|Ŵabali ŵa National Liberation Front of Angola ŵakasambira mu 1973.]] Mu 1966 gulu la Ovimbundu ilo likakanizganga Ŵapwitikizi ku Angola likalongozgeka na Jonas Savimbi na National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). Ŵakaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi cifukwa cakuti ŵakaŵa kutali na vigaŵa vya ŵabwezi ŵawo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ovimbundu ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana mitundu, kweniso ŵalimi ŵa ku Europe ŵakaŵa ŵekha pa malo agho ŵakakhalanga.<ref name="Chabal"/> Paumaliro wa 1950, gulu la Marxist-Leninist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) likamba kuwusa kumpoto kwa Luanda. Gulu ili likapangika na chipani cha Angolan Communist Party, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu ili ŵakaŵa Ambundu. Nangauli MPLA na ŵalwani ŵake ŵakapokeleranga wovwiri wa vinthu vyakufuma ku Soviet Union panji ku China, kweni MPLA yikaŵa na maghanoghano ghakwimikana na boma la Britain ndipo yikadandawuranga comene boma la United States na wovwiri wake ku Portugal. Ivi vikamovwira kuti waŵe na mwaŵi wa kukolerana na maboma gha ku Morocco, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, na United Arab Republic. MPLA yikayezga kusamuska ofesi yake yikuru kufuma ku Conakry kuya ku Léopoldville mu Okutobala 1961, ndipo yikambaso kulimbikira kupanga gulu limoza na FNLA, ilo likamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Union of Angolan Peoples (UPA) na mulongozgi wake Holden Roberto. Roberto wakakana. Apo MPLA yikayezga kunjizga ŵasilikari ŵake mu Angola, ŵasilikari ŵa UPA ŵakaŵawukira na kuŵakoma.<ref name="Cornwell">{{cite web |last=Cornwell |first=Richard |date=1 November 2000 |title=The War of Independence |url=http://www.issafrica.org/pubs/books/Angola/4cornwell.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221015144/http://www.issafrica.org/pubs/books/Angola/4cornwell.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2015 |access-date=20 February 2015 |publisher=Institute for Security Studies |location=Pretoria}}</ref> === Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni ya ku Angola === {{Main|Angolan Civil War}} [[File:President MPLA, heer Neto door Den Uyl ontvangen premier Den Uyl en A Neto (r), Bestanddeelnr 927-8518 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Agostinho Neto]], pulezidenti wakwamba wa Angola.]] Mu nyengo yose ya nkhondo iyi, magulu ghatatu agha ghakatimbanizgikanga cifukwa ca kupambana kwa ndyali na ŵasilikari, kweniso cifukwa ca kutondeka kukolerana pakulimbana na Ŵapwitikizi. Pakati pa 1961 na 1975, MPLA, UNITA, na FNLA ŵakakwesananga kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola na pa caru cose. Boma la Soviet Union na la Cuba likakolerana chomene na MPLA ndipo likapeleka vilwero, vilwero, ndalama, na masukulu. Ŵakawovwiraso ŵasilikari ŵa UNITA m'paka apo vikawonekeranga kuti ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakususkana na MPLA. Boma la ku Portugal la Estado Novo likati lamara mu 1974, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakaleka kugwira ntchito mu Africa. Pakukhwimiskika na wupu wa African Unity, Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, na mulongozgi wa MPLA Agostinho Neto ŵakakumana ku Mombasa kukwambilira kwa mwezi wa Janyuwale 1975 ndipo ŵakakolerana kupanga boma la wupu wakukolerana. Paumaliro wa mwezi wenewura, phangano la Alvor likazomerezga kuti paŵe maungano gha boma ndipo likati paŵe maungano gha boma. Ndipouli, magulu ghose ghatatu ghakapulikira phangano la kuleka kuwukira, ndipo ghakawovwira Ŵapwitikizi kuti ŵatore malo ghakupambanapambana, kusanga vilwero vinandi, na kusazgirako ŵasilikari ŵawo. Nkhondo yikalutilira kukura cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ŵa Soviet Union na United States, ŵakizanga na vilwero vinandi. Na wovwiri wa ku America na Zaire, FNLA yikamba kuwunganya ŵasilikari ŵanandi kumpoto kwa Angola kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa ŵankhongono. Nyengo yeneyiyo, MPLA yikamba kuwusa Luanda, malo ghakusungirako ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ambundu. Ku Luanda kukaŵa vivulupi vinandi mu myezi yakulondezgapo, pamanyuma pakuti gulu la FNLA lawira ŵasilikari ŵa MPLA mu Malichi 1975. Nkhondo yikasazgikira na mbembe za mu misewu mu Epulero na Meyi, ndipo UNITA yikakhwaskika pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 200 ŵakakomeka na MPLA mu Juni. Nkhondo iyi yikati yafika paheni chomene, boma la Soviet Union likamba kupeleka vilwero ku gulu la MPLA. Mu Ogasiti 1975, MPLA yikapempha wovwiri kufuma ku Soviet Union mu nthowa ya ŵasilikari ŵa pa mtunda. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Soviet ŵakakana, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kutuma ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵawovwire, kweni ŵasilikari yayi. Ndipouli, ku Cuba ŵakakhumbanga chomene kovwira ndipo kuumaliro wa Seputembala ŵakatuma ŵasilikari pafupifupi 500 ku Angola pamoza na vilwero na vinthu vinyake vyakukhumbikwa. Apo boma la Cuba likamba kujiyimira palekha, pakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 1,000. Ŵakaŵa na ndege zinandi za ku Soviet Union izo zikaŵawovwiranga. Wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Cuba na Soviet ukovwira kuti MPLA yifumiske ŵalwani ŵake mu Luanda na kulekeska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Zaire na ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakakhumbanga kovwira FNLA na UNITA. Gulu la FNLA likaparanyika comene pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Quifangondo, nangauli UNITA yikakwaniska kufumiska ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵake mu Luanda na kupenja malo ghakubisamamo mu vigaŵa vya kumwera. Kufuma apo, Savimbi wakalutilira kulimbana na MPLA.<ref name="Vanneman">{{cite book |last=Vanneman |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/sovietstrategyin00vann |title=Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Gorbachev's Pragmatic Approach |date=1990 |publisher=Hoover Institution Press |isbn=978-0817989026 |location=Stanford |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sovietstrategyin00vann/page/48 48–49] |url-access=registration}}</ref>[[File:Cuban PT-76 Angola.JPG|thumb|210px|Kasinja ya ku Cuba mu Luanda pa nyengo ya kucitako vinthu mu Angola, 1976]] Pakati pa 1975 na 1991, MPLA yikagwiliskira nchito ndondomeko ya vya cuma na ndyali yakujintha pa fundo za sayansi ya wupu wakucemeka socialism. Wakapanga ndondomeko yikuru ya kupanikizgira ŵanthu vinthu vyawo, ndipo nchito ya ŵeneco mu caru ici yikamara. Makampani agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵekha ghakaŵa gha boma ndipo ghakaŵa mu gulu limoza lakuchemeka Unidades Económicas Estatais (UEE). Mu nyengo ya MPLA, Angola yikaŵa mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na makuni ghanandi. Ndipouli, vimbundi na vimbundi vikasazgikiraso, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito makora yayi ndalama za boma. Chipani chakulongozga chikapona ku chiyezgo cha kuwukira boma na Maoist-oriented Communist Organisation of Angola (OCA) mu 1977, icho chikakanizgika pamanyuma pa viyezgo vya ndyali ivyo vikakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerana na OCA. Nkhondo ya ku Cuito Cuanavale mu 1987-1988 yikaŵa nkhondo yikuru comene ya nkhondo ya cikaya, iyo yikacitika pakati pa boma la MPLA ilo likawovwirika na Cuba na UNITA iyo yikawovwirika na South Africa. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu December 1988, ndipo ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Cuba na South Africa ŵakafumamo mu Angola. MPLA yikasida maghanoghano ghake ghakale gha Marxist pa ungano wake wacitatu wa chipani mu 1990, ndipo yikati social democracy ndiyo yikaŵa pulatifomu yake yiphya. Pamanyuma, Angola wakazgoka ciŵaro ca wupu wa International Monetary Fund. Mu Meyi 1991, ŵakafika pa phangano la mtende na UNITA, la Bicesse Accords. Apo MPLA yikapokera vitumbiko vikuru pa vipharazgo, UNITA yikasuska ivyo vikacitika pa mavoti gha pulezidenti na gha wupu wakulongozga, ndipo yikambaso nkhondo. Pambuyo pa chisankhochi, kuphana kwa Halloween kunachitika kuyambira pa Okutobala 30 mpaka Novembala 1, pomwe magulu a MPLA adapha zikwizikwi za othandizira a UNITA.<ref>{{cite book|last=W. James|first=Martin|year=2004|title=Historical Dictionary of Angola|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000jame|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000jame/page/161 161]–162|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1538111239}}</ref> ===21st century=== [[File:Porto de Luanda - Angola 2015.jpg|thumb|right|Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, mu msumba wa Luanda muli vinthu vinandi ivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge makora.]] {{Main|2000s in Angola}} Pa February 22, 2002, Jonas Savimbi wakakomeka pa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa boma. UNITA na MPLA ŵakamazga nkhondo. Gulu la UNITA likathera ku gulu lake la nkhondo na kwamba kuŵa chipani chikuru chakususka. Nangauli vinthu vikamba kwenda makora mu charu ichi, kweni pakaŵavya ndondomeko ya demokilase m'paka apo kukaŵa mavoti mu Angola mu 2008 na 2012 kweniso apo pakaŵa dango liphya mu 2010. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/who-is-angolas-new-president-joao-lourenco/a-40218458|title=Who is Angola's new president Joao Lourenco? &#124; DW &#124; 26.09.2017|website=DW.COM|access-date=26 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203010533/https://www.dw.com/en/who-is-angolas-new-president-joao-lourenco/a-40218458|url-status=live}}</ref> Angola wali mu suzgo yikuru ya ŵanthu; cifukwa ca nkhondo iyo yikatora nyengo yitali, mabomba ghanandi gha migodi, ndiposo cifukwa ca kulimbikira kwa ndyali kuti kaboni wa boma la Cabinda waŵe wakujiyimira yekha. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vyawo sono ŵakukhala mu tawuni yikuru ya Angola, kweni ŵanthu ŵa mu vikaya ivi ŵakusuzgika.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Angola - Human Rights Tracker |url=https://rightstracker.org/ |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=rightstracker.org |language=en}}</ref> Chilangalanga mu 2016 chikapangiska suzgo likuru comene la vyakurya mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa mu vyaka 25, ndipo ŵanthu 1.4 miliyoni ŵakakhwaskika mu vigaŵa 7 pa vigaŵa 18 vya Angola. Mtengo wa vyakurya ukakwera ndipo unandi wa ŵana awo ŵakalwara nthenda iyi ukakwera kaŵiri. Bungwe la Human Rights Measurement Initiative likusanga kuti Angola likucita 51.8% ya ivyo vikwenera kucitika pa mlingo wake wa ndalama kuti liŵe na wanangwa wa kurya cakurya cakukwana. José Eduardo dos Santos wakafumapo pa udindo wake wa purezidenti wa Angola pamanyuma pa vilimika 38 mu 2017, ndipo wakatora malo gha João Lourenço, mwenecho wa Santos. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu mbumba ya Dos Santos ŵakamanyikwa kuti ŵakaŵa ŵaryarya. Mu Julayi 2022, pulezidenti wakale José Eduardo dos Santos wakafwa ku Spain. Mu Ogasiti 2022, chipani cha MPLA, chikapokera chiŵelengero chikuru chomene ndipo Pulezidenti Lourenço wakapokera nyengo yachiŵiri ya vyaka vinkhondi. Ndipouli, maungano agha ghakaŵa ghakusuzga comene kuluska maungano ghanyake ghose mu Angola.<ref>{{cite news |title=Angola's MPLA ruling party wins elections and presidency |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/29/angola-ruling-party-wins-vote-and-president-a-second-term |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=José Eduardo dos Santos: State funeral for Angola ex-president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62705492 |work=BBC News |date=28 August 2022}}</ref> ==Makhalilo== {{Main|Geography of Angola}} [[File:Angola Topography.png|thumb|upright|Topography of Angola.]] Ku Angola kuli vigaŵa vyakujumpha 1,246,700 km2, ndipo ni caru ca nambara 24 pa vyaru vyose pa caru capasi. Malo agha ghali pakati pa latitude 4° na 18°S, kweniso longitude 12° na 24°E. Charu cha Angola chili kumafumiro gha dazi na Namibia, kumafumiro gha dazi na Zambia, kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi na Democratic Republic of Congo, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi na South Atlantic Ocean. Chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja cha Cabinda, kumpoto, chili na mphaka na charu cha Democratic Republic of Congo, kumpoto, na kumwera. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Msumba ukuru wa Angola, Luanda, uli mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Atlantic kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici. Angola wakaŵa na nambala ya 8.35/10 pa 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Nyengo=== {{Main|Climate of Angola}} [[File:Angola map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|300px|Mapu gha Angola gha umo vinthu viliri ku Köppen.]] Nga ni vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, Angola nayo wali na nyengo zakupambanapambana za vula na chilangalanga. Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto, nyengo ya vula yinganjira myezi 7 - kanandi kufuma mu Seputembala m'paka Epulero. Kumwera, nyengo ya vula yikwamba mu Novembala ndipo yikulutilira m'paka mu Febuluwale. Nyengo ya chilangalanga (cacimbo) kanandi yikuŵa na chiwuvi chikuru mulenji. Kanandi maji ghakukhira chomene kumpoto, kweni mu vigaŵa vinyake vya charu, ghakukhira chomene kuluska mumphepete mwa nyanja. Para munthu wali kutali na equator kweniso para wali pachanya pa mtunda, matenthe ghakukhira, ndipo para wafika kufupi na nyanja ya Atlantic, ghakuwuka. Ntheura, ku Soyo, pa mulomo wa Mlonga wa Congo, pa cilimika cilicose ŵakuzizima comene ŵakuzizima comene. Mwezi wakuzizima chomene ni Julayi na Ogasiti (pakati pa nyengo ya chiwuvi), apo nyengo zinyake kukuŵa chiwuvi.<ref name=":1">{{citation-attribution|{{cite encyclopedia|title=Angola: a country study|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/90003244/|date=1989|editor-last=Collelo|editor-first=Thomas|pages=57–61|language=English|isbn=|oclc=44357178|access-date=19 June 2022|archive-date=8 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408100132/https://www.loc.gov/item/90003244/|url-status=live}}}}</ref> === Kugawikana kwa boma === {{Main|Provinces of Angola|Municipalities of Angola|Communes of Angola}} [[File:Angola Provinces numbered 300px.png|thumb|upright|Map of Angola with the provinces numbered]] [[File:Huambo, Palácio do Governador (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Huambo Province|Provincial Government of Huambo]].]] Mu Malichi 2016, charu cha Angola chili na vigaŵa 18 (provincias) na matawuni 162. Ŵakumanyikwa na mazina agha ŵali kugaŵika mu vikaya 559.<ref name="acd">{{Citation|title=Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da População e da Habitação de Angola 2014|date=March 2016|url=http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf|page=27|trans-title=Final Results of the General Census of Population and Housing of Angola 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506013702/http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estatística|language=pt|archive-date=6 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Vigaŵa ivi ni: {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ |- bgcolor="#ACE1AF" !Nambala !Chigaŵa !Msumba waboma !Usani (km²)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geohive.com/cntry/angola.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930004212/http://www.geohive.com/cntry/angola.aspx|archive-date=2016-09-30 |title=Angola General Information |website=geohive.com |access-date=3 March 2022}}</ref> !Ŵanthu<br /> (2014 Census)<ref name="Censo2014s">{{cite web|title=Resultados Definitivos Recenseamento Geral da População e Habitação - 2014|url=https://www.ine.gov.ao/images/Populacao_Sociedade/Estudos_tematicos/PUBLICACAO_RESULTADOS_DEFINITIVOS_DO_CENSO_2014.pdf|access-date=3 May 2020|website=Instituto Nacional de Estatística, República de Angola|archive-date=14 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214215245/https://www.ine.gov.ao/images/Populacao_Sociedade/Estudos_tematicos/PUBLICACAO_RESULTADOS_DEFINITIVOS_DO_CENSO_2014.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- |1 |[[Bengo Province|Bengo]] |[[Caxito]] | align="right" |31,371 | align="right" |356,641 |- |2 |[[Benguela Province|Benguela]] |[[Benguela]] | align="right" |39,826 | align="right" |2,231,385 |- |3 |[[Bié Province|Bié]] |[[Cuíto]] | align="right" |70,314 | align="right" |1,455,255 |- |4 |[[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] |[[Cabinda (city)|Cabinda]] | align="right" |7,270 | align="right" |716,076 |- |5 |[[Cuando Cubango Province|Cuando Cubango]] |[[Menongue]] | align="right" |199,049 | align="right" |534,002 |- |6 |[[Cuanza Norte Province|Cuanza Norte]] |[[N'dalatando]] | align="right" |24,110 | align="right" |443,386 |- |7 |[[Cuanza Sul Province|Cuanza Sul]] |[[Sumbe]] | align="right" |55,600 | align="right" |1,881,873 |- |8 |[[Cunene Province|Cunene]] |[[Ondjiva]] | align="right" |87,342 | align="right" |990,087 |- |9 |[[Huambo Province|Huambo]] |[[Huambo]] | align="right" |34,270 | align="right" |2,019,555 |- |10 |[[Huíla Province|Huíla]] |[[Lubango]] | align="right" |79,023 | align="right" |2,497,422 |- |11 |[[Luanda Province|Luanda]] |[[Luanda]] | align="right" |2,417 | align="right" |6,945,386 |- |12 |[[Lunda Norte Province|Lunda Norte]] |[[Dundo]] | align="right" |103,760 | align="right" |862,566 |- |13 |[[Lunda Sul Province|Lunda Sul]] |[[Saurimo]] | align="right" |77,637 | align="right" |537,587 |- |14 |[[Malanje Province|Malanje]] |[[Malanje]] | align="right" |97,602 | align="right" |986,363 |- |15 |[[Moxico Province|Moxico]] |[[Luena, Moxico Province|Luena]] | align="right" |223,023 | align="right" |758,568 |- |16 |[[Namibe Province|Namibe]] |[[Moçâmedes]] | align="right" |57,091 | align="right" |495,326 |- |17 |[[Uíge Province|Uíge]] |[[Uíge]] | align="right" |58,698 | align="right" |1,483,118 |- |18 |[[Zaire Province|Zaire]] |[[M'banza-Kongo]] | align="right" |40,130 | align="right" |594,428 |} === Chigaŵa cha Cabinda === {{Main|Cabinda Province}} [[File:Governo Provincial do Namibe (19543179475) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Namibe Province|Provincial Government of Namibe]].]] Chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Angola cha Cabinda chili na malo ghakujumpha 7,283 sq km. Chigaŵa ichi chikupambana na chigaŵa chinyake cha charu cha Democratic Republic of Congo icho chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 60 kufupi na Mlonga wa Congo. Cabinda wakukhala ku mpoto na kumpoto na kumpoto kwa mpoto kwa Congo na DRC kumafumiro na kumwera. Msumba wa Cabinda ndiwo uli na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Kuyana na kalembera uyo wakacitika mu 1995, ku Cabinda kukaŵa ŵanthu pafupifupi 600,000, ndipo pafupifupi 400,000 mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku vyaru vinyake. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga yayi ivyo ŵakuyowoya. Mu chigaŵa ichi muli makuni ghanandi, khofi, kakawo, ghamkuyu, na mafuta. Ndipouli, caru ici nchakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca mafuta agho ghakupambika. Pafupifupi hafu ya mafuta ghose agho Angola ghakupanga, ghali kufuma ku mafuta agho ghakusangika ku Cabinda.<ref>{{cite news|date=22 December 2013|title=Angola profile|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732|url-status=live|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624084435/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732|archive-date=24 June 2018}}</ref> Mafuta ghanandi agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja iyi ghakasangika na kampani yakuchemeka Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) kufuma mu 1968 m'paka sono. Kufuma waka apo Portugal yikapelekera mazaza gha chigaŵa chakwake cha Angola ku magulu ghakujiyimira pawekha (MPLA, UNITA na FNLA), chigaŵa cha Cabinda chaŵa malo ghakukanizgikira ku boma la Angola. Chipani cha Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda- Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC) chikapharazga kuti boma la Federal Republic of Cabinda lizamuŵa pasi pa muwuso wa N'Zita Henriques Tiago. Cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Cabindan ŵakukhumba kujikora nchakuti nyengo zose ŵakugaŵikana. == Boma na ndale == {{Main|Politics of Angola}} {{See also|Elections in Angola|List of political parties in Angola}} [[File:National Assembly Building (19898889148).jpg|thumb|left|Nyumba ya Malango ya Angola.]] Boma la Angola lili na maofesi ghatatu: wupu wakulongozga, wa malango na wa vyeruzgo. Wupu wakulongozga wa boma uli na pulezidenti, mavice-president na Council of Minister. Wupu wakulongozga uli na mipando 220, wupu wakulongozga wa wupu umoza, wupu wa National Assembly of Angola, uwo ukusankhika kufuma mu vigaŵa vinandi vya chigaŵa na vyaru vyose. Kwa vyaka vinandi, mazaza gha ndyali ghakaŵa mu mawoko gha pulezidenti. Pamanyuma pa vilimika 38 vya kuwusa, mu 2017 President dos Santos wakafumapo pa umanyi wa MPLA. Mulongozgi wa chipani icho chizamutonda pa mavoti gha pa nyumba ya malango mu Ogasiti 2017 ndiyo wazamuŵa pulezidenti wakulondezgapo wa Angola. MPLA yikasankha nduna yakale ya vya vimbundi João Lourenço kuŵa wakunjira mu malo mwa Santos. Pa ŵaliska 32, 12 ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi. Mu ivyo vikulongosoreka kuti ni kuyuzga ndyali kuti waŵike nkhongono zake na kuchepeska mazaza gha mbumba ya Dos Santos, Lourenço wakafumiska mulara wa ŵapolisi, Ambrósio de Lemos, na mulara wa ŵapolisi, Apolinário José Pereira. Wose ŵaŵiri ŵakuwoneka kuti ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa pulezidenti Dos Santos. Kweniso wakawuskapo Isabel Dos Santos, mwana wa pulezidenti wakale, pakuŵa mulara wa kampani ya mafuta ya Sonangol. Mu Ogasiti 2020, José Filomeno dos Santos, mwana wa pulezidenti wakale wa Angola, wakalangika vyaka vinkhondi mu jele cifukwa ca upusikizgi na vimbundi.<ref>{{cite news |title=José Filomeno dos Santos: Son of Angola's ex-leader jailed for five years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53774288 |work=BBC News |date=14 August 2020 |access-date=7 June 2022 |archive-date=7 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607203552/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53774288 |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Malango=== [[File:Vladimir Putin and João Lourenço, 26 july 2018 (3) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[João Lourenço]], [[President of Angola]]]] {{main|Constitution of Angola}} Ndondomeko ya boma ya mu 2010 yikulongosora makora umo boma likwendeskekera kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kuchita. Boma la Portugal lili na malango ghakukhwaskana na malango gha chiyowoyero na malango gha mitheto. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikati yamara, boma la Iran likakhwaskika na ŵanthu ŵa mu charu na ŵamitundu kuti liŵe la demokilase. Likasintha vinthu vinyake kwambura kusintha chomene. Ndondomeko yiphya ya malango, iyo yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2010, yikasintha kuti paŵavye mavoti gha pulezidenti. Mwaunenesko panji yayi, pulezidenti ndiyo wakulongozga vinthu vinyake vyose mu boma, ntheura palije kugaŵikana kwa mazaza. Kuyana na malango gha boma, boma ili lili na mazaza ghakulongozga''.''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Angola Party Politics: Into the African Trend|last=Amundsen|first=Inge|publisher=Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI) and Centro de Estudos e Investigação Científica (CEIC)|year=2011|type=PDF}}</ref><ref>Péclard, Didier (ed.) (2008) ''L'Angola dans la paix: Autoritarisme et reconversions'', special issue of ''Politique africains'' (Paris), p. 110.</ref><ref>Miranda, Jorge (2010) "A Constituição de Angola de 2010", ''O Direito'' (Lisbon), vol. 142.</ref> === Wankhondo === {{Main|Angolan Armed Forces}} [[File:Luanda - Angola (6276460346) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Angola awo ŵakaŵa na yunifomu.]] Gulu la ŵasilikari la Angola (Forças Armadas Angolanas, FAA) likulongozgeka na Chief of Staff uyo wakuphalira nduna yakuvikilira chalo. Pali maboma ghatatu: Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA) na National Air Force (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Ŵandu ŵakwana 107,000, kusazgapo ŵasilikari 10,000 (kuyana na 2015).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather guide|publisher=Helicon|year=2018|isbn=978-1-84972-716-7|location=Abington, UK}}</ref> Vinthu vyake vikusazgapo vilwero vya nkhondo vya ku Russia, mabomba na ndege zakwendeskera vinthu. Paliso ndege za EMB-312 Tucanos za ku Brazil, za L-39 za ku Czech, na za ku Western, nga ni C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, na vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa FAA ŵali mu Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa) ndipo ŵanyake 500 ŵakatumika mu Malichi 2023 cifukwa ca kuwuka kwa M23. Wupu wa FAA nawo uli kuchitako mulimo wa mtende wa Southern African Development Community (SADC) ku Cabo Delgado, Mozambique.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Angola to join SADC military mission to Mozambique - Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/africa/2021-07/28/c_1310092087.htm |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=www.xinhuanet.com |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025093503/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/africa/2021-07/28/c_1310092087.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gomes |first=Miguel |last2=Rolley |first2=Sonia |date=17 March 2023 |title=Angola to deploy troops in Congo's rebel-hit east |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/angola-deploy-troops-congos-rebel-hit-east-2023-03-17/ |access-date=15 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=AfricaNews |date=2020-07-06 |title=DRC: Angolan soldier killed in Kasai |url=https://www.africanews.com/2020/07/06/drc-angolan-soldier-killed-in-kasai/ |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=Africanews |language=en |archive-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510124820/https://www.africanews.com/2020/07/06/drc-angolan-soldier-killed-in-kasai/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Ŵapolisi === {{Main|Law enforcement in Angola}} [[File:Angola transito (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Ŵapolisi ŵa ku Angola.]] Maofesi gha ŵapolisi ni Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police na Rapid Intervention Police. Ŵapolisi ŵakuzenga viŵiya vya nkhondo kuti viwovwire ŵasilikari. Ŵapolisi ŵa ku caru cose ŵakukuzga maofesi ghawo ghakutozga milandu. Wupu uwu uli na ŵasilikari 6,000, ŵapolisi 2,500 ŵakuwona vya misonkho, ŵapolisi 182 ŵakuwona vya vigeŵenga, ŵapolisi 100 ŵakuwona vya vigeŵenga vya ndalama, kweniso ŵapolisi pafupifupi 90 ŵakuwona vya vyachuma. Ŵapolisi ŵa boma ŵali kwambiska ndondomeko ya kusinthiska na kusambizga ŵanthu kuti ŵacite makora milimo yawo. Padera pa kunozga vinthu mu boma, mapulojekiti ghakusintha vinthu ghakusazgapo kugura magalimoto ghaphya, ndege na vinthu vinyake, kuzenga maofesi gha ŵapolisi na ma laboratory gha vya malango, kunozga masukulu gha kusambizga ŵanthu, na kusinthiska futi za AKM na za Uzi za 9 mm ku ŵasilikari ŵa mu matawuni. ===Chilungamo=== Khoti Likuru Chomene ndilo likuchita apilu. Khoti la malango ni wupu wapachanya wa malango, ilo likakhazikiskika na dango la nambara 2/08, la 17 Juni  ️ Dango la malango la khoti la malango na la nambara 3/08, la 17 Juni ️ Dango la malango la malango. Ndondomeko ya malango yili kuyana na malango gha ku Portugal na malango gha cikaya. Mu caru ici muli makhoti 12 mu vigaŵa vyakujumpha 140. Mulimo wake wakwamba ukaŵa wa kuwoneseska kuti ŵandyali ŵaŵikapo mtima pa maungano gha chigaŵa gha pa Seputembala 5, 2008. Pasono pali ŵeruzgi 7 awo ŵakupeleka ulongozgi, ŵanalume ŵanayi na ŵanakazi ŵatatu. Mu 2014, dango liphya la vigeŵenga likamba kugwira ntchito mu Angola. Dango liphya ili likulongora kuti kusesa ndalama nkhwananga..<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141215075205/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/280463/angola-com-novo-codigo-penal-ainda-este-ano Angola com novo Código Penal ainda este ano] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215075205/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/280463/angola-com-novo-codigo-penal-ainda-este-ano |date=15 December 2014 }}, Notícias ao Minuto, 24 September 2014</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Angola|List of diplomatic missions of Angola}} [[File:Secretary Pompeo Meets With Angolan Foreign Minister Augusto (48578221376) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Nduna ya vyaru vyakuwaro ya Angola Manuel Domingos Augusto.]] Boma la Angola ndilo likambiska wupu wa Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). Pa Okutobala 16, 2014, Angola wakasankhika kachiŵiri kuŵa mubali wambura kukhazikika mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council, na mavoti 190. Mulimo wake ukamba pa 1 Janyuwale 2015 ndipo ukamalira pa 31 Disembala 2016. Kwambira mu Janyuwale 2014, charu cha Angola chikulongozga ungano wa chigaŵa cha Great Lakes (CIRGL). [80] Mu 2015, Secretary Executive wa CIRGL Ntumba Luaba wakayowoya kuti Angola ni chiyelezgero icho mamembala gha wupu uwu ghakwenera kulondezga, chifukwa cha ivyo vyachitika mu vyaka 12 vya mtende, chomenechomene pa nkhani ya umoyo wa chalo na chuma kweniso ndyali.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://expansao.co.ao/Artigo/Geral/52550|title=Angola deve servir de exemplo para os países da CIRGL – Ntumba Luaba|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305110419/http://expansao.co.ao/artigo/geral/52550|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}} Expansion, 8 January 2015</ref> === Wanangwa wa Munthu === {{see also|Human rights in Angola|LGBT rights in Angola}} Bungwe la Freedom House likati Angola ni 'themba lambura wanangwa' mu lipoti la 2014 Freedom in the World. Lipoti ili likati pa maungano gha pa caru cose gha Ogasiti 2012, apo gulu lakulamulira la Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola likapokera mavoti ghakujumpha 70%, pakaŵa maubudi ghakuru, kusazgapo mavoti ghakale ndiposo ghambura kwenelera. Kuvota kukakhira kufuma pa 80% mu 2008 kufika pa 60%. Lipoti la mu 2012 la U.S. Dipatimenti yakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ku United States yikati: "Vinthu vitatu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakachitanga [mu 2012] ivyo vikususkana na wanangwa wa ŵanthu ni vimbundi na kuleka kulangika; kukanizga wanangwa wa kuwungana, kuwungana, kuyowoya, na kulemba nkhani; kweniso kulanga ŵanthu mwankhaza kweniso mwakujumphizga. Boma la Angola lili pa malo gha 42 pa maiko 48 gha ku sub-Sahara Africa pa index ya 2007 ya African Governance list ndipo lili pa malo ghachepa pa Ibrahim Index ya 2013 ya African Governance.:8 Likasangika pa malo 39 pa maiko 52 gha ku sub-Sahara Africa, ndipo lili na malo ghaheni chomene pa vigaŵa vya chiŵaro na wanangwa wa ŵanthu, mwaŵi wa vyachuma na chitukuko cha ŵanthu. Ibrahim Index yikugwiliskira nchito vimanyikwiro vyakupambanapambana pakusanga ndondomeko iyo yikulongora umo vinthu viliri mu Africa. Mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakutorana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵakazomerezgeka ku Angola, ndipo boma likakanizga kusankhana chifukwa cha kugonana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomera: 155 ŵakakolerana, yumoza wakususka, ndipo 7 ŵakakana.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Sophie |date=24 January 2019 |title=Angola decriminalises homosexuality and bans discrimination based on sexual orientation |work=The Evening Standard |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/world/angola-decriminalises-homosexuality-and-bans-discrimination-based-on-sexual-orientation-a4047871.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124231409/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/world/angola-decriminalises-homosexuality-and-bans-discrimination-based-on-sexual-orientation-a4047871.html |archive-date=24 January 2019}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Angola}} [[File:Angola Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|Chiŵelengero cha vyakurya ivyo Angola wakuguliska, 2019]] [[File:GDP per capita development of Angola.svg|thumb|GDP pa munthu yumoza 1950 mpaka 2018]] Angola wali na malibwe gha dayimani, mafuta, golide, mkuŵa na vyamoyo vinandi (ivyo vikamara mu nyengo ya nkhondo), nkhorongo na mafuta. Kufuma waka apo charu chikapokera wanangwa, mafuta na malibwe gha dayamondi ndivyo vikovwira comene pa vya cuma. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Caru na Caru ya ku Angola, mulimi mucoko na mulimi uyo wakalimanga viŵeto wakakhira comene, kweni wakamba kuwuka mu 2002. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, chuma cha charu cha Angola chasintha kufuma ku nkhondo iyo yikatora nyengo yitali, ndipo sono ndicho chikukura mwaluŵiro chomene mu Africa na mu vyaru vinyake. Mu nyengo ya 2001-10, Angola ndiyo yikaŵa na ciŵelengero cikuru comene ca GDP pa caru cose, pa 11.1%. Mu 2004, Exim Bank of China yikazomerezga ngongoli ya madola mabiliyoni ghaŵiri ku Angola, kuti yizakaŵawovwire kuzengaso vinthu vya mu charu ichi, kweniso kuti yikanizge mazaza gha International Monetary Fund. Charu cha China ndicho ntchigaŵa chikuru cha Angola pakuguliska na kutumizga vyakurya. Mu 2011, malonda gha vyaru viŵiri agha ghakafika pa $27.67 biliyoni, ndipo ghakwera na 11.5% pa caka. Vinthu ivyo China likaguliska ku Angola, comenecomene mafuta na dayamondi, vikakwera na 9.1% kufika pa $24.89 biliyoni. Pakuti mafuta ghakaŵa ghanandi chomene, mafuta ghambura kulongozga ghakaŵa na mtengo wa mapaundi 0.37 pa galoni. Chuma cha Angola chikakura na 18% mu 2005, 26% mu 2006 na 17.6% mu 2007. Chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma pa charu chose, mu 2009 chuma chikakhira na -0.3%. Vinthu vya mtende ivyo vikachitika mu 2002 vyawovwira kuti ŵanthu 4 miliyoni awo ŵakacimbizgika ŵakhalenge mu vyaru vinyake. Boma la Angola likukhazga kuti likura na 3.9 peresenti mu 2014 kuyana na International Monetary Fund (IMF), kukwera kwa ndalama mu vyalo vyambura mafuta, comenecomene cifukwa ca milimo yiwemi comene mu vigaŵa vya vyalo vya ulimi, kukukhazga kuti kukhuŵazgenge kuchepa kwa nyengo yicoko mu vyalo vya mafuta.<ref>[http://en.starafrica.com/news/angolas-economy-to-grow-by-3-9-percent-imf.html Angola's economy to grow by 3.9 percent-IMF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713173958/http://en.starafrica.com/news/angolas-economy-to-grow-by-3-9-percent-imf.html |date=13 July 2015 }} StarAfrica, 4 September 2014</ref>[[File:Banco Nacional de Angola in Luanda - Angola 2015.jpg|thumb|right|Banki Ikulu ya Charu ya Angola.]] Boma la Angola likwendeskeka na Banki ya ku Angola. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo Deloitte wakachita pa nkhani ya banki, ndalama izo banki ya Angola, Banco Nacional de Angola (BNA), yikendeskanga zikapangiska kuti unandi wa ndalama ukhale pa 7.96% mu Disembala 2013. Malipoti agho banki yikuru ya Angola yikapeleka ghakulongora kuti mu vyaka vinayi vyakunthazi, chuma cha charu ichi chikwenera kukura pa ciŵelengero ca 5% pa caka.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041824/https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFKCN0HV1EN20141006 Angola seen growing average 5 percent: Central Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041824/https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFKCN0HV1EN20141006 |date=1 December 2017 }}, Reuters (Africa), 10 June 2014</ref> Nangauli chuma cha charu ichi chakura comene kufuma waka apo boma la Angola likakhazikiskikira mu 2002, comenecomene cifukwa ca ndalama izo likusanga mu vyakununkhira, kweni likulimbana na masuzgo ghakuru. Vinthu ivi vikucitika cifukwa ca nkhondo izo zikacitika kwambira mu 1961, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaparanyika na kusuzgika comene mu vyaru vinyake. Ndipouli, ukavu ukuru ndiposo kusowa kwa wanangwa wa ŵanthu vikucitika cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kuŵa ŵankhongono, "ŵakujikuzga" pa vigaŵa vyose vya ndyali, maboma, ŵasilikari, na vya cuma, kweniso cifukwa ca vimbundi. Awo ŵakusanga candulo cikuru ni awo ŵali na mazaza pa ndyali, ndyali, na ŵasilikari, awo ŵasanga (ndipo ŵakulutilira kusanga) usambazi unandi.<ref>This process is well analyzed by authors like [[Christine Messiant]], Tony Hodges and others. For an eloquent illustration, see the Angolan magazine ''Infra-Estruturas África'' 7/2010.</ref><ref>Anti-corruption watchdog [[Transparency International]] rates Angola one of the 10 most corrupt countries in the world.</ref><ref>Dolan, Kerry A. (23 January 2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20170815004333/https://www.forbes.com/sites/kerryadolan/2013/01/23/isabel-dos-santos-daughter-of-angolas-president-is-africas-first-woman-billionaire/ "Isabel Dos Santos, Daughter Of Angola's President, Is Africa's First Woman Billionaire"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815004333/https://www.forbes.com/sites/kerryadolan/2013/01/23/isabel-dos-santos-daughter-of-angolas-president-is-africas-first-woman-billionaire/ |date=15 August 2017 }}. ''Forbes''.</ref> [[File:Cidade Financeira de Luanda 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Luanda Financial City.]] "Ŵanthu ŵaciŵiri awo ŵakusanga candulo" ni ŵanthu ŵaciŵiri awo ŵali pafupi kuŵa ŵanthu ŵaciŵiri. Ndipouli, pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu aŵa mbakavu, ndipo pali mphambano yikuru pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi na ŵa mu matawuni. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2008 na wupu wa ku Angola wakuwona vya ndyali, wakalongora kuti mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu 58 pa 100 ŵaliwose ndiwo mbakavu kuyana na malango gha wupu wa UN. Kweni mu misumba, ŵanthu 19 pera ndiwo mbakavu. Mu matawuni, mbumba zinandi, kusazgapo izo zikucemeka ŵakavu, zikwenera kucita vinthu vyakupambanapambana kuti zileke kufwa. Ku malo gha matawuni ndiko ŵanthu ŵakuŵa ŵakupambana comene, ndipo ku Luanda ndiko ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵa ŵakupambana comene. Pa index ya chitukuko cha ŵanthu, Angola wakukhala pasi comene.<ref>The HDI 2010 lists Angola in the 146th position among 169 countries—one position below that of Haiti. MLP l [https://web.archive.org/web/20110428201043/http://www.undp.org/publications/hdr2010/en/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf ''Human Development Index and its components.''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428201043/http://www.undp.org/publications/hdr2010/en/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf|date=28 April 2011}}</ref>[[File:Hotel in Lobito.JPG|thumb|right|Ulendo wa ku Angola wakukura pamoza na chuma na kukhazikika kwa caru ici.]] Mu Janyuwale 2020, chikalata cha boma icho chikamanyikwa kuti Luanda Leaks chikulongora kuti makampani gha ku America nga ni Boston Consulting Group, McKinsey & Company, na PricewaterhouseCoopers ghakawovwira ŵabali ŵa pulezidenti wakale José Eduardo dos Santos (makamaka mwana wake mwanakazi Isabel dos Santos) kuti ŵachitenge vimbundi pa Sonangol kuti ŵasangepo phindu. Pamanyuma pa kuvumbura vinandi mu Pandora Papers, ŵakaronga ŵakale Dias na do Nascimento na awo ŵakateŵeterangapo pulezidenti nawo ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakananga ndalama zinandi za boma. Vinthu vikupambana comene pakati pa vigaŵa ivi, ndipo ivi vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora yayi mu charu cha Angola. Cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikucitika cifukwa ca kupambana kwa vinthu pa umoyo wa ŵanthu na vigaŵa ni unandi wa ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakugwiliskira nchito mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakukhala mu Angola, awo ŵakusangika na katundu munandi, ŵakukhumba kuti vinthu viŵayendere makora. Pa nyengo yasono, ndalama zinandi izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakugwiliskira nchito zikuŵa mu Portugal, uko ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola (nga ni mbumba ya pulezidenti wa boma) ŵalipo mu mabanki kweniso mu vyalo vya magesi, kwendera mawoko, na vyakupharazga.<ref>"A força do kwanza", ''Visão'' (Lisbon), 993, 15 May 2012, pp. 50–54</ref>[[File:Rua Kwame Nkrumah Luanda 05.JPG|thumb|left|Corporate headquarters in Luanda]] Boma la Angola lasintha vinthu vinyake vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu. Lipoti linyake likuti, pakati pajumpha vilimika 10 kufuma apo nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikamalira, umoyo wa ŵanthu ku Angola waŵa uwemi comene. Mu 2002, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga vyaka 46, kweni mu 2011 ŵakakhala vyaka 51. Kufwa kwa ŵana kukakhira kufuma pa 25 peresenti mu 2001 kufika pa 19 peresenti mu 2010 ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakusambira pulayimale chakwera katatu kufuma mu 2001. Ndipouli, nyengo yeneyiyo, suzgo la kusankhana mitundu mu vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵakupambanapambana na umo vinthu viliri sono, lindamare. Ku Angola kuli ndalama zakukwana Kz 70 biliyoni (US$6.8 biliyoni). Kuyana na nduna ya vya cuma ya ku Angola, Abraão Gourgel, msika wa vya ndalama wa mu caru ici ukakura comene kwambira mu 2002 ndipo pasono uli pa malo ghacitatu mu vyaru vya ku Africa. Pa Disembala 19, 2014, ŵakajura msika wa Angola. Bungwe la Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives (BODIVA) ndilo likaŵa na msika wa ngongoli za boma, ndipo likaghanaghananga kuti lizamwamba kuguliska ngongoli za makampani mu 2015.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/economia/2014/11/51/Angola-CMC-prepares-launch-debt-secondary-market,54877cb4-fc83-4047-8752-a27150a365dc.html CMC prepares launch of debt secondary market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318222717/http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/economia/2014/11/51/Angola-CMC-prepares-launch-debt-secondary-market,54877cb4-fc83-4047-8752-a27150a365dc.html |date=18 March 2015 }} Angola Press Agency, 16 December 2014</ref> ===Natural resources=== [[File:Offshore platform on move to final destination, Ilha de Luanda (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|Malo ghakujimira mafuta mumphepete mwa nyanja ku Angola]] Mu 2008, magazini ya The Economist yikati malibwe gha dayamondi na mafuta ndivyo vikupangiska kuti ku Angola kuŵe ndalama zinandi. Kukura uku kwacitika cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mafuta agho ghakapangika, agho ghakajumpha malita 1.4 pa zuŵa (220,000 m3/d) kuumaliro wa 2005, ndipo ghakeneranga kukwera kufika pa malita 2 pa zuŵa (320,000 m3/d) mu 2007. Boma la Angola ndilo likulongozga makampani gha mafuta. Mu Disembala 2006, charu cha Angola chikaŵa mu gulu la OPEC. Kuyana na Heritage Foundation, wupu wa ku America, uwo ukuwona kuti mafuta gha mu Angola ghakusazgikira comene mwakuti sono Angola ndiyo yikupanga mafuta ghanandi ku China. "China yapeleka ngongoli zitatu za madola mabiliyoni ghanandi ku boma la Angola; ngongoli ziŵiri za madola mabiliyoni ghaŵiri kufuma ku China Exim Bank, yimoza mu 2004, yachiŵiri mu 2007, kweniso ngongoli yimoza mu 2005 ya madola mabiliyoni 2.9 kufuma ku China International Fund Ltd". Kweniso ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga chifukwa cha mafuta zikapangiska kuti paŵe vimbundi. Kweniso, Sonangol, kampani ya boma ya mafuta, yikulongozga 51% ya mafuta gha mu Cabinda. Cifukwa ca kuwusa kwa msika uwu, kampani iyi yikumalizga na kupangiska boma kupokera candulo na kulipira misonkho. Wupu wa vyaru vya kuwaro ukuti Banki ya Caru Cose yikayowoya kuti Sonangol wakupeleka msonkho, wakucita milimo ya msonkho, wakugwiliskira nchito ndalama za boma, ndipo pakuŵa munthu uyo wakupeleka wanangwa, wakuŵa na mazaza pa nkhani iyi. Ndondomeko iyi yikupangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa Sonangol na boma, ndipo yikupangiska kuti ndondomeko ya bajeti yileke kwenda makora kweniso kuti boma lileke kumanya makora ndalama izo likupeleka". Mu 2002, charu cha Angola chikapempha kuti ŵapeleke malipiro gha mafuta agho ghakafuma mu maji gha charu ichi. Ntchito zake mu migodi ya dayamondi zikusazgapo ubwezi pakati pa kampani ya Endiama iyo yikwendeskeka na boma na makampani gha migodi nga ni ALROSA agho ghakugwira nchito mu Angola. Ku Angola ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinthu vyakuthupi vinandi kuluska umo viliri pa caru cose. Mu 2016, charu cha Angola chikaŵa na malo ghakukwana mahekitala 1.9 pa munthu yumoza pa charu chose, ndipo malo agha ghakukwana mahekitala 1.6 pa munthu yumoza pa charu chose. Mu 2016, charu cha Angola chikagwiliskira ntchito malo ghakukwana mahekitala 1.01 pa munthu yumoza. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti ŵakugwiliskira nchito pafupifupi hafu ya nkhongono izo Angola wali nazo. Pa cifukwa ici, Angola wakugwiliskira nchito malo ghakusungirako vyamoyo.<ref name="footprintdata">{{cite web |title=Country Trends |url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=7&type=BCpc,EFCpc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808050235/http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=7&type=BCpc,EFCpc |archive-date=8 August 2017 |access-date=2 June 2020 |publisher=Global Footprint Network}}</ref> ===Agriculture=== [[File:HPP "CAPANDA".jpg|thumb|left|[[Capanda Dam]] on the [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]]]] {{Main|Agriculture in Angola}} Vyaru na makuni ni vyaru ivyo vili na mwaŵi ukuru. Wupu unyake (African Economic Outlook) ukuti: "Caka cilicose Angola wakukhumbikwira tirigu wakukwana matani 4.5 miliyoni, kweni wakupambika waka 55% ya mbuto, 20% ya mpunga, na 5% ya tirigu". Kweniso, World Bank yikati "pa caru cose ca Angola, malo ghambura kukwana 3 pa 100 gha malo ghakupambika makora ghakulimika, ndipo vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikusangika mu makuni vikugwiriskirika nchito yayi". Pambere charu cha Angola chindaŵe na wanangwa mu 1975, chikaŵa na vyakurya vinandi chomene kumwera kwa Africa ndipo chikaguliskanga banane, khofi, na sisal. Kweni nkhondo iyo yikacitika kwa vyaka 30 (1975-2002) yikananga malo ghakutowa gha ku mizi, ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakanjira mu misumba. Pasono caru ici cikuthemba comene pa vyakurya vyakuzirwa ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ku South Africa na Portugal. Ŵalimi ŵachokoŵacoko ŵanandi ŵa ku Angola ŵali mu ukavu.<ref>Redvers, Louise [http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=47123 POVERTY-ANGOLA: Inter Press Service News Agency – NGOs Sceptical of Govt's Rural Development Plans] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100512215958/http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=47123|date=12 May 2010}}.</ref> === Mayendelo === {{Main|Transport in Angola}} [[File:TAAG_Angola_Airlines_Boeing_737-200Adv_D2-TBD_CDG_July_1986.png|thumb|right|TAAG Angola Airlines ndiyo yikwendeska ndege mu charu ichi.]] Mtundu wa magalimoto mu Angola ni: Mitundu yitatu ya njanji yakuyana ya makilomita 2,761 * 76,626 km (47,613 mi) ya misewu yikuru (highway) mwa iyo 19,156 km (11,903 mi) njakukhora * 1,295 misewu ya mu nyanja * virwa vikuruvikuru vinkhondi * Malo gha ndege 243, ndipo 32 mwa malo agha ghali na misewu. Boma la Angola likwendeska malonda ghake mu virwa vikuruvikuru vinkhondi: Namibe, Lobito, Soyo, Cabinda na Luanda. Luanda ni dowoko likuru comene pa dowoko lose ili, kweniso ni limoza mwa dowoko lakutangwanika comene mu Africa.<ref name="africanbusinesscentral.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.africanbusinesscentral.com/2015/06/20/the-top-eight-busiest-ports-in-africa-photos-and-infographic/|title=The top eight busiest ports in Africa (Photos and Infographic)|website=African Business Central|access-date=4 February 2020|archive-date=4 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204061717/https://www.africanbusinesscentral.com/2015/06/20/the-top-eight-busiest-ports-in-africa-photos-and-infographic/|url-status=dead}}</ref>[[File:Catumbela River Bridge (19478241049).jpg|thumb|left|[[Catumbela]] Bridge ku [[Benguela Province|Benguela]].]] Kanandi awo ŵalije magalimoto gha vigaŵa vinayi (four by four) ŵakukondwa yayi kwenda mu misewu iyo yili kuwaro kwa matawuni gha ku Angola. Nangauli mu Angola muli misewu yiwemi, kweni nyengo na nkhondo vyapangiska kuti misewu yinandi yiŵe yakubinkha. Mu vigaŵa vinandi, awo ŵakwendeska magalimoto ŵakwendera nthowa zinyake kuti ŵaleke kwenda mu malo agho ghakusangika mabomba ghakofya chomene. Boma la Angola lili kupangana na boma kuti liwezge misewu yinandi mu charu ichi. Mwaciyelezgero, msewu wa pakati pa Lubango na Namibe, uwo uli kuzengeka sonosono apa na ndalama za wupu wa European Union, uli nga ni misewu yinandi yikuru ya ku Europe. Vingachitika kuti mulimo wa kuzenga misewu uwu utore vyaka vinandi.<ref>ec.europa.eu: [https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_92_314 1992] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205205/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_92_314 |date=26 May 2021 }}</ref> ===Nthowa zakuyowoyeskelana=== [[File:Porto do Lobito - Angola 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Ku Lobito kuli dowoko likuru.]] [[File:Marginal Avenida 4 de Fevreiro Luanda March 2013 13 (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|Kuzenga kwa Luanda kukucitika cifukwa ca mafuta na dayamondi.]] Makampani ghakucitira tumafoni ghakuwoneka kuti ndigho ghakukhumbikwa comene mu Angola.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anip.co.ao/index.php?pag=conteudos&id=6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411062215/http://www.anip.co.ao/index.php?pag=conteudos&id=6|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 April 2013|title=Sectores Económicos Prioritários|publisher=ANIP|language=pt }}</ref> {{For|additional|Telephone numbers in Angola}} Mu Okutobala 2014, ŵakapharazga kuti ŵakuzenga chingwe chakwenda pasi pa maji. Ntchito iyi yikukhumba kuti charu cha Angola chiŵe na Intaneti yiwemi chomene. Pa Malichi 11, 2015, ungano wakwamba wa pa Angola wa vya mawupu na vya umanyi ukacitikira mu Luanda. Kafukufuku wa chigaŵa ichi, wakulongosoreka pa ungano uwu, wakati Angola ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba ku Africa kuyezga LTE ¥ na vithuzi vyakukwana 400 Mbit/s ¥ na kugwiliskira nchito mafoni pafupifupi 75%; pali mafoni pafupifupi 3.5 miliyoni mu msika wa Angola; pali makilomita pafupifupi 25,000 (16,000 miles) gha fibre ya optical agho ghali kukhazikiskika mu chalo. Satelayiti yakwamba ya ku Angola, AngoSat-1, yikaponyeka mu mlengalenga pa Disembala 26, 2017. Wakafuma pa malo ghakuchemeka Baikonur, ku Kazakhstan, ndipo wakaluta pa roketi lakuchemeka Zenit 3F. Satelayiti iyi yikapangika na kampani ya Russia yakuchemeka RSC Energia. Satellite iyi yikapelekeka na Airbus Defence & Space. Pa 27 Disembala, RSC Energia yikati yapulika kuti yikasoŵa mawoko gha munthavi chifukwa cha suzgo la magesi. Nangauli ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵambeso kuyowoyeskana na satellite iyi, kweni yikamalizga kutumizga mauthenga ndipo RSC Energia yikati AngoSat-1 njambura ntchito. AngoSat-1 yikapelekeka kuti yiwovwire kuti pa caru cose paŵe mauthenga. Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, wakayowoya kuti munthavi uwu ukwenera kupeleka mauthenga gha pa foni, TV, Intaneti, na boma la pa Intaneti. Satayiti yinyake yakucemeka AngoSat-2 yikunozgeka ndipo yikeneranga kuzakaŵapo mu 2020. Mu Febuluwale 2021, Ango-Sat-2 yikaŵa yakunozgeka pafupifupi 60%. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵara ŵakayowoya kuti ndege iyi yizamwamba kugwira ntchito mu myezi 17, mu Julayi 2022.<ref>[{{cite web|url=https://africanews.space/angosat-2-more-than-60-per-cent-ready/|title=AngoSat-2 More Than 60 per cent Ready; Launch in 17 Months|date=February 2021|access-date=14 April 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414224322/https://africanews.space/angosat-2-more-than-60-per-cent-ready/|url-status=live}}</ref> === Tekinoloji === Mu 2015, boma la Portugal likapeleka malo gha ".ao" ku Angola. Ndondomeko yakukolerana ya Minisita wa vya Mafoni na Maluso gha Umoyo wa Ŵanthu José Carvalho da Rocha na Minisita wa vya Sayansi na Maluso, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, yikati "mu ndondomeko ya kupanikizga" chigaŵa ichi cha Angola, "vinthu vikupangika kuti chigaŵa cha ".ao" cha ku Portugal chipelekeke ku Angola".<ref>[http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2014/09/16/angola-manages-its-own-internet-domain/ Angola manages its own Internet domain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223160657/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2014/09/16/angola-manages-its-own-internet-domain/ |date=23 December 2014 }} Macauhub, 16 September 2014</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Angola}} [[File:Angola Ethnic map 1970.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Historical ethnic divisions of Angola]] Angola wali na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 24,383,301 kuyana na ivyo vikachitika mu 2014 apo pakaŵa kalembera wakwamba kufuma pa 15 Disembala 1970. Chiyowoyero ichi chili na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu ya Ovimbundu (Umbundu) 37%, Ambundu (Kimbundu) 23%, Bakongo 13%, na mitundu yinyake ya ŵanthu 32%. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ambundu na Ovimbundu ndiwo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵanthu awo ŵazamukhala mu charu ichi mu 2050 ŵazamuŵa ŵakujumpha 60 miliyoni. Kweni pa 23 March 2016, wupu wa National Statistics Institute (INE) ukati ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵalipo 25,789,024. Paumaliro wa chaka cha 2007, ŵanthu 12,100 na ŵanthu 2,900 awo ŵakapempha malo ghakubisamamo ŵakaluta ku Angola. Ku Angola kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 400,000 ŵa ku Democratic Republic of Congo, 220,000 ŵa ku Portugal, na 259,000 ŵa ku China. Kweniso ku Vietnam kuli ŵanthu 40,000. Kwambira mu 2003, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 400,000 ŵakufuma ku Congo ŵafumako ku Angola. Pambere charu cha Angola chindambe kujiwusa chekha mu 1975, ŵanthu pafupifupi 350,000 ŵa ku Portugal ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi. Ndipouli, mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ŵambaso kukhala ku Angola. Pasono kuli ŵanthu pafupifupi 200,000 awo ŵali kulembeska ku maofesi agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵalipo 258,920, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku malo ghanyake. Kweniso ku Brazil kuli ŵanthu 5,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalvoices.org/2008/08/17/angola-brazil-a-culture-shock-divide/|title=Angola, Brazil: A culture shock divide · Global Voices|date=17 August 2008|access-date=14 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316042333/https://globalvoices.org/2008/08/17/angola-brazil-a-culture-shock-divide/|archive-date=16 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵafumiska ku Portugal na kuluta nawo ku Angola. Mu 2007, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakababikanga mu Angola chikaŵa 5.54 pa mwanakazi waliyose (kuyana na ivyo vikalembeka mu 2012), ndipo chikaŵa cha nambara 11.<ref name=CIA>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Angola|access-date=15 May 2007|year=2007}}</ref> === Viyowoyelo === {{Main|Languages of Angola}} {{bar box |title=Languages in Angola (2014 Census)<ref name="INE Angola" /> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Languages |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|darkgreen|71.1}} {{bar percent|[[Umbundu language|Umbundu]]|purple|23.0}} {{bar percent|[[Kikongo language|Kikongo]]|red|8.2}} {{bar percent|[[Kimbundu]]|black|7.8}} {{bar percent|[[Chokwe language|Chokwe]]|orange|6.5}} {{bar percent|[[Nyaneka language|Nyaneka]]|green|3.4}} {{bar percent|[[Ngangela language|Ngangela]]|darkblue|3.1}} {{bar percent|[[Fiote language|Fiote]]|black|2.4}} {{bar percent|[[Kwanyama language|Kwanyama]]|darkred|2.3}} {{bar percent|[[Muhumbi language|Muhumbi]]|gray|2.1}} {{bar percent|[[Luvale language|Luvale]]|tan|1.0}} {{bar percent|[[Languages of Angola|Other]]|lime|4.1}} }} Viyowoyero vya ku Angola ni viyowoyero ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakayowoyanga. Viyowoyero ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ni Umbundu, Kimbundu, na Kikongo. Chiphwitikizi ndicho chikuyowoyeka mu charu ichi. Nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya makora Chiphwitikizi panji awo ŵakuyowoya chiphwitikizi nga ni chiyowoyero chawo chakwamba chikumanyikwa yayi, kweni kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2012 wakalongora kuti ŵanthu 39 pa 100 ŵaliwose mu charu ichi ŵakuyowoya Chiphwitikizi. Mu 2014, lipoti la ku Angola ilo likapelekeka na wupu wa Instituto Nacional de Estatística likati pa ŵanthu pafupifupi 25.8 miliyoni awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi, ŵanthu pafupifupi 18.3 miliyoni ŵakuyowoya Chiphwitikizi. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2014, Ciphwitikizi chikuyowoyeka na 71.1% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola, Umbundu 23%, Kikongo 8.2%, Kimbundu 7.8%, Chokwe 6.5%, Nyaneka 3.4%, Ngangela 3.1%, Fiote 2.4%, Kwanyama 2.3%, Muhumbi 2.1%, Luvale 1%, na viyowoyero vinyake 4.1%.<ref name =Censo2014>{{cite web |url=https://www.ine.gov.ao/images/Populacao_Sociedade/Estudos_tematicos/PUBLICACAO_RESULTADOS_DEFINITIVOS_DO_CENSO_2014.pdf |title=Resultados Definitivos Recenseamento Geral da População e Habitação - 2014 |access-date=3 May 2020 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estatística, República de Angola |archive-date=14 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214215245/https://www.ine.gov.ao/images/Populacao_Sociedade/Estudos_tematicos/PUBLICACAO_RESULTADOS_DEFINITIVOS_DO_CENSO_2014.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Chisopa === {{Main|Religion in Angola}} {{bar box |title=[[Religion in Angola]] <small>(2015)</small><ref>{{cite web| title=Angola| website=Association of Religion Data Archives| date=2012-11-16| url=https://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_7_1.asp| access-date=11 October 2020| archive-date=30 October 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030191322/https://thearda.com/internationalData/Countries/Country_7_1.asp| url-status=live}}</ref> |float=right |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Religion |right1=Percent |bars= {{bar percent|[[Roman Catholicism]]|purple|56.4}} {{bar percent|[[Protestantism]]|blue|23.4}} {{bar percent|Other [[Christianity|Christian]]|skyblue|13.6}} {{bar percent|[[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]]|gray|4.5}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion]]|Grey|1.0}} {{bar percent|Others|green|1.1}} }}Ku Angola kuli visopa pafupifupi 1,000, vinandi vyawo ni vya Cikhristu. Nangauli palije maukaboni ghakugomezgeka, kweni ŵanthu ŵakujumpha hafu ya ŵanthu aŵa Mbakatolika, ndipo pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vinayi ŵakulondezga matchalitchi gha Chiprotesitanti agho ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Roma.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schubert |first=Benedict |title=Der Krieg und die Kirchen: Angola 1961–1991 |publisher=Exodus |year=1997 |location=Luzern, Switzerland}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Henderson |first=Lawrence W. |title=The Church in Angola: A river of many currents |date=1989 |publisher=Pilgrim Press |location=Cleveland}}</ref> Mu Luanda na mu cigaŵa ici muli ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tocoists ndipo kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici kuli ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kimbangu. Kufuma apo charu chikapokera wanangwa, mipingo yinandi ya Ŵapentekoste na yinyake yakuyana nayo yili kuwoneka mu misumba, ndipo sono ŵanthu pafupifupi 50% ndiwo ŵakukhala mu misumba iyi. [[File:Igreja Matriz - panoramio - Rogério Melo (2).jpg|left|thumb|Tchalitchi la Katolika la Uaco Cungo.]] Kuzakafika mu 2008, ku United States Dipatimenti Yakuwona vya Vyaru ya ku Angola yikusacizga kuti Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 80,000, pacoko waka pa 1% ya ŵanthu wose. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa na Middle East (makamaka ku Lebanon).<ref name="customs">Oyebade, Adebayo O. ''Culture And Customs of Angola'', 2006. pp. 45–46.</ref> Boma la Angola likuzomerezga yayi mawupu gha Cisilamu ndipo kanandi likujara masisiteri panji kukanizga kuzenga.<ref name="IRFR2012">{{Citation |title=Angola 2012 International Religious Freedom Report |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208328.pdf |publisher=United States Department of State |access-date=24 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328162456/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208328.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu kafukufuku uyo wakawoneseska kuti mu vyaru muli malango ghakukhwaskana na visopa na kutambuzgika, Angola wakapokera mapointi 0.8 pa nkhani ya dango la boma lakukhwaskana na chisopa, 4.0 pa nkhani ya malango gha boma ghakukhwaskana na chisopa, 0 pa nkhani ya kusankhana mitundu, na 0 pa nkhani ya kutambuzgika.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100411043322/http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_7_3.asp Angola: Religious Freedom Profile at the Association of Religion Data Archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411043322/http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_7_3.asp |date=11 April 2010 }} Brian J Grim and Roger Finke. "International Religion Indexes: Government Regulation, Government Favoritism and Social Regulation of Religion". Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion. 2 (2006) Article 1: www.religjournal.com.</ref> Ŵamishonale ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakacitanga milimo yinandi pambere charu chindaŵe na wanangwa mu 1975, nangauli kufuma waka apo nkhondo ya kulekeska wanangwa wa ŵanthu yikambira mu 1961, boma la Portugal likachimbizga ŵamishonale ŵanandi ŵa Chipulotesitanti na kujara maofesi ghawo. Ŵamishonale ŵakawelera mu charu ichi kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, nangauli ŵakaŵavya mtende chifukwa cha nkhondo ya pawenenawene.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5511.htm|title=International Religious Freedom Report – Angola|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=1 January 2004|access-date=27 June 2010|archive-date=31 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131002030/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5511.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Tchalitchi la Katolika na visopa vikuruvikuru vinyake vya Chiprotesitanti vikujipatura, ndipo "Tchalitchi Liphya" likucitako yayi. Ŵakatolika na matchalitchi ghanyake ghakurughakuru gha Chiprotesitanti ŵakovwira ŵakavu na mbuto, viŵeto, munkhwala, na masambiro.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeVqVy21g9sC&pg=PA40|title=Culture and customs of Angola|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-313-33147-3|page=40|year=2007|access-date=11 May 2020|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726053929/https://books.google.com/books?id=DeVqVy21g9sC&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcusa.org/hunger/downloads/2005intgrants.pdf|title=International Grants 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113131805/http://www.pcusa.org/hunger/downloads/2005intgrants.pdf|archive-date=13 November 2008}}</ref> === Misumba === {{Largest cities | country = Angola | stat_ref = According to the 2014 Census<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://citypopulation.de/en/angola/cities/|title=Angola: Provinces, Major Cities, Urban Localities & Urban Agglomerations - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information|access-date=7 December 2021|archive-date=22 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822084153/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/angola/cities/|url-status=live}}</ref> | div_name = Province | city_1 = Luanda | div_1 = Luanda Province{{!}}Luanda | pop_1 = 6,759,313 | img_1 = Luanda Bay 5 - panoramio (cropped) (cropped).jpg | city_2 = Lubango |div_2 = Huíla Province{{!}}Huíla | pop_2 = 600,751 | img_2 = Lubango sight (cropped).jpg | city_3 = Huambo | div_3 = Huambo Province{{!}}Huambo | pop_3 = 595,304 | img_3 = Huambo Jardim da Cultura (cropped).jpg | city_4 = Benguela | div_4 = Benguela Province{{!}}Benguela | pop_4 = 555,124 | img_4 = Praia de Benguela (cropped).jpg | city_5 = Cabinda (city){{!}}Cabinda | div_5 = Cabinda Province{{!}}Cabinda | pop_5 = 550,000 | city_6 = Malanje | div_6 = Malanje Province{{!}}Malanje | pop_6 = 455,000 | city_7 = Saurimo | div_7 = Lunda Sul Province{{!}}Lunda Sul | pop_7 = 393,000 | city_8 = Lobito | div_8 = Benguela Province{{!}}Benguela | pop_8 = 357,950 | city_9 = Cuíto | div_9 = Bié Province{{!}}Bié | pop_9 = 355,423 | city_10 = Uíge | div_10 = Uíge Province{{!}}Uíge | pop_10 = 322,531 }} === Umoyo === {{Main|Health in Angola}} [[File:Maternidade Lucrécia Paím - panoramio - Rogério Melo (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Lucrécia Paím Maternity Hospital.]] Matenda gha kolera, maleriya, na maleriya nga ni maleriya gha ku Marburg, ni matenda ghakumanyikwa mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici. Mu vigaŵa vinandi mu caru ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulwara maleriya na HIV. Matenda ghanyake agho ghakuthandazgika mu chigaŵa ichi nga ni nthenda ya dengue, filariasis, leishmaniasis, na onchocerciasis. Charu cha Angola chili na ŵana ŵanandi chomene awo ŵakufwa pa nthumbo, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakulindilira umoyo utali chomene. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2007, wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Angola ŵalije niacin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seal |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Creeke |first2=Paul I |last3=Dibari |first3=Filippo |last4=Cheung |first4=Edith |last5=Kyroussis |first5=Eustace |last6=Semedo |first6=Paulina |last7=van den Briel |first7=Tina |display-authors=3 |date=2007 |title=Low and deficient niacin status and pellagra are endemic in postwar Angola |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2007-01_85_1/page/218 |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=218–224 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/85.1.218 |pmid=17209199 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10144/125625}}</ref> Pa nyengo yasono, wupu wa Demographic and Health Surveys ukucita maujandizgo ghanandi mu Angola pa nkhani ya maleriya, nkhaza za mu mbumba na vinyake.<ref name="Angola Surveys">[http://www.measuredhs.com/countries/metadata.cfm?surv_id=344&ctry_id=76&SrvyTp=ctry&cn=Angola Angola Surveys] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127021228/http://measuredhs.com/countries/metadata.cfm?surv_id=344&ctry_id=76&SrvyTp=ctry&cn=Angola |date=27 November 2010 }}, measuredhs.com</ref> Mu Seputembala 2014, wupu wa Angola Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) ukapangika na dango la pulezidenti, ndipo uzamunjira mu wupu wa National Health Service mu Angola. Chilato cha wupu uphya uwu nkhupeleka wovwiri wa munkhwala ku ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika na nthenda ya kansa, kufiska ndondomeko za munkhwala uwu, mapulogiramu na mapulani ghakovwira kuti nthenda iyi yileke kwiza. Wupu uwu uzamuŵa na udindo wa kulongozga mu vigaŵa vyapakati na kumwera kwa Africa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150318052307/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/273191/novo-instituto-oncologico-de-angola-quer-ser-referencia-em-africa Novo instituto oncológico de Angola quer ser referência em África] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318052307/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/273191/novo-instituto-oncologico-de-angola-quer-ser-referencia-em-africa |date=18 March 2015 }}, Notícias ao Minuto (Source: Lusa Agency), 9 September 2014</ref> Mu 2014, charu cha Angola chikamba katemera wa nthenda ya nthomba, ndipo mwana waliyose wa vyaka 10 na kuchepera apa wakapokera katemera. Ndondomeko iyi yili mu pulani ya kulekeska nthenda ya nthomba ya 2014-2020 iyo yikapangika na Unduna wa vyaumoyo wa Angola, iyo yikusazgapo kukhozga katemera wa nyengo zose, kumazga makora nthenda ya nthomba, makampeni gha pa caru cose, kwambiska katemera waciŵiri mu ndondomeko ya katemera wa nyengo zose wa pa caru cose ndiposo kulondezga ndondomeko ya nthenda ya nthomba. Ntchito iyi yikachitika pamoza na katemera wa poliyo na vitamini A. Mu Disembala 2015, kukabuka nthenda ya yellow fever, iyo yikaŵa yakofya chomene mu charu ichi kwa vyaka 30. Kuzakafika mu Ogasiti 2016, apo nthenda iyi yikamba kumara, ŵanthu pafupifupi 4,000 ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵali na nthenda iyi. Ŵanyake ŵakukwana 369 ŵali kufwa. Nthenda iyi yikamba mu msumba wa Luanda ndipo yikathandazgikira mu vigaŵa 16 pa vigaŵa 18.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO: Yellow fever outbreak is 'serious and of great concern' |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/05/19/health/yellow-fever-who/index.html# |last=Goldschmidt |first=Debra |date=19 May 2016 |website=CNN |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529102132/http://edition.cnn.com/2016/05/19/health/yellow-fever-who/index.html |archive-date=29 May 2016 |access-date=29 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 September 2014 |title=Angola lança vacinação nacional contra sarampo |language=pt |trans-title=Angola launches national measles vaccination |work=Notícias ao Minuto |agency=Lusa |url=https://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/277391/angola-lanca-vacinacao-nacional-contra-sarampo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006103202/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/277391/angola-lanca-vacinacao-nacional-contra-sarampo |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141006134912/http://www.verangola.net/Artigos/Novo-instituto-oncologico-angolano-quer-ser-instituicao-de-referencia-no-continente=004333 Novo instituto oncológico angolano quer ser instituição de referência no continente] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006134912/http://www.verangola.net/Artigos/Novo-instituto-oncologico-angolano-quer-ser-instituicao-de-referencia-no-continente=004333 |date=6 October 2014 }}, Ver Angola, 11 September 2014</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221827/http://diariodigital.sapo.pt/news.asp?id_news=728577 Novo instituto oncológico de Angola quer ser referência em África] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221827/http://diariodigital.sapo.pt/news.asp?id_news=728577|date=3 March 2016 }}, Diário Digital (Source: Lusa Agency), 9 September 2014</ref><ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/201410010149.html Angola: Over 30,000 Children Vaccinated Against Measles in Huila] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006085310/http://allafrica.com/stories/201410010149.html |date=6 October 2014 }}, All Africa, 30 September 2014</ref> === Masambilo === {{Main|Education in Angola}} [[File:New campus (6177681401) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Agostinho Neto University]].]] Nangauli dango likuti ŵana ŵa sukulu mu Angola ŵasambirenge kwaulere kwa vyaka 8, kweni boma likuyowoya kuti ŵana ŵanyake ŵakusangika yayi pa sukulu chifukwa cha kusoŵerwa kwa nyumba na ŵasambizgi. Kanandi ŵana ŵa sukulu ndiwo ŵakulipira ndalama zakusazgikira za sukulu, kusazgapo mabuku na vinthu vinyake.<ref name="ilab">"Botswana". [https://web.archive.org/web/20140109071239/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf ''2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor'']. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2006). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Mu 1999, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga masambiro gha ku pulayimale chikaŵa 74 peresenti, ndipo mu 1998, chaka chaumaliro icho pali maukaboni, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga masambiro gha ku pulayimale chikaŵa 61 peresenti. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakunjira sukulu iyi chikukolerana na chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakunjira sukulu iyi. <ref name="ilab" />Pali mphambano yikuru comene pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakunjira sukulu ku mizi na awo ŵakunjira mu misumba. Mu 1995, ŵana 71.2% ŵa vyaka 7 m'paka 14 ŵakasambiranga sukulu. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti ŵana ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku sukulu kuluska ŵasungwana. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya pawenenawene ya ku Angola (1975-2002), pafupifupi hafu ya masukulu ghose ghakapokeka na kubwangandulika.<ref name=ilab/>[[File:Waku Kungo, Angola - panoramio (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Sukulu ya pulayimale mu chigaŵa cha Cuanza Sul]] Mu 2005, Unduna wa vya Masambiro ukalembapo ŵasambizgi 20,000 ndipo ukalutilira kusambizga ŵasambizgi. Ŵasambizgi ŵakulipika ndalama zichoko, ŵakusambizgika makora yayi, kweniso ŵakutangwanika chomene (nyengo zinyake ŵakusambizga pa ma shift ghaŵiri panji ghatatu pa zuŵa). Ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵakukhumba kuti ŵana ŵawo ŵaŵapenge ndalama panji vimbundi. Vinthu vinyake, nga ni mabomba ghakubisika, kusoŵa ndalama na vikalata vyakulongolera munthu, kweniso umoyo uheni vikutondeska ŵana kuluta ku sukulu nyengo zose. Nangauli mu 2004 ndalama izo boma likapeleka ku masukulu zikakwera, kweni visambizgo vya ku Angola vikulutilira kupeleŵera. Wupu wa UNESCO (Institute for Statistics) ukati mu 2011, ŵanthu ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ŵakaŵa 70.4%. Kuzakafika mu 2015, chiŵelengero ichi chikakwera kufika pa 71.1%. Mu 2001, ŵanalume 82.9% na ŵanakazi 54.2% ndiwo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Kufuma waka apo charu cha Angola chikapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Portugal mu 1975, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Angola ŵakulutilira kunjira sukulu za sekondare, za polytechnic, na za pa yunivesite mu Portugal na Brazil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en#|title=Education|last=UIS|website=data.uis.unesco.org|access-date=22 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905185501/http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en|archive-date=5 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ilab" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_statistics.html|title=Angola – Statistics|website=[[UNICEF]]|access-date=27 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613004722/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_statistics.html|archive-date=13 June 2010|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="unescolit">{{cite web|title=National adult literacy rates (15+), youth literacy rates (15–24) and elderly literacy rates (65+)|url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics|access-date=27 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029183908/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|archive-date=29 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Lyceum Salvador Correia in Luanda, Angola (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[:pt:Magistério Mutu-ya-Kevela|Mutu-ya Kevela Prep. School]]]] Mu Seputembala 2014, Unduna wa Vya masambiro ku Angola ukati uzamwendeska ndalama zakukwana 16 miliyoni mu makompyuta gha masukulu ghakujumpha 300 mu charu chose. Ntchito iyi yikusazgapo kusambizga ŵasambizgi pa caru cose, "mwakuti ŵasambizge na kugwiliskira nchito vinthu viphya vya sayansi ya vinthu mu masukulu gha pulayimale, na kusazgirako masambiro". Mu 2010, boma la Angola likamba kuzenga Angolan Media Libraries Network, ilo likusangika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi kuti ŵanthu ŵasange makora uthenga na kumanya vinthu. Malo ghose agha ghali na mabuku, vinthu vinandi, na makompyuta agho ghali na Intaneti. Ndondomeko iyi yikulayizga kuti mu 2017 mu vigaŵa vyose vya Angola muŵengeko layibulare yimoza. Ntchito iyi yikusazgapo kuzenga mabuku ghanandi ghakulongosolera nkhani kuti ŵanthu awo ŵali kutali chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵamanye ivyo vili mu mabuku agha. Pa nyengo yasono, malaibulale gha mafoni ghakugwira nchito kale mu vigaŵa vya Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda na Lunda South. Pa nkhani ya REMA, vigaŵa vya Luanda, Benguela, Lubango na Soyo vili na mabuku gha nkhani.<ref>[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20150209181727/http%3A//m.ja.sapo.ao/regioes/malanje/mediateca_movel_aberta_ao_publico Mediateca móvel aberta ao público] {{webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20150209181727/http%3A//m.ja.sapo.ao/regioes/malanje/mediateca_movel_aberta_ao_publico|date=9 February 2015}} Jornal de Angola, 9 January 2015</ref><ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/educacao/2015/0/2/Government-open-digital-libraries-every-province,744c2f6f-7d66-49cf-8e56-85c0d6969725.html Government to open digital libraries in every province] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318222038/http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/educacao/2015/0/2/Government-open-digital-libraries-every-province,744c2f6f-7d66-49cf-8e56-85c0d6969725.html |date=18 March 2015 }} Angola Press Agency, 8 January 2015</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Sumário Executivo do Plano Director da ReMA |date=May 2013 |url=http://mediatecas.ao/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Plano_Director_Maio_2013.pdf |trans-title=Executive Summary of the ReMA Master Plan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212180948/http://mediatecas.ao/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Plano_Director_Maio_2013.pdf |publisher=Rede de Mediatecas de Angola |language=pt |archive-date=2016-12-12}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141007000209/http://www.ionline.pt/artigos/mundo/angola-investe-16-milhoes-na-informatizacao-300-salas-aula-todo-pais Angola investe 16 milhões na informatização de 300 salas de aula em todo o país] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007000209/http://www.ionline.pt/artigos/mundo/angola-investe-16-milhoes-na-informatizacao-300-salas-aula-todo-pais |date=7 October 2014 }}, jornal i (28 September 2014)</ref> ==Nyengo== {{Main|Culture of Angola}} {{see also|Music of Angola|Angolan cuisine}} [[File:Memorial_Antonio_Agostinho_Neto_(19882325368).jpg|thumb|upright|Agostinho Neto National Memorial ku Luanda.]] Chikhalidwe cha ku Angola chakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi chikhalidwe cha Chipwitikizi, makamaka chilankhulo ndi chipembedzo, ndi chikhalidwe cha mafuko a ku Angola, makamaka chikhalidwe cha Bantu. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana - Ovimbundu, Ambundu, Bakongo, Chokwe, Mbunda na ŵanthu ŵanyake - ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, kweni mu misumba, umo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha hafu ŵakukhala, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakufuma mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake. Mu mizi iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku Portugal. Sumu na kuvina ivyo vikuchitika mu charu ichi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakutemwa chomene Chiphwitikizi. Ivi vikulongosoreka makora mu mabuku gha ku Angola, chomenechomene mu mabuku gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola. Mu 2014, Angola yikambaso ungano wa National Festival of Angolan Culture pamanyuma pa vilimika 25. Ungano uwu ukachitika mu misumba yikuru yose ya vigaŵa ndipo ukenda mazuŵa 20, ndipo mutu wake ukaŵa wakuti "Vikaya ni Vinthu Vyakovwira Kuti Paŵe Mtende na Kukura".<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/lazer-e-cultura/2014/11/51/Retrospect2014-Fenacult-marks-cultural-year,58a0fcae-b594-4edd-bc8b-1d7e2e798f14.html Retrospect2014: Fenacult marks cultural year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231184839/http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/lazer-e-cultura/2014/11/51/Retrospect2014-Fenacult-marks-cultural-year,58a0fcae-b594-4edd-bc8b-1d7e2e798f14.html |date=31 December 2014 }} Angola Press Agency, 18 December 2014</ref> === Cinema === {{Main|Cinema of Angola}} Mu 1972, filimu yakwamba ya ku Angola, ya Sarah Maldoror yakuchemeka Sambizanga, yikayowoyeka pa Carthage Film Festival ndipo yikapokelereka makora chomene.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dovey|first1=Lindiwe|title=Curating Africa in the Age of Film Festivals|date=11 March 2015|publisher=[[Palgrave MacMillan]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-1137404145|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7u_BwAAQBAJ|access-date=15 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915225644/https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=H7u_BwAAQBAJ|archive-date=15 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> === Maseŵera === [[File:Estádio Nacional de Ombaka (19151153514) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Stediyamu ku Benguela.]] Mu Angola, maseŵero gha basketball ndigho ngakutchuka comene. Gulu lake la mafuko lakhala likutonda Africa Basket 11 ndipo lili na mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Monga timu yayikulu kwambiri ku Africa, imagwira nawo ntchito pa Masewera a Olimpiki a Chilimwe ndi FIBA World Cup. Ku Angola ndiko kukaŵa timu yakwamba ku Africa.<ref>{{cite news |first=Lee |last=Nxumalo |title=Basketball's next frontier is Africa |url=https://www.newframe.com/basketballs-next-frontier-is-africa/ |access-date=11 January 2021 |work=New Frame |date=20 December 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116062357/https://www.newframe.com/basketballs-next-frontier-is-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu mpira, charu cha Angola chikapokelera nkhonya ya Africa ya 2010. Gulu la mpira wa ku Angola likafika ku mpikisano wa FIFA World Cup wa chaka cha 2006. Ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafumapo waka mu magulu ghaŵiri. Ŵakatora viphalizgano vitatu vya COSAFA Cup ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵaciŵiri pa 2011 African Nations Championship. Kwa vyaka vinandi, charu cha Angola chikuchitako maseŵero gha ku charu chose gha maseŵero gha ku mawoko gha ŵanakazi. Charu ichi chilipo pa maseŵero gha Olympic kwa vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri ndipo nyengo zose chikuchitako maseŵero agha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti charu cha Angola chili na mizu mu maluso gha nkhondo gha "Capoeira Angola" na "Batuque".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Poncianinho |first1= Mestre|last2=Almeida |first2= Ponciano|title=Capoeira: The Essential Guide to Mastering the Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKKGUCJ5PAwC&pg=PA18|year=2007|publisher=New Holland Publishers|isbn=978-1-84537-761-8|pages=18–|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320053304/http://books.google.com/books?id=fKKGUCJ5PAwC&pg=PA18|archive-date=20 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Africa|Countries}} *[[Outline of Angola]] *[[Index of Angola-related articles]] {{clear}} ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} ==Wonani vinandi== * {{cite EB1911 |mode=cs2 |wstitle=Angola |volume=2 |ref = {{harvid|EB|1911}} |pages=38–40 }} * Birmingham, David (2006) ''Empire in Africa: Angola and its Neighbors'', Ohio University Press: Athens, Ohio. * Bösl, Anton (2008) ''Angola's Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy'', KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. [http://www.kas.de/wf/de/33.15186/ Die Parlamentswahlen in Angola 2008] * Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000). ''Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds''. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Global Witness (1999). ''A Crude Awakening,'' The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100902225001/http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/93/en/a_crude_awakening A Crude Awakening] * Hodges, Tony (2001). ''Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism''. Oxford: James Currey. * Hodges, Tony (2004). ''Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State''. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press. * Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch. [https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/angola0104/ Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenue in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights (Human Rights Watch Report, January 2004)] * Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch. [http://hrw.org/reports/2005/angola0305/ Coming Home: Return and Reintegration in Angola] * James, Walter (1992). A political history of the civil war in Angola, 1964–1990. New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers. * [[Ryszard Kapuściński|Kapuściński, Ryszard]]. Another Day of Life, Penguin, 1975. {{ISBN|978-0-14-118678-8}}. A Polish journalist's account of Portuguese withdrawal from Angola and the beginning of the civil war. * Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2". Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95–106. * Lari, A. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023754/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/85/Paper85.pdf Returning home to a normal life? The plight of displaced Angolans]. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023828/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No4/FLari.pdf "International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post-Conflict, A Case Study of Angola".] African Security Review 13(4): 29–41. * Le Billon, Philippe (2005) ''Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola'', Disasters 29(1): 1–25. * Le Billon, Philippe (2001). "Angola's Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds". African Affairs (100): 55–80. * {{cite book|last=Le Billon|first=P.|title=Fuelling War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts|url=https://archive.org/details/fuellingwarnatur0000lebi|date=March 2006|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-37970-0}} * MacQueen, Norrie ''An Ill Wind? Rethinking the Angolan Crisis and the Portuguese Revolution, 1974–1976'', ''Itinerario: European Journal of Overseas History, 26/2, 2000, pp.&nbsp;22–44'' * Médecins Sans Frontières (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20130723154858/http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2002/angola1_10-2002.pdf Angola: Sacrifice of a People]. Luanda, Angola, MSF. * Mwakikagile, Godfrey ''Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era'', Third Edition, Pretoria, South Africa, 2006, on Angola in Chapter 11, "American Involvement in Angola and Southern Africa: Nyerere's Response", pp.&nbsp;324–346, {{ISBN|978-0-9802534-1-2}}. * Pearce, Justin (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas". African Security Review 13 (2), pp 51–64. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023855/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No2/AW.pdf Wayback Machine] * Porto, João Gomes (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100821083212/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/77/Paper77.html Cabinda: Notes on a soon to be forgotten war]. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Tvedten, Inge (1997). Angola, Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press. * Vines, Alex (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|Angola}} {{Sister project links|voy=Angola|d=Q916|Angola}} *{{Official website|http://www.governo.gov.ao/}} {{in lang|pt}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20210111204444/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/angola Angola]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. *{{curlie|Regional/Africa/Angola}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704131403/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/angola.htm Angola] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732 Angola profile] from the [[BBC News]]. *{{Wikiatlas|Angola}} *{{Osmrelation}} *[http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=AO Key Development Forecasts for Angola] from [[International Futures]]. *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120401150404/http://www.bti-project.org/country-reports/esa/ago/ Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2012 – Angola Country Report] *Markus Weimer, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120801221204/http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Africa/0312pp_weimer.pdf The Peace Dividend: Analysis of a Decade of Angolan Indicators, 2002–2012]". *[https://www.academia.edu/12759680/The_participation_of_Hungarian_soldiers_in_UN_peacekeeping_operations_in_Angola The participation of Hungarian soldiers in UN peacekeeping operations in Angola] {{Angola topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Portuguese Language Countries|collapsed}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|12|30|S|18|30|E|display=title}} [[Category:Angola| ]] [[Category:1975 establishments in Angola]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of OPEC]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1975]] cp19ji931rrdk05kh7r8rgdicb8sfje 0 39507 122336 118613 2026-09-25T00:03:47Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122336 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in Central Africa}} {{Pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Burundi | native_name = {{ublist|item_style=font-size:88%;|{{native name|rn|Repuburika y’Uburundi}} |{{native name|fr|République du Burundi}}}} | common_name = Burundi | image_flag = Flag of Burundi.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Burundi.svg | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Burundi (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Burundi AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | image_map2 = | national_motto = {{unbulleted list |{{native phrase|rn|"Ubumwe, Ibikorwa, Amajambere"|italics=off|nolink=on}} |{{native phrase|fr|"Unité, Travail, Progrès"|italics=off|nolink=on}} |{{native phrase|en|"Union, Work, Progress"|italics=off|nolink=on}} }} | national_anthem = {{native phrase|rn|[[Burundi Bwacu]]|nolink=yes}}<br />{{small|''Our Burundi''}}<br /> {{center|}} [[File:Burundi Bwacu.ogg]] | languages_type = Official languages | languages = {{unbulleted list|style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Kirundi]] | [[French language|French]] | [[English language|English]] }} | capital = [[Gitega]] (political) [[Bujumbura]] (economic){{efn|name=central_cities|While Gitega has been established as the political capital, Bujumbura is still the seat of the government and economic capital.}} | coordinates = {{Coord|3|30|S|30|00|E}} | largest_city = [[Bujumbura]] | demonym = [[Demographics of Burundi|Burundian]] | ethnic_groups = {{ublist |85% [[Hutu]] |14% [[Tutsi]] |1% [[Twa]] |~3,000 Europeans |{{nowrap|~2,000 South Asians}}}} | ethnic_groups_year = 2018<ref name="Central Intelligence Agency 2018">{{cite web | title=The World Factbook – Burundi | website=Central Intelligence Agency |date=7 August 2018 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ |access-date=13 August 2018 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of Burundi|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Évariste Ndayishimiye]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Burundi|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Prosper Bazombanza]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Burundi|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Gervais Ndirakobuca]] | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | legislature = [[Parliament of Burundi|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Senate (Burundi)|Senate]] | lower_house = [[National Assembly (Burundi)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Burundi|Establishment history]] | established_event1 = [[Kingdom of Burundi|Kingdom]]<ref name="auto"/> | established_date1 = 1680–1966 | established_event2 = Part of [[German East Africa]] | established_date2 = 1890–1916 | established_event3 = Part of [[Ruanda-Urundi]] | established_date3 = 1916–1962 | established_event4 = Independence from Belgium | established_date4 = 1 July 1962 | established_event5 = Republic | established_date5 = 28 November 1966 | established_event6 = [[Constitution of Burundi|Current constitution]] | established_date6 = 17 May 2018 | area_km2 = 27834 | area_rank = 142 | area_sq_mi = | area_footnote = <ref name=ISTEEBU>{{cite web |url=http://www.isteebu.bi/index.php/economie-en-bref |title=Quelques données pour le Burundi |language=fr |publisher=ISTEEBU |access-date=17 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728161954/http://isteebu.bi/index.php/economie-en-bref |archive-date=28 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | percent_water = 10<ref>{{Cite report |date=July 2015 |title=Annuaire statistique du Burundi |language=fr |url=http://www.isteebu.bi/images/annuaires/annuaire%202013%20pdf%20fin.pdf |publisher=ISTEEBU |page=105 |access-date=17 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607125402/http://www.isteebu.bi/images/annuaires/annuaire%202013%20pdf%20fin.pdf |archive-date=7 June 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | population_estimate =12,574,571 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.isteebu.bi/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PROJECTIONS-COMMUNALES-020620-rapport-VF.pdf |title=Projections Demographiques au niveau communal 2010-2050|website=www.isteebu.bi|access-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428235555/https://www.isteebu.bi/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/PROJECTIONS-COMMUNALES-020620-rapport-VF.pdf|archive-date=28 April 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 77th | population_census = 8,053,574<ref name=ISTEEBU/> | population_census_year = 2008 | population_density_km2 = 451.8 | population_density_sq_mi = | population_density_rank = 31st | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$10.8 billion <ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_PPP_rank = 164th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $865 <ref name="imf.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 193rd | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$3.6 billion <ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 173rd | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$292<ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 192nd | Gini_year = 2013 | Gini_change = Decrease | Gini = 39.2 <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url= http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx |title= Gini Index, World Bank Estimate |work= World Development Indicators |publisher= The World Bank |access-date= 13 January 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150626193432/http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx |archive-date= 26 June 2015 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.426 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 187th | currency = [[Burundian franc]] (FBu) | currency_code = BIF | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]] | utc_offset = +2 | drives_on = right | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | calling_code = [[+257]] | cctld = [[.bi]] | footnote_a = | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |93.4% [[Christianity]] |—63.7% [[Catholic Church in Burundi|Roman Catholic]] |—25.2% [[Protestant]] |—4.5% Other [[Christian]] |4.3% [[African Traditional Religion|Traditional faiths]] |2.1% [[Islam in Burundi|Islam]] |0.2% [[Religion in Burundi|Others]] / [[Irreligion|None]] }} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=38c | title=National Profiles }}</ref> | today = }}<!-- {{Infobox ethnonym|'''Umu'''Rundi|'''Aba'''Rundi|[[Kirundi|'''IKi'''Rundi]]|'''Bu'''rundi}}--> '''Burundi''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-Burundi-pronunciation.ogg|b|ə|ˈ|r|ʊ|n|d|i}}, {{IPAc-en|-|ˈ|r|ʌ|n|-}}),({{lang-rn|Repuburika y’Uburundi}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.presidence.gov.bi/2018/07/03/6271/ | title=Constitution de la République du Burundi promulguée le 07 juin 2018 }}</ref> {{IPA-rw|u.βu.ɾǔː.ndi|}}; [[Swahili language|Swahili]]: ''Jamuhuri ya Burundi''; [[French language|French]]: ''République du Burundi'' {{IPA-fr|buʁundi, byʁyndi|}}), ntcharu icho chili ku [[Great Rift Valley]], pakati pa [[Africa]] na [[East Africa]]. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na charu cha [[Rwanda]] kumpoto, [[Tanzania]] kumafumiro gha dazi na kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, na [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] kumanjiliro gha dazi. Msumba ukuru wa charu ichi ni [[Gitega]] na [[Bujumbura]].<ref name="capital-change">{{cite web|url=https://www.presidence.gov.bi/2019/02/13/loi-n104-du-04-fevrier-2019-portant-fixation-de-la-capitale-politique-et-de-la-capitale-economique-du-burundi/|title=Loi n°1/04 du 04 février 2019 portant Fixation de la Capitale Politique et de la Capitale Economique du Burundi|access-date=24 February 2019}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa [[Twa]], [[Hutu]], na [[Tutsi]] ŵakhala mu Burundi kwa vilimika pafupifupi 500. Kwa vilimika vyakujumpha 200, Burundi ukaŵa ufumu wakujiyimira wekha, m'paka mu ma 1900, apo ukaŵa pasi pa [[Germany]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Helmut |last=Strizek |title=Geschenkte Kolonien: Ruanda und Burundi unter deutscher Herrschaft |url=https://archive.org/details/geschenktekoloni0000stri |trans-title=Donated colonies: Rwanda and Burundi under German rule |location=Berlin |publisher=Ch. Links Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3861533900}}</ref> Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara ndipo caru ca [[Germany]] cikati calekeka, wupu wa [[League of Nations]] "ukapeleka" caru ici ku [[Belgium]]. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, malo agha ghakazgoka malo gha United Nations<ref name="EBArchived">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=German East Africa {{!}} former German dependency, Africa |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/German-East-Africa |access-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902012730/https://www.britannica.com/place/German-East-Africa |archive-date=2 September 2017 |quote=In archived text: German East Africa, German Deutsch-Ostafrika, former dependency of imperial Germany, corresponding to present-day Rwanda and Burundi, the continental portion of Tanzania, and a small section of Mozambique. Penetration of the area was begun in 1884 by German commercial agents, and German claims were recognized by the other European powers in the period 1885–94. In 1891 the German imperial government took over administration of the area from the German East Africa Company. Although its subjugation was not completed until 1907, the colony experienced considerable economic development before World War I. During the war it was occupied by the British, who received a mandate to administer the greater part of it (Tanganyika Territory) by the Treaty of Versailles (signed June 1919; enacted January 1920). A smaller portion (Ruanda-Urundi) was entrusted to Belgium. |url-status=live}}</ref>. Ŵachijeremani na ŵa ku [[Belgium]] ndiwo ŵakalongozganga charu cha Burundi na Rwanda. Ku Burundi na Rwanda kukaŵavya boma limoza m'paka apo ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Europe]] ŵakakhalira mu Africa.<ref name=EBArchived /> Charu cha Burundi chikapokera wanangwa mu 1962 ndipo pakwamba chikaŵa na muwuso wa ufumu, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka, boma likapoka mazaza, ndipo mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa masuzgo ghanandi. [[Nkhondo za mtundu]], [[nkhondo ziŵiri za pa cikaya]], na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi mu ma 1970, na mu 1990, vikakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi comene, ndipo chuma chikalutilira kuchepa.<ref name="xlix">[[#Eggers|Eggers]], p. xlix.</ref>Mu chaka cha 2015 mukaŵa nkhondo yikuru ya ndyali apo [[Pierre Nkurunziza]] wakasankha kuti wazakaŵepo pa manda ghacitatu, ndipo boma likayezga kuti liŵawukire. Ndondomeko ya ndyali ya Burundi njakuti munthu waliyose wakwimira munyake. Pulezidenti wa charu cha Burundi ni mulongozgi wa boma. Pasono mu Burundi muli vipani 21 ivyo vili kulembeka. Pa Malichi 13, 1992, Pierre Buyoya, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa Ŵatutsi, wakambiska ndondomeko ya ndyali. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza, pa Juni 6, 1998, dango la boma likasintha, kusazgirako mipando ya Nyumba ya Malango na kuŵikapo ŵaŵiri ŵa pulezidenti. Cifukwa ca phangano la ku Arusha, mu 2000, Burundi likakhazikiska boma la nyengo yicoko waka. Mu Okutobala 2016, Burundi yikaphalira UN kuti yikukhumba kufumamo mu khoti ili. Charu cha Burundi chikulutilira kukhala ku mizi, ndipo mu 2019, ŵanthu 13.4% pera ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa ivi chikukwana 315 pa kilomita yimoza. Pafupifupi 85% ya ŵanthu aŵa mba fuko la Chihutu, 15% mba Tutsi, ndipo ŵankhondi na yumoza pera ndiwo mba fuko la Twa. Viyowoyero vya boma mu Burundi ni Kirundi, Chifurenchi, na Chingelezi. Charu cha Burundi ntchimoza mwa vyaru vichoko chomene mu Africa, ndipo malo ghake ghanandi ghakuliskako viŵeto.<ref name="autogenerated4">Bermingham, Eldredge, Dick, Christopher W. and Moritz, Craig (2005). ''Tropical Rainforests: Past, Present, and Future''. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, p. 146. {{ISBN|0-226-04468-8}}</ref> Kuzakafika mu 2005, caru ici cikaŵa kuti caphyoka na makuni, ndipo malo ghambura kukwana 6% ghakaŵa na makuni. Charu cha Burundi nchikavu chomene pa charu chose, kuyana na GDP (Gross Domestic Product) pa munthu yumoza, na $292 mu 2022, ndipo ni chalo chambura kukura chomene, icho chikukumana na ukavu, vimbundi, kukhazikika yayi, mazaza, na kuleka kusambira. Mu Burundi muli ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo ŵawukirano ŵanandi ŵakusamira ku vyaru vinyake kukapenja nchito. Lipoti la 2018 la umo ŵanthu ŵaliri ŵakukondwa pa charu chose, likati charu ichi chili pa nambara 156.<ref name="auto1">{{cite news|newspaper=The Guardian|title=Finland is the happiest country in the world, says UN report|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/14/finland-happiest-country-world-un-report|date=14 March 2018|last=Collinson|first=Patrick|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314234610/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/14/finland-happiest-country-world-un-report|archive-date=14 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>Charu cha Burundi chili mu wupu wa African Union, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, United Nations, East African Community (EAC) na Movement of Non-Aligned. ==Zina== Zina lakuti Burundi lili kufuma ku zina la [[Themba la Burundi]], ilo likawusa chigaŵa ichi kwamba mu ma 1500. Zina ili likwenera kuti likafuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ha awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehistorytalk.com/civil-war-top-war-countries/burundi/kingdom-of-burundi|title=Kingdom of Burundi – Discover your Country's Long History|website=www.thehistorytalk.com|access-date=1 April 2021|archive-date=17 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417112313/http://www.thehistorytalk.com/civil-war-top-war-countries/burundi/kingdom-of-burundi|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Mbili == {{Main|History of Burundi|Ruanda-Urundi}} Burundi ni chalo chimoza mwa vyaru vichoko chomene mu sub-Saharan Africa, pamoza na caru ca Rwanda (nga ni Botswana, Lesotho, na Eswatini), ico cikulutilira na caru ca Africa ico cikaŵa pambere ufumu wandafike.<ref>Uvin, Peter. 1999. "Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda: Different Paths to Mass Violence" in Comparative Politics, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Apr. 1999), pp. 253–272 Published by: Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, City University of New York. Page 254.</ref> Ndipouli, nchakuzirwa kumanya kuti mitheto na mafuko vikusintha nyengo zose. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakasamukira ku chigaŵa ichi mu nyengo zakupambanapambana, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti pali mphambano pakati pa mitundu. Pakwamba ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakakhalanga mwamtende. Nkhondo zakwamba pakati pa mafuko zikamba m'ma 1700, apo ŵanthu ŵakasazgikiranga comene. ===Ufumu wa Burundi=== {{Main|Kingdom of Burundi}} Ukaboni wakwamba wakuti charu cha Burundi chikaŵako ni wa kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, msumba uwu ukatandazgika na kusazgapo vyaru vinyake. Ufumu wa Burundi, panji kuti Urundi, uwo ukaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes, ukaŵa ufumu uwo ukawusikanga na fumu yinyake. Themba ili likalongozganga gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa (ganwa) awo ŵakaŵa na malo ghanandi ndipo ŵakeneranga kupeleka msonkho ku ŵalimi (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Ŵahutu) na ŵaliska (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Ŵakututsi). Ufumu wa Burundi ukaŵa na mazaza pa ndyali kweniso ndalama zinandi.<ref>VANDEGINSTE, S., Stones left unturned: law and transitional justice in Burundi, Antwerp-Oxford-Portland, Intersentia, 2010, p 17.</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ufumu wa Ŵatutsi ukakhozga mazaza ghake pa malo, kupanga, na kugaŵira ŵanthu vinthu. Pa nyengo iyi, nyumba ya ufumu yikaŵa ya Ŵatutsi na Ŵanyaruguru. Ŵakaŵa na udindo wapachanya kuluska ŵaliska ŵanyake nga ni Ŵatutsi na Ŵahima. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu ŵakaŵa Ŵahutu, ndipo ŵa mtundu wa Twa ŵakaŵa ŵacigaŵa ca pasi comene. Kweni vinthu vikasintha. Ŵahutu ŵanyake ŵakaŵa ŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa ndipo ŵakayowoyangapo kanthu pa umo boma likenderanga.<ref>R. O. Collins & J. M. Burns. 2007. A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, Cambridge University Press. Page 125.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hutu na wa Tutsi ŵakasankhiranga kuyana na mtundu wawo yayi. Ŵakulima Ŵahutu awo ŵakasanga usambazi na viŵeto ŵakaŵanga na udindo wapachanya kuluska Ŵakututsi. Ŵanyake ŵakazgokanga ŵalongozgi ŵa Ŵaganwa. Kweni pali nkhani zinyake izo zikulongora kuti Ŵakututsi ŵakataya viŵeto vyawo vyose ndipo pamasinda ŵakamba kuchemeka Ŵahutu. Ntheura, mphambano pakati pa Ŵahutu na Ŵakututsi yikaŵa ya cikaya pera yayi. Kweniso pakaŵa nkhani zinandi za ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hutu na Tutsi awo ŵakatorananga. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene kulimbana na ŵamazaza kuluska mtundu wawo.<ref name="weissman">WEISSMAN, S., Preventing genocide in Burundi: lessons from international diplomacy, Washington D.C., United States Institute of Peace Press, 1998, p5.</ref> === Boma la Germany na Belgium === {{Main|German East Africa|Ruanda-Urundi}} Kwambira mu 1884, kampani ya German East Africa Company yikagwiranga nchito mu vigaŵa vya mu Africa. Cifukwa ca kukhuŵara na mphindano za mphaka pakati pa German East Africa Company, British Empire na Sultanate of Zanzibar, Ufumu wa Germany ukaciskika kuti ulekeske kugaluka kwa Abushiri na kuvikilira vyakukhumba vya ufumu mu cigaŵa ici. Mu 1891, kampani ya German East Africa Company yikapeleka wanangwa wake ku ufumu wa Germany, ndipo mu nthowa iyi yikambiska ufumu wa German East Africa, uwo ukaŵa na vyaru nga ni Burundi (Urundi), Rwanda (Ruanda), na Tanzania. Mu ma 1880, ufumu wa Germany ukaŵika ŵasilikari mu vyaru vya Rwanda na Burundi. Malo agho sono ni msumba wa Gitega ghakaŵa malo ghakulongozgera chigaŵa cha Ruanda-Urundi.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Gitega|title=Gitega {{!}} Burundi|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=16 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902015516/https://www.britannica.com/place/Gitega|archive-date=2 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, nkhondo ya ku East Africa yikakhwaska comene cigaŵa ca Great Lakes. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Belgium na Britain ŵakamba kuwukira msumba uwu. Ŵasilikari ŵa Germany awo ŵakaŵa ku Burundi ŵakawelera chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Belgium. Pa Juni 17, 1916, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Burundi na Rwanda ŵakamba kuwukira charu ichi. Ŵasilikari ŵa Force Publique na British Lake Force ŵakamba kupoka tawuni ya Tabora, iyo yikaŵa pakati pa chigaŵa cha German East Africa. Nkhondo yikati yamara, nga ni umo vikaŵira mu phangano la Versailles, caru ca Germany cikacicizgika kupeleka ku caru ca Belgium cigaŵa ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa German East Africa. Pa Okutobala 20, 1924, charu cha Ruanda-Urundi, icho sono chikuchemeka Rwanda na Burundi, chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Belgium. Mu vyaru vinyake, msumba uwu ukaŵa wa ufumu wa Belgian. Nangauli ku Burundi kukaŵa ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe, kweni ufumu uwu ukalutilira kuŵa na mazaza.<ref name="cia">[https://web.archive.org/web/20210122232849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ CIA – The World Factbook – Burundi] [[CIA]]. Retrieved 8 June 2008.</ref><ref name="wein5">{{cite book |last = Weinstein|first = Warren |author2=Robert Schrere |title = Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies: A Case Study of Burundi|publisher=Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs |year = 1976|location = Syracuse University |isbn = 0-915984-20-2 |page=5}}</ref> Ndipouli, ŵa ku Belgium ŵakasungilira vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵa mu ufumu uwu. Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, caru ca Ruanda-Urundi cikaŵa pasi pa boma la Belgium. M'ma 1940, boma likasintha vinthu vinyake mu charu. Pa Okutobala 4, 1943, boma la Burundi likagaŵikana pakati pa vigaŵa vya ŵalara na vigaŵa vyapasi. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakalongozganga charu, ndipo pakaŵa vigaŵa vinyake. Ŵalara ŵa boma nawo ŵakaŵa na mazaza. Mu 1948, caru ca Belgium cikapeleka wanangwa ku vigaŵa ivi kuti viŵe na magulu gha ndyali. Vyaru ivi vikawovwira kuti charu cha Burundi chiŵe na wanangwa wakufumako ku Belgium pa Julayi 1, 1962. ===Kujiyimila=== [[File:Flag of Burundi (1962–1966).svg|thumb|alt=flag white saltire cross on green and red background with plant in centre white rondel|Flag of the [[Kingdom of Burundi]] (1962–1966).]] [[File:Plaza de la Independencia.JPG|thumb|alt=flag sign at flagpole and raised plaza|Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura.]] Pa Janyuwale 20, 1959, Themba Mwami Mwambutsa IV likapempha kuti charu cha Burundi chijipature ku Belgium. Mu myezi yakulondezgapo, magulu gha ndyali gha ku Burundi ghakamba kukhozgera kuti boma la Belgium lileke kulamulira charu ichi na kupatura charu cha Rwanda na Burundi. Gulu lakwamba na likuru comene pa magulu agha likaŵa la Union for National Progress (UPRONA). Nkhondo ya ku Rwanda ndiyo yikawovwira kuti charu cha Burundi chiŵe na wanangwa uwu. Cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku Rwanda, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi ŵakiza ku Burundi mu 1959 m'paka 1961.<ref name="people60">{{cite book|last = MacDonald|first = Fiona|title = Peoples of Africa|publisher = Marshall Cavendish|year = 2001|location = Tarrytown, New York|isbn = 0-7614-7158-8|page = [https://archive.org/details/peoplesofafrica0000mars/page/60 60]|display-authors = etal|url = https://archive.org/details/peoplesofafrica0000mars/page/60}}</ref><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm|work=BBC News|title=Timeline: Burundi|date=25 February 2010|access-date=27 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830225045/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm|archive-date=30 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080626223814/http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/sudan/timeline_rwanda.pdf Timeline: Rwanda] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626223814/http://www.amnestyusa.org/countries/sudan/timeline_rwanda.pdf |date=26 June 2008 }}. Amnesty International. Retrieved 12 July 2008.</ref> Pa Seputembala 8, 1961, kukaŵa mavoti ghakwamba mu Burundi ndipo chipani cha UPRONA, icho chikulongozgeka na Fumu Louis Rwagasore, chikapokera mavoti ghakujumpha 80 peresenti. Pa 13 Okutobala, Fumu Rwagasore, ya vilimika 29, yikakomeka pamanyuma pa mavoti, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Burundi ŵaleke kugomezgeka. Charu ichi chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha pa Julayi 1, 1962, ndipo chikasintha zina lake kufuma ku Ruanda-Urundi kuya ku Burundi. Pa nyengo iyi, charu cha Burundi chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa muwuso wa fumu. Pa Seputembala 18, 1962, charu cha Burundi chikapokelereka na wupu wa United Nations.<ref>[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/org1469.doc.htm United Nations Member States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001135208/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/org1469.doc.htm |date=1 October 2014 }}. 3 July 2006. Retrieved 22 June 2008.</ref> Mu 1963, Fumu Mwambutsa yikimika Pierre Ngendandumwe, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya ciHutu, kweni wakakomeka pa 15 Janyuwale 1965 na Mututsi wa ku Rwanda uyo wakagwiranga nchito ku ofesi ya wupu wa United States. Kupha uku kukacitika mu nyengo ya suzgo ya Congo apo vyaru vya ku Western ivyo vikususkana na boma la Communist vikalimbana na boma la Communist People's Republic of China apo likayezganga kupanga Burundi kuŵa malo ghakulondezgako awo ŵakususka boma la Communist. Pa maungano gha pa caru cose agho ghakacitika mu Meyi 1965, Ŵahutu ŵanandi ŵakaŵa mu nyumba ya malango, kweni Themba Mwambutsa likati lasankha Mututsi kuŵa nduna yikuru, Ŵahutu ŵanyake ŵakawona kuti ici nchambura urunji ndipo suzgo la mafuko likakura comene. Mu Okutobala 1965, ŵapolisi awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Ŵahutu ŵakayezga kutimbanizga boma, kweni ŵakatondeka. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Ŵatutsi, ilo likalongozgekanga na mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵatutsi, Kaputeni Michel Micombero, likawuskamo Ŵahutu mu gulu lawo ndipo likaŵawukira.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20171115023627/http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/pdf/dpe/modern_conflicts/burundi.pdf Burundi (1993–2006)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115023627/http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/pdf/dpe/modern_conflicts/burundi.pdf |date=15 November 2017 }}. University of Massachusetts Amherst</ref> Themba Mwambutsa, ilo likacimbira mu caru ici pa nyengo ya kuwukira boma mu Okutobala 1965, likathereskeka na kuwukira boma mu Julayi 1966 ndipo mwana wake waciwukirano, Karonga Ntare V, wakapokera ufumu. Mu Novembala wa chaka chenechicho, nduna yikuru ya ŵa Tutsi, uyo pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa Capt. Michel Micombero, wakawuskapo Ntare pa udindo wake. Pakuŵa pulezidenti, Micombero wakavikilira chisopa cha ku Africa ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵakamovwira. Wakakhazikiska dango na ndondomeko yiwemi, ndipo wakathereska nkhondo ya Ŵahutu. === Nkhondo za paŵene na kukoma ŵanthu === {{Further|Burundian genocide (1972)|Burundian genocide (1993)}} Kuumaliro wa Epulero 1972, vinthu viŵiri vikacitika ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Burundi ŵakomeke. Pa Epulero 27, 1972, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hutu awo ŵakaŵa mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakagaluka mu tawuni ya Rumonge na Nyanza-Lac. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakasuzganga Ŵatutsi na Ŵahutu wose awo ŵakakana kunjilirapo. Mu nyengo yakwamba iyi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Hutu ŵakukwana 800 m'paka 1200. Pa nyengo yeneyira, Themba Ntare V la ku Burundi likawerako ku wuzga, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti mu charu ichi muŵe masuzgo ghanandi. Pa Epulero 29, 1972, Ntare V, wa vyaka 24, wakakomeka. Mu myezi yakulondezgapo, boma la Michel Micombero, ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi, likagwiliskira ntchito ŵasilikari kuti ŵarwe na ŵakugaluka ŵa mtundu wa Hutu na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu uwu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamanya yayi unandi wa awo ŵakafwa, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu 80,000 panji 210,000 ndiwo ŵakafwa. Mwakusazgirapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi Ŵahutu ŵakacimbira ku Zaire, Rwanda, na Tanzania.<ref name="ICIBFR-85-496" /> Nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikati yamara, Micombero wakamba kusuzgika maghanoghano. Mu 1976, Kolonele Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, Mututsi, wakalongozga boma kwambura kuthiska ndopa. Mu 1981, boma lake likalemba dango liphya ilo likakanizga kuti charu cha Burundi chiŵe na chipani chimoza. Mu Ogasiti 1984, Bagaza wakasankhika kuŵa mutu wa boma. Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwake, Bagaza wakasuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga ndyali na wanangwa wa kusopa.<ref name="ICIBFR-85-496" /> Major Pierre Buyoya (Tutsi) wakathereska Bagaza mu 1987, wakayimiska dango na kumazga vipani. Wakawezgerapo muwuso wa ŵasilikari mwa Wupu wa Wusilikari wa Chiponosko cha Charu (CSMN). Uthenga wakususkana na mtundu wa Tutsi uwo ukapharazgika na ŵasilikari ŵa UBU ŵa mu 1972, awo ŵakambaso kucemeka PALIPEHUTU mu 1981, ukapangiska kuti Ŵatutsi ŵakomeke mu mizi ya kumpoto kwa Ntega na Marangara mu Ogasiti 1988. Boma likati ŵanthu 5,000 ndiwo ŵakafwa, kweni mabungwe ghanyake ghambura vya boma ghakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafwa bweka yayi.<ref name="ICIBFR-85-496" /> Boma liphya ili likapeleka yayi cilango cakusuzga nga umo vikaŵira mu 1972. Boma ili likathera apo likapeleka dango lakuti ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhumbanga kukoma ŵanthu ŵaleke kukomeka. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti nyengo iyi ndiyo yikaŵa "nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga kwambura kulangika". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti "ntchindi zambura kulangika" zikamba mu 1965 na 1972, apo Ŵahutu ŵachoko waka ŵakakoma Ŵakututsi. Pamanyuma pa kukomeka kwa ŵanthu aŵa, gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Hutu ŵakalembera kalata Pierre Buyoya, kumupempha kuti waŵawovwire. Ŵakakakika na kujalirika mu jele. Pakati pajumpha masabata ghacoko waka, Buyoya wakasora boma liphya, ilo likaŵa na ŵaliska ŵaŵiri ŵakuyana. Wakimika Adrien Sibomana (Hutu) kuŵa nduna yikuru. Buyoya wakapangaso komiti yakuwona vya umoza wa chalo. Mu 1992, boma likapanga dango liphya ilo likazomerezganga kuti maboma gha vipani vinandi ghaŵepo, kweni nkhondo yikamba.<ref name="ICIBFR-85-496" /> Ŵanthu pafupifupi 250,000 ŵakafwa mu Burundi cifukwa ca nkhondo izo zikacitika pakati pa 1962 na 1993. Kufuma waka apo charu cha Burundi chikapokera wanangwa mu 1962, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakakomeka mu charu ichi: mu 1972, Ŵahutu ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵatutsi, ndipo mu 1993, Ŵahutu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na Ŵatutsi. Malipoti ghaumaliro gha wupu wa International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi agho ghakapelekeka ku wupu wa United Nations Security Council mu 2002, ghakati vyose ivi ni vigeŵenga.<ref name=ICIBFR-85-496> International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (2002). Paragraphs 85,496. </ref> === Ciyezgo cakwamba ca demokilase na nkhondo pakati pa Tutsi National Army na Hutu === Mu Juni 1993, Melchior Ndadaye, mulongozgi wa gulu la Hutu la Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU), ndiyo wakathereska pa mavoti ghakwamba. Wakazgoka mulongozgi wakwamba wa mtundu wa Hutu, ndipo wakadangiliranga boma ilo likakolerananga na Ŵahutu. Nangauli wakayezga kuti wamazge mphindano za mafuko mu caru ici, kweni ivyo wakacita vikakwiyiska ŵasilikari ŵa gulu la ŵasilikari la Ŵatutsi. Nkhondo ya ku Burundi (1993~2005) yikaŵa na vivulupi pakati pa ŵakugaluka ŵa Hutu na ŵasilikari ŵa Tutsi. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 300,000, comenecomene ŵanthu bweka, ŵakakomeka mu vilimika vyakulondezgapo.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068873.stm Country profile Burundi] BBC. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007175839/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068873.stm |date=7 October 2011 }}. (accessed on 29 October 2008)</ref> Kukwambilira kwa 1994, nyumba ya malango yikasora Cyprien Ntaryamira (Muhutu) kuŵa pulezidenti. Iyo na Juvénal Habyarimana, pulezidenti wa Rwanda, wose ŵakaŵa Ŵahutu, ndipo ŵakafwa pamoza apo ndege yawo yikawa mu Epulero 1994. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuchimbilira ku Rwanda. Mulara wa Nyumba ya Malango, Sylvestre Ntibantunganya (Hutu), wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti mu Okutobala 1994. Boma la wupu wakulongozga likapangika na magulu 12 pa 13. Ŵakaleka kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi, kweni nkhaza zikamba. Ŵahutu ŵanandi awo ŵakacimbira ku Bujumbura, msumba ukuru wa caru ici, ŵakakomeka. Bungwe la Tutsi Union for National Progress likafumamo mu boma na mu nyumba ya malango. Mu 1996, Pierre Buyoya (Tutsi) wakambaso kuwusa mwa kuwukira boma. Wakayimiska malango gha boma ndipo wakalapa kuŵa pulezidenti mu 1998. Iyi yikaŵa nyengo yaciŵiri iyo wakaŵira pulezidenti, pamanyuma pa nyengo yakwamba kufuma mu 1987 mpaka 1993. Pakuwona umo ŵakugaluka ŵakacitira, boma likapangiska ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵasamire ku misasa ya ŵanthu ŵakucimbira kwawo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Buyoya, pakamba kudumbiskana vya mtende kwa nyengo yitali, ndipo South Africa ndiyo yikaŵa pakati pawo. Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vikalemba mapangano mu Arusha, Tanzania na Pretoria, South Africa, kuti ŵagaŵane mazaza mu Burundi. Pakakhumbikwanga vilimika vinayi kuti ŵanozge ivyo ŵakakolerana.[[File:Second Congo War Africa map en.svg|thumb|alt=color map of African countries showing Uganda Rwanda and Burundi backing rebels against Kabila|Belligerents of the [[Second Congo War]]. Burundi backed the rebels.]] Pa Ogasiti 28, 2000, boma lakwendera lumoza la Burundi likanozgeka nga ni cigaŵa ca Mapangano gha Mtende na Kuphemana. Boma lakwimira boma ili likaŵa pa nyengo yakuyezgelera kwa vilimika vinkhondi. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo ŵakawovwilirapo yayi kuti paŵe mtende, mu 2001 pakaŵa ndondomeko ya mtende ndipo ŵakakolerana kuti ŵagaŵane mazaza. Mu 2003, boma la Burundi ilo likulongozgeka na ŵa Tutsi na gulu likuru chomene la ŵakugaluka la Ŵahutu, la CNDD-FDD (National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy), ŵakadumura phangano lakuti ŵaleke kwambiska nkhondo. Mu 2003, mulongozgi wa FRODEBU Domitien Ndayizeye (Hutu) wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti. Kukwambilira kwa 2005, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakasankhika pa maofesi gha boma la Burundi. Mu chaka ichi, pakaŵa maungano gha boma na gha pulezidenti. Pierre Nkurunziza (Hutu), uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa gulu la ŵakugaluka, wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti mu 2005. Mu 2008, boma la Burundi likadumbiskana na gulu la Hutu lakucemeka Palipehutu-National Liberation Forces (NLF) kuti ŵize na mtende mu caru.<ref>Liang, Yin (4 June 2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20170125174002/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/04/content_8308846.htm "EU welcomes positive developments in Burundi"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125174002/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/04/content_8308846.htm |date=25 January 2017 }}. ''China View''. Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved on 29 June 2008.</ref> ===Kuzomelezgana mtendere=== Ŵalongozgi ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵakamba kudumbiskana vya mtende pakati pa vyaru ivyo vikwambana, pamanyuma pakuti Secretary General wa United Nations Boutros Boutros-Ghali waŵapempha kuti ŵanjirepo pa suzgo ili. Mu 1995, ŵakamba kudumbiskana na pulezidenti wa ku Tanzania, Julius Nyerere. Apo maungano agha ghakacitikanga, Pulezidenti wa South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, na wa United States, Bill Clinton, nawo ŵakayowoyapo. Maungano agha ghakaŵa gha mtundu wa Track I. Nthowa iyi ya kudumbiskirana yingayowoyeka kuti ni nthowa ya udumizgi iyo yikusazgapo ŵimiliri ŵa boma panji ŵimiliri ŵa boma, awo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito mbiri yawo yiwemi, kuphalirako ŵanyawo, panji nthowa ya "karoti na ndodo" kuti ŵafike pa chilato chinyake panji kuti ŵapangiske kuti chichitike, kanandi ŵakuchita vinthu nga ni "kuchezga" panji "kupambana na kutondeka".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ramsbotham, Oliver |author2=Woodhouse, Tom |author3=Miall, Hugh |title=Contemporary Conflict Resolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-IbuQE02-KkC&pg=PA24|year=2011|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-4974-0|pages=24–}}</ref> Cilato cikuru cikaŵa cakuti boma la Burundi na ŵasilikari ŵake ŵasinthe vinthu mwakuti paŵe mphambano pakati pa Ŵakututsi na Ŵahutu. Ukaŵa wa vigaŵa viŵiri. Cakwamba, boma lakwendera lumoza lizamunjira mu malo ghake, ndipo pulezidenti wazamulamulira vyaka vitatu. Cilato caciŵiri cikaŵa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵambeso kwendera ŵekha, ndipo magulu ghaŵiri agha ghakaŵa ghakuyana. Nga ni umo vyalongosolera nyengo yitali iyo maungano gha mtende ghakacitikira, awo ŵakadumbiskana na awo ŵakadumbiskananga ŵakakumana na masuzgo ghanandi. Cakwamba, ŵalara ŵa boma la Burundi ŵakawona kuti vilato ivi ni "vyambura kwenelera" ndipo ŵakawona kuti phangano ili ndakubudika, ndakususkana, ndiposo ndakubudika. Caciŵiri, ndipo ico nchakuzirwa comene nchakuti, ŵanthu ŵa ku Burundi ŵakagomezganga kuti phangano ili liŵenge lambura nchito usange palije kuleka kuwukira. Kuti ivi vicitike, pakukhumbikwira kudumbiskana mwakudunjika na magulu gha ŵakugaluka. Gulu likuru la Ŵahutu likaŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera pa nkhani ya boma ilo likukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵagaŵane mazaza. Mu 2000, pulezidenti wa Burundi wakasazga phangano ili pamoza na magulu 13 pa magulu 19 gha Ŵahutu na Ŵakututsi. Pakaŵa mphindano pa nkhani ya gulu ilo lizamulongozga boma liphya, ndiposo apo nkhondo yizamwambira. Ŵanthu awo ŵakapangiska kuti paleke kuŵa mtende ŵakaŵa gulu la Ŵatutsi na Ŵahutu awo ŵakakana kusayina phangano ili. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vitatu, pa ungano wa ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vya ku Africa uwo ukacitikira mu Tanzania, pulezidenti wa Burundi na gulu likuru la Ŵahutu ŵakakolerana kuti ŵamazge nkhondo. Ndipouli, magulu ghacoko waka gha Ŵahutu, nga ni gulu la Forces for National Liberation, ghakalutilira kugwira nchito. ===UN kunjililapo=== Pakati pa 1993 na 2003, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakadumbiskana vya mtende, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Tanzania, South Africa, na Uganda ndiwo ŵakadangiliranga. Pakwamba gulu la South African Protection Support Detachment likatumika kuvikilira ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Burundi awo ŵakawerako ku wuzga. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakazgoka cigaŵa ca African Union Mission ku Burundi, awo ŵakatumika kuti ŵawovwire kunozga boma lakwendera. Mu Juni 2004, wupu wa UN ukachitapo kanthu na kupokelera mulimo wa kusungiska mtende, kulongora kuti caru cose cikukhozgera ndondomeko ya mtende mu Burundi.<ref name="Howard, Lise Morje 2008">Howard, Lise Morje (2008). UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars. New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> Ntchito ya Mission, pasi pa Mutu VII wa Charter ya United Nations, yili kuti yikulaŵilira kuwombora, kufumiska vilwero, kususka ŵasilikari na kuŵaso ŵankhondo, kovwira wovwiri wa ŵanthu, kuwelera ku ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo na ku vyaru ivyo vyasuzgika, kovwira pa masankharo, kuvikilira ŵasilikare ŵa pa charu chose na ŵanthu ŵa ku Burundi, kulaŵilira mphaka za Burundi, kusazgapo kulekeska viŵembu vya nkhondo, na kovwira pa kunozga vinthu vya mu ndyali, malango, ŵasilikara na ŵapolisi.<ref name="Howard, Lise Morje 2008"/> Suzgo likuru comene mu nyengo yakwambilira likaŵa lakuti gulu la ŵakugaluka la Ŵahutu likalutilira kulimbana na ndondomeko ya mtende. Gulu ili likalutilira kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa UN mu tawuni iyi. Kuzakafika mu Juni 2005, gulu ili likaleka kurwa nkhondo ndipo ŵimiliri ŵake ŵakaweleraso ku ndyali. Maphwando onse a ndale avomereza njira yogaŵanirana mphamvu pakati pa mafuko: palibe chipani cha ndale chomwe chingapeze malo mu maofesi a boma pokhapokha ngati chikugwirizana ndi mafuko ena.<ref name="Howard, Lise Morje 2008"/> Ntchito ya UN yikaŵa ya kuŵika ndondomeko ya kugaŵikana kwa mazaza mu dango la boma, mwakuti paŵe maungano gha boma. Ŵakaŵawuskamo vilwero, na kuŵawovwira kuti ŵambeso kusopa. Mu Febuluwale 2005, dango ili likapokelereka na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 90%. Mu Meyi, Juni, na Ogasiti 2005, kukaŵaso maungano ghatatu ghakupambanapambana gha Nyumba ya Malamulo na gha pulezidenti. Nangauli pasono pali masuzgo ghanyake pa nkhani ya kuwelera kwa ŵanthu awo ŵakacimbira kwawo na kusanga vyakurya vyakukwana ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa mu nkhondo, kweni gulu ili likakhorwa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa nkhondo kweniso ŵanthu wose. Wakawovwirapo pa milimo yinandi yakuzenga masukulu, nyumba za ŵalanda, maofesi gha munkhwala, na kuzenga vinthu vinyake nga ni maji. ===2006 mpaka 2018=== [[File:BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg|thumb|alt=aerial view of highrise building and low rise red roofed buildings|View of the capital city Bujumbura in 2006.]] Ntchito yakuzenga ku Burundi yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2006. Wupu wa UN ukaleka mulimo wake wa kusungilira mtende na kwambaso kovwirapo pa mulimo wa kuzenga.<ref name="accessed on 29-10-08">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm Timeline Burundi] BBC. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830225045/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm |date=30 August 2011 }}. (accessed on 29 October 2008)</ref> Kuti ŵanozgekere kunozgaso vyalo vyawo, caru ca Rwanda, D.R.Congo na Burundi, ŵakaŵaso na wupu wakucemeka Regional Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries. Kweniso mu 2007, charu cha Burundi pamoza na charu cha Rwanda, vikaŵa mu wupu wa East African Community. Ndipouli, mazgu gha Ceasefire ya Seputembala 2006 pakati pa boma na gulu lakwamba la ŵakususka, la FLN (Forces for National Liberation, lakucemekaso NLF panji FROLINA), ghakafiskika yayi, ndipo ŵalaraŵalara ŵa FLN ŵakafumamo mu gulu la awo ŵakulaŵilira nkhondo iyi, ŵakuti wanangwa wawo uli pangozi. Mu Seputembala 2007, magulu ghakwimikana gha FLN ghakalimbana mu msumba wa msumba uwu, ndipo ŵakukoma ŵanthu 20 ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchimbira. Ku vigaŵa vinyake vya charu ichi, ŵakugaluka ŵakamba kuwukira. Ŵalwani ŵakakolerana yayi na boma pa nkhani ya kufumiska vilwero na kufwatura ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali. Kuumaliro wa 2007 na kuuyambiro wa 2008, ŵakurwa nkhondo ŵa FLN ŵakawukira misasa yakuvikilirika na boma uko kukaŵa ŵakurwa nkhondo. Nyumba za ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi nazo zikapokeka.<ref name="hrw.org">[https://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2008/05/29/burund18974.htm Burundi: Release Civilians Detained Without Charge |Human Rights Watch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602040602/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2008/05/29/burund18974.htm|date=2 June 2008}}. Hrw.org (29 May 2008). Retrieved on 24 November 2012.</ref> Lipoti la wupu wa Amnesty International la mu 2007 likulongora kuti pali vinandi ivyo vikukhumbikwa kunozgekera. Ŵasilikari ŵakusuzgika kanandi waka na nkhaza za FLN. Wachiŵiri uyu wakulemba ŵana ŵasilikari. Ŵanakazi ŵakusuzgika comene. Kanandi awo ŵakuchita viheni ŵakutondeka kweruzgika na boma. Pali kukhumbikwa kukuru kwa kusintha ndondomeko ya vyeruzgo. Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kukomeka cifukwa ca kuswa malango, kuswa malango gha boma, na kuswa malango gha boma. Kuumaliro kwa Malichi 2008, gulu la FLN likapempha kuti nyumba ya malango yikhazikiske dango ilo likuŵaphalira kuti ŵaleke kukakika. Vinthu ivi vikukhwaska vigeŵenga vyambura kuzirwa, kweni vigeŵenga vikuru ivyo vikuswa malango gha caru cose nga ni nkhondo panji viheni ivyo ŵanthu ŵakucita yayi. Nangauli boma likapeleka wanangwa uwu ku ŵanthu kumanyuma, kweni FLN yikatondeka kusanga wanangwa uwu. Pa 17 Epulero 2008, FLN yikaponya mabomba pa Bujumbura. Ŵasilikari ŵa Burundi ŵakaŵawukira ndipo gulu la FLN likapwetekeka comene. Pa Meyi 26, 2008, pakalembeka phangano liphya la kuleka kuwukira. Mu Ogasiti 2008, Purezidenti Nkurunziza wakakumana na mulongozgi wa FLN Agathon Rwasa, pamoza na Charles Nqakula, Minister of Safety and Security wa South Africa. Uwu ukaŵa ungano wakwamba kufuma mu Juni 2007. Wose ŵakakolerana kuti ŵawunganenge kaŵiri pa sabata kuti ŵanozge mphindano izo zingaŵapo pa nyengo ya kuwezgerapo mtende. Wupu wa United Nations ukuyezgayezga kuwona umo vinthu vikukhwaskira ŵanthu awo ŵakuzenga mtende. Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 2010, gulu la UN lakuvikilira mtende mu Burundi likayezga kupima umo ndondomeko yake ya kulekeska vilwero, kusunkhunyika na kuweleramo mu caru yikaŵira yiwemi mwa kupenda unandi wa vilwero ivyo vikatoleka cifukwa cakuti vilwero vikaŵa vinandi mu caru ici. Ndipouli, pa maungano agha pakaŵavya ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵapo pa nyengo iyi, awo ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi pakuwona umo vinthu vikuŵira para ŵanthu ŵakukhumba mtende. Kufumira mu chaka cha 2012, charu cha Burundi chikagwiranga nchito ya kusungilira mtende ya African Union, kusazgapo ntchito ya ku Somalia kwimikana na ŵasilikari ŵa Al-Shabaab. Mu 2014, Komiti ya Unenesko na Kuphemana yikakhazikiskika, pakwamba kwa vilimika vinayi ndipo yikasazgikira vyaka vinayi mu 2018.<ref name=reuters2014>{{cite web | last=Nduwimana | first=Patrick | title=Burundi creates reconciliation body that divides public opinion | website=[[Reuters]] | date=18 April 2014 | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-burundi-politics-idUSBREA3H0E020140418 | access-date=12 October 2021}}</ref><ref name=justice2019>{{cite web | title=Burundi: the commission of divided truths |first=Ephrem |last=Rugiririz| website=JusticeInfo.net | date=25 November 2019 | url=https://www.justiceinfo.net/en/43042-burundi-the-commission-of-divided-truths.html | access-date=12 October 2021}}</ref> ====2015 unrest==== {{Main|Burundian unrest (2015–2018)}} Mu Epulero 2015 ŵanthu ŵakamba kususka boma chifukwa cha ivyo chipani icho chili na mazaza chikayowoya.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Après moi, moi|url = https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21650190-more-africans-are-resisting-presidential-efforts-flout-constitutional-term?zid=304&ah=e5690753dc78ce91909083042ad12e30|newspaper = The Economist|date = 2 May 2015|access-date = 14 May 2015|issn = 0013-0613|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091746/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21650190-more-africans-are-resisting-presidential-efforts-flout-constitutional-term?zid=304&ah=e5690753dc78ce91909083042ad12e30|archive-date = 18 May 2015|url-status = live|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Awo ŵakasuskanga ŵakatenge Nkurunziza wangasankhika yayi kuti wazakaŵepo kachitatu, kweni khoti la malango mu charu ichi likakolerana nayo (nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakachimbira mu charu ichi pa nyengo iyo ŵakavotera). Kuyezga kupoka boma pa 13 May kukatondeka kufumiska Nkurunziza. Wakawelera ku Burundi, wakayamba kuwuskamo ŵanthu mu boma lake, ndipo wakakora ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa boma awo ŵakagalukira boma.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/15/burundi-president-returns-to-divided-capital-after-failed-coup "Burundi's president returns to divided capital after failed coup"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020022341/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/15/burundi-president-returns-to-divided-capital-after-failed-coup |date=20 October 2017 }}. ''The Guardian'' (15 May 2015). Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32724083 "Burundi general declares coup against President Nkurunziza"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711123731/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32724083 |date=11 July 2018 }} BBC</ref><ref name=cnn01>[http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/15/africa/burundi-coup-leaders-arrested/index.html Burundi arrests leaders of attempted coup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516061354/http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/15/africa/burundi-coup-leaders-arrested/index.html |date=16 May 2017 }}. CNN.com (15 May 2015). Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>Laing, Aislinn. (15 May 2015) [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/burundi/11607171/Burundi-coup-fails-as-president-returns-to-the-country.html "Burundi president hunts for coup leaders as he returns to the capital"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130091614/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/burundi/11607171/Burundi-coup-fails-as-president-returns-to-the-country.html |date=30 January 2018 }}. ''Daily Telegraph''. Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/president-burundi-army-coup-failed-150515002113225.html "President 'back in Burundi' after army says coup failed"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605235845/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/05/president-burundi-army-coup-failed-150515002113225.html |date=5 June 2017 }}. Al Jazeera English (15 May 2015). Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref> Kweni pamanyuma pa chiyezgo cha kuwukira boma, ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kususka ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 100,000 ŵakachimbira mu charu ichi pa 20 May. Pali malipoti ghakuti ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kukoma ŵanthu kwambura mulandu, kutambuzgika, kuzgeŵa, na kukanizga wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Nangauli wupu wa United Nations, African Union, United States, France, South Africa, Belgium, na maboma ghanyake ghakaŵachiska kuti ŵaleke kuwungana, kweni chipani icho chili na mazaza chikachita mavoti pa Juni 29, kweni ŵakususka. Pa 30 September 2016, wupu wa United Nations Human Rights Council ukakhazikiska Commission of Inquiry on Burundi mwa resolution 33/24. Wupu uwu uli na mulimo wa "kusanda mwakudumura maubendezi gha wanangwa wa ŵanthu agho ghacitika mu Burundi kwambira mu Epulero 2015, kumanya awo ŵakughanaghana kuti ndiwo ŵakucita ivi na kupeleka ulongozgi". Pa Seputembala 29, 2017, wupu wakuwona vya Burundi ukachiska boma la Burundi kuti lileke kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Likayowoyaso kuti, "Boma la Burundi likukana kukolerana na Komiti ya Kupenjerezga, nangauli yikumuŵeyelera kanandi waka". Pa viheni ivyo wupu uwu ukalemba pali kukakika na kukakika mwambura kwenelera, kutambuzgika, nkhaza, nkhaza, kukomeka kwambura mulandu, kujowoleka, kukaka ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kwiza ku nyumba zawo, na mitundu yinyake ya nkhaza za kugonana".<ref name="ohchr.org">{{cite web |title=OHCHR – Commission calls on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations |url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22184&LangID=E |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011021822/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22184&LangID=E |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=10 October 2017 |website=www.ohchr.org}}</ref> === 2018 mpaka pano === In a [[2018 Burundian constitutional referendum|constitutional referendum]] in May 2018, Burundians voted by 79.08% to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Moore|first=Jina|date=2018-05-17|title=In Tiny Burundi, a Huge Vote (Published 2018)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/17/world/africa/burundi-referendum-vote.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517214927/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/17/world/africa/burundi-referendum-vote.html |archive-date=2018-05-17 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2021-01-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Amendments to constitution of Burundi approved: electoral commission – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/22/c_137195886.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522112315/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/22/c_137195886.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 May 2018|access-date=2021-01-08|website=www.xinhuanet.com}}</ref>Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazizwa chomene apo Nkurunziza wakapharazga kuti walekenge kuwusa nyengo yinyake. Pa 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, uyo wakasankhika na chipani cha CNDD-FDD kuŵa mulondezgi wa Nkurunziza, wakathereska pa mavoti 71.45%. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, pa 9 Juni 2020, Nkurunziza wakafwa na nthenda ya mtima, wali na vilimika 55. Pakaŵa fundo yakuti nyifwa yake yikakhwaskana na COVID-19, nangauli fundo iyi yindazomerezgeke. <ref name=":03">{{Cite news|last=Dahir|first=Abdi Latif|date=2020-06-09|title=President of Burundi, Pierre Nkurunziza, 55, Dies of Heart Attack|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/09/world/africa/burundi-president-pierre-nkurunziza-dead.html|access-date=2021-01-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Who is Burundi's new president, Evariste Ndayishimiye? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/6/18/evariste-ndayishimiye-who-is-burundis-new-president |access-date=2021-01-08 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> Mu Disembala 2021, moto ukuru wa mu jele ukakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi mu msumba wa Gitega. Mu Novembala 2022, mu masuzgo gha nthenda ya COVID-19 na kuwukira kwa Russia ku Ukraine, chiŵelengero cha chuma cha Burundi chikakwera pachoko waka kufika pa 3 peresenti, kuyana na kafukufuku wa International Monetary Fund. Pasono, charu cha Burundi nchimoza mwa vyaru vikavu comene pa caru capasi pamanyuma pa Haiti, ndipo pa munthu yumoza, munthu waliyose wakusangapo ndalama zakukwana madola 270.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Santosdiaz |first1=Richie |title=Burundi: Fintech Landscape and Potential In The World's Poorest Country |url=https://thefintechtimes.com/burundi-fintech-landscape-and-potential-in-the-worlds-poorest-country/ |website=The Fintech Times |date=19 August 2022}}</ref> == Boma == {{Main|Politics of Burundi}} [[File:Pierre Nkurunziza - World Economic Forum on Africa 2008.jpg|thumb|alt=Pierre Nkurunziza at World Economic Forum 2008 looking right|[[Pierre Nkurunziza]], President of Burundi from 2005 to 2020.]] Ndyali za ku Burundi ni za boma la demokilase ilo likulongozgeka na pulezidenti. Pulezidenti wa charu cha Burundi ni mulongozgi wa boma. Pasono mu Burundi muli vipani 21 ivyo vili kulembeka.<ref name="state">[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2821.htm Background Note: Burundi]. [[United States Department of State]]. February 2008. Retrieved on 28 June 2008.</ref>Pa Malichi 13, 1992, Pierre Buyoya, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa Ŵatutsi, wakambiska ndondomeko ya ndyali. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza, pa Juni 6, 1998, dango la boma likasintha, kusazgirako mipando ya wupu wakulongozga na kuŵikapo ŵaŵiri. Cifukwa ca phangano la ku Arusha, mu 2000, Burundi likakhazikiska boma la nyengo yicoko waka. Wupu wakulongozga mu Burundi ni wupu uwo uli na nyumba ziŵiri, uwo uli na Nyumba ya Malango ya Vyaru na Nyumba ya Malango ya Wupu Wakulongozga. Kufumira mu chaka cha 2004, Nyumba ya Malango ya Charu chose yikaŵa na mamembala 170, ndipo chipani cha Front for Democracy mu Burundi chikaŵa na vithuzithuzi 38%, ndipo 10% ya nyumba ya Malango yikaŵa mu mawoko gha UPRONA. Mavoti 52 ghakaŵa gha magulu ghanyake. Dango la Burundi likusambizga kuti mu wupu wa Transitional National Assembly muŵe Ŵahutu 60%, Ŵatutsi 40%, ŵanakazi 30%, kweniso ŵa Batwa ŵatatu. Ŵabali awo ŵali mu wupu uwu ŵakusankhika na ŵanthu wose ndipo ŵakukhala vyaka vinkhondi. Nyumba ya Malango ya Wupu Wakulongozga yili na mamembara 51, ndipo malo ghatatu ghali kupika ku ŵanthu awo kale ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi. Kuyana na dango la boma la Burundi, ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakwenera kuŵa pa mavoti 30. Ŵabali ŵa mu Nyumba ya Malango ŵakusankhika na ŵanthu awo ŵakufuma mu vigaŵa vyose vya Burundi. Mu vigaŵa vyose 18 vya Burundi, muli munthu yumoza Muhutu na munyake Mututsi. Nyengo yimoza ya wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu wa wupu. Wupu wakulongozga mu Burundi ndiwo ukusankha pulezidenti kuti wateŵetere vyaka vinkhondi. Pulezidenti wa Burundi wakwimika ŵamazaza mu wupu wake wa nduna. Kweniso pulezidenti wangasora ŵanthu 14 ŵa mu wupu wa Transitional Senate kuti ŵateŵetere mu wupu wa Council of Minister. Ŵabali awo ŵakuteŵetera mu wupu wa nduna ŵakwenera kuzomerezgeka na ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mu wupu wa nduna. Kweniso pulezidenti wakusankha ŵachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti. Kufumira waka mu 2015, Pierre Nkurunziza ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wa Burundi. Wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakaŵa Therence Sinunguruza, ndipo wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakaŵa Gervais Rufyikiri. Pa 20 May 2020, Evariste Ndayishimiye, uyo wakasankhika na chipani cha CNDD-FDD kuŵa mulondezgi wa Nkurunziza, wakathereska pa mavoti 71.45%. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, pa 9 Juni 2020, Nkurunziza wakafwa na nthenda ya mtima, wali na vilimika 55. Kuyana na dango la chalo, Pascal Nyabenda, mulongozgi wa chalo, ndiyo wakalongozga boma mpaka apo Ndayishimiye wakajura ofesi pa 18 June 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/09/world/africa/burundi-president-pierre-nkurunziza-dead.html|title=President of Burundi, Pierre Nkurunziza, 55, Dies of Heart Attack|first=Abdi Latif|last=Dahir|newspaper=The New York Times|date=9 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/6/18/evariste-ndayishimiye-who-is-burundis-new-president|title=Who is Burundi's new president, Evariste Ndayishimiye?|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref> Khoti Likuru la ku Burundi ni khoti likuru comene. Paliso makhoti ghatatu gha apilu agho ghali pasi pa Khoti Likuru Chomene. Makhoti gha Cigaŵa Cakwamba ghakugwira nchito nga ni makhoti gha mu vigaŵa vyose vya Burundi kweniso makhoti gha mu vigaŵa 123.<ref name="unburundi">{{cite journal|title=Republic of Burundi: Public Administration Country Profile|journal=United Nations' Division for Public Administration and Development Management (DPADM)|date=July 2004|pages=5–7|url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023253.pdf|access-date=20 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001231041/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023253.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Embassy_of_Burundi_in_Brussels.jpg|thumb|Embassy of Burundi in Brussels]] === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{See also|Human rights in Burundi|LGBT rights in Burundi}} Boma la Burundi lakususkika kanandi waka na mawupu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu kusazgapo Human Rights Watch cifukwa ca kukora na kweruzga Jean-Claude Kavumbagu cifukwa ca nkhani izo wakalemba. Bungwe la Amnesty International (AI) likati ni kayidi wa njuŵi ndipo likukhumba kuti "wafwatulike mwaluŵiro". Mu Epulero 2009, boma la Burundi likasintha dango lakuti ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵagonanenge. Munthu uyo wazomerezgeka kugonana na mwanalume panji mwanakazi munyake, wangakakika vyaka viŵiri panji vitatu na kupelekeka cilango ca ndalama zakukwana 50,000 panji 100,000. Bungwe la Amnesty International likususka ivyo vikacitika, ndipo likuti ni kuswa malango gha caru cose na gha mu vyaru vinyake ghakukhwaskana na wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Pa Okutobala 27, 2017, charu cha Burundi chikafumamo mu khoti la International Criminal Court (ICC). Chinthu ichi chikachitika pamanyuma pakuti wupu wa United Nations walemba lipoti mu Seputembala 2017 ilo likati charu ichi chikuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Pa Novembala 9, 2017, khoti la ICC likati ŵanthu awo ŵakuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu charu cha Burundi ŵalutilirenge kweruzgika.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/09/world/africa/icc-burundi-nkurunziza.html|title=We're Not Done Yet, Hague Court Tells Burundi's Leaders|last1=Gladstone|first1=Rick|date=9 November 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=10 November 2017|last2=Simons|first2=Marlise|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110150241/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/09/world/africa/icc-burundi-nkurunziza.html|archive-date=10 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/11/09/icc-new-burundi-investigation|title=ICC: New Burundi Investigation|date=9 November 2017|work=Human Rights Watch|access-date=10 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121164937/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/11/09/icc-new-burundi-investigation|archive-date=21 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> === Kuga'''ŵanika''' === {{Main|Provinces of Burundi|Communes of Burundi|Collines of Burundi}} Charu cha Burundi chili na vigaŵa 18, vikaya 119, na tumapiri 2,638. Maboma gha vigaŵa ghakwendera mphaka izi. Vigaŵa na vikaya vya Burundi vikapangika pa zuŵa la Khisimasi mu 1959 na dango la ku Belgium. Ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu 2000, cigaŵa ca Bujumbura cikagaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri, Bujumbura Rural na Bujumbura Mairie. Chigaŵa chiphya chomene, Rumonge, chikapangika pa 26 March 2015 kufuma ku vigaŵa vya Bujumbura Rural na Bururi. Mu Julayi 2022, boma la Burundi likapharazga kuti lizamunozga vyaru. Ndondomeko iyi yikukhumba kuti vigaŵa vichepeko kufuma pa 18 kufika pa 5, ndipo maboma gha vigaŵa vichepeko kufuma pa 119 kufika pa 42. Kusintha uku kukukhumbikwira kuzomerezgeka na pharalamende ya Burundi kuti kwambe kugwira ntchito.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=bdiagnews |date=2022-07-14 |title=Burundi : Proposition - 5 provinces au lieu de 18 et 42 communes au lieu de 119 |url=https://burundi-agnews.org/government/burundi-proposition-5-provinces-au-lieu-de-18-et-42-communes-au-lieu-de-119/ |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=Nouvelles du Burundi - Africa Generation News |language=en-US}}</ref> {{#section:Provinces of Burundi|table}} == Makhalilo gha charu == [[File:By-map.png|thumb|left|alt=tan colour map of Burundi with cities|Map of Burundi.]] [[file:Hippos in Burundi.png|thumb|Hippos at Kibira National Park in northwest Burundi]] {{Main|Geography of Burundi|Climate of Burundi}} Charu cha Burundi ntchichoko chomene pa vyaru vyose vya mu Africa. Charu cha Burundi chili ku chigaŵa cha Albertine Rift, icho chili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa East African Rift. Charu ichi chili pakati pa Africa. Charu cha Burundi chili kumpoto na charu cha Rwanda, kumafumiro gha dazi na kumwera kwa Tanzania, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi na charu cha Democratic Republic of Congo. Chigaŵa ichi chili mu nkhorongo za Albertine Rift, Central Zambezian miombo, na Victoria Basin. Chigaŵa chapakati pa chigaŵa ichi chili pa mtunda wa mamita 1,707 (5,600 ft). Phiri la Heha ilo lili pachanya chomene lili pa mtunda wa mamita 2,685 ndipo lili kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa msumba ukuru wa Bujumbura. Mlonga wa Nile ukufuma mu chigaŵa cha Bururi, ndipo ukufuma mu Nyanja ya Victoria na kunjira mu mlonga wa Ruvyironza. Nyanja ya Victoria nayo njakuzirwa comene, ndipo yikunjira mu mlonga wa Kagera. Nyanja yinyake yikuru ni Nyanja ya Tanganyika, iyo yili kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Burundi. Pali malo ghaŵiri ghakusungirako vyamoyo: Kibira National Park kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi (chigaŵa chichoko cha nkhorongo, icho chili pafupi na Nyungwe Forest National Park mu Rwanda), na Ruvubu National Park kumpoto kwa kumafumiro gha dazi (kuyana na Mlonga wa Rurubu, uwo ukuchemekaso Ruvubu panji Ruvuvu). Vyose viŵiri vikaŵako mu 1982 kuti vivikilire vyamoyo..<ref name="autogenerated5">East, Rob (1999). ''African Antelope Database 1998''. [[Gland, Switzerland]]: [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]], p. 74. {{ISBN|2-8317-0477-4}}.</ref> ===Vyamoyo=== {{Main|Wildlife of Burundi}} == Chuma == {{Main|Economy of Burundi}} {{See also|List of companies based in Burundi}} [[File:GDP per capita development of Burundi.svg|thumb|Historical development of GDP per capita]] Charu cha Burundi chili kutali na nyanja ndipo chili na vyakurya vinandi yayi. Chuma chake ndi ulimi, chomwe chimapanga 50% ya GDP mu 2017 ndipo chimagwira ntchito zoposa 90% za anthu. Vyakurya ivyo vikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵajilamulire ŵekha vikupanga 90% ya vyakurya vyose.<ref name="autogenerated1">[[#Eggers|Eggers]], p. xlvii.</ref>Vinthu vikuru ivyo Burundi likuguliska ni khofi na tiyi, ivyo vikupanga ndalama zinandi pa caru cose. Vyakumera vinyake ni katoni, tiyi, mbuto, sorghum, mbatata, nthochi, manioc (tapioca); nyama ya ng'ombe, mkaka na vikumba. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuthemba chomene ulimi kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo, kweni ŵanandi ŵalije ndalama zakukwana. Ici nchifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakukura comene ndipo palije ndondomeko yakukolerana pa nkhani ya malo. Mu 2014, ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakagwiranga munda wakukwana ekala limoza. Charu cha Burundi nchimoza mwa vyaru vikavu comene pa caru capasi, cifukwa ca malo agho kulije maji, kusoŵa kwa masambiro, na kuthandazgika kwa HIV/AIDS. Pafupifupi 80% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu Burundi mbakavu. Mu Burundi mose mukaŵa njara na kusoŵa cakurya, comenecomene mu vilimika vya m'ma 1900, ndipo kuyana na Wupu wa vyakurya wa pa caru cose (World Food Programme), ŵana 56.8% awo ŵandakwaniske vyaka vinkhondi ŵakulwara nthenda ya kusoŵa cakurya. Ndalama izo charu cha Burundi chikupeleka ku vyakurya vinyake na ndalama izo chikupeleka ku vyakurya vinyake, vikuthemba pa nyengo iyo vinthu viliri pa charu chose kweniso mtengo wa khofi na tiyi.[[File:Tree map export 2009 Burundi.jpeg|thumb|alt=color chart of exports by value with percentages|Graphical depiction of Burundi's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories in 2009.]] Nkhongono zakugulira za ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Burundi zanangika cifukwa cakuti malipiro ghakwera comene yayi. Chifukwa cha ukavu uwo ukuŵako, charu cha Burundi chikulutilira kuthemba wovwiri wa vyaru viŵiri na vinandi. Wovwiri wa vyaru vinyake ndiwo ukupeleka ndalama zinandi chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa mu Burundi. Charu cha Burundi chikapokelera ndalama zakukwana madola 700 miliyoni kufuma ku wupu wa East African Community mu 2009. Vimbundi ivyo vikucitika mu boma vikutondeska kuti makampani ghaŵe na nchito yiwemi cifukwa malango ghakwenda makora. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu chaka cha 2007 walongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Burundi mbakukhorwa yayi na umoyo wawo.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>White, A. (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20161025102648/http://data360.org/pdf/20071219073602.A%20Global%20Projection%20of%20Subjective%20Well-being.pdf A Global Projection of Subjective Well-being: A Challenge to Positive Psychology?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025102648/http://data360.org/pdf/20071219073602.A%20Global%20Projection%20of%20Subjective%20Well-being.pdf |date=25 October 2016 }} Psychtalk 56, 17–20. Retrieved 8 June 2008.</ref>[[File:Burundi - Lake Tanganyika fisheries.jpg|thumb|alt=two sitting in skiff on beach on lakeshore with mountains in bckround|Fishermen on Lake Tanganyika.]] Vinthu vinyake ivyo vili mu charu ichi ni uranium, nickel, cobalt, mkuwa, na platinamu. Padera pa vyakurya, vyaru vinyake ni ivi: Kupanga vinthu vyakufuma ku vyaru vinyake; kuzenga vinthu vya boma; kupanga vyakurya na vinthu vinyake vyakudura nga ni mabulangete, skapato na sopo. Pa nkhani ya umanyi, charu cha Burundi chili pa malo ghaciŵiri kufuma pa ghaumaliro mu index ya World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI). Mu 2014, charu cha Burundi chikaŵa pa nambara 147. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusoŵa ndalama, comenecomene ku mizi uko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pera pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakukhala mu mizi iyi ndiwo ŵali na maakaunti ku banki, ndipo ŵalipo ŵachoko chomene pa ŵanthu aŵa. Ndipouli, ndalama zichoko waka zikovwira comene, pakuti ŵanthu 4 pa ŵanthu 100 wose mu Burundi ŵali mu mawupu gha ndalama zichoko waka. Vyaru ivi vikuthemba comene yayi pa wovwiri wa awo ŵakupeleka wovwiri. Charu cha Burundi chili mu wupu wa East African Community (EAC) ndipo chingaŵa chigaŵa cha wupu wa East African Federation. Vinthu vikwenda makora mu charu ichi, kweni charu ichi chikulutilira kunangika.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161226084746/http://www.worlddiplomacy.org/Countries/Burundi/InfoBuru.html Burundi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226084746/http://www.worlddiplomacy.org/Countries/Burundi/InfoBuru.html |date=26 December 2016 }}. Worlddiplomacy.org. Retrieved on 29 June 2015.</ref> === Ndalama === {{Main|Burundian franc}} Ndalama ya ku Burundi ni franc (ISO 4217 code BIF). Ndalama izi zikaŵa 100 centimes, kweni mu Burundi mukaŵavya ndalama za centimes. Ndondomeko ya ndalama yikulongozgeka na banki yikuru, Bank of the Republic of Burundi.{{Exchange Rate|BIF}} === Mayendelo === {{Main|Transport in Burundi}} [[File:BujumburaAirport.jpg|thumb|[[Bujumbura International Airport]] terminal in Bujumbura]] [[File:Truck and bicylists near Gitega, Burundi.jpg|thumb|left|alt=two bicyclists hold on to back of truck descending a hill|Bicycles are a popular means of transport in Burundi]] Mtundu wa kwendeska vinthu mu Burundi ngwakukwana yayi ndipo ulije nkhongono. Kuyana na lipoti la DHL Global Connectedness Index la 2012, charu cha Burundi ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa vyaru 140 ivyo vikalembeka. Malo gha ndege gha Bujumbura International Airport ndigho ghekha ghali na msewu wakwenda pa msewu ndipo kufuma mu Meyi 2017 ghakaŵa na ndege zinayi (Brussels Airlines, Ethiopian Airlines, Kenya Airways na RwandAir). Mzinda wa Kigali ndiwo uli na ndege zinandi zakuluta ku Bujumbura. Charu ichi chili na misewu yinandi, kweni mu 2005, misewu yinandi yayi mu charu ichi yikaŵa yakwenda pa msewu ndipo mu 2012, mabasi ghakwendera mabasi gha ŵanthu ŵekha ghakaŵa ghakwendeskeka na mabasi agho ghakalutanga ku Kigali. Bujumbura wakukolerana na boti la ŵanthu na katundu (la MV Mwongozo) na Kigoma mu Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldtravelguide.net/burundi/travel-by|title=Travel to Burundi|date=2017-04-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405013013/http://www.worldtravelguide.net/burundi/travel-by|access-date=2020-01-27|archive-date=5 April 2017}}</ref> Pali pulani ya nyengo yitali ya kwendera njanji na kuluta ku Kigali na ku Kampala na Kenya. == Ŵanthu == {{Largest cities | country = Burundi | stat_ref = Source:<ref name=BURUNDICITIES>{{cite web |url=https://simplemaps.com/static/data/country-cities/bi/bi.xlsx|archive-date=2023-06-23|title=Burundi Cities by Population}}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = | div_link = Provinces of Burundi{{!}}Province | city_1 = Bujumbura| div_1 = Bujumbura Mairie| pop_1 = 658,859| img_1 = BujumburaFromCathedral.jpg | city_2 = Gitega | div_2 = Gitega Province{{!}}Gitega | pop_2 = 135,467| img_2 = INSS_Gitega_n.jpg | city_3 = Ngozi, Burundi{{!}}Ngozi| div_3 = Ngozi Province{{!}}Ngozi| pop_3 = 39,884| img_3 =University of ngozi.jpg | city_4 = Rumonge | div_4 = Bururi Province{{!}}Bururi| pop_4 = 35,931 | img_4 = Météo de la ville.jpg | city_5 = Cibitoke | div_5 = Cibitoke Province{{!}}Cibitoke| pop_5 = 23,885 | city_6 = Kayanza| div_6 = Kayanza Province{{!}}Kayanza| pop_6 = 21,767 | city_7 = Bubanza| div_7 = Bubanza Province{{!}}Bubanza | pop_7 = 20,031 | city_8 = Karuzi| div_8 = Karuzi Province{{!}}Karuzi | pop_8 = 10,705 | city_9 = Kirundo| div_9 = Kirundo Province{{!}}Kirundo| pop_9 = 10,024 | city_10 = Muyinga| div_10 = Muyinga Province{{!}}Muyinga| pop_10 = 9,609 }} [[File:Burundi tradition.jpg|thumb|left|Men in colourful clothing with drums]] [[File:Children in Bujumbura.jpg|thumb|alt=three children looking directly at camera|Children in Bujumbura, Burundi]] {{Main|Demographics of Burundi|Languages of Burundi}} Kufumila mu Okutobala 2021, chalo cha Burundi chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 12,346,893, apo mu 1950 ŵakaŵa 2,456,000. Ŵanthu ŵakusazgikira pa caru cose pa ciŵelengero ca 2.5 peresenti pa caka, ndipo ici nchiŵelengero ico nchiŵiri kuluska ca pa caru cose. Mu 2021, charu cha Burundi ndicho chikaŵa pa nambara 10 pa vyaru vyose pa nkhani ya kubaba. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Burundi ŵali kusamira ku vyaru vinyake cifukwa ca nkhondo. Mu 2006, boma la United States likapokelera ŵanthu 10,000 ŵakufuma ku Burundi. Charu cha Burundi chikulutilira kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala ku mizi. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa ivi chikukwana 315 pa kilomita yimoza. Pafupifupi ŵanthu 85 pa 100 ŵali na fuko la Hutu, 15 pa 100 ŵali na fuko la Tutsi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa 100 ŵali na fuko la Twa. Viyowoyero vya boma mu Burundi ni Chikirundi, Cifurenci, na Cingelezi. Mu 2014, chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi ndicho chikaŵa chiyowoyero cha boma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Cikirundi, ndipo pacoko waka 10 peresenti ŵakuyowoya Cifurenci.<ref>[https://observatoire.francophonie.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Rapport-La-langue-francaise-dans-le-monde_VF-2022.pdf La langue française dans le monde] (2022)</ref> ===Chisopo=== {{Main|Religion in Burundi}} Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya kuti Ŵakhristu ŵalipo 80 panji 90 peresenti. Ŵaprotesitanti na ŵa Anglican ndiwo ŵakukhalapo 15-25%. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 5 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakulondezga visambizgo vya chisopa. Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 2~5%, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba Sunni ndipo ŵakukhala mu misumba.<ref name="cia"/><ref name="pew">[https://web.archive.org/web/20171204222921/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/burundi/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Burundi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204222921/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/burundi/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010|date=4 December 2017}}. [[Pew Research Center]]. 2010.</ref><ref name="state2010">[https://web.archive.org/web/20101123105533/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148667.htm Burundi] . U.S. Department of State. State.gov (17 November 2010). Retrieved on 24 November 2012.</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{Main|Health in Burundi}} Mu vyaru vyose 120 ivyo vili na njala pa caru cose, mu Burundi ndimo muli njara yikuru comene. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikacitika mu 1962, yikatimbanizga nthowa za munkhwala mu caru ici. Mu 2015, ku Burundi kukaŵaso vivulupi vinandi, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupokera wovwiri wa munkhwala. Nga ni vyaru vinyake vya ku Africa, Burundi nayo wakugwiliskira ntchito munkhwala wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, boma la Burundi likapempha Wupu wa United Nations Development Program kuti uŵawovwire kuti ŵanozge nthowa zakwendeskera ndopa na kwamba kafukufuku wa munkhwala wakufuma ku vyakumera. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, wupu wa Burundi Association of Traditional Practitioners (ATRADIBU) ukapangika, uwo ukakolerana na wupu wa boma kuti uŵike wupu wa Centre for Research and Promotion of Traditional Medicine in Burundi (CRPMT).<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title=Indigenous medicine and biomedical health care in fragile settings: insights from Burundi|last1=Falisse|first1=Jean-Benoit|last2=Masino|first2=Serena|last3=Ngenzebuhoro|first3=Raymond|s2cid=4917618|journal=Health Policy and Planning|year=2018|volume=33|issue=4|pages=483–493|doi=10.1093/heapol/czy002|pmid=29452365|doi-access=free}}</ref> Wovwiri wa vyaru vinandi wawovwira kuti vipatala viwovwire ŵanthu mu Burundi. Ndipouli, ŵanthu awo ŵakovwira ŵanthu ku vyaru vinyake ŵakukana kugwiliskira nchito munkhwala wa ku Burundi. Mu 2015, mwana yumoza pa ŵana 10 ŵaliwose ku Burundi wakafwanga pambere wandakwaniske vyaka 5 chifukwa cha matenda agho ŵanthu ŵangaghagwentha na kuchizga. Nkhondo iyo yikucitika sono mu Burundi yikutondeska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵasange munkhwala na vinthu vinyake vya mu cipatala. Ku Burundi, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 60.1 mu 2015. Mu 2013, caru ca Burundi cikagwiliskira nchito 8% ya GDP yawo pa vya cipatala. Nangauli mu Burundi mwanakazi waliyose wakubaba ŵana 6,1, kweni pa ŵanakazi 1,000 awo ŵakubabika ŵakufwa 61.9. Wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose (WHO) ukuti ŵanthu mu caru ici ŵakukhala vyaka 58 panji 62. Matenda agho ghakuzara comene mu Burundi ni maleriya na typhoid fever.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Burundi |url=http://proxy.library.upenn.edu:2083/ps/i.do?p=SUIC&u=upenn_main&id=GALE&#124;CX3652100082&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon |website=Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> == Mwambo == [[File:Gitega drums.JPG|thumb|right|alt=four drums in courtyard|Drums from [[Gitega]].]] {{Main|Culture of Burundi|Tourism in Burundi|Music of Burundi}} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Burundi ŵakutemwa mitheto ya uko ŵakukhala kweniso ŵakulondezga mitheto ya vyaru vinyake. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Burundi ŵakutemwa kulima, chakurya chawo ni mbuto, mpunga, na phere. Cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi, nyama yikulyeka kamoza pera pa mwezi. Para ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Burundi ŵakukumana pa chiphikiro, ŵakumwa pamoza mpeke, panji moŵa, kufuma mu chiŵiya chikuru kuti ŵalongore umoza. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Burundi ni Mohammed Tchité uyo wakuseŵera bola na Jean-Pierre Nimbona, uyo wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Kidumu (uyo wakukhala ku Nairobi, Kenya). Ku Burundi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kupanga vinthu vya mawoko. Ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakutemwa chomene kuluka viŵiya. Vinthu vinyake nga ni visalu, visalu, vithuzithuzi, na viŵiya vya dongo vikupangika mu Burundi. Kulizga tung'oma nkhwakuzirwa comene mu mitheto ya ŵanthu. Gulu la Royal Drummers of Burundi, ilo ndakumanyikwa pa caru cose, ndipo lakhala likucita maseŵero agha kwa vilimika vyakujumpha 40, likucemeka na sumu za karyenda, amashako, ibishikiso na ikiranya. Kaŵirikaŵiri kuvina kukulongozgana na kuvina kwa viŵiya, uko kukuwoneka kanandi pa viphikiro na pa maungano gha mbumba. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Burundi ŵakutemwa kuvina kwa abatimbo, uko kukucitikira pa viphikiro vya boma. Vyakwimbira vinyake ivyo vikumanyikwa ni vyakwimbira nga ni sefuleti, sitara, ikembe, indonongo, umuduri, inanga, na inyagara.<ref name="r1">{{cite web |title=Burundi Arts and Literature |url=http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/burundi/arts.html |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001220348/http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/burundi/arts.html |archive-date=1 October 2006 |access-date=21 July 2008}} Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved 30 June 2008.</ref>[[File:Le Match.jpg|thumb|left|alt=five men playing football one red and black striped jersey and four in yellow jersey|Football in Burundi]] Ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵakutemwa comene kuyowoya nkhani za kale na kusambizga ŵanthu vinthu vyakuzirwa. Imigani, indirimbo, amazina na ivyivugo ni mabuku gha mu Burundi. Maseŵera gha basketball na track and field ngakumanyikwa comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa maseŵero agha. Mu tawuni iyi muli magulu ghaŵiri ghakurughakuru gha maseŵero gha judo. Mu caru cose ici, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha bola. Maholide ghanandi gha Cikristu ghakukondwelereka, ndipo Khisimasi ndiyo yikuru comene. Zuŵa la wanangwa wa Burundi likukondwelereka chaka chilichose pa 1 Julayi. Mu 2005, boma la Burundi likati Eid al-Fitr, ni holide ya Chisilamu.<ref name="Burundi celebrates Muslim holiday">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4402974.stm Burundi celebrates Muslim holiday] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617204223/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4402974.stm|date=17 June 2017}}. [[BBC]]. 3 November 2005. Retrieved on 30 June 2008.</ref> ===Media=== {{see also|Mass media in Burundi}} ===Masambilo=== {{Update section|date=June 2018}} [[File:Carolus Magnus Schule-Burundi.jpg|thumb|alt=group of children at school in white shirt and khaki shorts uniforms|Carolus Magnus School in Burundi. The school benefits from the campaign "Your Day for Africa" by Aktion Tagwerk.]] {{Main|Education in Burundi}} Mu 2009, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba mu Burundi chikaŵa 67% (73% ŵanalume na 61% ŵanakazi), ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 24 chikaŵa 77% na 76%. Mu 2015, chiŵelengero ichi chikakwera kufika pa 85.6% (88.2% ŵanalume na 83.1% ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en|title=Education|last=UIS|website=data.uis.unesco.org|access-date=22 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905185501/http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en|archive-date=5 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>Kufuma mu 2002, ŵanakazi ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ŵakukwera na 17%. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba mu Burundi ntchichoko chomene chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusangika yayi ku sukulu. Kweniso ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba mu Chikirundi ŵakusangika waka mu mabuku gha chiyowoyero ichi. Ŵanyamata 10 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Burundi ŵakuzomerezgeka kusambira masambiro gha ku sekondare. Ku Burundi kuli yunivesite yimoza ya boma, yunivesite ya Burundi. Mu misumba iyi muli malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale nga ni Burundi Geological Museum mu Bujumbura, Burundi National Museum, na Burundi Museum of Life mu Gitega. Mu 2010, ku Rwoga, Canada, kukajulika sukulu ya pulayimale iyo yikazengeka na ŵana ŵa ku Westwood High School. Kufumira mu chaka cha 2018, charu cha Burundi chikagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakuyana na 5.1% ya GDP yake pa masambiro.<ref name="Kingiri & Onana 2021">{{cite book |author1=Njoki Kingiri |author2=Awono Onana |editor1-last=Schneegans |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Straza |editor2-first=T. |editor3-last=Lewis |editor3-first=J. |title=Central and East Africa. In UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development. |date=11 June 2021 |publisher=UNESCO |location=Paris |isbn=978-92-3-100450-6 |pages=496–533 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000377433}}</ref> ===Sayansi=== Ndondomeko ya ku Burundi ya sayansi, matekinoloje, kafukufuku na vyakupanga vinthu vinyake (2013) yikulongosora vya vyakurya; sayansi ya munkhwala; nkhongono, migodi na mendero; maji; kuzgoka mapopa; sayansi ya vyamoyo na ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake; sayansi ya vinthu; injiniya na mafakitale; ICT; sayansi ya mlengalenga; masamu; na sayansi ya umoyo wa ŵanthu. Pa nkhani ya sayansi ya vinthu, mabuku gha mu Burundi ghakajumphapo kaŵiri kufuma pa 0.6 kufika pa 1.2 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni pakati pa 2012 na 2019, ndipo charu ichi chili pakati pa vyaru 15 vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara. Ŵasayansi ŵa vya munkhwala ndiwo ŵakwendeskanga chomene kafukufuku: mu 2018, ŵasayansi ŵa vya munkhwala ŵakaŵa na 4%, kweni pakati pa 2011 na 2019, ŵakalemba mabuku 41%. Ndondomeko ya sayansi, matekinoloje, kafukufuku na vyakusintha (2013) yikulaŵiska comene pa kupanga ndondomeko na vinthu vyakwendeskera vinthu, kukhozga kukolerana mu vyaru na vyaru vinyake, na kuŵika sayansi mu umoyo wa ŵanthu. Mu Okutobala 2014, ofesi ya EAC yikati National Institute of Public Health ni malo ghakutowa chomene. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Burundi ŵali kulembapo nkhani zinkhondi na ziŵiri pa nkhani ya HIV na matenda ghakututuka gha mu vyaru vya muhanya uno. Ndondomeko iyi yikulaŵiskaso comene pa kusambizga ŵasayansi. Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakagwira ntchito iyi kufuma pa 40 kufika pa 55 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni pakati pa 2011 na 2018. Ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakugwiliskira ntchito pakusanda vinthu zikukwera kufuma pa $14,310 (kuyana na ivyo vikachitika mu 2005) kufika pa $22,480, pakuti kufuma mu 2012, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka pakusanda vinthu mu vyaru vinyake zikukwera kufuma pa 0.11% kufika pa 0.21% ya GDP. Kufuma mu 2011, caru ca Burundi cacita vinandi comene pa nkhani ya sayansi, kweni cakukwana yayi kufuma apo ŵakazomerezgera vilato vyawo mu 2015. Ku Burundi kuli mabuku gha sayansi 6 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni. Pafupifupi 97.5% ya zofalitsa zinaphatikizira olemba achilendo pakati pa 2017 ndi 2019, ndipo a Uganda ali pakati pa othandizira asanu.<ref name="Kingiri & Onana 2021"/> == Wonaniso == {{portal|Burundi}} * [[Outline of Burundi]] * [[Index of Burundi-related articles]] * [[Wildlife of Burundi]] * [[National Defence Force (Burundi)]] * <!-- [[Bibliography of Burundi]] --> * <!-- {{wikipedia books link|Burundi}} --> {{clear}} == Vinyake == {{Notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} == Mabuku == {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=Eggers|last = Eggers|first = Ellen K. |title = Historical Dictionary of Burundi|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000egge|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year = 2006|location = Lanham, Maryland|isbn = 0-8108-5302-7|edition= 3rd}} *{{cite book|ref=Lemarchand1996|author=Lemarchand, Rene |title=Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3d_r13a3IgMC&pg=PR17|date=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56623-0}} {{Refend}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{refbegin}} * Abdallah, Ahmedou Ould ''Burundi on the Brink, 1993–95: A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy'' * {{cite book |author =Allen, J. A. |title=Africa South of the Sahara 2004: South of the Sahara |url =https://archive.org/details/africasouthofsah0000unse_y7v6 |publisher=Taylor and Francis Group|year = 2003|location = New York, New York |isbn = 1-85743-183-9 |display-authors=etal}} * Bentley, Kristina and Southall, Roger ''An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa, and Burundi'' * Chrétien, Jean-Pierre ''The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History'' * [[Patricia Daley|Daley, Patricia]] ''Gender and Genocide in Burundi: The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region'' * {{cite book |last = Gates |first = Henry Lewis |author2 = Anthony Appiah |title = Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |publisher = Basic Civitas Books |year = 1999 |location = New York, New York |isbn = 0-465-00071-1 |url = https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi }} * Ewusi, Kale and Akwanga, Ebenezer ''Burundi's Negative Peace: The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad'' * Jennings, Christian ''Across the Red River: Rwanda, Burundi and the Heart of Darkness'' * Kayoya, Michel ''My Father's Footsteps'' (''Sur les traces de mon père'') East African Publishing House, 1973 * Kayoya, Michel ''Entre deux mondes'' (Between two worlds) Lavigerie Éditeurs, Bujumbura: 1971. Kayoya was murdered during the 1972 genocide. * Kidder, Tracy, ''Strength in What Remains'' (A biography of a Burundian immigrant to the US) * {{cite book |last =Krueger |first =Robert |author2=Kathleen Tobin Krueger |title=From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years during Genocide |url =https://archive.org/details/frombloodshedtoh0000krue |publisher=University of Texas Press|year = 2007|location = Austin, Texas|isbn = 978-0-292-71486-1}} * Melady, Thomas Patrick ''Burundi: The Tragic Years'' * Nivonzima, David and Fendell, Len ''Unlocking Horns: Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi'' * Uvin, Peter ''Life After Violence: A People's Story of Burundi'' * Watt, Nigel '' Burundi: The Biography of a Small African Country'' * {{cite book |last = Weinstein|first = Warren |title = Historical Dictionary of Burundi|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year = 2006|location = Metuchen, New Jersey|isbn = 0-8108-0962-1}} 1st. edition. {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Burundi|Burundi}} {{Scholia|country}} * Records of [https://web.archive.org/web/20230808155412/https://search.archives.un.org/united-nations-international-commission-of-inquiry-for-burundi-unicib-1995-1996 the United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (UNICIB) (1995–1996)] at the United Nations Archives *{{in lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20180420053748/http://www.burundi.gov.bi/ Official Burundi government website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420053748/http://www.burundi.gov.bi/ |date=20 April 2018 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121204213713/http://justice.gov.bi/ Official Website of the Ministry of Justice of Burundi] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110813050117/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-b/burundi.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210122232849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ Burundi]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090523153822/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/burundi.htm Burundi] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Burundi}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13085064 Burundi] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas|Burundi}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BI Key Development Forecasts for Burundi] from [[International Futures]] {{Burundi topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{African Union}} {{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} {{Former German colonies}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|3|30|S|30|00|E|type:country_region:BI|display=title}} [[Category:Burundi| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1962]] [[Category:Swahili-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:1962 establishments in Burundi]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former monarchies]] cs8mfdotl8nxoe0ltvlvhwg4z0hz0cp 0 39923 122357 118636 2026-09-25T01:39:24Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 3 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122357 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|South African history}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}} {{History of South Africa}} {{Culture of South Africa}} {{SouthAfrica state}} {{Infobox flag | Name = Republic of South Africa | Article = | Image = Flag of South Africa.svg | Nickname = | Morenicks = | Use = 110110 | Symbol = | Proportion = | Design = The flag of Republic of South Africa was adopted on 26 April 1994. It replaced the flag that had been used since 1928, and was chosen to represent multiculturalism and ethnic diversity in the country's new, post-apartheid democratic society. | Designer = }} Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakamba kukhala ku [[South Africa]] vyaka vyakujumpha 100,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mbiri yakale ya charu cha South Africa yili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: nyengo ya malibwe na nyengo ya visulo. Viŵaro vya viŵeto vya [[Australopithecine]] vikusangika ku Taung na mu mphanji za malibwe gha malibwe gha limestone ku Sterkfontein, Swartkrans na Kromdraai. Mu 1999, wupu wa Unesco ukati malo agha ntchiharo cha pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/History#ref1003524 |title=South Africa - History |publisher=Britannica |date=2020-10-11 |access-date=2020-10-18}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku South Africa ŵakaŵa Khoisan, Khoekhoe, na San. Kufuma waka mu 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakafuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi na vyapakati ku Africa ŵakamba kusama. Ŵanyake ŵakakhalanga kwaŵekha, kweni ŵanyake ŵakaŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yiŵiri panji kujumpha apa: Khoisan, Bantu, English, Afrikaners, Austronesians, East Asians na South Asians. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kusanda mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Africa mu ma 1300. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1500, ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ŵakenda mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ŵakalemba na kupanga mapu gha mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mu 1488, ŵakazingilira Cape of Good Hope. Mu 1652, kampani ya Dutch East India Company yikakhazikiska malo gha malonda mu tawuni ya Cape Town pasi pa muwuso wa Jan van Riebeeck. Ŵantchito ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhazikika mu tawuni iyi ŵakamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti Free Burghers. Pamanyuma pakuti ŵa ku Britain ŵanjira mu charu cha Cape Colony mu 1795 na 1806, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira mu vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geskiedenis.sariemarais.com/groot%20trek.html |title=Sarie Marais.Com Geskiedenis |publisher=Geskiedenis.sariemarais.com |access-date=2020-10-18 |archive-date=28 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628124326/http://www.geskiedenis.sariemarais.com/groot%20trek.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>Vinthu ivyo vikasangika mu chigaŵa ichi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 vikawovwira kuti chigaŵa ichi chiŵe pa malo ghapacanya pa caru cose. Kweniso vinthu ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer na Ufumu wa Britain. Pamanyuma pa kutondeka kwa ma Boers mu Nkhondo ya Anglo-Boer panji South African War (1899-1902), Union of South Africa yikapangika nga ni boma la Britain pa 31 May 1910 mu ndondomeko ya South Africa Act 1909, iyo yikasazga maboma ghanayi gha Britain: Cape Colony, Colony of Natal, Transvaal Colony, na Orange River Colony. Mu 1934, charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Britain. Ufumu wa ufumu uwu ukamara pa 31 May 1961, ndipo ukasinthika na boma la republic. Kwamba mu 1948 mpaka mu 1994, ndyali za ku South Africa zikayendeskeka na mtundu wa Afrikaner. Mu 1948, boma likakhazikiska vyakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana na mitundu yinyake ŵachitenge vinthu mwakupambana. Pa Epulero 27, 1994, pamanyuma pa vilimika vinandi vya kulimbana, kulimbana na ŵasilikari, na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose awo ŵakasuskanga apartheid, chipani chakwamba cha ŵanthu ŵafipa, African National Congress (ANC) chikathereska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose pa chisankho chakwamba cha demokilase mu charu ichi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, African National Congress ndiyo yikulongozga charu cha South Africa, pamoza na South African Communist Party na Congress of South African Trade Unions. == Mbiri yakwambilira (pambere 1652) == {{Main|Early history of South Africa}} === Nkhani za mu nyengo yakale === {{see|People of Africa}} Ŵasayansi awo ŵakufufuza ivyo vikachitika pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kulemba mbiri yawo, ŵamanya kuti charu icho sono chikuchemeka South Africa chikaŵa pakati pa malo agho ŵanthu ŵakasambira. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako vyaka 2.5 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha vyaka pafupifupi 125,000 ivyo vyajumpha mu nyengo ya malibwe, nga umo vikulongosorekera na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga mu mphanji za mu mlonga wa Klasies. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa DNA awo ŵakafuma ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kumwera kwa Africa kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu, awo ŵakafuma ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pulofesa Raymond Dart wakabowozga chiwangwa cha mwana munyake wa vyaka 2.51 mu 1924, uyo wakaŵa wakwamba kusanga Australopithecus africanus. Mu 1938, Robert Broom wakasanga hominid munyake wakukhora chomene, zina lake Paranthropus robustus, ku Kromdraai, ndipo mu 1947, wakasanga vinyama vinyake vya Australopithecus africanus ku Sterkfontein. Mu 2002, ku mphanji ya Blombos, ŵakasanga malibwe agho ghakaŵa na vithuzithuzi vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikalembeka vyaka 70,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ici cikulongosoreka kuti nchakuwonerapo cakwambilira ca luso lwakupatulika panji luso lwaciyelezgelo ilo likaŵako na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1753326.stm | work=BBC News | title='Oldest' prehistoric art unearthed | date=10 January 2002}}</ref> Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vyamoyo vinyake vinandi vya mtundu uwu vyawoneka. Cinyake ico nchakale comene ni Little Foot, cinthu ca viwangwa vya malundi vya munthu uyo wali na vyaka vyapakati pa 2.2 na 3.3 miliyoni. Clarke. - Kasi? Cinyake ico ŵakasanga ni Australopithecus sediba uyo wali na vyaka 1.9 miliyoni. Mu 2015, ŵanthu ŵakamanya kuti kuli mtundu unyake wa Homo naledi uwo ukasangika kufupi na Johannesburg. Ŵanji ŵakuti ni cinthu cakuzirwa comene ico ŵasayansi ŵasanga mazuŵa ghano.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150912185149/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150910-homo-naledi-human-ancestor-species-reaction-science/ ''National Geographic'', "New Human Ancestor Elicits Awe—and Many Questions"], 10 September 2015. Accessed 20 September 2015</ref> ===San na Khoikhoi=== Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalako mu nyengo iyi ŵakamanyikwanga kuti mba fuko la San na Khoikhoi. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakucemeka Khoisan, zina ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakulemba kufuma ku mazina gha mafuko agha. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Africa ndiwo ŵakamba kupatukana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens awo ŵalipo sono. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakumanya kuti ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto cha kumwera kwa Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Chen YS, Olckers A, Schurr TG, Kogelnik AM, Huoponen K, Wallace DC |title= mtDNA variation in the South African Kung and Khwe, and their genetic relationships to other African populations|doi=10.1086/302848|year=2000|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=66|issue=4|pages=1362–83|pmid=10739760|pmc=1288201}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= History of click-speaking populations of Africa inferred from mtDNA and Y chromosome genetic variation|pmid= 17656633|url= http://www.africandna.com/ScienPapers%5CHistory_of_Click-Speaking_Populations_of_Africa.pdf|year= 2007|last1= Tishkoff|first1= SA|last2= Gonder|first2= MK|last3= Henn|first3= BM|last4= Mortensen|first4= H|last5= Knight|first5= A|last6= Gignoux|first6= C|last7= Fernandopulle|first7= N|last8= Lema|first8= G|last9= Nyambo|first9= TB|last10= Ramakrishnan|first10= U.|last11= Reed|first11= F. A.|last12= Mountain|first12= J. L.|volume= 24|issue= 10|pages= 2180–95|doi= 10.1093/molbev/msm155|journal= Molecular Biology and Evolution|display-authors= 8|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110420053808/http://www.africandna.com/ScienPapers%5CHistory_of_Click-Speaking_Populations_of_Africa.pdf|archive-date= 20 April 2011|df= dmy-all|doi-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Schlebusch CM, Naidoo T, Soodyall H |title=SNaPshot minisequencing to resolve mitochondrial macro-haplogroups found in Africa|doi=10.1002/elps.200900197|year=2009|journal=Electrophoresis|volume=30|issue=21|pages=3657–64|pmid=19810027|s2cid=19515426}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San na Khoikhoi ŵakupambana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake chifukwa cha ntchito izo ŵakuchita. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San ŵakakhalanga mu mizi, kweni Khoikhoi ŵakaliskanga viŵeto. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakumanya yayi uko ŵakafuma.<ref>Karim Sadr, [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120051616/http://www.karimsadr.com/resources/Sadr%202008%20SAH.pdf ''Invisible Herders: The Archaeology of Khoekhoe Pastoralists,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120051616/http://www.karimsadr.com/resources/Sadr%202008%20SAH.pdf|date=20 November 2015}} [[University of the Witwatersrand|University of Witwatersrand]], South Africa</ref><ref>C. Garth Sampson, [https://web.archive.org/web/20200124165250/http://www.nieu-bethesda.com/images/stories/history/prehistoricherders.pdf ''Prehistoric Livestock Herders in the Upper Seacow River Valley'']{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga mu malo agha vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha vyaka pafupifupi 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1600, ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa ku Europe kufika ku Cape, ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku England na ku Netherlands awo ŵakendanga pa nyanja, ŵakamba kusinthiska visulo na ng'ombe na mberere. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti cifukwa cakuti pakaŵa viŵeto vinandi, mu ma 1700, kampani ya Dutch East India Company yikakhazikiska malo agho sono ni msumba wa Cape Town. Mu 1652, kampani ya Dutch East India Company yikati yakhazikiska malo agha, Khoikhoi ŵakamba kulimbana na Ŵachidachi pa nkhani ya malo. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kwiba ng'ombe na kwiba viŵeto. Nkhondo yakwamba ya Khoikhoi na Dutch yikacitika mu 1659, yachiŵiri mu 1673, ndipo yacitatu mu 1674 na 1677. Pa nyengo iyo ŵakathereskekera na kuchimbizgika ku Cape Peninsula na vigaŵa vyakuzingilizga, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakakomeka na nthenda ya nthomba iyo yikamba kwiza na ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands.<ref>SA History Online, [http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/smallpox-epidemic-strikes-cape Smallpox epidemic strikes Cape]</ref> === Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu === {{Main|Bantu peoples of South Africa}} [[File:Makuleke1.JPG|thumb|Nkhulaŵiska mu malo agho mukaŵa maji ghanandi gha Mlonga wa Luvuvhu (kumalyero) na Mlonga wa Limpopo (kutali na kumazere)]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kusama mu charu cha Africa.<ref>''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20110416143255/http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/7/1581.abstract "Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages"] (Abstract). Oxford Journals. 30 March 2009. Accessed 11 July 2015</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu ŵakafika kumwera kwa Africa kufuma ku Congo cha m'ma 400 B.C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakiza mu chigaŵa cha Khoikhoi, ndipo ŵakachichizga ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi kuti ŵasamire ku malo ghakomira. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali kufuma ku mitundu ya Nguni (Ŵazulu, Ŵachixhosa, Ŵaswazi, na Ŵandebele) ŵakakhalanga kufupi na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu icho sono chikuchemeka South Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Queen Victoria's Enemies 1: Southern Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/queenvictoriasen02knig|url-access=limited|last=Knight|first=Ian|publisher=Osprey|year=1989|isbn=085045901X|editor-last=Windrow|editor-first=Martin|location=Great Britain|pages=[https://archive.org/details/queenvictoriasen02knig/page/n3 3]–4}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo sono ŵakuchemeka Ŵasotho na Ŵatswana (Ŵatswana, Ŵapedi, na Ŵasotho) ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Highveld, apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Venda, Lemba, na Tsonga ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa charu cha South Africa. Ufumu wa Mapungubwe, uwo ukaŵa kufupi na mphaka ya kumpoto kwa charu cha South Africa, apo milonga ya Limpopo na Shashe yikukumana na Zimbabwe na Botswana, ukaŵa ufumu wakwamba wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ku Southern Africa pakati pa AD 900 na 1300. Ufumu uwu ndiwo ukaŵa ukuru comene pa caru cose pambere ukanalekeka cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nyengo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400. Ŵakuzenga ŵakacitanga vinthu vyachisulo, mkuŵa, na golide kuti ŵajitozgere pakukongozga na malonda. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa malonda agho ghakachitikanga mu vipata vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, ku Arabia, India na China, kweniso kumwera kwa Africa, ndipo ukaŵa usambazi chifukwa cha kusinthana golide na njovu na vinthu vinyake nga ni vyakununkhira vya ku China na malibwe gha ku Persia. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu na chiyowoyero cha Khoisan ŵakamanyanga yayi umo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakenderananga, nangauli pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakolerana na chiyowoyero chawo. === Kuwusa kwa chikoloni === ==== Ntchito ya Portugal ==== {{See also|Portugal in the Age of Discovery|Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India|l2=Discovery of the sea route to India|Bartolomeu Dias|Vasco da Gama|Portuguese Empire}} [[File:Bartolomeu Dias, South Africa House (cut).JPG|thumb|right|Cikozgo ca Bartolomeu Dias pa ofesi ya South Africa ku London. Wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kuzingilira kumwera kwa Africa.]] Munthu munyake wa ku Portugal, zina lake Bartolomeu Dias, ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kusanda mumphepete mwa nyanja ya South Africa mu 1488, apo wakakhumbanga kusanga nthowa yakwendera ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu Novembala 1497, ngalaŵa za ku Portugal, izo vikalongozgekanga na Vasco da Gama, zikenda pa mtunda wa mtunda utali chomene. Pa Disembala 16, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakajumpha mu Mlonga wa Great Fish mumphepete mwa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa South Africa, uko Dias wakawerako. Da Gama wakathya nyanja iyo wakajumphangapo kuti Natal, kung'anamura Khisimasi. Ngalaŵa ya Da Gama yikalutanga kumpoto ku Zanzibar ndipo pamanyuma yikafika kumafumiro gha dazi.<ref>Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, ''Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration'', New York: Norton 2006, pp. 177–178.{{ISBN|0-393-06259-7}}</ref> Many Portuguese words are still found along the coast of South Africa including Saldanha, Algoa, Natal, Agulhas, Benguela and Lucia. ==== Ntchito ya Netherlands ==== {{See also|:Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery|l1=Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery|:Category:Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company|l2=Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company|Dutch East India Company|l3=Dutch East India Company (VOC)|First Dutch Expedition to Indonesia|Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia|Brouwer Route|Jan Huyghen van Linschoten}} [[File:Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie spiegelretourschip Amsterdam replica.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Chithuzi cha munthu waku East India wa Dutch East India Company/United East Indies Company (VOC). Gulu la Dutch East India Company ndilo likawovwira chomene pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakasandanga vinthu (cha m'ma 1590 m'paka 1720) kweniso pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakalembanga mapu (cha m'ma 1570 m'paka 1670).]] ==Chikoloni cha Dutch (1652–1815)== {{Main|Dutch Cape Colony}} {{See also|History of South Africa (1652–1815)|Economic history of South Africa|Military history of South Africa|Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars|Dutch Empire|7=:Category:Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company|l7=Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company|8=:Category:Military history of the Dutch East India Company|l8=Military history of the Dutch East India Company|9=:Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery|l9=Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery}} {{See also|History of Cape Town|Stellenbosch|Swellendam|Graaff-Reinet|Franschhoek|Huguenots in South Africa|Cape Dutch|Dorsland Trek|Afrikaner nationalism|Christianity in South Africa|Afrikaner Calvinism|Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa|Cape Dutch architecture|Roman-Dutch law|South African wine}} [[File:Aernout Smit Table Bay, 1683 William Fehr Collection Cape Town.jpg|thumb|right|Kuwona Table Bay na sitima za Dutch East India Company (VOC), c. 1683.]] [[File:Jan van Riebeeck.jpg|thumb|right|Jan van Riebeeck, Mulara wakwamba wa Dutch East India Company]] [[File:Vignoble de Groot Constantia Afrique du Sud.jpg|thumb|right|Groot Constantia ndiyo ni malo ghakale comene ghakusungirako mpheska ku South Africa. Vinyo wa ku South Africa (wa vinyo wa mu caru ciphya) ni cinthu cinyake cakuzirwa comene ico ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo ya VOC ŵakaleka. Mbiri ya vyachuma ya South Africa yikamba mu nyengo ya VOC.]] Mu 1652, kampani ya Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, panji VOC) yikadumura kuti yikhazikiske malo ghakukhazikika ku Cape. VOC, yimoza mwa vyaru vikuruvikuru vya ku Europe ivyo vikendanga mu nthowa ya vyakununkhira, yikaŵa na khumbo la kuzenga malo agha yayi. Pa chifukwa ichi, gulu lichoko waka la VOC ilo likalongozgekanga na Jan van Riebeeck likafika ku Table Bay pa 6 Epulero 1652. Ŵasilikari ŵa VOC ŵakakhalanga ku Cape kuti ŵapeleke vyakurya ku ngaraŵa zawo. Cape na VOC ŵakeneranga kukora ŵalimi ŵa ku Netherlands kuti ŵakhazikiske minda iyo yikapelekanga vyakurya ku ngaraŵa izo zikendanga pafupi na malo agha. Gulu lichoko waka la ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha, likakura comene ndipo ŵakamba kusanuzga minda yawo kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari na ŵalimi ŵa VOC awo ŵakatondeka kuwelera ku Holland apo ŵakamalizganga nchito yawo. Wupu wa VOC ukatozgaso ŵazga 71,000 kufuma ku India, Indonesia, East Africa, Mauritius, na Madagascar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/africa/south-africa/articles/the-untold-stories-of-slavery-at-cape-towns-iziko-slave-lodge/|title=The Untold Stories of Slavery at Cape Town's Iziko Slave Lodge|last=Collinson|first=Lee-Shay|date=9 February 2017|website=Culture Trip}}</ref>[[File:Jan Van Riebeeck Statue Cape Town.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Statue of Jan van Riebeeck|statue]] of [[Jan van Riebeeck]], the founder of [[Cape Town]], in Heerengracht Street.]] [[File:Cape Town, Castle of Good Hope - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|Castle of Good Hope (Kasteel de Goede Hoop mu ChiDutch), Cape Town. Msumba wa Kaapstad/Cape Town ukazengeka mu 1652.]] Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa tchalitchi la Dutch Reformed Church, kweni pakaŵaso Ŵachijeremani ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵa ŵa tchalitchi la Lutheran. Mu 1688, Ŵachidachi na Ŵachijeremani ŵakalongozgana na Ŵaguenot ŵa ku France, Ŵaprotesitanti ŵa chisopa cha Calvin awo ŵakacimbiranga nthambuzgo za cisopa mu France mu nyengo ya Fumu ya Katolika, Fumu Louis XIV. Van Riebeeck wakawonanga kuti ntchiheni chomene kugwiliskira ntchito ŵazga awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya Khoi na San, ntheura VOC yikamba kutolera ŵazga ŵanandi chomene kufuma ku vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Indonesia. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, van Riebeeck na VOC ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi na San. Ŵana awo ŵakababika pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands na ŵazga ŵa ku Khoi-San na ku Malaŵi ŵakachemekanga kuti Cape Coloureds na Cape Malays. Ŵanandi awo ŵakababika na ŵazga aŵa ŵakazgoka ŵazungu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakuchemeka kuti "ŵatuŵa" ŵali kufuma ku mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo ŵakamba kukhala ku Cape pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe na ŵazga ŵa ku Asia na ku Africa. Simon van der Stel, kazembe wakwamba wa caru ca Dutch, uyo wakaŵa wakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kupanga vinyo la ku South Africa, nayo wakaŵa wa mafuko ghakupambanapambana.<ref>F Wallis, ''Nuusdagboek: Feite en Fratse oor 1000 Jaar'' Cape Town: Human &Rousseau 2000</ref> == Ukoloni wa Britain, Mfecane na Boer Republics (1815-1910) == === Britain ku Cape === {{Main|British Cape Colony|History of South Africa (1815–1910)}} [[File:Punch Rhodes Colossus.png|thumb|upright|Rhodes Colossus Cecil Rhodes wakwendendeka "Cape to Cairo"]] Mu 1787, pambere Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku France yindachitike, gulu linyake la ku Netherlands ilo likamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Patriot Party, likayezga kuwuskapo boma la William V. Nangauli chigaluka ichi chikaphyoka, kweni chikaŵaso na nkhongono pamanyuma pakuti France yanjira mu Netherlands mu 1794/1795. Ŵalwani aŵa ŵakapharazga kuti charu cha Batavia chili pafupi na France. Pakuzgora, mulara wa boma uyo wakakhalanga ku England, wakalemba Makalata gha Kew, ndipo wakaphalira ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa kuti ŵajipeleke ku ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Kufuma apo, mu 1795 Ŵanung'una ŵakakora Cape kuti ŵaleke kunjira mu mawoko gha Ŵafarisi. Mu 1803, ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakawezga msumba uwu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Africa - British occupation of the Cape {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/British-occupation-of-the-Cape |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Mu 1805, ŵa ku Britain ŵakatora Cape iyi mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za Napoleon. Nga mba Dutch awo ŵakaŵa pambere iwo ŵandaŵeko, Ŵabritishi nawo ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuluta ku Cape Colony. Mulimo wawo wakwamba ukaŵa wakuti mu 1806 ŵakanjizge ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe mu ciyowoyero na mitheto ya ku Britain. Mu 1806, dango la ku Cape likazomerezga kuti charu ichi chikhalilire na "wenelero na wanangwa uwo chikaŵa nawo", ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti charu cha South Africa chileke kwendera fundo za Ufumu wa Britain. Mu 1815, pa ungano wa ku Vienna, Britain yikazomera kuti ndiyo yili na mazaza pa chigaŵa ichi. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Netherlands ŵafumeko ku Britain. Pakati pajumpha nyengo, mu 1820, boma la Britain likaciska ŵanthu pafupifupi 5,000 awo ŵakasamukira ku Britain (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya malonda) kuti ŵafume mu Britain. Ŵanandi awo ŵakakhazikika mu 1820 ŵakakhala ku Grahamstown na Port Elizabeth. Ndondomeko ya Britain yakukhwaskana na South Africa yikasintha apo maboma ghakalondezgana, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 vyose vikakhumbikwanga kuvikilira nthowa ya malonda iyo yikalutanga ku India. Kweni cifukwa ca nkhondo izo zikacitika pa mphaka na Ŵaburu, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kutinkha boma la Britain.<ref name=":0" /> === Ku Europe, ŵanthu ŵakasanda malo gha mukati === Mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Dutch East India Company, zina lake Robert Jacob Gordon, wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakendera mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mu charu ichi apo wakalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵa Dutch pa Cape of Good Hope, kufuma mu 1780 m'paka mu 1795. Ivyo Gordon wakacita pakati pa 1777 na 1786, vili kulembeka mu mabuku gha masausandi ghanandi agho ghakucemeka Gordon Atlas, kweniso mu magazini ghake agho ghakasangika mu 1964. Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhalanga mwamtende na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa. Ndipouli, pakaŵa mphindano ya malo, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti mu 1779 paŵe nkhondo ya viŵeto. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, David Livingstone na William Oswell, ndiwo ŵakayamba kwendera mu chipalamba cha Kalahari mu 1849. Pamanyuma, wupu wa Royal Geographical Society ukamupa mendulo ya golide Livingstone cifukwa ca kusanga Nyanja ya Ngami mu mapopa.<ref>Norbert C. Brockman, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150708065808/http://www.dacb.org/stories/southafrica/livingstone1_david.html ''An African Biographical Dictionary''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708065808/http://www.dacb.org/stories/southafrica/livingstone1_david.html |date=8 July 2015 }}, Santa Barbara, California 1994. Accessed 7 July 2015</ref> === Nkhondo na kusazgikira kwa vinthu mu caru ca Zulu === {{Main|Zulu people|Difaqane}} [[File:Shaka's Empire map.svg|thumb|400px|Kuwuka kwa Ufumu wa Zulu{{color box|#aa4400}} mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Shaka, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake ŵakachimbira mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa. Ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira nkhondo ya ku Zulu {{color box|#ffb380}} Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa Soshangane, Zwangendaba, Ndebele, Hlubi, Ngwane, na Mfengu. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakakakika pakati pa Ufumu wa Zulu na ŵa Voortrekkers na Ufumu wa Britain {{color box|#F08080}} nga ni Xhosa {{color box|#008000}}.]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Zulu ŵali mu fuko la Nguni ndipo pakwamba ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko lichoko chomene ilo lili kumpoto kwa KwaZulu-Natal. M'ma 1820 kukaŵa nyengo ya masuzgo ghakuru chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Zulu, uwo ukasinthanga muwuso wa mafuko gha mu Africa na maufumu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya Chisotho ŵakumanya nyengo iyi kuti ni difaqane ("kusama mwakuchichizgika"); ndipo awo ŵakuyowoya Chisulu ŵakuyichema kuti mfecane ("kuswa"). Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vinandi vyakukhwaskana na ivyo vikupangiska nthenda iyi. Fundo yinyake njakuti ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga kufuma ku Delgoa Bay ku Mozambique, kumpoto kwa Zululand. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakumanya kuti Mfecane yikaŵa nkhani ya vinthu ivyo vikacitika pambere Ufumu wa Zulu undaŵeko. Kweni pakaŵa vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika pambere Shaka Zulu wandafike pa mazaza. Mu 1818, mafuko gha Nguni mu charu cha Zululand ghakazenga ufumu pakati pa Mlonga wa Tugela na Pongola. Shaka wakazenga ŵasilikari ŵanandi, ndipo wakaleka kulondezga mitheto ya mafuko. Kufuma apo, wakambiska ntchito yikuru yakupharazga, kukoma panji kuzgora ŵazga awo ŵakamususkanga mu vigaŵa ivyo wakapoka. Ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakalangika chomene. Shaka Zulu mu vyakuvwara vya nkhondo vya Ŵazulu Ŵazulu ŵakapangiska kuti mafuko ghanandi gha ku mizi ghafumemo mu vigaŵa vyawo na kwamba kuwusa vigaŵa vinyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe vyaru vinandi, chomenechomene vya Sotho (lero ni Lesotho) na Swaziland. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mitundu yinyake nga ni Matebele, Mfengu, na Makololo yikanjire pamoza. Mu 1828 Shaka wakakomeka na ŵakuru ŵake Dingaan na Umhlangana. Dingaan uyo wakaŵa na maluso ghacoko waka, wakazgoka fumu, ndipo wakalutilira kulamulira ŵanthu. Kweniso Dingaan wakayezga kukolerana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Britain awo ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Natal, kweni vinthu vikamba kunangika. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu 1 miliyoni panji 2 miliyoni ŵakafwa na mphepo ya Mfecane.<ref name="Walter1969">{{cite book|author=Walter, Eugene Victor |year=1969 |title=Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence, with Case Studies of Some Primitive African Communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k-3mmwEACAAJ|isbn=9780195015621 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite periodical|author=Charters, R. A. |year=1839 |title=Notices Of The Cape And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier |periodical=United Service Journal and Naval and Military Magazine|location=London |publisher=Henry Colburn |volume=1839, Part III |issue=September, October, November|pages=19–25, 171–179, 352–359, page 24}}</ref><ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition</ref><ref name="Hanson2007">{{cite book|author=Hanson, Victor Davis |year=2001 |title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C|location=New York |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-42518-8|page=313}}</ref> === Ŵanthu ŵa Boer na vyaru vyawo === {{Main|Boer Republics}} Mu 1806, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Cape Colony awo ŵakayowoyanga Ciholanji ŵakamba kwenda mu tumagulu. Paumaliro, mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Boer ŵakasamukira ku malo ghanyake. Cifukwa cimoza ico ŵakafumira mu cigaŵa ca Cape ni cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga Cingelezi. Chisopa chikaŵa chakuzirwa comene mu mitheto ya ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici, ndipo Baibolo na maungano gha mpingo vikacitikanga mu Ciholandi. Mwakuyana waka, sukulu, makhoti, na malonda mpaka apo ŵa ku Britain ŵakiza, vyose vikacitikanga mu ciyowoyero ca ku Netherlands. Dango la ciyowoyero likapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugomezgana, kweniso kuti ŵaleke kukhorwa. Nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku trekboers Cifukwa cinyake ico ŵalimi ŵazungu awo ŵakayowoyeranga Ciholanji ŵakafumiranga ku Cape ni cifukwa cakuti boma la Britain likamazga wuzga pa Zuŵa la Kufwatuka, pa Disembala 1, 1838. Ŵalimi ŵakadandawuranga kuti ŵangakwaniska yayi kuwezgerapo ŵazga ŵawo kwambura kutaya ndalama zinandi.<ref>SA History.org [http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/slavery-south-africa ''Slavery in South Africa''] Accessed 23 April 2015</ref> Ŵalimi ŵakaguliska ŵazga ndalama zinandi. Ŵenecho ŵa ŵazga awo ŵakagura ŵazga pa ngongoli panji kuŵapeleka nga mbukaboni wa ngongoli, ŵakasuzgikanga comene. Britain yikapeleka ndalama zakukwana 1 200 000 British Pounds ku ŵakukhazikika ŵa ku Netherlands, pa cigaŵa cakuti ŵalimi ŵa ku Netherlands ŵapeleke ivyo ŵakukhumba ku Britain ndiposo kuti mtengo wa ŵazga uŵe wakukwana kanandi waka na ndalama izo ŵakapika. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands ŵaleke kukhorwa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagomezganga kuti boma la Cape Colony likapoka ndalama izo ŵakeneranga kupeleka kuti ŵazga ŵawo ŵafwatuke. Awo ŵakapika ndalama, ŵakeneranga kukapempha ku Britain mwekha panji kwizira mwa munthu munyake. Ndalama izo ŵantchito ŵakatoranga zikaŵa zakuyana waka na za muzga yumoza, ntheura awo ŵakakhumbanga muzga yumoza pera ŵakapokeranga kanthu yayi.<ref name="krugerp">{{cite book|last=Kruger|first=Paul|title=Memoirs of Paul Kruger|year=1902|publisher=George R Morang and Co|location=Canada|page=[https://archive.org/details/memoirsofpaulkru00kruguoft/page/n26 3]|isbn=9780804610773 |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofpaulkru00kruguoft}}</ref> ==== Charu cha South Africa ==== {{Main|South African Republic}} [[File:Flag of Transvaal.svg|thumb|left|200px|[[Flag of the South African Republic]], often referred to as the ''Vierkleur'' (meaning four-coloured)]] Charu cha South Africa (Dutch: Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek panji ZAR, kuti chileke kupambanika na charu cha South Africa), kanandi chikuchemeka Transvaal ndipo nyengo zinyake Republic of Transvaal. Chikaŵa boma lakujiyimira palokha ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake ŵakalimanya. Ufumu wa Britain ukazomera kuti charu ichi ntchakujiyimira paŵekha apo ukachita phangano la Sand River Convention pa 17 January 1852. Boma ili likathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Britain pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Boer ndipo likalutilira kuŵa lakujiyimira palokha m'paka pa 31 May 1902. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo iyi, caru ca South Africa cikacemeka Transvaal Colony.<ref>Boereafrikana.com [http://www.boereafrikana.com/Geskiedenis.htm ''Geskiedenis'']. Accessed 6 June 2015</ref> ==== Boma la Free State ==== {{Main|Orange Free State}} [[File:Flag of the Orange Free State.svg|thumb|200px|[[Flag of the Orange Free State|Flag of the Republic of the Orange Free State]]]]Boma la Orange Free State likafuma mu ufumu wa Britain uwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa Mlonga wa Orange. Britain, cifukwa ca masuzgo agho yikaŵa nagho cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku Crimean ku Europe, yikawezga ŵasilikari ŵake mu 1854, apo Boers ŵakayowoya kuti malo agha pamoza na malo ghanyake gha mu cigaŵa ici ni caru ca Boer, ico ŵakacema Orange Free State. Mu Malichi 1858, pamanyuma pa kulimbana pa malo, kwiba viŵeto, na kuwukira, boma la Orange Free State likapharazga nkhondo ku ufumu wa Basotho. Nkhondo zinandi zikacitika pakati pa Ŵaburu na Ŵasotho mu vilimika 10 vyakulondezgapo.<ref>Cameron, T. (ed) ''An Illustrated History of South Africa''. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 1986, pp. 137, 138, 143, 147–9, 169. {{ISBN|0715390511}}</ref> Zina lakuti Orange Free State likasinthikaso kuŵa Orange River Colony, ilo likapangika na Britain pamanyuma pakuti likapoka charu ichi mu 1900. Mu 1904, chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 400,000. Kweni mu 1910, chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Orange Free State. ====Natalia==== {{Main|Natalia Republic}} Natalia yikaŵa boma la ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ilo likamara nyengo yichoko waka, ndipo likakhazikiskika mu 1839 na ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer Voortrekkers awo ŵakafuma ku Cape Colony. Mu 1824, gulu la ŵanalume 25 awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mulara F. G. Farewell, ŵakafuma ku Cape Colony ndipo ŵakakhazikika kumpoto kwa nyanja ya Bay of Natal. Mu 1838, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer Voortrekkers ŵakakhazikiska boma la Natalia mu chigaŵa ichi. Mu usiku wa pa 23 m'ma 1842, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakawukira msasa wa Voortrekker ku Congella. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain ŵakawelera ku Durban, uko ŵakazingilizga. Munthu munyake wakwendeska malonda, zina lake Dick King, na muteŵeti wake, Ndongeni, awo pamasinda ŵakazgoka vinkhara vya ŵanthu, ŵakachimbira na kuluta ku Grahamstown, mtunda wa makilomita 600 mu mazuŵa 14 kuti ŵakakhozge ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Ŵasilikari ŵakiza ku Durban pati pajumpha mazuŵa 20, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵakathera. Mu 1844, ŵa Boer ŵakazomera kuti ŵanjireso mu ufumu wa Britain. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Natalia Boers awo ŵakakana kuzomerezga Ufumu wa Britain, ŵakenda mu mapiri gha Drakensberg kuti ŵakakhale mu vigaŵa vya Orange Free State na Transvaal.<ref>''The Voortrekkers: A history of the Voortrekkers Great Trek 1835–1845'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20150622110948/http://www.voortrekker-history.co.za/trekkers_leave_great_trek.php#.VYGAKPmqqko Voortrekkers leave Natal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622110948/http://www.voortrekker-history.co.za/trekkers_leave_great_trek.php#.VYGAKPmqqko |date=22 June 2015 }} Accessed 17 June 2015</ref> ===Cape Colony=== {{main|Cape Colony|Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope}} [[File:Sir Harry G W Smith.jpg|thumb|Harry Smith]] Pakati pa 1847 na 1854, Harry Smith, kazembe wa Cape Colony, wakapoka malo agho ghakaŵa kumpoto kwa malo agho ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain na Dutch ŵakakhalanga. Smith wakalutilira kusazgirako malo gha Cape Colony ndipo wakasangana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Orange River awo ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo ŵakachitanga. Mu 1848, ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Mounted Rifles ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku Boomplaats. Kweniso kukolerana na ufumu wa Britain kukapangiska kuti mu 1850 paŵe nkhondo pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa. Kwambira m'ma 1800, Cape of Good Hope, iyo yikaŵa chigaŵa chikuru chomene kumwera kwa Africa, yikamba kujiyimira payekha. Mu 1854, boma ili likapika mazaza ghakwendeskera malango, ndipo likachemeka Cape Parliament. Mu 1872, pamanyuma pa kulimbana kwa nyengo yitali, boma ili likaŵa na ŵalara na nduna yikuru. Kweni Cape Cape yikaŵa chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Britain, nangauli yikaŵa yakujiyimira. Charu cha Cape Colony chikaŵa chachilendo chomene kumwera kwa Africa chifukwa malango ghake ghakakanizganga ŵanthu kusankhana mitundu, ndipo mwakupambana na vyaru vya Boer, ŵanthu ŵakasankhiranga mu vyaru vinyake. Pakwamba, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pa nkhani ya vyachuma. Ndipouli, cifukwa cakuti ŵa ku Britain ŵakakhumbanga kuti caru ca kumwera kwa Africa ciŵe mu wupu wa Britain, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakamba kutinkhana. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵanthu ŵakasanga malibwe gha dayamondi pafupi na Kimberley na golide mu Transvaal, ndipo pamasinda vinthu vikamba kwenda makora yayi. Pakuŵa Nduna Yikuru ya Cape, Rhodes wakathereska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo ndyali zake zikambiska Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Boer.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A New History of Southern Africa|author=Neil Parsons|isbn=0333570103|publisher=Macmillan, London|year=1993|url=https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofsout0000pars}}</ref> ===Natal=== {{Main|Colony of Natal}} [[File:Indians arriving in South Africa.jpg|thumb|Ŵantchito ŵa ku India ŵakiza ku Durban]] Mu 1654, ŵazga ŵa ku India awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Dutch, ŵakiza ku South Africa. Kuumaliro wa 1847, apo boma la Britain likakolerana na boma la Boer la Natalia, pafupifupi ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Boer ŵakafumamo mu charu ichi. Ŵanji awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Britain, ndipo pakati pa 1849 na 1851 pakafika ŵanthu 5,000. Kuzakafika mu 1860, ŵazga ŵakalekeka mu 1834, ndipo mu 1843, ŵakati ŵanjira mu charu cha Natal (lero ni KwaZulu-Natal), ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakawelera ku India kuti ŵamazge suzgo la ŵantchito. Mu caka ici, ngaraŵa yakucemeka SS Truro yikafika mu dowoko la Durban na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 300. Mu vilimika 50 vyakulondezgapo, ŵateŵeti na ŵantchito ŵa ku India ŵakukwana 150,000 ŵakafika, kweniso "Ŵaindiya ŵanandi" awo ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kwenda. Kuzakafika mu 1893, apo loya kweniso munthu wakulimbikira vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu, Mahatma Gandhi, wakafika mu tawuni ya Durban, mu Natal mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku India kuluska ŵazungu. Nkhondo ya Gandhi yakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu yikaŵa yakutondeka; m'paka mu 1994, apo boma la South Africa likamba kulamulira ŵanthu mwaurunji, ŵanthu ŵa ku India ŵakasuzgikanga na malango ghanandi agho ghakaŵasuzganga.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indianness Reconfigured, 1944-1960: The Natal Indian Congress in South Africa - The O'Malley Archives |url=https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv02730/05lv02914/06lv02917.htm |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=omalley.nelsonmandela.org}}</ref> === Ŵanthu ŵa ku Griqua === {{Main|Griqua people}} [[File:Nicolaas Waterboer - Griqua leader and politician of the Cape Colony.jpg|thumb|Nicolaas Waterboer, muwusi wa Griqualand, 1852-1896]] Kuumaliro wa ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana awo ŵakachemekanga "ŵanthu ŵa mitundu" awo ŵakaŵa ŵana ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana pakati pa ŵanalume ŵa ku Dutch, ŵanakazi ŵa Khoikhoi, na ŵazga ŵanakazi awo ŵakafuma ku vyaru vya ku Dutch. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa mtundu wa Griqua. Ŵakaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa muzga munyake zina lake Adam Kok, ndipo "ŵanthu ŵa mitundu" aŵa ŵakamba kwenda kumpoto, kujumpha mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Northern Cape Province. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ulendo wa vikoko vya Griqua uwu "njimoza mwa vinthu vyakuzizwiska chomene vya m'ma 1800". Pa ulendo wawo utali, ŵakalongozgana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San na Khoikhoi, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko gha ku Africa, kweniso ŵazungu ŵanyake awo ŵakagaluka. Mu 1800, ŵakamba kwambuka mphaka ya kumpoto iyo yikaŵa mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Orange, ndipo ŵakafika ku malo ghambura ŵanthu, agho ŵakaghacemanga kuti Griqualand. Mu 1825, Dr. John Philip, uyo wakaŵa mulaŵiliri wa London Missionary Society ku Southern Africa, wakakhuŵilizga gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Griqua kuti ŵasamire ku malo ghakucemeka Philippolis, agho ghakaŵa malo gha upharazgi ku San. Philip wakakhumbanga kuti ŵamunyumba ya Griqua ŵavikilire ofesi ya ŵamishonale ku vigeŵenga vya mu chigaŵa ichi. Kweniso ŵakakhumbanga kuti iyi yiŵe linga lakukhora kuti ŵanthu ŵatuŵa awo ŵakakhalanga ku Cape Colony ŵaleke kwiza kumpoto. Cifukwa ca mphindano pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Griqua na awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakatumika ku malo agha mu 1845. Ici cikaŵa kwamba kwa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri vya kucitako vinthu vya ku Britain mu cigaŵa ici.<ref>Karel Schoeman, ''The British Presence in the Transorange 1845–1854'', Human & Rosseau, Cape Town, 1992, p.11, {{ISBN|0-7981-2965-4}}</ref> Mu 1861, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Philippolis Griquas ŵakaluta ku malo ghanyake kuti ŵaleke kukakika na boma la Orange Free State. Ŵakasamukira kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Quathlamba (uko sono ni mapiri gha Drakensberg), ndipo ŵakakhala mu malo ghakucemeka "Nomansland". Kufuma apo, mu 1874 charu cha East Griqualand chikapokeka na Britain, ndipo mu 1879 chikazgoka chigaŵa cha Cape Colony. Griqualand wakwambilira, kumpoto kwa Mlonga wa Orange, wakatoleka na Britain ndipo wakacemeka Griqualand West pamanyuma pakuti mu 1871 ŵakasanga malibwe gha daimondi ghanandi ku Kimberley. Nangauli pakaŵavya mphaka izo zikalembeka, kweni mulongozgi wa Griqua, Nicolaas Waterboer, wakati malo agha ghakaŵa gha Griqua. Maboma gha Boer gha Transvaal na Orange Free State nagho ghakakwesananga kuti ghaŵe na malo agha, kweni Britain ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa malo agha. Mu 1878, Waterboer wakalongozga gulu lakugalukira maboma, ndipo ŵakamukora na kumujalira mu caru cinyake.<ref>EJ Verwey: ''New Dictionary of South African Biography'', Vol I, Human Sciences and Research (HSRC) Press, Pretoria: 1995</ref> === Nkhondo na Ŵachixhosa === Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamanyanga yayi mphaka za charu chawo na malo agho ŵakakhalanga. Kwa Moshoeshoe, mulongozgi wa BaSotho wa ku Lesotho, ntchawanangwa cha mahachi na viŵeto.<ref>Paul Germond, ''Chronicles of Basutoland'', Morija (Lesotho): Morija Sesuto Books, 1967, pp. 144f, 252–53</ref><ref>Elizabeth Eldredge, ''A South African Kingdom'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp. 48–9, {{ISBN|052144067X}}</ref>Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Africa ŵakagomezganga kuti munthu uyo wakupeleka msonkho uwu ndiyo wakugura na kuŵa mweneko wa malo. Apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakambanga kupanga minda yikuruyikuru mu charu chose kuti ŵasange malo ghakutowa ghakuryapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu awo ŵakasamukira kumwera kufuma ku Central Africa, ŵakaŵasuska. Nkhondo izo zikacitika pa mphaka zikamanyikwa kuti Nkhondo za Xhosa (izo zikayowoyeka mu nyengo yira kuti Nkhondo za Kafir panji Nkhondo za Cape Frontier). <ref>{{cite journal|title=Surgeon-General SIR CHARLES MacDONAGH CUFFE, K.C.B., LL.D|journal=BMJ|volume=2|issue=2859|year=1915|pages=589|issn=0959-8138|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.2859.589-b|pmc=2303193}}</ref>Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa South Africa, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer na ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa ŵakalimbananga mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Great Fish, ndipo mu 1779 Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Ŵa Xhosa yikamba. Kwa vyaka pafupifupi 100, Ŵachixhosa ŵakarwa nkhondo na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi. Mu Nkhondo yacinayi ya Ŵa Xhosa, iyo yikacitika kwambira mu 1811 m'paka mu 1812, ŵamazaza ŵa Britain ŵakacicizga Ŵa Xhosa kuti ŵambuke Mlonga Ukuru wa Somba na kuzenga vigongwe mumphepete mwa mphaka iyi. Kuŵikapo mtima kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain pa vyachuma mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Africa kwambira mu 1820, ndipo comenecomene pamanyuma pa kusanga dayamondi yakwamba ku Kimberley na golide mu Transvaal, kukacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kukhumba malo na ŵantchito ŵa ku Africa. Mu 1818 mphindano pakati pa ŵalongozgi ŵa Xhosa ŵaŵiri, Ndlambe na Ngqika, zikamara apo Ngqika wakathereskeka, kweni ŵa ku Britain ŵakalutilira kumumanya Ngqika kuŵa mulongozgi mukuru. Wakalomba wovwiri ku Britain kuti wawovwire Ndlambe, uyo wakawezgera mu 1819 pa Nkhondo ya Cinkhondi ya ku Frontier. ==== Nkhondo na Ŵazulu ==== [[File:Cetshwayo-c1875.jpg|thumb|200px|Fumu [[Cetshwayo kaMpande|Cetshwayo]] (ca. 1875)]]Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu cha South Africa, mu chigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer ŵakachemanga kuti Natalia. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kwiba ng'ombe, ndipo gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Piet Retief ŵakakomeka. Pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Retief ŵakomeka, Ŵaburu ŵakajivikilira ku Ŵazulu pa Mlonga wa Ncome pa Disembala 16, 1838. Ŵasilikari ŵakukwana 5,000 ŵa mtundu wa Zulu ndiwo ŵakaŵa pa nkhondo iyi. Ŵaburu ŵakamba kujikora pa mtunda pa Mlonga wa Ncome, ndipo ŵakakanizgika na magaleta ghawo. Ŵasilikari ŵa mtundu wa Zulu pafupifupi 3,000 ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyo yikachemeka kuti Nkhondo ya Mlonga wa Ndopa.<ref>Ngubane, Jordan K. ''An African Explains Apartheid''. New York: Praeger, 1970. pp.40–41</ref><ref>Donald R Morris, ''The Washing of the Spears'', London: Cardinal, 1973, p.148-50 {{ISBN|0 351 17400 1}}</ref> Mu 1879, ufumu wa Zulu ukatoleka na ufumu wa Britain. Fumu Carnarvon yikati yafika makora pa Canada, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ndyali izo zikachitanga nthena, pamoza na ŵasilikari, zingawovwira maufumu gha mu Africa, vigaŵa vya mafuko, na vyaru vya Ŵaburu mu South Africa. Mu 1874, Henry Bartle Frere wakatumika ku South Africa kuŵa mwimiliri wa Ufumu wa Britain kuti wakacite mulimo uwu. Pa masuzgo agha pakaŵa boma la South Africa na ufumu wa Zululand. Frere, kwambura kuzomerezgeka na boma la Britain, ndipo wakakhumbanga kutimbanizga nkhondo na Ŵazulu, wakapeleka ulongozgi kwa Themba Cetshwayo pa Disembala 11, 1878. Kufuma apo, Bartle Frere wakatuma Fumu Chelmsford kuti yikawukire caru ca Zululand. Nkhondo iyi yikumanyikwa cifukwa ca nkhondo zinandi zakuthiska ndopa, kusazgapo kutonda kwa Ŵazulu pa Nkhondo ya ku Isandlwana, kweniso cifukwa cakuti yikaŵa cinthu cakuzirwa comene mu nyengo ya ufumu wa caru cose. Kuwina kwa Ŵazulu, uko kukaŵa umaliro wa wanangwa wa mtundu wa Ŵazulu, kukacitika na wovwiri wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na Ŵazulu. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kupanga minda yikuru ya shuga mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka KwaZulu-Natal Province. ==== Nkhondo na Basotho ==== [[File:King Moshoeshoe of the Basotho with his ministers.jpg|thumb|Themba Moshoeshoe pamoza na ŵapharazgi ŵake]] Kwambira mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku Cape Colony ŵakambuka Mlonga wa Orange ndipo ŵakamba kufika ku chigaŵa chakumwera cha Lower Caledon Valley, uko kukaŵa ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa Basotho. Mu 1845, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakasazga phangano na ŵanthu ŵa ku Moshoeshoe. Pakaŵavya mphaka pakati pa malo agho kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa na ufumu wa Moshoeshoe, ntheura pakaŵa nkhondo. Moshoeshoe wakaghanaghananga kuti wakupeleka malo ghakuliskako viŵeto ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi mwakuyana na dango la ku Africa lakuti ŵanthu ŵaŵikenge malo ghawo mu malo gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Moshoesoe kweniso pakati pa Ŵafrika.<ref>David B Coplan, ''Unconquered Territory: Narrating the Caledon Valley'', Journal of African Cultural Studies, Vol 13, No 2, December 2000, p.192</ref> Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain, awo pa nyengo iyo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa icho chikaŵa pakati pa milonga ya Orange na Vaal, ŵakawona kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kupanga mphaka na kugaŵa chigaŵa ichi. Ivi vikapangiska kuti Ŵasotho na Ŵanandi ŵa ku Britain ŵathereskeke na ŵasilikari ŵa Moshoeshoe pa nkhondo ya Viervoet mu 1851. Pakupeleka cilango ku Basotho, kazembe na mulongozgi wa Cape Colony, George Cathcart, wakatuma ŵasilikari ku Mlonga wa Mohokare. Cifukwa cakuti wakakana kulipira ndalama zose, mu 1852 ku Berea Plateau kukawuka nkhondo, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakakomeka comene. Mu 1854, ŵa ku Britain ŵakapeleka chigaŵa ichi ku Ŵaburu. Malo agha pamoza na ghanyake ghakazgoka Republic of the Orange Free State.<ref>Information department, Government of Lesotho, [https://web.archive.org/web/20061107030932/http://www.lesotho.gov.ls/about/default.php ''About Lesotho'']. Accessed 1 May 2015</ref> Kufuma mu 1858 m'paka 1868, pakaŵa nkhondo pakati pa ufumu wa Basotho na boma la Orange Free State. Mu nkhondo izo zikacitika pamanyuma pake, boma la Orange Free State likayezga kwambura kucitapo kanthu kuti lipoke msumba wa Thaba Bosiu, apo Ŵasotho ŵakacitanga nkhondo mu vigaŵa vya Free State. Vyaru vinandi na malo ghakuliskako viŵeto vikaparanyika. Pa 15 Okutobala, 1858, Moshoeshoe wakalemba phangano la mtende. Mu 1865, nkhondo yikambaso. Pamanyuma pa kupempha wovwiri ku ufumu wa Britain, Moshoeshoe wakalemba phangano la Thaba Bosiu mu 1866, apo Basotho ŵakapeleka malo ghanandi ku Orange Free State. Pa Malichi 12, 1868, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Britain yikati Ufumu wa Basotho ni boma la Britain ilo likuvikilirika na Ufumu wa Britain. Nkhondo pakati pa Orange Free State na Basotho yikamara.<ref>James S Olson, Robert S Shadle (eds.) ''Historical Dictionary of the British Empire'', Greenwood Press: Westport, Connecticut 1996, p.118 {{ISBN|0-313-27917-9}}</ref> Pamanyuma, charu ichi chikachemeka Basutoland ndipo pasono chikuchemeka Lesotho. ==== Nkhondo na Ŵandebele ==== [[File:G.S. Smithard; J.S. Skelton (1909) - The Voortrekkers.jpg|thumb|Boer ''Voortrekkers'' depicted in an early artist's rendition]]Mu 1836, apo ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Boer Voortrekkers (ŵapayiniya) ŵakafika ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha South Africa, ŵakakumana na gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Ndebele. Nkhondo zinandi zikacitika, ndipo Mzilikazi wakathereskeka. Wakafumamo mu chigaŵa ichi na kuluta na ŵanthu ŵake kumpoto ku malo agho pamasinda ghakazgoka chigaŵa cha Matabele ku Southern Rhodesia (uko sono ni Zimbabwe). Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana ŵakasangana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Voortrekkers, chomenechomene mu chigaŵa icho pamanyuma chikazgoka Northern Transvaal. Mu Seputembala 1854, ŵanthu 28 ŵa mtundu wa Boer awo ŵakaŵapa mulandu wa kwiba ng'ombe ŵakakomeka pa ngozi zitatu. Mokopane na ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanthu ŵaheni ŵizenge na kuŵawukira. Kuumaliro wa Okutobala, ŵasilikari ŵa Boer awo ŵakakhozgekanga na ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Kgatla ŵakazingilizga mphanji. Pakati pajumpha masabata ghatatu, ŵanthu 1,000 na 3,000 ŵakafwa mu mphanji. Awo ŵakapona ŵakakoleka na kuzgoka ŵazga.<ref>Isabel Hofmeyr, ''We Spend Our Years as a Tale that is Told: Oral Historical Narrative in a South African Chiefdom''. Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg: 1993, pp.109–111</ref> ==== Nkhondo na Ŵapedi ==== Nkhondo za ku Bapedi, izo zikumanyikwaso kuti Nkhondo za ku Sekhukhune, zikaŵa zinkhondo zitatu zakupambanapambana izo zikachitika pakati pa 1876 na 1879 kwimikana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Bapedi awo ŵakaŵa pasi pa Themba Sekhukhune I, mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Kweniso pakaŵa mphindano cifukwa cakuti Sekhukhune wakakana kuzomerezga ŵanthu awo ŵakapenjanga golide kuti ŵapenje golide mu caru ico iyo wakawonanga kuti nchakujiyimira yekha. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Sekhukhune ya 1876 yikacitika na Ŵaburu, ndipo nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Sekhukhune ya 1878/1879 yikacitika na ŵa ku Britain.<ref>H W Kinsey,[http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol025hk.html "The Sekukuni Wars"], ''South African Military History Journal'', Vol 2 No 5 – June 1973. Accessed 28 June 2015</ref> Pa nyengo ya nkhondo yaumaliro, Sekukuni (uyo wakalembekangaso Sekhukhune) na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakabisama mu mphanji ya mu mapiri. Paumaliro wakajipeleka ku ŵasilikari ŵa ku Boer na ku Britain pa 2 December 1879. Sekhukhune, ŵamumbumba yake na ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵa Bapedi ŵakajalirika mu jele ku Pretoria kwa vyaka viŵiri. Ŵakasanga yayi golide mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Roma.<ref>SA History Online, [http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/king-sekhukhune ''King Sekhukhune'']. Accessed 29 June 2015</ref> === Kusanga dayamondi === [[File:CecilRhodes.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Cecil John Rhodes, wakayambiska De Beers Consolidated Mines ku Kimberley]]Malibwe ghakwamba agho ghakasangika pakati pa 1866 na 1867 ghakaŵa gha mu malo agho ghakaŵa kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Orange. Kuzakafika mu 1869, dayamondi ŵakayisanga kutali na mlonga uliwose, mu malibwe ghakukhoma ghakucemeka blueground, agho pamasinda ghakacemekanga kimberlite. Malo agha ghakaŵa na mphaka zambura kupulikikwa makora kweniso ŵanthu ŵakakwesananga pa nkhani ya malo. Boma la South Africa (Transvaal), Orange Free State Republic, na mtundu wa Griqua awo ŵakaŵa na mitundu yakupambanapambana awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Nicolaas Waterboer ndiwo ŵakakhumbanga malo agha.<ref>Dougie Oakes, ''Illustrated History of South Africa: The Real Story'', Reader's Digest:Cape Town 1992, p.166 {{ISBN|9781874912279}}</ref> Kazembe wa Cape Colony, Henry Barkly, wakapangiska ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵa na boma kuti ŵapulikire ivyo mweruzgi wakadumura, ntheura Robert W. Keate, mulaŵiliri mulara wa boma la Natal, wakapempheka kuti waŵe mweruzgi. Keate wakapeleka katundu uyu ku Griqua. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Waterboer, ŵakawopa kuti ŵangakumana na boma la Orange Free State, ndipo ŵakapempha wovwiri ku Britain. Kufuma apo, mu 1871, Griqualand yikazgoka koloni lakwimira ufumu ndipo yikachemeka Griqualand West. Mu 1877, charu cha Griqualand West chikapelekeka ku boma la Cape Colony. Ŵagiriki ŵakasangirapo candulo cilicose yayi cifukwa ca kukoloneska panji kukolerana na caru cawo. Ŵakapokerapo yayi usambazi wa dayamondi uwo ukasangika ku Kimberley. Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵa ku Griqua ŵakaŵasuska. Kuzakafika m'ma 1870 na 1880, migodi ya Kimberley yikapanganga dayamondi pafupifupi 95 peresenti pa caru cose.<ref>Diamond Museum, Cape Town, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230709194130/https://www.capetowndiamondmuseum.org/about-diamonds/south-african-diamond-history/ ''History of Diamonds'']. Accessed 1 June 2015</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakamba kupenja golide na vinthu vinyake chifukwa cha usambazi uwo ŵakasanganga ku Kimberley. Vinthu ivyo vikasangika ku Cape Colony kufuma ku Kimberley vikapangiska kuti mu 1872 Cape Colony yipike udindo wa boma, chifukwa yikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain yayi. Usambazi uwo ukafuma ku migodi ya dayamondi ya ku Kimberley, uwo ukakwera katatu kufuma mu 1871 m'paka mu 1875, ukakhozga chomene ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Colony. Mu 1888, Cecil John Rhodes, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa migodi ku Britain, wakawovwira kukhazikiska De Beers Consolidated Mines ku Kimberley, pamanyuma pakuti wagura na kusazga migodi iyi na ndalama izo mbumba ya Rothschild yikapeleka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kunozga dayamondi ku Kimberley ŵakakondwanga comene cifukwa ca nchito iyi. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuti usambazi uwo ukapangika ku Kimberley ndiwo ukambiska nkhondo ya ku Africa iyo yikacitika mu 1902.<ref>Christopher Oldstone-Moore, [http://www.wright.edu/~christopher.oldstone-moore/imperiallecture.htm The Imperialist Venture], Wright State University. Accessed 24 May 2015</ref><ref>Stacey Greer,[http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=21 South African Diamond Mines 1970s] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524154746/http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=21 |date=24 May 2015 }}, University of California, Davis. Accessed 24 May 2015</ref> === Kusanga golide === {{Main|Witwatersrand Gold Rush}} [[File:Johannesburg, South Africa (1896).jpg|thumb|300px|right|Johannesburg pambere kulije migodi ya golide iyo yikapangiska kuti uŵe msumba wamoyo]]Nangauli pali nkhani zinandi, kweni palije ukaboni wakukhorweska wakuti mbanjani awo ŵakasanga golide panji umo likasangikira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ku Witwatersrand, mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal.<ref>P Holz, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150527205302/http://www.heritageportal.co.za/article/greatest-discovery-them-all ''The Greatest Discovery of them all''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527205302/http://www.heritageportal.co.za/article/greatest-discovery-them-all |date=27 May 2015 }}, (originally published in Guide Book, Geological Society of South Africa). Accessed 27 May 2015.</ref> Mu Febuluwale 1886, ŵanthu ŵakasanga golide mu famu yinyake ku Witwatersrand. Ndipouli, kupaturako malo ghacoko waka, malo agho kukaŵa golide ghanandi ghakaŵa kuti ghabenekelereka na malibwe ghanandi. Pakakhumbikwanga ndalama zinandi na maluso gha ma injiniya kuti ŵasange na kufumiska golide mu malo ghakupambanapambana agho ghakaŵa pasi pa charu.<ref>Extract from ''New History of South Africa'', by Hermann Giliomee and Bernard Mbenga (eds.) [https://web.archive.org/web/20131101083245/http://newhistory.co.za/Part-3-Chapter-8-The-story-of-gold-Johannesburg-an-instant-city/ Chapter 8, "The story of gold"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101083245/http://newhistory.co.za/Part-3-Chapter-8-The-story-of-gold-Johannesburg-an-instant-city/ |date=1 November 2013 }}. Accessed 27 May 2015</ref> Pakati pajumpha vilimika viŵiri kufuma apo ŵakasangira golide ku Witwatersrand, ŵakazenga mabungwe ghanayi ghakwendeska migodi. Yachiŵiri yikapangika na Hermann Eckstein mu 1887, ndipo pamanyuma yikamba kucemeka Rand Mines. Pamanyuma pake, Cecil Rhodes na Charles Rudd ŵakaluta na kampani yawo ya Gold Fields of South Africa. Rhodes na Rudd ŵakaŵa kuti ŵasanga ndalama zinandi cifukwa ca kuguliska dayamondi ku Kimberley.<ref>Goldavenue.com [https://web.archive.org/web/20110421002356/http://info.goldavenue.com/Info_site/in_arts/in_civ/in_rush_safrica.html ''South African Gold Rush: 1885''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110421002356/http://info.goldavenue.com/Info_site/in_arts/in_civ/in_rush_safrica.html |date=21 April 2011 }} Accessed 30 May 2015.</ref> Mu 1895, ndalama zinandi zikaguliskika mu migodi ya golide ya ku Witwatersrand. Vinthu ivi ndivyo vikawovwiranga chomene pa malonda pa charu chose. Pa ŵamalonda ŵakumanyikwa 25 ŵa ku vyaru vinyake awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kunozga migodi ya golide ku Witwatersrand, 15 ŵakaŵa Ŵayuda, 11 ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Germany panji Austria, ndipo 9 ŵakaŵa Ŵayuda. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaŵa Ŵayuda, ŵakakopeka na malonda agho ghakacitika cifukwa ca kusanga golide. Ŵayuda awo ŵakakhalanga mu South Africa mu 1880 ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 4,000. Kweni mu 1914, ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakukwana 40,000. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku Lithuania. Kweni umo wakulemba mbiri munyake wakayowoyera, ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu migodi iyi ŵakaŵa "ŵakofya, ŵankhaza, ndiposo ŵakusuzga", ntheura ŵakaŵatemwanga yayi ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵa ku Africa. Kulemba ŵantchito ŵa mitundu yinyake kukaŵa kwakusuzga, nangauli ŵakapika malipiro ghawemi. Pakati pa 1903, pa ŵanthu 90,000 ŵa fuko lakuda awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vyamalonda mu 1899, ŵakakhalapo hafu pera. Ŵakapangana kuti ŵambe kutolera ŵantchito ŵa ku China awo ŵakaŵa ŵakunozgeka kugwira nchito pa malipiro ghacoko comene kuluska ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵakwamba 1,000 ŵa ku China ŵakiza mu Juni 1904. Mu Janyuwale 1907, ŵanthu 53,000 ŵa ku China ŵakagwiranga nchito mu migodi ya golide.<ref>Jones (1995), p.53</ref> === Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Anglo-Boer === {{Main|First Boer War}} [[File:South Africa late19thC map.png|thumb|right|Malo gha mu chigaŵa mu nyengo ya nkhondo za Anglo-Boer: <br />{{colorbox|green}} [[South African Republic]]/Transvaal<br />{{colorbox|orange}} [[Orange Free State]]<br />{{colorbox|blue}} British [[Cape Colony]]<br />{{colorbox|red}} [[Natalia Republic]]]]Mu 1877, boma la Britain likakolerana na boma la Transvaal Boer apo likakhumbanga kukolerana na vyaru vinyake vya kumwera kwa Africa. Nkhondo yakwamba ya Anglo-Boer, iyo yikumanyikwaso kuti Boer Insurrection, yikamba mu 1880.<ref>Rayne Kruger, ''Goodbye Dolly Gray: The story of the Boer War'', London: Pimlico 1996, p.7 {{ISBN|978-0-7126-6285-7}}</ref>Nkhondo iyi yikamara mwaluŵiro chomene apo ŵakawina nkhondo ya Majuba Hill (27 February 1881). Charu ichi chikamba kujithemba ndipo chikachemekanga Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek ("South African Republic"). Paul Kruger, yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵa ciwukirano ici, wakaŵa purezidenti wa ZAR mu 1883. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵa ku Britain, awo ŵakawonanga kuti ŵakutondeka pa nkhondo ya ku Majuba, ŵakalutilira kukhumba kukolerana na vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa. Ŵakawona kuti iyi yikaŵa nthowa yiwemi yakucitira vinthu na ŵanthu ŵacenje awo ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene mu cigaŵa ici, kweniso kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na vilato vyawo mu cigaŵa ici.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Southern Africa - European and African interaction in the 19th century {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Southern-Africa/European-and-African-interaction-in-the-19th-century |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Nkhondo za Anglo-Boer zikacitika cifukwa ca mphindano yakuti ni mtundu wuli uwo ukeneranga kulamulira migodi ya golide ya ku Witwatersrand. Usambazi ukuru wa migodi iyi ukaŵa mu mawoko gha "ŵakaronga ŵa ku Europe" awo ŵakalongozganga ŵantchito ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ŵantchito ŵakwendeska migodi, ŵantchito ŵakumanya kupanga vinthu, na ŵantchito ŵantchito awo Ŵaburu ŵakaŵachemanga kuti "uitlander". Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakasuskanga cifukwa cakuti ŵakaŵakananga mwaŵi wa kwimilira mu nyumba za malango na wa kuvota. Kweniso ŵakadandawuranga kuti boma likucedwa kupeleka malaisensi na vikalata, kweniso kuti boma likucita makora yayi vinthu. Mu 1895, gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakateŵeteranga mu kampani ya Cecil John Rhodes yakuchemeka Rhodesian Charter Company ndipo ŵakalongozgekanga na Kaputeni Leander Starr Jameson ŵakanjira mu ZAR na cilato cakuti ŵambiske chigaluka pa cirwa ca Witwatersrand na kukhazikiska boma la Britain. Nkhondo iyi yikamanyikwa kuti Jameson Raid. Nkhondo iyi yikamara apo ŵasilikari ŵa Boer ŵakaŵawukira. Pulezidenti Kruger wakaghanaghananga kuti boma la Cape Colony ilo likalamuliranga na Cecil John Rhodes ndilo likakolerana na chigaluka ichi. Kruger wakachita phangano na boma la Orange Free State, ilo likaŵa pafupi na charu cha Boer. Ici cikapangiska kuti nkhondo yaciŵiri ya Anglo-Boer yileke kwambaso. === Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Anglo-Boer === {{Main|Second Boer War}} [[File:Hobhouse.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Emily Hobhouse wakachitanga kampeni yakususkana na vinthu viheni ivyo vikachitikanga mu misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu ku South Africa.]] Mu 1899, pakaŵaso mphindano pakati pa Britain na Boers, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵazungu 60,000 awo ŵakakhalanga ku Witwatersrand ŵaŵe na wanangwa wa kuvota. Pambere ivi vindacitike, boma la Pulezidenti Paul Kruger likazomerezganga yayi kuti ŵalendo ŵagwirenge nchito iyi. Kruger wakakana ivyo Britain likakhumbanga ndipo wakacema ŵasilikari ŵa Britain kuti ŵafumemo mu caru ca South Africa. Ŵanandi ŵakakana, ndipo Kruger wakaŵaphalira kuti ŵarwe nawo nkhondo. Nkhondo yachiŵiri iyi, iyo yikumanyikwaso kuti Nkhondo ya ku South Africa, yikatora nyengo yitali kuluska yakwamba. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakaŵa mu caru ici ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene kuluska ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru viŵiri ivi. Kuzakafika mu Juni 1900, msumba wa Pretoria, uwo ukaŵa waumaliro pa misumba yikuruyikuru ya Ŵaburu, ukajipeleka. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer awo ŵakaŵa na mtima wakununkha ŵakalutilira kulimbana na ŵasilikari kwa vyaka viŵiri. Ŵaburu ŵakalutilira kurwa nkhondo. Mwanakazi munyake wa ku Britain, zina lake Emily Hobhouse, wakaluta ku misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu ku South Africa ndipo wakalemba lipoti ilo likasuska vinthu viheni ivyo vikacitikanga. Kuzakafika mu 1902, ŵanakazi na ŵana 26,000 ŵa ku Boer ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafwa cifukwa ca matenda ndiposo kulekelereka mu misasa.<ref>Owen Coetzer, ''Fire in the Sky: The destruction of the Orange Free State 1899–1902'', Johannesburg: Covos Day, 2000, pp.82–88 {{ISBN|0-620-24114-4}}.</ref> Nkhondo ya Anglo-Boer yikakhwaska mafuko ghose mu South Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose yiŵiri ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake kuti ŵaŵawovwire pa nkhondo. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵafipa yayi. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵikika mu malaro ghambura mazina. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake 17,182 ŵakafwa na matenda mu misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu ku Cape pera. Ŵalara ŵa misasa ya ŵakayidi ŵakalembanga yayi nyifwa za ŵanthu ŵafipa.<ref>Nosipho Nkuna, [http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol113nn.html "Black involvement in the Anglo–Boer War, 1899–1902"], ''Military History Journal of the South African Military History Society'', Vol 11 No 3/4 – October 1999. Accessed 6 June 2015</ref> Kufuma apo nkhondo yikambira mu Okutobala 1899 m'paka apo kukakhazikiskikira mtende pa Meyi 31, 1902, nkhondo iyi yikakoma ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu wa Roma ŵakukwana 22,000 na ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Republican 7,000. Mu phangano la mtende ilo likacemeka kuti Treaty of Vereeniging, maboma gha ŵa Boer ghakazomera muwuso wa Britain, ndipo ŵa Britain ŵakajipeleka kuti ŵazengeso malo agho ŵakaŵa na mazaza pawo. == Mgwilizano wa charu cha South Africa (1910-1948) == {{Main|History of South Africa (1910–1948)|Union of South Africa}} [[File:Uniegebou in Pretoria, Suid-Afrika c1925.jpeg|thumb|Union Buildings, boma la boma, Pretoria, c. 1925]] Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo nkhondo za Anglo-Boer, Britain yikamba kuwunganya vyaru vinayi ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain, kusazgapo vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Boer, kuŵa charu chimoza chakujiyimira paŵekha. Ivi vikachitika mu 1909, apo Dango la South Africa Act likazomerezga kuti charu cha Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, na Orange Free State viŵe charu chimoza. Kuyana na dango ili, wupu uwu ukazgoka chigaŵa chakujiyimira paŵekha cha Ufumu wa Britain. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu mu zina la boma. Vyaru vya British High Commission nga ni Basutoland (sono ni Lesotho), Bechuanaland (sono ni Botswana), na Swaziland (sono ni Eswatini) vikalutilira kulamulirika na Britain.<ref>Leonard M. Thompson, ''A history of South Africa'' (Yale University Press, 2001).</ref> Pakati pa malango ghanyake ghakofya agho ghakaŵa ghakususkana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake, kusazgapo dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵaleke kuvota, Nyumba ya Malango ya ku South Africa yikapanga dango lakuti mu 1913 malo gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ghaŵe gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Ŵazungu, awo ŵakaŵa 20 peresenti ya ŵanthu, ŵakaŵa na 90 peresenti ya malo. Dango lakukhwaskana na malo liŵenge libwe lapakona la kusankhana mitundu kwa vyaka 90.<ref name="Natives' Land Act">"[http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1913-06-19.htm 19 June 1913 Native Land Act] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101014095049/http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1913-06-19.htm |date=14 October 2010 }}", ''This day in history'', publish date unknown (accessed 20 December 2007).</ref> [[File:DFMalanPortret.jpg|thumb|upright|Daniel François Malan, mulongozgi wa National Party kufuma mu 1934 mpaka 1953]] Mulara wa ŵasilikari Louis Botha ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa boma lakwamba la wupu uphya uwu, ndipo Jan Smuts wakaŵa wachiŵiri wake. Chipani chawo cha South African National Party, icho pamasinda chikachemekanga South African Party panji SAP, chikalondezganga fundo yakuti ŵazungu ŵakoleranenge na Britain. Ŵa Boer awo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono chomene ŵakajipatura pasi pa muwuso wa Jenerale Barry Hertzog, ndipo ŵakambiska National Party (NP) mu 1914. Chipani cha National Party chikavikiliranga ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika, ndipo chikachiskanga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yiŵiri kuti ŵaŵe ŵakupambana, kweniso kuti ŵaŵe ŵakujiyimira ŵekha.<ref>Thompson, ''A history of South Africa'' (2001).</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhorwa yayi na umo Britain yikagwilira ntchito mu vyaru vya ku Europe ŵakamba kugaluka mu Seputembala 1914. Ŵanthu ŵakagaluka ŵakamara, ndipo mulara wa ŵasilikari yumoza ŵakamuphalira kuti wakomeke. Mu 1924, chipani cha National Party, icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene, chikamba kuwusa pamoza na chipani cha Labour. Chiyowoyero cha Afrikaans, icho kale chikawonekanga nga ni chiyowoyero cha ku Netherlands, chikanjira m'malo mwa chiyowoyero cha Dutch. Mu 1925, Cingelezi na Ciholandi vikaŵa viyowoyero viŵiri vya boma. Wupu wa South Africa ukamara pa referendum pa 5 Okutobala 1960, apo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakazomera kufumamo mu wupu wa British Commonwealth. === Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose === {{Main|Jan Smuts|Military history of South Africa during World War I}} [[File:British Empire 1921 IndianSubcontinent.png|thumb|300px|Ufumu wa Britain ukaŵa pa mapu pa nyengo iyo ukaŵa pa malo ghapacanya comene m'ma 1910 na m'ma 1920. (India wakuwoneka makora mu viyuni.) Ku South Africa, pakati, kuli pakati pa vigaŵa viŵiri vya Ufumu.]] Apo Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikambanga, caru ca South Africa cikakolerana na Britain na ŵasilikari ŵanyake kuti ŵarwe na ufumu wa Germany. Mulara wa boma, Louis Botha, na mulara wa boma, Jan Smuts, wose ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Boer. Gulu linyake la ŵasilikari ŵa South Africa likakana kurwa nkhondo na Ŵachijeremani kweniso ŵalwani ŵanyake ŵa boma. Pa Okutobala 14, 1914, boma likapharazga dango lakukanizga nkhondo, ndipo ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Louis Botha na Jan Smuts ŵakathereska ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma. Ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu la ŵakugaluka ŵakaŵeruzga, ŵakaŵapa ndalama zinandi, na kuŵakaka vyaka 6 m'paka 7.<ref name="google2012">{{cite book|author=Bill Nasson|title=Springboks On The Somme – South Africa in the Great War 1914 – 1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0kv8HfrLUoC|year=2012|publisher=Penguin |isbn=9780143027164}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana mitundu. Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene pa nkhondo iyi. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku India (ŵakulongozgeka na Mahatma Gandhi) ŵakakolerana na nkhondo iyi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana, ndipo ŵanyake nga ni Botha na Smuts ŵakaŵa na udindo ukuru pa nkhondo ya Britain. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga ku mizi ŵakakana fundo iyi. Wupu wa ŵantchito ukagaŵikana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mitundu yinyake awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni ghakurughakuru ŵakakolerana na nkhondo iyi chifukwa ŵakagomezganga kuti yingaŵawovwira kuti ŵaŵe na umoyo uwemi. Ŵanyake ŵakatenge fundo iyi njambura kuzirwa pa nkhani ya wanangwa wawo. Ŵanandi ŵakateŵeteranga mu mawupu gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa na France.<ref name="google2012" /> Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 6 miliyoni. Pakati pa 1914 na 1918, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 250,000 ŵa mitundu yose ŵakateŵetera mu caru cawo. Ŵanandi ŵakateŵeteranga mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 3,000 ŵakamba kuteŵetera mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Vikuwoneka kuti pa ŵanalume wose ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa ŵacekuru kuti ŵanjire usilikari, pafupifupi 50 peresenti ndiwo ŵakateŵeteranga pa nyengo ya nkhondo iyi. Ŵachikuda 83,000 na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana na ŵa ku Asia 2,500 nawo ŵakateŵeteranga ku German South-West Africa, East Africa, Middle East, panji ku Western Front ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 7,000 ŵa ku South Africa ŵakakomeka, ndipo pafupifupi 12,000 ŵakapwetekeka.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Great Britain. War Office|url=http://archive.org/details/statisticsofmili00grea|title=Statistics of the military effort of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914-1920|date=1922|publisher=London H.M. Stationery Off|others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref> Ŵanthu 8 ŵa ku South Africa ndiwo ŵakapokera Victoria Cross, uyo ni mphumphu ya nkhondo yapachanya chomene ya Ufumu wa Britain. Nkhondo ya ku Delville Wood na kubira kwa sitima ya nkhondo yakucemeka SS Mendi, ndivyo vikaŵa vyakofya comene. [[File:Botha and Smuts in uniforms, 1917.jpg|thumb|right|Ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Smuts (kumalyero) na Botha ŵakaŵa ŵa mu British Imperial War Cabinet mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose.]]Ŵanthu 25,000 ŵa ku South Africa ŵakalembeka ntchito na British War Cabinet kuti ŵagwirenge nchito mu South African Native Labour Contingent (SANLC). 21,000 ŵa iwo ŵakatumika ku France kuti ŵakateŵetere nga ni ŵantchito ŵa ku French ports. Pa 21 February 1917, ŵanthu 616 ŵa mu gulu la 5th Battalion la SANLC ŵakabira mu nyanja apo sitima ya nkhondo ya SS Mendi, iyo ŵakendangamo kuluta ku France, yikaswa ngalaŵa yinyake kufupi na Isle of Wight. Nkhondo ya ku Mendi yikaŵa yimoza mwa masoka ghakofya comene mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Boma la South Africa likapeleka yayi mendulo ya nkhondo ku ŵasilikari ŵa fuko lakuda ndipo mendulo yapadera iyo Themba George V likapeleka ku "ŵasilikari ŵa mu caru ici" awo ŵakateŵeteranga Ufumu, iyo ni British War Medal mu mkuŵa, yikazomerezgeka yayi ndipo yikapelekeka yayi ku SANLC. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana awo ŵakakolerana na nkhondo iyi ŵakakwiya chomene apo ku South Africa kukaŵavya uyo wakazomerezga kuti ŵazungu ŵambe kulamulira. Boma la Britain likapokera wovwiri ukuru comene kufuma ku South Africa. Vinyake ivyo vikaŵa mu vyaru viŵiri vya ku Africa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa Germany vikaŵa mu mawoko gha South Africa pera panji na wovwiri ukuru wa South Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵakawovwira ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake kuti ŵarwe na Ufumu wa Ottoman. Maboti gha ku South Africa agho ghakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Africa ghakaŵa ghakukhumbikwa comene pakurwa nkhondo pa caru cose. Pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Royal Navy ŵakasanganga malo ghakupumulirapo na kugwiliskira nchito mafuta, ŵakate ŵakwaniskenge kukolerana na boma la Britain. Ku South Africa ndiko kukafuma golide wakukwana vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ufumu wa Britain. Apo nkhondo yikambanga, ŵalara ŵa Bank of England ku London ŵakakolerana na South Africa kuti ŵaleke kupeleka golide ku Germany, ndipo ŵakacicizga ŵeneco ŵa migodi kuti ŵaguliske ku British Treasury pera, pa mtengo uwo ukanozgeka na Treasury. Ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵagure vilwero na vyakurya ku United States na vyaru vinyake.<ref>Russell Ally, "War and gold—the Bank of England, the London gold market and South Africa's gold, 1914–19," ''Journal of Southern African Studies'' (1991) 17#2 pp 221–38 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637235 in JSTOR]</ref> === Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose === {{Main articles|Military history of South Africa during World War II}} Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, maboti gha ku South Africa, nga ni Cape Town, Durban, na Simon's Town, ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene ku ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain. Wupu wa South Africa wakuwona vya mlengalenga (Special Signals Service) ukawovwira chomene pakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye malo agho kuli mawoko gha mlengalenga. Kuzakafika mu Ogasiti 1945, ŵasilikari ŵa South African Air Force pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na Dutch awo ŵakaŵa ku South Africa, ŵakakora ngalaŵa za ŵalwani 17, kovwira ŵanthu 437 awo ŵakapona ku maboti agho ghakanjira mu nyanja.<ref>Andre Wessels, ''South African Military History Journal'', Vol. 11 No. 5, June 2000, South African Military History Society.</ref><ref name="John Keene 1995">{{cite book|author=John Keene|title=South Africa in World War II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_iN6AAAAIAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Human & Rousseau|isbn=978-0-7981-3388-3}}</ref>[[File:Simonstown Harbour.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito dowoko la Simon's Town na msasa wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa.]] Ŵanthu pafupifupi 334,000 ŵa ku South Africa ŵakajipeleka kuti ŵateŵetere ŵasilikari nyengo zose. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, pafupifupi 9,000 ŵakafwa. Pa Juni 21, 1942, ŵasilikari pafupifupi 10,000 ŵa ku South Africa, awo ŵakimiranga chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku South Africa, ŵakakoleka na ŵasilikari ŵa German Field Marshal Rommel mu msumba wa Tobruk, ku Libya. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa ndege za nkhondo ŵa ku South Africa ŵakateŵeteranga mu Royal Air Force pa Nkhondo ya Britain, kusazgapo Adolph "Sailor" Malan uyo wakalongozga 74 Squadron ndipo wakaparanya ndege 27 za ŵalwani.<ref>Alfred Price, ''Spitfire Mark V Aces, 1941–45''. Oxford: Osprey Publishing 1997, p. 65. {{ISBN|978-1-85532-635-4}}.</ref> Mulara Jan Smuts ndiyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari wa ku Britain pera uyo wakapemphanga ulongozgi kwa Winston Churchill, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya Britain. Smuts wakacemeka ku Imperial War Cabinet mu 1939 pakuŵa munthu mulara comene wa ku South Africa uyo wakatemwanga nkhondo. Pa 28 May 1941, Smuts wakasankhika kuŵa Field Marshal wa British Army, ndipo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku South Africa kuŵa na udindo uwu. Nkhondo yikati yamara, Smuts wakimilira South Africa ku San Francisco apo ŵakalembanga chikalata cha United Nations Charter mu Meyi 1945. Nga ni umo wakacitira mu 1919, Smuts wakaciska ŵimiliri kuti ŵapange wupu wankhongono wa pa caru cose kuti usungilire mtende. Smuts wakalembaso phangano la mtende la ku Paris, ilo likapeleka mtende mu Europe. Ntheura wakaŵa yekha uyo wakalembeska phangano ili.<ref name="John Keene 1995"/> ==== Ŵanthu ŵakutemwa Germany na Nazi ==== Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, mu 1914, ku South Africa kukacitika nkhondo yakususkana na boma la South West Africa. Wakawelera mu 1923, ndipo wakalutilira kugwira nchito ku South Africa nga ni mswiri wa boma la Germany. Mu 1896, Kaiser Wilhelm wa ku Germany wakakwiyiska Britain mwa kutuma malumbo kwa mulongozgi wa boma la Boer Paul Kruger pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Kruger ŵakakora gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa British South Africa Company awo ŵakacitanga nkhondo na kuwukira, ndipo ŵakathera. Germany ndiyo yikapelekanga vilwero ku Ŵabowa pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya Anglo-Boer. Boma la Kaiser Wilhelm likanozga vyakuti maboma ghaŵiri gha Boer ghagure futi za Mauser na mabomba ghanandi gha gunpowder. Kampani ya ku Germany yakucemeka Ludwig Loewe, iyo pamasinda yikamanyikwa kuti Deutsche Waffen-und Munitionfabriken, yikapeleka futi 55,000 ku Ŵaburu mu 1896.<ref>Paul Scarlata, [http://www.shootingtimes.com/long-guns/longgun_reviews_st_boermodel_201007/ The 1893/95 "Boer Model" Mauser]. Accessed 21 May 2015</ref> Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1940, gulu la Nazi la Ossewa Brandwag (OB) likaŵa na ŵanthu 500,000, kusazgapo John Vorster, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya boma, na Hendrik van den Bergh, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵapolisi. Nyengo yichoko waka, gulu la Boerenasie (Boer Nation) na magulu ghanyake agho ghakatinkhanga Ŵayuda, ghakaŵakolerana nawo. Nkhondo yikati yamara, gulu la OB likaŵa limoza mwa magulu ghakwimikana na boma agho ghakaŵa mu chipani cha National Party. Gulu la South African Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging panji AWB (lakuyowoya kuti Afrikaner Resistance Movement), gulu la nkhondo la Nazi ilo likafuma mu ma 1970, ndipo likaŵa lakugwira ntchito m'paka pakati pa ma 1990, likagwiliskiranga ntchito ndembera iyo yikuyana chomene na swastika.<ref>Anti-defamation League, [http://www.adl.org/combating-hate/hate-on-display/c/triskele.html Hate on Display], Accessed 25 April 2015</ref><ref>[[:File:Afrikaner Weerstandsbewegung flag.svg|AWB neo-Nazi insignia]]</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, AWB yikayezga kutimbanizga kusintha kwa chalo ku demokilase. Pamanyuma pa maungano ghakwamba gha vyaru vinandi mu 1994, ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakakolerana na AWB. Pa 11 March 1994, mamembala mazana ghanandi gha AWB ghakaŵa chigaŵa cha gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakanjira mu chigaŵa cha Bophuthatswana, mu chiyezgo chakutondeka kukhozga mulongozgi wake wambura kutemweka, Chief Lucas Mangope. Mulongozgi wa AWB Eugène Terre'Blanche wakakomeka na ŵantchito ŵa mu famu pa 3 Epulero 2010. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Afrika awo ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyuyura ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka ndipo ŵakakolerananga yayi na ivyo AWB yikachitanga.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191439/http://sun025.sun.ac.za/portal/page/portal/Arts/Departemente1/geskiedenis/docs/coming_to_terms_with_past_present.pdf Wessel Visser, ''Coming to terms with the past and the present: Afrikaner experience and reaction to the "new" South Africa''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191439/http://sun025.sun.ac.za/portal/page/portal/Arts/Departemente1/geskiedenis/docs/coming_to_terms_with_past_present.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}, (Seminar lecture presented at the Centre of African Studies, University of Copenhagen, 30 September 2004), p.2. Accessed 3 May 2015.</ref>[[File:The Union of South Africa, Its Land and Its People (1956), Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc..webm|thumb|Buku la Encyclopedia Britannica lakulongosora vya South Africa kufuma mu 1956]] == Nyengo ya apartheid (1948-1994) == {{Main|Apartheid}} === Malango gha katangale === Ndondomeko ya kusankhana mitundu yikafuma ku malango gha vyaru vinyake agho ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵa Dutch mu ma 1700, ndipo ghakalutilira na kusazgikira mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain. Kwambira mu 1948, maboma gha National Party ghakazomerezga na kusazgirako ndondomeko ya kusankhana mitundu na kukana wanangwa wa ŵanthu kuŵa dango la apartheid, ilo likamara mu 1991. Pa nyengo iyi, dango lakuzirwa chomene likaŵa la Homeland Citizens Act la mu 1970. Dango ili likakhozga chomene dango la Native Land Act la mu 1913, ilo likaŵa lakuti "vigaŵa vyakupatulika". Chikazomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵafumiskike mu matawuni gha ku South Africa na South West Africa (lero ni Namibia) na kuluta ku malo agho ŵanthu ŵakughacemanga kuti "Bantustans" panji "makaya ghakwambilira" gha mafuko gha ŵanthu ŵafipa gha ku South Africa. Ndondomeko yeneyiyi yikagwiraso nchito ku South West Africa, uko South Africa yikalutilira kuŵa na mazaza gha League of Nations pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakakolerana na muwuso wa apartheid ŵakayezga kuzomerezga fundo ya bantustan mwa kuyowoya kuti boma la Britain likagaŵa India mu 1947.<ref>Susan Mathieson and David Atwell, "Between Ethnicity and Nationhood: Shaka Day and the Struggle over Zuluness in post-Apartheid South Africa" in ''Multicultural States: Rethinking Difference and Identity'' edited by David Bennett {{ISBN|0-415-12159-0}} (Routledge UK, 1998) p.122</ref>[[File:Bantustans in South Africa.svg|thumb|300px|right|Mapu gha caru ca ŵanthu ŵafipa ku South Africa paumaliro wa muwuso wa apartheid mu 1994]] Nangauli vinthu vikuruvikuru vikacitika mu nyengo iyi, kweni apartheid ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru comene pa nkhani za mdauko wa mu nyengo iyi, kusazgapo nkhondo zaciwawa na nkhondo za mu caru ca South Africa. Kuzakafika mu 1987, ndalama zose izo zikagwiliskirika pa nkhondo zikaŵa pafupifupi 28% ya bajeti ya boma. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa Soweto mu 1976 na kukanizgika kwa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ma Joint Management Centres (JMCs) agho ghakacitanga milimo yawo mu vigaŵa 34 ivyo boma likati ni vyakofya comene ghakazgoka cinthu cakuzirwa comene pa ndondomeko ya kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ŵapolisi na ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa JMC pakatikati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1980 ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa vyakucita pa vigaŵa vyose, kwambira ku nduna mpaka ku boma.<ref>Desiree Hansson, "Changes in counter-revolutionary state strategy in the decade 1979–89", in Desiree Hansson and Dirk van Zyl Smit (eds.), ''Towards Justice?: Crime and state control in South Africa'', Cape Town: Oxford University Press 1990, pp.45–50 {{ISBN|0 19 570579 3}}</ref> ===UN embargo=== Pa Disembala 16, 1966, wupu wa United Nations General Assembly ukadumura kuti apartheid ni "kwananga kwa ŵanthu". Pa Novembala 30, 1973, wupu wakulongozga ukazomerezga fundo ya mtundu wa apartheid. Pulogiramu iyi yikamba kugwira nchito pa Julayi 18, 1976. Pa Okutobala 23, 1984, wupu wa UN Security Council ukazomera fundo iyi. Ungano uwu ukati muwuso wa apartheid ukaŵa wambura kuzomerezgeka na dango kweniso ukaŵa waupusikizgi cifukwa ukaswa Dango la Wupu wa United Nations.<ref>John Dugard, [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cspca/cspca.html ''Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid''], New York: UN Office of Legal Affairs, 2013. Accessed 26 July 2015</ref>Pa Novembala 12, 1974, wupu wa UN ukafumiska kale South Africa mu wupu uwu. Pa Novembala 4, 1977, Wupu wa Wupu Wakulongozga ukaŵika dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugura na kuguliska vilwero ku vyaru vinyake. Charu ichi chikazomerezgekaso mu wupu wa UN mu 1994 pamanyuma pakuti cazgoka caru ca demokilase. Boma la Apartheid la South Africa likakolerana na ivyo UN likadumura kuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari ŵa Israyeli. Vipolopolo vyakukwana 400 vya M-113A1 na futi za 106 mm vyambura kuponyamo ŵanthu ivyo vikapangika mu United States vikapelekeka ku South Africa kwizira mu Israyeli.<ref>International Defence and Aid Fund, ''The Apartheid War Machine'', London, 1980.</ref> === Kukoma ŵanthu kwambura mulandu === Pakati pa ma 1980, ŵapolisi na ŵasilikari ŵakakomanga ŵanthu awo ŵakususkana na boma. Kuzakafika pakati pa 1987, wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (Human Rights Commission) ukamanya kuti mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 140 awo ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca ndyali. Nakuti tingamanya yayi unandi wa awo ŵali kufwa. Ŵapharazgi ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kulemba, kujambura panji kujambula vinthu ivi, apo boma likaŵa na pulogiramu yake yakubisira ŵanthu uthenga wautesi. Pa nyengo yeneyira, magulu gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vyawo ghakachitanga nkhaza pa ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi na ŵalongozgi awo ŵakakanizganga apartheid. Boma likati ivi vikacitika cifukwa ca nkhaza za ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake.<ref>Peter Harris, "The role of rightwing vigilantes in South Africa", in ''States of Terror'', Catholic Institute of International Relations, London: 1989, pp. 2–3 {{ISBN|1-85287-019-2}}</ref> Komiti ya Unenesko na Kuphemana (TRC) yikati yasanga kuti gulu lakubisika la ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi awo ŵakaŵa kale panji awo ŵachali kuteŵetera, kanandi ŵakukolerana na ŵanthu ŵakunyoloka, ŵakacitanga vinthu ivyo vingawoneka nga ni kwambiska vivulupi. Pakati pa 1960 na 1994, kuyana na ma statistics gha Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Inkatha Freedom Party yikaŵa na mulandu wa nyifwa za ŵanthu 4,500, ŵapolisi ŵa South African Police 2,700, ndipo ANC pafupifupi 1,300. Kukwambilira kwa 2002, ŵapolisi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakatondeska gulu la ŵanthu ŵazungu ilo likakhumbanga kuwukira boma. Ŵanthu ŵakukwana makumi ghaŵiri, kusazgapo ŵalaraŵalara ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa South Africa ŵakakakika cifukwa ca mulandu wa upusikizgi na kukoma ŵanthu, pamanyuma pa kuphulika kwa bomba mu Soweto. Ŵapolisi ŵakakanizga boma kuwukira boma, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kughanaghana kuti boma la demokilase ilo likaŵako mu 1994 ndakuzomerezgeka yayi. Pakumalizga mulimo wake mu 2004, Komiti iyi yikapeleka mazina gha ŵanthu 300 ku National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) kuti yikayezge na kuŵeruzga. Ni vigaŵa vichoko waka ivyo vikaŵa na milandu.<ref>Ranjeni Munusamy, [http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2013-03-25-the-trcs-unfinished-business-old-wounds-new-oppressor/#.VTj-SNKqqkr Unfinished business of the TRC], ''Daily Maverick'' 23 March 2013. Accessed 23 April 2015.</ref><ref>Paul Seils, [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/paul-seils/political-pardons-would-d_b_6810864.html Political pardons would damage the legacy of South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission], ''Huffington Post'', 6 March 2015. Accessed 25 April 2015.</ref> === Ntchito za nkhondo mu vyaru vya ku mphepete === {{see also|South African Border War|Angolan Civil War}} Paumaliro wa muwuso wa apartheid, ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa ŵakakanizganga maboma ghapafupi, kovwiranga ŵanthu ŵakususka boma, kunanga vinthu, na kuwukira malo gha ANC. Vyaru ivi, ivyo vikaŵa vyakukolerana na vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa, vikacemekanga kuti Frontline States: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, ndipo kwambira mu 1980, Zimbabwe.<ref>M Evans, [http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/Fronline%20States.pdf The Frontline States], ''Zambezia'' (1984/5), Vol XII, University of Zimbabwe. Accessed 11 April 2016.</ref><ref>Scott Thomas, ''The Diplomacy of Liberation: Foreign relations of the ANC since 1960'', London: I B Taurus 1996, p.18 {{ISBN|1850439931}}</ref> [[File:SADF-Operations 4.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Ŵabali ŵa gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa parachute la 44 ŵakendeskanga nkhondo ya ku mphaka ya South Africa.]] Kukwambilira kwa Novembala, 1975, pamanyuma pakuti Portugal yapeleka wanangwa ku Angola, caru ico kale cikaŵa mu Africa, nkhondo yikamba pakati pa UNITA na MPLA. Kuti UNITA yileke kuparanyika na kukhozga muwuso wa boma laubwezi, South Africa yikanjilirapo pa 23 Okutobala, kutuma ŵasilikari pakati pa 1,500 na 2,000 kufuma ku Namibia kuya kumwera kwa Angola kuti ŵarwe na MPLA. Pakuzgora ku nkhondo ya South Africa, Cuba wakatuma ŵasilikari 18,000 mu ciphalizgano cikuru ico cikacemekanga kuti Operation Carlota. Ku Cuba, pakwamba MPLA yikaŵa na ŵapharazgi ŵa nkhondo ŵakukwana 230. Kuwukira kwa Cuba kukawovwira kuti SADF na UNITA vileke kunjilirapo na kukhozga muwuso wa MPLA mu Angola. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 10, ŵasilikari 36,000 ŵa ku Cuba ŵakatumika mu caru cose kuti ŵawovwire MPLA kulimbana na UNITA. Nkhondo ya mukati mu Angola yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu 550,000 ŵafwe. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafwa pakati pa 1992 na 1993, pamanyuma pakuti nkhondo ya ku South Africa na Cuba yamara.<ref>Inge Tvedten, Angola: Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction</ref><ref>SIPRI Yearbook: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute</ref><ref>[[Victoria Brittain]], ''Hidden Lives, Hidden Deaths: South Africa's crippling of a continent'', London: Faber 1990, p. 2, {{ISBN|0571142168}}.</ref> Pakati pa 1975 na 1988, ma SADF ghakalutilira kunjilira mu Angola na Zambia kuti ŵaparanyenge maofesi gha PLAN agho ghakaŵa pa mphaka na Namibia kweniso kuti ŵawovwire UNITA. Nkhondo ya mabomba iyo yikapangika na ŵasilikari 200 ŵa ku South Africa pa 4 May 1978 ku Cassinga kumwera kwa Angola, yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 700 ŵa ku South West Africa ŵakomeke, kusazgapo ŵasilikari ŵa PLAN na ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵanandi. Mulara wa gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa parachute ku South Africa, Koloneli Jan Breytenbach, wakati "ŵasilikari ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakuti agha ndigho ghakaŵa ghakuru comene kufuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose". Boma la Angola likati ciŵiya ico cikaŵa pa nkhondo iyi cikaŵa msasa wa ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo. Pa Meyi 6, 1978, wupu wa United Nations Security Council ukadumura kuti caru ca South Africa nchakucita cinthu ciheni. Pa Ogasiti 23, 1981, ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa ŵakanjiliraso mu Angola na wovwiri wa CIA. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Angola, apo likagomezganga kuti charu cha South Africa chaŵawukira, likakhozgeka na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Cuba pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵa PLAN na ANC, awo wose ŵakaŵa na vilwero vyakufuma ku Soviet Union. Gulu la ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakalongozganga vinthu vya ndyali, ŵakagwiranga lumoza nchito na ŵasilikari ŵa ku America, Britain, na West Germany. Ku South Africa na ku Cuba, wose ŵakatonda nkhondo ya ku Cuito Cuanavale, iyo yikulongosoreka kuti "njakofya comene mu Africa kufuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose". Ndipouli, ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa ŵakataya mazaza ghawo pa nkhondo kweniso luso lawo. Kuŵapo kwa South Africa mu Angola kukamara pamanyuma pa kusazga phangano la United Nations ilo likamanyikwa kuti New York Accords pakati pa maboma gha Angola, Cuba na South Africa, ilo likapangiska kuti ŵasilikari wose ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵafumemo mu Angola kweniso kuti South Africa nayo wafumemo mu South West Africa (lero ni Namibia), uko UN yikuwona kuti kuli na ŵasilikari ŵambura kuzomerezgeka kwambira mu 1966.<ref>UN General Assembly, res n° 2154 (XXI), 17 November 1966. Available at http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/21/ares21.htm [Recovered 1 October 2015]</ref><ref>United Nations, [http://peacemaker.un.org/namibia-genevaprotocol88 UN Resolution 435 of 1978] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518081735/http://peacemaker.un.org/namibia-genevaprotocol88 |date=18 May 2015 }} Accessed 1 May 2015</ref> Mu ma 1980, chalo cha South Africa chikapelekaso wovwiri ku gulu la Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (RENAMO) mu charu cha Mozambique, apo likarwa nkhondo na boma la FRELIMO.<ref>B Turok (ed), ''Witness from the Frontline: Aggression and resistance in southern Africa'', London: Institute for African Alternatives, 1990 {{ISBN|1 870425 12X}}</ref><ref>Edgerton, Robert B, Africa's armies: from honor to infamy: a history from 1791 to the present (2002) p.109</ref><ref>"B&J": Jacob Bercovitch and Richard Jackson, ''International Conflict: A Chronological Encyclopedia of Conflicts and Their Management 1945–1995'' (1997).</ref> === Kulimbana na apartheid === [[File:Murder at Sharpeville 21 March 1960.jpg|thumb|Chithuzi cha kuphana kwa ku Sharpeville mu March 1960]]Ŵanthu awo ŵakachitanga vinthu mwakukolerana na mtundu wa Afrikaans, ŵakaŵa waka ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wakufipa yayi. Mu ma 1950, gulu linyake la ŵasilikari la Torch Commando likapangika, ndipo ŵakalongozgekanga na ŵasilikari awo ŵakarwa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa Axis mu Europe na North Africa. Pa nyengo iyo gulu ili likaŵa na ŵanthu 250,000, likaŵa gulu likuru comene la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa awo ŵakasuskanga boma. Kufika mu 1952, moto uwo ukaŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ukazimwika, apo gulu la Torch Commando likamara chifukwa cha malango gha boma agho ghakaŵa pasi pa Dango la Kukanizga Chikomyunizimu, 1950. Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu gulu la Torch Commando ŵakazgoka ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu la African National Congress.<ref>''Sunday Times'' (Johannesburg), ''Insight'' section. 1 November 1998</ref> Kwamba mu 1940 m'paka mu 1960, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na apartheid. Pamanyuma pa kukomeka kwa ŵanthu 69 mu Sharpeville mu Malichi 1960, na kukhazikiska boma la vyakofya, na kukanizga maboma gha anti-apartheid nga ni African National Congress (ANC), Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), na Communist Party of South Africa. Wupu wa ANC, Umkhonto weSizwe (MK, kung'anamura Mkondo wa Mtundu) ukayowoya kuti nkhaza ni zaurunji chifukwa cha kujivikilira na nkhondo yaurunji. Kwambira mu ma 1960 m'paka mu 1989, MK wakacitanga viheni vinandi na kuwukira ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi. Komiti ya Unenesko na Kuphemana yikati mu 2003, nangauli ANC yikayowoya kuti yikurwa waka nkhondo na ŵapolisi, "ŵanandi awo ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi ŵakaŵa ŵanthu bweka". Gulu lakufwatuka ku vyaru likapambana mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 apo gulu la "Africanist" mukati mwa ANC likakananga kuti pakaŵe mgwirizano pakati pa ANC na Communist Party of South Africa. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani cha Communist mu South Africa ŵakaŵa ŵazungu.<ref>Apartheid Museum, Johannesburg [https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172619/http://www.apartheidmuseum.org/sites/default/files/files/downloads/Learners%20book%20Chapter4.pdf Resistance to Apartheid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172619/http://www.apartheidmuseum.org/sites/default/files/files/downloads/Learners%20book%20Chapter4.pdf |date=23 September 2015 }} Accessed 26 April 2015</ref> Ŵa Africanists ŵakafumako ku ANC na kupanga Pan-Africanist Congress na gulu lake la ŵasilikari lakucemeka Poqo, ilo likamba kugwira nchito comene mu vigaŵa vya Cape. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, Poqo wakachemeka kuti Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA). Gulu ili likachitanga ukhuluku kuti lisange ndalama na vilwero. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafwa panji kupwetekeka na mabandi agha. Mu 1993, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu awo ŵakacitiranga nkhaza ŵazungu cikakwera. APLA yikakana kuti ivyo ŵakacita vikaŵa vyakusankhana mitundu, ndipo yikati vikacitikanga kwimikana na boma la apartheid cifukwa ŵatuŵa wose, kuyana na PAC, ŵakacitanga nawo ndyali ya apartheid. Ŵanthu 11 ŵakafwa ndipo 58 ŵakapwetekeka pa ngozi iyo yikacitikira tchalitchi la Cikhristu ku Cape Town mu 1993.<ref>South African Broadcasting Corporation and South African History Archive,[http://sabctrc.saha.org.za/glossary/apla_attacks.htm Truth Commission Special Report: APLA attacks.] Accessed 26 April 2015</ref> Ŵasambiri ŵanandi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakachimbilira ku vyaru vyapafupi, comenecomene ku Botswana, kuti ŵaleke kukakika pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa Soweto pa Juni 16, 1976, ŵakapanga malo ghakutowa ghakusankhira ŵasilikari ŵa ANC na PAC. Kuwukira uku kukacitika cifukwa ca malango gha boma agho ghakakanizga ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Africa kuti ŵaŵazgenge mu ciyowoyero ca ciAfrikaans. Chigaluka ichi chikafika mu charu chose. Apo nkhondo iyi yikamara, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na kupwetekeka. Mu 1983, gulu la United Democratic Front (UDF) likapangika na ŵanthu pafupifupi 400. Pa nyengo iyo UDF yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene mu 1987, yikaŵa na mawupu pafupifupi 700 na ŵanthu pafupifupi 3,000,000. Ŵakachita nkhaza zinandi izo zikamanyikwanga kuti "kuleka kuwusa". Ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chipani cha opposition, comenecomene ŵa Inkatha Freedom Party, ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵakaŵawotcha ŵamoyo. Pakati pa African National Congress (ANC) na UDF pakaŵa ubwezi wakukhora, wakuthemba pa fundo yakuyana ya Freedom Charter. Pamanyuma pa kukanizgika kwa milimo yake, mu 1988 UDF yikasinthika na Mass Democratic Movement, wupu uwo ukaŵa na magulu ghakwimikana na apartheid. Ŵakayidi 130 ŵa ndyali ŵakakomeka pa khuni la mphinjika mu jele la Pretoria Central pakati pa 1960 na 1990. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakakika ŵakaŵa ŵa Pan Africanist Congress na United Democratic Front.<ref>News24.com [http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/remains-of-83-hanged-prisoners-to-be-exhumed-from-kgosi-mampuru-ii-20160323 Remains of hanged prisoners to be exhumed.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323061434/http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/remains-of-83-hanged-prisoners-to-be-exhumed-from-kgosi-mampuru-ii-20160323 |date=23 March 2016 }} Accessed 25 March 2016.</ref> == Nyengo ya apartheid (1994~pano) == {{Main|History of South Africa (1994–present)}} [[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Frederik W. de Klerk]] and [[Nelson Mandela]], two of the driving forces in ending apartheid]] Nkhondo ya Soviet Union mu ma 1980 yikati yamara, African National Congress (ANC) yikakolerana na South African Communist Party, ndipo yikaleka kugomezga Soviet Union kuti yipelekenge vilwero na wovwiri wa ndyali. Kweniso cikang'anamuranga kuti boma la apartheid lingalekaso yayi kukolerana na apartheid na kuzomerezgeka kwake na kuvikilira visambizgo vya Cikristu na civilisation cifukwa ca rooi gevaar, kung'anamura "soka liswesi" panji kofya kwa cikomyunizimu. Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vikakanizgika kukhala pa thebulu la kudumbiskirana, ndipo mu Juni 1991, malango ghose gha katangale ghakalekeka.<ref>United Nations Yearbook 1992 [https://books.google.com/books?id=BTdmYFgvyi0C&dq=apartheid+laws+rescinded&pg=PA108 Apartheid laws rescinded] UN Dept of Public Information, Accessed 3 May 2015</ref> Pakuwona umo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake na vyaru vinyake ŵakasuskira apartheid mu ma 1980, kusazgapo nkhondo, vivulupi vya ŵanthu, ndyali na visambizgo vyautesi vya caru cose, kweniso kuyuzgika na gulu lakususka apartheid pa caru cose, Pulezidenti F. W. de Klerk wakapharazga vya kuwuskapo dango lakukanizga African National Congress, Pan Africanist Congress na South African Communist Party, kweniso kufwatura Nelson Mandela uyo wakaŵa mu jele pa Febuluwale 2, 1990, pamanyuma pa kukhala mu jele vyaka 27. Pa ungano wa ŵanthu wose uwo ukacitika pa 17 Malici 1992, ŵanthu ŵacenje ŵakavota 68% kuti ŵaŵe na demokilase. Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana kwa nyengo yitali mu wupu wa Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), pa Julayi 26, 1993, ŵakalemba dango ilo likapeleka wanangwa ku vyaru vyose. Kufuma pa 26 m'paka pa 29 Epulero, 1994, ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakavota pa mavoti ghakwamba. Gulu la African National Congress ndilo likathereska, ndipo likaluska chomene gulu la National Party na la Inkatha Freedom Party. Chipani cha Democratic Party na Pan Africanist Congress, pamoza na ŵanyake, vikaŵa vyakwimikana na boma mu nyumba ya malango yakwamba ya caru ici. Nelson Mandela wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti pa 9 Meyi 1994 ndipo wakapangiska boma la wupu wa National Unity, ilo lili na ANC, National Party na Inkatha. Pa 10 Meyi 1994 Mandela wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti muphya wa South Africa mu Pretoria pamoza na Thabo Mbeki na F. W. De Klerk kuŵa vice-president wake. Boma la National Unity likamara paumaliro wa pharalamende yakwamba mu 1999, apo ANC yikaŵa chipani pera pa mazaza uku yikukolerana na Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) na South African Communist Party. Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana comene, kweniso pamanyuma pa maungano gha mawupu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ŵanthu ŵekhaŵekha na ŵanthu bweka, Nyumba ya Malamulo yikapanga dango liphya la malango mu 1996. Ŵakalekeska chilango cha nyifwa, ŵakamba kunozga malo na kugaŵira ŵanthu malo, ndipo ŵakaŵika malango ghakwendeskera ntchito. Gulu la ANC likaŵa na mazaza chifukwa cha fundo za Socialist izo zikalembeka mu chikalata cha wanangwa. Chikalata ichi chikati "usambazi wa caru cithu, uwo mbusambazi wa ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa, uzamuwezgeka ku ŵanthu. Mubali Nelson Mandela, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ANC, wakayowoya mu mazgu ghake pa 25 January 1990 kuti: "Ndondomeko ya ANC njakuti migodi, mabanki, na vyamaseŵero viŵe vya boma, ndipo tingakwaniska yayi kusintha maghanoghano ghithu pa nkhani iyi". Pamanyuma pa kutonda kwa ANC mu 1994, suzgo la ukavu likamara yayi. Boma la ANC, likasintha fundo zake ndipo likamba kulondezga fundo za ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa vinthu viphya. Msonkho wa usambazi wa ŵanthu ŵasambazi comene ukaseŵeka kuti uŵawovwire kusanga ndalama zakwendeskera vinthu vyawo. Makampani ghakurughakuru ghakazomerezgekanga kusamukira ku vyaru vinyake. Kuyana na Solomon Johannes Terreblanche, nkhwantha ya vya cuma ya ku South Africa, boma likapeleka mwaŵi ku ŵamalonda ŵaheni cifukwa ca "masuzgo agho ghazamuŵapo mu miwiro yakunthazi".<ref>Solomon Johannes Terreblanche, ''Lost in Transformation'', Johannesburg: KMM Review Publishing, 2012, {{ISBN|0620537256}}, quoted in Ronnie Kasrils, [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jun/24/anc-faustian-pact-mandela-fatal-error "How the ANC's Faustian pact sold out South Africa's poorest"], ''The Guardian'' 24 June 2013. Accessed 26 October 2015.</ref> === Kusama === Nyengo ya apartheid yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakafumamo mu charu ichi chifukwa cha masuzgo gha vigeŵenga. Mu 2008, wupu unyake (South African Institute of Race Relations) ukati kufuma mu 1995, pa ŵanthu pafupifupi 4,000,000 awo ŵakaŵa mu charu cha South Africa apo muwuso wa katangale ukamalira, pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa 800,000 panji kujumpha. Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakayowoyanga Chingelezi na Cifurikansi ŵakamba kukhala mu Australia, New Zealand, North America, na ku UK uko ŵanthu pafupifupi 550,000 ŵa ku South Africa ŵakasamukira.<ref>''The Economist'', [http://www.economist.com/node/12295535 "White flight from South Africa"] 25 September 2008. Accessed 18 July 2015</ref> Mu 2021, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakuluta ku vyaru vinyake chaka chilichose. Kufika mu 2019, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake awo ŵakafumanga mu charu ichi chikaluska cha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brophy |first=Selene |date=25 August 2019 |title=More black than white South Africans leaving the country |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/Travel/more-black-than-white-south-africans-leaving-the-country-20190825 |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=News24 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=26 August 2019 |title=More skilled black professionals are leaving South Africa |url=https://businesstech.co.za/news/business/336809/more-skilled-black-professionals-are-leaving-south-africa/ |access-date=2022-09-20 |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Ngongole za boma=== {{main|South Africa national debt}} Boma la apartheid likapharazga kuti lilekenge kuwezga ngongoli za caru cinyake pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1980, apo likapharazga kuti kuli suzgo likuru cifukwa ca vivulupi. Apo muwuso wa apartheid ukamara mu 1994, boma liphya la demokilase likaŵa na ngongoli yikuru ya R86.7 B (US$14 B pa mtengo wa ndalama) iyo boma la apartheid likaŵa nayo. Boma ilo likaŵa na suzgo la ndalama likakhumbikwiranga kuwezga ngongoli iyi panji kuchepeskeka ngongoli ku vyaru vinyake. Paumaliro, ngongoli yikamara mu Seputembala 2001.<ref>Fin24.com, [http://www.fin24.com/Economy/Apartheid-debt-settled-20010903 Apartheid debt settled] 3 September 2001. Accessed 26 July 2015.</ref> Boma liphya ilo likaŵako pamanyuma pa muwuso wa apartheid likaŵaso na suzgo la ndalama chifukwa likakhumbikwiranga kupeleka munkhwala ku ŵanthu ŵakavu awo ŵakasuzgika na HIV/AIDS. Ku South Africa ndiko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene awo ŵali na HIV/AIDS kuluska charu chilichose pa charu chapasi. Mu 2011, ŵanthu 5,600,000 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi ndipo ŵanthu 270,000 ŵakafwa na HIV. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵana ŵakujumpha 2,000,000 ŵakaŵa ŵalanda cifukwa ca nthenda iyi. Mu 2011, ŵanthu 100,000 ŵakafwa na nthenda ya AIDS kuluska mu 2005.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103314/http://www.aids.org.za/hivaids-in-south-africa/ Aids Foundation of South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103314/http://www.aids.org.za/hivaids-in-south-africa/ |date=25 September 2015 }}. Accessed 24 September 2015.</ref> ===Labour relations=== [[File:Church on Green Market Square Marikana.JPG|thumb|Church on [[Greenmarket Square]] in Cape Town, South Africa with a banner memorialising the Marikana massacre]] Ŵalendo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu migodi ya ku South Africa, ndipo ŵakagwiranga nchito ŵanthu pafupifupi hafu ya miliyoni. Mu Ogasiti 2012, apo ŵapolisi ŵakakomanga ŵanthu 34 awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu migodi, ŵanandi ŵakakomeka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi, mawupu gha wupu wakulongozga, na ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ŵakasuska ivyo vikacitika. Ŵakawona kuti suzgo likuru ndakuti ŵanthu ŵakugwira nchito mu vyaru vinyake. Makampani gha migodi gha vyaru vinandi, kusazgapo Anglo-American Corporation, Lonmin, na Anglo Platinum, ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakatondeka kumazga suzgo la apartheid.<ref>''Financial Times'',[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0b9bee0-b0e4-11e3-bbd4-00144feab7de.html#axzz3Ze1AyNHG "South African mining stuck in the past"]. Accessed 9 May 2015</ref> ===Poverty=== {{Main|Poverty in South Africa}} Mu 2014, pafupifupi 47% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko lakuda) ŵakakhalanga mu ukavu, ndipo ichi chikupangiska kuti charu ichi chiŵe chimoza mwa vyaru vyambura mtende chomene pa charu chose.<ref>James L. Gibson, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150822232932/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/south-africa/2015-02-10/apartheid-s-long-shadow "Apartheid's Long Shadow"], ''Foreign Affairs'', March/April 2015. Accessed 27 July 2015</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakondwa yayi na kusintha kwa vinthu pa umoyo wa ŵanthu, boma likaŵa lambura mahara, kweniso ŵanthu ŵakakwiya chomene. Mu 2007, ŵanthu ŵambura kukwana hafu ya awo ŵakachitanga viwawa ŵakaŵa na nkhaza, pakuyaniska na awo ŵakachitanga mu 2014, apo pafupifupi 80% ŵakachitanga nkhaza na ŵamazaza. Kuchedwa kwa kusintha kwa vinthu kukapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano mu wupu wa ANC, Communist Party na Congress of South African Trade Unions.<ref>Independent Online, [http://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/spat-within-tripartite-alliance-runs-deep-1.226909#.Vhpwluyqqko "Spat within tripartite alliance runs deep"], 14 November 2004. Accessed 12 October 2015</ref> ===Corruption=== {{Main|Corruption in South Africa}} Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Pulezidenti Jacob Zuma, vimbundi vikakura comene mu South Africa. Mu nyengo iyi pakaŵa vigeŵenga vinandi ivyo vikachitikanga chifukwa cha vigeŵenga. Vinthu ivi vikakhwaskanga na masuzgo gha ndalama agho ghakaŵapo chifukwa cha vimbundi mu makampani ghanyake gha boma nga ni Eskom na South African Airways. Vinthu vinyake vya vimbundi ivyo vikachitika mu nyengo iyi ni VBS Mutual Bank na Bosasa.<ref name="Gevisser">{{Cite news|last=Gevisser|first=Mark|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/jul/11/state-capture-corruption-investigation-that-has-shaken-south-africa|title='State capture': the corruption investigation that has shaken South Africa|date=2019-07-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-02-14|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Khoti la Zondo la Kupenjerezga likimikika pa nyengo iyo Cyril Ramaphosa wakaŵa purezidenti kuti lipenjepo pa milandu ya vimbundi. === Energy crisis === {{Main articles|South African energy crisis}} Kwambira mu 2007, ku South Africa kuli suzgo la magesi ilo lakhwaska chomene chuma cha charu ichi. Chifukwa chakwamba cha suzgo ili chikaŵa chakuti pakaŵavya vyakugwilirapo pa kupanga magesi ghaphya kweniso magesi ghakale chomene. Wupu wakupeleka magesi wa Eskom wa boma ukusuzgika na vimbundi na vinthu viheni, chomenechomene pa nyengo iyo Jacob Zuma wakaŵa pulezidenti.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Staff Writer |title=How the ANC government broke Eskom – 2008 versus 2018 |url=https://mybroadband.co.za/news/energy/288412-how-the-anc-government-broke-eskom-2008-versus-2018.html |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=myBoardband |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-09 |title=South Africa: How Jacob Zuma helped destroy Eskom |url=https://www.theafricareport.com/201543/south-africa-how-jacob-zuma-helped-destroy-eskom/ |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=The Africa Report.com |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Xenophobia=== {{See also|Xenophobia in South Africa}} Nyengo ya apartheid yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuwukira ŵalendo awo ŵakafumanga ku vyaru vinyake na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kupenja malo ghakubisamamo. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2006, wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakutinkha ŵalendo chomene. Wupu wa United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) ukasanga kuti kuphalizgana pa nkhani ya nchito, bizinesi, mauteŵeti gha boma, na nyumba kukapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo, awo ŵakupenja ciphokwero, ŵanthu ŵakusamukira kunyake, na ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Mu 2008, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 207,000 ŵakapempha malo ghakuponerako ku South Africa, ndipo mu 2009, 222,300 ŵakapempha malo ghakuponerako. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku Zimbabwe, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Eritrea, Ethiopia, na Somalia.<ref>UNHCR, [http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e485aa6 2011 UNHCR country operations profile – South Africa]</ref> ===2021 civil unrest=== {{Main|2021 South African unrest}} Nkhondo za ŵanthu mu vigaŵa vya KwaZulu-Natal na Gauteng ku South Africa zikacitika mu Julayi 2021, chifukwa cha kukakika kwa President wakale Jacob Zuma chifukwa cha kuswa malango, pamanyuma pakuti wakana kupeleka ukaboni ku Zondo Commission, kafukufuku wa milandu ya vimbundi apo wakaŵa president kufuma mu 2009 mpaka 2018. Chiwonetsero chotsutsana ndi kusungidwa m'ndende chinayambitsa chipolowe chachikulu ndi kuba, zomwe zinawonjezereka chifukwa cha kuchotsedwa ntchito ndi mavuto azachuma omwe akuwonjezeka chifukwa cha mliri wa COVID-19.<ref name=cnbc20210713>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-13|title=Deaths climb to 72 in South Africa riots after Zuma jailed|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/13/deaths-climb-to-72-in-south-africa-riots-after-zuma-jailed.html|access-date=2021-07-15|website=CNBC|language=en}}</ref><ref name=aj20210714>{{Cite web|last=Bauer|first=Nickolaus|title='Little to lose': Poverty and despair fuel South Africa's unrest|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/7/14/little-to-lose-poverty-and-despair-fuel-south-africas-unrest|access-date=2021-07-16|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> Magazini ya [[The Economist]] yikati nkhaza izi zikaŵa ziheni comene kuluska zose izo zacitikapo mu caru ca South Africa kufuma apo muwuso wa apartheid ukamalira. Ŵapolisi na ŵasilikari ŵakaŵawovwira kuti ŵamazge vivulupi.<ref name=wapo20210712>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/07/12/south-africa-zuma-protests/|title=South Africa deploys military as protests turn violent in wake of Jacob Zuma's jailing|first=Lesley|last=Wroughton|newspaper=Washington Post|date=12 July 2021|access-date=13 July 2021|archive-date=14 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714012249/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/07/12/south-africa-zuma-protests/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/gauteng/live-updates-looting-violence-continues-in-gauteng-kzn-1f4e0b9c-8c88-494e-8160-aeacff164ec1|title=LIVE UPDATES: Looting and violence in Gauteng and KZN|website=www.iol.co.za|access-date=12 July 2021|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712153317/https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/gauteng/live-updates-looting-violence-continues-in-gauteng-kzn-1f4e0b9c-8c88-494e-8160-aeacff164ec1|url-status=live}}</ref>Kuzakafika pakati pa mwezi wa Julayi, ŵasilikari pafupifupi 25,000 ŵa South African National Defence Forces ŵakaŵa kuti ŵatumika. Pa Julayi 18, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 3,400 ŵakakakika, ndipo pa Julayi 22, ŵanthu 337 ŵakafwa chifukwa cha vivulupi. Chiwawa cha mu Julayi 2021 chikukolerana na chiwawa cha taxi ku Cape Town na chiwawa cha Transnet ransomware icho chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoye kuti vinthu ivi vikukolerana. ===Post-apartheid heads of state=== Kuyana na dango ilo likaŵako pamanyuma pa apartheid, pulezidenti ndiyo ni mulara wa boma. Pulezidenti wakusankhika na wupu wa National Assembly ndipo nyengo yake yikumalira pa chisankho. Pulezidenti wangateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri. Para malo ghaŵavya, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ndiyo wakuteŵetera nga ni pulezidenti. {|class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=3|President ! colspan=3|Term of office ! rowspan=2|Political party |- ! # ! Portrait ! Name ! Took office ! Left office ! Duration |- ! style="background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;"|1 | [[File:Nelson Mandela.jpg|60px]] | '''[[Nelson Mandela]]'''<br /><small>(1918–2013)</small> | 10 May 1994 | 16 June 1999 | {{nowrap|5 years}}, {{nowrap|37 days}} | [[African National Congress]] |- ! style="background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;"|2 | [[File:SthAfrica.ThaboMbeki.01.jpg|60px]] | '''[[Thabo Mbeki]]'''<br /><small>(1942–)</small> | 16 June 1999 | 24 September 2008<br /><small>(resigned)</small> | {{nowrap|9 years}}, {{nowrap|100 days}} | [[African National Congress]] |- ! style="background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;"|3 | [[File:GeorgeBushKgalemaMotlanthe crop.jpg|60px]] | '''[[Kgalema Motlanthe]]'''<br /><small>(1949–)</small> | 25 September 2008 | 9 May 2009 | {{nowrap|226 days}} | [[African National Congress]] |- ! style="background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;"|4 | [[File:Jacob G. Zuma - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 2010.jpg|60px]] | '''[[Jacob Zuma]]'''<br /><small>(1942–)</small> | 9 May 2009 | 14 February 2018<br /><small>(resigned)</small> | {{nowrap|8 years}}, {{nowrap|264 days}} | [[African National Congress]] |- ! style="background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;"|5 | [[File:Cyril Ramaphosa.jpg|60px]] | '''[[Cyril Ramaphosa]]'''<br /><small>(1952–)</small> | 15 February 2018 | Present | {{Age in years and days|2018|2|15}} | [[African National Congress]] |} ==Wonaniso== *[[Freedom Day (South Africa)]] *[[History of Africa]] *[[Scramble for Africa]] *[[History of Cape Colony]] *[[History of Johannesburg]] *[[History of the Northern Cape]] *[[History of South African wine]] *[[President of South Africa|List of presidents of South Africa]] *[[List of prime ministers of South Africa]] *[[List of heads of state of South Africa]] *[[List of South Africa-related topics]] *[[Military history of South Africa]] *[[Politics of South Africa]] *[[Timeline of South Africa]] *[[Timeline of liberal parties in South Africa]] *[[Years in South Africa]] * History of cities in South Africa: ** Cape Town [[History of Cape Town|history]] and [[Timeline of Cape Town|timeline]] ** Durban [[Durban#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Durban|timeline]] ** Johannesburg [[History of Johannesburg|history]] and [[Timeline of Johannesburg|timeline]] ** Pietermaritzburg [[History of Pietermaritzburg|history]] and [[Timeline of Pietermaritzburg|timeline]] ** Port Elizabeth [[History of Port Elizabeth|history]] and [[Timeline of Port Elizabeth|timeline]] ** Pretoria [[History of Pretoria|history]] and [[Timeline of Pretoria|timeline]] ==Ukaboni== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == ===General=== {{Refbegin|30em}} * [[William Beinart|Beinart, William]]. ''Twentieth-Century South Africa''. [[Oxford University Press]]. 2001. * Beck, Roger S. ''History of South Africa'', Greenwood Press, Westport CT: 2000 * Blignaut, Charl. "Untold History with a Historiography: A Review of Scholarship on Afrikaner Women in South African History." ''South African Historical Journal'' 65.4 (2013): 596–617. * Bunting, Brian. ''Rise of the South African Reich'' First published by Penguin Africa Library 1964, revised 1969. * Christopher, A. J. ''The Atlas of Changing South Africa''. 2000. 216 pages. {{ISBN|0-415-21178-6}}. * Deegan, Heather. ''The Politics of the New South Africa''. 2000. 256 pages. {{ISBN|0-582-38227-0}}. * Elbourne, Elizabeth. ''Blood Ground: Colonialism, Missions, and the Contest for Christianity in the Cape Colony and Britain, 1799–1853''. McGill-Queen's University Press. December 2002. 560 pages. {{ISBN|0-7735-2229-8}}. * Hamilton, Carolyn and Bernard K. Mbenga, eds. ''The Cambridge History of South Africa: Volume 1: From Early Times to 1885'' (2009) [https://web.archive.org/web/20150709095458/http://www.langtoninfo.com/web_content/9780521517942_frontmatter.pdf excerpt] * Hetherington, Penelope. "Women in South Africa: the historiography in English." ''The International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 26#2 (1993): 241–269. * {{Cite book |author-link=:cs:Ivan Hrbek |author=Hrbek, Ivan |title=Methodology and African Prehistory |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |year=1981 |isbn=0435948075 |editor-last=J. Ki-Zerbo |series=[[General History of Africa]] |volume=1 |pages=121–124 |chapter=Written sources from the fifteenth century onwards |quote=Republic of South Africa |chapter-url=http://www.unesco.org/new/index.php?id=50851}} * Johnson, R.W. ''South Africa's Brave New World: The Beloved Country Since the End of Apartheid'' (Overlook Press; 2011) 702 pages; a history since 1994 * Joyce, Peter. ''The Making of a Nation South Africa's Road to Freedom'', Zebra Press, 2004, {{ISBN|978-1-77007-312-8}} * Le Cordeur, Basil Alexander. ''The War of the Axe, 1847: Correspondence between the governor of the Cape Colony, Sir Henry Pottinger, and the commander of the British forces at the Cape, Sir George Berkeley, and others''. Brenthurst Press. 1981. 287 pages. {{ISBN|0-909079-14-5}}. * Mabin, Alan. ''Recession and its aftermath: The Cape Colony in the eighteen eighties''. University of the Witwatersrand, African Studies Institute. 1983. 27 pages. * Meiring, Hannes. ''Early Johannesburg, Its Buildings and People'', Human & Rousseau, 1986, 143 pages, {{ISBN|0-7981-1456-8}} * Mitchell, Laura. ''Belongings: Property, Family, and Identity in Colonial South Africa: An Exploration of Frontiers, 1725-c. 1830.'' [[Columbia University Press]], 2008. [http://www.gutenberg-e.org/mitchell/ Gutenberg-e.org] * Pakenham, Thomas. ''The Boer War'', Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1979, {{ISBN|9780349104669}} * Rosenthal, Eric. ''Gold! Gold! Gold! The Johannesburg Gold Rush'', AD. Donker, 1970, {{ISBN|0-949937-64-9}} * Ross, Robert, and David Anderson. ''Status and Respectability in the Cape Colony, 1750–1870 : A Tragedy of Manners''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. 1999. 220 pages. {{ISBN|0-521-62122-4}}. * Ross, Robert, Anne Kelk Mager and Bill Nasson, eds. ''The Cambridge History of South Africa: Volume 2 since 1885'' (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-History-South-Africa/dp/0521869838/ excerpt] * Thompson, Leonard. ''A History of South Africa, Third Edition''. Yale University Press. 2001. 384 pages. {{ISBN|0-300-08776-4}}. * Tomlinson, Richard, et al. ''Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Postapartheid City''. 2003. 336 pages. {{ISBN|0-415-93559-8}}. * [[Frank Welsh (writer)|Welsh, Frank]]. ''South Africa: A Narrative History''. Kodansha America. 1 February 1999. 606 pages. {{ISBN|1-56836-258-7}}. * Worden, Nigel. ''Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid''. 2000. 194 pages. {{ISBN|0-631-21661-8}}. {{Refend}} ===VOC period=== {{Refbegin|30em}} * Barend-van Haeften, Marijke; Paasman, Bert: ''De Kaap: Goede Hoop halverwege Indië. Bloemlezing van Kaapteksten uit de Compagnietijd''. (Hilversum: Verloren, 2003) * Biewenga, A.: ''De Kaap de Goede Hoop: Een Nederlandse Vestigingskolonie, 1680–1730''. (Amsterdam: Promotheus and Bert Bakker, 1999) * Botha, Colin Graham: ''The [[Huguenots in South Africa|French Refugees at the Cape]]''. (1919; reprint, Cape Town: C. Struik, 1970) * Bryer, Lynne; Theron, Francois: ''The Huguenot Heritage: The Story of the [[Huguenots in South Africa|Huguenots at the Cape]]''. (Diep River, Chameleon Press, 1987) * Coertzen, Pieter: ''Die Hugenote van Suid Afrika, 1688–1988''. (Cape Town: Tafelberg Publishers Limited, 1988) * Delmas, Adrien, 'The Role of Writing in the First Steps of the Colony: A Short Enquiry in the Journal of Jan van Riebeeck, 1652–1662', in ''Contingent Lives: Social Identity and Material Culture in the VOC World'', ed. [[Nigel Worden]] (Cape Town: Royal Netherlands Embassy, 2007) * Elphick, Richard; Giliomee, Hermann (eds.): ''The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840''. (Wesleyan University Press, 1989, {{ISBN|978-0819562111}}) * Fourie, J.; Boshoff, W. (2008). 'Explaining the Ship Traffic Fluctuations in the Early Cape Settlement: 1652–1793', South African Journal of Economic History, 23 (2008), pp.&nbsp;1–27. * Fourie, J.; Boshoff, W. (2010). 'The significance of the Cape trade route to economic activity in the Cape Colony: a medium-term business cycle analysis', European Review of Economic History, 14 (2010), pp.&nbsp;469–503. * Fourie, J. (2014). 'The quantitative Cape: A review of the new historiography of the Dutch Cape Colony', South African Historical Journal 66.1, 2014, pp.&nbsp;142–168. * Franken, J. L. N.: ''Die Hugenote aan die Kaap''. (Pretoria: Die Staatsdrukker, 1978) * Gerstner, Jonathan Neil: ''The Thousand Generation Covenant: Dutch Reformed Covenant Theology and Group Identity in Colonial South Africa, 1652–1814''. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991) * Godée Molsbergen, E.C.: ''Reizen in Zuid-Afrika in de Hollandse tijd: eerste deel, Tochten naar het noorden, 1652–1686''. ('s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976) * Godée Molsbergen, E.C.: ''Reizen in Zuid-Afrika in de Hollandse tijd: tweede deel, Tochten naar het noorden, 1686–1806''. ('s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976) * Godée Molsbergen, E.C.: ''Jan van Riebeeck en zijn tijd. Een stuk zeventiende-eeuws Oost-Indië'' [Jan van Riebeeck and his times: A piece of seventeenth-century East Indies]. (Amsterdam: P. N. Van Kampen en Zoon, 1937) * Groenewald, Gerald: ''Een Dienstig Inwoonder: Entrepreneurs, Social Capital and Identity in Cape Town, c. 1720–1750''. South African Historical Journal, 59, 1(2007), pp.&nbsp;126–152 * Guelke, Leonard (1976). "Frontier Settlement in Early Dutch South Africa,". (''Annals of the Association of American Geographers'' 66, no. 1 (March 1976): 25–42) * Huigen, Siegfried: ''Knowledge and Colonialism: Eighteenth-Century Travellers in South Africa''. (Leiden: Brill, 2009, pp. xii + 273 pp) * Hunt, John: ''[[Dutch Cape Colony|Dutch South Africa]]: Early Settlers at the Cape, 1652–1708''. (Leicester, UK: Matador, 2005, {{ISBN|978-1904744955}}) * Johnson, David: ''Imagining the Cape Colony: History, Literature and the South African Nation''. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012) * Lucas, Gavin: ''An Archaeology of Colonial Identity: Power and Material Culture in the Dwars Valley, South Africa''. (New York: Springer, 2006) * Marais, J.S.: ''The Cape Coloured People, 1652–1937''. (1939; reprint, Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1968) * Mitchell, L.J.: ''Belongings: Property and Identity in Colonial South Africa, an Exploration of Frontiers, 1725–c. 1830''. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009, pp. xv + 232) * Newton-King, Susan: ''Masters and Servants on the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1760–1803''. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999) * Raven-Hart, Rowland (ed.): ''Cape Good Hope, 1652–1702: The First Fifty Years of Dutch Colonisation as Seen by Callers'' [2 vols]. (Cape Town: A.A.Balkema, 1971) * Schoeman, Karel: ''Early Slavery at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1717''. (Pretoria: Protea Book House, 2007) * Schoeman, Karel: ''Portrait of a Slave Society: The Cape of Good Hope, 1717–1795''. (Pretoria: Protea Boekhuis, 2012) * Shell, Robert: ''Children of Bondage: A Social History of the Slave Society at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1838''. (Hanover, Conn.; Wesleya University Press, 1994) * Singh, Daleep: ''From Dutch South Africa to Republic of South Africa, 1652–1994. The Story of Three and a Half Centuries of Imperialism''. (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 2010) * [[Dan Sleigh|Sleigh, Dan]]: ''Die Buiteposte: VOC-buiteposte onder Kaapse Bestuur, 1652–1795''. (Pretoria: HAUM, 1993) * Stapleton, Timothy J.: ''A Military History of South Africa: From the [[Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars|Dutch-Khoi Wars]] to the End of Apartheid''. (Santa Barbara, CA.: Praeger, 2010) * Terreblanche, Sampie: ''A History of Inequality in South Africa, 1652–2002''. (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 2002) * Theal, George McCall: ''History of South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East India Company, 1652 to 1795''. Nabu Press, 2010, 474pp * Theal, George McCall: ''History of the Boers in South Africa; Or, the Wanderings and Wars of the Emigrant Farmers from Their Leaving the Cape Colony to the Acknowledgment of Their Independence by Great Britain''. (Greenwood Press, 1970, {{ISBN|0-8371-1661-9}}) * Twidle, Hedley (2013). ''Writing the Company: From VOC Daghregister to Sleigh's Eilande'', South African Historical Journal 65(1) (2013): 125–52. * [[Francois Valentijn|Valentijn, Francois]]: ''Description of the Cape of Good Hope with Matters Concerning It''. (Amsterdam, 1726). [Edited and annotated by Prof. P. Serton, Maj. B. Raven-Hart, Dr. W. J. de Kock.] * Van der Merwe, P. J. : ''The Migrant Farmer in the History of the Cape Colony, 1657–1842''. Translated from the Dutch by Roger B. Beck. (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1995) * Van Duin, Pieter; Ross, Robert: ''The Economy of the Cape Colony in the Eighteenth Century''. (Leiden: Centre for the History of European Expansion, 1987, pp. viii + 166) * [[Jan van Riebeeck|Van Riebeeck, Jan]]: ''1652–1662, Daghregister gehouden by den oppercoopman Jan Anthonisz van Riebeeck''. In Bosman, D.B. & B. Thorn (eds). ''Daghregister Gehouden by den Oppercoopman Jan Anthonisz van Riebeeck'', 3 vols. [Treated as a sequence of eleven manuscripts]. (Cape Town: Balkema, 1952–1957) * Verstegen, M.: ''De Indische Zeeherberg, De stichting van Zuid-Afrika door de VOC''. (Zaltbommel, 2001) * Viljoen, Russel: ''Jan Paerl: A Khoikhoi in Cape Colonial Society, 1761–1851''. (Boston, MA: Brill, 2006, pp. xviii + 213) * Viljoen, Russel S. (1995). "Disease and Society: VOC Cape Town, Its People, and the Smallpox Epidemics of 1713, 1755, and 1767," Kleio 27 * Welch, Sidney: ''Portuguese and Dutch in South Africa, 1641–1806''. (Cape Town: Juta Press, 1951) * {{Cite book |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |title=Slavery in Dutch South Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/slaveryindutchso0000word |isbn=9780521258753 |date=1985 |pages=xiii, 207}} * {{Cite book |author-link1=Nigel Worden |last1=Worden |first1=Nigel |last2=van Heyningen |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Bickford-Smith |first3=Vivian |title=Cape Town: The Making of a City |isbn=9780864866561 |date=1998}} * {{Cite book |editor-link1=Nigel Worden |editor-last1=Worden |editor-first1=Nigel |editor-last2=Groenewald |editor-first2=G. |title=Trials of Slavery: Selected Documents Concerning Slaves from the Criminal Records of the Council of Justice at the Cape of Good Hope, 1705–1794 |location=Cape Town |publisher=Van Riebeeck Society for the Publication of South African Historical Documents |date=2005}} * {{Cite book |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2007 |title=Contingent Lives: Social Identity and Material Culture in the VOC World |isbn=9780620385091 |page=vi, 612}} * {{Cite book |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2007 |title=VOC Cape Town as an Indian Ocean Port |editor-first1=Himanshu Prabha |editor-last1=Ray |editor-first2=Edward A. |editor-last2=Alpers |work=Cross Currents and Community Networks: The History of the Indian Ocean World |isbn=9780195677058 |pages=142–162}} * {{Cite journal |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2007 |title=New Approaches to VOC History in South Africa |journal=[[South African Historical Journal]] |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=3–18|doi=10.1080/02582470709464770 |s2cid=145747452 }} * {{Cite journal |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2010 |title=After Race and Class: Recent Trends in the Historiography of Early Colonial Cape Society |journal=[[South African Historical Journal]] |volume=62|issue=3 |pages=589–602 |doi=10.1080/02582473.2010.519904 |hdl=11427/28195 |s2cid=161070564 |hdl-access=free }} * {{Cite book |editor-link=Nigel Worden |editor-last=Worden |editor-first=Nigel |date=2012 |title=Cape Town between East and West: Social Identities in a Dutch Colonial Town |isbn=9781431402922 |page=xxii, 264}} * {{Cite journal |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2014 |title=Cape Slaves in the Paper Empire of the VOC |journal=Kronos |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=23–44}} * {{Cite journal |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2016 |title=Indian Ocean Slaves in Cape Town, 1695–1807 |journal=[[Journal of Southern African Studies]] |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=389–408|doi=10.1080/03057070.2016.1171554 |s2cid=147980814 }} {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == * [http://www.saha.org.za/collections.htm South African History Archive] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200534/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=%2Fp164001coll21&CISOPTR=224&CISOBOX=1&REC=3 Democratic Development in South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200534/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=%2Fp164001coll21&CISOPTR=224&CISOBOX=1&REC=3 |date=3 March 2016 }} from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20120112062354/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/ Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112062354/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/ |date=12 January 2012 }} * [http://www.sahistory.org.za South African History Online] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160407183735/http://mediaclub.co.za/culture/35-culture/culture-bg/104-history The History of South Africa] Brand South Africa. Accessed 24 November 2017. * [http://www.gov.za South Africa Government Online]. Accessed 20 February 2005. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621043856/http://www.villagelife.co.za/NewFiles/15_hromnik.pdf Dr Cyril Hromník on research into ancient history of Africa] – an article written by Maré Mouton. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050414045450/http://www.afrikanerbond.org.za/Dokideal.pdf ''Bearer of an Ideal''] – a public-release document of the Afrikanerbond (formerly ''Afrikaner Broederbond''): think-tank which influenced policies of separate development in South Africa * [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/11.htm Full text of the UN convention] * [https://www.npr.org/news/specials/mandela/ South Africa, 10 years later] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130112958/https://www.npr.org/news/specials/mandela/ |date=30 November 2018 }} from US [[National Public Radio]] * {{cite web |work=LibGuides |title=History: Useful links |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171104181021/http://libguides.ukzn.ac.za/content.php?pid=470272&sid=3850521 |publisher=[[University of KwaZulu-Natal]] Libraries }} * {{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005151526/http://www.archivalplatform.org/registry/ |title=Registry |work=[[Archivalplatform.org]] |location=Rondebosch |access-date=5 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005151526/https://web.archive.org/web/20171005151526/http://www.archivalplatform.org/registry/ |archive-date=5 October 2017 }} (Directory of South African archival and memory institutions and organisations) {{Navboxes |list = {{South Africa topics}} {{Political history of South Africa}} {{South Africa year nav}} {{History of Africa}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:History Of South Africa}} [[Category:History of South Africa| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] 5lw7fvuva1h9j4ym15vtfcc7af51rsr 0 41839 122350 121868 2026-09-25T01:07:20Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122350 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Standard Normal Distribution-en.svg|right|thumb|Kugaŵa kwakaŵiri-kaŵiri, ako kali kakusangika chomene mu kuthithika kwa unandi, kukugwiliskika chomene pa Kusanthura-Maŵiro.]] [[File:Iris_Pairs_Plot.svg|right|thumb|Minda ya kumija na ma tchati gha mzere, yakugwiliskika chomene mu Kusanthura-Maŵiro kwa kulongosoleka kuwoneska ubali pakati pa visintho vyakupambana, apa kugwiriska chibwayila cha Iris flower.]] '''Kusanthura-Maŵiro''' (kufuma ku [[German language|ChiGerman]]: ''[[wikt:Statistik#German|Statistik]]'', {{Abbr|orig.|originally}} "kulongosora [[State (polity)|boma]], la charu")<ref>{{Cite OED|statistics}}</ref><ref>“[https://www.dwds.de/?q=Statistik Statistik]” in ''Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache''</ref> ni kafukufuku uyo wakukhwaskana na kuwunjika, kwendeska, kusanda, kung'anamura, na kulongosora [[uthenga]].<ref name=ox>{{cite book|title = Oxford Reference|chapter = Statistics|date = January 2008|publisher = Oxford University Press|isbn = 978-0-19-954145-4|url = https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199541454.001.0001/acref-9780199541454-e-1566?rskey=nxhBLl&result=1979|access-date = 2019-08-14|archive-date = 2020-09-03|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200903144424/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199541454.001.0001/acref-9780199541454-e-1566?rskey=nxhBLl&result=1979|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Jan-Willem |last=Romijn |year=2014 |title=Philosophy of statistics |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/statistics/ |access-date=2016-11-03 |archive-date=2021-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019033058/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/statistics/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Cambridge Dictionary | url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/statistics | access-date=2019-08-14 | archive-date=2020-11-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122210156/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/statistics | url-status=live }}</ref> Para tikugwiliskira ntchito Kusanthura-Maŵiro pa suzgo la [[sayansi]], malonda, panji la umoyo wa ŵanthu, kanandi tikwamba na [[Unandi-wose]] panjiso [[kayezgero ka Kusanthura-Maŵiro]] ako katiŵazgikenge. Unandi-wose, ungaŵa vigaŵa vyakupambana pambana vya ŵanthu panji vinthu nga "ŵanthu ŵose ŵakukhala mu charu" panji "chimenyu chilichose chakuwumba khristoli". Kusanthura-Maŵiro kukuwona vyose vyakukhwaskana na umo vinthu viliri, kusazgapo ndondomeko ya kunozga ma [[statistical survey|Save]] na [[experimental design|ma kafukufuku]].<ref name=Dodge>Dodge, Y. (2006) ''The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms'', Oxford University Press. {{isbn|0-19-920613-9}}</ref> Pala uthenga wa [[chipendero]] ungatoleleka yayi, [[waKusanthura-Maŵiro]] wakutolela uthenga pakupanga makafukufuku na ma save ago ghakugwiliska ntchito [[sample (statistics)|viyezgero]]. Kutola viyezgero vyakwimilra yikuwoneseska kuti fundo zingatandazga mwa mahara kufuma ku kachiyezgero kuluta ku unandi-wose mwanthunthu. [[experimental study|Kafukufuku wakusanda]] kukukhwaska kupima vinthu ivyo vikusangika mu ndondomeko iyo yikusambizgika, kunjizgapo vinthu vinyake ivyo vikusintha vinthu ivi, na kupima vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika mwakuyana na ndondomeko iyo yikapangika kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye usange vinthu ivi vyasintha vinthu ivyo vikupima. Mwakupambaniska, [[observational study|kusanda Kwakulaŵilira]] kukukhwaska kafukufuku wakuseŵeleska yayi. Vyakudanga viŵiri mwa nthowa za Kusanthura-Maŵiro yakugwiliskika mu [[data analysis|kusanda uthenga]]: [[descriptive statistics|Kusanthura-Maŵiro kwakulongosoleka]], Ivyo vikuyowoya mwakudumura ivyo vyafuma mu viyezgero kugwiriska [[Index (statistics)|maindekse]] nthe [[mean|tikatikati]] panji [[standard deviation|yisezgo yakukhazikika]], na [[statistical inference|Kusanthura-Maŵiro mwa fundo]], izo zikufunya fundo kufuma pa uthenga uwo ukupambanangapambananga (nthe, vyakubekeka mwautesi, upambano wa viyezgero).<ref name=LundResearchLtd>{{cite web |last=Lund Research Ltd. |url=https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/descriptive-inferential-statistics.php |title=Descriptive and Inferential Statistics |publisher=statistics.laerd.com |access-date=2014-03-23 |archive-date=2020-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026075549/https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/descriptive-inferential-statistics.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusanthura-Maŵiro ghakulongosoleka kanandi ghakukhwaska magulu yaŵiri ya maunenesko gha chigaŵo (chiyezgero panji unandi-wose): ''[[central tendency|uzgoloŵezgi wa pakati]]'' (pangi malo) uikukhumba kulongora umo vinthu viliri pakatikati panji umo vikuŵira, apo kusakatuka (panji kuti kusinthasintha) kukulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakufumira pakati pa vinthu. Fundo zakuroska mu [[mathematical statistics|Kusanthura-Maŵiro musamuzi]] zikupangika pa chizengero cha [[probability theory|fundo ya mayero]], iyi yikulongosora umo vinthu vikuchitikira mwamwaŵi. Kanandi ndondomeko ya Kusanthura-Maŵiro kukukhwaska kutolela kwa uthenga kulazgiska ku [[statistical hypothesis testing|kuyezga kwa ubali]] pakati pa vibwayila viŵiri vya Kusanthura-Maŵiro, panji vibwayila vyauthenga na mauthenga ghakuwumbika na ŵanthu kufuma ku chiyezgero chakuwumbika mwausuma. Chiloskero chikupelekeka kulongosola ubali wa Kusanthura-Maŵiro pakati pa vibwayila viŵiri vyauthenga, ndipo this is compared as an [[alternative hypothesis|alternative]] to an idealized [[null hypothesis]] of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can be proven false, given the data that are used in the test. Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized: [[Type I error]]s (null hypothesis is falsely rejected giving a "false positive") and [[Type II error]]s (null hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual relationship between populations is missed giving a "false negative"). Statistical measurement processes are also prone to error in regards to the data that they generate. Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic ([[Bias (statistics)|bias]]), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also occur. The presence of [[missing data]] or [[censoring (statistics)|censoring]] may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems. {{TOC limit|3}} == Vyakudanga == {{main|Outline of statistics}} Statistics is a mathematical body of science that pertains to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of [[data]],<ref>Moses, Lincoln E. (1986) ''Think and Explain with Statistics'', Addison-Wesley, {{isbn|978-0-201-15619-5}}. pp. 1–3</ref> or as a branch of [[mathematics]].<ref>Hays, William Lee, (1973) ''Statistics for the Social Sciences'', Holt, Rinehart and Winston, p. xii, {{isbn|978-0-03-077945-9}}</ref> Some consider statistics to be a distinct [[mathematical sciences|mathematical science]] rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make use of data, statistics is concerned with the use of data in the context of uncertainty and decision-making in the face of uncertainty.<ref>{{cite book |last=Moore |first=David |title=Statistics for the Twenty-First Century |publisher=The Mathematical Association of America |editor=F. Gordon |editor2=S. Gordon |location=Washington, DC |year=1992 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statisticsfortwe0000unse/page/14 14–25] |chapter=Teaching Statistics as a Respectable Subject |isbn=978-0-88385-078-7 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/statisticsfortwe0000unse/page/14 }} </ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chance |first=Beth L. |author1-link=Beth Chance |author2=Rossman, Allan J. |title=Investigating Statistical Concepts, Applications, and Methods |publisher=Duxbury Press |year=2005 |chapter=Preface |isbn=978-0-495-05064-3 |chapter-url=http://www.rossmanchance.com/iscam/preface.pdf |access-date=2009-12-06 |archive-date=2020-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122092901/http://www.rossmanchance.com/iscam/preface.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In applying statistics to a problem, it is common practice to start with a [[statistical population|population]] or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics, such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Ideally, statisticians compile data about the entire population (an operation called a [[census]]). This may be organized by governmental statistical institutes. ''[[Descriptive statistics]]'' can be used to summarize the population data. Numerical descriptors include [[mean]] and [[standard deviation]] for [[Continuous probability distribution|continuous data]] (like income), while frequency and percentage are more useful in terms of describing [[categorical data]] (like education). When a census is not feasible, a chosen subset of the population called a [[sampling (statistics)|sample]] is studied. Once a sample that is representative of the population is determined, data is collected for the sample members in an observational or [[experiment]]al setting. Again, descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the sample data. However, drawing the sample contains an element of randomness; hence, the numerical descriptors from the sample are also prone to uncertainty. To draw meaningful conclusions about the entire population, ''[[inferential statistics]]'' are needed. It uses patterns in the sample data to draw inferences about the population represented while accounting for randomness. These inferences may take the form of answering yes/no questions about the data ([[hypothesis testing]]), estimating numerical characteristics of the data ([[Estimation theory|estimation]]), describing [[Association (statistics)|associations]] within the data ([[correlation and dependence|correlation]]), and modeling relationships within the data (for example, using [[regression analysis]]). Inference can extend to the [[forecasting]], [[prediction]], and estimation of unobserved values either in or associated with the population being studied. It can include [[extrapolation]] and [[interpolation]] of [[time series]] or [[spatial statistics|spatial data]], as well as [[data mining]]. ===Mathematical statistics=== {{main|Mathematical statistics}} Mathematical statistics is the application of [[mathematics]] to statistics. Mathematical techniques used for this include [[mathematical analysis]], [[linear algebra]], [[stochastic analysis]], [[differential equations]], and [[measure-theoretic probability theory]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lakshmikantham|first1=D. |last2=Kannan|first2= V.|title=Handbook of stochastic analysis and applications|date=2002|publisher=M. Dekker|location=New York|isbn=0824706609}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Schervish|first=Mark J.|title=Theory of statistics|date=1995|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=0387945466|edition=Corr. 2nd print.}}</ref> == Mbiri == {{main|History of statistics|Founders of statistics}} [[File:Jakob Bernoulli.jpg|thumb|Bernoulli's ''[[Ars Conjectandi]]'' was the first work that dealt with [[probability theory]] as currently understood.]] Formal discussions on inference date back to [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|Arab mathematicians]] and [[cryptographers]], during the [[Islamic Golden Age]] between the 8th and 13th centuries. [[Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi|Al-Khalil]] (717–786) wrote the ''Book of Cryptographic Messages'', which contains one of the first uses of [[permutation]]s and [[combination]]s, to list all possible [[Arabic language|Arabic]] words with and without vowels.<ref name="LB">{{cite journal|last=Broemeling|first=Lyle D.|title=An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology|journal=The American Statistician|date=1 November 2011|volume=65|issue=4|pages=255–257|doi=10.1198/tas.2011.10191|s2cid=123537702}}</ref> [[Al-Kindi|Al-Kindi's]] ''Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages'' gave a detailed description of how to use [[frequency analysis]] to decipher [[encrypted]] messages, providing an early example of [[statistical inference]] for [[Code|decoding]]. [[Ibn Adlan]] (1187–1268) later made an important contribution on the use of [[sample size]] in frequency analysis.<ref name="LB"/> The term 'statistic' was introduced by the Italian scholar [[Girolamo Ghilini]] in 1589 with reference to this science.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ostasiewicz |first=Walenty |year=2014 |title=The emergence of statistical science |journal=Śląski Przegląd Statystyczny |volume=12 |issue=18 |doi=10.15611/sps.2014.12.04 |pages=76–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruneau |first=Quentin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63RnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT64 |title=States and the Masters of Capital: Sovereign Lending, Old and New |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-0231555647}}</ref> The earliest writing containing statistics in [[Europe]] dates back to 1663, with the publication of ''[[Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality]]'' by [[John Graunt]].<ref>Willcox, Walter (1938) "The Founder of Statistics". ''Review of the [[International Statistical Institute]]'' 5(4): 321–328. {{JSTOR|1400906}}</ref> Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its [[History of statistics#Etymology|''stat-'' etymology]]. The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics is widely employed in government, business, and natural and social sciences. The mathematical foundations of statistics developed from discussions concerning [[Game of chance|games of chance]] among mathematicians such as [[Gerolamo Cardano]], [[Blaise Pascal]], [[Pierre de Fermat]], and [[Christiaan Huygens]]. Although the idea of probability was already examined in ancient and medieval law and philosophy (such as the work of [[Juan Caramuel]]), [[probability theory]] as a mathematical discipline only took shape at the very end of the 17th century, particularly in [[Jacob Bernoulli|Jacob Bernoulli's]] posthumous work ''[[Ars Conjectandi]]''.<ref>J. Franklin, The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability before Pascal, Johns Hopkins Univ Pr 2002</ref> This was the first book where the realm of games of chance and the realm of the probable (which concerned opinion, evidence, and argument) were combined and submitted to mathematical analysis.<ref>Schneider, I. (2005). Jakob Bernoulli, ''Ars Conjectandi'' (1713). In I. Grattan-Guinness (Ed.), ''Landmark writings in Western Mathematics, 1640-1940'' (pp. 88-103). </ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sylla |first1=E. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xgwSAjTh34C |title=The Art of Conjecturing, Together with Letter to a Friend on Sets in Court Tennis (trans.) |last2=Bernoulli |first2=Jacob |publisher=JHU Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8018-8235-7 |language=en}}</ref> The [[method of least squares]] was first described by [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]] in 1805, though [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] presumably made use of it a decade earlier in 1795.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lim |first=M. |date=2021 |title=Gauss, Least Squares, and the Missing Planet |url=https://www.actuaries.digital/2021/03/31/gauss-least-squares-and-the-missing-planet/ |access-date=2022-11-01 |website=Actuaries Digital}}</ref> [[File:Karl Pearson, 1910.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.05|[[Karl Pearson]], a founder of mathematical statistics.]] The modern field of statistics emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century in three stages.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYFRAAAAMAAJ|title=Studies in the history of statistical method|author=Helen Mary Walker|author-link=Helen M. Walker|year=1975|publisher=Arno Press|isbn=978-0405066283|access-date=2015-06-27|archive-date=2020-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141905/https://books.google.com/books?id=jYFRAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The first wave, at the turn of the century, was led by the work of [[Francis Galton]] and [[Karl Pearson]], who transformed statistics into a rigorous mathematical discipline used for analysis, not just in science, but in industry and politics as well. Galton's contributions included introducing the concepts of [[standard deviation]], [[correlation]], [[regression analysis]] and the application of these methods to the study of the variety of human characteristics—height, weight and eyelash length among others.<ref name=Galton1877>{{cite journal | last1 = Galton | first1 = F | year = 1877 | title = Typical laws of heredity | journal = Nature | volume = 15 | issue = 388| pages = 492–553 | doi=10.1038/015492a0| bibcode = 1877Natur..15..492. | doi-access = free }}</ref> Pearson developed the [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient]], defined as a product-moment,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1214/ss/1177012580 | last1 = Stigler | first1 = S.M. | year = 1989 | title = Francis Galton's Account of the Invention of Correlation | journal = Statistical Science | volume = 4 | issue = 2| pages = 73–79 | doi-access = free }}</ref> the [[Method of moments (statistics)|method of moments]] for the fitting of distributions to samples and the [[Pearson distribution]], among many other things.<ref name="Pearson, On the criterion">{{Cite journal|last1=Pearson|first1=K.|year=1900|title=On the Criterion that a given System of Deviations from the Probable in the Case of a Correlated System of Variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from Random Sampling|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1430618|journal=Philosophical Magazine|series=Series 5|volume=50|issue=302|pages=157–175|doi=10.1080/14786440009463897|access-date=2019-06-27|archive-date=2020-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818110818/https://zenodo.org/record/1430618|url-status=live}}</ref> Galton and Pearson founded ''[[Biometrika]]'' as the first journal of mathematical statistics and [[biostatistics]] (then called biometry), and the latter founded the world's first university statistics department at [[University College London]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Karl Pearson (1857–1936)|publisher=Department of Statistical Science&nbsp;– [[University College London]]|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/stats/department/pearson.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925065418/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/stats/department/pearson.html|archive-date=2008-09-25}}</ref> The second wave of the 1910s and 20s was initiated by [[William Sealy Gosset]], and reached its culmination in the insights of [[Ronald Fisher]], who wrote the textbooks that were to define the academic discipline in universities around the world. Fisher's most important publications were his 1918 seminal paper ''[[The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance]]'' (which was the first to use the statistical term, [[variance]]), his classic 1925 work ''[[Statistical Methods for Research Workers]]'' and his 1935 ''[[The Design of Experiments]]'',<ref>{{cite journal | author = Box, JF | title = R.A. Fisher and the Design of Experiments, 1922–1926 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-statistician_1980-02_34_1/page/n1 | jstor = 2682986 | journal = [[The American Statistician]] | volume = 34 | issue = 1 |date=February 1980 | pages = 1–7 | doi = 10.2307/2682986}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Yates, F | title = Sir Ronald Fisher and the Design of Experiments | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biometrics_1964-06_20_2/page/307 | jstor = 2528399 | journal = [[Biometrics (journal)|Biometrics]] | volume = 20 | issue = 2 |date=June 1964 | pages = 307–321 | doi = 10.2307/2528399}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Influence of Fisher's "The Design of Experiments" on Educational Research Thirty Years Later |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-educational-research-journal_1966-05_3_3/page/223 |first1=Julian C. |last1=Stanley |journal=American Educational Research Journal |volume=3 |issue=3 |year=1966|pages= 223–229 |jstor=1161806 |doi=10.3102/00028312003003223|s2cid=145725524 }}</ref> where he developed rigorous [[design of experiments]] models. He originated the concepts of [[sufficiency (statistics)|sufficiency]], [[ancillary statistic]]s, [[linear discriminant analysis|Fisher's linear discriminator]] and [[Fisher information]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Agresti|first=Alan|author2=David B. Hichcock|year=2005|title=Bayesian Inference for Categorical Data Analysis|journal=Statistical Methods & Applications|issue=3|page=298|url=http://www.stat.ufl.edu/~aa/articles/agresti_hitchcock_2005.pdf|doi=10.1007/s10260-005-0121-y|volume=14|s2cid=18896230|access-date=2013-12-19|archive-date=2013-12-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219212926/http://www.stat.ufl.edu/~aa/articles/agresti_hitchcock_2005.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> He also coined the term [[null hypothesis]] during the [[Lady tasting tea]] experiment, which "is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation".<ref name="oed">OED quote: '''1935''' R.A. Fisher, ''[[The Design of Experiments]]'' ii. 19, "We may speak of this hypothesis as the 'null hypothesis', and the null hypothesis is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation."</ref><ref>Fisher|1971|loc=Chapter II. The Principles of Experimentation, Illustrated by a Psycho-physical Experiment, Section 8. The Null Hypothesis</ref> In his 1930 book ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]'', he applied statistics to various [[biology|biological]] concepts such as [[Fisher's principle]]<ref name="Edwards98">{{cite journal|last1=Edwards|first1=A.W.F.|year=1998|title=Natural Selection and the Sex Ratio: Fisher's Sources|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-naturalist_1998-06_151_6/page/564|journal=American Naturalist|volume=151|issue=6|pages=564–569|doi=10.1086/286141|pmid=18811377|s2cid=40540426}}</ref> (which [[A. W. F. Edwards]] called "probably the most celebrated argument in [[evolutionary biology]]") and [[Fisherian runaway]],<ref name="fisher15">Fisher, R.A. (1915) The evolution of sexual preference. Eugenics Review (7) 184:192</ref><ref name="fisher30">Fisher, R.A. (1930) [[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]. {{isbn|0-19-850440-3}}</ref><ref name="pers00">Edwards, A.W.F. (2000) Perspectives: Anecdotal, Historical and Critical Commentaries on Genetics. The Genetics Society of America (154) 1419:1426</ref><ref name="ander94">{{cite book|last = Andersson|first = Malte|date = 1994|title = Sexual Selection|isbn = 0-691-00057-3|publisher = Princeton University Press|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lNnHdvzBlTYC|access-date = 2019-09-19|archive-date = 2019-12-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191225202726/https://books.google.com/books?id=lNnHdvzBlTYC|url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="ander06">Andersson, M. and Simmons, L.W. (2006) Sexual selection and mate choice. Trends, Ecology and Evolution (21) 296:302</ref><ref name="gayon10">Gayon, J. (2010) Sexual selection: Another Darwinian process. Comptes Rendus Biologies (333) 134:144</ref> a concept in [[sexual selection]] about a positive feedback runaway effect found in [[evolution]]. The final wave, which mainly saw the refinement and expansion of earlier developments, emerged from the collaborative work between [[Egon Pearson]] and [[Jerzy Neyman]] in the 1930s. They introduced the concepts of "[[Type I and type II errors|Type II]]" error, [[power of a test]] and [[confidence interval]]s. Jerzy Neyman in 1934 showed that stratified random sampling was in general a better method of estimation than purposive (quota) sampling.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Neyman | first1 = J | year = 1934 | title = On the two different aspects of the representative method: The method of stratified sampling and the method of purposive selection | journal = [[Journal of the Royal Statistical Society]] | volume = 97 | issue = 4| pages = 557–625 | jstor=2342192| doi = 10.2307/2342192 }}</ref> Today, statistical methods are applied in all fields that involve decision making, for making accurate inferences from a collated body of data and for making decisions in the face of uncertainty based on statistical methodology. The use of modern [[computer]]s has expedited large-scale statistical computations and has also made possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually. Statistics continues to be an area of active research, for example on the problem of how to analyze [[big data]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.santafe.edu/news/item/sfnm-wood-big-data/|title=Science in a Complex World – Big Data: Opportunity or Threat?|work=Santa Fe Institute|access-date=2014-10-13|archive-date=2016-05-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530001750/http://www.santafe.edu/news/item/sfnm-wood-big-data/|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Mauthenga gha Kusanthura-Maŵiro== {{main|Statistical data}} === Kutolela uthenga === ====Kutolela Viyezgero==== When full census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect sample data by developing specific [[design of experiments|experiment designs]] and [[survey sampling|survey samples]]. Statistics itself also provides tools for prediction and forecasting through [[statistical model]]s. To use a sample as a guide to an entire population, it is important that it truly represents the overall population. Representative [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] assures that inferences and conclusions can safely extend from the sample to the population as a whole. A major problem lies in determining the extent that the sample chosen is actually representative. Statistics offers methods to estimate and correct for any bias within the sample and data collection procedures. There are also methods of experimental design that can lessen these issues at the outset of a study, strengthening its capability to discern truths about the population. Sampling theory is part of the [[mathematics|mathematical discipline]] of [[probability theory]]. Probability is used in [[statistical theory|mathematical statistics]] to study the [[sampling distribution]]s of [[sample statistic]]s and, more generally, the properties of [[statistical decision theory|statistical procedures]]. The use of any statistical method is valid when the system or population under consideration satisfies the assumptions of the method. The difference in point of view between classic probability theory and sampling theory is, roughly, that probability theory starts from the given parameters of a total population to [[deductive reasoning|deduce]] probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical inference, however, moves in the opposite direction—[[inductive reasoning|inductively inferring]] from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population. ====Experimental and observational studies==== A common goal for a statistical research project is to investigate [[causality]], and in particular to draw a conclusion on the effect of changes in the values of predictors or [[Dependent and independent variables|independent variables on dependent variables]]. There are two major types of causal statistical studies: [[Experiment|experimental studies]] and [[Observational study|observational studies]]. In both types of studies, the effect of differences of an independent variable (or variables) on the behavior of the dependent variable are observed. The difference between the two types lies in how the study is actually conducted. Each can be very effective. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve [[Scientific control|experimental manipulation]]. Instead, data are gathered and correlations between predictors and response are investigated. While the tools of data analysis work best on data from [[Randomized controlled trial|randomized studies]], they are also applied to other kinds of data—like [[natural experiment]]s and [[Observational study|observational studies]]<ref>[[David A. Freedman (statistician)|Freedman, D.A.]] (2005) ''Statistical Models: Theory and Practice'', Cambridge University Press. {{isbn|978-0-521-67105-7}}</ref>—for which a statistician would use a modified, more structured estimation method (e.g., [[Difference in differences|Difference in differences estimation]] and [[instrumental variable]]s, among many others) that produce [[consistent estimator]]s. =====Vifukufuku===== The basic steps of a statistical experiment are: # Planning the research, including finding the number of replicates of the study, using the following information: preliminary estimates regarding the size of [[Average treatment effect|treatment effects]], [[alternative hypothesis|alternative hypotheses]], and the estimated [[experimental error|experimental variability]]. Consideration of the selection of experimental subjects and the ethics of research is necessary. Statisticians recommend that experiments compare (at least) one new treatment with a standard treatment or control, to allow an unbiased estimate of the difference in treatment effects. # [[Design of experiments]], using [[blocking (statistics)|blocking]] to reduce the influence of [[confounding variable]]s, and [[randomized assignment]] of treatments to subjects to allow [[bias of an estimator|unbiased estimates]] of treatment effects and experimental error. At this stage, the experimenters and statisticians write the ''[[protocol (natural sciences)|experimental protocol]]'' that will guide the performance of the experiment and which specifies the'' primary analysis'' of the experimental data. # Performing the experiment following the [[Protocol (natural sciences)|experimental protocol]] and [[analysis of variance|analyzing the data]] following the experimental protocol. # Further examining the data set in secondary analyses, to suggest new hypotheses for future study. # Documenting and presenting the results of the study. Experiments on human behavior have special concerns. The famous [[Hawthorne study]] examined changes to the working environment at the Hawthorne plant of the [[Western Electric Company]]. The researchers were interested in determining whether increased illumination would increase the productivity of the [[assembly line]] workers. The researchers first measured the productivity in the plant, then modified the illumination in an area of the plant and checked if the changes in illumination affected productivity. It turned out that productivity indeed improved (under the experimental conditions). However, the study is heavily criticized today for errors in experimental procedures, specifically for the lack of a [[control group]] and [[double-blind|blindness]]. The [[Hawthorne effect]] refers to finding that an outcome (in this case, worker productivity) changed due to observation itself. Those in the Hawthorne study became more productive not because the lighting was changed but because they were being observed.<ref name="pmid17608932">{{cite journal |vauthors=McCarney R, Warner J, Iliffe S, van Haselen R, Griffin M, Fisher P |title=The Hawthorne Effect: a randomised, controlled trial |journal=BMC Med Res Methodol |volume=7|pages=30 |year=2007 |pmid=17608932 |pmc=1936999 |doi=10.1186/1471-2288-7-30 |issue=1}}</ref> =====Kuŵazga Kwakulaŵilila===== An example of an observational study is one that explores the association between smoking and lung cancer. This type of study typically uses a survey to collect observations about the area of interest and then performs statistical analysis. In this case, the researchers would collect observations of both smokers and non-smokers, perhaps through a [[cohort study]], and then look for the number of cases of lung cancer in each group.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Rothman|editor1-first=Kenneth J|editor2-last=Greenland|editor2-first=Sander|editor3-last=Lash|editor3-first=Timothy|title=Modern Epidemiology|url=https://archive.org/details/modernepidemiolo00roth|url-access=limited|date=2008|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|page=[https://archive.org/details/modernepidemiolo00roth/page/n100 100]|edition=3rd|language=en|chapter=7|isbn=978-0781755641}}</ref> A [[case-control study]] is another type of observational study in which people with and without the outcome of interest (e.g. lung cancer) are invited to participate and their exposure histories are collected. ===Mitundu ya uthenga=== {{main|Statistical data type||Levels of measurement}} Various attempts have been made to produce a taxonomy of [[level of measurement|levels of measurement]]. The psychophysicist [[Stanley Smith Stevens]] defined nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. Nominal measurements do not have meaningful rank order among values, and permit any one-to-one (injective) transformation. Ordinal measurements have imprecise differences between consecutive values, but have a meaningful order to those values, and permit any order-preserving transformation. Interval measurements have meaningful distances between measurements defined, but the zero value is arbitrary (as in the case with [[longitude]] and [[temperature]] measurements in [[Celsius]] or [[Fahrenheit]]), and permit any linear transformation. Ratio measurements have both a meaningful zero value and the distances between different measurements defined, and permit any rescaling transformation. Because variables conforming only to nominal or ordinal measurements cannot be reasonably measured numerically, sometimes they are grouped together as [[categorical variable]]s, whereas ratio and interval measurements are grouped together as [[Variable (mathematics)#Applied statistics|quantitative variables]], which can be either [[Probability distribution#Discrete probability distribution|discrete]] or [[Probability distribution#Continuous probability distribution|continuous]], due to their numerical nature. Such distinctions can often be loosely correlated with [[data type]] in computer science, in that dichotomous categorical variables may be represented with the [[Boolean data type]], polytomous categorical variables with arbitrarily assigned [[integer]]s in the [[integer (computer science)|integral data type]], and continuous variables with the [[real data type]] involving [[floating-point arithmetic]]. But the mapping of computer science data types to statistical data types depends on which categorization of the latter is being implemented. Other categorizations have been proposed. For example, Mosteller and Tukey (1977)<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Mosteller | first1 = F. | author-link1 = Frederick Mosteller | last2 = Tukey | first2 = J.W | author-link2 = John Tukey | year = 1977 | title = Data analysis and regression | url = https://archive.org/details/dataanalysisregr0000most | location = Boston | publisher = Addison-Wesley}}</ref> distinguished grades, ranks, counted fractions, counts, amounts, and balances. Nelder (1990)<ref>[[John Nelder|Nelder, J.A.]] (1990). The knowledge needed to computerise the analysis and interpretation of statistical information. In ''Expert systems and artificial intelligence: the need for information about data''. Library Association Report, London, March, 23–27.</ref> described continuous counts, continuous ratios, count ratios, and categorical modes of data. (See also: Chrisman (1998),<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chrisman | first1 = Nicholas R | year = 1998 | title = Rethinking Levels of Measurement for Cartography | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_cartography-and-geographic-information-science_1998-10_25_4/page/231 | journal = Cartography and Geographic Information Science | volume = 25 | issue = 4| pages = 231–242 | doi=10.1559/152304098782383043}}</ref> van den Berg (1991).<ref>van den Berg, G. (1991). ''Choosing an analysis method''. Leiden: DSWO Press</ref>) The issue of whether or not it is appropriate to apply different kinds of statistical methods to data obtained from different kinds of measurement procedures is complicated by issues concerning the transformation of variables and the precise interpretation of research questions. "The relationship between the data and what they describe merely reflects the fact that certain kinds of statistical statements may have truth values which are not invariant under some transformations. Whether or not a transformation is sensible to contemplate depends on the question one is trying to answer."<ref>Hand, D.J. (2004). ''Measurement theory and practice: The world through quantification.'' London: Arnold.</ref>{{rp|82}} == Nthowa == {{more citations needed section|date=December 2020}} === Descriptive statistics === {{main|Descriptive statistics}} A '''descriptive statistic''' (in the [[count noun]] sense) is a [[summary statistic]] that quantitatively describes or summarizes features of a collection of [[information]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Prem S. |year=1995 |title=Introductory Statistics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductorystat02edmann_z9s5 |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-31009-3 }}</ref> while '''descriptive statistics''' in the [[mass noun]] sense is the process of using and analyzing those statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from [[statistical inference|inferential statistics]] (or inductive statistics), in that descriptive statistics aims to summarize a [[Sample (statistics)|sample]], rather than use the data to learn about the [[statistical population|population]] that the sample of data is thought to represent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Descriptive Statistics {{!}} Research Connections |url=https://www.researchconnections.org/research-tools/descriptive-statistics |access-date=2023-01-10 |website=www.researchconnections.org}}</ref> === Inferential statistics === {{main|Statistical inference}} '''Statistical inference''' is the process of using [[data analysis]] to deduce properties of an underlying [[probability distribution]].<ref name="Oxford">Upton, G., Cook, I. (2008) ''Oxford Dictionary of Statistics'', OUP. {{ISBN|978-0-19-954145-4}}.</ref> Inferential statistical analysis infers properties of a [[Statistical population|population]], for example by testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. It is assumed that the observed data set is [[Sampling (statistics)|sampled]] from a larger population. Inferential statistics can be contrasted with [[descriptive statistics]]. Descriptive statistics is solely concerned with properties of the observed data, and it does not rest on the assumption that the data come from a larger population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Basic Inferential Statistics - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University |url=https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/writing_with_statistics/basic_inferential_statistics.html |access-date=2023-01-10 |website=owl.purdue.edu}}</ref> ====Terminology and theory of inferential statistics==== =====Statistics, estimators and pivotal quantities===== Consider [[Independent identically distributed|independent identically distributed (IID) random variables]] with a given [[probability distribution]]: standard [[statistical inference]] and [[estimation theory]] defines a [[random sample]] as the [[random vector]] given by the [[column vector]] of these IID variables.<ref name=Piazza>Piazza Elio, Probabilità e Statistica, Esculapio 2007</ref> The [[Statistical population|population]] being examined is described by a probability distribution that may have unknown parameters. A statistic is a random variable that is a function of the random sample, but {{em|not a function of unknown parameters}}. The probability distribution of the statistic, though, may have unknown parameters. Consider now a function of the unknown parameter: an [[estimator]] is a statistic used to estimate such function. Commonly used estimators include [[sample mean]], unbiased [[sample variance]] and [[sample covariance]]. A random variable that is a function of the random sample and of the unknown parameter, but whose probability distribution ''does not depend on the unknown parameter'' is called a [[pivotal quantity]] or pivot. Widely used pivots include the [[z-score]], the [[Chi-squared distribution#Applications|chi square statistic]] and Student's [[Student's t-distribution#How the t-distribution arises|t-value]]. Between two estimators of a given parameter, the one with lower [[mean squared error]] is said to be more [[Efficient estimator|efficient]]. Furthermore, an estimator is said to be [[Unbiased estimator|unbiased]] if its [[expected value]] is equal to the [[true value]] of the unknown parameter being estimated, and asymptotically unbiased if its expected value converges at the [[Limit (mathematics)|limit]] to the true value of such parameter. Other desirable properties for estimators include: [[UMVUE]] estimators that have the lowest variance for all possible values of the parameter to be estimated (this is usually an easier property to verify than efficiency) and [[consistent estimator]]s which [[converges in probability]] to the true value of such parameter. This still leaves the question of how to obtain estimators in a given situation and carry the computation, several methods have been proposed: the [[method of moments (statistics)|method of moments]], the [[maximum likelihood]] method, the [[least squares]] method and the more recent method of [[estimating equations]]. =====Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis===== Interpretation of statistical information can often involve the development of a [[null hypothesis]] which is usually (but not necessarily) that no relationship exists among variables or that no change occurred over time.<ref>{{cite book | last = Everitt | first = Brian | title = The Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK New York | year = 1998 | isbn = 0521593468 | url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgediction00ever_0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourstatsguru.com/epar/rp-reviewed/cohen1994/ |title=Cohen (1994) The Earth Is Round (p < .05) |publisher=YourStatsGuru.com |access-date=2015-07-20 |archive-date=2015-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905081658/http://www.yourstatsguru.com/epar/rp-reviewed/cohen1994/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The best illustration for a novice is the predicament encountered by a criminal trial. The null hypothesis, H₀, asserts that the defendant is innocent, whereas the alternative hypothesis, H₁, asserts that the defendant is guilty. The indictment comes because of suspicion of the guilt. The H₀ (status quo) stands in opposition to H₁ and is maintained unless H₁ is supported by evidence "beyond a reasonable doubt". However, "failure to reject H₀" in this case does not imply innocence, but merely that the evidence was insufficient to convict. So the jury does not necessarily ''accept'' H₀ but ''fails to reject'' H₀. While one can not "prove" a null hypothesis, one can test how close it is to being true with a [[Statistical power|power test]], which tests for [[type II error]]s. What [[statisticians]] call an [[alternative hypothesis]] is simply a hypothesis that contradicts the [[null hypothesis]]. =====Error===== Working from a [[null hypothesis]], two broad categories of error are recognized: * [[Type I and type II errors#Type I error|Type I errors]] where the null hypothesis is falsely rejected, giving a "false positive". * [[Type I and type II errors#Type II error|Type II errors]] where the null hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual difference between populations is missed, giving a "false negative". [[Standard deviation]] refers to the extent to which individual observations in a sample differ from a central value, such as the sample or population mean, while [[Standard error (statistics)#Standard error of the mean|Standard error]] refers to an estimate of difference between sample mean and population mean. A [[Errors and residuals in statistics#Introduction|statistical error]] is the amount by which an observation differs from its [[expected value]]. A [[Errors and residuals in statistics#Introduction|residual]] is the amount an observation differs from the value the estimator of the expected value assumes on a given sample (also called prediction). [[Mean squared error]] is used for obtaining [[efficient estimators]], a widely used class of estimators. [[Root mean square error]] is simply the square root of mean squared error. [[File:Linear least squares(2).svg|thumb|right|A least squares fit: in red the points to be fitted, in blue the fitted line.]] Many statistical methods seek to minimize the [[residual sum of squares]], and these are called "[[least squares|methods of least squares]]" in contrast to [[Least absolute deviations]]. The latter gives equal weight to small and big errors, while the former gives more weight to large errors. Residual sum of squares is also [[Differentiable function|differentiable]], which provides a handy property for doing [[regression analysis|regression]]. Least squares applied to [[linear regression]] is called [[ordinary least squares]] method and least squares applied to [[nonlinear regression]] is called [[non-linear least squares]]. Also in a linear regression model the non deterministic part of the model is called error term, disturbance or more simply noise. Both linear regression and non-linear regression are addressed in [[polynomial least squares]], which also describes the variance in a prediction of the dependent variable (y axis) as a function of the independent variable (x axis) and the deviations (errors, noise, disturbances) from the estimated (fitted) curve. Measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error. Many of these errors are classified as [[Random error|random]] (noise) or [[Systematic error|systematic]] ([[bias]]), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also be important. The presence of [[missing data]] or [[censoring (statistics)|censoring]] may result in [[bias (statistics)|biased estimates]] and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems.<ref>Rubin, Donald B.; Little, Roderick J.A., Statistical analysis with missing data, New York: Wiley 2002</ref> =====Interval estimation===== {{main|Interval estimation}} [[File:NYW-confidence-interval.svg|thumb|right|[[Confidence intervals]]: the red line is true value for the mean in this example, the blue lines are random confidence intervals for 100 realizations.]] Most studies only sample part of a population, so results do not fully represent the whole population. Any estimates obtained from the sample only approximate the population value. [[Confidence intervals]] allow statisticians to express how closely the sample estimate matches the true value in the whole population. Often they are expressed as 95% confidence intervals. Formally, a 95% confidence interval for a value is a range where, if the sampling and analysis were repeated under the same conditions (yielding a different dataset), the interval would include the true (population) value in 95% of all possible cases. This does ''not'' imply that the probability that the true value is in the confidence interval is 95%. From the [[frequentist inference|frequentist]] perspective, such a claim does not even make sense, as the true value is not a [[random variable]]. Either the true value is or is not within the given interval. However, it is true that, before any data are sampled and given a plan for how to construct the confidence interval, the probability is 95% that the yet-to-be-calculated interval will cover the true value: at this point, the limits of the interval are yet-to-be-observed [[random variable]]s. One approach that does yield an interval that can be interpreted as having a given probability of containing the true value is to use a [[credible interval]] from [[Bayesian statistics]]: this approach depends on a different way of [[Probability interpretations|interpreting what is meant by "probability"]], that is as a [[Bayesian probability]]. In principle confidence intervals can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. An interval can be asymmetrical because it works as lower or upper bound for a parameter (left-sided interval or right sided interval), but it can also be asymmetrical because the two sided interval is built violating symmetry around the estimate. Sometimes the bounds for a confidence interval are reached asymptotically and these are used to approximate the true bounds. =====Significance===== {{main|Statistical significance}} Statistics rarely give a simple Yes/No type answer to the question under analysis. Interpretation often comes down to the level of statistical significance applied to the numbers and often refers to the probability of a value accurately rejecting the null hypothesis (sometimes referred to as the [[p-value]]). [[File:P-value in statistical significance testing.svg|upright=1.8|thumb|right|In this graph the black line is probability distribution for the [[test statistic]], the [[Critical region#Definition of terms|critical region]] is the set of values to the right of the observed data point (observed value of the test statistic) and the [[p-value]] is represented by the green area.]] The standard approach<ref name="Piazza"/> is to test a null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis. A [[Critical region#Definition of terms|critical region]] is the set of values of the estimator that leads to refuting the null hypothesis. The probability of type I error is therefore the probability that the estimator belongs to the critical region given that null hypothesis is true ([[statistical significance]]) and the probability of type II error is the probability that the estimator does not belong to the critical region given that the alternative hypothesis is true. The [[statistical power]] of a test is the probability that it correctly rejects the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false. Referring to statistical significance does not necessarily mean that the overall result is significant in real world terms. For example, in a large study of a drug it may be shown that the drug has a statistically significant but very small beneficial effect, such that the drug is unlikely to help the patient noticeably. Although in principle the acceptable level of [[statistical significance]] may be subject to debate, the [[significance level]] is the largest p-value that allows the test to reject the null hypothesis. This test is logically equivalent to saying that the p-value is the probability, assuming the null hypothesis is true, of observing a result at least as extreme as the [[test statistic]]. Therefore, the smaller the significance level, the lower the probability of committing type I error. Some problems are usually associated with this framework (See [[Statistical hypothesis testing#Criticism|criticism of hypothesis testing]]): * A difference that is highly statistically significant can still be of no practical significance, but it is possible to properly formulate tests to account for this. One response involves going beyond reporting only the [[significance level]] to include the [[p-value|''p''-value]] when reporting whether a hypothesis is rejected or accepted. The p-value, however, does not indicate the [[effect size|size]] or importance of the observed effect and can also seem to exaggerate the importance of minor differences in large studies. A better and increasingly common approach is to report [[confidence interval]]s. Although these are produced from the same calculations as those of hypothesis tests or ''p''-values, they describe both the size of the effect and the uncertainty surrounding it. * Fallacy of the transposed conditional, aka [[prosecutor's fallacy]]: criticisms arise because the hypothesis testing approach forces one hypothesis (the [[null hypothesis]]) to be favored, since what is being evaluated is the probability of the observed result given the null hypothesis and not probability of the null hypothesis given the observed result. An alternative to this approach is offered by [[Bayesian inference]], although it requires establishing a [[prior probability]].<ref name=Ioannidis2005>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ioannidis | first1 = J.P.A. | author-link1 = John P.A. Ioannidis| title = Why Most Published Research Findings Are False | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 8 | pages = e124 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16060722 | pmc = 1182327 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124}}</ref> * Rejecting the null hypothesis does not automatically prove the alternative hypothesis. * As everything in [[inferential statistics]] it relies on sample size, and therefore under [[fat tails]] p-values may be seriously mis-computed.{{clarify|date=October 2016}} =====Examples===== Some well-known statistical [[Statistical hypothesis testing|tests]] and procedures are: {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em| * [[Analysis of variance]] (ANOVA) * [[Chi-squared test]] * [[Correlation]] * [[Factor analysis]] * [[Mann–Whitney (U)|Mann–Whitney ''U'']] * [[Mean square weighted deviation]] (MSWD) * [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient]] * [[Regression analysis]] * [[Spearman's rank correlation coefficient]] * [[Student's t-test|Student's ''t''-test]] * [[Time series analysis]] * [[Conjoint Analysis]] }} ===Exploratory data analysis=== {{main|Exploratory data analysis}} '''Exploratory data analysis''' ('''EDA''') is an approach to [[data analysis|analyzing]] [[data set]]s to summarize their main characteristics, often with visual methods. A [[statistical model]] can be used or not, but primarily EDA is for seeing what the data can tell us beyond the formal modeling or hypothesis testing task. == Misuse == {{main|Misuse of statistics}} [[Misuse of statistics]] can produce subtle but serious errors in description and interpretation—subtle in the sense that even experienced professionals make such errors, and serious in the sense that they can lead to devastating decision errors. For instance, social policy, medical practice, and the reliability of structures like bridges all rely on the proper use of statistics. Even when statistical techniques are correctly applied, the results can be difficult to interpret for those lacking expertise. The [[statistical significance]] of a trend in the data—which measures the extent to which a trend could be caused by random variation in the sample—may or may not agree with an intuitive sense of its significance. The set of basic statistical skills (and skepticism) that people need to deal with information in their everyday lives properly is referred to as [[statistical literacy]]. There is a general perception that statistical knowledge is all-too-frequently intentionally [[Misuse of statistics|misused]] by finding ways to interpret only the data that are favorable to the presenter.<ref name="Huff">Huff, Darrell (1954) ''[[How to Lie with Statistics]]'', WW Norton & Company, Inc. New York. {{isbn|0-393-31072-8}}</ref> A mistrust and misunderstanding of statistics is associated with the quotation, "[[Lies, damned lies, and statistics|There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics]]". Misuse of statistics can be both inadvertent and intentional, and the book ''[[How to Lie with Statistics]]'',<ref name=Huff/> by [[Darrell Huff]], outlines a range of considerations. In an attempt to shed light on the use and misuse of statistics, reviews of statistical techniques used in particular fields are conducted (e.g. Warne, Lazo, Ramos, and Ritter (2012)).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Warne | first1 = R. Lazo | last2 = Ramos | first2 = T. | last3 = Ritter | first3 = N. | year = 2012 | title = Statistical Methods Used in Gifted Education Journals, 2006–2010 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_gifted-child-quarterly_summer-2012_56_3/page/134 | journal = Gifted Child Quarterly | volume = 56 | issue = 3| pages = 134–149 | doi = 10.1177/0016986212444122 | s2cid = 144168910 }}</ref> Ways to avoid misuse of statistics include using proper diagrams and avoiding [[Bias (statistics)|bias]].<ref name="Statistics in Archaeology">{{cite book | chapter = Statistics in archaeology | pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarch00pear/page/n2072 2093]–2100 | first1 = Robert D. | last1 = Drennan | title = Encyclopedia of Archaeology | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarch00pear | url-access = limited | year = 2008 | publisher = Elsevier Inc. | editor-first = Deborah M. | editor-last = Pearsall | isbn = 978-0-12-373962-9 }}</ref> Misuse can occur when conclusions are [[Hasty generalization|overgeneralized]] and claimed to be representative of more than they really are, often by either deliberately or unconsciously overlooking sampling bias.<ref name="Misuse of Statistics">{{cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Jerome B. |title=Misuse of Statistics |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-statistical-association_1938-12_33_204/page/657 |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |date=December 1938 |volume=33 |issue=204 |pages=657–674 |location=JSTOR |doi=10.1080/01621459.1938.10502344}}</ref> Bar graphs are arguably the easiest diagrams to use and understand, and they can be made either by hand or with simple computer programs.<ref name="Statistics in Archaeology" /> Unfortunately, most people do not look for bias or errors, so they are not noticed. Thus, people may often believe that something is true even if it is not well [[Sampling (statistics)|represented]].<ref name="Misuse of Statistics" /> To make data gathered from statistics believable and accurate, the sample taken must be representative of the whole.<ref name="Modern Elementary Statistics">{{cite journal|last=Freund|first=J.E.|author-link = John E. Freund|title=Modern Elementary Statistics|journal=Credo Reference|year=1988}}</ref> According to Huff, "The dependability of a sample can be destroyed by [bias]... allow yourself some degree of skepticism."<ref>{{cite book|last=Huff|first=Darrell|title=How to Lie with Statistics|url=https://archive.org/details/howtoliewithstat0000dare|year=1954|publisher=Norton|location=New York|author2=Irving Geis |quote=The dependability of a sample can be destroyed by [bias]... allow yourself some degree of skepticism.}}</ref> To assist in the understanding of statistics Huff proposed a series of questions to be asked in each case:<ref name=Huff/> * Who says so? (Does he/she have an axe to grind?) * How does he/she know? (Does he/she have the resources to know the facts?) * What's missing? (Does he/she give us a complete picture?) * Did someone change the subject? (Does he/she offer us the right answer to the wrong problem?) * Does it make sense? (Is his/her conclusion logical and consistent with what we already know?) [[File:Simple Confounding Case.svg|upright=0.9|thumb|right|The [[confounding variable]] problem: ''X'' and ''Y'' may be correlated, not because there is causal relationship between them, but because both depend on a third variable ''Z''. ''Z'' is called a confounding factor.]] ===Misinterpretation: correlation=== {{See also|Correlation does not imply causation}} The concept of [[correlation]] is particularly noteworthy for the potential confusion it can cause. Statistical analysis of a [[data set]] often reveals that two variables (properties) of the population under consideration tend to vary together, as if they were connected. For example, a study of annual income that also looks at age of death, might find that poor people tend to have shorter lives than affluent people. The two variables are said to be correlated; however, they may or may not be the cause of one another. The correlation phenomena could be caused by a third, previously unconsidered phenomenon, called a lurking variable or [[confounding variable]]. For this reason, there is no way to immediately infer the existence of a causal relationship between the two variables. ==Applications== ===Applied statistics, theoretical statistics and mathematical statistics=== ''Applied statistics,'' sometimes referred to as ''Statistical science,''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nelder|first=John A.|date=1999|title=From Statistics to Statistical Science|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2681191|journal=Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series D (The Statistician)|volume=48|issue=2|pages=257–269|doi=10.1111/1467-9884.00187|jstor=2681191|issn=0039-0526|access-date=2022-01-15|archive-date=2022-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115160959/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2681191|url-status=live}}</ref> comprises descriptive statistics and the application of inferential statistics.<ref>Nikoletseas, M.M. (2014) "Statistics: Concepts and Examples." {{isbn|978-1500815684}}</ref><ref>Anderson, D.R.; Sweeney, D.J.; Williams, T.A. (1994) ''Introduction to Statistics: Concepts and Applications'', pp. 5–9. West Group. {{isbn|978-0-314-03309-3}}</ref> ''Theoretical statistics'' concerns the logical arguments underlying justification of approaches to [[statistical inference]], as well as encompassing ''mathematical statistics''. Mathematical statistics includes not only the manipulation of [[probability distribution]]s necessary for deriving results related to methods of estimation and inference, but also various aspects of [[computational statistics]] and the [[design of experiments]]. [[Statistical consultant]]s can help organizations and companies that do not have in-house expertise relevant to their particular questions. ===Machine learning and data mining=== [[Machine learning]] models are statistical and probabilistic models that capture patterns in the data through use of computational algorithms. ===Statistics in academia=== Statistics is applicable to a wide variety of [[academic discipline]]s, including [[Natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s, government, and business. Business statistics applies statistical methods in [[econometrics]], [[auditing]] and production and operations, including services improvement and marketing research.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes|title=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics|website=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics|publisher=Taylor & Francis|access-date=16 March 2020|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727052958/https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes|url-status=live}}</ref> A study of two journals in tropical biology found that the 12 most frequent statistical tests are: [[analysis of variance]] (ANOVA), [[chi-squared test]], [[Student's t-test]], [[linear regression]], [[Pearson’s correlation coefficient]], [[Mann-Whitney U test]], [[Kruskal-Wallis test]], [[Diversity index#Shannon index|Shannon’s diversity index]], [[Tukey's range test]], [[cluster analysis]], [[Spearman's rank correlation coefficient]] and [[principal component analysis]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Natalia Loaiza Velásquez, María Isabel González Lutz & Julián Monge-Nájera|date=2011|title=Which statistics should tropical biologists learn?|url=https://investiga.uned.ac.cr/ecologiaurbana/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/09/JMN-2011-statistics-should-learn.pdf|journal=Revista Biología Tropical|volume=59|pages=983–992|access-date=2020-04-26|archive-date=2020-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019160957/https://investiga.uned.ac.cr/ecologiaurbana/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/09/JMN-2011-statistics-should-learn.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> A typical statistics course covers descriptive statistics, probability, binomial and [[normal distribution]]s, test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, [[linear regression]], and correlation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pekoz|first=Erol|title=The Manager's Guide to Statistics|date=2009|publisher=Erol Pekoz|isbn=978-0979570438}}</ref> Modern fundamental statistical courses for undergraduate students focus on correct test selection, results interpretation, and use of [[free statistics software]].<ref name=":0" /> ===Statistical computing=== [[File:Gretl screenshot.png|thumb|upright=1.15|right|[[gretl]], an example of an [[List of open source statistical packages|open source statistical package]]]] {{main|Computational statistics}} The rapid and sustained increases in computing power starting from the second half of the 20th century have had a substantial impact on the practice of statistical science. Early statistical models were almost always from the class of [[linear model]]s, but powerful computers, coupled with suitable numerical [[algorithms]], caused an increased interest in [[Nonlinear regression|nonlinear models]] (such as [[Artificial neural network|neural networks]]) as well as the creation of new types, such as [[generalized linear model]]s and [[multilevel model]]s. Increased computing power has also led to the growing popularity of computationally intensive methods based on [[Resampling (statistics)|resampling]], such as [[permutation test]]s and the [[Bootstrapping (statistics)|bootstrap]], while techniques such as [[Gibbs sampling]] have made use of [[Bayesian model]]s more feasible. The computer revolution has implications for the future of statistics with a new emphasis on "experimental" and "empirical" statistics. A large number of both general and special purpose [[List of statistical packages|statistical software]] are now available. Examples of available software capable of complex statistical computation include programs such as [[Mathematica]], [[SAS (software)|SAS]], [[SPSS]], and [[R (programming language)|R]]. ===Business statistics=== In business, "statistics" is a widely used [[Management#Nature of work|management-]] and [[decision support]] tool. It is particularly applied in [[financial management]], [[marketing management]], and [[Manufacturing process management|production]], [[operations management for services|services]] and [[operations management]] .<ref>{{cite web |url=https://amstat.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=ubes20 |title=Aims and scope |website=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=23 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623194835/https://amstat.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=ubes20 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes |title=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics |website=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727052958/https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes |url-status=live }}</ref> Statistics is also heavily used in [[management accounting]] and [[auditing]]. The discipline of [[Management Science]] formalizes the use of statistics, and other mathematics, in business. ([[Econometrics]] is the application of statistical methods to [[economic data]] in order to give empirical content to [[economic theory|economic relationships]].) A typical "Business Statistics" course is intended for [[Business education#Undergraduate education|business majors]], and covers <ref>Numerous texts are available, reflecting the scope and reach of the discipline in the business world: *Sharpe, N. (2014). ''Business Statistics'', Pearson. {{ISBN|978-0134705217}} *Wegner, T. (2010). ''Applied Business Statistics: Methods and Excel-Based Applications,'' Juta Academic. {{ISBN|0702172863}} Two [[Open textbook|open textbooks]] are: *Holmes, L., Illowsky, B., Dean, S. (2017). [https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/509 ''Introductory Business Statistics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616084059/https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/509|date=2021-06-16}} *Nica, M. (2013). [https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/384 ''Principles of Business Statistics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518151122/https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/384|date=2021-05-18}}</ref> [[descriptive statistics]] ([[Data collection|collection]], description, analysis, and summary of data), probability (typically the [[binomial distribution|binomial]] and [[normal distribution]]s), test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, [[linear regression]], and correlation; (follow-on) courses may include [[forecasting]], [[time series]], [[decision trees]], [[multiple linear regression]], and other topics from [[business analytics]] more generally. See also {{sectionlink|Business mathematics#University level}}. [[Professional certification in financial services|Professional certification programs]], such as the [[Chartered Financial Analyst|CFA]], often include topics in statistics. ===Statistics applied to mathematics or the arts=== Traditionally, statistics was concerned with drawing inferences using a semi-standardized methodology that was "required learning" in most sciences. This tradition has changed with the use of statistics in non-inferential contexts. What was once considered a dry subject, taken in many fields as a degree-requirement, is now viewed enthusiastically.{{according to whom|date=April 2014}} Initially derided by some mathematical purists, it is now considered essential methodology in certain areas. * In [[number theory]], [[scatter plot]]s of data generated by a distribution function may be transformed with familiar tools used in statistics to reveal underlying patterns, which may then lead to hypotheses. * Predictive methods of statistics in [[forecasting]] combining [[chaos theory]] and [[fractal geometry]] can be used to create video works.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cline|first=Graysen|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1132348139|title=Nonparametric Statistical Methods Using R|date=2019|publisher=EDTECH|isbn=978-1-83947-325-8|oclc=1132348139|access-date=2021-09-16|archive-date=2022-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515012840/https://www.worldcat.org/title/nonparametric-statistical-methods-using-r/oclc/1132348139|url-status=live}}</ref> * The [[process art]] of [[Jackson Pollock]] relied on artistic experiments whereby underlying distributions in nature were artistically revealed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Palacios|first1=Bernardo|last2=Rosario|first2=Alfonso|last3=Wilhelmus|first3=Monica M.|last4=Zetina|first4=Sandra|last5=Zenit|first5=Roberto|date=2019-10-30|title=Pollock avoided hydrodynamic instabilities to paint with his dripping technique|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=14|issue=10|pages=e0223706|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0223706|issn=1932-6203|pmc=6821064|pmid=31665191|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1423706P|doi-access=free}}</ref> With the advent of computers, statistical methods were applied to formalize such distribution-driven natural processes to make and analyze moving video art.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}} * Methods of statistics may be used predicatively in [[performance art]], as in a card trick based on a [[Markov process]] that only works some of the time, the occasion of which can be predicted using statistical methodology. * Statistics can be used to predicatively create art, as in the statistical or [[stochastic music]] invented by [[Iannis Xenakis]], where the music is performance-specific. Though this type of artistry does not always come out as expected, it does behave in ways that are predictable and tunable using statistics. == Specialized disciplines == {{main|List of fields of application of statistics}} Statistical techniques are used in a wide range of types of scientific and social research, including: [[biostatistics]], [[computational biology]], [[computational sociology]], [[network biology]], [[social science]], [[sociology]] and [[social research]]. Some fields of inquiry use applied statistics so extensively that they have [[specialized terminology]]. These disciplines include: {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|* [[Actuarial science]] (assesses risk in the insurance and finance industries) * Applied information economics * [[Astrostatistics]] (statistical evaluation of astronomical data) * [[Biostatistics]] * [[Chemometrics]] (for analysis of data from [[chemistry]]) * [[Data mining]] (applying statistics and [[pattern recognition]] to discover knowledge from data) * [[Data science]] * [[Demography]] (statistical study of populations) * [[Econometrics]] (statistical analysis of economic data) * [[Statistical study of energy data|Energy statistics]] * [[Engineering statistics]] * [[Epidemiology]] (statistical analysis of disease) * [[Geography]] and [[geographic information system]]s, specifically in [[spatial analysis]] * [[Image processing]] * [[Jurimetrics]] ([[law]]) * [[Medical statistics]] * [[Political science]] * [[Psychological statistics]] * [[Reliability engineering]] * [[Social statistics]] * [[Statistical mechanics]]}} In addition, there are particular types of statistical analysis that have also developed their own specialised terminology and methodology: {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em| * [[Bootstrapping (statistics)|Bootstrap]]{{\}}[[Jackknife resampling|jackknife]] [[Resampling (statistics)|resampling]] * [[Multivariate statistics]] * [[Statistical classification]] * [[Structured data analysis (statistics)|Structured data analysis]] * [[Structural equation modelling]] * [[Survey methodology]] * [[Survival analysis]] * Statistics in various sports, particularly [[Baseball statistics|baseball]] – known as [[sabermetrics]] – and [[Cricket statistics|cricket]] }} Statistics form a key basis tool in business and manufacturing as well. It is used to understand measurement systems variability, control processes (as in [[statistical process control]] or SPC), for summarizing data, and to make data-driven decisions. In these roles, it is a key tool, and perhaps the only reliable tool.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} == See also == {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=Statistics}} {{main|Outline of statistics}} <!-- NOTE: This is mainly for statistics-related lists. Please consider adding links to either the "Outline of statistics" or the "List of statistics articles" entries rather than here.--> {{Columns-list|colwidth=20em| * [[Abundance estimation]] * [[Glossary of probability and statistics]] * [[List of academic statistical associations]] * [[List of important publications in statistics]] * [[List of national and international statistical services]] * [[List of statistical packages]] (software) * [[List of statistics articles]] * [[List of university statistical consulting centers]] * [[Notation in probability and statistics]] * [[Statistics education]] * [[World Statistics Day]] }} ;Foundations and major areas of statistics {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|<!-- Foundations and major areas of statistics, closely related fields NOT already mentioned in "Specialised disciplines" section--> * [[Foundations of statistics]] * [[List of statisticians]] * [[Official statistics]] * [[Multivariate analysis of variance]] :<!--empty column--> :<!--empty column--> }} == References == {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * Lydia Denworth, "A Significant Problem: Standard scientific methods are under fire. Will anything change?", ''[[Scientific American]]'', vol. 321, no. 4 (October 2019), pp.&nbsp;62–67. "The use of [[p value|''p'' values]] for nearly a century [since 1925] to determine [[statistical significance]] of [[experiment]]al results has contributed to an illusion of [[certainty]] and [to] [[Replication crisis|reproducibility crises]] in many [[science|scientific fields]]. There is growing determination to reform statistical analysis... Some [researchers] suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results." (p.&nbsp;63.) * {{cite book|author1=Barbara Illowsky|author2=Susan Dean|title=Introductory Statistics|url=https://openstax.org/details/introductory-statistics|year=2014|publisher=OpenStax CNX|isbn=978-1938168208}} * {{cite web|first=David W.|last=Stockburger|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528093101/http://psychstat3.missouristate.edu/Documents/IntroBook3/sbk.htm|title=Introductory Statistics: Concepts, Models, and Applications|edition=3rd Web|website=[[Missouri State University]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528093101/https://web.archive.org/web/20200528093101/http://psychstat3.missouristate.edu/Documents/IntroBook3/sbk.htm|archive-date=28 May 2020}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190616110442/https://www.openintro.org/stat/textbook.php?stat_book=os ''OpenIntro Statistics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616110442/https://www.openintro.org/stat/textbook.php?stat_book=os |date=2019-06-16 }}, 3rd edition by Diez, Barr, and Cetinkaya-Rundel * Stephen Jones, 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170215092220/https://books.google.com/books?id=mywdBQAAQBAJ ''Statistics in Psychology: Explanations without Equations'']. Palgrave Macmillan. {{isbn|978-1137282392}}. * {{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = J | year = 1990 | title = Things I have learned (so far) | url = http://moityca.com.br/pdfs/Cohen_1990.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171018181831/http://moityca.com.br/pdfs/Cohen_1990.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2017-10-18 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 45 | issue = 12 | pages = 1304–1312 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.45.12.1304 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Gigerenzer | first1 = G | year = 2004 | title = Mindless statistics | journal = Journal of Socio-Economics | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | pages = 587–606 | doi = 10.1016/j.socec.2004.09.033 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Ioannidis | first1 = J.P.A. | year = 2005 | title = Why most published research findings are false | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 696–701 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040168 | pmid = 17456002 | pmc = 1855693 }} ==External links== {{Sister project links|Statistics}} * (Electronic Version): TIBCO Software Inc. (2020). [https://docs.tibco.com/data-science/textbook Data Science Textbook]. * [http://onlinestatbook.com/index.html ''Online Statistics Education: An Interactive Multimedia Course of Study'']. Developed by Rice University (Lead Developer), University of Houston Clear Lake, Tufts University, and National Science Foundation. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060717201702/http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/ UCLA Statistical Computing Resources] (archived 17 July 2006) * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/statistics/ Philosophy of Statistics] from the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] {{Statistics |state=expanded}} {{Areas of mathematics |collapsed}} {{Glossaries of science and engineering}} {{Portal bar|Mathematics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Statistics| ]]<!--space-indexed (i.e. lead/home/eponymous) category first--> [[Category:Data]] [[Category:Formal sciences]] [[Category:Information]] [[Category:Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)]] [[Category:Research methods]] [[Category:Arab inventions]] ipfigtafp7pniyyukiga23nnagsenc6 0 46490 122349 119286 2026-09-25T00:49:57Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language | name = Interlingua | nativename = {{lang|ia|interlingua}} | pronunciation = {{IPA-art|inteɾˈliŋɡwa|}} | speakers = A few hundred | date = 2007 | ref = <ref name="Fiedler">{{cite book|first1=Sabine|last1=Fiedler|year=2007|chapter=Phraseology in planned languages|title=Phraseology: Ein internationales Handbuch der zeitgenössischen Forschung, Volume 2|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|pages=779-788|doi=10.1515/9783110190762.779}}</ref> | familycolor = | fam1 = [[Chiyowoyelo chakovwira chapasi chose]] | creator = [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] | created = 1951 | setting = Kulembeka kwa mazgu gha sayansi gha pa charu chose; [[chiyowoyelo chakovwira chapasi chose]] | posteriori = '''Viyowoyelo vyakufuma ku vyakale''': [[Chingelezi]], [[Chifurenchi]], [[Chitaliyana]], [[Chipwitikizi]], na [[Chisipanishi]]. | script = [[Malembo gha Chilatini]] | agency = Palije bungwe lakulamulira | iso1 = ia | iso2 = ina | iso3 = ina | image = Bandiera de Interlingua.svg | imagescale = | imagecaption = Official Interlingua flag<ref>{{cite web |date=2026-01-16 |title=Presentation del bandiera official de interlingua |language=ia |url=https://www.interlingua.com/novas/2026-01-16-interlingua-75-annos-bandiera/ |publisher=[[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]] |access-date=2026-01-16}}</ref> | notice = IPA | glotto = inte1239 | glottorefname = Interlingua (International Auxiliary Language Association) }} '''Interlingua''' (/ɪntərˈlɪŋɡwə/) ni chiyowoyelo chakuwovwira cha pa charu chose (IAL) icho chikapangika pakati pa 1937 na 1951 na American ''International Auxiliary Language Association'' (IALA). Ni ciyowoyero cakupangika na ŵanthu, ndipo mazgu ghake, kalembero kake, na vinyake ivyo vikucitika mu ciyowoyero ici vikufuma ku viyowoyero vinyake. Mabuku gha '''Interlingua''' ghakulongosora kuti (kulembeka) kwa Interlingua kukupulikikwa na ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Romance,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yeager|first1=Leland B.|title=Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public|publisher=Servicio de Libros UMI|year=1991|location=Beekbergen, Netherlands|chapter=Le linguistica como reclamo pro Interlingua|trans-chapter=Linguistics as an advertisement for Interlingua}}</ref> nangauli ni ŵanthu ŵacoko waka awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero ichi. Interlingua yikapangika kuti yikolerane na viyowoyelo vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe, ivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyawo ŵasambire viyowoyero ivi.<ref name="iala1971">{{harvnb|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}}</ref><ref name="breinstrup-beginners">Breinstrup, Thomas, Preface, [http://www.interlingua.com/archivos/Prefacio%20-%20Contento.pdf ''Interlingua course for beginners''], Bilthoven, Netherlands: Union Mundial pro Interlingua, 2006.</ref> Zina lakuti Interlingua likufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini lakuti ''inter'', ilo likung'anamura kuti "pakati", na ''lingua'', ilo likung'anamura kuti "lulimi". Mazgu agha ghakuyana waka mu ciyowoyero ca Interlingua; ntheura ciyowoyero ici cikung'anamura 'pakati pa viyowoyero.' == Chidule == Interlingua yikugomezga pa mazgu agho ghakuyana agho ghakusangika mu viyowoyero vya ku Western Europe, ivyo vinandi vikafuma ku [[Chilatini]] panji vikakhwaskika chomene na chiyowoyero ichi (nga ni [[viyowoyero vya Romance]]). Awo ŵakakhazikiska Interlingua ŵali na "viyowoyero vikuruvikuru vyakulongozga" vinayi, ndipo mwakawiro, lizgu (panji mtundu wake) likwenera kusangika mu vitatu mwa viyowoyero ivi kuti lizomerezgeke mu Interlingua. Viyowoyero ivi ni [[Chingelezi]], [[Chifurenchi]], [[Chitaliyani]], na kuphatikizika kwa [[Chisipanishi]] na [[Chitogorezi]], ivyo vikuwoneka nga ni chiyowoyero chimoza chikuru pa ntchito za Interlingua. Kusazgapo apa, [[Chijeremani]] na [[Chirashiya]] vikachemekwa kuti "viyowoyero vyakulongozga vya chiŵiri".{{sfn|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}} Nangauli mazgu ghanandi mu Interlingua ghakuyana na [[Chilatini cha sono|Neo-Latin]] chifukwa ghakufuma chomene ku Chilatini, mazgu gha Interlingua ghangafuma mu chiyowoyero chilichose, usange ghali kunjira mu viyowoyero vikuruvikuru vyakulongozga nga ni [[mazgu ghakupokera|mazgu ghakupokera]]. Mwachiyelezgero, mazgu gha mu [[Chiyapani]] nga ''[[geisha]]'' na ''[[samurai]]'', kweniso lizgu la mu [[Chifini]] lakuti ''[[sauna]]'', ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu viyowoyero vinandi vya ku Western Europe, ndipo ntheura ghali mu Interlingua. Mwakuyana waka, lizgu la mu [[Chiyowoyero cha Guugu Yimithirr|Guugu Yimithirr]] lakuti ''gangurru'' likugwiliskirika ntchito mu mtundu wakasintha kufuma ku Chilatini (Interlingua: {{Lang|ia|kanguru}}, Chingelezi: ''[[kangaroo]]'').{{sfn|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}} Awo ŵakusunga na kulongozga Interlingua ŵakuyezgayezga kuti galamala ya chiyowoyero ichi yiŵe yipusu ndipo kupanga mazgu kuŵe kwakuyana, ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mizi yichoko waka ya mazgu na viwangwa vya mazgu. Ichi chikukhumba kuti chiyowoyero ichi chiŵe chakusambira mwaluŵiro.{{sfn|Morris|1945}} == Mbiri == Mwanakazi wakukhala na usambazi wa ku America, [[Alice Vanderbilt Morris]] (1874–1950), wakamba kunweka na [[vyakusambira vya viyowoyero|masambiro gha viyowoyero]] na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kupanga [[chiyowoyero chakovwira chapadziko chose|chiyowoyero chakovwira chapadziko chose]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1920. Mu 1924, Morris na mfumu wake, [[Dave Hennen Morris]], ŵakakhazikiska bungwe la kusapota ŵanthu wose la [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] (IALA) mu [[New York City]]. Chilato chawo chikaŵa chakuti kafukufuku wa viyowoyero vyakovwira chapadziko chose waŵe pa maziko ghakukhora gha sayansi. Morris wakapanga pulogiramu ya kafukufuku ya IALA pamoza na [[Edward Sapir]], [[William Edward Collinson]], na [[Otto Jespersen]].{{sfn|Falk|1995}} Kafukufuku pa suzgo la viyowoyero vyakovwira wakachitikanga kale ku International Research Council, American Council on Education, American Council of Learned Societies, mabungwe gha sayansi gha ku Britain, France, Italy, na America, kweniso magulu ghanyake gha ŵakumanya vinandi. Morris wakakhazikiska IALA kuti yilutilire ntchito iyi.{{sfn|Bray|1971|loc=Foreword}} === International Auxiliary Language Association === IALA likazgoka gulu likuru ilo likawovwiranga masambiro gha viyowoyero mu America. Kafukufuku munandi wakachitika na Sapir, Collinson, na [[Morris Swadesh]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1930 na 1940, ndipo ndalama zake zikafuma ku IALA. Alice Morris wakawovwirapo pa kusintha kwa kafukufuku uyu ndipo wakapeleka chovwiro chikuru cha ndalama ku IALA.{{sfn|Bray|1971|loc=Foreword}} Mwachiyelezgero, Morris wakasintha kafukufuku wa Sapir na Morris Swadesh wa mu 1932 uyo wakayerekezganga umo viyowoyero vikupangira mazgu ghaumaliro, kweniso kafukufuku wa Collinson wa mu 1937 pa nkhani ya kulongora. IALA likapokeraso chovwiro kufuma ku magulu nga ni [[Carnegie Corporation]], [[Ford Foundation]], [[Research Corporation]], na [[Rockefeller Foundation]].{{sfn|Gopsill|Sexton|2006a}}{{sfn|Gopsill|1990}} Mu vyaka vyakwamba, IALA likaghanaghananga ntchito zitatu zikuru: * kusanga mabungwe ghanyake pa charu chose agho ghakaŵa na vilato vyakuyana; * kuzenga laibulare ya mabuku ghakukhwaskana na viyowoyero na [[interlinguistics|kafukufuku wa umo viyowoyero vikukolerana]]; * kwendeska kuyerekezgera kwa viyowoyero vyakovwira ivyo vikaŵapo kale, kusazgapo [[Esperanto]], [[Esperanto II]], [[Ido (chiyowoyero)|Ido]], [[Latino sine flexione|Interlingua ya Peano]] (Latino sine flexione), [[Novial]], na [[Interlingue]] (Occidental). Pakukhumba kufiska chilato chakumalizga ichi, IALA likachita kafukufuku wakuyana pa viyowoyero ivi, pamoza na kuyerekezgera na viyowoyero vya mitundu.{{sfn|Bray|1971|loc=Foreword}} == Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya Interlingua == Ntchakumanyikwa yayi unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya na kugwiliskira ntchito Interlingua mwakukhazikika.{{sfn|Gopsill|1990}} Viyowoyero vinandi ivyo vikapangika na ŵanthu (kusazgapo ivyo ni vya kupangika) padera pa [[Esperanto]] vili na ŵayowoyi ŵachoko chomene.{{sfn|Gopsill|1990|p=46}} Mu kalembero ka ŵanthu ku Hungary mu 2001, ako kakafumbanga vya viyowoyero ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pera mu charu chose cha Hungary ndiwo ŵakati ŵakuyowoya Interlingua.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepszamlalas2001.hu/hun/kotetek/18/tables/load2_39_1.html|title=18. Demográfiai adatok – Központi Statisztikai Hivatal|website=www.nepszamlalas2001.hu|lang=hu|trans-title=Demographic Data – Central Statistical Office|access-date=2025-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617000434/http://www.nepszamlalas2001.hu/hun/kotetek/18/tables/load2_39_1.html |archive-date=2018-06-17|url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵakukhozgera Interlingua ŵakuti chandulo chikuru cha chiyowoyero ichi ntchakuti ndicho chingamanyikwa chomene pakati pa [[chiyowoyero chakovwira chapadziko chose|viyowoyero vyakovwira chapadziko chose]], padera pa [[Latino sine flexione|Interlingua (IL) de A.p.I.]],{{sfn|Blandino|1989}} chifukwa cha galamala na mazgu ghake agho ghakuyana na viyowoyero vya chilengedwe (mwakupambana na viyowoyero vyakulongosoreka mwadongosolo). Ichi chikovwira ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya chiyowoyero chilichose cha mu gulu la [[viyowoyero vya Romance]] na ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi awo ŵali na masambiro ghapachanya kuti ŵaŵazge na kupulikiska Interlingua kwambura kusambira dankha.{{sfn|Blandino|1989}} Masamba gha pa intaneti gha Interlingua ghakusazgapo matembelo gha [[Wikipedia]] na Wiktionary, kweniso magazini ghanyake nga ni ''[[Panorama in Interlingua]]'' kufuma ku Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI). Pafupifupi vyaka viŵiri-viŵiri, UMI yikupanga ungano wa pa charu chose mu charu chakupambana. Mu chaka icho chili pakati pa maungano agha, mabungwe gha Interlingua gha ku Scandinavia ghakukolerana kupanga ungano ku Sweden, chifukwa pali ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuyowoya Interlingua mu Scandinavia. Mabungwe gha mu vyaru nga ni Union Brazilian pro Interlingua nagho ghakupanga maungano nyengo zose.{{sfn|Breinstrup|2006c}} Interlingua yikusambizgika mu masukulu ghanyake gha sekondale na mayunivesite, nyengo zinyake nga nthowa yakovwilira ŵanthu kusambira viyowoyero vinyake mwaluŵiro, kupereka ulongozgi pa nkhani ya [[interlinguistics|kafukufuku wa viyowoyero vyapakati]], panji kumanyiska mazgu gha pa charu chose.{{sfn|Breinstrup|2006c}}{{sfn|Stenström|1991a}}{{sfn|Stenström|1991b}} Mwachiyelezgero, kosi ya masabata ghaŵiri yikasambizgika ku [[University of Granada]] mu [[Spain]] mu 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://canal.ugr.es/prensa-y-comunicacion/notas-de-prensa/curso-introduccion-a-la-interlinguistica-interlingua-hablado-y-escrito/|title=Curso «Introducción a la Interlingüística. Interlingua hablado y escrito»|lang=es|date=2007-11-07|website=Universidad de Granada|access-date=2025-01-16}}</ref> == Kalembero == Interlingua wali na [[kalembero]] iyo yikuyana chomene na umo mazgu ghakuyowoyekera. === Alfabeti ya Interlingua === Interlingua yikugwiliskira ntchito malembo 26 gha [[ISO basic Latin alphabet|alfabeti ya Chilatini ya ISO]], kwambura [[diacritic|vimanyikwiro vya malembo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/interlingua.htm|title=Interlingua Alphabet|website=Omniglot|access-date=2025-01-16}}</ref> Alfabeti iyi, umo malembo ghakuyowoyekera mu [[International Phonetic Alphabet|alfabeti ya mazgu ya charu chose (IPA)]], kweniso mazina gha malembo mu Interlingua ni agha: {| class="wikitable" |+ Alfabeti ya Interlingua ! Nambara ||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||10||11||12||13||14||15||16||17||18||19||20||21||22||23||24||25||26 |- |''Malembo ([[malembo ghakuru]])''|| A || B || C || D || E || F || G || H || I || J || K || L || M || N || O || P || Q || R || S || T || U || V || W || X || Y || Z |- |''Malembo ([[malembo ghachoko]])''|| a || b || c || d || e || f || g || h || i || j || k || l || m || n || o || p || q || r || s || t || u || v || w || x || y || z |- |''[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]''|| {{IPA link|a}} || {{IPA link|b}} || {{IPA link|k}}, {{IPA link|t͡s}}~{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} || {{IPA link|d}} || {{IPA link|e}} || {{IPA link|f}} || {{IPA link|ɡ}} || {{IPA link|h}}~{{IPA link|∅}} || {{IPA link|i}} || {{IPA link|ʒ}} || {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|l}} || {{IPA link|m}} || {{IPA link|n}} || {{IPA link|o}} || {{IPA link|p}} || {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|r}} || {{IPA link|s}}~{{IPA link|z}} || {{IPA link|t}} || {{IPA link|u}} || {{IPA link|v}} || {{IPA link|w}}~{{IPA link|v}} || {{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|s}} || {{IPA link|i}} || {{IPA link|z}} |- |''Mazina''|| a || be || ce || de || e || ef || ge || ha || i || jota || ka || el || em || en || o || pe || cu || er || es || te || u || ve || duple ve || ix || ypsilon || zeta |} {{Notelist}} === Kalembero wakunjilirapo === Buku lakuti ''Grammar of Interlingua'' likulongosora mu chigaŵa 15 za "kalembero wakunjilirapo" (collateral orthography), uyo wakulongosora umo lizgu likwenera kulembekera mu Interlingua para likasinthika na kunjira mu chiyowoyero ichi kwambura kughanaghanira chomene uko lizgu likafumira.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://adoneilson.com/int/gi/spell/collat.html|title=''Grammar of Interlingua''}}</ref> == Mazgu gha Interlingua (Phonology) == [[File:Vocabulario scientific international.ogg|thumb|Interlingua yakuyowoyeka]] Interlingua ni chiyowoyero icho chikugwiliskirika chomene pakulemba, ndipo umo mazgu ghakuyowoyekera kuti ghali wuli chikupulikikwa mwakuyana yayi pakati pa ŵayowoyi wose. Mazgu agho ghali mu mabokosi ( ) ghakugwiliskirika ntchito yayi na ŵayowoyi wose. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! ! colspan="2" | [[Mazgu gha milomo|gha milomo]] ! colspan="2" | [[Mazgu gha mu zino|gha mu zino]] ! colspan="2" | [[Mazgu gha kuseri kwa zino|gha kuseri kwa zino]] ! [[Mazgu gha pakatikati pa kamwa|gha pakatikati]] ! colspan="2" | [[Mazgu gha mu mmero|gha mu mmero]] ! [[Mazgu gha mu khosi|gha mu khosi]] |- ! [[Mazgu gha mphuno|Mazgu gha mphuno]] | colspan="2"| {{IPA link|m}} | colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}} | colspan="2"| | | colspan="2"| | |- ! [[Mazgu gha kujambuka mphepo|Mazgu gha kujambuka mphepo]] | {{IPA link|p}} || {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|t}} || {{IPA link|d}} | colspan="2"| | | {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|ɡ}} | |- ! [[Mazgu gha kusazga|Mazgu gha kusazga]] | colspan="2"| | colspan="3"| ({{IPA link|ts}} ~ {{IPA link|tʃ}}) | rowspan=2| ({{IPA link|d}}){{IPA link|ʒ}} | | colspan="2"| | |- ! [[Mazgu gha kusisita|Mazgu gha kusisita]] | {{IPA link|f}} || {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|s}} || {{IPA link|z}} | {{IPA link|ʃ}} ||| | colspan="2"| | ({{IPA link|h}}) |- ! [[Mazgu gha kuyandikira|Mazgu gha kuyandikira]] | colspan="2"| | colspan="2"|{{IPA link|l}} | colspan="2"| | {{IPA link|j}} | colspan="2"|{{IPA link|w}} | |- ! [[Mazgu gha r|Mazgu gha r]] | colspan="2"| | colspan="2"|{{IPA link|r}} | colspan="2"| | | colspan="2"| | |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! ! [[Lizgu lakudanga|lakudanga]] ! [[Lizgu lakubwelera|lakubwelera]] |- ! [[Lizgu lakufupi|Lakufupi]] | {{IPA link|i}} | {{IPA link|u}} |- ! [[Lizgu lakatikati|Lakati]] | {{IPA link|e}} | {{IPA link|o}} |- ! [[Lizgu lakujuruka|Lakujuruka]] | colspan=2|{{IPA link|a}} |} === Umo mazgu ghakuyowoyekera === Mu nyengo zinandi, [[konsonanti|makonsonanti]] mu Interlingua ghakuyowoyeka nga umo ghakuyowoyekera mu Chingelezi, apo [[vowel|mavawelo]] ghakuyana na gha mu Chisipanishi. Malembo ghaŵiri ghakuyana agho ghali pamoza ghangayowoyeka nga ni lizgu limoza mu Chingelezi panji Chifurenchi, kweni ghangayowoyekaso nga ni mu Chitaliyana kuti ghapulikikwe makora. Interlingua wali na [[diphthong|mazgu gha mavawelo ghaŵiri]] ghakukhilira, agho ni {{IPA|/ai/, /au/, /ei/, /eu/}}, na {{IPA|/oi/}}.{{sfn|Gopsill|1994}} Kweni {{IPA|/ei/}} na {{IPA|/oi/}} ghakuwoneka mwachoko. === Kukanika kwa mazgu (Stress) === Dango likuru ndakuti kukankha kwa lizgu kukuŵa pa wawelo iyo yili panthazi pa konsonanti yakumalizga. Viyelezgero: * {{lang|ia|l'''i'''ngua}} — "chiyowoyero" * {{lang|ia|ess'''e'''r}} — "kuŵa" * {{lang|ia|requirim'''e'''nto}} — "chakukhumbikwa" Mu mazgu gha unandi, lizgu lakumalizga {{lang|ia|-(e)s}} likuleka kupulikikwa pa nkhani ya kukankha. Mwachiyelezgero, {{lang|ia|l'''i'''nguas}} likukankha malo ghamoza nga ni {{lang|ia|lingua}}. Usange dango ili lingaleka kugwira ntchito, kukankha kukuŵa pa wawelo yakwamba. Pali vyakuleka vichoko: * Mazgu gha zina panji chivumbuzi agho ghamalira na wawelo pamaso pa {{lang|ia|-le}}, {{lang|ia|-ne}}, panji {{lang|ia|-re}} ghakukankha pa silabi yachitatu kufuma kumaliro. * Mazgu agho ghamalira na {{lang|ia|-ica/-ico}}, {{lang|ia|-ide/-ido}}, na {{lang|ia|-ula/-ulo}} ghakukankha pa silabi yachitatu kufuma kumaliro. * Mazgu agho ghamalira na {{lang|ia|-ic}} ghakukankha pa silabi yachiŵiri kufuma kumaliro. Ŵayowoyi ŵangayowoya mazgu ghose mwakugwiliskira ntchito dango likuru. Mwachiyelezgero, {{lang|ia|kilom'''e'''tro}} ntchakuzomerezgeka, nangauli {{lang|ia|kil'''o'''metro}} ndiko kukuyowoyeka chomene.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} === Umo mazgu ghakupangikira (Phonotactics) === Interlingua yilije malango ghakulongosoreka chomene pa umo mazgu ghakukhalira pamoza. Kweni nthowa iyo mazgu gha Interlingua ghakusankhikira, iyo yikukhumba kuti mazgu ghaŵe gha pa charu chose, yikupangiska kuti mazgu ghanyake ghaŵe ghapusu kuyowoya kwa ŵasambiri ŵanandi. Para mazgu ghaphya ghapangika, nyengo zinyake mathero ghakuzomerezgeka yayi kusazgikapo kwambura kusintha kanthu. Chiyerezgero ntchakuti mathero gha unandi {{lang|ia|-s}} nyengo zose ghakwamba na wawelo kuti ghaleke kupanga gulu la makonsonanti ilo ntchakusuzga kuyowoya. Usange lizgu la umodzi likumalira pa konsonanti, {{lang|ia|-s}} wakumalira wakusintha kuŵa {{lang|ia|-es}}. === Mazgu ghakubwereka === [[Mazgu ghakubwereka|Mazgu ghakubwereka]] kufuma ku viyowoyero vinyake agho ghandasintheke ghakulembeka umo ghali kulembekera mu chiyowoyero chawo chakufumirako. Malembo ghangaŵa na [[vimanyikwiro vya malembo|vimanyikwiro vya malembo]] panji vimanyikwiro vya kukankha. Usange vimanyikwiro ivi vikusintha yayi umo lizgu likuyowoyekera, vikuchotskeka.{{sfn|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}} == Mazgu gha chiyowoyero == Awo ŵakulongozga chiyowoyero cha Interlingua ŵakusora mazgu chifukwa cha umo ghakusangikira na umo ghakugwilira ntchito mu viyowoyero ivyo vikucemeka viyowoyero vyakupima. Ivi ni [[Chisipanishi|Spanish]], [[Chipwitikizi|Portuguese]], [[Chitaliyana|Italian]], [[Chifurenchi|French]], na [[Chingelezi|English]], apo [[Chijeremani|German]] na [[Chirashiya|Russian]] vikucemeka viyowoyero vyakusazgirapo. Mazgu gha Interlingua ghangaŵa ghakufuma ku chiyowoyero chilichose para ghali kufalikira mu viyowoyero vyakupima ivi.{{sfn|Morris|1945}} Spanish na Portuguese, ivyo vyose ni viyowoyero vya ku Iberia, vikupimika nga ni chigaŵa chimoza. Mazgu ghanandi gha Interlingua ghakufuma ku [[Chilatini|Latin]], apo [[Chigiriki|Greek]] na [[viyowoyero vya Chijeremani|Germanic languages]] ndivyo vikupanga mazgu ghanandi ghakwamba na ghaŵiri. Mazgu ghanyake ghakufuma ku [[viyowoyero vya Chisilavo|Slavic languages]] na viyowoyero ivyo ni vyakuleka ku Indo-European.{{sfn|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}} === Umo mazgu ghakuzomerezgeka === Lizgu, ilo ni mazgu ghenecho agho ghali na ng'anamuro, likuzomerezgeka kuŵa mu mazgu gha Interlingua para likusangika mu vinyake vitatu vya viyowoyero vinayi vyakwamba. Chiyowoyero chilichose chachiŵiri chinganjira mu malo mwa chimoza cha viyowoyero vyakwamba. Lizgu lililose la chiyowoyero cha Indo-European ilo likusangika mu chiyowoyero chakupima lingawovwira kuti lizomerezgeke kuŵa lizgu la pa charu chose.{{sfn|Stillman|Gode von Aesch|1943}} Mu nyengo zinyake, kuŵapo kwa lizgu lakale chomene panji ilo lingawoneka kuti lingazgoka lizgu la sono kungawovwira kuti lizomerezgeke. Lizgu lingawoneka kuti lili mu chiyowoyero para lizgu lakufuma kwa ilo lilipo, kweni lizgu leneko palije. Mwachiyelezgero, lizgu la Chingelezi ''proximity'' likovwira pa lizgu la Interlingua {{lang|ia|proxime}}, ilo likung'anamura "pafupi". Ivi vikuzomerezgeka usange chiyowoyero chimoza panji vinandi vya kupima vili na lizgu lakwambilira ili, ndipo viyowoyero vya Romance vyose vili nalo. Kweni mazgu ghakuŵikika mu Interlingua chifukwa cha kuŵa na mazgu ghakuyana mu viyowoyero vinandi pera yayi. Usange ng'anamuro la lizgu lasintha chomene mu nyengo, lizgu ilo likupimika nga ndakupambana. Kweni usange ling'anamuro limoza panji ghanandi ghakhalilira, lizgu lingazomerezgeka mu Interlingua na ng'anamuro ilo lasungika.{{sfn|Stillman|Gode von Aesch|1943}} Para nthowa iyi yileka kusanga lizgu la pa charu chose, lizgu la chinthu chinyake likatoranga kufuma ku [[Chilatini|Latin]]. Ichi chikachitikanga waka na mazgu ghachoko gha vya galamala. === Kapangidwe ka mazgu === Kapangidwe ka lizgu la Interlingua kakuwoneka nga ni "mazgu gha pa charu chose" ghakuyana na mazgu ghanyake. Lizgu likwenera kuŵa lakusangika mwakawiro, kwambura kuŵa na vimanyikwiro vya chiyowoyero chimoza pera. Kweniso likwenera kulongora vinandi ivyo viyowoyero vyose ivyo vikovwira vili navyo. Ntheura, lizgu lingasintha kuŵa mitundu ya viyowoyero vinyake mwakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya chiyowoyero chilichose. Para lizgu lili na mazgu ghanyake ghakufuma kwa ilo mu viyowoyero vyakwambilira, ubwezi wa kapangidwe kawo ukwenera kusungika. Mwachiyelezgero, lizgu la Interlingua la "nyengo" ni {{lang|ia|tempore}}, osati {{lang|ia|*tempus}} panji {{lang|ia|*tempo}}, chifukwa likukolerana na mazgu ghakufuma kwa ilo nga ni {{lang|ia|temporal}}.{{cite}} Vinthu vya chiyowoyero ivyo vikupangiska kupambana kwa mazgu vikukolerana na [[malango gha kusintha kwa mazgu|sound laws]] gha viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana. Mazgu agho ghapangika kanandi ghakuŵa pafupi chomene na umo mazgu ghakale ghakaŵira. Nyengo zinyake ghakuyana na [[Chilatini cha ŵanthu|Vulgar Latin]], kweni nyengo zinyake ghangaŵa gha sono.{{sfn|Stillman|Gode von Aesch|1943}} == Malango gha chiyowoyero == {{Main|malango gha chiyowoyero cha Interlingua}} Interlingua yikapangika mwakuleka vinthu vyose vya galamala ivyo vikusangika yayi mu chiyowoyero chilichose chimoza cha viyowoyero vyakwamba vyakupima. Ntheura, Interlingua yilije kukolerana kwa [[mazina na mazgu ghakulongosora|zina na lizgu lakulongosora]] mwakuyana na chibabiro, mulandu, panji unandi (nga umo viliri mu Spanish na Portuguese {{lang|es|gatas negras}} panji Italian {{lang|it|gatte nere}}, "ŵamphaka ŵanakazi ŵakufipa"), chifukwa ichi chilije mu Chingelezi. Kweniso yilije nyengo za viliwiro vya vitenzi (nga ni mu Chingelezi ''I am reading''), chifukwa izi zilije mu Chifurenchi. Kweni, Interlingua yikupambaniska mazina gha umoza na unandi chifukwa viyowoyero vyose vyakupima vili na kupambaniska uku.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Pa nkhani ya viyowoyero vyakupima vyachiŵiri, Interlingua yili na mazgu ghakuŵika mazina (articles), mwakupambana na [[Chirashiya|Russian]]. Lizgu lakulongora chinthu chakumanyikwa {{lang|ia|le}} likusintha yayi, nga umo liliri mu Chingelezi ("the"). Mazina ghakuŵavya [[chibabiro cha galamala|jenda ya galamala]].{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}}{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Unandi wa mazina ukupangika mwa kusazgirapo ''-s'', panji ''-es'' para lizgu likumalira na konsonanti.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} [[Viimiliri vya munthu|Mazgu ghakuimilira ŵanthu]] ghali na mtundu umoza wa uyo wakuchita chinthu na mtundu umoza wa uyo wakupokera chinthu kweniso wa kujiremekezga. Mu munthu wachitatu, lizgu la kujiremekezga nyengo zose ni {{lang|ia|se}}.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}}{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Vimiliri vinandi (adverbs) vikupangika mwakuzomerezgeka kufuma ku mazgu ghakulongosora (adjectives) mwa kusazgirapo {{lang|ia|-mente}}, panji {{lang|ia|-amente}} para lizgu likumalira na ''-c''. Ntheura, chingapangika chivimiliri kufuma ku lizgu lililose lakulongosora.{{sfn|Brauers|1975}} Vitenzi vili na kawonekero kamoza kwa ŵanthu wose ({{lang|ia|io vive}}, {{lang|ia|tu vive}}, {{lang|ia|illa vive}}, "ine nkhukhala", "iwe ukukhala", "iyo wakukhala"). [[Mubali wakulongora|Mubali wakulongora]] (indicative) ({{lang|ia|pare}}, "wakuwoneka") ukuyana waka na [[mubali wa malango|imperative]] ({{lang|ia|pare!}}, "woneka!"), ndipo palije mubali wa kukhumba panji kudumbiskana (subjunctive).{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Vitenzi vitatu vyakugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi vili na mitundu mifupi mu nyengo ya sono: * {{lang|ia|es}} kwa "ni", "ndine", "ndi"; * {{lang|ia|ha}} kwa "wali na", "ŵali na"; * {{lang|ia|va}} kwa "kwenda", "wakuluta". Pali mitundu yichoko ya vitenzi vyambura kulondezga malango wose, kweni yikugwiliskirika ntchito mwakawiro yayi.{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Pali nyengo zinayi zifupi za vitenzi: * sono; * yakale; * yamunthazi; * yakukhumbikwa (conditional). Kweniso pali nyengo zitatu zakupangika na kovwira: * yakale; * yamunthazi; * yakukhumbikwa. Kapangidwe ka nyengo izi kakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakovwira pamoza na mtundu wakwamba wa chitenzi panji chigaŵa cha chitenzi chakale (mwachiyelezgero, {{lang|ia|Ille ha arrivate}}, "Iyo wafika").{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Nyengo zifupi na zakupangika zingasazgikana kuti zilonoske nyengo zakusuzga (mwachiyelezgero, {{lang|ia|Nos haberea morite}}, "Tikaŵa kuti tifikenge pa nyifwa"). Ndondomeko ya mazgu mu sentensi kanandi ni [[wakuchita–chitenzi–wakupokera|wakuchita–chitenzi–wakupokera chinthu]], kweni para pali lizgu lakwimira chinthu panji lakujiremekezga, likwiza pambere chitenzi ({{lang|ia|io les vide}}, "ine nkhuŵawona").{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}}{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Mazgu ghakulongosora (adjectives) ghangiza pambere panji pamanyuma pa zina ilo ghakulongosora, kweni kanandi ghakuŵa pamanyuma pake.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Malo gha vimiliri (adverbs) mu sentensi ngakusintha-sintha kuyana na fundo ya ng'anamuro.{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Galamala ya Interlingua yikulongosoreka kuti yikuyana na galamala ya viyowoyero vya Romance, kweni yasazgikira kuŵa yipusu chomene, chomenechomene chifukwa cha chovwiro cha Chingelezi.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Kafukufuku wa mu 1991 wakayowoya kuti galamala ya Interlingua yikuyana na magalamala ghapusu gha [[Chijapanizi|Japanese]] na chomenechomene [[Chichayina|Chinese]].{{sfn|Yeager|1991b}} F. P. Gopsill wakalemba kuti Interlingua yilije vinthu vyambura kulondezga malango, nangauli ''Interlingua Grammar'' ya Gode yikulongora kuti Interlingua yili na vinthu vichoko vyambura kulondezga malango.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}}{{sfn|Gopsill|1994}} == Mivvimbi na vimanyikwiro == Nga umo viliri na [[Esperanto]], pali maghanoghano ghakupanga mbumba (flag) ya Interlingua. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140416192338/https://www.fotw.info/flags/qy-ia.html Mivvimbi ya Interlingua (IALA)] kufuma ku fotw.net (nakusungika pa web)</ref> Maghanoghano gha wakung'anamura wa ku Czech, Karel Podrazil, ghakumanyikwa chomene pa malo gha pa intaneti agho ghali na viyowoyero vinandi. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airbagjacket.eu/jachetta_airbag.html |title=Toto super le airbag jachetta e gilet / jachetta e gilet con airbag (invento hungaro) - interlingua - All about Airbag Jacket and Airbag Vest |website=Airbagjacket.eu |access-date=2016-06-23}}</ref> Mbumba iyi yili na nyenyezi yituŵa ya mphingo zinayi iyo yikufika ku mphaka za mbumba ndipo yikupatura chigaŵa chapachanya cha buluu na chigaŵa chapasi chituŵa cha bofira. Nyenyezi iyi yikwimira vigaŵa vinayi vya charu (kumpoto, kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi, na kumadzulo), apo vigaŵa viŵiri vya mbumba vikuyimira ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Romance na ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake awo ŵakumanya kupulikana mu Interlingua. Chimanyikwiro chinyake cha Interlingua ni [[Blue Marble|Charu cha buluu (Blue Marble)]] chakuzingilizgika na nyenyezi 12 pa malo ghafipa panji gha buluu. Ichi chikukolerana na nyenyezi 12 za [[Mbumba ya ku Europe|mbumba ya Europe]] (chifukwa viyowoyero ivyo vikapangiska Interlingua vikufuma ku Europe). <gallery widths=200 heights=130> File:Bandiera de Interlingua.png|Mbumba yambura kuŵikika mwalamulo iyo kanandi yikuwoneka mu gulu la ŵakuyowoya Interlingua File:Flag of Interlingua.svg|Mbumba yambura kuŵikika mwalamulo ya Interlingua iyo Karel Podrazil wakapereka File:Bandiera de Interlingua.svg|Mbumba ya Interlingua iyo yikazomerezgeka mwalamulo pa chikumbusko cha vyaka 75<ref name="flag"/><ref name="flagspec"/> </gallery> === Malongosolero gha mbumba === [[File:Construction sheet for the flag of Interlingua.svg|thumb|Chithuzithuzi chakulongora umo mbumba ya Interlingua yikapangikira.]] Mbumba ya Interlingua ni chithuzithuzi cha makona ghanayi (rectangle) icho chiŵerengero cha utali na msinkhu wake ni 2:3, ndipo chigaŵa chitali chikuŵa chakutambalala. <ref name="flagspec" /> Mbumba iyi yili na mitundu yiŵiri: * azure (buluu); * gold (chikasu). Mitundu iyi yikulongosoreka na vinthu ivi: {| class="wikitable" style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-collapse: collapse; white-space: nowrap; text-align: left" width="60%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" border="1" |- style="text-align: centre; background: #eee" ! !style="background:#003399"| <span style="color:#FFFFFF"> Buluu (Azure) </span> !style="background:#FFCC00"| Chikasu (Gold) |- | [[Pantone]] | Reflex Blue | Yellow |- | [[RGB color model|RGB]] | <code>#003399</code> | <code>#FFCC00</code> |- | [[CMYK]] | 100.80.0.0 | 0.21.100.0 |- |} Mbumba iyi yili na malo ghose gha buluu, ndipo pakati pali chithuzithuzi cha makona 8 icho chikupanga nyenyezi ya mphingo zinayi ya mtundu wa golide. Usange mbumba iyi yikulongoleka na utali wa 18 na msinkhu wa 12, chithuzithuzi cha pakati chikulongosoreka na manambara agha: [ ⟨0,6⟩ ⟨8,7⟩ ⟨9,12⟩ ⟨10,7⟩ ⟨18,6⟩ ⟨10,5⟩ ⟨9,0⟩ ⟨8,5⟩ ⟨0,6⟩ ]. == Mazuŵa gha vyakulembeka == <references/> == Mabuku na mabuku gha malemba == * {{Cite book |last=Blandino|first=Giovanni|year=1989|title=Philosophia del Cognoscentia e del Scientia|chapter=Le problema del linguas international auxiliari|lang=ia|publisher=[[Pontifical Lateran University|Pontificia Universitas Lateranensis]], [[Pontifical Urban University|Pontificia università urbaniana]]|location=Rome, Italy}} * {{cite book | last = Brauers | first = Karl | year = 1975| title = Grammatica synoptic de Interlingua | publisher = Editiones Interlingua | location = Morges, Switzerland }} * {{cite book |last=Bray |first=Mary Connell |editor=Alexander Gode |editor-link=Alexander Gode |chapter="Foreword" and "Acknowledgements" |title=Interlingua-English; A dictionary of the international language 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world|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427122501/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/publicationes/spectroscopia.htm|archive-date=2019-04-27|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|website=Historia de interlingua}} * {{cite web|last=Breinstrup|first=Thomas|date=2006c|orig-date=2001|url=https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/50annos.htm|title=Interlingua: Forte, Fructuose, Futur|lang=ia|website=Historia de interlingua}} * {{cite web |first=Thomas|last=Breinstrup|editor-first1=Th.|editor-last1=Breinstrup |editor-first2=Ingvar|editor-last2=Stenström|editor-first3=Jesper |editor-last3=Olsson |year= 2006d |orig-year=2001 | url = https://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/blair.htm | title = Biographias: Hugh Edward Blair | website = Interlingua|lang = ia | access-date = 2025-01-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190428002611/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/blair.htm | archive-date= 2019-04-28 | url-status = live }} * {{cite web 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2006-10-16 | url-status = live }} * {{cite web |editor-first1=Th.|editor-last1=Breinstrup |editor-first2=Ingvar|editor-last2=Stenström|editor-first3=Jesper |editor-last3=Olsson |year= 2012 | url = https://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/gode.htm | title = Biographias: Alexander Gottfried Friedrich Gode-von Aesch | website = Interlingua|orig-year=2001 |lang = ia | access-date = 2025-01-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110514101324/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/gode.htm | archive-date= 2011-05-14 | url-status = live }} *{{cite journal|last=Falk|first=Julia S.|title=Words without grammar: Linguists and the international language movement in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language-communication_1995-07_15_3/page/241|journal=Language and Communication|volume=15|issue=3|pages=241–259|publisher=Pergamon|year=1995|doi=10.1016/0271-5309(95)00010-N}} * {{cite book|last=Falk|first= Julia S.|title=Women, Language and Linguistics: Three American stories from the first half of the twentieth century.|publisher= Routledge|location=London & New York|year=1999}} * {{cite book|first=Sabine|last=Fiedler|editor-first1=Harald |editor-first2=Dmitrij |editor-first3=Peter |editor-first4=Neal R. |editor-last1=Burger |editor-last2=Dobrovol'Skij |editor-last3=Kühn |editor-last4=Norrick |year=2007|chapter=Phraseology in planned languages|title=Phraseology: Ein internationales Handbuch der zeitgenössischen Forschung|volume=2|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|pages=779–788|doi=10.1515/9783110190762.779|isbn=978-3-11-019831-7 }} * {{cite book |last1=Gode|first1=Alexander|author-link=Alexander Gode|last2=Blair |first2=Hugh E. |author2-link=Hugh E. Blair|title=Interlingua; a grammar of the international language|url=https://archive.org/details/interlinguagramm00gode|access-date=2007-03-05|edition=Second|orig-year=1951|year=1955|publisher=Frederick Ungar Publishing|location=[[New York City|New York]]|isbn=0-8044-0186-1|oclc=147452}} * {{cite book|last=Gopsill|first=Frank Peter|year=1990|title=International languages: a matter for Interlingua|publisher=British Interlingua Society|location=[[Sheffield]], [[England]]|isbn=0-9511695-6-4|oclc=27813762}} * {{cite book|last=Gopsill|first=Frank Peter|year=1994|title=Interlingua today: A course for beginners|publisher=British Interlingua Society|location=[[Sheffield]], [[England]]|isbn=9781898017011}} * {{cite web|last=Gopsill|first=Frank Peter|url=http://geocities.com/hkyson/directorio/interlinguistica/html/lehistoriahtml.htm|title=Le historia antenatal de Interlingua {{!}} 1951-1991|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027145739/http://geocities.com/hkyson/directorio/interlinguistica/html/lehistoriahtml.htm|archive-date=2009-10-27|url-status=dead|access-date=2025-01-14}} * {{cite web|last1=Gopsill|first1=Frank Peter|last2=Sexton|first2=Brian|url=https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-1.htm|title=Le historia antenatal de Interlingua|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514114352/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-1.htm|archive-date=2011-05-14|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|website=Historia de interlingua|date=2006a|orig-date=2001}} * {{cite web|last1=Gopsill|first1=Frank Peter|last2=Sexton|first2=Brian|url=https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-2.htm|title=Profunde recerca duce a un lingua|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210152200/https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-2.htm|archive-date=2022-12-10|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|website=Historia de interlingua|date=2006b|orig-date=2001}} * {{cite web|last1=Gopsill|first1=Frank Peter|last2=Sexton|first2=Brian|url=http://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-3.htm|title=Le natura, si – un schema, no|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412014242/https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-3.htm|archive-date=2022-04-12|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|website=Historia de interlingua|date=2006c|orig-date=2001}} * {{cite book |author=International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA) |author-link=International Auxiliary Language Association |editor=Alexander Gode |editor-link=Alexander Gode |title=Interlingua-English; A dictionary of the international language |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227051537/http://www.bowks.net/worldlang/aux/b_IED.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227051537/https://web.archive.org/web/20071227051537/http://www.bowks.net/worldlang/aux/b_IED.html |archive-date=2007-12-27 |access-date=2010-04-18 |edition=Second |orig-year=1951 |year=1971 |publisher=Frederick Ungar Publishing |location=[[New York City|New York]] |isbn=0-8044-0188-8 |oclc=162319 |url-status=usurped |ref=CITEREFGode1971}} * {{cite book|last=Morris|first=Alice Vanderbilt|author-link=Alice Vanderbilt Morris|url=http://www.interlingua.fi/ialagr45.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20040702192153/http://www.interlingua.fi/ialagr45.htm|archive-date=2004-07-02|url-status=dead|title=International Auxiliary Language Association General Report 1945|publisher=International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA)|location=New York|year=1945}} * {{cite book|last=Pei|first=Mario|author-link=Mario Pei|title=One Language for the World and How To Achieve It|publisher= [[Devin-Adair Publishing Company|Devin-Adair]]|location= New York|year=1958}} * {{cite book|last1=Sexton|first1=Brian C.|last2= Wilgenhoff|first2=Karel|first3=F. Peter|last3=Gopsill|title=Supplementary Interlingua-English Dictionary|publisher=British Interlingua Society|location=Sheffield|year= 1991}} * {{cite book | last = Stenström | first = Ingvar | year = 1991a | chapter = The Interlingua of IALA: From "the linguists' project" of 1951 to the working "tool of international scientific communication" of 1981 | title = Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public per Ingvar Stenström e Leland B. Yeager | location = Beekbergen, Netherlands | publisher = Servicio de Libros UMI }} * {{cite book | last = Stenström | first = Ingvar | year = 1991b | chapter = Utilisation de Interlingua in le inseniamento de linguas | trans-chapter=Utilization of Interlingua in the teaching of languages | title = Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public per Ingvar Stenström e Leland B. Yeager | location = Beekbergen, Netherlands | publisher = Servicio de Libros UMI }} *{{cite book| last1 = Stillman | first1 = E. Clark | last2 = Gode von Aesch | first2 = Alexander | chapter = Le tres principios principal del standardization international in interlingua | language = ia | title = Interlinguistic standardization | location = New York | publisher = International Auxiliary Language Association | year = 1943 | url = https://www.interlingua.com/historia/publicationes/standardisation.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080515131210/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/publicationes/standardisation.htm | archive-date= 2008-05-15 | url-status = live | pages = Articles 82–100 | translator-last= Mulaik | translator-first= Stanley A. | translator-link= Stanley A. Mulaik }} * {{cite web|author=Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI)|url=https://www.interlingua.com/historia/index.html |title=Interlingua 2001: communication sin frontieras durante 50 annos|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150422101259/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/index.html |archive-date=2015-04-22|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|lang=ia }} * {{cite book | last = Wilgenhof | first = Karel | year = 1995 | title = Grammatica de Interlingua | publisher = Union Mundial pro Interlingua | location = Beekbergen, Netherlands}} * {{cite book|last=Yeager|first=Leland B.|author-link=Leland B. Yeager|year=1991a|title=Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public|publisher=Servicio de Libros UMI|location=Beekbergen, Netherlands|chapter=Le linguistica como reclamo pro Interlingua|trans-chapter=Linguistics as an advertisement for Interlingua|lang=ia}} * {{cite book | last = Yeager | first = Leland B.|author-link=Leland B. Yeager| year = 1991b | chapter = Artificialitate, ethnocentrismo, e le linguas oriental: Le caso de Interlingua |trans-chapter=Artificiality, ethnocentrism, and the Oriental languages: The case of Interlingua| title = Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public per Ingvar Stenström e Leland B. Yeager | location = Beekbergen, Netherlands | publisher = Servicio de Libros UMI}} {{Interlingua}}{{Constructed languages}} [[Category:Interlingua]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana| ]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakovwira vya pa charu chose]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakupangika]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakukolerana]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakupangika vikayambiskika mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950]] [[Category:1951 mazgu ghakwamba]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vya chitemwa]] 41yr0bcwser8l97wrhi0vy4bd0z4e7x 0 46754 122333 120262 2026-09-24T23:57:29Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122333 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|President of Syria from 2000 to 2024}} {{Family name hatnote|[[Al-Assad family|Assad]]|lang=Arabic}} {{Current related|date=December 2024|2=Fall of the Assad regime}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=June 2018}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}} {{Infobox officeholder | honorific-prefix = | name = Bashar al-Assad | native_name = {{nobold|بشار الأسد}} | native_name_lang = ar | image = Bashar al-Assad in May 2024.png | image_upright = | alt = | caption = Assad in 2024 | order = 19th | office = President of Syria | primeminister = {{clist|title=''See list''|[[Muhammad Mustafa Mero]]|[[Muhammad Naji al-Otari]]|[[Adel Safar]]|[[Riyad Farid Hijab]]|[[Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji]]|[[Wael Nader al-Halqi]]|[[Imad Khamis]]|[[Hussein Arnous]]|[[Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali]]}} | vicepresident = {{clist|title=''See list''| Abdul Halim Khaddam<br />(2000–2005)|[[Zuhair Masharqa]]<br />(2000–2006)|[[Farouk al-Sharaa]]<br />(2006–2014)|[[Najah al-Attar]]<br />(2006–2024)|[[Faisal Mekdad]]<br />(Sep–Dec 2024)}} | term_start = 17 July 2000 | term_end = 8 December 2024 | predecessor = {{ubl|[[Hafez al-Assad]]|[[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] (acting)}} | successor = | office1 = General Secretary of the [[Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Central Command]] of the [[Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] | deputy1 = {{ubl|[[Abdullah al-Ahmar]]|[[Hilal Hilal]]|[[Ibrahim al-Hadid]]}} | term_start1 = 24 June 2000 | term_end1 = 8 December 2024 | predecessor1 = Hafez al-Assad | successor1 = Ibrahim al-Hadid | birth_name = Bashar Hafez al-Assad | birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1965|9|11}} | birth_place = [[Damascus]], [[Ba'athist Syria|Syrian Arab Republic]] | death_date = | death_place = | death_cause = | residence = {{ubl|[[Presidential Palace, Damascus|The People's Palace]], [[Damascus]] (until 2024)| [[Moscow]], Russia (since 2024)}} | party = [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]] | otherparty = [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Asma al-Assad]]|2000}} | children = 3, including [[Hafez Bashar al-Assad|Hafez]] | father = [[Hafez al-Assad]] | mother = [[Anisa Makhlouf]] | relatives = [[al-Assad family]] | signature = Bashar al-Assad Signature.png | allegiance = Syria | branch = [[Syrian Armed Forces]] | serviceyears = 1988–2024 | rank = [[File:Syria Army - OF10.svg|15px]] [[Field marshal]] | unit = [[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard]] (until 2000) | commands = [[Syrian Armed Forces]] | battles = [[Syrian civil war]] | citizenship = | education = [[Damascus University]] ([[Medical degree|MD]]) }} {{Bashar al-Assad series}} {{Ba'athism sidebar}} '''Bashar al-Assad''' (wakababika pa 11 Seputembala 1965) ndi wandale wa ku Syria ndipo ndi msilikari uyo wakaba 19th president wa Syria kufuma 2000 mpaka kuwa kwa boma la Assad mu 2024. Apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, Assad wakaŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Siriya kweniso wakaŵa mulembi wa ŵasilikari ŵa chipani cha Ba'ath. Iyo ni mwana wa Hafez al-Assad, uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti kufuma mu 1971 mpaka apo wakafwira mu 2000.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR}}</ref><ref name=":7">* {{Cite news|date=6 March 2023|title=Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete|work=United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm|archive-date=14 March 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-date=15 May 2023 |website=European Union External Action}}</ref> M'ma 1980, Assad wakazgoka dokotala, ndipo kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1990 wakasambizganga vya maso ku London. Mu 1994, mukuru wake Bassel al-Assad wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto, ndipo Assad wakacemeka ku Syria kuti wakapokere udindo wa Bassel. Assad wakanjira sukulu ya usilikali na kwamba kulongozga ŵasilikari ŵa Siriya mu Lebanoni mu 1998. Pa 17 July 2000, Assad wakazgoka pulezidenti, ndipo wakawelera mu malo gha adada ŵake, awo ŵakafwa pa 10 June 2000.Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika mu 2001-2002 vikawovwira kuti Damascus Spring yimare, nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe palipose kweniso kuti paŵe demokilase.<ref name=":7" /> Ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulongosora kuti muwuso wa Assad ukaŵa wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵayendere makora, ndipo boma la Syria likaŵa nga ni boma la ŵapolisi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakaŵasuzganga na kuŵatambuzga chomene. Apo boma la Assad likati ni la ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake yayi, ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakayowoya kuti boma ili likagwiliskiranga nchito ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake mu caru ici. Nangauli Asad wakahara mazaza na nkharo ya wiske, kweni ŵanthu ŵakamutemwanga yayi nga umo ŵakachitiranga ŵadada ŵake. Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu muwuso wa ŵawiske ŵakaleka nchito panji ŵakathereskeka, ndipo ŵamazaza ŵa mu muwuso ŵakasuskika na ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka ŵa fuko la Alawite. Mapulogiramu ghakwambilira gha Assad gha kuwunjikira chuma ghakawunjikira mpambano ndipo ghakawunjikira nkhongono ŵanthu ŵa ku Damascus awo ŵakagomezgekanga ku mbumba ya Assad, ndipo ghakaŵachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi, mu misumba, ŵamalonda, ŵamalonda, na ŵanthu ŵa ku Ba'ath. Mu Febuluwale 2005, ŵanthu ŵa ku Lebanon ŵakacita nkhondo ya Cedar Revolution, iyo yikamba cifukwa ca kukoma Rafic Hariri, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya caru ca Lebanon.<ref name=":6" /> Mu 2011, United States, European Union, na vigaŵa vinandi vya Arab League vikacema Assad kuti wafumeko pa udindo wake cifukwa ca kuyuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhuŵiliranga mu nyengo ya Arab Spring. Nkhondo iyi yikoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 580,000, ndipo ŵanthu 306,000 awo ŵakafwa ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari yayi. Boma la Assad lapanga milandu yinandi ya nkhondo mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya chalo cha Syria, apo ŵasilikari ŵake ŵacita nkhondo zinandi na vilwero vya mankhwala (makamaka, bomba la sarin ku Ghouta pa 21 August 2013). Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa UN, ukayowoya kuti ivyo ukawona vikavumbura kuti Assad wali na mulandu wa nkhondo, ndipo boma la vyaru vinyake likamufumba na kumususka. Mu Novembala 2024, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Syria likawukira boma na chilato chakuti likhizge Assad. Pa Disembala 8, ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ŵakati ŵanjira mu Damascus, Assad wakacimbilira ku Moscow ndipo boma la Russia likamupa ciphokwero. Pamanyuma pa zuŵa lenelira, ŵasilikari ŵakagalukira boma la Damaseko, ndipo boma la Assad likamara..<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian rebels topple President Assad, prime minister calls for free elections |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |access-date=7 December 2024 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=9 December 2024 |title=Assad flees to Moscow after rebels take Syrian capital, Russian state media report |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/syria-damascus-falls-to-rebels-1.7404700 |access-date=9 December 2024 |work=[[CBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=8 December 2024|title=Syria's President Bashar al Assad is in Moscow and has been granted asylum, confirms Russian state media|url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-175000548.html}}</ref> == Umoyo wakwamba, mbumba na masambiro == {{Further|Al-Assad family}} Bashar al-Assad wakababikira ku Damascus pa 11 September 1965, mwana wachiŵiri wa Anisa Makhlouf na Hafez al-Assad. Mu Ciarabu, zina lakuti "Al-Assad" likung'anamura kuti "nkhalamu". Ali al-Assad, uyo wakaŵa sekuru wa Assad, wakasintha zina lake kufuma pa kuŵa mulimi na kuŵa munthu wakuzirwa, ndipo mu 1927, wakasintha zina la mbumba yake kufuma pa "Wahsh" (kung'anamura kuti "Chikavu") na kuŵa "Al-Assad". Dada wa Assad, Hafez al-Assad, wakababikira mu mbumba yambura ndalama, iyo yikaŵa ya ku mizi ndipo yikaŵa ya chigaŵa cha Alawite. Hafez wakakwezga ŵanthu awo ŵakamulondezganga mu chipani cha Ba'ath, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Alawite. Pamanyuma pa cipanduko ici, ŵasilikari ŵa Alawite ŵakamba kuwusa, ndipo ŵa Sunni, ŵa Druze, na ŵa Ismaili ŵakafumiskika mu gulu la ŵasilikari na gulu la Ba'ath. Muwuso wa ŵasilikari wa Hafez al-Assad wa vilimika 30, ukazgora Siriya kuŵa muwuso waciŵembu. Ndondomeko yiphya ya ndyali yikalongozgekanga na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa gulu la Ba'ath, awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka comene ku mbumba ya Assad, ndipo ŵakalongozganga ŵasilikari, ŵasilikari ŵa boma, na ŵapolisi.<ref name="Allam, Saber 2019 26–27">{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2= Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=26–27 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cole |first=Robert |title=The Encyclopaedia of Propaganda |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=9781317471981 |pages=760–761 |chapter=Syria}}</ref> Mubali Assad wakaŵa na ŵabali ŵake ŵankhondi, ndipo ŵatatu ŵali kufwa. Mudumbu munyake zina lake Bushra wakafwa apo wakaŵa bonda. Mudumbu wa Assad, Majd, wakaŵa munthu wakumanyikwa yayi, ndipo pali vinandi yayi ivyo tikumanya vya iyo padera pa fundo yakuti wakaŵa wakupendera maghanoghano, ndipo wakafwa mu 2009 pamanyuma pa "kulwara kwa nyengo yitali". Mwakupambana na ŵanung'una ŵake Bassel na Maher, na mudumbu wake Bushra, Bashar wakaŵa wakuzika, wakudemelera, ndipo wakakhumbanga yayi kunjira ndyali panji usilikari. Ŵana ŵa Assad ŵakatemwanga yayi kucezga na adada ŵawo, ndipo Bashar wakayowoya kuti wakanjira mu ofesi ya adada ŵake kamoza pera apo ŵakaŵa pulezidenti. Munthu munyake uyo wakasambiranga nayo ku yunivesite wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa na soni, wakakhumbanga yayi kulaŵiskana na munthu, ndipo wakayowoyanga mwakuzika. Assad wakasambira sukulu ya pulayimale na sekondare ku sukulu ya Al-Hurriya ku Damascus. Mu 1982, wakamalizga masambiro gha ku sekondare ndipo wakasambira udokotala pa yunivesite ya Damascus.{{sfn|Leverett|2005|p=59}} == Medical career and rise to power == [[File:Basil assad.JPG|thumb|upright=0.95|Chithunzithunzi cha Bassel al-Assad (1962–1994), mubali mulara wa Bashar, uyo pakwamba wakakhumbikwiranga kuzakatora malo gha ŵawiske pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa Syria, kweni wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto mu 1994.]] Mu 1988, Assad wakamalizga masambiro ghake gha udokotala ndipo wakamba kugwira nchito ya udokotala ku chipatala cha Tishrin ku Damascus. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinayi, wakasamira ku London kuti wakambe masambiro gha ku chipatala cha Western Eye. Mu nyengo iyo wakaŵa ku London, ŵanthu ŵakamuzunuranga kuti ni "munthu wakucita vya makompyuta". Bashar wakaŵa na vilato vichoko waka vya ndyali, ndipo adada ŵake ŵakasambizganga Bassel, mukuru wa Bashar kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa caru. Mu 1994, Bassel wakafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto, ndipo nyengo yicoko waka, Bashar wakacemeka kuti wakambe usilikari. Boma likamba kuphalira ŵanthu kuti Bashar ni "chigomezgo cha ŵanthu wose" kuti ŵalutilire kuwusa mu muwuso wa Assad. Ŵakati ŵafwa waka, Hafez al-Assad wakasankha Bashar kuti ndiyo waŵe themba. Kwa vyaka 6 na hafu, mpaka apo wakafwira mu 2000, Hafez wakanozganga Bashar kuti wapokere mazaza. General Bahjat Suleiman, uyo wakaŵa msilikari mu gulu la ŵasilikari, wakapika mulimo wa kulongozga kunozgekera kuti vinthu viŵe makora, ndipo mulimo uwu ukachitika mu vigaŵa vitatu. Cakwamba, ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵakamovwira comene Bashar. Caciŵiri, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumumanya makora Bashar. Paumaliro, Bashar wakamanyikwa makora umo boma likwendera.<ref name="Ladno">{{cite news|title=Ladno.ru|script-title=ru:Асад Башар : биография|trans-title=Bashar Assad: A Biography|url=http://www.ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150441/http://ladno.ru/person/asad/bio/|archive-date=18 October 2015|access-date=23 September 2011|newspaper=Ladno|language=ru}}</ref> Kuti waŵe msilikari, Bashar wakaluta ku sukulu ya usilikali ku Homs mu 1994 ndipo wakaluta ku gulu la ŵasilikari la Syrian Republican Guard mu Janyuwale 1999. Kuti Bashar waŵe na mazaza pa ŵasilikari, ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakaŵachimbizga kuti ŵaleke kunjira usilikari, ndipo ŵapya, ŵawukirano, ŵasilikari ŵa chigaŵa cha Alawite awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka kwa Bashar ndiwo ŵakanjira m'malo mwawo. Mu 1998, Bashar wakatora udindo wa Syria ku Lebanon, uwo kufuma mu 1970 ukaŵa wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti Abdul Halim Khaddam, uyo m'paka pa nyengo iyi wakaŵa kuti wangakhumbikwira kuŵa pulezidenti. Pakwamba kulamulira ku Lebanon, Bashar wakathereska Khaddam na kukhazikiska boma lake ku Lebanon. Mu chaka chenechichi, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana na ŵanthu ŵa ndyali ŵa ku Lebanoni, Bashar wakimika Emile Lahoud, uyo wakaŵa mubwezi wake wakugomezgeka, kuŵa pulezidenti wa ku Lebanoni ndipo wakathereska Rafic Hariri, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya ku Lebanoni. Kuti watimbanizge boma la Syria ku Lebanon, Bashar wakasora Rustum Ghazaleh, uyo wakakhala kwa nyengo yitali nga ni High Commissioner wa Syria ku Lebanon, Ghazi Kanaan.{{sfn|Blanford|2006|p=88}} Kuyana waka na ntchito yake ya usilikari, Bashar wakachitanga ntchito za boma. Wakapika mazaza ghanandi ndipo wakazgoka mulara wa ofesi yakupokelera madandaulo na mapemphero gha ŵantu, ndipo wakalongozga kampeni yakulimbana na vimbundi. Chifukwa cha kampeni iyi, ŵanandi awo ŵangaŵa ŵakususkana na Bashar pakuŵa pulezidenti ŵakazengeka mulandu chifukwa cha vimbundi. Bashar wakazgokaso Pulezidenti wa wupu wa ŵamakompyuta ŵa ku Syria ndipo wakawovwira kuti paŵe intaneti ku Syria, ndipo ivi vikamovwira kuti ŵawoneke kuti ni munthu uyo ​​wakusintha vinthu mazuŵa ghano ndiposo wakusintha vinthu. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka ŵa Ba'athist mu chipani, ŵasilikari na gulu la Alawite ŵakakhozgeranga Bashar al-Assad, ndipo ivi vikamovwira kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa ŵawiske.<ref name="facing down rebellion">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10338256 |title=Syrian President Bashar al-Assad: Facing down rebellion |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2015 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411120901/https://www.bbc.com/news/10338256 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Presidency == {{Main|Presidency of Bashar al-Assad}} === Early leadership (2000–2011) === [[File:TlassBashar.webp|thumb|Pa nyengo iyo, Nduna ya Chitetezo Mustafa Tlass pamoza na Bashar al-Assad, pa 1 Ogasiti 2000. Pamanyuma Tlass na mwana wake Manaf Tlass ŵakafumapo pa gulu ili pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Syria ŵasintha boma.]] [[File:AlAsssad2004 militaryuniform.jpg|thumb|Assad mu 2004]] Hafez al-Assad wakati wafwa pa 10 June 2000, Constitution ya Syria yikasinthika. Ŵakachepeska vyaka vya munthu uyo wangaŵa pulezidenti kufuma pa 40 kufika pa 34, apo Bashar wakaŵa pa nyengo iyo. Asad ndiyo yekha wakakhalapo pa mpikisano uwu ndipo pa 10 Julayi 2000, wakazomerezgeka kuŵa pulezidenti. Mwakuyana na udindo wake wa pulezidenti wa Syria, wakasoleka kuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Syria kweniso kuŵa mulembi wa chipani cha Ba'ath. Pa vyaka 7 vilivyose kukaŵanga visankho ndipo Assad ndiyo wakawusanga. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuwona umo vinthu viliri pa caru ŵakuwona kuti ivyo vikucitika pa visora ni vyautesi ndipo ŵakususka ŵakuvilekeska. Masankho ghaŵiri ghaumaliro agho ghakachitika mu 2014 na 2021 ghakachitikira mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa mu mawoko gha boma la Syria.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{cite news |date=28 May 2014 |title=Syrians in Lebanon battle crowds to vote for Bashar al-Assad |website=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/syrians-lebaanon-vote-assad-embassies-refugees-boycott |access-date=9 November 2017 |archive-date=20 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320122744/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/28/syrians-lebaanon-vote-assad-embassies-refugees-boycott |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news |date=16 July 2014 |title=Bashar al-Assad sworn in for a third term as Syrian president |website=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=17 December 2016 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10970476/Bashar-al-Assad-sworn-in-for-a-third-term-as-Syrian-president.html |archive-date=11 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Kossaify">{{Cite news |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=22 April 2021 |title=UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election |work=Arab News |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/%7B%7B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422181511/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/middle-east |archive-date=22 April 2021}}</ref> ==== Damascus Spring ==== {{See also|Damascus Spring}} Wakati wamba waka kuwusa, gulu linyake lakucemeka Damascus Spring, ilo likalongozgekanga na ŵalembi, ŵanthu ŵavinjeru, ŵakususka, na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa vinthu vyautesi, likacita vinthu mwamahara, ndipo ŵakamalizga kujalira jele la Mezzeh na kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa mu gulu la Muslim Brotherhood. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakambaso kutimbana na ŵasilikari, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nga ni umo vikaŵira ku Damascus mu nyengo ya chiwuvi. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵakora, kuŵatimba, kuŵatumizga ku wuzga, panji kuŵakaka, ndipo boma likalutilira kuŵapa wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Vinthu ivyo ŵakacita pakwamba vikawelerapo kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza pa vinthu, ndipo boma likakanizga mulimo wa Damascus Spring na chilato chakuti "ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana kweniso ŵakhazikike". Ndondomeko ya boma ya "kukolerana pa vinthu vya ŵanthu na vya malonda" yikazgoka chimanyikwiro cha vimbundi, ndipo awo ŵakakolerananga na Assad ndiwo ŵakasanganga chandulo. Maofesi ghanandi ghakakanizgika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵavinjeru ŵakakoleka na ŵapolisi ŵa Mukhabarat, ŵakakomeka na kutambuzgika. Ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ivyo boma likalayizga pakwamba vikaŵa vigaŵa vya nthowa iyo boma likagwiliskiranga nchito kuti lisange Ŵasiriya awo ŵakakolerananga yayi na boma liphya. Pa ulendo wa nduna yikuru ya Britain Tony Blair ku Syria mu Okutobala 2001, Bashar wakususka pakweru kuwukira kwa United States ku Afghanistan pa ungano wa wupu wa ŵapharazgi, wakati "tikutondeka kuzomera ivyo tikuwona zuŵa lililose pa TV kwithu - kukomeka kwa ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu. Ŵanandi ŵakufwa zuŵa lililose". Pa ungano uwu, Asad wakalumba gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Palestina kuti ni "ŵasilikari awo ŵakurwa nkhondo ya wanangwa" ndipo wakasuska Israyeli na vyaru vya ku [[Europe]]. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Britain ŵakayowoya kuti ivyo Assad wakacitanga pakusopa vikaŵa vyakukolerana yayi na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Ŵakatenge wakususka ivyo vikacitika pa Seputembala 11, ndipo wakuzomerezga kuti boma la Israyeli ndakuzomerezgeka. Pamanyuma pa vilengo vya pa 11 Seputembala, ndipo pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku America ya kulimbana na vigeŵenga, "Syria yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo CIA yikagwiliskiranga nchito pa nkhondo yakwimikana na al-Qaeda", ndipo "makhaliro na unandi wa uthenga uwo ukafumanga ku Syria [ukaŵa] ukuru comene kuluska ivyo CIA yikaghanaghananga". 8] Syria yikakolerana chomene na CIA pakukaka ŵanthu na kuŵafumba mafumbo. Mu majele gha ku Syria ndimo mukaŵanga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo CIA yikaŵapharazgiranga kuti mba al-Qaeda. Kuyana na lipoti la 2013 la gulu la Open Society Foundations, ku Syria ndiko kukaŵanga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya CIA.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/05/cia-rendition-countries-covert-support|title=CIA rendition: more than a quarter of countries 'offered covert support': Report finds at least 54 countries co-operated with global kidnap, detention and torture operation mounted after 9/11 attacks|last=Cobain|first=Ian|date=5 February 2013|work=The Guardian|access-date=10 October 2024|archive-date=19 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519103259/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/05/cia-rendition-countries-covert-support|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Killing of Rafic Hariri and Cedar Revolution ==== {{See also|Assassination of Rafic Hariri|Cedar Revolution|Syrian occupation of Lebanon}} {{quote box|"It will be [[Emile Lahoud|Lahoud]].. opposing him is tantamount to opposing [[Assad dynasty|Assad]] himself.. I will break [[Lebanon]] over your head and over [[Walid Jumblatt]]'s head. So you had better return to [[Beirut]] and arrange the matter on that basis." | source = — Assad's threats to [[Rafic Hariri]] in August 2004, over the issue of tenure extension of Syrian ally Emile Lahoud<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coughlin |first=Con |title=Assad: The Triumph of Tyranny |url=https://archive.org/details/assadtriumphofty0000conc |publisher=Pan Macmillan |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-5290-7490-1 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/assadtriumphofty0000conc/page/80 80]–97 |chapter=5: First Blood}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} [[File:Hariri Scene-of-crime View-from-east.jpg|thumb|left|The crime-scene in [[Beirut]] where Hariri and 21 others were killed in a terrorist attack in February 2005. The area was cordoned off to conduct an international investigation.]] On 14 February 2005, [[Rafic Hariri]], the former prime minister of Lebanon, was [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri|assassinated]] in a massive truck-bomb explosion in [[Beirut]], killing 22 people. ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' reported that "Syria was widely blamed for Hariri's murder. In the months leading to the assassination, relations between Hariri and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad plummeted amid an atmosphere of threats and intimidation."<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0214/Rafik-Hariri-In-Lebanon-assassination-reverberates-10-years-later |title=Rafik Hariri: In Lebanon, assassination reverberates 10 years later |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |access-date=20 April 2015 |date=14 February 2015 |archive-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420011320/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0214/Rafik-Hariri-In-Lebanon-assassination-reverberates-10-years-later |url-status=live }}</ref> Bashar promoted his brother-in-law [[Assef Shawkat]], a key figure suspected of orchestrating the terrorist attack, as the chief of [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian Military Intelligence Directorate]] immediately after Hariri's death.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 July 2012 |title=Comeback kid of Assad regime was a feared figure |work=Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/comeback-kid-of-assad-regime-was-a-feared-figure-20120719-22d5g.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721080802/https://www.smh.com.au/world/comeback-kid-of-assad-regime-was-a-feared-figure-20120719-22d5g.html |archive-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> [[File:Cedar Revolution Demonstrators.jpg|thumb|Protesters take to the streets during Lebanon's "Independence Intifada", also known as the [[Cedar Revolution]].]] The killings caused massive uproar, triggering an ''[[intifada]]'' in [[Lebanon]] and hundreds of thousands of protestors poured on the streets to demand total withdrawal of Syrian military forces. After mounting international pressure that called Syria to implement the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559|UNSC Resolution 1559]], Bashar al-Assad declared on 5 March that he would order the departure of Syrian soldiers. On 14 March 2005, more than a million [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] protestors – Muslims, Christians, and Druze – demonstrated in Beirut, marking the monthly anniversary of Hariri's murder. UN Resolution 1595, adopted on 7 April, sent an [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri#Investigation|international commission]] to investigate the assassination of Hariri. By 5 May 2005, United Nations had officially confirmed the total departure of all Syrian soldiers, ending the 29-year old [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon|military occupation]]. The uprisings that occurred in these months came to be known as Lebanon's "independence intifada" or the "[[Cedar Revolution]]".<ref>Rudy Jaafar and [[Maria Stephan|Maria J. Stephan]]. (2009). "Lebanon's Independence Intifada: How an Unarmed Insurrection Expelled Syrian Forces", in Maria J. Stephan (ed.), ''Civilian Jihad: Nonviolent Struggle, Democratization, and Governance in the Middle East'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.&nbsp;169–185.</ref> UN investigation commission's report published on 20 October 2005 revealed that high-ranking members of [[Syrian intelligence]] and [[Assad family]] had directly supervised the killing.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 October 2005 |title=UN Harīrī probe implicates Syria |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4362698.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107092900/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4362698.stm |archive-date=7 November 2005}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=John Kifner |author2= Warren Hoge |date=21 October 2005 |title=Top Syrian Seen as Prime Suspect in Assassination |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/world/middleeast/top-syrian-seen-as-prime-suspect-in-assassination.html |access-date=21 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529190850/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/world/middleeast/top-syrian-seen-as-prime-suspect-in-assassination.html |archive-date=29 May 2015 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mehlis |first=Detlev |date=19 October 2005 |title=Report of the International Independent Investigation Commission Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005) |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/21_10_05_mehlisreport.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051021233807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/21_10_05_mehlisreport.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2005 |journal=}}</ref> The [[BBC]] reported in December 2005 that "Damascus has strongly denied involvement in the car bomb which killed Hariri in February".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4519346.stm |title=Middle East – New Hariri report 'blames Syria' |access-date=20 April 2015 |date=11 December 2005 |archive-date=26 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326082247/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4519346.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Pratibha Devisingh Patil and the Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh at the ceremonial reception of the President of Syrian Arab Republic, Dr. Bashar al – Assad and his wife Mrs. Asma al-Assad, in New Delhi on June 18, 2008.jpg|thumb|Assad with Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] in New Delhi, India, 18 June 2008]] On 27 May 2007, Assad was [[2007 Syrian presidential election|approved for another seven-year term]] in a referendum on his presidency, with 97.6% of the votes supporting his continued leadership.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm |title=Syria |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |date=26 January 2012 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=21 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121022641/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=29 May 2007 |title=Syria's Assad wins another term |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6700021.stm |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-date=5 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505061141/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6700021.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=28 May 2007 |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |access-date=9 October 2016 |archive-date=20 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420124315/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |url-status=live }}</ref> Opposition parties were not allowed in the country and Assad was the only candidate in the referendum.<ref name="CBS %">Klatell, James (27 May 2007). [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ "Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134454/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |date=6 April 2017 }}. CBS News.</ref> Syria's opposition parties under the umbrella of [[Damascus Declaration]] denounced the elections as illegitimate and part of the regime's strategy to sustain the "[[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] system".<ref name="WaPo %2">{{cite news |date=28 May 2007 |title=Syrians Vote For Assad in Uncontested Referendum |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |location=Damascus |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701117.html |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511075416/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/27/AR2007052701117.html |archive-date=11 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Reuters %2">{{Cite news |last=Yacoub Oweis |first=Khaleb |date=17 May 2007 |title=Syria's opposition boycotts vote on Assad |work=[[Reuters]] |location=Damascus |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517 |access-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134644/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-vote-opposition-idUSOWE75174320070517 |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref> Elections in Syria are officially designated as the event of "renewing the pledge of allegiance" to the [[Assad dynasty|Assads]] and voting is enforced as a compulsory duty for every citizen. Announcement of the results are followed by pro-government rallies conducted across the country extolling the regime, wherein citizens declare their "devotion" to the President and celebrate "the virtues" of the Assad dynasty.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Klatell |first=James |date=27 May 2007 |title=Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum |work=CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134454/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrians-vote-in-presidential-referendum/ |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Black |first=Ian |date=28 May 2007 |title=Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406134014/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/28/syria.ianblack |archive-date=6 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=13 April 2014 |title=The one certainty about Syria's looming election – Assad will win |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621100122/https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/apr/13/certainty-syria-election-assad-will-win |archive-date=21 June 2017}}</ref> Syria began developing a covert [[Syria and weapons of mass destruction#Nuclear program|nuclear weapons programme]] with assistance of [[North Korea]] during the 2000s, but its suspected [[nuclear reactor]] was destroyed by the [[Israeli Air Force]] during [[Operation Orchard|Operation Outside the Box]] in September 2007.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=The Silent Strike |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/09/17/the-silent-strike |url-status=live |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118235708/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/09/17/the-silent-strike |archive-date=18 November 2017 |access-date=18 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="ifimes.org">{{Cite web |title=Syria: Between oppression and freedom |url=https://www.ifimes.org/en/researches/syria-between-oppression-and-freedom/3325 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410215253/https://www.ifimes.org/en/researches/syria-between-oppression-and-freedom/3325 |archive-date=10 April 2022 |website=Ifimes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=28 April 2008 |title=N.Koreans may have died in Israel raid in Syria: NHK |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-syria/n-koreans-may-have-died-in-israel-raid-in-syria-nhk-idUSL271480120080428 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424091316/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-syria/n-koreans-may-have-died-in-israel-raid-in-syria-nhk-idUSL271480120080428 |archive-date=24 April 2023}}</ref> === Syrian Civil War (2011–2024) === ==== Leadership until 2015 ==== {{See also|Arab Spring|2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian civil war|Sanctions against Syria}} [[File:Syrian Demonstration Douma Damascus 08-04-2011.jpg|thumbnail|Anti-Assad demonstrations in [[Douma, Syria|Douma]], 8 April 2011]] [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|Protests in Syria]] began on 26 January 2011 following the [[Arab Spring]] protests that called for political reforms and the reinstatement of civil rights, as well as an end to the [[state of emergency]] which had been in place since 1963.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/2011/02/201129135657367367.html |title=Q&A: Syrian activist Suhair Atassi |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=9 February 2011 |access-date=13 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212112539/http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/2011/02/201129135657367367.html |archive-date=12 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> One attempt at a "day of rage" was set for 4–5 February, though it ended uneventfully.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41400687 |title='Day of rage' protest urged in Syria |work=[[NBC News]] |date=3 February 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=13 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913054615/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna41400687 |url-status=live }}</ref> Protests on 18–19 March were the largest to take place in Syria for decades, and the Syrian authority responded with violence against its protesting citizens.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html |title=In Syria, Crackdown After Protests |work=The New York Times |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322061301/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/19/world/middleeast/19syria.html |archive-date=22 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In his first public response to the protests delivered on 30 March 2011, Assad blamed the unrest on "conspiracies" and accused the Syrian opposition and protestors of seditious "''[[Fitna (word)|fitna]]''", toeing the party-line of framing the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist state]] as the victim of an international plot. He also derided the [[Arab Spring]] movement, and described those participating in the protests as "germs" and [[Fifth column|fifth-columnists]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sadiki |first1=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring |last2=Abbas |first2=Akeel |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 |location=New York |pages=412, 413 |chapter=31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring|quote=In the nearly 50-minute speech, President al-Assad gave his interpretation to the protests in Syria and other Arab countries, almost mocking the Arab Spring, invoking the outside regional and international conspirators and their inside 'agents' as the evil 'them'.. Resorting to conspiratorial attribution to explain the 'real' reasons behind the protests in Syria, al-Assad bestowed a pathological inevitability on the actions of political opposition, where the oppressive political system he heads turns into a noble victim, recipient of foreign illnesses. [Assad speech] "Conspiracies are like germs: They procreate at every moment everywhere; they cannot be annihilated, but the immunity of the body can be strengthened against them." … dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the 'fitna'.}}</ref><ref name="Farge">{{Cite news |last=Farge |first=Emma |date=28 June 2022 |title=War has killed 1.5% of Syria's population: UN estimate |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628101243/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-civilian-death-toll-over-306000-since-2011-un-2022-06-28/ |archive-date=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="ohchr.org">{{Cite web |title=UN Human Rights Office estimates more than 306,000 civilians were killed over 10 years in Syria conflict |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701075327/https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/06/un-human-rights-office-estimates-more-306000-civilians-were-killed-over-10 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |access-date=1 July 2022 |website=Ohchr.org}}</ref> {{quote box|"Throughout the speech, al-Assad remained faithful to the basic ideological line of [[neo-Ba'athism|Syrian Baathism]]: the binary opposition of a devilishly determined, conspiring 'outside' bent on hurting a heroically defending and essentially good 'inside'... consistent with [[Baathist]] dualism, [the speech] makes the sparing, if not grudging, mention of supposedly minor dissent in this 'inside'. This dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring 'othering' essence when the president places it in the dismissive context of the '''fitna'''... Following this hard-line speech, the protesters' demands moved from reforming to overthrowing the regime."| source = — Professor Akeel Abbas on Assad's first public speech after the outbreak of [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution protests]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sadiki |first1=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring |last2=Abbas |first2=Akeel |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 |location=New York |pages=412, 413 |chapter=31: Deconstructing Despotic Legacies in the Arab Spring}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} The U.S. imposed limited sanctions against the Assad government in April 2011, followed by [[Barack Obama]]'s executive order as of 18 May 2011 targeting Bashar Assad specifically and six other senior officials.<ref>{{cite web |title=Administration Takes Additional Steps to Hold the Government of Syria Accountable for Violent Repression Against the Syrian People |url=http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx |work=[[United States Department of the Treasury]] |access-date=18 May 2011 |quote=Today, President Obama signed an Executive Order ([[s:Executive Order 13573|E.O. 13573]]) imposing sanctions against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and six other senior officials of the Government of Syria in an effort to increase pressure on the Government of Syria to end its use of violence against its people and to begin a transition to a democratic system that protects the rights of the Syrian people. |archive-date=22 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522122023/http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1181.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=ussanct>{{cite news |title=How the U.S. message on Assad shifted |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html |access-date=23 November 2015 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=18 August 2011 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104022/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/how-the-us-message-on-assad-shifted/2011/08/18/gIQAfPZxNJ_blog.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Oweis |first=Khaled Yacoub |title=U.S. imposes sanctions on Syria's Assad |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518 |access-date=12 March 2015 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=18 May 2011 |quote=The U.S. move, announced by the Treasury Department, freezes any of the Syrian officials' assets that are in the United States or otherwise fall within U.S. jurisdiction and generally bars U.S. individuals and companies from dealing with them. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518111248/https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/18/us-syria-idUSLDE73N02P20110518 |archive-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 23 May 2011, the EU foreign ministers agreed at a meeting in Brussels to add Assad and nine other officials to a list affected by travel bans and asset freezes.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395 |work=BBC News |title=EU imposes sanctions on President Assad |date=23 May 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401032222/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13500395 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 May 2011, Canada imposed sanctions on Syrian leaders, including Assad.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833 |work=BBC News |title=Canada imposes sanctions on Syrian leaders |date=24 May 2011 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402085604/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13533833 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 20 June, in response to the demands of protesters and international pressure, Assad promised a national dialogue involving movement toward reform, [[2012 Syrian parliamentary election|new parliamentary elections]], and greater [[Civil and political rights|freedoms]]. He also urged [[refugee]]s to return home from Turkey, while assuring them [[amnesty]] and blaming all unrest on a small number of saboteurs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Speech of H.E. President Bashar al-Assad at Damascus University on the situation in Syria |url=http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm |date=21 June 2011 |agency=[[Syrian Arab News Agency]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525170047/http://sana.sy/eng/337/2011/06/21/pr-353686.htm |archive-date=25 May 2012}}</ref> [[File:Anti-government protest in Assi square of Hama.ogg|right|thumb|275px|Hundreds of thousands of anti-Assad protesters parade the Syrian flag and shout the [[Arab Spring]] slogan [[Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam]] (''the people want to bring down the regime!'') in the Assi square, during the [[Siege of Hama (2011)|Siege of Hama]], 22 July 2011.]] In July 2011, U.S. Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]] said Assad had "lost legitimacy" as president.<ref name="ussanct"/> On 18 August 2011, Barack Obama issued a written statement that urged Assad to "step aside".<ref name=mustgo>{{cite news |title=Assad must go, Obama says |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html |access-date=23 November 2015 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=18 August 2011 |archive-date=13 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513065624/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/assad-must-go-obama-says/2011/08/18/gIQAelheOJ_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html|title=Assad must go: the world unites against Syria's tyrant|work=[[The Independent]]|date=19 August 2011|access-date=25 November 2024|archive-date=18 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241118232120/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/assad-must-go-the-world-unites-against-syria-s-tyrant-2340307.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=whstatem>[https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad President Obama: "The future of Syria must be determined by its people, but President Bashar al-Assad is standing in their way."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123020409/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/08/18/president-obama-future-syria-must-be-determined-its-people-president-bashar-al-assad |date=23 January 2017 }} The White House website, 18 August 2011.</ref> In August, the cartoonist [[Ali Farzat]], a critic of Assad's government, was attacked. Relatives of the humourist told media outlets that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning for him to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat was hospitalised with fractures in both hands and blunt force trauma to the head.<ref>{{cite news |author=Nour Ali |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |title=Syrian forces beat up political cartoonist Ali Ferzat |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 March 2012 |date=25 August 2011 |location=London |archive-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419133157/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/25/syria-cartoonist-ali-ferzat-beaten |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Syrian-Activists-Anti-Regime-Cartoonist-Attacked-Beaten-128385448.html |title=Prominent Syrian Cartoonist Attacked, Beaten |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=25 August 2011 |access-date=4 March 2012 |archive-date=3 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203183255/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/Syrian-Activists-Anti-Regime-Cartoonist-Attacked-Beaten-128385448.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Since October 2011, Russia, as a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], repeatedly [[United Nations Security Council veto power|vetoed]] Western-sponsored draft resolutions in the UN Security Council that would have left open the possibility of UN sanctions, or even military intervention, against the Assad government.<ref name=guardunlegit>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us |title=Russian vetoes are putting UN security council's legitimacy at risk, says US |work=The Guardian |access-date=10 January 2016 |date=23 September 2015 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517013841/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/23/russian-vetoes-putting-un-security-council-legitimacy-at-risk-says-us |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Itar-Tass27-1-12">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127 |title=Russia won't back U.N. call for Syria's Assad to go |date=27 January 2012 |access-date=12 January 2016 |work=[[Reuters]] |archive-date=28 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128064627/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/27/us-syria-russia-idUSTRE80Q0I620120127 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935 Russia and China veto draft Security Council resolution on Syria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629175424/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=39935 |date=29 June 2017 }} UN website, 4 October 2011.</ref> By the end of January 2012, it was reported by [[Reuters]] that over 5,000 civilians and protesters (including armed militants) had been killed by the Syrian army, security agents and militia ([[Shabiha]]), while 1,100 people had been killed by "terrorist armed forces".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213 |work=Reuters |title=Syria death toll hits 5,000 as insurgency spreads |date=13 December 2011 |author=Khaled Yacoub Oweis |access-date=5 July 2021 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807040746/https://in.reuters.com/article/syria-idINDEE7BC00720111213 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 10 January 2012, Assad gave a speech in which he maintained the uprising was engineered by foreign countries and proclaimed that "victory [was] near". He also said that the [[Arab League]], by suspending Syria, revealed that it was no longer Arab. However, Assad also said the country would not "close doors" to an Arab-brokered solution if "national sovereignty" was respected. He also said a referendum on a new constitution could be held in March.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548 |work=BBC News |title=Syria's Assad blames 'foreign conspiracy' |date=10 January 2012 |access-date=10 January 2012 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402193447/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16483548 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Bombed out vehicles Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Destroyed vehicle on a devastated [[Aleppo]] street, 6 October 2012]] On 27 February 2012, Syria claimed that a proposal that a new constitution be drafted received 90% support during the [[2012 Syrian constitutional referendum|relevant referendum]]. The referendum introduced a fourteen-year cumulative term limit for the president of Syria. The referendum was pronounced meaningless by foreign nations including the U.S. and Turkey; the EU announced fresh sanctions against key regime figures.<ref>{{cite news |author=Martin Chulov |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad |title=Syria claims 90% of voters backed reforms in referendum |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=4 March 2012 |date=27 February 2012 |location=London |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014625/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/27/syria-bashar-al-assad |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2012, Russian Foreign Minister [[Sergey Lavrov]] denounced Western powers for what he said amounted to blackmail thus provoking a civil war in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece |title=Russia backs Assad as fighting in Damascus escalates |date=17 July 2012 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |first=Atul |last=Aneja |location=Chennai |access-date=17 July 2012 |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3646362.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> On 15 July 2012, the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] declared Syria to be in a state of civil war,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362 |work=BBC News |title=Syria in civil war, Red Cross says |date=15 July 2012 |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=20 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620110230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362 |url-status=live }}</ref> as the nationwide death toll for all sides was reported to have neared 20,000.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000 |newspaper=The Guardian |title=Syrian death toll tops 19,000, say activists |date=22 July 2012 |access-date=31 July 2012 |location=London |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517014621/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jul/22/syria-death-toll-tops-19000 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 6 January 2013, Assad, in his first major speech since June, said that the conflict in his country was due to "enemies" outside of Syria who would "go to Hell" and that they would "be taught a lesson". However, he said that he was still open to a political solution saying that failed attempts at a solution "does not mean we are not interested in a political solution."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1 |title=Al-Assad: Enemies of Syria 'will go to hell' |work=CNN |date=6 January 2013 |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019103510/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |work=Listening Post |url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/syria-153 |title=Syrian Live Blog |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=6 January 2012 |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071334/http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/Syria-153 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In July 2014, Assad renewed his third term of presidency after voting process conducted in pro-regime territories which were boycotted by the opposition and condemned by the [[UN|United Nations]].<ref name="theguardian.com"/><ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/><ref name="Kossaify"/> According to [[Joshua Landis]]: "He's (Assad) going to say: 'I am the state, I am Syria, and if the West wants access to Syrians, they have to come through me.'"<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> After the fall of four military bases in September 2014,<ref name="AssadWeak">{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing |title=Bashar Assad may be weaker than he thinks |newspaper=The Economist |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=16 October 2014 |quote=In Latakia and Tartus, two coastal cities near the Alawite heartland, posters of missing soldiers adorn the walls. When IS took over four government bases in the east of the country this summer, slaughtering dozens of soldiers and displaying some of their heads on spikes in Raqqa, IS's stronghold, families started to lose faith in the government. A visitor to the region reports hearing one man complain: 'We're running out of sons to give them.' |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019131748/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625865-bashar-assad-may-be-weaker-he-thinks-tough-bowing |url-status=live }}</ref> which were the last government footholds in the [[Raqqa Governorate]], Assad received significant criticism from his Alawite base of support.<ref name="Dissent2014">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901 |last1=Dziadosz |first1=Alexander |last2=Heneghan |first2=Tom |title=Pro-government Syrian activist arrested after rare public dissent |work=Reuters |access-date=23 September 2014 |date=September 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924204007/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/01/us-syria-crisis-dissent-idUSKBN0GW2GQ20140901 |url-status=live }}</ref> This included remarks made by Douraid al-Assad, cousin of Bashar al-Assad, demanding the resignation of the Syrian Defence Minister, [[Fahd Jassem al-Freij]], following the massacre by the [[Islamic State]] of hundreds of government troops captured after the IS victory at [[Battle for Tabqa Air base|Tabqa Airbase]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419222514/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-military-idUKKBN0HD0LW20140918 |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 April 2018 |last=Westhall |first=Syliva |title=Assad's army stretched but still seen strong in Syria's war |work=Reuters |access-date=23 September 2014|date=18 September 2014 }}</ref> This was shortly followed by Alawite protests in [[Homs]] demanding the resignation of the governor,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163 |last1=Hadid |first1=Diaa |title=Activists Say Assad Supporters Protest in Syria |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |agency=Associated Press |access-date=3 October 2014 |archive-date=2 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141002102336/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/kurdish-fighters-group-nearing-syrian-town-25911163 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the dismissal of Assad's cousin [[Hafez Makhlouf]] from his security position leading to his subsequent exile to Belarus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html |title=Assad dismisses security chief of powerful 'Branch 40' |first1=Jean |last1=Aziz |publisher=Al Monitor |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=16 October 2014 |archive-date=18 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018101938/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/change-leadership-damascus-syria-regime.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Growing resentment towards Assad among Alawites was fuelled by the disproportionate number of soldiers killed in fighting hailing from Alawite areas,<ref name="BurySons">{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184 |title=Syria's Alawites Pay Heavy Price as They Bury Sons |first1=Diaa |last1=Hadid |agency=Associated Press |date=1 November 2014 |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-date=31 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031172047/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrias-alawites-pay-heavy-price-bury-sons-26598184 |url-status=live }}</ref> a sense that the Assad regime has abandoned them,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029 |title=Car bomb wounds 37 in government-held area of Syria's Homs |work=Reuters |date=29 October 2014 |access-date=9 November 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924210033/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/29/mideast-crisis-homs-blast-idUSL5N0SO3GI20141029 |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as the failing economic situation.<ref name="AlawitesVoice">{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html |title=Alawites find their voice against Assad |publisher=Al Monitor |date=29 October 2014 |access-date=1 November 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102024626/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/syria-tartous-alawites-pro-regime-protests.html? |url-status=live }}</ref> Figures close to Assad began voicing concerns regarding the likelihood of its survival, with one saying in late 2014; "I don't see the current situation as sustainable ... I think Damascus will collapse at some point."<ref name="AssadWeak" /> [[File:Syrian civil war 01 12 2015.png|thumb|Military situation in December 2015]] In 2015, several members of the Assad family died in [[Latakia]] under unclear circumstances.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-Assad |work=The Daily Telegraph |last=Sherlock |first=Ruth |date=7 April 2015 |access-date=7 April 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On 14 March, an influential cousin of Assad and founder of the [[shabiha]], Mohammed Toufic al-Assad, was assassinated with five bullets to the head in a dispute over influence in [[Qardaha]]{{snd}}the [[ancestral home]] of the Assad family.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx |title=Assad relative assassinated in Syria: activists |work=The Daily Star |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=15 March 2015 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531205717/http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2015/Mar-14/290802-assad-relative-assassinated-in-syria-activists.ashx |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2015, Assad ordered the arrest of his cousin Munther al-Assad in Alzirah, Latakia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410 |title=Syria: Bashar al-Assad arrests own cousin Munther 'for kidnapping links' |last1=Alajlan |first1=Anas |work=International Business Times |date=14 April 2015 |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-date=17 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417073648/http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-bashar-al-assad-arrests-own-cousin-munther-kidnapping-links-1496410 |url-status=live }}</ref> It remains unclear whether the arrest was due to actual crimes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video |title=Can Syria's Assad withstand latest battlefield setbacks? (+video) |work=The Christian Science Monitor |last=Blanford |first=Nicholas |date=21 August 2015 |access-date=22 April 2015 |archive-date=21 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621060446/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2015/0421/Can-Syria-s-Assad-withstand-latest-battlefield-setbacks-video |url-status=live }}</ref> After a string of government defeats in northern and southern Syria, analysts noted growing government instability coupled with continued waning support for the Assad government among its core Alawite base of support,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/ |title=Flash Points: Is Syria's Assad losing power? |work=CBS News |last=Flores |first=Reena |date=2 May 2015 |access-date=3 May 2015 |quote='a lot of suspicion within the regime itself about who's doing what and if folks are leaving.' [...] 'These are signs that I think demonstrate a bit of weakness and instability in the regime that you haven't seen in recent months,' he said. He cites the waning support from the nation's minority Alawite community as one of these important shifts. |archive-date=4 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504064305/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/flash-points-syria-assad-losing-power/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and that there were increasing reports of Assad relatives, Alawites, and businessmen fleeing Damascus for Latakia and foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/.premium-1.655153 |title=Syrian rebel victories stretch Assad's forces |work=Haaretz |last1=Harel |first1=Amos |last2=Cohen |first2=Gili |last3=Khoury |first3=Jack |date=6 May 2015 |access-date=6 May 2015 |quote=There have also been increasing reports of Assad relatives, businessmen and high-ranking members of the Alawite community fleeing Damascus for the coastal city of Latakia, or other countries, after transferring large sums of money to banks in Lebanon, eastern Europe and the United Arab Emirates. |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/.premium-1.655153 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gulfnews.com/opinion/time-to-reconsider-life-after-al-assad-1.1507735 |title=Time to reconsider 'Life after Al Assad' |work=Gulf News |last=Karkouti |first=Mustapha |date=9 May 2015 |access-date=10 May 2015 |quote=[The] reality on the ground can't be more clear as the population in the regime-controlled parts of Syria are preparing for life after the Al Assad dynasty. According to information received by this author, many businessmen and financiers who flourished under the regime have successfully moved huge amounts of money and capital to neighbouring Lebanon. Some of these funds are now known to have been secretly deposited in Europe.}}</ref> Intelligence chief [[Ali Mamlouk]] was placed under house arrest sometime in April and stood accused of plotting with Assad's exiled uncle [[Rifaat al-Assad]] to replace Bashar as president.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11596142/Bashar-al-Assads-spy-chief-arrested-over-Syria-coup-plot.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Bashar al-Assad's spy chief arrested over Syria coup plot |work=The Daily Telegraph |last1=Sherlock |first1=Ruth |last2=Malouf |first2=Carol |date=11 May 2015 |access-date=12 May 2015 |quote=Mamlouk had also used a businessman from Aleppo as an intermediary to contact Rifaat al-Assad, Bashar's uncle, who has lived abroad exile since he was accused of seeking to mount a coup in Syria in the 1980s.}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Further high-profile deaths included the commanders of the Fourth Armoured Division, the Belli military airbase, the army's special forces and of the First Armoured Division, with an errant air strike during the [[Palmyra offensive (May 2015)|Palmyra offensive]] killing two officers who were reportedly related to Assad.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kaileh |first=Salameh |url=http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/comment/2015/5/22/the-syrian-regime-is-slowly-being-liquidated |title=The Syrian regime is slowly being liquidated |website=Al-Araby Al-Jadeed |date=22 May 2015 |access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref> ==== After Russian intervention (from 2015) ==== {{See also|Russian involvement in the Syrian civil war|Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war}} [[File:Ali Khamenei and Bashar al-Assad05.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad meets with Iran's supreme leader [[Ali Khamenei]], 25 February 2019.]] [[File:Sergey Shoigu and Bashar al-Assad (2017-09-12).jpg|thumb|Assad with former Russian defense minister [[Sergei Shoigu]], 9 September 2017]] On 4 September 2015, when prospects of Assad's survival looked bleak, Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] said that Russia was providing the Assad government with sufficiently "serious" help: with both logistical and military support.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Oliphant|first1=Roland|last2=Loveluck|first2=Louisa|date=4 September 2015|title=Vladimir Putin confirms Russian military involvement in Syria's civil war|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11845635/Vladimir-Putin-confirms-Russian-military-involvement-in-Syrias-civil-war.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=14 January 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Naylor|first=Hugh|date=4 September 2015|title=Putin says Syria's president is ready for elections, compromise|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|location=Beirut|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/putin-says-syrias-president-is-ready-for-elections-compromise-with-rebels/2015/09/04/9dfa818b-92c2-4012-b956-1784189b8ab7_story.html|access-date=11 October 2021|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref name="Borshchevskaya 2022 69–88">{{Cite book |last=Borshchevskaya |first=Anna |title=Putin's War in Syria |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-7556-3463-7 |location=London |pages=69–88 |chapter=6: The Military Campaign }}</ref> Shortly after the start of [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War|direct military intervention by Russia]] on 30 September 2015 at the formal request of the Syrian government, Putin stated the military operation had been thoroughly prepared in advance and defined Russia's goal in Syria as "stabilising the legitimate power in Syria and creating the conditions for political compromise".<ref name="goalstabilis">{{cite news |url=http://www.interfax.ru/russia/472593 |script-title=ru:Путин назвал основную задачу российских военных в Сирии |agency=[[Interfax]] |date=11 October 2015 |language=ru |access-date=12 January 2016 |archive-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221040027/http://www.interfax.ru/russia/472593 |url-status=live }}</ref> Putin's intervention saved the Assad regime at a time when it was on the verge of a looming collapse. It also enabled Moscow to achieve its key geo-strategic objectives such as total control of Syrian airspace, naval bases that granted permanent martial reach across the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] and easier access to intervene in [[Libya]].<ref name="Borshchevskaya 2022 69–88"/> In November 2015, Assad reiterated that a diplomatic process to bring the country's civil war to an end could not begin while it was occupied by "terrorists", although it was considered by [[BBC News]] to be unclear whether he meant only [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]] or Western-supported rebels as well.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34867215 |title=Syria crisis: Assad says no transition while 'terrorists' remain |newspaper=BBC News |date=19 November 2015 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811133244/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34867215 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 22 November, Assad said that within two months of its air campaign Russia had achieved more in its fight against ISIL than the [[American-led intervention in Syria|U.S.-led coalition]] had achieved in a year.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://kommersant.ru/doc/2860324 |script-title=ru:ВКС РФ за два месяца добились большего прогресса в Сирии, чем альянс США за год |trans-title=Russian air force have in two months achieved more progress in Syria that the U.S. alliance in a year |magazine=Kommersant |date=22 November 2015 |access-date=22 November 2015 |language=ru |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104020/https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2860324 |url-status=live }}</ref> In an interview with [[Czech Television]] on 1 December, he said that the leaders who demanded his resignation were of no interest to him, as nobody takes them seriously because they are "shallow" and controlled by the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rozhovor s Bašárem Asadem|url=http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ivysilani/10997918455-mimoradne-porady-ct24/215411034000172-rozhovor-s-basarem-asadem/|website=Czech Television|access-date=1 December 2015|language=cs|archive-date=19 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119001015/http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ivysilani/10997918455-mimoradne-porady-ct24/215411034000172-rozhovor-s-basarem-asadem|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Асад обвинил Турцию, Саудовскую Аравию и Катар в поддержке террористов в Сирии |url=https://www.newsru.com/world/02dec2015/assad.html |website=newsru.com |language=ru |date=2 December 2015 |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811163204/https://www.newsru.com/world/02dec2015/assad.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At the end of December 2015, senior U.S. officials privately admitted that Russia had achieved its central goal of stabilising Syria and, with the expenses relatively low, could sustain the operation at this level for years to come.<ref name="reutersstabilis">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-syria-idUSKBN0UB0BA20151229 |title=U.S. sees bearable costs, key goals met for Russia in Syria so far |work=Reuters |date=28 December 2015 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=15 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415104043/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-syria-idUSKBN0UB0BA20151229 |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2015, Putin stated that Russia was supporting Assad's forces and was ready to back anti-Assad rebels in a joint fight against IS.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/putin-claims-support-to-syrian-rebels/a-18913306|title=Putin claims support to Syrian rebels|work=[[DW News]]|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=11 December 2015|access-date=19 November 2022|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408032500/https://amp.dw.com/en/putin-claims-support-to-syrian-rebels/a-18913306|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Syrian President Bashar al-Assad meets Iran's special representative on Syrian affairs Ali Akbar Velayati.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad meets with Iran's representative on Syrian affairs, [[Ali Akbar Velayati]], 6 May 2016.]] On 22 January 2016, the ''[[Financial Times]]'', citing anonymous "senior western intelligence officials", claimed that Russian general [[Igor Sergun]], the director of [[GRU (Russian Federation)|GRU]], the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the [[Armed Forces of the Russian Federation]], had shortly before his sudden death on 3 January 2016 been sent to Damascus with a message from Vladimir Putin asking that President Assad step aside.<ref name="ftresign">{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/735b4746-c01f-11e5-9fdb-87b8d15baec2.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/735b4746-c01f-11e5-9fdb-87b8d15baec2.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Vladimir Putin asked Bashar al-Assad to step down |newspaper=Financial Times |date=22 January 2016 |access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref> The ''Financial Times''' report was denied by Putin's spokesman.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 January 2016|title=Putin Requested Assad Step Aside, But Syrian Leader Refused|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2016/01/22/putin-requested-assad-step-aside-but-syrian-leader-refused-a51558|access-date=11 October 2021|website=[[The Moscow Times]]|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174859/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2016/01/22/putin-requested-assad-step-aside-but-syrian-leader-refused-a51558|url-status=live}}</ref> It was reported in December 2016 that Assad's forces had retaken half of rebel-held [[Aleppo]], ending a 6-year stalemate in the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2016/12/03/Assads-forces-retake-half-of-rebel-held-Aleppo/3411480810004/ |first=Eric |last=DuVall |title=Assad's forces retake half of rebel-held Aleppo |work=[[United Press International]] |date=3 December 2016 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211201105/http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2016/12/03/Assads-forces-retake-half-of-rebel-held-Aleppo/3411480810004/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-38194136|title=Aleppo siege: Syria rebels lose 50% of territory|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=3 December 2016|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413140020/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-38194136|url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 December, as it was reported government forces were on the brink of retaking all of Aleppo{{snd}}a "turning point" in the civil war, Assad celebrated the "liberation" of the city, and stated, "History is being written by every Syrian citizen."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fox6now.com/2016/12/17/evacuation-agreement-reached-in-aleppo-rebel-group-says/ |title=Evacuation agreement reached in Aleppo, rebel group says|website=Fox 6 Now|publisher=Fox News|date=17 December 2016 |access-date=21 December 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220125836/http://fox6now.com/2016/12/17/evacuation-agreement-reached-in-aleppo-rebel-group-says/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the election of [[Donald Trump]], the priority of the U.S. concerning Assad was unlike the priority of the [[Presidency of Barack Obama#Syrian civil war|Obama administration]], and in March 2017, [[United States Ambassador to the United Nations|U.S. Ambassador to the UN]] [[Nikki Haley]] stated the U.S. was no longer focused on "getting Assad out",<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. priority on Syria no longer focused on "getting Assad out": Haley |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-usa-haley-idUSKBN1712QL |work=Reuters |date=30 March 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502174900/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-usa-haley-idUSKBN1712QL |url-status=live }}</ref> but this position changed in the wake of the [[2017 Khan Shaykhun chemical attack]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.axios.com/tillerson-u-s-will-lead-coalition-to-oust-assad-2348075513.html |title=Tillerson: U.S. will lead coalition to oust Assad |first=Alayna |last=Treene |date=6 April 2017 |access-date=7 April 2017 |archive-date=23 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023192349/https://www.axios.com/tillerson-u-s-will-lead-coalition-to-oust-assad-2348075513.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the [[2017 Shayrat missile strike|missile strikes on a Syrian airbase]] on the orders of President Trump, Assad's spokesperson described the U.S.' behaviour as "unjust and arrogant aggression" and stated that the missile strikes "do not change the deep policies" of the Syrian government.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Syria's Assad Calls U.S. Airstrikes an Outrageous Act |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-07/syrias-assad-calls-us-airstrikes-an-outrageous-act |magazine=U.S. News & World Report |access-date=7 April 2017 |archive-date=24 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124220516/https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-07/syrias-assad-calls-us-airstrikes-an-outrageous-act |url-status=live }}</ref> President Assad also told the [[Agence France-Presse]] that Syria's military had given up all its chemical weapons in 2013, and would not have used them if they still retained any, and stated that the chemical attack was a "100 percent fabrication" used to justify a U.S. airstrike.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad says Idlib chemical attack 'fabrication': AFP interview |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-idUSKBN17F1NE |work=Reuters |date=13 April 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190207132915/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assad-idUSKBN17F1NE |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2017, Russian President Putin said "Assad didn't use the [chemical weapons]" and that the chemical attack was "done by people who wanted to blame him for that."<ref>{{cite web |title=Putin: Syria chemical attack was provocation against Assad |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News United States]]|publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company]]|date=2 June 2017 |first1=Ian |last1=Phillips |first2=Vladimir |last2=Isachenkov |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-syria-chemical-attack-provocation-assad-47790720 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602223827/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/putin-syria-chemical-attack-provocation-assad-47790720 |archive-date=2 June 2017}}</ref> UN and international chemical weapons inspectors from the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW) found the attack was the work of the Assad regime.<ref name="CNN sarin report"/> [[File:Vladimir Putin visited Khmeimim Air Base in Syria (2017-12-11) 41.jpg|thumb|Assad and Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] at the [[Khmeimim Air Base]] in Syria, 11 December 2017]] On 7 November 2017, the Syrian government announced that it had signed the [[Paris Climate Agreement]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/07/climate/syria-joins-paris-agreement.html|title=Syria Joins Paris Climate Accord, Leaving Only U.S. Opposed|last=Friedman|first=Lisa|date=7 November 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=12 December 2017|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413160706/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/07/climate/syria-joins-paris-agreement.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2018, it recognized the independence of Russian-occupied separatist republics of [[Abkhazia|Abhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] in Georgia, leading to backlash from the [[European Union]], [[United States]], [[Canada]] and other countries.<ref name="Deutsche Welle">{{Cite news |date=30 May 2018 |title=Syria recognizes Georgia's breakaway regions |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syria-recognizes-georgias-breakaway-regions-in-nod-to-russia/a-43988153 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530092144/https://www.dw.com/en/syria-recognizes-georgias-breakaway-regions-in-nod-to-russia/a-43988153 |archive-date=30 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 May 2018 |title=Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia |work=rferl.org |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-date=30 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2018 |title=Canada concerned by Syria's recognition of Georgian breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2018/06/canada-concerned-by-syrias-recognition-of-georgian-breakaway-regions-of-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180605131719/https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2018/06/canada-concerned-by-syrias-recognition-of-georgian-breakaway-regions-of-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia.html |archive-date=5 June 2018 |website=Government of Canada}}</ref> On 30 August 2020, the [[First Hussein Arnous government]] was formed, which included a new [[Council of Ministers (Syria)|Council of Ministers]].<ref>{{Cite web|agency=AFP|date=30 August 2020|title=Syria's Assad designates new government headed by PM Arnous|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/syrias-assad-designates-new-government-headed-by-pm-arnous|access-date=8 March 2021|website=Daily Sabah|archive-date=30 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830231314/https://www.dailysabah.com/world/syrian-crisis/syrias-assad-designates-new-government-headed-by-pm-arnous|url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[2021 Syrian presidential election|2021 presidential elections]] held on 26 May, Assad secured his fourth 7-year tenure; by winning 95.2% of the eligible votes. The elections were boycotted by the [[Syrian opposition|opposition]] and [[Syrian Democratic Forces|SDF]]; while the refugees and internally displaced citizens were disqualified to vote; enabling only 38% of Syrians to participate in the process. Independent international observers as well as representatives of Western countries described the elections as a farce. [[United Nations]] condemned the elections for directly violating Resolution 2254; and announced that it has "no mandate".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=22 April 2021 |title=UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/%7B%7B |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425141450/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1846771/middle-east |archive-date=25 April 2021 |website=Arab News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Nigel |date=9 June 2021 |title=Syria: 2021 presidential election and future prospects |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9250/CBP-9250.pdf |journal=House of Commons Library |pages=4–15 |via=UK Parliament |access-date=4 January 2023 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815074550/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9250/CBP-9250.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=28 May 2021 |title=Syria's Assad wins 4th term with 95% of vote, in election the West calls fraudulent |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-wins-fourth-term-office-with-951-votes-live-2021-05-27/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127122709/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-president-bashar-al-assad-wins-fourth-term-office-with-951-votes-live-2021-05-27/ |archive-date=27 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria Events of 2021 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103070540/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-date=3 January 2023 |website=Human Rights Watch|date=14 December 2021 }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite news |last=Lister |first=Charles |date=10 May 2021 |title=US policy in Syria in 2021 |work=Asharq al-Awsat |url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2965846/charles-lister/us-policy-syria-2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813233750/https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2965846/charles-lister/us-policy-syria-2021 |archive-date=13 August 2022}}</ref> [[File:AssadRaisi2023 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Assad with Iranian President [[Ebrahim Raisi]] in Damascus, 3 May 2023]] On 10 August 2021, the [[Second Hussein Arnous government]] was formed.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1 August 2021|title=Syria's Assad asks PM Arnous to form new cabinet|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-asks-pm-hussein-arnous-form-new-cabinet-2021-08-01/|access-date=5 October 2021|archive-date=5 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005033010/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-asks-pm-hussein-arnous-form-new-cabinet-2021-08-01/|url-status=live}}</ref> Under Assad, Syria became a strong supporter of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and was one of the five countries that opposed the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] resolution denouncing the invasion, which called upon Russia to pull back its troops. Three days prior to the invasion, Foreign Minister [[Faisal Mekdad]] was dispatched to Moscow to affirm Syria's recognition of [[Donetsk People's Republic|Donetsk]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic|Luhansk]] separatist republics. A day after the invasion, Bashar al-Assad praised the invasion as "a correction of history and a restoration of balance in the [[International order|global order]] after the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|fall of the Soviet Union]]" in a phone call with [[Vladimir Putin]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Syria's Assad says Russia's Ukraine invasion a 'correction of history' |work=Al-Arabiya News |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2022/02/25/Syria-s-Assad-says-Russia-s-Ukraine-invasion-a-correction-of-history- |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225144651/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2022/02/25/Syria-s-Assad-says-Russia-s-Ukraine-invasion-a-correction-of-history- |archive-date=25 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 March 2022 |title=General Assembly Overwhelmingly Adopts Resolution Demanding Russian Federation Immediately End Illegal Use of Force in Ukraine, Withdraw All Troops |url=https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12407.doc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807161917/https://press.un.org/en/2022/ga12407.doc.htm |archive-date=7 August 2022 |website=United Nations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Makki |first=Danny |date=9 March 2022 |title=Syria's role in Putin's invasion of Ukraine |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-role-putins-invasion-ukraine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309133840/https://www.mei.edu/publications/syrias-role-putins-invasion-ukraine |archive-date=9 March 2022 |website=Middle East Institute}}</ref> Syria became the first country after Russia to officially recognize the "independence and sovereignty" of the two breakaway regions in June 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June 2022 |title=Syria to recognize Ukraine's Luhansk and Donetsk regions |work=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-middle-east-syria-moscow-c5505e965d7d354b2b1f408385197829 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702012411/https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-middle-east-syria-moscow-c5505e965d7d354b2b1f408385197829 |archive-date=2 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 July 2022 |title=Syria recognizes independence, sovereignty of Donetsk, Luhansk – state news agency |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-recognizes-independence-sovereignty-donetsk-luhansk-state-news-agency-2022-06-29/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703150251/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-recognizes-independence-sovereignty-donetsk-luhansk-state-news-agency-2022-06-29/ |archive-date=3 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 June 2022 |title=Syria first country other than Russia to recognise Ukraine separatist republics of Donetsk and Lugansk |work=WIO News |url=https://www.wionews.com/world/syria-first-country-other-than-russia-to-recognise-ukraine-separatist-republics-of-donetsk-and-lugansk-493080 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629211244/https://www.wionews.com/world/syria-first-country-other-than-russia-to-recognise-ukraine-separatist-republics-of-donetsk-and-lugansk-493080 |archive-date=29 June 2022}}</ref> On the 12th anniversary of beginning of the protests of [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution]], Bashar al-Assad held a meeting with [[Vladimir Putin]] during an official visit to Russia. In a televised broadcast with Putin, Assad defended Russia's "special military operation" as a war against "[[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazis]] and [[Banderite|old Nazis]]" of Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 March 2023 |title=Assad meets Putin in Moscow as Syrians mark 12 years since anti-regime uprising |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230315-assad-meets-putin-in-moscow-as-syrians-mark-12-years-since-anti-regime-uprising |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315170723/https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230315-assad-meets-putin-in-moscow-as-syrians-mark-12-years-since-anti-regime-uprising |archive-date=15 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="rferl.org">{{Cite web |date=19 March 2023 |title=Zelenskiy Announces Sanctions On Hundreds Of Individuals, Including Syrian President, Iranian Drone Makers |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiy-ukraine-sanctions-syria-iran/32324885.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319093053/https://www.rferl.org/a/zelenskiy-ukraine-sanctions-syria-iran/32324885.html |archive-date=19 March 2023 |website=rferl.org}}</ref> He recognised the [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|Russian annexation of four Ukrainian oblasts]] and ratified the new Russian borders, claiming that the territories were "historically Russian". Assad also urged Russia to expand its [[Russian military intervention in the Syrian civil war|military presence in Syria]] by establishing new bases and deploying more boots on the ground, making its military role permanent.{{Efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad welcomes new Russian bases in Syria after Putin meeting |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/16/assad-will-welcome-new-russian-military-bases-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316094529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/16/assad-will-welcome-new-russian-military-bases-in-syria |archive-date=16 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=Guy Faulconbridge |author2=Caleb Davis |date=16 March 2023 |title=Syria's Assad would like more Russian bases and troops |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-says-would-welcome-more-russian-troops-2023-03-16/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316070448/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-says-would-welcome-more-russian-troops-2023-03-16/ |archive-date=16 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad: Syria recognizes Russia's new borders |url=https://www.teletrader.com/assad-syria-recognizes-russia-s-new-borders/news/details/59649372?ts=1679546104895 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323052728/https://www.teletrader.com/assad-syria-recognizes-russia-s-new-borders/news/details/59649372?ts=1679549248213 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |website=teletrader.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad Welcomes New Russian Bases in Syria, Recognizes Russian Annexations in Ukraine |work=Havana Times |url=https://havanatimes.org/news/assad-welcomes-new-russian-bases-in-syria-recognizes-russian-annexations-in-ukraine/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323053657/https://havanatimes.org/news/assad-welcomes-new-russian-bases-in-syria-recognizes-russian-annexations-in-ukraine/ |archive-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Minal |date=16 March 2023 |title=Assad Says Syria Recognizes New Russian Borders Following Accession Of New Regions |work=Pakistan Point |url=https://www.pakistanpoint.com/en/story/1659999/assad-says-syria-recognizes-new-russian-borders-followi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323053926/https://www.pakistanpoint.com/en/story/1659999/assad-says-syria-recognizes-new-russian-borders-followi.html |archive-date=23 March 2023}}</ref>}} [[File:Syrian Civil War map (November 29, 2024).svg|thumb|Military situation before the [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|opposition offensives]] in late 2024.<br />Territories held by the [[Syrian Democratic Forces|SDF]] (yellow), [[Islamic State|IS]] (grey), the [[Syrian Army]] (red), the [[Syrian National Army|SNA]] and [[Turkey]] (light green), [[Tahrir al-Sham]] (white), the [[Revolutionary Commando Army|SFA]] and the [[United States]] (teal).]] In March 2023, he visited the [[United Arab Emirates]] and met with UAE's President [[Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad in UAE as Second Post-Quake Gulf Visit Signals Growing Arab Outreach |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/syria-s-assad-arrives-in-uae-for-official-visit-/7011966.html |work=VOA News |date=19 March 2023}}</ref> In May 2023, he attended the [[2023 Arab League summit|Arab League summit in Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], where he was welcomed by Saudi Crown Prince [[Mohammed bin Salman]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad wins warm welcome at Arab summit after years of isolation |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-attend-arab-summit-bringing-regional-isolation-an-end-2023-05-19/ |work=Reuters |date=19 May 2023 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=20 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231020102358/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-attend-arab-summit-bringing-regional-isolation-an-end-2023-05-19/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He met with Egyptian President [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] and other Arab leaders.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assad shakes hands, kisses cheeks with onetime foes at Arab League summit |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-shakes-hands-kisses-cheeks-with-onetime-foes-arab-league-summit-2023-05-19/ |work=Reuters |date=19 May 2023}}</ref> In September 2023, Assad attended the [[Asian Games]] opening ceremony in [[Hangzhou]] and met with Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria's Bashar al Assad and wife laugh and wave at Asian Games opening ceremony amid China talks |url=https://news.sky.com/story/syrias-bashar-al-assad-and-wife-laugh-and-wave-at-asian-games-opening-ceremony-amid-china-talks-12968127 |work=Sky News |date=23 September 2023 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928010235/https://news.sky.com/story/syrias-bashar-al-assad-and-wife-laugh-and-wave-at-asian-games-opening-ceremony-amid-china-talks-12968127 |url-status=live }}</ref> They announced the establishment of a China–Syria strategic partnership.<ref>{{cite news |title=Leaders of Syria and China announce strategic partnership as part of Asian Games diplomacy |url=https://apnews.com/article/china-syria-asian-games-diplomacy-assad-xi-cce801eaa586fe5db82d28df79b0f91f |work=Associated Press |date=22 September 2022 |access-date=24 September 2023 |archive-date=8 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108022849/https://apnews.com/article/china-syria-asian-games-diplomacy-assad-xi-cce801eaa586fe5db82d28df79b0f91f |url-status=live }}</ref> In November 2023, Assad attended the [[2023 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit|Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit]] in Riyadh.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-host-extraordinary-joint-islamic-arab-summit-riyadh-saturday-2023-11-10/|title=Arab and Muslim leaders call for immediate end to Gaza war|publisher=[[Reuters]]|date=11 November 2023|author=Aziz El Yaakoubi, Nayera Abdallah}}</ref> In May 2024, he attended the Arab League summit in [[Bahrain]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/05/assad-sisi-gulf-leaders-bahrain-arab-league-summit-gaza-war-rages|title=Assad, Sisi, Gulf leaders in Bahrain for Arab League summit as Gaza war rages|date=16 May 2024|publisher=Al Monitor}}</ref> === Rebel offensive, regime collapse and exile in Russia (2024) === {{See also|2024 Syrian opposition offensives|Fall of the Assad regime}} [[File:Northwestern Syria offensive (2024).jpg|thumb|right|[[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|Syrian opposition offensives]] that overthrew Assad's regime in 11 days]] In December 2024, the United States, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom urged for de-escalation in Syria as violence flared up once again. Rebel factions, led by the Islamist group [[Tahrir al-Sham|Hayat Tahrir al-Sham]] (HTS), had [[Battle of Aleppo (2024)|taken control of Aleppo]], prompting a retaliatory airstrike campaign by President Assad and his Russian allies. The strikes, which targeted population centers and several hospitals in the [[Insurgency in Idlib|rebel-held]] city of [[Idlib]], resulted in at least 25 deaths, according to the [[White Helmets (Syrian civil war)|White Helmets]] rescue group. [[NATO]] countries issued a joint statement calling for the protection of civilians and critical infrastructure to prevent further displacement and ensure humanitarian access. They stressed the urgent need for a Syrian-led political solution, in accordance with [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 2254]], which advocates for dialogue between the Syrian government and opposition forces. The [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|rebel offensive]], which had begun on 27 November 2024, continued its [[2024 Hama offensive|advance into Hama Governorate]] following their capture of Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria: US, Germany, France, UK call for de-escalation |date=2 December 2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syria-us-germany-france-uk-call-for-de-escalation/a-70933512 |website=DW News |access-date=2 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 December 2024 |title=Fighting Worsens Already Dire Conditions in Northwestern Syria |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/03/world/middleeast/syria-civil-war-rebels-aleppo.html |website=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Syrian hospital hit in air attack on opposition-held Idlib |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/program/newsfeed/2024/12/3/syrian-hospital-hit-in-air-attack-on-opposition-held-idlib |access-date=5 December 2024 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> On 4 December 2024, fierce clashes erupted in [[Hama Governorate]] as the Syrian army engaged Islamist-led insurgents in a bid to halt their advance on the key city of [[Hama]]. Government forces claimed to have launched a counteroffensive with air support, pushing back rebel factions, including Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), around six miles from the city. However, despite reinforcements, the rebels captured the city on 5 December.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria rebels capture major city of Hama after military withdraws |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cql5r2px4yyo |access-date=5 December 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> The fighting led to widespread displacement, with nearly 50,000 people fleeing the area and over 600 casualties reported, including 104 civilians.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian army launches counterattack as rebels push towards Hama |date=4 December 2024 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20241204-syrian-army-launches-counterattack-as-rebels-push-towards-hama |website=France24 |access-date=4 December 2024}}</ref> On 6 December, rebels began encircling the capital Damascus.<ref>{{cite news |date=7 December 2024 |title=Syrian rebels seize Damascus, ending decades of brutal Assad dynasty rule |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syrian-rebels-control-south-approaching-damascus |access-date=10 December 2024 |publisher=[[Middle East Eye]]}}</ref> On 7 December, Assad fled the city just before [[Fall of Damascus|its fall to the rebels]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Syrian army command tells officers that Assad's rule has ended, officer says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-celebrate-captured-homs-set-sights-damascus-2024-12-07/ |website=Reuters |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref> ending 54 years of the Assad family's rule.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-bashar-assad-war-1468a97ff95bb782f5933856d99c9a8d|work=Associated Press News|title=The fall of Bashar Assad after 13 years of war in Syria brings to an end a decades-long dynasty|date=8 December 2024|author=Zeina Karam & Abby Sewell}}</ref> The Russian government said that Assad had "stepped down" as president following a personal decision and had left Syria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Where is Bashar al-Assad? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cqx89reeevgo |website=BBC |access-date=8 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=10 December 2024 |title=Assad Chose to Resign From Syrian Presidency, Kremlin Says |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/12/10/assad-chose-to-resign-from-syrian-presidency-kremlin-says-a87282 |access-date=10 December 2024 |publisher=[[The Moscow Times]]}}</ref> [[Interfax]], quoting an unnamed source at the [[Kremlin]], said that Assad and his family had arrived in Moscow and that the Russian government had granted them [[Political asylum|asylum]] "on humanitarian grounds."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last1=Gebeily |first1=Maya |last2=Azhari |first2=Timour |date=8 December 2024 |title=Syria's Assad and his family are in Moscow after Russia granted them asylum, say Russian news agencies |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/syrias-assad-his-family-are-moscow-after-russia-granted-them-asylum-say-russian-2024-12-08/ |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=Reuters}}</ref> == Controversies == === Corruption === {{Main|Corruption in Syria}} {{See also|Economy of Syria}} At the onset of the [[Syrian Revolution of Dignity|Syrian revolution]], corruption in Syria was endemic, and the country was ranked 129th in the 2011 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2011|title=2011 – CPI|year=2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002112428/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2011|archive-date=2 October 2020|website=Transparency.org}}</ref> Since the 1970s, Syria's economy has been dominated by the patronage networks of Ba'ath party elites and [[Alawite]] loyalists of the Assad family, who established control over Syria's public sectors based on kinship and nepotism. The pervasive nature of corruption had been a source of controversy within the Ba'ath party circles and the wider public; as early as the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=M. Sadowski |first=Yahya |date=1987 |title=Patronage and the Ba'th: Corruption and Control in Contemporary Syria |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41857946 |journal=Arab Studies Quarterly |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=442–461 |jstor=41857946 }}</ref> Bashar al-Assad's economic liberalization program during the 2000s became a symbol of corruption and nepotism, as the scheme's beneficiaries were Alawite loyalists who seized a significant portion of the privatized sectors and business assets. The government's actions alienated the vast majority of the Syrian public, particularly the rural and urban working classes, who strongly disliked the resulting economic disparities that became overtly visible.<ref name="Allam, Saber 2019 26–27"/><ref name="France 24">{{Cite news|date=9 July 2020|title=Assad's 20-year rule, from Damascus Spring to pariah|work=France 24|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200609-assad-s-20-year-rule-from-damascus-spring-to-pariah|access-date=21 May 2023|archive-date=14 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514182340/https://www.france24.com/en/20200609-assad-s-20-year-rule-from-damascus-spring-to-pariah|url-status=live}}</ref> Assad's cousin [[Rami Makhlouf]] was the regime's most favored oligarch during this period, marked by the institutionalization of corruption, handicapping of small businesses and casting down private [[entrepreneurship]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 July 2012 |title=Bashar al-Assad's inner circle |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13216195 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327062345/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13216195 |archive-date=27 March 2022}}</ref> The persistence of corruption, sectarian bias towards Alawites, nepotism and widespread bribery that existed in party, bureaucracy and military led to popular anger that resulted in the eruption of the 2011 Syrian Revolution. The protests were the most fierce in working-class neighbourhoods, which had long bore the brunt of the regime's exploitation policies that privileged its own loyalists.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gersh |first=Nick |date=6 February 2017 |title=The Role of Corruption in the Syrian Civil War |url=https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2017/02/06/the-role-of-corruption-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219152118/https://globalanticorruptionblog.com/2017/02/06/the-role-of-corruption-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-date=19 February 2017 |website=GAB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=26–27}}</ref> According to [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]], as a result of the Syrian civil war, "government-controlled Syria is truncated in size, battered and impoverished."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/assads-syria-truncated-battered-defiant-26633429 |title=Assad's Syria Truncated, Battered, but Defiant |work=Abc News |first=Diaa |last=Hadid |date=2 November 2014 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102205346/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/assads-syria-truncated-battered-defiant-26633429 |url-status=live }}</ref> Economic sanctions (the [[Syria Accountability Act]]) were applied long before the Syrian civil war by the U.S. and were joined by the EU at the outbreak of the civil war, causing disintegration of the Syrian economy.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17088270 |title=Syria 'disintegrating under crippling sanctions' |work=BBC News |date=19 February 2012 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=15 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515091458/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17088270 |url-status=live }}</ref> These sanctions were reinforced in October 2014 by the EU and U.S.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-eu-idUSKCN0IA1AF20141021 |title=EU targets ministers, UAE firm in latest Syria sanctions |work=Reuters |first=Adrian |last=Croft |date=21 October 2014 |access-date=2 November 2014 |archive-date=7 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007014415/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/21/us-mideast-crisis-syria-eu-idUSKCN0IA1AF20141021 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2014/10/16/treasury-syrian-sanctions-qusay-mihoub/17354081/ |title=Tightened sanctions target Syrian human rights abuses |work=USA Today |first=Gregory |last=Korte |date=16 October 2014 |access-date=9 November 2014 |archive-date=11 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811132431/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2014/10/16/treasury-syrian-sanctions-qusay-mihoub/17354081/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Industry in parts of the country that are still held by the government is heavily state-controlled, with [[economic liberalisation]] being reversed during the current conflict.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-economy-socialist-idUSBRE8630FA20120704 |title=Syria reverts to socialist economic policies to ease tension |first1=Suleiman |last1=Al-Khalidi |work=Reuters |date=4 July 2012 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020124949/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/us-syria-economy-socialist-idUSBRE8630FA20120704 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[London School of Economics]] has stated that as a result of the Syrian civil war, a [[war economy]] has developed in Syria.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN0IU10Z20141110?irpc=932 |title=Local ceasefires best way to ease Syrians' suffering: researchers |work=Reuters |date=10 November 2014 |access-date=10 November 2014 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161119/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN0IU10Z20141110?irpc=932 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2014 [[European Council on Foreign Relations]] report also stated that a war economy has formed: {{blockquote|Three years into a conflict that is estimated to have killed at least 140,000 people from both sides, much of the Syrian economy lies in ruins. As the violence has expanded and sanctions have been imposed, assets and infrastructure have been destroyed, economic output has fallen, and investors have fled the country. Unemployment now exceeds 50 percent and half of the population lives below the poverty line ... against this backdrop, a war economy is emerging that is creating significant new economic networks and business activities that feed off the violence, chaos, and lawlessness gripping the country. This war economy – to which Western sanctions have inadvertently contributed – is creating incentives for some Syrians to prolong the conflict and making it harder to end it.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR97_SYRIA_BRIEF_AW.pdf |title=Syria's War Economy |first1=Jihad |last1=Yazigi |publisher=European Council on Foreign Relations |date=7 April 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009205851/http://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR97_SYRIA_BRIEF_AW.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}} A [[United Nations|UN]] commissioned report by the Syrian Centre for Policy Research states that two-thirds of the Syrian population now lives in "extreme poverty".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-economy-idUSKBN0E81WL20140528 |title=Syria's economy heads into ruin: U.N. sponsored report |first1=Suleiman |last1=Al-Khalidi |work=Reuters |date=28 May 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=24 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824204400/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/28/us-syria-economy-idUSKBN0E81WL20140528 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unemployment stands at 50 percent.<ref name="SurvivalMode">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-regime-cuts-subsidies-focuses-ailing-economy-on-war-effort/2014/11/29/5f830894-719c-11e4-a2c2-478179fd0489_story.html |title=Syria's Assad regime cuts subsidies, focuses ailing economy on war effort |newspaper=The Washington Post |first1=Hugh |last1=Naylor |date=29 November 2014 |access-date=6 December 2014 |archive-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103114216/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-regime-cuts-subsidies-focuses-ailing-economy-on-war-effort/2014/11/29/5f830894-719c-11e4-a2c2-478179fd0489_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2014, a $50 million mall opened in [[Tartus]] which provoked criticism from government supporters and was seen as part of an Assad government policy of attempting to project a sense of normalcy throughout the civil war.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Oct-17/274357-glitzy-mall-sparks-anger-from-assad-backers.ashx |title=Glitzy mall sparks anger from Assad backers |first1=Rita |last1=Daou |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=17 October 2014 |access-date=19 October 2014 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022183913/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Oct-17/274357-glitzy-mall-sparks-anger-from-assad-backers.ashx |url-status=dead }}</ref> A government policy to give preference to families of slain soldiers for government jobs was cancelled after it caused an uproar<ref name="BurySons"/> while rising accusations of corruption caused protests.<ref name="AlawitesVoice"/> In December 2014, the EU banned sales of jet fuel to the Assad government, forcing the government to buy more expensive uninsured jet fuel shipments in the future.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11290437/EU-tries-to-ground-Bashar-al-Assads-warplanes-by-banning-fuel-supplies.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11290437/EU-tries-to-ground-Bashar-al-Assads-warplanes-by-banning-fuel-supplies.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=EU tries to ground Bashar al-Assad's warplanes by banning fuel supplies |work=The Telegraph |first1=David |last1=Blair |date=12 December 2014 |access-date=13 December 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Taking advantage of the increased role of the state as a result of the civil war, Bashar and his wife Asma have begun annexing Syria's economic assets from their loyalists, seeking to displace the old business elites and monopolize their direct control of the economy. [[Maher al-Assad]], the brother of Bashar, has also become wealthy by overseeing the operations of Syria's state-sponsored [[captagon]] drug industry and seizing much of the spoils of war. The ruling couple currently owns vast swathes of Syria's shipping, real estate, telecommunications and banking sectors.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 November 2022 |title=Changes to Syria's Business Elite Concentrates Wealth in Hands of Presidential Couple |work=The Syria Report |url=https://syria-report.com/analysis-changes-to-syrias-business-elite-concentrates-wealth-in-hands-of-presidential-couple-open-access/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202222632/https://syria-report.com/analysis-changes-to-syrias-business-elite-concentrates-wealth-in-hands-of-presidential-couple-open-access/ |archive-date=2 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=Chloe Cornish |author2=Asser Khattab |date=25 July 2019 |title=Syria's Assad puts pressure on business elite |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/a7a75e4c-a95d-11e9-984c-fac8325aaa04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727060100/https://www.ft.com/content/a7a75e4c-a95d-11e9-984c-fac8325aaa04 |archive-date=27 July 2019}}</ref> Significant changes have been happening to Syrian economy since the government's confiscation campaigns launched in 2019, which involved major economic assets being transferred to the Presidential couple to project their power and influence. Particularly noteworthy dynamic has been the rise of [[Asma al-Assad]], who heads Syria's clandestine economic council and is thought to have become "a central funnel of economic power in Syria". Through her Syria Trust NGO, the backbone of her financial network, Asma vets the foreign aid coming to Syria; since the government authorizes UN organizations only if it works under state agencies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jalabi |first=Raya |date=2023 |title=Syria's state capture: the rising influence of Mrs Assad |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/a51c6227-0c93-4fe1-aca7-25783a43708f |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405013209/https://www-ft-com.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/content/a51c6227-0c93-4fe1-aca7-25783a43708f |archive-date=5 April 2023}}</ref> Corruption has been rising sporadically in recent years, with Syria being considered the most corrupt country in the [[Arab World]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Middle East corruption rankings: Syria most corrupt, UAE least, Turkey slipped |work=Al-Monitor |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203201215/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/01/middle-east-corruption-rankings-syria-most-corrupt-uae-least-turkey-slipped |archive-date=3 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=31 January 2023 |title=Syria, Yemen and Libya among 'lowest in the world' for corruption perceptions |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208070207/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-yemen-and-libya-rank-among-lowest-corruption-index?amp |archive-date=8 February 2023}}</ref> As of 2022, Syria is the ranked second worst globally in the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title= Corruption Perceptions Index |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204001659/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |archive-date=4 February 2023 |website=[[Transparency International]]}}</ref> === Sectarianism === {{See also|Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war}} Hafez al-Assad's government was widely counted amongst the most repressive Arab [[dictatorship]]s of the 20th century. As Bashar inherited his father's mantle, he sought to implement "authoritarian upgrading" by purging those from his father's generation and staffing the party and military with loyalist Alawite officers, further entrenching the sectarianism within the system.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=27–30 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime |quote=Because he lacks his father's leadership skills... Bashar may settle for consensus among his junta of Alawi officers... When Bashar assumed office he attempted to consolidate power through 'authoritarian upgrading'.. However, the conservative military establishment and senior members of the regime were not favorable to Bashar's reforms, which forced Bashar to retire such senior personnel in order to further consolidate his power. But Bashar struggled to appoint new and loyal staff, his Ba'athist regime became increasingly like a sectarian family clan}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite news |last=Ker-Lindsay |first=James |date=27 April 2023 |title=Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State? |work=World Politics Review |url=https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602100607/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/ |archive-date=2 June 2023}}</ref> While officially the Ba'athist government adheres to a strict secularist doctrine, in practice it has implemented sectarian engineering policies in the society to suppress dissent and monopolize its absolute power.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |title=Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |publisher=International Crisis Group |date=8 May 2014 |access-date=4 October 2014 |page=23 |quote=The regime aims to compel people to take refuge in their sectarian and communitarian identities; to split each community into competing branches, dividing those who support it from those who oppose it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220181554/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{quote box|"During Hafez-al-Assad's reign, he resorted to emphasising the sectarian identities that the previous [[Ba'ath Party]] rejected; believing the only way to ensure stability was through building a trusted security force... Hafez pursued a strategy to "make the Alawite community a loyal monolith while keeping Syria's Sunni majority divided". Yet Syria became a [[police state]], enforcing stability through threat of brute force repression... Bashar had already followed in his father's footsteps, carefully manoeuvring his most loyal allies into the military-security apparatus, government ministries and the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]]." | source = — Antonia Robson<ref name="Robson">{{Cite web |date=3 May 2021 |last=Robson| first=Antonia |title=The Mobilisation of Sectarian Identities in the Syrian Civil War |url=https://www.e-ir.info/2021/05/03/the-mobilisation-of-sectarian-identities-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130180133/https://www.e-ir.info/2021/05/03/the-mobilisation-of-sectarian-identities-in-the-syrian-civil-war/ |archive-date=30 November 2022 |website=E-International Relations}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} The regime has attempted to portray itself to the outside world as "the protector of minorities" and instills the fear of the majority rule in the society to mobilize loyalists from minorities.<ref name="NPR_APRIL_2015">{{cite web |last=Meuse |first=Alison |date=18 April 2015 |title=Syria's Minorities: Caught Between Sword Of ISIS And Wrath of Assad |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/04/18/400360836/syrias-minorities-caught-between-sword-of-isis-and-wrath-of-assad |access-date=19 April 2015 |publisher=NPR |quote=Karim Bitar, a Middle East analyst at Paris think tank IRIS [...] says [...] 'Minorities are often used as a shield by authoritarian regimes, who try to portray themselves as protectors and as a bulwark' |archive-date=19 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419125016/http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/04/18/400360836/syrias-minorities-caught-between-sword-of-isis-and-wrath-of-assad |url-status=live }}</ref> Assad loyalist figures like [[Michel Samaha]] have advocated sectarian mobilization to defend the regime from what he labelled as the "sea of [[Sunnis]]". Assad regime has unleashed sectarian violence through private Alawite militias like the ''[[Shabiha]]'', particularly in Sunni areas. Alawite religious iconography and communal sentiments are common themes used by [[Alawites|Alawite]] warrior-shaykhs who lead the Alawite militias; as justification to commit massacres, abductions and torture in opposition strongholds.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ümit Üngör|first=Uğur |date=9 February 2022 |title=The Specter of Sectarian Violence in Syria |url=https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/the-specter-of-sectarian-violence-in-syria/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704031407/https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/the-specter-of-sectarian-violence-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 July 2022 |access-date=19 April 2015 |publisher=NPR}}</ref> Various development policies adopted by the regime had followed a sectarian pattern. An urbanization scheme implemented by the government in the city of Homs led to expulsions of thousands of Sunni residents during the 2000s, while Alawite majority areas were left intact.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title=Assad or We Burn the Country|url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=War on the rocks}}</ref> Even as [[Syrian Ba'athism]] absorbed diverse communal identities into the homogenous unifying discourse of the state; socio-political power became monopolized by Alawite loyalists. Despite officially adhering to non-confessionalism, [[Syrian Armed Forces]] have also been institutionally sectarianized. While the conscripts and lower-ranks are overwhelmingly non-Alawite, the higher ranks are packed by Alawite loyalists who effectively control the logistics and security policy. Elite units of the Syrian military such as the [[Tiger Forces]], [[Republican Guard (Syria)|Republican Guard]], [[4th Armoured Division (Syria)|4th Armoured Division]], etc. regarded by the government as crucial for its survival; are composed mostly of Alawites. Sunni officers are under constant surveillance by the secret police, with most of them being assigned with Alawite assistants who monitor their movements. Pro-regime [[paramilitary]] groups such as the [[National Defense Force (Syria)|National Defense Force]] are also organized around sectarian loyalty to the Ba'athist government. During the [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian Revolution]] uprisings, the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist government]] deployed a securitization strategy that depended on sectarian mobilization, unleashing violence on protestors and extensive crackdowns across the country, prompting opposition groups to turn to armed revolt. Syrian society was further sectarianized following the [[Iranian involvement in the Syrian civil war|Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war]], which witnessed numerous [[Khomeinism|Khomeinist]] militant groups sponsored by Iran fight in the side of the Assad government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title=Assad or We Burn the Country|url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=E-International Relations}}</ref><ref name="Robson"/> === Human rights === {{See also|Human rights in Syria}} The Ba'athist government has been ruling Syria as a totalitarian state, policing every aspect of Syrian society for decades. Commanders of government's security forces – consisting of [[Syrian Arab Army]], [[secret police]], Ba'athist paramilitaries – directly implement the executive functions of the state, with scant regard for legal processes and [[bureaucracy]]. The surveillance system of the ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' is pervasive, with the total number of agents working for its various branches estimated to be as high as 1:158 ratio with the civilian population. Security services shut down civil society organizations, curtail freedom of movement within the country and bans non-Ba'athist political literature and symbols.<ref name="ifimes.org"/><ref name="Hill">{{Cite news |last=Hill |first=Evan |date=16 July 2010 |title=Syria slammed on human rights |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/7/16/syria-slammed-on-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521182156/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2010/7/16/syria-slammed-on-human-rights |archive-date=21 May 2023}}</ref> In 2010, [[Human Rights Watch]] published the report "''A Wasted Decade''" documenting repression during Assad's first decade of [[emergency rule]]; marked by arbitrary arrests, censorship and discrimination against [[Kurds in Syria|Syrian Kurds]].<ref name="Hill"/><ref name="hrw.org">{{Cite web |date=16 July 2010 |title=A Wasted Decade: Human Rights in Syria during Bashar al-Asad's First Ten Years in Power |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/07/16/wasted-decade/human-rights-syria-during-bashar-al-asads-first-ten-years-power |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713084607/https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/07/16/wasted-decade/human-rights-syria-during-bashar-al-asads-first-ten-years-power |archive-date=13 July 2015 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>[[File:Syria.BasharAlAssad.02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Billboard with a portrait of Bashar al-Assad and the text 'Syria is protected by God' on the [[Damascus#Walls and gates of Damascus|old city wall of Damascus]] in 2006]] Throughout the 2000s, the dreaded ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' agents carried out routine [[Forced abduction|abductions]], [[arbitrary detention]]s and [[torture]] of civilians. Numerous [[show trial]]s were conducted against dissidents, filling Syrian prisons with journalists and human rights activists. Members of Syria's [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence Directorate]] had long enjoyed broad privileges to carry out extrajudicial actions and they have immunity from criminal offences. In 2008, Assad extended this immunity to other departments of security forces.<ref name="hrw.org"/> Human Rights groups, such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], have detailed how the Assad government's [[secret police]] tortured, imprisoned, and killed political opponents, and those who speak out against the government.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Wasted Decade |url=https://www.hrw.org/en/node/91580/section/4 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |pages=4, 8 |date=16 July 2010 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=16 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416235023/http://www.hrw.org/en/node/91580/section/4 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Syria |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,,SYR,,4da56d83a2,0.html |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date=8 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019171745/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country%2C%2C%2C%2CSYR%2C%2C4da56d83a2%2C0.html |archive-date=19 October 2012}}</ref> In addition, some 600 Lebanese political prisoners are thought to be held in government prisons since the [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon]], with some held for as long as over 30 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mmedia.me/lb/en/reportsfeatures/565320-syrias-secret-prisoners |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171009185724/https://m.media/Pages/NotFoundPage.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 October 2017 |title=Syria's secret prisoners |publisher=NOW News |last1=Luca |first1=Ana Maria |date=21 May 2015 |access-date=22 May 2015}}</ref> Since 2006, the Assad government has expanded the use of [[Persona non grata|travel bans]] against political dissidents.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/17155868 |title=How Syria controls its dissidents – Banning travel |date=30 September 2010 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=8 March 2011 |archive-date=30 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830231102/http://www.economist.com/node/17155868 |url-status=live }}</ref><!-- The Syrian [[General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|General Intelligence Directorate]] is Alawite dominated.{{sfn|Pierret|2013|p=204}}--> In an interview with [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] in 2007, Assad stated: "We don't have such [things as] political prisoners," though ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported the arrest of 30 Syrian political dissidents who were organising a joint opposition front in December 2007, with 3 members of this group considered to be opposition leaders being remanded in custody.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html |work=The New York Times |title=Challenged, Syria Extends Crackdown on Dissent |first=Thanassis |last=Cambanis |date=14 December 2007 |access-date=26 April 2010 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605051853/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/world/middleeast/14syria.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The government also denied permission for human rights organizations and independent NGOs to work in the country.<ref name="hrw.org"/> In 2010, Syria banned [[Veil|face veils]] at universities.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-10684359 |title=Syria bans face veils at universities |newspaper=BBC News |date=19 July 2010 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405215836/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-10684359 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0720/Veil-ban-Why-Syria-joins-Europe-in-barring-the-niqab |title=Veil ban: Why Syria joins Europe in barring the niqab |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |date=20 July 2010 |access-date=13 November 2014 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517215400/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2010/0720/Veil-ban-Why-Syria-joins-Europe-in-barring-the-niqab |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the protests of Syrian Revolution in 2011, Assad partially relaxed the veil ban.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/06/syria-relax-veil-ban-teacher |title=Syria relaxes veil ban for teachers |newspaper=The Guardian |date=6 April 2011 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=8 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908080959/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/06/syria-relax-veil-ban-teacher |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:(5)_Montreal_Syrian_solidarity_demonstration_March_27.jpg|thumb|Demonstration in [[Montreal]] in solidarity with the people of Syria. The sign reads: "Stop torture and inhumane treatment of prisoners in Syria!"]] ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' journal released an editorial on the Syrian situation in the wake of the 2011 protests:<ref name="The Sturdy House That Assad Built">{{cite journal |author=Michael Bröning |date=7 March 2011 |title=The Sturdy House That Assad Built |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67561/michael-broening/the-sturdy-house-that-assad-built |journal=[[Foreign Affairs]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119093700/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2011-03-07/sturdy-house-assad-built |archive-date=19 January 2023}}</ref> {{blockquote|During its decades of rule... the Assad family developed a strong political safety net by firmly integrating the military into the government. In 1970, Hafez al-Assad, Bashar's father, seized power after rising through the ranks of the [[Syrian armed forces]], during which time he established a network of loyal [[Alawites]] by installing them in key posts. In fact, the military, ruling elite, and [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|ruthless secret police]] are so intertwined that it is now impossible to separate the [[Assad regime]] from the security establishment. Bashar al-Assad's threat to use force against protesters would be more plausible than Tunisia's or Egypt's were. So, unlike in Tunisia and Egypt, where a professionally trained military tended to play an independent role, the regime and its loyal forces have been able to deter all but the most resolute and fearless oppositional activists... At the same time, it is significantly different from [[Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)|Libya]], where the military, although brutal and loyal to the regime, is a more disorganized group of militant thugs than a trained and disciplined army.}} Between 2011 and 2013; the state security apparatus is believed to have tortured and killed over 10,000 [[civil activist]]s, [[political dissidents]], [[Independent journalists|journalists]], [[Civil defense|civil defense volunteers]] and those accused of treason and terror charges, as part of a campaign of deadly crackdown ordered by Assad.<ref name="Entous, Nissenbaum">{{Cite news |author1=Adam Entous |author2=Dion Nissenbaum |date=25 July 2014 |title=10,000 Bodies: Inside Syrian President Bashar al-Assad's Crackdown |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/10-000-bodies-inside-syrian-president-bashar-al-assads-crackdown-1406315472 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103162318/https://www.wsj.com/articles/10-000-bodies-inside-syrian-president-bashar-al-assads-crackdown-1406315472 |archive-date=3 January 2023}}</ref> In June 2023, [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]] voted in favour of establishing an independent body to investigate the whereabouts of hundreds of thousands of missing civilians who have been forcibly disappeared, killed or languishing in Assad regime's [[Human rights in Syria#Detention Centres|dungeons]] and [[torture chamber]]s. The vote was condemned by Russia, North Korea and Iran.<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 June 2023 |title=UN votes to establish independent body to clarify fate of over 130,000 Syrians missing in conflict |work=The Week |url=https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/international/2023/06/30/fgn2-un-syria.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630045225/https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/international/2023/06/30/fgn2-un-syria.amp.html |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kossaify |first=Ephrem |date=30 June 2023 |title=In milestone decision, UN creates institution for Syria's missing and disappeared |work=Arab News |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2330286/middle-east |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630045427/https://www.arabnews.com/node/2330286/middle-east |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=M. Lederer |first=Edith |date=30 June 2023 |title=UN votes to establish independent body to clarify fate of over 130,000 Syrians missing in conflict |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/un-syria-conflict-missing-people-75ab620d2ab939b54152a3f1ded5a156 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630163007/https://apnews.com/article/un-syria-conflict-missing-people-75ab620d2ab939b54152a3f1ded5a156 |archive-date=30 June 2023}}</ref> In 2023, [[Canada]] and Netherlands [[Canada and the Netherlands v. Syrian Arab Republic|filed a lawsuit against Syria]] at the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), charging the latter with violating the [[United Nations Convention Against Torture]]. The joint petition accused the Syrian regime of organizing "unimaginable physical and mental pain and suffering" as a strategy to collectively punish the Syrian population.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Joint statement by Canada and the Kingdom of the Netherlands on instituting proceedings at the International Court of Justice to hold Syria to account for torture |url=https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2023/06/12/joint-statement-by-canada-and-the-netherlands-on-instituting-proceedings-at-the-international-court-of-justice-to-hold-syria-to-account-for-torture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135748/https://www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2023/06/12/joint-statement-by-canada-and-the-netherlands-on-instituting-proceedings-at-the-international-court-of-justice-to-hold-syria-to-account-for-torture |archive-date=13 June 2023 |website=Government of Netherlands}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=Canada and the Kingdom of the Netherlands jointly institute proceedings against the Syrian Arab Republic and request the Court to indicate provisional measures |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230612-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135950/https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230612-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2023 |website=International Court of Justice.org |pages=1, 2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2023 |title=Canada and the Kingdom of Netherlands vs. the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230608-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612142054/https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/188/188-20230608-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2023 |website=International Court of Justice.org}}</ref> Russia vetoed [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] efforts to prosecute Bashar al-Assad at the International Criminal Court.<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 June 2023 |title=Canada and Netherlands take Syria to ICJ over alleged torture |work=The National |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/2023/06/12/canada-and-netherlands-take-syria-to-icj-over-alleged-torture/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613135519/https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/2023/06/12/canada-and-netherlands-take-syria-to-icj-over-alleged-torture/ |archive-date=13 June 2023}}</ref> === Repression of Kurds === {{Further|Arab Belt|Arabization#Arabization in Syria|Qamishli massacre|label 1=Arab Belt Project|label 2=Arabization in Syria}} [[Ba'athist Syria]] had long banned [[Kurdish language]] in schools and public institutions; and discrimination against [[Syrian Kurds|Kurds]] steadily increased during the rule of Bashar al-Assad. State policy officially suppressed Kurdish culture; with more than 300,000 Syrian Kurds being rendered stateless. Kurdish grievances against state persecution eventually culminated in the [[2004 Qamishli riots|2004 Qamishli Uprisings]], which were crushed down violently after sending Syrian military forces. The ensuing crackdown resulted in the killings of more than 36 Kurds and injuring at least 160 demonstrators. More than 2000 civilians were arrested and tortured in government detention centres. Restrictions on Kurdish activities has been further tightened following the Qamishli massacre, with the [[Assad regime]] virtually banning all Kurdish cultural gatherings and political activism under the charges of "inciting strife" or "weakening national sentiment." During 2005–2010, [[Human Rights Watch]] verified security crackdowns on at least 14 [[Kurdish population|Kurdish]] political and cultural gatherings.<ref name="hrw.org"/><ref name="Hill"/> In March 2008, Syrian military opened fire at a Kurdish gathering in Qamishli that marked Nowruz, killing three and injuring five civilians.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 March 2008 |title=Syria: Investigate Killing of Kurds |work=Human RIghts Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/23/syria-investigate-killing-kurds |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505183620/https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/23/syria-investigate-killing-kurds |archive-date=5 May 2023}}</ref> === Censorship === {{Main|Censorship in Syria|Internet censorship in Syria}} On 22 September 2001, Assad decreed a Press Law that tightened government control over all literature printed or published in Syria; ranging from newspapers to books, pamphlets and periodicals. Publishers, writers, editors, distributors, journalists and other individuals accused of violating the Press Law are imprisoned or fined. Censorship has also been expanded into the [[cyberspace]], and various websites are banned. Numerous bloggers and content creators have been arrested under various "national security" charges.<ref name="hrw.org"/> A 2007 law requires [[internet cafés]] to record all the comments users post on chat forums.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bashar Al-Assad, President, Syria |url=http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=predateur&id_article=42411 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716102326/http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=predateur&id_article=42411 |archive-date=16 July 2012 |access-date=26 October 2012 |publisher=[[Reporters Without Borders]]}}</ref> Another decree in 2008 obligated internet cafes to keep records of their customers and report them routinely to the police.<ref name="10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger">{{Cite web |date=30 April 2009 |title=10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger |url=https://cpj.org/reports/2009/04/10-worst-countries-to-be-a-blogger/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202201109/https://cpj.org/reports/2009/04/10-worst-countries-to-be-a-blogger/ |archive-date=2 February 2023 |website=Committee to Protect Journalists}}</ref> Websites such as [[Arabic Wikipedia]], [[YouTube]], and [[Facebook]] were [[Internet censorship in Syria|blocked intermittently between 2008 and February 2011]].<ref>{{cite news |date=24 July 2008 |title=Red lines that cannot be crossed – The authorities don't want you to read or see too much |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |access-date=10 March 2011 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511054714/http://www.economist.com/node/11792330 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Jennifer Preston |date=9 February 2011 |title=Syria Restores Access to Facebook and YouTube |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-date=10 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210033047/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10syria.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Internet Enemies – Syria |url=http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-syria,39779.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518055039/http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-syria%2C39779.html |archive-date=18 May 2011 |access-date=29 April 2011 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}</ref> [[Committee to Protect Journalists]] (CPJ) ranked Syria as the third dangerous country to be an online blogger in 2009. Individuals are arrested based on a wide variety of accusations; ranging from undermining "national unity" to posting or sharing "false" content.<ref name="hrw.org"/><ref name="10 Worst Countries to be a Blogger"/> Syria was ranked as the third most censored country in CPJ's 2012 report. Apart from restrictions for international journalists that prohibit their entry, domestic press is controlled by state agencies that promote Ba'athist ideology. From 2011, the Syrian government has issued a complete [[media blackout]] and foreign correspondents were quickly detained, abducted or tortured. As a result, the outside world is able to know of situations happening inside Syria only through videos of independent civilian journalists. The Assad government has shut down internet coverage, [[Cellular network|mobile networks]] as well as telephone lines in areas under its control to prevent any news that has its attempts to monopolize information related to Syria.<ref>{{cite web |date=2 May 2012 |title=10 Most Censored Countries |url=http://cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725103343/http://www.cpj.org/reports/2012/05/10-most-censored-countries.php |archive-date=25 July 2012 |access-date=14 August 2012 |work=Committee to Protect Journalists}}</ref> === Crackdowns, ethnic cleansing, and forced disappearances === {{Further|Casualties of the Syrian civil war|Syrian refugee crisis}} The [[2011 Syrian revolution#Crackdown|crackdown]] ordered by Bashar al-Assad against Syrian protesters was the most ruthless of all military clampdowns in the entire [[Arab Spring]]. As violence deteriorated and death toll mounted to the thousands; the European Union, Arab League and United States began imposing wide range of sanctions against Assad regime. By December 2011, [[United Nations]] had declared the situation in Syria to be a "[[civil war]]".<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Elizabeth A. Kennedy |author2=Frank Jordans |date=2 December 2011 |title=UN: Syria now in a civil war |work=MSNBC |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45514855 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726024135/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45514855 |archive-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> By this point, all the protestors and armed [[Resistance movement|resistance]] groups had viewed the unconditional resignation of Bashar al-Assad as part of their core demands. In July 2012, [[Arab League]] held an emergency session demanding the "swift resignation" of Assad and promised "safe exit" if he accepted the offer.<ref>{{cite news |author=Bassem Mroue |date=18 April 2011 |title=Bashar Assad Resignation Called For By Syria Sit-In Activists |work=[[HuffPost]] |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/18/bashar-assad-resignation-syria-protest_n_850657.html |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512045222/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/18/bashar-assad-resignation-syria-protest_n_850657.html |archive-date=12 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=23 July 2012 |title=Arab League to offer 'safe exit' if Assad resigns |work=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/22/world/meast/syria-unrest |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514043736/http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/22/world/meast/syria-unrest |archive-date=14 May 2013}}</ref> Assad rebuffed the offers, instead seeking foreign military support from Iran and Russia to defend his embattled regime through [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth tactics]], massacres, sieges, forced starvations, ethnic cleansing, etc.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yacoubian |first=Mona |date=1 January 2021 |title=Syria Timeline: Since the Uprising Against Assad |url=https://www.usip.org/syria-timeline-uprising-against-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224072630/https://www.usip.org/syria-timeline-uprising-against-assad |archive-date=24 February 2021 |website=United States Institute of Peace}}</ref> The crackdowns and extermination campaigns of Assad regime resulted in the [[Syrian refugee crisis]]; causing the [[forced displacement]] of 14 million Syrians, with around 7.2 million refugees.<ref name="Syria Refugee Crisis Explained">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2023 |title=Syria Refugee Crisis Explained |url=https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329091756/https://www.unrefugees.org/news/syria-refugee-crisis-explained/ |archive-date=29 March 2023 |website=UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency}}</ref> This has made the Syrian refugee crisis the largest [[refugee crisis]] in the world; and [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] High Commissioner [[Filippo Grandi]] has described it as "the biggest humanitarian and refugee crisis of our time and a continuing cause for suffering."<ref name="Syria Refugee Crisis Explained" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Syria Refugee Crisis |url=https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518033038/https://www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/syria/ |archive-date=18 May 2023}}</ref> === Ethnic cleansing === [[File:Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Wounded civilians getting rushed to a hospital in [[Aleppo]]]] Eva Koulouriotis has described Bashar al-Assad as the "master of [[ethnic cleansing]] in the 21st century".<ref name="J. Koulouriotis">{{Cite web |last=J. Koulouriotis |first=Eva |date=22 May 2022 |title=Assad: Master of ethnic cleansing in the 21st century |url=https://www.syriawise.com/opinion-assad-master-of-ethnic-cleansing-in-the-21st-century/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702072830/https://www.syriawise.com/opinion-assad-master-of-ethnic-cleansing-in-the-21st-century/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=Syria Wise}}</ref> During the course of the civil war, Assad ordered depopulation campaigns throughout the country to re-shape its demography in favor of his regime and the military tactics have been compared to the [[Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War|persecutions of the Bosnian war]]. Between 2011 and 2015, [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] militias are reported to have committed 49 ethno-sectarian [[massacre]]s for the purpose of implementing its social engineering agenda in the country. [[Alawites|Alawite]] loyalist militias known as the ''[[Shabiha]]'' have been launched into [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] villages and towns, perpetrating numerous [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]] massacres. These include the [[Houla massacre|Houla]], [[Bayda and Baniyas massacres]], [[Al-Qubeir massacre]], Al-Hasawiya massacre, and others which have resulted in hundreds of deaths with hundreds of thousands of residents fleeing under threats of regime persecution and [[sexual violence]]. Pogroms and deportations were pronounced in central Syrian regions and Alawite majority coastal areas where the Syrian military and Hezbollah prioritize the establishment of strategic control by expelling Sunni residents and bringing in Iran-backed Shia militants.<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Martin Chulov |author2=Mona Mahmood |date=22 July 2013 |title=Syrian Sunnis fear Assad regime wants to 'ethnically cleanse' Alawite heartland |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/22/syria-sunnis-fear-alawite-ethnic-cleansing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505110349/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/22/syria-sunnis-fear-alawite-ethnic-cleansing |archive-date=5 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Nakhoul |first=Samia |date=12 June 2012 |title=Insight: Syria massacres, ethnic cleansing that may backfire |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-massacres-idUSBRE85A1DY20120611 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222180327/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-massacres-idUSBRE85A1DY20120611 |archive-date=22 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="J. Koulouriotis"/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Hamad |first=Sam |date=30 June 2017 |title=Daraa 'de-escalation' masks Assad's ethnic cleansing in Syria |work=New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/opinion/daraa-de-escalation-masks-assads-ethnic-cleansing-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207165354/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/daraa-de-escalation-masks-assads-ethnic-cleansing-syria |archive-date=7 December 2022}}</ref> In 2016, UN officials criticized Bashar al-Assad for pursuing demographic engineering and ethnic cleansing in [[Darayya District|Darayya district]] in Damascus under the guise of de-escalation deals.<ref>{{Cite news |last=El-Bar |first=Karim |date=5 September 2016 |title='Ethnic cleansing on an unprecedented scale': Rebels, UN criticise Assad tactics |work=Middle East Eye |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/ethnic-cleansing-unprecedented-scale-rebels-un-criticise-assad-tactics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015105258/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/ethnic-cleansing-unprecedented-scale-rebels-un-criticise-assad-tactics |archive-date=15 October 2021}}</ref> Syrian government forces have pursued mass-killings of civilian populations as part of its war strategy throughout the conflict and is responsible for inflicting more than 90% of the [[Casualties of the Syrian civil war|total civilian deaths in the Syrian civil war]].<ref name="auto1">*{{Cite news |date=20 June 2022 |title=Assad, Iran, Russia committed 91% of civilian killings in Syria |work=Middle East Monitor |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104153837/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220620-assad-iran-russia-committed-91-of-civilian-killings-in-syria/ |archive-date=4 January 2023 }} * {{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=Civilian Death Toll |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305114908/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/06/14/civilian-death-toll/ |archive-date=5 March 2022 |website=SNHR }} * {{Cite news |date=19 June 2022 |title=91 percent of civilian deaths caused by Syrian regime and Russian forces: rights group |work=The New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105112752/https://www.newarab.com/news/syria-regime-and-russia-caused-91-deaths-report |archive-date=5 January 2023 }} * {{Cite web |title=2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Syria |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702114009/https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/syria/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |website=U.S Department of State }} * {{Cite web |last=Roth |first=Kenneth |date=9 January 2017 |title=Barack Obama's Shaky Legacy on Human Rights |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202082511/https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/01/09/barack-obamas-shaky-legacy-human-rights |archive-date=2 February 2021 |website=Human Rights Watch }} * {{Cite web |title=The Regional War in Syria: Summary of Caabu event with Christopher Phillips |url=https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |website=Council for Arab-British Understanding |access-date=21 May 2023 |archive-date=9 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209022611/https://www.caabu.org/news/news/regional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips |url-status=live }}</ref> The UN estimates a minimum of 306,000 civilian deaths occurred between 2011 and 2021.<ref name="Farge"/><ref name="ohchr.org"/> As of 2022, the total death toll has risen to approximately 580,000.<ref name="GCR2P2">{{Cite web |date=1 December 2022 |title=Syria |url=https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128063728/https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/syria/ |archive-date=28 January 2023 |website=Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect}}</ref> An additional 154,000 civilians have been [[forcibly disappeared]] or subject to [[Arbitrary arrest and detention|arbitrary detentions]] across Syria between 2011 and 2023. As of 2023, more than 135,000 individuals are being [[torture]]d, incarcerated or dead in [[Human rights in Syria#Detention Centers|Ba'athist prison networks]], including thousands of [[Woman|women]] and [[child]]ren.<ref>* {{Cite news |date=March 2023 |title=Record of Arbitrary Arrests |work=SNHR |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2021/08/14/record-of-arbitrary-arrests1/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513172453/https://snhr.org/blog/2021/08/14/record-of-arbitrary-arrests1/ |archive-date=13 May 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=15 March 2023 |title=On the 12th Anniversary of the Popular Uprising |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/12th-anniversary-popular-uprising-total-230224-civilians-documented-dead-including-15275-who-died-due-torture-154871-arrested-andor-forcibly-disappeared-and-roughly-14-million-syrians-displaced#:~:text=The%20report%20reveals%20that%20no,March%202011%20and%20March%202023. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316062415/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/12th-anniversary-popular-uprising-total-230224-civilians-documented-dead-including-15275-who-died-due-torture-154871-arrested-andor-forcibly-disappeared-and-roughly-14-million-syrians-displaced |archive-date=16 March 2023 |website=[[ReliefWeb]]}} * {{Cite news |last=Mustafa |first=Wafa |date=18 May 2023 |title=Assad's regime took my father. Normalising relations feels like an attempt to rewrite history |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/18/assads-regime-took-my-father-normalising-relations-feels-like-an-attempt-to-rewrite-history |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519021625/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/may/18/assads-regime-took-my-father-normalising-relations-feels-like-an-attempt-to-rewrite-history |archive-date=19 May 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=9 June 2021 |title=Humans not Numbers |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/humans-not-numbers-case-international-mechanism-address-detainees-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411115616/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/humans-not-numbers-case-international-mechanism-address-detainees-and |archive-date=11 April 2023 |website=[[ReliefWeb]]}} * {{Cite web |date=18 May 2023 |title=Seven reasons why normalizing with Assad is a shameful, terrible move |url=https://diary.thesyriacampaign.org/assad-normalization-arab-league/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518154642/https://diary.thesyriacampaign.org/assad-normalization-arab-league/ |archive-date=18 May 2023 |website=The Syria campaign}}</ref> Since 2011, the Assad regime has arrested and detained children without trial until the age of 18, after which they are transferred to Syrian military field courts and killed. A 2024 investigative report by the Syrian Investigative Journalism Unit (SIRAJ) identified 24 Syrian children who were forcibly disappeared, had their assets confiscated, detained and later killed after they reached the age of 18. The report, based on inside sources within the Assad government, interviews with victims' families, and public sources, estimated that more than 6,000 detainees under the age of 18 were sentenced to death in the [[Sednaya Prison]] and an Assadist military field court in [[Al-Dimas]] between 2014 and 2017, citing eyewitness accounts of an insider within the Ba'athist military police.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Ali Al Ibrahim |author2=Mohamad Skaf |date= 28 October 2024|title=Delayed Execution: The Syrian Regime Detains Minors in Prisons to Execute Them Upon Reaching 18 |url=https://sirajsy.net/the-syrian-regime-detains-minors/ |website=SIRAJ |access-date=31 October 2024 |archive-date=21 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241121052540/https://sirajsy.net/the-syrian-regime-detains-minors/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 October 2024 |title=Syria regime detained children until 18 before executing them under 'terrorism' law, investigation reveals |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20241029-syria-regime-detained-children-until-18-before-executing-them-under-terrorism-law-investigation-reveals/#comment-6582201907 |work=Middle East Monitor |access-date=31 October 2024 |archive-date=21 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241121052320/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20241029-syria-regime-detained-children-until-18-before-executing-them-under-terrorism-law-investigation-reveals/#comment-6582201907 |url-status=live }}</ref> === War crimes === {{Further|Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}} {{quote box|"The nature and extent of Assad's violence is strategic in design and effect. He is pursuing a [[state terrorism|strategy of terror]], [[siege]], and [[Ethnic cleansing|depopulation]] in key areas, calculating that winning back the loyalty of much of the [[Sunni]] middle class and underclass is highly unlikely and certainly not worth the resources and political capital. Better to level half the country than to give it over to the [[Syrian opposition|opposition]]." | source = — Emile Hokayem, Senior Fellow at [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2016 |last=Hokayem| first=Emile|title="Assad or We Burn the Country" |url=https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323074045/https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/assad-or-we-burn-the-country-misreading-sectarianism-and-the-regime-in-syria/ |archive-date=23 March 2022 |website=War on the rocks}}</ref> | align = right | width = 25em }} Numerous politicians, dissidents, authors and journalists have nicknamed Assad as the "butcher" of Syria for his war-crimes, [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]] sectarian mass-killings, [[Chemical warfare|chemical weapons attacks]] and [[ethnic cleansing]] campaigns.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holland |first=Jack |title=Selling War and Peace: Syria and the Anglosphere |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781108489249 |location=New York |page=211 |chapter=7: Proxy War}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dagher |first=Sam |title=Assad Or We Burn the Country: How One Family's Lust for Power Destroyed Syria |url=https://archive.org/details/assadorweburncou0000dagh |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-316-55670-5 |location=New York|chapter=15: Don't Stay with the Butcher}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tibi |first=Bassam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXAdAAAAQBAJ |title=The Shari'a State: Arab Spring and Democratization |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-66216-1 |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Warrick |first=Jobby |title=Red Line |url=https://archive.org/details/redlineunravelin0000warr |publisher=Doubleday |year=2021 |isbn=9780385544467 |location=New York}}</ref> The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] has stated that at least 10 European citizens were tortured by the Assad government while detained during the Syrian civil war, potentially leaving Assad open to prosecution by individual European countries for [[war crime]]s.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-12-15/us-says-europeans-tortured-by-assads-death-machine |title=U.S. says Europeans killed by Assad's death machine |work=Chicago Tribune |agency=Bloomberg News |first1=Josh |last1=Rogin |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413082059/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-12-15/us-says-europeans-tortured-by-assads-death-machine |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CNN sarin report" /> [[UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]] Navi Pillay stated in December 2013 that UN investigations directly implicated Bashar al-Assad guilty of [[crimes against humanity]] and pursuing an extermination strategy developed "at the highest level of government, including the [[President of Syria|head of state]]."<ref>{{cite news |date=2 December 2013 |title=UN implicates Bashar al-Assad in Syria war crimes |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25189834 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331104230/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25189834 |archive-date=31 March 2022}}</ref> [[Stephen Rapp]], the [[United States Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues|U.S. Ambassador-at-Large for War Crimes Issues]], stated in 2014 that the crimes committed by Assad are the worst seen since those of [[Nazi Germany]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/fbi-says-europeans-tortured-by-assad-regime |title=FBI says Europeans tortured by Assad regime |first1=Tamar |last1=Pileggi |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114063429/http://www.timesofisrael.com/fbi-says-europeans-tortured-by-assad-regime/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2015, Rapp further stated that the case against Assad is "much better" than those against [[Slobodan Milošević]] of Serbia or [[Charles Taylor (Liberian politician)|Charles Taylor]] of Liberia, both of whom were indicted by international tribunals.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-war-crimes-case-assad-milosevic-29542721 |title=US: War Crimes Case Vs. Assad Better Than One for Milosevic |work=ABC News |first1=Cara |last1=Anna |agency=Associated Press |date=11 March 2015 |access-date=11 March 2015 |archive-date=23 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323132342/http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/us-war-crimes-case-assad-milosevic-29542721 |url-status=live }}</ref> Charles Lister, Director of the Countering Terror and Extremism Program at [[Middle East Institute]], describes Bashar al-Assad as "21st century's biggest war criminal".<ref name="auto"/> [[File:Bombing_of_Darayya.png|thumb|240x240px|Bombing of [[Darayya]] suburb of [[Damascus]] by the [[Syrian Air Force|Syrian Arab Air Force]], 17 June 2016]] In a February 2015 interview with the [[BBC]], Assad dismissed accusations that the [[Syrian Arab Air Force]] used [[barrel bomb]]s as "childish", claiming that his forces have never used these types of "barrel" bombs and responded with a joke about not using "cooking pots" either.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.channel4.com/news/assad-syria-interview-bbc-barrel-bombs-facts-video |title='There are no barrel bombs': Assad's Syria 'facts' |publisher=Channel Four News |date=10 February 2015 |access-date=12 February 2015 |archive-date=12 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212212426/http://www.channel4.com/news/assad-syria-interview-bbc-barrel-bombs-facts-video |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''[[BBC]] Middle East'' editor conducting the interview, [[Jeremy Bowen]], later described Assad's statement regarding barrel bombs as "patently not true".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31438916 |title=What does Assad really think about Syria's civil war? |work=BBC News |date=15 February 2014 |access-date=15 February 2015 |last=Bowen |first=Jeremy |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215040413/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-31438916 |url-status=live }}</ref><!--The Syrian Arab Air Force's use of barrel bombs is well documented.--><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-04/what-are-barrel-bombs-and-why-syrian-military-using-them |title=What are 'barrel bombs' and why is the Syrian military using them? |publisher=PRI |date=4 February 2014 |access-date=14 February 2015 |last=Bell |first=Matthew |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215185404/http://www.pri.org/stories/2014-02-04/what-are-barrel-bombs-and-why-syrian-military-using-them |url-status=live }}</ref> As soon as [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war|demonstrations arose in 2011–2012]], Bashar al-Assad opted to implement the "[[Samson Option|Samson option]]", the characteristic approach of the [[Neo-ba'athist]] regime since the era of Hafez al-Assad; wherein protests were violently suppressed and demonstrators were shot and fired at directly by the armed forces. However, unlike Hafez; Bashar had even less loyalty and was politically fragile, exacerbated by alienation of the majority of the population. As a result, Bashar chose to crack down on dissent far more comprehensively and harshly than his father; and a mere allegation of collaboration was reason enough to get assassinated.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber|title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=29–38 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}</ref> [[Nadim Shehadi]], the director of [[The Fares Center for Eastern Mediterranean Studies]], stated that "In the early 1990s, Saddam Hussein was massacring his people and we were worried about the weapons inspectors," and claimed that "Assad did that too. He kept us busy with chemical weapons when he massacred his people."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Jun-11/301349-iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad.ashx |title=Iran spends billions to prop up Assad |publisher=TDA |agency=Bloomberg |date=11 June 2015 |access-date=11 June 2015 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517021040/http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Middle-East/2015/Jun-11/301349-iran-spends-billions-to-prop-up-assad.ashx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/06/19/a-damning-indictment-of-syrian-president-assad-s-systematic-massacres.html |title=A Damning Indictment of Syrian President Assad's Systematic Massacres |newspaper=The Daily Beast |last1=Dettmer |first1=Jamie |date=19 June 2015 |access-date=21 June 2015 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418223422/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/06/19/a-damning-indictment-of-syrian-president-assad-s-systematic-massacres.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Contrasting the policies of Hafez al-Assad and that of his son Bashar, former [[Vice President of Syria|Syrian vice-president]] and [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'athist]] dissident [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] states: <blockquote>"The Father had a mind and the Son has a loss of reason. How could the army use its force and the security apparatus with all its might to destroy Syria because of a protest against the mistakes of one of your security officials. The father would act differently. Father Hafez hit Hama after he encircled it, warned and then hit Hama after a long siege... But his son is different. On the subject of Daraa, Bashar gave instructions to open fire on the demonstrators."<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Ashraf Allam |author2=Salah Saber |title=Assad's Survival: The Symbol Of Resisting The Arab Spring |publisher=Lamar |year=2019 |isbn=978-977-85412-3-6 |location=Alexandria, Egypt |pages=33–34 |chapter=The domestic structure of the regime}}</ref></blockquote> Human rights organizations and criminal investigators have documented Assad's war crimes and sent it to the [[International Criminal Court]] for indictment.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nebehay |first1=Stephanie |date=10 June 2014 |title=Assad tops list of Syria war crimes suspects handed to ICC: former prosecutor |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0EL25020140610?irpc=932 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129194851/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/10/us-syria-crisis-warcrimes-idUSKBN0EL25020140610?irpc=932 |archive-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> Since Syria is not a party to the [[Rome Statute]], [[International Criminal Court]] requires authorization from the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] to send Bashar al-Assad to tribunal. As this gets consistently [[veto]]ed by Assad's primary backer [[Russia]], ICC prosecutions have not transpired. On the other hand, courts in various European countries have begun prosecuting and convicting senior Ba'ath party members, [[Syrian Armed Forces|Syrian military]] commanders and ''[[Mukhabarat]]'' officials charged with war crimes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Swart |first=Mia |date=15 March 2021 |title=National courts lead the way in prosecuting Syrian war crimes |work=Al Jazeera News |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/15/national-courts-lead-the-way-in-prosecuting-syrian-war-crimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303174028/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/15/national-courts-lead-the-way-in-prosecuting-syrian-war-crimes |archive-date=3 March 2022}}</ref> In September 2015, France began an inquiry into Assad for [[crimes against humanity]], with French Foreign Minister [[Laurent Fabius]] stating "Faced with these crimes that offend the human conscience, this bureaucracy of horror, faced with this denial of the values of humanity, it is our responsibility to act against the impunity of the killers".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/france-opens-war-crimes-inquiry-against-assad-regime-222026549.html |title=France opens probe into Assad regime for crimes against humanity |work=Yahoo News |agency=Agence France-Presse |last1=Talagrand |first1=Pauline |date=30 September 2015 |access-date=1 October 2015 |archive-date=30 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930084126/http://news.yahoo.com/france-opens-war-crimes-inquiry-against-assad-regime-222026549.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In February 2016, head of the UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria, [[Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro|Paulo Pinheiro]], told reporters: "The mass scale of deaths of detainees suggests that the government of Syria is responsible for acts that amount to extermination as a crime against humanity." The UN Commission reported finding "unimaginable abuses", including women and children as young as seven perishing while being held by Syrian authorities. The report also stated: "There are reasonable grounds to believe that high-ranking officers{{snd}}including the heads of branches and directorates{{snd}}commanding these detention facilities, those in charge of the military police, as well as their civilian superiors, knew of the vast number of deaths occurring in detention facilities ... yet did not take action to prevent abuse, investigate allegations or prosecute those responsible".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/un-probe-accuses-damascus-extermination-detainees-131405484.html |title=UN probe accuses Syria govt of 'exterminating' detainees |work=Yahoo News |agency=Agence France-Presse |last1=Larson |first1=Nina |date=8 February 2016 |access-date=11 February 2016 |archive-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160209093447/http://news.yahoo.com/un-probe-accuses-damascus-extermination-detainees-131405484.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2016, the [[United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs|U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs]] led by [[New Jersey]] Rep. [[Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)|Chris Smith]] called on the Obama administration to create a war crimes [[tribunal]] to investigate and prosecute violations "whether committed by the officials of the Government of Syria or other parties to the civil war".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/02/assad-war-crimes-russia-us-congress-persecution-cholera.html |title=Congress goes after Assad for war crimes |publisher=Al Monitor |last1=Pecquet |first1=Julian |date=1 March 2016 |access-date=1 March 2016 |archive-date=29 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229102201/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/02/assad-war-crimes-russia-us-congress-persecution-cholera.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2018, Germany's chief prosecutor issued an international arrest warrant for one of Assad's most senior military officials, [[Jamil Hassan]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/germany-seeks-arrest-of-leading-syrian-general-on-war-crimes-charges/2018/06/08/2fa025d0-6b21-11e8-a335-c4503d041eaf_story.html |title=Germany seeks arrest of leading Syrian general on war crimes charges |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=8 June 2018 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 June 2018 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163014/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/germany-seeks-arrest-of-leading-syrian-general-on-war-crimes-charges/2018/06/08/2fa025d0-6b21-11e8-a335-c4503d041eaf_story.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Hassan is the head of Syria's powerful [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate]]. Detention centers run by Air Force Intelligence are among the most notorious in Syria, and thousands are believed to have died because of [[torture]] or neglect. Charges filed against Hassan claim he had command responsibility over the facilities and therefore knew of the abuse. The move against Hassan marked an important milestone of prosecutors trying to bring senior members of Assad's inner circle to trial for war crimes. In an investigative report about the [[Tadamon Massacre]], Professors [[Uğur Ümit Üngör]] and Annsar Shahhoud, found witnesses who attested that Assad gave orders for the [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|Syrian Military Intelligence]] to direct the [[Shabiha]] to kill civilians.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/how-a-massacre-of-nearly-300-in-syria-was-revealed/ | title=How a Massacre of Nearly 300 in Syria Was Revealed | newspaper=New Lines Magazine | date=27 April 2022 | first1=Annsar | last1=Shahhoud | first2=Uğur | last2=Ümit Üngör | access-date=1 May 2022 | archive-date=27 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427195055/https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/how-a-massacre-of-nearly-300-in-syria-was-revealed/ | url-status=live }}</ref> === 2023–2024 arrest warrant and legal proceedings === On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Syrian President Bashar Assad over the use of banned chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |date=15 November 2023 |title=France issues arrest warrant for Syria's President Assad – source |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/france-issues-arrest-warrants-against-syrias-president-assad-source-2023-11-15/ |work=Reuters}}</ref> In May 2024, French anti-terrorism prosecutors requested the Paris appeals court to consider revoking Assad's arrest warrant, asserting his absolute immunity as a serving head of state.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last1=Surk |first1=Barbara |last2=Turnbull |first2=Alex |date=26 June 2024 |title=Paris court upholds validity of France's arrest warrant for Syrian President Bashar Assad |url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-france-assad-war-crimes-arrest-warrant-d64d25b39801dafdcbe031558b52b81b |work=Associated Press}}</ref> On 26 June 2024, the Paris appeals court determined that the international arrest warrant issued by France against Assad for alleged complicity in war crimes during the Syrian civil war remains valid. This decision was confirmed by attorneys involved in the case.<ref name=":3" /> According to the lawyers, this ruling marked the first instance where a national court acknowledged that the personal immunity of a serving head of state is not absolute, as reported by The Associated Press.<ref name=":3" /> ===Chemical attacks=== {{Main|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}} {{See also|Syria and weapons of mass destruction}} The [[Syrian Arab Armed Forces|Syrian military]] has deployed chemical warfare as a systematic military strategy in the [[Syrian civil war]], and is estimated to have committed over 300 [[Chemical warfare|chemical attacks]], targeting civilian populations throughout the course of the conflict.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=17 February 2019 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-military-linked-to-more-than-300-chemical-attacks-report-says/2019/02/16/c6e128de-31d4-11e9-ac6c-14eea99d5e24_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301032936/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-military-linked-to-more-than-300-chemical-attacks-report-says/2019/02/16/c6e128de-31d4-11e9-ac6c-14eea99d5e24_story.html |archive-date=1 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Michael |date=17 February 2019 |title=Syria used chemical weapons more than 300 times, researchers say |work=The Hill |url=https://thehill.com/policy/international/430414-syria-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-300-times-researchers-say/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219014216/https://thehill.com/policy/international/430414-syria-used-chemical-weapons-more-than-300-times-researchers-say/ |archive-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> Investigation conducted by the [[Global Public Policy Institute (GPPi)|GPPi]] research institute documented 336 confirmed attacks involving chemical weapons in Syria between 23 December 2012 and 18 January 2019. The study attributed 98% of the total verified chemical attacks to the Assad's regime. Almost 90% of the attacks had occurred after the [[Ghouta chemical attack]] in August 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Tobias Schneider |author2=Theresa Lutkefend |date=February 2019 |title=Nowhere to Hide: The Logic of Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |journal= |pages=1–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216060712/https://www.gppi.net/media/GPPi_Schneider_Luetkefend_2019_Nowhere_to_Hide_Web.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2022 |via=GPPi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lombardo |first=Clare |date=17 February 2019 |title=More Than 300 Chemical Attacks Launched During Syrian Civil War, Study Says |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107103943/https://www.npr.org/2019/02/17/695545252/more-than-300-chemical-attacks-launched-during-syrian-civil-war-study-says |archive-date=7 January 2023}}</ref> [[File:Ghouta massacre4 (cropped).JPG|thumb|Children killed by pro-[[Syrian military|Assad military forces]] in the Ghouta chemical attack, the deadliest [[chemical warfare|chemical weapons attack]] in the 21st century]] Syria joined the Chemical Weapons Convention and OPCW member state in October 2013, and there are currently three OPCW missions with UN mandates to investigate chemical weapons issues in Syria. These are the Declaration Assessment Team (DAT) to verify Syrian [[Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons|declarations of CW Programme]]; [[OPCW Fact-Finding Mission in Syria|OPCW Fact-Finding Mission]] (FFM) tasked to identify the chemical attacks and type of weapons used; and the Investigation and Identification Team (IIT) which investigates the perpetrators of the chemical attacks. The conclusions are submitted to the [[United Nations|United Nations bodies]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syria and the OPCW |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/featured-topics/opcw-and-syria#:~:text=As%20a%20result%20of%20a,completeness%20of%20Syria's%20declaration%20remain. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506165127/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/featured-topics/opcw-and-syria |archive-date=6 May 2023 |website=OPCW| date=27 January 2023 }}</ref> In April 2021, Syria was suspended from OPCW through the public vote of member states, for not co-operating with the body's Investigation Identification Team (IIT) and violating the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Corder |first=Mike |date=21 April 2021 |title=States suspend Syria's OPCW rights over chemical attacks |work=AP News |url=https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524194220/https://apnews.com/article/netherlands-chemical-weapons-damascus-the-hague-syria-ab2da467f4a4d9336010a141e5178276 |archive-date=24 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Conference of the States Parties adopts Decision to suspend certain rights and privileges of the Syrian Arab Republic under the CWC |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303125905/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2021/04/conference-states-parties-adopts-decision-suspend-certain-rights-and |archive-date=3 March 2022 |website=OPCW}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 April 2021 |title=Decision addressing the Possession and Use of Chemical Weapons by the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09%28e%29.pdf |journal= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319223356/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021/04/c25dec09(e).pdf |archive-date=19 March 2022 |via=OPCW}}</ref> Findings of another investigation report published the OPCW-IIT in July 2021 concluded that the Syrian regime had engaged in confirmed chemical attacks at least 17 times, out of the reported 77 chemical weapon attacks attributed to Assadist forces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2021 |title=OPCW Confirms Chemical Weapons Use in Syria |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401005907/https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2021-07/news-briefs/opcw-confirms-chemical-weapons-use-syria |archive-date=1 April 2022 |website=Arms Control Association}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=4 June 2021 |title=Syria has likely used chemical weapons 17 times: International chemical weapons watchdog |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606111350/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-has-likely-used-chemical-weapons-17-times-international-chemical-weapons-watchdog/article34724203.ece |archive-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> As of March 2023, independent United Nations inquiry commissions have confirmed at least nine chemical attacks committed by forces loyal to the [[Assad Government|Assad government]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 March 2023 |title=Security Council Deems Syria's Chemical Weapon's Declaration Incomplete |work=United Nations: Meetings Coverage and Press Releases |url=https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314022057/https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15220.doc.htm |archive-date=14 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 May 2023 |title=Fifth Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515121348/https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/fifth-review-conference-chemical-weapons-convention-eu-priorities-reinforce-convention_en |archive-date=15 May 2023 |website=European Union External Action}}</ref> [[File:2015-08-21 Gedenken am Ernst-August-Platz in Hannover an die Giftgas-Opfer von Ghouta in Syrien, (14).JPG|thumb|Members of the Syrian community in [[Hannover]] protest against Bashar al-Assad on the second anniversary of [[Ghouta chemical attacks]], 21 August 2015.]] The deadliest chemical attack have been the Ghouta chemical attacks, when Assad government forces launched the [[nerve agent]] [[sarin]] into civilian areas during its brutal [[Siege of Eastern Ghouta]] in early hours of 21 August 2013. Thousands of infected and dying victims flooded the nearby hospitals, showing symptoms such as foaming, body convulsions and other neurotoxic symptoms. An estimated 1,100–1,500 civilians; including women and children, are estimated to have been killed in the attacks.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ashraf |first=Sareta |date=22 August 2022 |title=Nine Years Since Ghouta: Reflecting on the Use of Chemical Weapons in Syria |url=https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/blog/nine-years-since-ghouta-chemical-weapons-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822152939/https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/blog/nine-years-since-ghouta-chemical-weapons-in-syria |archive-date=22 August 2022 |website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author1=Ben Hubbard |author2=Mark Mazzetti |author3=Mark Landler|date=26 August 2013 |title=Blasts in the Night, a Smell, and a Flood of Syrian Victims |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/world/middleeast/blasts-in-the-night-a-smell-and-a-flood-of-syrian-victims.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117184248/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/world/middleeast/blasts-in-the-night-a-smell-and-a-flood-of-syrian-victims.html |archive-date=17 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=10 September 2013 |title=Attacks on Ghouta |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/09/10/attacks-ghouta/analysis-alleged-use-chemical-weapons-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102104640/https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/09/10/attacks-ghouta/analysis-alleged-use-chemical-weapons-syria |archive-date=2 November 2022 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> The attack was internationally condemned and represented the deadliest use of chemical weapons since the [[Iran–Iraq War|Iran-Iraq war]].<ref>{{cite news |author=S.B. |date=21 August 2013 |title=Syria's war: If this isn't a red line, what is? |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |url-status=live |access-date=15 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220174814/http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/08/syria-s-war |archive-date=20 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=22 August 2013 |title=Syria gas attack: death toll at 1,400 worst since Halabja |url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825115627/http://www.theweek.co.uk/world-news/syria-uprising/54759/syria-gas-attack-death-toll-1400-worst-halabja |archive-date=25 August 2013 |access-date=24 August 2013 |work=The Week}}</ref> On 21 August 2022, United States government marked the ninth anniversary of Ghouta Chemical attacks stating: "[[United States]] remembers and honors the victims and survivors of the Ghouta attack and the many other chemical attacks we assess the Assad regime has launched. We condemn in the strongest possible terms any use of chemical weapons anywhere, by anyone, under any circumstances... The United States calls on the Assad regime to fully declare and destroy its [[Syria chemical weapons program|chemical weapons program]]... and for the regime to allow the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]]' Declaration Assessment Team."<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2022 |title=Ninth Anniversary of the Ghouta, Syria Chemical Weapons Attack |url=https://www.state.gov/ninth-anniversary-of-the-ghouta-syria-chemical-weapons-attack/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526194512/https://www.state.gov/ninth-anniversary-of-the-ghouta-syria-chemical-weapons-attack/ |archive-date=26 May 2023 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> In April 2017, a [[sarin]] [[Khan Shaykhun chemical attack|chemical attack on Khan Sheikhoun]] killed more than 80 people.{{sfn|Bronner|2007|p=63}}<ref>{{cite news |date=8 May 2014 |title=Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |page=23 |publisher=International Crisis Group |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=4 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220181554/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2016 |quote=The regime aims to compel people to take refuge in their sectarian and communitarian identities; to split each community into competing branches, dividing those who support it from those who oppose it}}</ref><ref name="Entous, Nissenbaum" /> In response, U.S. president [[Donald Trump]] ordered an [[2017 Shayrat missile strike|missile strike against the Syrian Shayrat base]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/05/middleeast/syria-airstrike-idlib-how-it-unfolded/index.html |title=Airstrike to US intervention: How attack unfolded |author1=Lauren Said-Moorhouse |author2=Sarah Tilotta |work=CNN|access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612165854/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/05/middleeast/syria-airstrike-idlib-how-it-unfolded/index.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="WhyWasSharyatAirbaseBombed">{{cite news |date=7 April 2017 |title=Syria war: Why was Shayrat airbase bombed? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39531045 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=30 April 2024 |archive-date=30 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430182855/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39531045 |url-status=live }}</ref> A joint report from the UN and international chemical weapons inspectors concluded that Assad regime perpetrated the sarin attack.<ref name="CNN sarin report">{{Cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/middleeast/syria-khan-sheikhoun-chemical-attack-sarin/index.html |title=UN: Syria responsible for sarin attack that killed scores |author1=Steve Almasy |author2=Richard Roth |work=CNN|access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612174315/https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/middleeast/syria-khan-sheikhoun-chemical-attack-sarin/index.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ReutersSyriaChemicalWeaponsKhanSheikhoun">{{cite news |last=Campos |first=Rodrigo |date=27 October 2017 |title=Syrian government to blame for April sarin attack: U.N. report |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1CV3GF/ |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=30 April 2024 |archive-date=24 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424151004/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN1CV3GF/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2018, a [[Douma chemical attack|chemical attack occurred in Douma]], prompting the U.S. and its allies to accuse Assad of violating international law and initiated joint [[2018 bombing of Damascus and Homs|missile strikes at chemical weapons facilities in Damascus and Homs]]. Both Syria and Russia denied involvement.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/un-syria-haley-chemical-weapons.html|title=U.S. Says Syria Has Used Chemical Weapons at Least 50 Times During War|work=The New York Times|date=13 April 2018|last1=Gladstone|first1=Rick|access-date=16 April 2018|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802140836/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/un-syria-haley-chemical-weapons.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Cooper|first1=Helene|last2=Gibbons-Neff|first2=Thomas|last3=Hubbard|first3=Ben|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/trump-strikes-syria-attack.html|title=U.S., Britain and France Strike Syria Over Suspected Chemical Weapons Attack|work=The New York Times|date=13 April 2018|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-date=14 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414012221/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/13/world/middleeast/trump-strikes-syria-attack.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The third report published on 27 January 2023 by the OPCW-IIT concluded that the Assad regime was responsible for the [[2018 Douma chemical attack]] which killed at least 43 civilians.{{Efn|Sources: * {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=OPCW Releases Third Report by Investigation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111421/https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2023/01/opcw-releases-third-report-investigation-and-identification-team |archive-date=27 January 2023}} * {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Third Report by the OPCW Investigation and Identification Team |url=https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023%28e%29.pdf |journal= |pages=2–139 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127111959/https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2023/01/s-2125-2023(e).pdf |archive-date=27 January 2023 |via=OPCW}} * {{Cite web |date=27 January 2023 |title=Joint Statement on OPCW Report Finding Syrian Regime Responsible for Chemical Weapons Attack in Douma, Syria on April 7, 2018 |url=https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128024629/https://www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-opcw-report-finding-syrian-regime-responsible-for-chemical-weapons-attack-in-douma-syria-on-april-7-2018/ |archive-date=28 January 2023 |website=U.S Department of State}} * {{Cite news |date=27 January 2023 |title=OPCW blames Syria gov't for 2018 chlorine gas attack in Douma |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/1/27/opcw-blames-syria-government-forces-for-2018-douma-chlorine-gas-attack}} * {{Cite news |date=27 January 2023 |title=Watchdog blames Syria for 2018 Douma chemical attack |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128025152/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64424831 |archive-date=28 January 2023}} * {{Cite news |last=Chulov |first=Martin |date=27 January 2023 |title=Syrian regime found responsible for Douma chemical attack |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127200237/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/27/syrian-regime-found-responsible-for-douma-chemical-weapons-attack |archive-date=27 January 2023}} * {{Cite news |last=Loveluck |first=Louisa |date=27 January 2023 |title=Syrian army responsible for Douma chemical weapons attack, watchdog confirms |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/27/syria-chemical-weapons-douma-opcw/}}}} === Comments on the Holocaust === {{See also|Holocaust denial}} In a speech delivered at the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]]'s central committee meeting in December 2023, Bashar al-Assad claimed that there was "no evidence" of the killings of six million Jews during [[the Holocaust]]. Emphasizing that Jews were not the sole [[Holocaust victims|victims of Nazi extermination campaigns]], Assad alleged that the Holocaust was "politicized" by [[Allied Powers (World War II)|Allied powers]] to facilitate the mass-deportation of [[European Jews]] to Palestine, and that it was used as an excuse to justify the creation of Israel. Assad also accused the U.S. government of financially and militarily sponsoring the [[rise of Nazism]] during the [[Interwar period|inter-war period]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Silkoff |first=Shira |date=20 December 2023 |title=Syria's Assad claims Holocaust was a lie fabricated to justify creation of Israel |work=The Times of Israel |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrias-assad-claims-holocaust-was-a-lie-fabricated-to-justify-creation-of-israel/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220150406/https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrias-assad-claims-holocaust-was-a-lie-fabricated-to-justify-creation-of-israel/ |archive-date=20 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=20 December 2023 |title=Syrian President Assad denies Holocaust and accuses U.S. of funding Nazis in controversial speech |work=i24news |url=https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy/1703081866-syrian-president-assad-denies-holocaust-and-accuses-u-s-of-funding-nazis-in-controversial-speech |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220142407/https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/diplomacy/1703081866-syrian-president-assad-denies-holocaust-and-accuses-u-s-of-funding-nazis-in-controversial-speech |archive-date=20 December 2023}}</ref> ==Public image== === Domestic opposition and support === {{Further|Syrian opposition}} [[File:Syrian_Civil_War_map_(March_15_2013).svg|thumb|[[Syrian opposition]] in March 2013]] The secular resistance to Assad rule is mainly represented by the [[Syrian National Council]] and [[National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces]], two political bodies that constitute a coalition of [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] and [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[Conservatism|conservative]] factions of the [[Syrian opposition]]. Military commanders and civilian leaders of [[Free Syrian Army]] militias are represented in these councils. The coalition represents the political wing of the [[Syrian Interim Government]] and seeks the [[democratic transition]] of Syria through grass-roots activism, protests and armed [[Resistance movement|resistance]] to overthrow the Ba'athist dictatorship.<ref name="nahex">{{cite web |date=31 May 2013 |title=Syria Opposition Expands, Closes Meeting |url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/85113-syria-opposition-expands-closes-meeting |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625042548/http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/85113-syria-opposition-expands-closes-meeting |archive-date=25 June 2013 |work=Naharnet}}</ref><ref name="cnn">{{cite news|date=23 August 2011 |title=Syrian activists form a 'national council' |work=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/23/syria.un.resolution/index.html?eref=mrss_igoogle_cnn |url-status=live |access-date=24 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107012915/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/23/syria.un.resolution/index.html?eref=mrss_igoogle_cnn |archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sayigh |first=Yezid |date=April 2013 |title=The Syrian Opposition's Leadership Problem |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf|location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |pages=1–31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916020532/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/syrian_leaderiship_problem.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2022}}</ref> A less influential faction within the Syrian opposition is the [[National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change]] (NCC), a coalition of [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] [[Socialism|socialist]] parties that seek to end the rule of [[Al-Assad family|Assad family]] but without [[Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war|foreign involvement]]. Established in June 2011, major parties in the NCC coalition are the [[Democratic Arab Socialist Union]], [[Syrian Democratic People's Party]] and the [[Communist Labour Party (Syria)|Communist Labour Party]].<ref name="Guide to the Syrian opposition">{{Cite news |date=17 October 2013 |title=Guide to the Syrian opposition |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15798218 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104105606/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-15798218 |archive-date=4 January 2023}}</ref> [[National Democratic Rally (Syria)|National Democratic Rally]] (NDR) was an older left-wing opposition coalition of [[Socialism|socialist]] parties formed in 1980, but banned by the Baathist government. NDR was active during the nationwide protests of the 1980s and the [[Damascus Spring]] of the 2000s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daher |first=Joseph |date=30 October 2020 |title=Syria's Labor Communist Party, a rich political history |url=https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104175433/https://syriauntold.com/2020/10/30/syrias-labor-communist-party-a-rich-political-history-2/ |archive-date=4 January 2023 |website=Syria Untold}}</ref> During the early years of the civil war, the [[Druze in Syria]] primarily sought to remain neutral, "seeking to stay out of the conflict". [[Druze-Israeli]] politician Majalli Wahabi claimed in 2016 that over half support the Assad government despite its relative weakness in Druze areas.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Druse-ex-MK-Syrian-brethren-not-abandoned-by-Assad-441879 |title=Druse ex-MK: Syrian brethren not abandoned by Assad |date=21 January 2016 |work=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref> The "Sheikhs of Dignity" movement, which had sought to remain neutral and to defend Druze areas,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/features/2015/2/7/the-neutral-druze-sheikh-angering-syrias-regime |title=The 'neutral' Druze sheikh angering Syria's regime |publisher=The New Arab |date=7 February 2015 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> blamed the government after its leader [[Sheikh Wahid al-Balous]] was assassinated and organized large scale protests which left six government security personnel dead.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/six-syria-regime-loyalists-killed-after-druze-cleric-assassinated/ |title=Six Syria regime loyalists killed after Druze cleric assassinated |work=The Times of Israel |agency=AFP and AP |date=5 September 2015 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> Druze community became fervently opposed to the Assad government over time and has been vocal about its opposition to increasing Iranian interference in Syria.<ref name="Abdulhamid">{{Cite journal |last=Abdulhamid |first=Ammar |date=5 February 2024 |title=The Syrian Conflict |url=https://www.cjlpa.org/post/the-syrian-conflict-the-myth-of-containment-and-the-realities-of-accountability |journal=The Cambridge Journal of Law, Politics, and Art |via=cjlpa.org}}</ref> In August 2023, mass protests against Assad regime erupted in the Druze-majority city of [[As-Suwayda|Suweida]],<ref>{{cite web |date=17 August 2023 |title=Protests in southern Syria as economy worsens |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/08/protests-southern-syria-economy-worsens |access-date=29 August 2023 |website=Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East}}</ref><ref name="Sinjab">{{Cite news |last=Sinjab |first=Lina |date=24 August 2023 |title=Syria: Protests over growing economic hardship spread in south |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825090905/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-66607118 |archive-date=25 August 2023 |access-date=26 August 2023 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> which eventually spread to other [[Southern Syria protests (2023 – present)|regions of Southern Syria]].<ref name="Sinjab"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 August 2023 |title=Syria Protests Spurred by Economic Misery Stir Memories of the 2011 Anti-Government Uprising |url=https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829122111/https://english.aawsat.com/features/4514386-syria-protests-spurred-economic-misery-stir-memories-2011-anti-government-uprising |archive-date=29 August 2023 |work=Asharq al-Awsat}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=al-Mahmoud |first=Hussam |date=12 February 2024 |title=Six months into As-Suwayda uprising, What is the future of street protests? |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212161419/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/02/six-months-into-as-suwayda-uprising-what-is-the-future-of-street-protests/ |archive-date=12 February 2024 |work=Enab Baladi}}</ref> Druze cleric Hikmat al-Hajiri, religious leader of Syrian Druze community, has declared war against "Iranian invasion of the country".<ref name="Abdulhamid"/> Syrian [[Sufism|Sufi]] scholar [[Muhammad al-Yaqoubi]], a fervent opponent of both the Ba'athist regime and [[Islamic State]] group, has described Assad's rule as a "reign of terror" that wreaked havoc and enormous misery on the Syrian populace.<ref>{{Cite news |last=al-Yaqoubi |first=Muhammad |date=5 December 2014 |title=To defeat the Islamic State we must first remove Bashar al-Assad |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816235657/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/defeating-the-islamic-state-requires-first-ousting-bashar-al-assad/2014/12/05/8097b9f8-7c05-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html |archive-date=16 August 2022}}</ref> The regime's support base consisted of [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] loyalists who dominate Syrian politics, [[trade union]]s, youth organizations, [[Students' union|students unions]], [[bureaucracy]] and [[Syrian Armed Forces|armed forces]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Awad |first=Ziad |title=The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks |date= 2023 |publisher=European University Institute |isbn=978-92-9466-358-0 |location=San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy |pages=5–20 |doi=10.2870/52247 |issue=1}}</ref> [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath party]] institutions and its political activities form the "vital pillars of regime survival". Family networks of politicians in the Ba'ath party-led [[National Progressive Front (Syria)|National Progressive Front]] (NPF) and businessmen loyal to the Assad family form another pole of support. Electoral listing is supervised by Ba'ath party leadership which expels candidates not deemed "sufficiently loyal".<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Carl Yonker |author2=Christopher Solomon |title=The Banality of Authoritarian Control: Syria's Ba'ath Party Marches On |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83906 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202101520/https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83906 |archive-date=2 December 2022 |website=carnegieendowment.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Al-Assad: The Presidency That Never Ends |url=https://crd.org/al-assad/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226152530/https://crd.org/al-assad/ |archive-date=26 February 2023 |website=[[Civil Rights Defenders]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Awad |first=Ziad |title=The 2022 Syrian Local Elections: A Leadership Rooted in Regime Networks |year=2023 |publisher=European University Institute |isbn=978-92-9466-358-0 |location= San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) Italy |pages=5–20 |doi=10.2870/52247 |issue=1}}</ref> Although it has been reported at various stages of the Syrian civil war that [[Religion in Syria|religious minorities]] such as the [[Alawites]] and [[Christianity in Syria|Christians in Syria]] favour the Assad government because of its secularism,<ref>"[http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast Loyalty to Assad runs deep on Syrian coast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627151953/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0122/Loyalty-to-Assad-runs-deep-on-Syrian-coast|date=27 June 2015}}". ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]''. 22 January 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/ |title=Syria's Christians stand by Assad |work=[[CBS News]] |date=6 February 2012 |access-date=13 January 2016 |archive-date=11 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111004508/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-57372175-503543/syrias-christians-stand-by-assad/ |url-status=live }}</ref> opposition exists among [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] Christians who have claimed that the Assad government seeks to use them as "puppets" and deny their distinct ethnicity, which is non-Arab.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/culture/a-glifmpse-into-the-world-of-syrias-christian-sutoro-fighters-video_24956 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150407135145/http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/culture/a-glifmpse-into-the-world-of-syrias-christian-sutoro-fighters-video_24956 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 April 2015 |last=Ahmad |first=Rozh |title=A glimpse into the world of Syria's Christian "Sutoro" fighters (video) |publisher=Your Middle East |date=23 September 2014 |access-date=17 March 2015 |quote=The regime wants us to be puppets, deny our ethnicity and demand an Arab-only state. }}</ref> Although Syria's [[Alawites|Alawite]] community forms Bashar al-Assad's core support base and dominate the [[Syrian Military|military]] and [[Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)|security apparatus]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/10/20111010122434671982.html |title=Assad's Alawites: The guardians of the throne |first=Nir |last=Rosen |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941 Syria's Alawites: The People Behind Assad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226142611/https://www.wsj.com/articles/syrias-alawites-the-people-behind-assad-1435166941 |date=26 February 2017 }} ''The Wall Street Journal'', 25 June 2015.</ref> in April 2016, [[BBC News]] reported that Alawite leaders released a document seeking to distance themselves from Assad.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-35941679 |title=Syrian Alawites distance themselves from Assad |work=BBC News |last=Wyatt |first=Caroline |date=4 April 2016 |access-date=10 April 2016}}</ref> [[File:Syrian Civil War map (November 24, 2023).svg|thumb|Military situation, November 2023 – November 2024]] [[Kurdish Supreme Committee]] was a coalition of 13 Kurdish political parties opposed to Assad regime. Before its dissolution in 2015, the committee consisted of [[Kurdish National Council|KNC]] and [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|PYD]].<ref name="Guide to the Syrian opposition"/> [[Circassians in Syria]] have also become strong opponents of the regime as Ba'athist crackdowns and massacres across Syria intensified viciously; and members of Circassian ethnic minority have attempted to escape Syria, fearing persecution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8135-6068-7 |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |page=170 |chapter=8: The Road to Sochi}}</ref> In 2014, the Christian [[Syriac Military Council]], the largest Christian organization in Syria, allied with the Free Syrian Army opposed to Assad,<ref name="SyriacMilitaryCouncil">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/25/world/meast/us-syria-rebel-agreement/ |last1=Bronstein |first1=Scott |last2=Griffin |first2=Drew |title=Syrian rebel groups unite to fight ISIS |work=CNN|date=26 September 2014 |access-date=1 October 2014 |quote=Under the agreement, moderate Muslim rebel groups fighting under the Supreme Military Council of Syria agreed to form an alliance with the predominantly Christian Syriac Military Council.}}</ref> joining other Syrian Christian militias such as the [[Sutoro]] who had joined the Syrian opposition against the Assad government.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/12/21/syria-christian-islamic-state/18915275 |title=Remaining Christians in Syria fight to save their land |work=USA Today |first1=Sophie |last1=Cousins |date=22 December 2014 |access-date=9 March 2015}}</ref> [[Abu Mohammad al-Julani]], commander of the [[Tahrir al-Sham]] rebel militia, condemned Assad regime for converting Syria "into an ongoing earthquake the past 12 years", in the context of the [[2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes]].<ref>{{Cite news |author1=Ruth Michaelson |author2=Lorenzo Tondo |date=13 February 2023 |title=Syrian rebel leader pleads for outside help a week on from earthquakes |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214012142/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/13/syria-earthquake-rebel-leader-pleas-for-outside-help |archive-date=14 February 2023}}</ref> "In June 2014, Assad won a disputed [[2014 Syrian presidential election|presidential election]] held in government-controlled areas (and boycotted in opposition-held areas<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/03/syria-presidential-electi_n_5435706.html |title=Syria's 2014 Presidential Election Ignored in Opposition-Held Areas |work=HuffPost |date=2 August 2014 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> and Kurdish areas governed by the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]]<ref>{{cite news |author=Wladimir van Wilgenburg |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html |title=Syria's Kurdish region to boycott presidential elections |work=Al-Monitor |access-date=8 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607230545/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/06/syria-kurds-assad-presidential-elections-pyd.html |archive-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>) with 88.7% of the vote. Turnout was estimated to be 73.42% of eligible voters, including those in rebel-controlled areas.<ref>{{cite news |date=4 June 2014 |title=Supreme Constitutional Court: Number of participants in Presidential elections reached at 11.634.412 with 73.42% |url=http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm |agency=Syrian Arab News Agency |location=Damascus |access-date=4 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607000918/http://sana.sy/eng/393/2014/06/04/548612.htm |archive-date=7 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The regime's electoral commission also disqualified millions of Syrian citizens displaced outside the country from voting.<ref>{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Dominic |date=28 April 2014 |title=Assad seeks re-election as Syrian civil war rages |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428 |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104163541/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-assad-idUKKBN0DE0UY20140428 |archive-date=4 January 2023}}</ref> Independent observers and academic scholarship unanimously describe the event as a [[sham election]] organized to legitimise Assad's rule.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cheeseman |first=Nicholas |title=How to Rig an Election |date=2019 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24665-0 |pages=140–141 |oclc=1089560229}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Norris |first1=Pippa |last2=Martinez i Coma |first2=Ferran |last3=Grömping |first3=Max |date=2015 |title=The Year in Elections, 2014 |url=https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015 |journal=Election Integrity Project |language=en |quote=The Syrian election ranked as worst among all the contests held during 2014. |access-date=21 May 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415091339/https://sites.google.com/site/electoralintegrityproject4/projects/expert-survey-2/the-year-in-elections-2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Mark P. |date=2018 |editor1-last=Herron |editor1-first=Erik S |editor2-last=Pekkanen |editor2-first=Robert J |editor3-last=Shugart |editor3-first=Matthew S |title=Presidential and Legislative Elections |url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190258658-e-23 |access-date=21 May 2020 |website=The Oxford Handbook of Electoral Systems |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001 |isbn=978-0190258658 |quote="unanimous agreement among serious scholars that... al-Assad's 2014 election... occurred within an authoritarian context."}}</ref> In his inauguration ceremony, Bashar denounced the opposition as "terrorists" and "traitors"; while attacking the [[Western world|West]] for backing what he described as the "fake [[Arab Spring|Arab spring]]".<ref>{{cite news |last=Makdisi |first=Marwan |date=16 July 2014 |title=Confident Assad launches new term in stronger position |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717 |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903040841/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-assad-idUSKBN0FL0NN20140717 |archive-date=3 September 2017}}</ref> ''[[The Times of Israel|Times of Israel]]'' reported that although various individuals interviewed in a "Sunni-dominated, middle-class neighborhood of central Damascus" exhibited fealty for Assad; it was not possible to discern the actual support for the regime due to the ubiquitous influence of the [[Syrian intelligence|secret police]] in the society.<ref>"[https://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/ Syria's Assad reelected with 88.7% of vote] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126192515/http://www.timesofisrael.com/assad-wins-syria-presidency-with-88-7-of-vote/|date=26 January 2016}}". [[The Times of Israel]]. 4 June 2014.</ref> Ba'athist dissident [[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] who had served as [[Vice President of Syria|Syrian Vice President]] during the tenures of both Hafez and Bashar, disparaged Bashar al-Assad as a pawn in Iran's [[Shia crescent|imperial scheme]]. Contrasting the power dynamics that existed under both the autocrats, Khaddam stated: <blockquote>"[Bashar] is not like his father.. He never allowed the Iranians to intervene in Syrian affairs.. During Hafez Assad's time, an Iranian delegation arrived in Syria and attempted to convert some of the Muslim Alawite Syrians to Shia Islam... Assad ordered his minister of foreign Affairs to summon the Iranian ambassador to deliver an ultimatum: The delegation has 24 hours to exit Syria.... They had no power [during Hafez's rule], unlike Bashar who gave them [Iranians] power and control."<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2017 |title=Interview with Former Syrian Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam |url=https://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005013940/http://newsweekme.com/exclusive-interview-former-syrian-vice-president-abdul-halim-khaddam/ |archive-date=5 October 2016 |website=NewsWeek}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 October 2016 |title=Daesh was nurtured by Iran, says former Syrian vice president |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006075951/http://www.arabnews.com/node/994396/middle-east |archive-date=6 October 2016 |website=Arab News}}</ref></blockquote> === International opposition === [[File:Manifestation_pro_révolution_syrienne_contre_Assad_et_Poutine_-_Paris,_14-12-2016-5.jpg|thumb|Anti-Assad demonstrations held in [[Paris]], 14 December 2016]] Foreign journalists and political observers who travelled to Syria have described it as the most "ruthless [[police state]]" in the [[Arab world|Arab World]]. Assad's violent repression of [[Damascus Spring]] of the early 2000s and the publication of a UN report that implicated him in the [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri|assassination]] of [[Lebanese Prime Minister]] [[Rafic Hariri]], exacerbated Syria's [[Post–Cold War era|post-Cold War]] isolation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowen |first=Jeremy |title=The Arab Uprisings: The People Want the Fall of the Regime |url=https://archive.org/details/arabuprisingspeo0000bowe |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1471129827 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/arabuprisingspeo0000bowe/page/14 14], 15, 118 |chapter=Prologue: Before the Spring}}</ref><ref name="Fisher">{{Cite news |last=Fisher |first=Marc |date=16 June 2012 |title=Syria's Assad has embraced pariah status |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618133455/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-assad-has-embraced-pariah-status/2012/06/16/gJQAsY9shV_story.html |archive-date=18 June 2012}}</ref> Following global outrage against Assad regime's deadly crackdown on the [[Arab Spring|Arab Spring protestors]] which led to the Syrian civil war, [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth policy]] against the civilian populations resulting in more than half a million deaths, [[mass murder]]s and systematic deployment of [[chemical warfare]] throughout the conflict; Bashar al-Assad became an international [[Pariah state|pariah]] and numerous world leaders have urged him to resign.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jung|last3=Beck|last2=Seeberg |first1=Dietrich|first3=Martin|first2=Peter |title=The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-57628-9 |location= New York|pages=101–102 |chapter=5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant}}</ref><ref name="Fisher"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Hamzah |date=24 November 2021 |title=Focus on Pariah Leaders: Bashar al-Assad |url=https://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208152331/http://blogs.shu.edu/thediplomaticenvoy/2021/11/24/focus-on-pariah-leaders-bashar-al-assad/ |archive-date=8 December 2022 |website=The Diplomatic Envoy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=C. Tucker |first=Spencer |title=U.S Conflicts in The 21st Centiry (Volume 1) |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4408-3878-1 |location=Santa Barbara, California |pages=834, 835}}</ref> Since 2011, Bashar al-Assad has lost recognition from several international organizations such as the [[Arab League]] (in 2011),<ref name="NYT Arab League">{{cite news |last=MacFarquhar |first=Neil |date=12 November 2011 |title=Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref> [[Union for the Mediterranean]] (in 2011)<ref>{{cite news |date=1 December 2012 |title=Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union |publisher=Xinhua News Agency |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206201635/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm |archive-date=6 December 2011}}</ref> and [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|Organization of Islamic Co-operation]] (in 2012).<ref name="CNN OIC">{{cite news |date=14 August 2012 |title=Regional group votes to suspend Syria; rebels claim downing of jet |work=CNN|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/13/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t1 |access-date=14 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=16 August 2012 |title=OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown |work=RFE/RL |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208075035/https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html |archive-date=8 February 2023}}</ref> [[United States]], [[European Union]], [[Turkey]], [[Arab League]] and various countries began enforcing broad sets of sanctions against Syrian regime from 2011, with the objective of forcing Assad to resign and assist in a political solution to the crisis.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jung|last3=Beck|last2=Seeberg |first1=Dietrich|first3=Martin|first2=Peter |title=The Levant in Turmoil: Syria, Palestine, and the Transformation of Middle Eastern Politics |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-349-57628-9 |location=New York |pages=101–122 |chapter=5: The Crisis in Syria, International and Regional Sanctions, and the Transformation of the Political Order in the Levant}}</ref> International bodies have criticized one-sided elections organized by Assad government during the conflict. In the 2014 London conference of countries of the [[Friends of Syria Group|Friends of Syria group]], [[Foreign Secretary|British Foreign Secretary]] [[William Hague]] characterized Syrian elections as a "parody of democracy" and denounced the regime's "utter disregard for human life" for perpetrating [[War crime|war-crimes]] and [[State terrorism|state-terror]] on the [[Syrians|Syrian population]].<ref>{{cite news |date=15 May 2014 |title=UK's William Hague attacks Assad's Syria elections plan |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |access-date=13 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026161021/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27419552 |archive-date=26 October 2022}}</ref> Assad's policy of holding elections under the circumstances of an ongoing civil war were also rebuked by the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|UN Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]].<ref name="UN">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSBREA3K0ST20140421?irpc=932 |title=Syrian election will undermine political solution: U.N.'s Ban |work=Reuters |date=21 April 2014 |access-date=2 February 2016}}</ref> [[File:Ted_Kaufman_with_al-Assad.jpg|thumb|Assad meets with U.S. Senator [[Ted Kaufman]] in 2009]] [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] suspended all relations with Syria following Bashar al-Assad's [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia]], condemning his government as a "Russian-manipulated regime" that supported [[Russian-occupied territories in Georgia|Russian occupation]] and "[[ethnic cleansing]]".{{Efn|Sources:<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 May 2018 |title=US Condemns Syria for Recognizing Georgia's Breakaway Regions |work=[[Voice of America]] |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323062308/https://www.voanews.com/a/us-condemns-syria-for-recognizing-georgia-s-breakaway-regions/4416097.html |archive-date=23 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="Deutsche Welle"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=29 May 2018 |title=Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-date=30 May 2018 |website=rferl.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 May 2018 |title=Syria recognises Russian-backed Georgia regions |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529144450/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-44291091 |archive-date=29 May 2018}}</ref>}} Following Assad's strong backing of [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] and recognition of the breakaway separatist republics, [[Ukraine]] cut off all diplomatic relations with Syria in June 2022. Describing Assad's policies as "worthless", [[Ukrainian President]] [[Volodimir Zelensky]] pledged to expand further [[sanctions against Syria]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 June 2022 |title=Ukraine's Zelenskyy cuts ties with Syria after it recognized separatist republics |work=[[Al Arabiya]] |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630120322/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2022/06/30/Ukraine-s-Zelenskyy-cuts-ties-with-Syria-after-it-recognized-separatist-republics |archive-date=30 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2022 |title=Ukraine Cuts Diplomatic Ties With Syria After It Recognizes Eastern Regions As Independent |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701050748/https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-syria-diplomatic-ties-russia-assad/31922447.html |archive-date=1 July 2022 |website=rferl.org}}</ref> In March 2023, [[National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine]] put into effect a range of sanctions targeting 141 firms and 300 individuals linked to Assad regime, Russian weapons manufacturers and Iranian dronemakers. This was days after Assad's visit to [[Moscow]], wherein he justified [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] as a fight against "old and new Nazis". Bashar al-Assad, Prime Minister [[Hussein Arnous]] and Foreign Minister [[Faisal Mekdad|Faisal Mikdad]] were amongst the individuals who were sanctioned.{{Efn|<ref name="rferl.org"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Zelensky imposes sanctions against Syrian dictator Bashar Al-Assad, other officials |work=The Kyiv Independent |url=https://kyivindependent.com/news-feed/zelensky-imposes-sanctions-against-syrian-dictator-bashar-al-assad-other-officials |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318134326/https://kyivindependent.com/news-feed/zelensky-imposes-sanctions-against-syrian-dictator-bashar-al-assad-other-officials |archive-date=18 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 March 2023 |title=Decree of the President of Ukraine No. 163/2023 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1632023-46149 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319043836/https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1632023-46149 |archive-date=19 March 2023 |website=Office of the President of Ukraine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Zelenskyy introduces sanctions against Syria's Assad |work=[[Anadolu Agency]] |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/russia-ukraine-war/zelenskyy-introduces-sanctions-against-syrias-assad/2849658 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318212055/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/russia-ukraine-war/zelenskyy-introduces-sanctions-against-syrias-assad/2849658 |archive-date=18 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="The New Arab">{{Cite news |date=19 March 2023 |title=Ukraine's Zelensky imposes sanctions on Syria's Assad, other officials |work=[[The New Arab]] |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/ukraines-zelensky-imposes-sanctions-syrias-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320201806/https://www.newarab.com/news/ukraines-zelensky-imposes-sanctions-syrias-assad |archive-date=20 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 March 2023 |title=Ukraine sanctions Syrian dictator Assad, hundreds of other individuals and entities |work=TVP World |url=https://tvpworld.com/68572144/ukraine-sanctions-syrian-dictator-assad-hundreds-of-other-individuals-and-entities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319121913/https://tvpworld.com/68572144/ukraine-sanctions-syrian-dictator-assad-hundreds-of-other-individuals-and-entities |archive-date=19 March 2023}}</ref>}} Sanctions also involved freezing of all Syrian state properties in Ukraine, curtailment of monetary transactions, termination of economic commitments and recision of all official Ukrainian awards.<ref name="The New Arab"/> Syria formally broke its diplomatic ties to Ukraine on 20 July, citing the [[Reciprocity (international relations)|principle of reciprocity]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 July 2022 |title=Syria, a close Russia ally, breaks diplomatic ties with Ukraine |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/7/20/syria-formally-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-ukraine}}</ref> [[File:Rückschrittskoalition_stoppen_protest_and_protest_against_Assad_in_Berlin_2023-03-18_01_(cropped)3.jpg|thumb|Anti-Assad demonstrations in [[Berlin]], 18 March 2023]] In April 2023, a French court declared three high-ranking Ba'athist security officials guilty of [[crimes against humanity]], [[torture]], and various war-crimes against French-Syrian citizens. These included [[Ali Mamlouk]], director of [[National Security Bureau of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|National Security Bureau of Syrian Ba'ath party]] and [[Jamil Hassan]], former head of the [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate|Syrian Air Force Intelligence Directorate]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 April 2023 |title=France to try senior Assad allies for crimes against humanity in Syria |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230404-france-to-try-senior-assad-allies-for-crimes-against-humanity-in-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405004515/https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20230404-france-to-try-senior-assad-allies-for-crimes-against-humanity-in-syria |archive-date=5 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 April 2023 |title=France to try Syrian regime officials for crimes against humanity |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/5/france-to-try-syrian-regime-officials-for-crimes-against-humanity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415214212/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/5/france-to-try-syrian-regime-officials-for-crimes-against-humanity |archive-date=15 April 2023}}</ref> France had issued [[international arrest warrant]]s against the three officers over the case in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jarry |first=Emmanuel |date=5 November 2018 |title=France issues arrest warrants for senior Syrian officials |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-france/france-issues-arrest-warrants-for-senior-syrian-officials-idUSKCN1NA11L |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406162922/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-france/france-issues-arrest-warrants-for-senior-syrian-officials-idUSKCN1NA11L |archive-date=6 April 2023}}</ref> In May 2023, [[French Foreign Minister]] Catherine Colonna publicly demanded the prosecution of Bashar al-Assad for engaging in [[Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war|chemical warfare]] and killing [[Casualties of the Syrian civil war|hundreds of thousands of people]]; branding him as "the enemy of his own people".<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 May 2023 |title=Syria's Assad should be put on trial, says French foreign minister |work=France 24 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230523-syria-s-assad-should-be-put-on-trial-says-french-foreign-minister |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524023150/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230523-syria-s-assad-should-be-put-on-trial-says-french-foreign-minister |archive-date=24 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23 May 2023 |title=French minister demands Assad trial |work=Daily Tribune |url=https://tribune.net.ph/2023/05/24/french-minister-demands-assad-trial/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524013433/https://tribune.net.ph/2023/05/24/french-minister-demands-assad-trial/ |archive-date=24 May 2023}}</ref> On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Assad for use of chemical weapons against civilians in Syria.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Left-wing ==== [[File:Madrid - Acampada Sol 2011 39.JPG|thumb|Billboards of the [[Anti-austerity movement in Spain|Spanish Indignados Movement]] with denouncements of Bashar al-Assad's crackdown against [[Syrian revolution]] in [[Puerta del Sol]] square, [[Madrid]] (29 May 2011)]] Bashar al-Assad is widely criticised by left-wing activists and intellectuals world-wide for appropriating leftist ideologies and its [[socialist]], [[Progressivism|progressive]] slogans as a cover for his own family rule and to empower a loyalist clique of elites at the expense of ordinary Syrians. His close alliance with clergy-ruled [[Khomeinism|Khomeinist]] [[Iran]] and its sectarian militant networks; while simultaneously pursuing a policy of locking up left-wing critics of [[Al-Assad family|Assad family]] has been subject to heavy criticism.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harkin |first=Juliette |date=1 May 2018 |title='Assadism' Is Destroying Syria – Here's Where It Came From |url=https://thewire.in/world/assadism-is-destroying-syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410213629/https://thewire.in/world/assadism-is-destroying-syria |archive-date=10 April 2021 |website=The Wire}}</ref> The [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region|Egyptian branch]] of the [[Iraqi Ba'ath movement]] has declared its strong support to the [[2011 Syrian Revolution|Syrian revolution]]; denouncing Ba'athist Syria as a repressive dictatorship controlled by the "Assad gang". It has attacked Assad family's Ba'athist credentials, accusing the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Ba'ath party]] of acting as the borderguards of [[Israel]] ever since its overthrowal of the [[National Command of the Ba'ath Party|Ba'athist National Command]] during the [[1966 Syrian coup d'état|1966 coup d'état]]. Describing Bashar al-Assad as a disgraceful person for inviting hostile powers like [[Iran]] to Syria, Egyptian Ba'athists have urged the [[Free Syrian Army|Syrian revolutionaries]] to unite in their efforts to overthrow the Assad regime and resist foreign imperialism.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 May 2013 |title=The statement of the Arab Baath Socialist Party of Egyptian on the aggression against Syria |url=http://www.aladhwaa.net/?ac=3&no=6445&d_f=10&t_f=0&t=5&lang_in=Ar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216203242/http://www.aladhwaa.net/?ac=3&no=6445&d_f=10&t_f=0&t=5&lang_in=Ar |archive-date=16 December 2014 |access-date=30 July 2018 |newspaper=Aladhwaa}}</ref> Describing Assad's regime as a [[mafia state]] that thrives on corruption and sectarianism, [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] socialist academic [[Gilbert Achcar]] stated: <blockquote>"Bashar Assad's cousin became the richest man in the country, controlling – it is widely believed – over half of the economy. And that's only one member of the ruling clan... The clan functions as a real mafia, and has been ruling the country for several decades. This constitutes the deep root of the explosion, in combination with the fact that the Syrian regime is one of the most despotic in the region. Compared to Assad's Syria, [[History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak's Egypt]] was a beacon of democracy and political freedom!... What is specific to this regime is that Assad's father has reshaped and reconstructed the state apparatus, especially its hard nucleus – the armed forces – in order to create a Pretorian guard for itself. The army, especially its elite forces, is tied to the regime itself in various ways, most prominently through the use of sectarianism. Even people who had never heard of Syria before know now that the regime is based on one minority in the country – about 10% of the population; the [[Alawites]]."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Achcar |first=Gilbert |date=8 October 2013 |title=Syria between Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions |url=https://www.cetri.be/Syria-between-Revolution-and?lang=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602233849/http://www.cetri.be/Syria-between-Revolution-and |archive-date=2 June 2016 |website=CETRI}}</ref></blockquote>The [[Progressive Socialist Party]] (PSP) in Lebanon has taken an anti-Assad stance and organised mass-protests in support of the Syrian revolution. In August 2012, PSP publicly denounced the Assad government as a "killing machine" engaged in slaughtering Syrian people. PSP leader Ayman Kamaleddine demanded the expulsion of the Syrian ambassador from Lebanon, describing him as "the representative of the murderer regime in Lebanon".<ref name=":1" /> === International support === ==== Far-right ==== Bashar al-Assad's regime has received support from prominent [[white nationalist]], [[neo-Nazi]] and [[far-right]] figures in Europe, who were attracted by his "[[war on terror]]" discourse against [[Islamists]] during the period of [[European refugee crisis]]. Assad's bombings of Syrian cities are admired in the [[Islamophobic]] discourse of far-right circles, which considers Muslims as a civilizational enemy. American [[White-supremacists|white supremacists]] often praise Assad as an authoritarian bulwark against what they view as the forces of "Islamic extremism" and [[Globalist (epithet)|globalism]]; and several pro-Assad slogans were chanted in the neo-Nazi [[Unite the Right rally]] held in [[Charlottesville, Virginia|Charlottesville]] in 2017.{{Efn|sources: * {{Cite news |last=Elba |first=Mariam |date=8 September 2017 |title=Mariam Elba |work=The Intercept |url=https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005175942/https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/ |archive-date=5 October 2017}} * {{Cite news |last=Strickland |first=Patrick |date=14 February 2018 |title=Why do Italian fascists adore Syria's Bashar al-Assad? |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105164955/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/2/14/why-do-italian-fascists-adore-syrias-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=5 January 2023}} * {{Cite news |last=Snell |first=James |date=17 August 2017 |title=Why Nazis from Charlottesville to Europe love Bashar al-Assad |work=New Arab |url=https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227143504/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=27 December 2022}} * {{Cite news |last=Ayoub |first=Joey |date=3 October 2022 |title=How the European far right coopted an Arabic letter |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220215405/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter |archive-date=20 December 2022}} * {{Cite news |date=3 November 2022 |title=Western Far-right Worries Syrians and Delights Bashar al-Assad |work=The Syrian Observer |url=https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103015933/https://syrianobserver.com/news/79899/western-far-right-worries-syrians-and-delights-bashar-al-assad.html |archive-date=3 November 2022}} * {{Cite news |last=Huetlin |first=Josephine |date=28 March 2018 |title=The European Far-Right's Sick Love Affair With Bashar al-Assad |work=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116203833/https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad |archive-date=16 November 2022}}}}<ref name="Assad_far_right">{{cite news |last1=MacDonald |first1=Alex |date=2 December 2014 |title=Europe's far-right activists continue to throw their weight behind Syria's Assad |publisher=Middle East Eye |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |access-date=6 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045342/https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-date=1 August 2020}}</ref> [[Nick Griffin]], the former leader of the [[British National Party]] (BNP), was formerly an official ambassador and guest of the Syrian government;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/mobile/1.629501 |title=Disgraced U.K. politician's visit to Syria raises eyebrows back home |work=Haaretz |date=1 December 2014 |access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> due to public controversy, the Assad government publicly disassociated itself from him after his trip to Syria in 2014.<ref>{{cite news |last1=MacDonald |first1=Alex |date=2 December 2014 |title=Europe's far-right activists continue to throw their weight behind Syria's Assad |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045342/https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad |archive-date=1 August 2020 |access-date=6 December 2014 |publisher=Middle East Eye |quote=...the Syrian government attempted to distance themselves from Nick Griffin last time he visited…}}</ref> ==== Right-wing ==== In 2017, former [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[United States House of Representatives|congresswoman]] [[Tulsi Gabbard]] met with then-president Bashar al-Assad on an unannounced visit to Syria.<ref name=":4">{{cite web |title=Tulsi Gabbard, Trump's top spy pick, faces fresh scrutiny over Syria and Russia positions |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c14l6jpykmjo |website=www.bbc.com}}</ref> The visit was the first by a U.S. lawmaker since 2011,<ref>{{cite web |title=Tulsi Gabbard's Trip to Meet Assad |url=https://www.sacouncil.com/aalert_gabbard_assad |website=Syrian American Council |language=en}}</ref> and made under a travel warning issued by the [[United States Department of State]], which continues to warn U.S. citizens against all travel to the country.<ref name=":5">{{cite web |title=Congresswoman Gabbard makes unannounced trip to Syria |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/congresswoman-gabbard-makes-unannounced-trip-syria |website=PBS News |language=en-us |date=18 January 2017}}</ref> Gabbard did not consult with the [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House speaker]] or State Department before meeting with Assad.<ref name=":5" /> The meeting came after Gabbard introduced legislation that would, in her words, "end our country's illegal war to overthrow the Syrian government."<ref name=":5" /> She said that Assad is "a brutal [[dictator]]. Just like [[Saddam Hussein]]. Just like [[Gadhafi]] in Libya. The reason that I’m so outspoken on this issue of ending these wasteful [[United States involvement in regime change|regime-change]] wars is because I have seen firsthand this high human cost of war and the impact that it has on my fellow brothers and sisters in uniform."<ref>{{cite news |title=Tulsi Gabbard: Bashar Assad is 'a brutal dictator' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/01/politics/tulsi-gabbard-assad-dictator-cnntv/index.html |work=CNN |date=1 August 2019}}</ref> Following her visit to Syria, Gabbard expressed doubts that the Assad regime was behind chemical weapons attacks in Syria.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Manduley |first=Christina |date=8 April 2017 |title=Congresswoman 'skeptical' Assad regime behind gas attack {{!}} CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2017/04/07/politics/tulsi-gabbard-assad-chemical-weapons-blitzer-cnntv/index.html |access-date=8 December 2024 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Gabbard has continued to defend her comments, and in 2019 stated that Assad was "not the enemy of the United States because Syria does not pose a direct threat to the United States".<ref name=":4" /> ==== Left-wing ==== Left-wing support for Assad has been split since the start of the Syrian civil war;{{sfn|Hashemi|Postel|2013|pp=11–13}}{{update inline|date=April 2024}} the Assad government has been accused of cynically manipulating [[Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War|sectarian identity]] and [[anti-imperialism]] to continue its worst activities.{{sfn|Hashemi|Postel|2013|p=231}} Some heads of state or governments have declared their support for Assad, including North Korean leader [[Kim Jong Un]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/north-korean-leader-offers-support-to-assad/a-16392804|title=North Korean leader offers support to Assad |date= 20 November 2012|website=Deutsche Welle|language=en-GB|access-date=20 August 2019}}</ref> After declaring victory in the 2014 elections, Assad received congratulations from [[President of Venezuela]] [[Nicolás Maduro]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lainfo.es/en/2014/06/05/venezuela-congratulated-by-bashar-al-assad-in-syrian-presidential-victory/ |title=Venezuela congratulated by Bashar Al Assad in Syrian presidential victory |work=lainfo.es |access-date=25 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811131504/http://lainfo.es/en/2014/06/05/venezuela-congratulated-by-bashar-al-assad-in-syrian-presidential-victory/ |archive-date=11 August 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[President of Algeria]] [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://syriatimes.sy/index.php/news/local/13361-president-assad-receives-congratulations-from-president-bouteflika-on-winning-elections |title=syriatimes.sy – President Assad Receives Congratulations from President Bouteflika on Winning Elections |work=syriatimes.sy |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> [[President of Guyana]] [[Donald Ramotar]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140621123014/http://sana.sy/eng/21/2014/06/21/551372.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 June 2014 |title=الوكالة العربية السورية للأنباء |work=Syrian Arab News Agency |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> [[President of South Africa]] [[Jacob Zuma]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=4016 |title=President al-Assad receives congratulatory cable from South African President Zuma |author=Hazem al-Sabbagh |access-date=20 April 2015|date=23 June 2014 }}</ref> President of [[Nicaragua]] [[Daniel Ortega]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://syriatimes.sy/index.php/presidential-elections/13206-nicaragua-s-ortega-congratulates-president-al-assad-on-winning-elections |title=Nicaragua's Ortega Congratulates President Al-Assad on Winning Elections |work=syriatimes.sy}}</ref> and [[Mahmoud Abbas]], the leader of [[Fatah]] and [[President of the State of Palestine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sana.sy/en/?p=4246 |title=President al-Assad receives congratulatory letter from President Abbas |author=h.said |access-date=20 April 2015|date=25 June 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/12365-abbas-congratulates-al-assad-for-re-election-as-syrian-president |title=Abbas congratulates Al-Assad for re-election as Syrian president |work=Middle East Monitor |access-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512105225/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/12365-abbas-congratulates-al-assad-for-re-election-as-syrian-president |archive-date=12 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/20320 |title=Abbas says he backs Syria's "war against terrorism" |work=Al Akhbar English |access-date=20 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503220223/http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/20320 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Palestinian [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] militant group [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) supported Assad during the Syrian civil war. As a result of this stance, the Iranian government increased its military and financial funding to the PFLP.<ref>{{cite web |title=Iran Increases Aid to PFLP Thanks to Syria Stance |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iran-pflp-gaza-palestine-syria.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418132016/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/09/iran-pflp-gaza-palestine-syria.html |archive-date=18 April 2015 |access-date=20 April 2015 |work=Al-Monitor}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pro-Assad Palestinians call for Yarmouk truce |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/01/201318143633928478.html |access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> === International public relations === [[File:Lula Al-Assad Itamaraty 2010.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad wearing the "Grand Collar" of the ''[[National Order of the Southern Cross]]'', accompanied by Brazilian President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] in [[Brasília]], 30 June 2010]] [[File:Alexander Lukashenko in a meeting with Bashar al-Assad in December 2003 (1) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Belarusian president [[Alexander Lukashenko]] alongside Bashar al-Assad during a state-visit to Syria in December 2003]] In order to promote their image and media-portrayal overseas, Bashar al-Assad and his wife [[Asma al-Assad]] hired U.S. and UK based [[Public relations|PR firms]] and consultants.<ref name=turnedtowest>{{cite news |title=Syria's Assads Turned to West for Glossy P.R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/11/world/middleeast/syrian-conflict-cracks-carefully-polished-image-of-assad.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=10 June 2012 |last1=Carter |first1=Bill |last2=Chozick |first2=Amy}}</ref> In particular, these secured photoshoots for Asma al-Assad with fashion and celebrity magazines, including ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]''{{'}}s March 2011 "A Rose in the Desert".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/01/the-only-remaining-online-copy-of-vogues-asma-al-assad-profile/250753/ |title=The Only Remaining Online Copy of Vogue's Asma al-Assad Profile |author=Max Fisher |work=The Atlantic|date=3 January 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gawker.com/asma-al-assad-a-rose-in-the-desert-1265002284 |title=Asma al-Assad: A Rose in the Desert |author=Joan Juliet Buck |work=Gawker |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604013456/http://gawker.com/asma-al-assad-a-rose-in-the-desert-1265002284 |archive-date=4 June 2015}}</ref> These firms included [[Bell Pottinger]] and [[Brown Lloyd James]], with the latter being paid $5,000 a month for their services.<ref name=turnedtowest/><ref name=PRcomeback/> At the outset of the Syrian civil war, Syrian government networks were hacked by the group [[Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]], revealing that an ex-[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] journalist had been hired to advise Assad on how to manipulate the public opinion of the U.S. Among the advice was the suggestion to compare the popular uprising against the regime to the [[Occupy Wall Street]] protests.<ref>{{cite web |title=Anonymous exposes e-mails of Syrian presidential aides |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2012/02/anonymous-hackers-expose-emails-of-syrian-presidential-aides/ |website=Ars Technica |date=8 February 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015 |last=Gallagher |first=Sean}}</ref> In a separate email leak several months later by the [[Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution]], which were published by ''[[The Guardian]]'', it was revealed that Assad's consultants had coordinated with an Iranian government media advisor.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/14/assad-emails-lift-lid-inner-circle |title=Exclusive: secret Assad emails lift lid on life of leader's inner circle |first1=Robert |last1=Booth |first2=Mona |last2=Mahmood |first3=Luke |last3=Harding |work=The Guardian |quote=Before a speech in December his media consultant prepared a long list of themes, reporting that the advice was based on "consultations with a good number of people in addition to the media and political adviser for the Iranian ambassador". |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> In March 2015, an expanded version of the aforementioned leaks was handed to the Lebanese ''[[NOW News]]'' website and published the following month.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/AssadLeaks/565291-friends-in-the-media |last=Rowell |first=Alex |title=International relations |publisher=NOW News |date=18 May 2015 |access-date=23 May 2015 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022091657/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/AssadLeaks/565291-friends-in-the-media |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the Syrian civil war began, the Assads started a [[social media]] campaign which included building a presence on Facebook, YouTube, and most notably [[Instagram]].<ref name="PRcomeback">{{cite news |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/media/2013/09/14/Assad-makes-PR-comeback-targets-American-psyche-.html |title=Assad makes PR comeback, targets 'American psyche' |first=Mustapha |last=Ajbaili |publisher=Al Arabiya |quote=Assad's regime also activated its YouTube channel and multiple Facebook accounts. |date=14 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> A Twitter account for Assad was reportedly activated; however, it remained unverified.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/07/30/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-joined-instagram-here-are-his-first-photos/ |title=Syrian President Bashar al-Assad joined Instagram. Here are his first photos. |first=Caitlin |last=Dewey |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=30 July 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> This resulted in much criticism, and was described by ''[[The Atlantic Wire]]'' as "a propaganda campaign that ultimately has made the [Assad] family look worse".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thewire.com/politics/2013/08/bashar-al-assads-family/68915/ |title=The Failed Public Relations Campaign of Bashar al Assad's Family |first=Allie |last=Jones |work=The Wire |quote=a propaganda campaign that ultimately has made the family look worse |date=30 August 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308212143/http://www.thewire.com/politics/2013/08/bashar-al-assads-family/68915/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Assad government has also allegedly arrested activists for creating Facebook groups that the government disapproved of,<ref name=Dissent2014/> and has appealed directly to Twitter to remove accounts it disliked.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/series/assad-emails-the-documents |title=Assad emails: 'Fares closed all your Twitter accounts' |work=The Guardian |date=14 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> The social media campaign, as well as the previously leaked emails, led to comparisons with [[Hannah Arendt]]'s ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem|A Report on the Banality of Evil]]'' by ''The Guardian'', ''The New York Times'' and the ''Financial Times''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/06/syrian-presidency-instagram-banality-evil |title=The Syrian presidency's Instagram account shows the banality of evil |first=Johnathan |last=Jones |work=The Guardian |date=6 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/15/syrias-first-couple-and-the-banality-of-e-mail/ |title=Syria's First Couple and the Banality of E-Mail |first1=Robert |last1=Mackey |work=The New York Times |date=15 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0ce4102-710e-11e1-a7f1-00144feab49a.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0ce4102-710e-11e1-a7f1-00144feab49a.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Assad: faithful student of ruthlessness |first1=Roula |last1=Khalaf |work=Financial Times |date=18 March 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> In October 2014, 27,000 photographs depicting torture committed by the Assad government were put on display at the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/bashar-al-assad-s-syrian-torture-chambers-205323124.html |title=Inside Bashar Assad's Torture Chambers |first1=Michael Abdel |last1=Isikoff |work=Yahoo News |date=13 October 2014 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |title=Photos Presented to the House Foreign Affairs Committee by 'Caesar' at Briefing on 'Assad's Killing Machine Exposed: Implications for U.S. Policy'|publisher=House Committee on Foreign Affairs |date=30 July 2014 |access-date=15 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314211352/http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/photo-gallery/syria-army-defectors-photos |archive-date=14 March 2015}}</ref> Lawyers were hired to write a report on the images by the British law firm [[Carter-Ruck]], which in turn was funded by the [[Government of Qatar]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2014/01/20/world/syria-torture-photos-amanpour/ |title=Gruesome Syria photos may prove torture by Assad regime |author1=Mick Krever |author2=Schams Elwazer|date=20 January 2014 |work=CNN|access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> [[File:دیدار بشار اسد با سید علی خامنه‌ای، ۱۰ مهر ۱۳۸۹ (04).jpg|thumb|Assad with Iranian President [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] and Ayatollah Ali Khamenei in Tehran, Iran, 2010]] In November 2014, the [[Quilliam (think tank)|Quilliam Foundation]] reported that a propaganda campaign, which they claimed had the "full backing of Assad", spread false reports about the deaths of Western-born jihadists in order to deflect attention from the government's alleged war crimes. Using a picture of a Chechen fighter from the [[Second Chechen War]], pro-Assad media reports disseminated to Western media outlets, leading them to publish a false story regarding the death of a non-existent British jihadist.<ref name="Simpson 2014">{{cite news | last=Simpson | first=John | title=Assad's allies invent British jihadi death | website=The Times | date=6 November 2014 | url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/assads-allies-invent-british-jihadi-death-0fstqsrn2zl | access-date=25 November 2020}}</ref> In 2015, [[Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war|Russia intervened in the Syrian civil war]] in support of Assad, and on 21 October 2015, Assad flew to Moscow and met with Russian president Vladimir Putin, who said regarding the civil war: "this decision can be made only by the Syrian people. Syria is a friendly country. And we are ready to support it not only militarily but politically as well."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/syria-assad-met-russia-putin-moscow-151021064340109.html |title=Syria's Assad in surprise visit to Moscow |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> == Personal life == [[File:Bashar and Asma al-Assad.jpg|thumb|Bashar al-Assad and his wife [[Asma al-Assad]]]] Assad speaks fluent English and basic conversational French, having studied at the Franco-Arab al-Hurriyah school in [[Damascus]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/04/how-bashar-al-assad-became-so-hated/275058/ |title=How Bashar al-Assad Became So Hated |first1=Majid |last1=Rafizadeh |date=17 April 2013 |access-date=14 March 2015 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref> In December 2000, Assad married [[Asma al-Assad|Asma Akhras]], a British citizen of Syrian origin from [[Acton, London]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1630134.stm |work=BBC News |title=The road to Damascus (all the way from Acton) |date=31 October 2001 |access-date=14 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400296/Syria-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1400296/Syria-factfile-Key-figures.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |title=Syria factfile: Key figures |date=24 February 2003 |access-date=14 March 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2001, Asma gave birth to their first child, a son named [[Hafez Bashar al-Assad|Hafez]] after the child's grandfather Hafez al-Assad. Bashar al-Assad's son Hafez graduated from [[Moscow State University]] in the summer of 2023 with a master's thesis in number theory.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2023 |title=Сын Башара Асада с отличием окончил МГУ |url=https://www.rbc.ru/society/29/06/2023/649dd3249a79470f8edd25b2 |website=Rbc.ru |language=ru}}</ref> Their daughter Zein was born in 2003, followed by their second son Karim in 2004.<ref name=New_Republic_2013/> In January 2013, Assad stated in an interview that his wife was pregnant.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=28 January 2013|title=Syria's Bashar al-Assad says his wife is pregnant|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/01/28/syrias-bashar-al-assad-says-his-wife-is-pregnant/|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Black|first=Ian|date=29 January 2013|title=Bashar al-Assad's wife Asma 'pregnant with fourth child'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/29/bashar-al-assad-wife-asma-pregnant|work=The Guardian|access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref> Bashar al-Assad is an [[Alawites|Alawite]] Muslim.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baltacioglu-Brammer |first1=Ayse |title=Alawites and the Fate of Syria |journal=Current Events in Historical Perspective |date=January 2014 |volume=7 |issue=4 |page=2 |url=https://origins.osu.edu/article/alawites-and-fate-syria |access-date=30 September 2021 |publisher=[[Ohio State University]]}}</ref> Bashar performed the ''[[hajj]]'' pilgrimage twice, in 1999 and in 2000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Litvak |first=Meir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_cpjrIcHoQkC&pg=PA67 |title=Middle Eastern Societies and the West: Accommodation of Clash of Civilizations? |date=2006 |publisher=The Moshe Dayan Center |isbn=978-965-224-073-6 |language=en}}</ref> Assad's sister, [[Bushra al-Assad]], and mother, [[Anisa Makhlouf]], left Syria in 2012 and 2013, respectively, to live in the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="New_Republic_2013">{{cite magazine |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/114630/bashar-al-assad-syria-family-guide |title=Think Bashar al Assad Is Brutal? Meet His Family |last1=Dwyer |first1=Mimi |magazine=The New Republic |date=8 September 2013 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> Makhlouf died in [[Damascus]] in 2016.<ref name=aje>{{cite news |title=Syrian president's mother Anissa Assad dies aged 86 |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/02/syrian-president-mother-anissa-assad-dies-aged-86-160206210505879.html |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=6 February 2016 |access-date=2 March 2016}}</ref> ==Awards and honours== {{color box|#f99}} Revoked and returned awards and honours. {{Clear}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;" |- ! style="width:90px;" | Ribbon ! style="width:250px;" | Distinction ! style="width:120px;" | Country ! style="width:100px;" | Date ! style="width:100px;" | Location ! style="width:250px;" | Notes ! Reference |- | [[File:Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Grand Cross of the National Order of the [[Legion of Honour]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|France}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 25 June 2001 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Paris]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Highest rank in the Order of the Legion of Honor in the Republic of France. Returned by Assad on 20 April 2018<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/20/world/europe/assad-france-legion-of-honor.html |title = A French Honor Not Always for the Honorable; Assad Returns His|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 20 April 2018|last1 = Pérez-Peña|first1 = Richard}}</ref> after the opening of a revocation process by the [[President of France|President of the Republic]], [[Emmanuel Macron]], on 16 April 2018. | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2018/04/16/la-france-engage-la-procedure-pour-retirer-sa-legion-d-honneur-a-bachar-al-assad_5286264_823448.html |title=La France engage la procédure pour retirer sa Légion d'honneur à Bachar Al-Assad |publisher=Le Monde |language=fr |date=16 April 2018|newspaper=Le Monde.fr }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.leparisien.fr/politique/bachar-al-assad-rend-sa-legion-d-honneur-a-la-france-esclave-des-etats-unis-19-04-2018-7673658.php |title=Bachar al-Assad rend sa Légion d'honneur à la France, "esclave des Etats-Unis" |newspaper=Le Parisien |language=fr |date=19 April 2018}}</ref> |- | [[File:Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise 1st 2nd and 3rd Class of Ukraine.png|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | [[Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Ukraine}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 21 April 2002 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Kyiv]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Revoked on 18 March 2023, as part of sanctions issued by [[Ukrainian President]] [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] which revoked all previous Ukrainian state awards to members of the Assad government.<ref name="The New Arab"/> | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref name="rada">{{cite web |url=http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/362/2002 |title=Про нагородження орденом князя Ярослава Мудрого – від 20 April 2002 № 362/2002 |publisher=rada.gov.ua}}</ref><ref name="The New Arab"/> |- | [[File:Reale ordine di francesco I.png|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | [[Knight]] [[Grand Cross]] of the [[Royal Order of Francis I]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Two Sicilies}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 21 March 2004 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | [[Dynastic order of knighthood|Dynastic order]] of the [[House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]]; Revoked several years later{{When|date=July 2024|reason=This is wildly unclear}} by [[Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro]]. | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref name="Two_Sicilies_awards_1">{{cite news |url=http://www.mediafaxfoto.ro/Preview.aspx?Id=256111 |title=SYRIA-ASSAD-BOURBON |last1=Beshara |first1=Louai |publisher=mediafaxfoto.ro |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=21 March 2004 |access-date=15 March 2015 |language=ro}}</ref><ref name="Two_Sicilies_awards_2">{{cite news |url=http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-presents-prince-carlo-of-news-photo/181414500 |title=181414500 |last1=Beshara |first1=Louai |publisher=[[Getty Images]] |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=21 March 2004 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref> |- | [[File:Ribbon bar of the Order of Zayed.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of Zayed]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 31 May 2008 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Abu Dhabi]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest civil decoration in the United Arab Emirates. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.alwatanvoice.com/arabic/news/2008/06/01/129056.html |script-title=ar:رئيس دولة الامارات يقلد الرئيس السوري وسام زايد تعبيرا عن عمق العلاقات التي تربط البلدين|publisher=Al Watan Voice |date=1 June 2008 |access-date=16 September 2018 |language=ar}}</ref> |- | [[File:FIN Order of the White Rose Grand Cross BAR.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of the White Rose of Finland]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Finland}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 5 October 2009 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="font-size:90%;" | One of three [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Finland|official orders in Finland]]. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.savonsanomat.fi/kotimaa/IS-Syyrian-sotarikoksista-syytetyll%C3%A4-presidentill%C3%A4-Suomen-korkein-kunniamerkki/427627 |title=Syyrian sotarikoksista syytetyllä presidentillä Suomen korkein kunniamerkki |publisher=savonsanomat.fi |date=20 October 2013 |access-date=25 October 2016 |language=fi}}</ref> |- | [[File:Spange des König-Abdulaziz-Ordens.png|85px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of King Abdulaziz]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 8 October 2009 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest Saudi state order. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=http://thawra.sy/_print_veiw.asp?FileName=63107819420091008022531 |script-title=ar:القمــــــــــة الســـــــــورية الســـــــــعودية... الرئيس الأسد وخادم الحرمين الشريفين يبحثان آفاق التعاون ويتبادلان أرفع وسامين وطنيين.. تعزيز العمل العربي المشترك – رفع الحصار عن الفلسطينيين|publisher=Al Thawra |date=8 October 2009 |access-date=16 September 2018 |language=ar}}</ref> |- | [[File:ITA OMRI 2001 GC-GCord BAR.svg|80px]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Knight Grand Cross with [[Collar (order)|Collar]] of the [[Order of Merit of the Italian Republic]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Italy}} | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 11 March 2010 | style="background:#f99; text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | Highest ranking honour of the Republic of Italy. Revoked by the [[President of Italy|President of the Republic]], [[Giorgio Napolitano]], on 28 September 2012 for "indignity". | style="background:#f99; font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=Dettaglio decorato: Al-Assad S.E. Bashar Decorato di Gran Cordone |publisher=quirinale.it |url=http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/DettaglioOnorificenze.aspx?decorato=311336 |date=29 June 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015 |language=it}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&idAtto=57321&stile=8 ATTO CAMERA INTERROGAZIONE A RISPOSTA SCRITTA 4/17085] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018150440/http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight=0&idAtto=57321&stile=8 |date=18 October 2015 }} Banchedati.camera.it {{in lang|it}}</ref> |- | [[File:VEN Order of the Liberator - Grand Cordon BAR.png|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Collar of the [[Order of the Liberator]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Venezuela}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 28 June 2010<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.aporrea.org/actualidad/n160308.html |title= Gaceta Oficial 39.454 lunes 28 de junio 2010 |language=es |trans-title= Official Gazette 39.454 Monday 28 June 2010 |date= 28 June 2010 |access-date= 25 October 2023 |publisher= [[Aporrea]]}}</ref> | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Caracas]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest Venezuelan state order. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/05/venezuela-chavezs-authoritarian-legacy |publisher= Human Rights Watch |title= Venezuela: Chávez's Authoritarian Legacy |date= 5 March 2013 |access-date= 25 October 2023}}</ref> |- | [[File:BRA - Order of the Southern Cross - Grand Cross BAR.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Grand Collar of the [[Order of the Southern Cross]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Brazil}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 30 June 2010 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Brasília]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Brazil's highest order of merit. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231 |title=Diário Oficial da União – Seção |publisher=Superintenência de Seguros Privados |issn=1677-7042 |format=PDF |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=15 March 2015 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091010/http://www.antt.gov.br/html/objects/_downloadblob.php?cod_blob=3231 |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}</ref> |- | [[File:LBN National Order of the Cedar - Grand Cordon BAR.svg|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Grand Cordon]] of the [[National Order of the Cedar]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Lebanon}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 31 July 2010 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Beirut]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Second highest honour of Lebanon. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=President Michel Suleiman hosts Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and Saudi King Abdullah bin Abdel Aziz |url=http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node/3338 |publisher=Marada-news.org |date=31 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429080726/http://www.marada-news.org/?q=node%2F3338 |archive-date=29 April 2014}}</ref> |- | [[File:Orden al Mérito IRI.png|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Order of the Islamic Republic of Iran]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|Iran}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 2 October 2010 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Tehran]] | style="font-size:90%;" | Highest national medal of Iran. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=Iran Awards Syrian Leader Highest Medal of Honor |url=http://www.voanews.com/content/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |date=1 October 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429052040/http://www.voanews.com/content/assad-in-iran-to-discuss-iraq-104203254/127153.html |archive-date=29 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian President Awarded Iran's Medal of Honor |url=http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/insideisrael/2010/October/Syrian-President-Awarded-Irans-Medal-of-Honor/ |publisher=[[CBN News]] |date=4 October 2010 |access-date=14 March 2015}}</ref> |- | [[File:Лента Ордена Уацамонга.png|80px]] | style="font-size:90%;" | [[Uatsamonga Order]] | style="font-size:90%;" | {{flag|South Ossetia}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | 2018 | style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;" | [[Damascus]] | style="font-size:90%;" | State award of South Ossetia. | style="font-size:90%;" | <ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian president Bashar al-Assad to visit South Ossetia|url=https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/ |publisher=OC Media|date=31 July 2018 |access-date=4 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804000533/https://oc-media.org/syrian-president-bashar-al-assad-to-visit-south-ossetia/ |archive-date=4 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> |} ==See also== {{Portal|Middle East|Biography|Politics}} * [[List of international presidential trips made by Bashar al-Assad]] * [[Presidency of Hafez al-Assad]] * [[Foreign Policy of Bashar al-Assad]] == Explanatory notes == {{Notelist}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist|30em}} === General and cited references === {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Blanford |first=Nicholas |title=Killing Mr Lebanon: The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and Its Impact on the Middle East |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84511-202-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/killingmrlebanon00blan }} * {{Cite book |last=Bronner |first=Stephen Eric |title=Peace Out of Reach: Middle Eastern Travels and the Search for Reconciliation |url=https://archive.org/details/peaceoutofreachm0000bron |publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8131-2446-9 }} * {{Cite book |editor1-last=Hashemi |editor1-first=Nader |editor2-last=Postel |editor2-first=Danny |title=The Syria Dilemma |url=https://archive.org/details/syriadilemma0000unse |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-262-02683-3 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Heydemann |first1=Steven |last2=Leenders |first2=Reinoud |title=Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8047-9333-9 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Leverett |first=Flynt L. |title=Inheriting Syria: Bashar's Trial By Fire |publisher=[[Brookings Institution]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8157-5204-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/inheritingsyria00flyn }} * {{Cite book |last=Lesch |first=David W. |title=Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad |url=https://archive.org/details/syriafallofhouse0000lesc |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-300-18651-2 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Mammone |editor1-first=Andrea |editor2-last=Godin |editor2-first=Emmanuel |editor3-last=Jenkins |editor3-first=Brian |date=2012 |title=Mapping the Extreme Right in Contemporary Europe: From Local to Transnational |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-50265-8 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Ma'oz |first1=Moshe |last2=Ginat |first2=Joseph |last3=Winckler |first3=Onn |title=Modern Syria: From Ottoman Rule to Pivotal Role in the Middle East |url=https://archive.org/details/modernsyriafromo0000unse |publisher=[[Sussex Academic Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=1-898723-83-4 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Mikaberidze |editor1-first=Alexander |title=Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia |location=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-59884-925-7 }} * {{Cite book |last=Minahan |first=James |title=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A–C |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofst0002mina |year=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |isbn=978-0-313-32109-2 }} * {{Cite book |last=Moosa |first=Matti |title=Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-8156-2411-0 }} * {{Cite book |last=Pierret |first=Thomas |title=Religion and State in Syria: The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/religionstateins0000pier |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-60990-7 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Sadiki |first=Larbi |title=Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-415-52391-2 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Seale |first1=Patrick |last2=McConville |first2=Maureen |title=Asad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-520-06976-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal }} * {{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla |edition= |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0003unse_x7p5 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-85109-841-5 }} * {{Cite book |last=Zisser |first=Eyal |title=Commanding Syria: Bashar Al-Asad And the First Years in Power |url=https://archive.org/details/commandingsyriab0000zise |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84511-153-3 }} {{refend}} == Further reading == * {{Cite book |last=Abboud |first=Samer |title=Syria (Hot Spots in Global Politics) |url=https://archive.org/details/syria0000abbo |publisher=Polity |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7456-9797-0|ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Belhadj |first=Souhaïl |date=2013 |title=La Syrie de Bashar Al-Asad : Anatomie d'un régime autoritaire |trans-title=Bashar's Syria: Anatomy of an Authoritarian Regime |language=fr |publisher=Belin |isbn=978-2-7011-6467-0|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last1=Hinnebusch |first1=Raymond |title=Syria: Revolution From Above |url=https://archive.org/details/syriarevolutionf0000hinn |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-28568-1|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last1=Perthes |first1=Volker |title=Syria Under Bashar Al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change |url=https://archive.org/details/syriaunderbashar0000pert |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-856750-9|ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Tabler |first=Andrew |title=In the Lion's Den: An Eyewitness Account of Washington's Battle with Syria |publisher=Zephyr Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-56976-843-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/inlionsdeneyewit00tabl |ref=none}} '''Reports''' * {{Cite report |author=Yossi Baidatz |date=August 2001 |title=Bashar's First Year: From Ophthalmology to a National Vision |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf |publisher=Washington Institute for Near East Policy |asin=B0006RVLNM |access-date=12 March 2015 |ref=none |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225095843/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus41.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite report |author=Annette Büchs |date=March 2009 |title=The Resilience of Authoritarian Rule in Syria under Hafez and Bashar Al-Asad |url=http://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf |publisher=German Institute of Global and Area Studies |docket=97 |access-date=12 March 2015 |ref=none |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009210705/https://www.giga-hamburg.de/en/system/files/publications/wp97_buechs.pdf |url-status=dead }} '''Articles''' * {{cite web |url=http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0304_s2.htm |first=Ziad K. |last=Abdelnour |title=Syria's Proxy Forces in Iraq |publisher=[[Al-Hayat]] |date=12 April 2003|ref=none}} * {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2579331.stm |title=Profile: Syria's Bashar al-Assad |work=[[BBC News]] |date=10 March 2005|ref=none}} * {{cite journal |url=http://www.meforum.org/article/730 |first=William |last=Harris |title=Bashar al-Assad's Lebanon Gamble |journal=[[Middle East Quarterly]] |date=Summer 2005|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060719135235/http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html |first=Esther |last=Pan |title=Syria's Leaders |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |date=10 March 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060719135235/https://web.archive.org/web/20060719135235/http://www.cfr.org/publication/9085/syrias_leaders.html |archive-date=19 July 2006 |ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703833204576114712441122894 |title=Interview With Syrian President Bashar al-Assad |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=31 January 2011|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2007/07/200852518514154964.html |title=Profile: Bashar al-Assad |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] |date=25 March 2011|ref=none}} * {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118094013/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9gyTXO_xIg |archive-date=18 November 2016 |url-status=live |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Rose |last=Rose |title=Interview with Bashar Hafez al-Assad |publisher=[[PBS]] |date=9 September 2013 |ref=none |access-date=5 November 2016 }} ==External links== {{sister project links|c=Category: Bashar al-Assad|d=yes|q=yes|n=yes|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}} * {{Official website|sana.sy/en/}} ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110811101337/http://www.sana.sy/eng/article/123.htm Biography] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042116/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=13&newlang=eng Decrees] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042110/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=11&newlang=eng Speeches] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529041500/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=12&newlang=eng Interviews] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110529042829/http://sana.sy/section.html?&req=shownews&topicid=10&newlang=eng Press releases] * {{C-SPAN|93150}} * {{Guardian topic}} * {{NYTtopic|people/a/bashar_al_assad}} * {{IMDb name|1519747}} {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Abdul Halim Khaddam]] <br /><small>Acting</small>}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of Syria]] | years=2000–2024}} {{s-aft|after=TBD}} |- {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Hafez al-Assad]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Secretary of the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Regional Command]] of the [[Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)|Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party]]|years=2000–2024}} {{s-aft|after=TBD}} |- {{s-end}} {{Presidents of Syria}} {{Ba'ath Party}} {{Syria topics}} {{Arab Spring}} {{Syrian Civil War}} {{Arab nationalism}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Assad, Bashar Al-}} [[Category:Bashar al-Assad| ]] [[Category:1965 births]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:20th-century presidents in Asia]] [[Category:20th-century Syrian politicians]] [[Category:21st-century Syrian politicians]] [[Category:Presidents of Syria]] [[Category:Anti-Americanism]] [[Category:Anti-Zionism in the Arab world]] [[Category:Al-Assad family|Bashar Al]] [[Category:Ba'athism]] [[Category:Children of presidents of Syria]] [[Category:Damascus University alumni]] [[Category:Exiled politicians]] [[Category:Far-left politics in Asia]] [[Category:Fugitives wanted by France]] [[Category:Fugitives wanted on crimes against humanity charges]] [[Category:Fugitives wanted on war crimes charges]] [[Category:Grand Cordons of the National Order of the Cedar]] [[Category:Holocaust deniers]] [[Category:Homs Military Academy alumni]] [[Category:Leaders of political parties]] [[Category:Members of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)]] [[Category:Members of the Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region]] [[Category:Muslim socialists]] [[Category:People of the Syrian civil war]] [[Category:People stripped of honorary degrees]] [[Category:Politicians from Damascus]] [[Category:Politicide perpetrators]] [[Category:Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class]] [[Category:Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List]] [[Category:Syrian Alawites]] [[Category:Syrian Arab nationalists]] [[Category:Syrian exiles]] [[Category:Syrian expatriates in Russia]] [[Category:Syrian expatriates in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Syrian mass murderers]] [[Category:Syrian nationalists]] [[Category:Syrian male writers]] [[Category:Syrian male boxers]] [[Category:Syrian ophthalmologists]] [[Category:Totalitarianism]] 6yqkgixcy7ewlcj01dp2rq5iqxj3tp2 0 46891 122342 118892 2026-09-25T00:20:22Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Software system design modeling tool}} {{Redirect|UML}} Chiyowoyero cha Kuyezgelera (UML) ni chiyowoyero cha kuyezgelera chakuwoneka icho chikugwiriskirika nchito pakupanga ndondomeko. Ikupereka nthowa yakumanyikwa yakulongolera ndondomeko ya ndondomeko mwakugwiliskira nchito vithuzithuzi. UML yikusazgapo mitundu yinandi ya vithuzithuzi, ivyo vingaŵikika mu magulu ghatatu ghakuru: * Vithuzithuzi vya nkharo (longora umo ndondomeko yikugwilira ntchito) * Vithuzithuzi vyakukolerana (longora umo vigaŵa vya ndondomeko vikukolerana) * Vithuzithuzi vya kapangilo (kulongora vigaŵa vya ndondomeko na ubale wawo) UML yikapangika kuti yiŵe yakuyana na nthowa zakupambanapambana zakupangira mapulogalamu. Wakapangika na mapulogalamu gha Rational pakati pa 1994 na 1996. Mu 1997, UML yikazgoka muyezo uwo ukulaŵilirika na Gulu la Kulaŵilira Vinthu (OMG). Pamanyuma, mu 2005, likazomerezgekaso kuŵa muyezo wa pa charu chose (ISO/IEC 19501) na ISO na IEC. Muyezo ukusinthika nyengo zose kuti uŵe nga ni UML ya sonosono. Mu mapulogalamu gha kompyuta, ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito UML mwakwenelera yayi. M’malo mwake, ŵakujambura vithuzithuzi vyambura kusuzga, vyambura kumanyikwa. Ndipouli, vithuzithuzi ivi kanandi vikugwiriskira nchito vinthu vinyake vya UML. == Mbiri == [[File:OO Modeling languages history.jpg|thumb|320px|History of object-oriented methods and notation]] === Pambere UML 1.0 === UML yasintha kufuma umalilo kwa ma1990. Icho chikufuma ku nthowa zakupangira mapulogalamu ghakulongozgeka na vinthu izo zikapangika kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 1980 na kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 1990. Mndandanda wa nyengo (wonani chithuzithuzi) ukulongora nyengo zikuru mu mdauko wa nthowa izi. UML yikusazga nthowa zitatu zakale mu chiyowoyero chimoza: * Nthowa ya Booch * Nthowa yakupangira vinthu (OMT) * Mapulogalamu ghakupangika na vinthu (OOSE) Mu 1994, Rational Software yakalemba ntchito James Rumbaugh kufuma ku General Electric. Pa nyengo iyo, Rational wakamanyikwanga kale chifukwa cha nthowa ziŵiri zakumanyikwa: * OMT ya Rumbaugh * Nthowa ya Grady Booch Pamanyuma, mu 1995, Ivar Jacobson (uyo wakalenga OOSE) wakaŵa nawo ku Rational. Pamoza, ŵakagwiranga nchito pa UML. === UML 1.x === Mu ulongozgi wa luso wa Rumbaugh, Jacobson, na Booch, gulu lakuchemeka UML Partners likakhazikiska mu 1996. Chilato chake chikaŵa chakuti limalizge ndondomeko ya chiyowoyero cha chiyelezgero cha Unified Modeling (UML) na kupeleka ku gulu lakulongozga vinthu (OMG) kuti liŵe lakuyana. Mgwirizano uwu ukaŵaso na ŵanyake awo ŵakakhumbanga, nga ni HP, DEC, IBM, na Microsoft. Mu Januwale 1997, ŵanyawo ŵa UML ŵakapeleka ndondomeko yawo ya UML 1.0 ku OMG. Mwezi wenewuwu, ŵa UML Partners ŵakapanga gulu lapadera. Gulu ili likapangika kuti lilongosore ng’anamuro leneco la viyowoyero ivyo vikupangika. Mulongozgi wake wakaŵa Cris Kobryn ndipo Ed Eykholt ndiyo wakalongozganga. Ntchito ya gulu ili yikaŵa yakuti yimalizge ndondomeko ya UML na kuyiŵika pamoza na vinyake ivyo vikuchitika kuti viŵe vyakuyana. Ntchito yawo yikapangiska kuti paŵe UML 1.1, iyo yikapelekeka ku OMG mu Ogasiti 1997. OMG yikazomera UML 1.1 mu Novembala 1997.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |url=http://www.informit.com/store/unified-modeling-language-user-guide-9780321267979 |title=Unified Modeling Language User Guide, The |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=2005 |isbn=0321267974 |edition=2 |page=496}} See the sample content: look for history</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omg.org/cgi-bin/doc?ad/97-08-11 |title=UML Specification version 1.1 (OMG document ad/97-08-11) |publisher=Omg.org |access-date=2011-09-22}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kufwatulika kwakwamba, gulu lakugwira ntchito likapangika<ref name=":1" /> kuti ŵanozge chiyowoyero, icho chikafumiska vinyake vichokovichoko ivyo vikasintha, 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omg.org/spec/UML/ |title=UML |publisher=Omg.org |access-date=2014-04-10}}</ref> Viyezgo ivyo yikapanga (pamoza na viyezgelero vyakwamba) vyawoneka kuti ni vyambura kupulikikwa makora ndiposo vyambura kukolerana.<ref>Génova et alia 2004 "Open Issues in Industrial Use Case Modeling"</ref> ==== Cardinality notation ==== Nga ni umo vikuŵira mu vithuzithuzi vya Chen, Bachman, na ISO ER, viyelezgero vya kilasi vikugwiriskira ncito "kuwona-kujumpha" vigaŵa vyakukhozga. Ici cikung’anamura kuti ŵakulongora unandi wa vinthu ivyo vili ku cigaŵa cinyake ca ubwezi. Ndipouli, ŵamanyi ŵanyake (nga awo ŵali kuseri kwa Merise, na ŵalembi Elmasri & Navathe) ŵakutemwa nthowa yinyake. Ŵakugwiriskira ncito "wonani-pano" makadinali. Ici cikulongora unandi wa vinthu ivyo vili ku cigaŵa cimoza ca ubwezi ndipo vikusazgapo vyose viŵiri, vichoko na vikuru. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda sonosono apa, nga ni Feinerer na Dullea na gulu lawo, ŵasanga masuzgo na nthowa ya "wonani-pala". Iwo ŵakuti vikuchitika makora yayi para ubwezi ukukhwaskana na vinthu vyakujumpha viŵiri (ivyo vikuchemeka n-ary relationships). Feinerer wakulongosora kuti masuzgo ghakuchitika para mukugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya "kuwonera-kuzungulira" mu UML. Wakuyowoya za Hartmann, uyo wakasambira nkhani iyi na kulongosora chifukwa icho nthowa zakupambanapambana zakusinthira ubwezi zikugwilira ntchito makora yayi. Feinerer wakuyowoyaso kuti nthowa ya "wonani-pala" yikupangiska masuzgo ghanandi. Masuzgo agha ghakupangiska kuti viŵe vyakusuzga kusazgirako nthowa zipusu izo zikugwiriskirika ncito pa ubwezi wa vigaŵa viŵiri (binary) ku nthowa zakusuzga comene (n-ary) . == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == * {{cite book | first = Scott William | last = Ambler | year = 2004 | url = http://www.ambysoft.com/books/theObjectPrimer.html | title = The Object Primer: Agile Model Driven Development with UML 2 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 0-521-54018-6 | access-date = 29 April 2006 | archive-date = 31 January 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100131215505/http://www.ambysoft.com/books/theObjectPrimer.html | url-status = dead }} * {{cite book | first = Michael Jesse | last = Chonoles | author2 = James A. Schardt | year = 2003 | title = UML 2 for Dummies | publisher = Wiley Publishing | isbn = 0-7645-2614-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/uml2fordummies00chon }} * {{cite book | first = Martin | last = Fowler | author-link = Martin Fowler (software engineer) | title = UML Distilled: A Brief Guide to the Standard Object Modeling Language | url = https://archive.org/details/umldistilledbrie0000fowl_3ed | year = 2004 | edition = 3rd | publisher = Addison-Wesley | isbn = 0-321-19368-7 }} * {{cite book | first= Ivar | last = Jacobson |author2=Grady Booch |author3=James Rumbaugh | author-link = Ivar Jacobson | year = 1998 | title = The Unified Software Development Process | url= https://archive.org/details/unifiedsoftwared0000jaco | publisher = Addison Wesley Longman | isbn=0-201-57169-2 }} * {{cite book | first = Robert Cecil | last = Martin | author-link = Robert Cecil Martin | year = 2003 | title = UML for Java Programmers | publisher = Prentice Hall | isbn = 0-13-142848-9 | url = https://archive.org/details/umlforjavaprogra00mart }} * {{cite web | author = Noran, Ovidiu S. | url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240718044149/https://www.area-c54.it/public/business%20modelling%20-%20uml%20vs%20idef.pdf | title = Business Modelling: UML vs. IDEF | access-date = 2022-11-14 }} * {{cite web | author = Horst Kargl | url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250618165739/https://umlnotation.sparxsystems.eu/ | title = Interactive UML Metamodel with additional Examples }} * {{cite book | first = Magnus | last = Penker | author2 = Hans-Erik Eriksson | author-link2 = Hans-Erik Eriksson | year = 2000 | title = Business Modeling with UML | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | isbn = 0-471-29551-5 | url = https://archive.org/details/businessmodeling00erik }} * {{cite web | author = Douglass, Bruce Powel | url = https://www.bruce-douglass.com/ | title = Bruce Douglass: Real-Time Agile Systems and Software Development | format = web | access-date = 2019-01-01 }} * {{cite book | first = Bruce | last = Douglass | year = 2014 | title = Real-Time UML Workshop 2nd Edition | publisher = Newnes | isbn = 978-0-471-29551-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/businessmodeling00erik | url-access = registration }} * {{cite book | first = Bruce | last = Douglass | year = 2004 | title = Real-Time UML 3rd Edition | url = https://archive.org/details/realtimeumladvan0000doug | publisher = Newnes | isbn = 978-0321160768 }} * {{cite book | first = Bruce | last = Douglass | year = 2002 | title = Real-Time Design Patterns | publisher = Addison-Wesley Professional | isbn = 978-0201699562 }} * {{cite book | first = Bruce | last = Douglass | year = 2009 | title = Real-Time Agility | publisher = Addison-Wesley Professional | isbn = 978-0321545497 }} * {{cite book | first = Bruce | last = Douglass | year = 2010 | title = Design Patterns for Embedded Systems in C | publisher = Newnes | isbn = 978-1856177078 }} == External links == {{Commons}} {{Wikiversity|UML}} * {{Official website}} * Current UML specification: {{cite book |title=Unified Modeling Language 2.5.1 |series=[[Object Management Group|OMG]] Document Number formal/2017-12-05 |date=December 2017 |publisher=[[Object Management Group]] Standards Development Organization (OMG SDO) |url=https://www.omg.org/spec/UML/2.5.1/PDF }} {{UML}} {{Software engineering}} {{ISO standards}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Unified Modeling Language| ]] [[Category:Architecture description language]] [[Category:Data modeling languages]] [[Category:Data modeling diagrams]] [[Category:Diagrams]] [[Category:Knowledge representation]] [[Category:ISO standards]] [[Category:Specification languages]] [[Category:Software modeling language]] [[Category:Modeling languages]] 6vnh216t72q3jp72jvd1ot0ntn78mne 0 46902 122368 119319 2026-09-25T02:32:32Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122368 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Largest Christian church, led by the Pope}} {{Good article}} {{Pp|small=yes}} {{Infobox Christian denomination |icon = Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg |icon_width = 25px |icon_alt = Emblem of the Holy See |name = Tchalitchi la Katolika |native_name = Ecclesia Catholica |native_name_lang = la |image = Saint Peter's Basilica facade, Rome, Italy.jpg |imagewidth = 300px |alt = Saint Peter's Basilica |caption = Tchalitchi la St. Peter, ilo ni tchalitchi likuru chomene pa charu chose |abbreviation = |main_classification = Ŵakatolika |type = |scripture = [[Baibolo la Katolika|Baibolo]] |theology = [[Cisambizgo ca Katolika]] |polity = [[Ndondomeko za boma la bishopu]]<ref name=Episcopal_Polity>{{cite book|title=Notes of the Episcopal Polity of the Holy Catholic Church|last=Marshall|first=Thomas William|year=1844|location=London|publisher=Levey, Rossen and Franklin|id={{ASIN|1163912190|country=uk}}}}</ref> |governance = Malo Ghatuŵa na Curia ya Ŵaroma |leader_title = [[Papa]] |leader_name = {{incumbent pope}} |leader_title1 = |leader_name1 = |leader_title2= |leader_name2 = |leader_title3 = |leader_name3 = |fellowships_type = [[Tchalitchi la Katolika na maluso ghake|Matchalitchi ghanyake<br />''sui iuris'']] |fellowships =Tchalitchi la Cilatini na 23 Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kumafumiro gha Dazi |fellowships_type1 = |fellowships1 = |division_type = Ma Diocese |division = {{plainlist| * Archdioceses: [[List of Catholic archdioceses|640]] * Dioceses: [[List of Catholic dioceses (alphabetical)|2,851]]}} |division_type1 = [[Parish in the Catholic Church|Parishes]] |division1 = 221,700 |division_type2 = |division2 = |division_type3 = |division3 = |associations = |area = [[Catholic Church by country|Worldwide]] |language = [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] and [[native languages]] |liturgy = [[Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites#Rites|Western and Eastern]] |headquarters = [[Vatican City]] |founder = {{Ubl | [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]], according to | [[Sacred tradition#In the Catholic and Orthodox churches|sacred tradition]]}} |founded_date = [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century]] |founded_place = [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]], [[Roman Empire]]<ref name="RCC">{{cite web|last=Stanford|first=Peter|title=Roman Catholic Church|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/catholic/catholic_1.shtml|website=BBC Religions|publisher=BBC|access-date=1 February 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=18}} |parent = |merger = |absorbed = |separations = |merged_into = |defunct = |congregations_type = |congregations = |members = 1.378&nbsp;billion (2021)<ref name="AnnuarioPontificio">{{cite news |url=https://www.osservatoreromano.va/it/news/2023-03/quo-052/pubblicati-l-annuario-pontificio-2023-e-l-annuarium-statisticum.html |title=Pubblicati l'Annuario Pontificio 2023 e l'Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae 2021 |date=3 March 2023 |work=[[L'Osservatore Romano]] |language=it |access-date=3 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> |ministers_type = [[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|Clergy]] |ministers = {{plainlist| * [[Bishop in the Catholic Church|Bishops]]: 5,340 * [[Priesthood in the Catholic Church|Priests]]: 407,872 * [[Deacon]]s: 49,176 * (2021)<ref name="AnnuarioPontificio"/> }} |missionaries = |churches = |hospitals = [[Catholic Church and health care|5,500]]<ref name="World Development p.40">Calderisi, Robert. ''Earthly Mission – The Catholic Church and World Development''; TJ International Ltd; 2013; p.40</ref> |nursing_homes = |aid = |primary_schools = [[Catholic school|95,200]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=Laudato Si|journal=Vermont Catholic|volume=8|issue=4, ''2016–2017, Winter''|pages=73|url=http://www.onlinedigeditions.com/publication/index.php?i=365491&m=&l=&p=1&pre=&ver=html5#{%22page%22:74,%22issue_id%22:365491}|access-date=19 December 2016}}</ref> |secondary_schools = 43,800 |tax_status = |tertiary = |other_names = |publications = |website = {{Official URL}} |slogan = |logo = |footnotes = }} {{Catholic Church sidebar}} {{Christianity|expanded=hide}} '''Tchalitchi la Katolika''', ndilo tchalitchi likuru chomene pa charu chose.<ref name="AnnuarioPontificio"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism|title=Roman Catholicism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|last=Marty|first=Martin E.|date=29 April 2021|access-date=17 June 2021}}</ref> Likuŵa limoza la mawupu ghakale chomene pa charu chose, ndipo lili na udindo ukuru chomene pa nkhani ya mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Western.<ref>Mark A. Noll. ''The New Shape of World Christianity'' (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009), 191.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haynes |first=Jeffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i5teCwAAQBAJ&dq=%22catholic+church%22+oldest+institution&pg=PT75 |title=Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics |date=13 January 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-28746-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Varghese |first=Alexander P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqCg8aqgus8C&dq=%22catholic+church%22+oldest+institution&pg=PA457 |title=India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World |date=2008 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-269-0904-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="O'CollinsPref">[[Gerald O'Collins|O'Collins]], p. v (preface).</ref> Tchalitchi ili lili na matchalitchi 24, kusazgapo Tchalitchi la Latin na 23 la Eastern Catholic, agho ghali na ma diocese na ma eparchy pafupifupi 3,5000<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2005 |title=Statistics by Country, by Catholic Population [Catholic-Hierarchy] |url=https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/country/sc1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304155457/https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/country/sc1.html |archive-date=4 March 2023 |access-date=4 March 2023 |work=[[Catholic-Hierarchy.org]] |publisher=David M. Cheney}}</ref>pa charu chose. Papa, uyo ni bishopu wa ku Roma, ndiyo ni muliska mulara wa mpingo.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lumen gentium|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref> Bishopu wa ku Roma, uyo wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Holy See, ndiyo wakulamulira tchalitchi. Wupu uwo ukulamulira mu Rome uli na maofesi ghake mu msumba wa Vatican, uwo uli ku chigaŵa chichoko cha Rome, mu Italy. Visambizgo vikuruvikuru vya Cikatolika vikusangika mu cisambizgo ca Cikatolika ca ku Nicaea. Tchalitchi la Katolika likusambizga kuti ni tchalitchi limoza, lituŵa, la Katolika na la ŵapositole ilo likakhazikiskika na Yesu Khristu mu mulimo wake ukuru,<ref name="Catholic News Service">{{cite web |title=Vatican congregation reaffirms truth, oneness of Catholic Church |url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0703923.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070710201403/http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0703923.htm |archive-date=10 July 2007 |access-date=17 March 2012 |publisher=Catholic News Service}}</ref>{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=7}}{{refn|group=note|While the Catholic Church considers itself to be the authentic continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ, it teaches that other Christian churches and communities can be in an imperfect communion with the Catholic Church.<!--See List Refs--><ref name=note1cite1/><ref name=note1cite2/><!--/List Refs-->}} kuti mabishopu ghake ndigho ghakunjira mu malo gha ŵapositole ŵa Khristu, ndiposo kuti papa ndiyo wakunjira mu malo gha Petrosi Mutuŵa, uyo Yesu Khristu wakamupa mazaza.<ref>Holy Bible: Matthew {{bibleverse-nb||Matthew|16:19|ESV}}</ref> Likuti likulondezga ivyo ŵapositole ŵakasambizganga, ndipo likusungilira unenesko wa mu Malemba na ivyo likusambizga'''.'''<ref name="CCC_890">{{Cite CCC|2.1|890}}</ref> Visambizgo vya cisopa ca Katolika ca ku mafumiro gha dazi nga ni visambizgo vya cisopa ca Katolika, visambizgo vya cisopa ca Katolika ca ku mafumiro gha dazi, visambizgo vya cisopa ca Katolika ca ku Roma, na visambizgo vinyake vya cisopa ca Katolika ca ku Latin, vikulongora kuti visambizgo vya cisopa na vyauzimu vikukolerana.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|835|quote=The rich variety of ... theological and spiritual heritages proper to the local churches 'unified in a common effort shows all the more resplendently the catholicity of the undivided Church'.(cf. [[Second Vatican Council]], Dogmatic Constitution on the Church [[Lumen gentium]], 23)}}</ref><ref name="Gunton2">Colin Gunton. "Christianity among the Religions in the Encyclopedia of Religion", Religious Studies, Vol. 24, number 1, page 14. In a review of an article from the Encyclopedia of Religion, Gunton writes: "[T]he article [on Catholicism in the encyclopedia] rightly suggests caution, suggesting at the outset that Roman Catholicism is marked by several different doctrinal, theological and liturgical emphases."</ref> Pa visungusungu vinkhondi na viŵiri, Ciphikiro Ciphya ndico nchakuzirwa comene, ndipo cikukondwelereka mu Misa.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1322–1327|quote=[T]he Eucharist is the sum and summary of our faith}}</ref> Tchalitchi likusambizga kuti para wasembe wakupeleka cingwa na vinyo kuŵa sembe, vikuzgoka thupi na ndopa za Khristu. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakuchindikika ni Mariya, mama wa Ciuta, na Fumukazi ya Kuchanya.{{refn|name=marian_dogmas|{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320070206/https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resources/mary/general-information/the-four-marian-dogmas|publisher=Catholic News Agency|title=The Four Marian Dogmas|access-date=25 March 2017}}|}} Visambizgo vya Cikatolika vikulongora kuti nchakuzirwa comene kovwira ŵalwari, ŵakavu, na ŵakusuzgika. Tchalitchi la Katolika lili na masukulu ghanandi gha Katolika, maunivesite na makoleji, vipatala, na nyumba za ŵalanda pa charu chose.<ref name="Geopolitics">{{cite journal|last=Agnew|first=John|title=Deus Vult: The Geopolitics of Catholic Church|journal=Geopolitics|date=12 February 2010|volume=15|issue=1|pages=39–61|doi=10.1080/14650040903420388|s2cid=144793259}}</ref> Pali mawupu ghanandi agho ghakovwira ŵanthu. Tchalitchi la Katolika lawovwira chomene ŵanthu ŵa ku Western pa nkhani ya vinjeru, maluso, sumu, na sayansi. Ŵakatolika ŵakukhala pa caru cose capasi cifukwa ca umishonale, kusamira ku vyaru vinyake, na kuzgoka. Kwambira mu ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala ku Southern Hemisphere, chifukwa cha kusuzgika chomene ku Middle East na ku Europe. Tchalitchi la Katolika likakolerananga na tchalitchi la Eastern Orthodox m'paka mu 1054 apo pakachitika chisopa cha East-West Schism. Pambere ungano wa ku Efeso undachitike mu 431 C.E., ŵa Ekleziya ya kumafumiro gha dazi nawo ŵakaŵa mu umoza uwu, nga umo vikaŵira na ŵa Ekleziya ya Orthodox pambere ungano wa ku Chalcedon undachitike mu 451 C.E.; wose ŵakapambananga cifukwa ca kupambana maghanoghano pa nkhani ya Khristu. Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi, agho ghali na ŵanthu pafupifupi 18 miliyoni, ghakwimira Ŵakhristu ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi awo ŵakawelera panji ŵakalutilira kukolerana na papa pa nyengo ya kugaŵikana uku panji pamanyuma pake. Mu vilimika vya m'ma 1500, Ŵaprotesitanti nawo ŵakamba kugaluka. Kwambira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Tchalitchi la Katolika lakususkika cifukwa ca visambizgo vyake vyakukhwaskana na kugonana, kususka ŵanakazi, ndiposo umo likucitira na nkhani za kugonana na ŵaliska. == Zina == {{Further|Chikatolika|Chikatolika cha Ŵaroma}} [[File:Ignatius of Antiochie, poss. by Johann Apakass (17th c., Pushkin museum).jpg|thumb|left|Lizgu lakuti "Tchalitchi la Katolika" (ilo likung'anamura "Tchalitchi la pa Charu Chose") likalembeka kakwamba na mutuŵa Ignatius wa ku Antiyoke mu kalata yake ya ku Smyrna. ({{circa|110|lk=no}}&nbsp;AD).<ref>John Meyendorff, ''Catholicity and the Church'', St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-88141-006-3}}, p. 7</ref> Ignatius wa ku Antiyoke ndiyo wakambiska kugwiliskira nchito lizgu lakuti "Ukhristu" ({{Lang-el|Χριστιανισμός|links=no}}) {{circa|100|lk=no}}&nbsp;AD.<ref>{{Citation | last1 =Elwell | first1 =Walter | last2 =Comfort | first2 =Philip Wesley | year =2001 | title =Tyndale Bible Dictionary | publisher =Tyndale House Publishers | isbn =0-8423-7089-7|pages=266, 828}}</ref> He died in Rome, with his [[relic]]s located in the [[Basilica of San Clemente al Laterano]].|253x253px]] Mazgu ghakuti Katolika (kufuma ku Chigiriki: καθολικός, romanized: katholikos, lit. 'universal') ghakamba kugwiliskirika ntchito pakulongosora vya tchalitchi mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E.<ref>MacCulloch, ''Christianity'', p. 127.</ref> Lizgu lakuti "tchalitchi cha Katolika" (mu Cigiriki καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία, ilo lili kulembeka kuti he katholike ekklesia) likamba kusangika mu kalata iyo St. Ignatius wa ku Antiyoke wakalembera ŵanthu ŵa ku Smyrna mu 110 C.E.{{refn|group=note|Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans ({{Circa|110 AD|lk=no}})}}, iyo yikati: "Kose uko kuli bishopu, ŵanthu ŵaŵenge kwenekuko, nga umo kuliri Yesu, ndipo uko kuli mpingo wa [katholike]".<ref name="CathEnc1910_Catholic"/> Mu Catechetical Lectures (c. 350) ya Cyril wa ku Yerusalemu, zina lakuti "Tchalitchi la Katolika" likagwiliskirika nchito kuti liŵe lapadera na magulu ghanyake agho ghakajichemanga "tchalitchi".<ref name="CathEnc1910_Catholic">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03449a.htm |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |title=Catholic |last=Thurston |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Thurston |place=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |date=1908 |access-date=17 August 2012|editor-first=Kevin |editor-last=Knight |editor-link=Knight |volume=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-23.htm |title=Cyril of Jerusalem, Lecture XVIII, 26 |publisher=Tertullian.org |date=6 August 2004 |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref> Fundo yakuti "Chisopa cha Katolika" yikayowoyeka chomene mu dango la De fide Catolica ilo likapelekeka mu 380 na Theodosius I.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://webu2.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Constitutiones/Thessalonique.htm |title=Edictum de fide catholica |access-date=9 October 2017 |archive-date=8 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208135704/http://webu2.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Constitutiones/Thessalonique.htm }}</ref> Kufuma waka mu 1054 apo pakaŵa kuswa malango kwa East na West, tchalitchi la Eastern Church likamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti "Orthodox".<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eastern-Orthodoxy "Eastern Orthodoxy"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' online.</ref> Tchalitchi la ku Western ilo likukolerana na Papa nalo likucemeka kuti "Chatoliki", ndipo likalutilira kucemeka nthena nanga ni apo pakaŵa kusintha kwa visopa mu ma 1500, apo awo ŵakaleka kuwungana ŵakamba kucemeka "Ŵaprotesitanti".<ref>"catholic, adj. and n." [[Oxford English Dictionary]] Online. Oxford University Press, June 2014. Web. 7 August 2014. Excerpt: "After the separation of East and West 'Catholic' was assumed as its descriptive epithet by the Western or Latin Church, as 'Orthodox' was by the Eastern or Greek. At the Reformation, the term 'Catholic' was claimed as its exclusive right by the body remaining under the Roman obedience, in opposition to the 'Protestant' or 'Reformed' National Churches. These, however, also retained the term, giving it, for the most part, a wider and more ideal or absolute sense, as the attribute of no single community, but only of the whole communion of the saved and saintly in all churches and ages. In England, it was claimed that the Church, even as Reformed, was the national branch of the 'Catholic Church' in its proper historical sense." Note: The full text of the OED definition of "catholic" can be consulted [[Wikipedia talk:Requests for mediation/Roman Catholic Church/Archive 17|here]].</ref><ref name="McBrien">McBrien, Richard (2008). ''The Church''. Harper Collins. p. xvii. Online version available [https://web.archive.org/web/20090827023130/http://browseinside.harpercollins.com/index.aspx?isbn13=9780061245213 Browseinside.harpercollins.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827023130/http://browseinside.harpercollins.com/index.aspx?isbn13=9780061245213 |date=27 August 2009 }}. Quote: "[T]he use of the adjective 'Catholic' as a modifier of 'Church' became divisive only after the East–West Schism... and the Protestant Reformation. ... In the former case, the Western Church claimed for itself the title ''Catholic'' Church, while the East appropriated the name ''Orthodox'' Church. In the latter case, those in communion with the Bishop of Rome retained the adjective "Catholic", while the churches that broke with the Papacy were called ''Protestant''."</ref> Apo "Tchalitchi la Ŵaroma" likuyowoyeka pakulongosora Diocese ya Roma kufuma apo Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukawira m'ma 500 C.E. m'paka m'ma 1500 C.E., "Tchalitchi la Katolika" likuyowoyeka pa mpingo wose wa Chingelezi kufuma apo Ŵaprotesitanti ŵakambiska chisopa cha Katolika m'ma 1500 C.E.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/167063 |title=Roman Catholic, n. and adj. |work=Oxford English Dictionary|access-date=24 October 2017|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Kweniso, ŵanji ŵakuyowoya za Tchalitchi la Cilatini kuti "Roman Catholic" kupambanako na matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://catholicnewsherald.com/88-news/fp/5548-eastern-catholics-where-are-they-where-should-they-be|title=Eastern Catholics: Where are they? Where should they be?|work=[[Catholic News Herald]]|publisher=[[Roman Catholic Diocese of Charlotte|Diocese of Charlotte]]|date=12 March 2020|access-date=19 March 2022}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake mazgu ghakuti "Roman Catholic" ghakusangika mu mabuku agho ghakupharazgika na Tchalitchi la Katolika. Zina lakuti "Tchalitchi la Katolika" likuyowoya za tchalitchi lose. Zina lakuti "Tchalitchi la Katolika" likusangikaso mu mabuku gha Vatican II (1962-1965), <ref>{{cite web |title=Documents of the II Vatican Council |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040605190838/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/ |archive-date=5 June 2004 |access-date=4 May 2009 |publisher=Vatican.va. |quote=Note: The pope's signature appears in the Latin version.}}</ref> First Vatican Council (1869-1870),<ref>{{cite web |date=29 June 1868 |title=Decrees of the First Vatican Council – Papal Encyclicals |url=http://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum20.htm}}</ref> Council of Trent (1545-1563),<ref>[https://history.hanover.edu/texts/trent/trentall.html "The Bull of Indiction of the Sacred Oecumenical and General Council of Trent under the Sovereign Pontiff, Paul III."] ''The Council of Trent: The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent''. Ed. and trans. J. Waterworth. London: Dolman, 1848. Retrieved from History.Hanover.edu, 12 September 2018.</ref> na mabuku ghanyake ghanandi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13121a.htm|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Roman Catholic|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/ANSWERS/HOWNAME.HTM|title=Kenneth D. Whitehead|website=www.ewtn.com}}</ref> ==Mbili== [[File:Perugino - Entrega de las llaves a San Pedro (Capilla Sixtina, 1481-82).jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Painting a haloed Jesus Christ passing keys to a kneeling man.|This [[fresco]] (1481–82) by [[Pietro Perugino]] in the [[Sistine Chapel]] shows Jesus giving the [[Keys of Heaven|keys of heaven]] to [[Saint Peter]].]] <!--{{POV-section|date=October 2014}} (Addressed on talkpage archive:[[Talk:Catholic Church/Archive 53#History Section]])--> <!--See corresponding sections in the body of the history section for sources--> Chisopa cha Cikhristu chili na visambizgo vya Yesu, uyo wakaŵako na kupharazga mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira mu cigaŵa ca Yudeya mu Ufumu wa Roma. Baibolo likusambizga kuti Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira awo Yesu Khristu wakaŵakhazikiska ndiwo ŵakalutilira na Tchalitchi la Katolika. Cikristu cikapharazgika mu caru cose ico cikateŵeteranga Ŵaroma, nangauli ŵakasuzgikanga cifukwa ca kususkana na cisopa cautesi. Mu 313 C.E., Fumu Constantine yikazomerezga kuti Ŵakhristu ŵaunenesko ŵaŵe mu chisopa chawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany awo ŵakanjira mu caru ca Romu mu vilimika vya m'ma 400 na 600 C.E., ŵanandi awo pakwamba ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu ŵa cisopa ca Arian, ŵakamba kusopa Cikatolika kuti ŵaŵe ŵabwezi ŵa papa na nyumba za ŵasofi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 na 800 C.E., Ŵasilamu ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Meditereniyani, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵaleke kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku mpoto kwa Europe. Kweniso chikachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Romu ŵaleke kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Byzantine. Nkhondo izo zikaŵa na mazaza mu tchalitchi, chomenechomene mazaza gha bishopu wa ku Romu, zikafika paheni chomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1100. Mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, pakaŵa kugaŵikana mu mpingo. Ndipouli, matchalitchi gha ku mafumiro gha dazi ghacoko waka ghakaŵa kuti ghalutilira kukolerana na Roma, ndipo ghanyake ghakamba kukolerana na matchalitchi agha mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na kunthazi. Ciraliro caumaliro, cithunzi ca Leonardo da Vinci ca kuumaliro wa 1490, ico cikulongora ciphikiro caumaliro ca Yesu na ŵapositole ŵake khumi na ŵaŵiri pambere wandapayikike. Ŵapositole ŵanandi ŵali kusungika mu Romu, kusazgapo mutuŵa Petrosi. Ŵasembe ŵakwambilira mu vyaru vya ku Europe ŵakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece na Roma ŵaleke kusuzgika. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, tchalitchi likamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Renaissance, tchalitchi likaŵawovwiranga. Ndipouli, mu virimika vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalongozganga visambizgo vya Ciphwitikizgo ŵakamba kususka cisopa, comenecomene awo ŵakalongozganga visopa. Nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Spain na Portugal ŵakamba kupharazga mu Africa, Asia, na ku vyaru vinyake vya ku Asia. Mu 1870, Wupu Wakwamba wa ku Vatican ukati papa wangabuda yayi, ndipo ufumu wa Italy ukatoranga msumba wa Roma. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, maboma gha ku Mexico na Spain ghakatambuzga na kukoma ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa visopa. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, tchalitchi likasuska muwuso wa Nazi, ndipo likavikilira Ŵayuda ŵanandi ku Ŵanazi. Nkhondo yikati yamara, wanangwa wa kusopa ukasuzgika comene mu vyaru vya Chikomyunizimu ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na Soviet Union. Mu ma 1960, Wupu wa Vatican wachiŵiri ukapangiska kuti paŵe kusintha kwa maluso gha tchalitchi, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakakhozgeranga chisopa ichi ŵakayowoya kuti "ŵakajura mawindo". Nangauli tchalitchi likususkika comene, kweni nyengo zinandi likukhozgera panji kukhozga visambizgo vyautesi vyakukhwaskana na kugonana na ŵanalume. ===Nyengo ya ŵapositole na upapa=== [[File:DambachVille StEtienne 14.JPG|left|thumb|Jesus' commission to [[Saint Peter]]]] Cipangano Ciphya, comenecomene mabuku gha Makani Ghawemi, ghakuyowoya za milimo na visambizgo vya Yesu, umo wakasankhira ŵapositole ŵake 12 na mulimo wake ukuru wa kuŵatuma, ndipo wakaŵaphalira kuti ŵalutilire kucita mulimo wake. Buku la Milimo la Ŵapositole likuyowoya umo mpingo wa Ŵakhristu ukambira na umo uthenga wawo ukathandazgikira mu ufumu wa Roma. Tchalitchi la Katolika likusambizga kuti uteŵeti wake ukambira pa Pentekoste, mazuŵa 50 pamanyuma pa zuŵa ilo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Khristu wakawuskika. Pa Pentekoste, ŵapositole ŵakagomezga kuti ŵakapokera mzimu utuŵa, uwo ukaŵawovwira kuti ŵambe kulongozga mpingo. Tchalitchi la Katolika likusambizga kuti mabishopu agho ghakulongozgeka na bishopu wa ku Romu ndigho ghakanjira mu malo gha ŵapositole.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|880,883}}</ref> Mu buku la Mateyu, Khristu wakati Petrosi ni "libwe" ilo lizamuzengera mpingo wake. Tchalitchi la Katolika likuti bishopu wa ku Romu, uyo ni papa, ndiyo ni muhaliri wa Petrosi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakusanda vya Baibolo ŵakuti Petrosi ndiyo wakaŵa bishopu wakwamba wa Romu. Ŵanyake ŵakuti udindo wa upapa ukuyana yayi na fundo yakuti Petrosi wakaŵa bishopu wa ku Romu panji kuti wakaŵa ku Romu. Ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti mpingo wa Katolika ukaŵa na ŵaliska ŵanandi m'paka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., apo ŵaliska ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito zina lakuti "bishopu wa Roma". Pa cifukwa ici, Oscar Cullmann, Henry Chadwick, na Bart D. Ehrman wakakayikanga usange Petrosi wakaŵa na udindo wa kuŵa papa. Raymond E. Brown wakayowoyaso kuti nchambura kwenelera kuyowoya za Petrosi nga ni bishopu wa ku Roma, kweni Ŵakhristu ŵa nyengo iyo ŵakamuwonanga kuti wakaŵa na "milimo iyo yikamovwira comene kuti paŵe udindo wa papa mu mpingo". Brown wakati maudindo agha "ghakawovwira comene kuti bishopu wa ku Roma, bishopu wa mu msumba uwo Petrosi wakafwira ndiposo uko Paulosi wakacitira ukaboni unenesko wa Khristu, waŵe wakulondezga Petrosi pa mulimo wa kupwelelera mpingo wa pa caru cose".<ref name="REB">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond E.|year=2003|title=101 Questions and Answers on the Bible|url={{googlebooks|b8ubeFP6JUYC|page=132|plainurl=y}}|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-4251-4|pages=132–134}}</ref> ===Kale na Ufumu wa Roma=== Vinthu vikaŵa makora mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma mwakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira vinthu viphya. Pakuti mu ufumu uwu mukaŵa misewu yinandi na maji ghanandi, chikaŵa chipusu kwenda, ndipo pakaŵa mtende (Pax Romana). Ufumu uwu ukawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora mitheto ya Ŵagiriki. Mwakupambana na visopa vinandi mu Ufumu wa Roma, Ŵakhristu ŵakeneranga kukana ŵachiuta ŵanyake wose. Cifukwa cakuti Ŵakhristu ŵakakananga kukolerana na viphikiro vyautesi, ŵakatondekanga kucita vinthu vinandi vya mu caru, ndipo ici cikapangiska ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu yayi, kusazgapo ŵalara ŵa boma, kopa kuti Ŵakhristu ŵakukwiyiska ŵachiuta na kunanga mtende wa ufumu. Cifukwa ca nthambuzgo izi, Ŵakhristu ŵakamba kujighanaghanira ŵekha m'paka apo Cikristu cikazomerezgekera mu vilimika vya m'ma 300 C.E.<ref name="macculloch155and164">MacCulloch, ''Christianity'', pp. 155–159, 164.</ref>[[File:Basilica di San Pietro 1450.jpg|thumb|19th-century drawing by [[Henry William Brewer]] of [[Old Saint Peter's Basilica]], originally built in 318 by [[Emperor Constantine]]]] Mu 313, Themba Constantine I likapeleka dango lakuti Chikhristu chiŵe chakuzomerezgeka, ndipo mu 330 Constantine wakasamuskira msumba ukuru wa ufumu ku Constantinople, uko sono ni Istanbul, Turkey. Mu 380, dango la ku Tesalonika likazgora Chikhristu cha ku Nicaea kuŵa tchalitchi la boma la Ufumu wa Roma. Mu nyengo ya maungano ghaŵiri gha Ekumeniki, pakaŵa mipingo yinkhondi na yiŵiri, ndipo yikamba kulamulira pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Fumu Justinian I ndiyo yikalamuliranga vinthu vya ku Roma, Constantinople, Antiyoke, Yerusalemu, na Alexandria.<ref name="Valliere2012">{{cite book|last=Valliere|first=Paul|year= 2012|title=Conciliarism|url={{googlebooks|Qrt3Z7fyzlUC|page=92|plainurl=y}}|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01574-6|page=92}}</ref><ref name="Bartholomew2008">{{cite book|last=Patriarch|first=Bartholomew|year=2008|title=Encountering the Mystery|url={{googlebooks|4_UB3_UpIcQC|page=3|plainurl=y}}|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-52561-9|page=3}}</ref> Mu 451 C.E., pa ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Chalcedon, ŵaliska ŵa ku Constantinople ŵakakhozga cisambizgo cawo cakuti cisambizgo ici "ncaciŵiri kwa bishopu wa ku Roma". Kwamba mu 350 C.E. m'paka mu 500 C.E., mabishopu panji kuti ŵapapa ŵa ku Romu ŵakalutilira kuŵa na mazaza ghanandi chifukwa ŵakakhozgeranga ŵalongozgi ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox. Themba Justinian, ilo mu vigaŵa ivyo likalamuliranga likakhazikiska muwuso wa ŵapositole, umo "likakhazikiskiranga malango ghake ghakukhwaskana na kusopa na kulondezga malango, kweniso likalanguranga vigomezgo vya Tchalitchi", likakhazikiskaso mazaza ghake pa Roma na vigaŵa vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo likambiska nyengo ya ufumu wa Ŵapapa wa Byzantium (537-752 C.E.), apo ŵasembe ŵa ku Romu ŵakakhumbikwiranga kuzomerezgeka na themba ku Constantinople panji mwimiliri wake ku Ravenna kuti ŵaŵe ŵapositole.<ref>[[Eamon Duffy|Duffy, Eamon]]. 1997. ''Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes''. Yale University Press. pp. 66–67</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Germany awo ŵakanjira mu Ufumu wa Roma mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵakamba kugomezga cisopa ca Arian, ico Tchalitchi la Katolika likati nchambura kugomezgeka. Mphindano ya cisopa iyo yikaŵapo pakati pa mafumu gha ku Germany na ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Cikatolika yikamara mu 497 C.E. apo Clovis I, uyo wakaŵa fumu ya Ŵafrank, wakazgoka Mukatolika, ndipo wakajibatika ku ufumu wa papa na nyumba za cisopa. Ŵasilikari ŵa Visigoth mu Spain ŵakamulondezga mu 589, ndipo ŵa Lombard mu Italy mu ma 600 C.E. Chikhristu cha ku Western, chomenechomene mu nyumba zake za ŵachiuta, chikawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵasungilire ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale. Kwizira mu dango lake, Benedict wa ku Nursia (c. 480-543), yumoza wa awo ŵakambiska chisopa cha ku Western monasticism, wakasintha chomene vinthu mu vyaru vya ku Europe. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ireland ŵakamba kusambira chomene ndipo ŵamishonale ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Ireland, nga ni Columbanus na Columba, ŵakathandazga Chikhristu na kukhazikiska nyumba za ŵachiuta mu vyaru vya ku Europe.<ref name="Cahill_Thomas">{{cite book |last=Cahill |first=Thomas |title=[[How the Irish Saved Civilization|How The Irish Saved Civilization: The Untold Story of Ireland's Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe]] |date=1995 |publisher=[[Penguin Random House]] |location=[[New York City]]}}</ref> ===Nyengo zapakati na Kuwukaso=== [[File:Chartres Cath+Gare.JPG|left|upright=1.2|thumb|[[Chartres Cathedral]], completed 1220]] Tchalitchi la Katolika ndilo likaŵa likuru comene mu vyaru vya ŵazungu kufuma mu nyengo yakale mpaka mu nyengo yithu yino.<ref name="O'CollinsPref"/> Mu msumba uwu ndimo mukaŵa vyakuvwara vyakucemeka Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist, na Baroque.<ref>Woods, pp. 115–27</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Renaissance, nga ni Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Titian, Bernini na Caravaggio, ni viyelezgero vya ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizgika vinthu vyakupambanapambana.<ref>Duffy, p. 133.</ref> Paul Legutko, wakulemba mdauko wa ku Yunivesite ya Stanford, wakayowoya kuti Chalichi la Katolika "ndico cikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora, maghanoghano, sayansi, malango, na mawupu agho tikughacemera kuti civilisation ya ku Western".<ref>{{cite web|title=Review of ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilisation''|first=Thomas Jr.|last=Woods|url=http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/bookpage.asp?prod_cd=c6664|work=National Review Book Service|access-date=16 September 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822150152/http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/BookPage.asp?prod_cd=c6664|archive-date=22 August 2006}}</ref> Ku Manjiliro gha dazi [[Vikhristu]], mayunivesite ghakwamba ku Europe ghakakhazikiska ŵamonke ŵa Tchalitchi la Katolika.<ref>{{cite book|title=Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Real Estate Decisions|first=Alexandra |last= Den Heijer| isbn=9789059724877| year =2011|publisher=Academische Uitgeverij Eburon| quote= Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Christian Education|first=Mark|last= A. Lamport |year= 2015| page =484|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield| isbn=9780810884939|quote= All the great European universities-Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with close ties to the Church.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Developing World|first=Thomas |last=B M. Leonard|year= 2013| isbn=9781135205157| page = 1369|publisher=Routledge|quote= Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.}}</ref> Kufuma mu vilimika vya m’ma 1000 kuya munthazi, masukulu ghanyake ghakale gha katedrale [[Yunivesite ya mu nyengo ya Ŵamitundu|ghakazgoka mayunivesite]] (wonani, mwaciyelezgero, [[Yunivesite ya Oxford]], [[Yunivesite ya Paris]] na [[Yunivesite ya Bologna]]). Pakwamba, masambiro ghapachanya ghakaŵa gha Ŵakhristu [[sukulu za katedrale]] panji [[sukulu za ŵasembe]] (''Scholae monasticae''), awo ŵakalongozgekanga na [[ŵasembe]] na [[ŵasembe]]. Ukaboni wa masukulu agha ukaŵapo mu vilimika vya m’ma 6th century&nbsp;CE.<ref name="auto">Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|0-87249-376-8}}, pp.&nbsp;126–127, 282–298</ref> Mayunivesite ghaphya agha ghakasazgirako masambiro gha ŵasambizgi ŵa visopa, ŵaloya, ŵanchito ŵa boma, na madokota.<ref>Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100–1914'', p. 40</ref> Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti yunivesite iyi ni sukulu iyo yikambira mu [[Mbiri ya Chikhristu|Mkhristu wa mu Nyengo Yapakati]].<ref name=verger1999>{{cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |date=1999 |author-link=:fr:Jacques Verger|title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |edition=1st |language=fr |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2-86847-344-8 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref><ref>Verger, Jacques. "The Universities and Scholasticism," in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume V c. 1198–c. 1300. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 257.</ref><ref name="Rüegg, Walter 1992, pp. XIX">Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX–XX</ref> Kuwukira kukuru kwa Ŵasilamu mu [[Chikhristu mu vilimika vya m’ma 700|pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 700]] kukayamba nkhondo yitali pakati pa [[Chikhristu na Chisilamu]] mu chigaŵa chose cha Meditereniyani. Mwaluŵiro [[Ufumu wa Byzantium]] ukataya vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi [[ufumu wa ŵasekuru]]s vya [[Mulongozgi wa Orthodox wa Ŵagiriki wa ku Yerusalemu|Yerusalemu]], [[Mulongozgi wa Alexandria|Alexandria]] na [[Mulongozgi wa Antiokeya wakaŵa|Mulongozgi wa ku Antiokeya wa] Konstantinople|Konstantinople]], msumba ukuru wa ufumu uwu. Chifukwa cha [[Kuthereska kwa Ŵasilamu kwakwamba|Kuwusa kwa Chisilamu pa Meditereniyani]], boma la Frank, ilo likaŵa pakatikati pa nyanja iyo, likakwaniska kusintha kuŵa nkhongono yakuwusa iyo yikapanga Western Europe mu Middle Ages.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pirenne|first=Henri|year=1980|title=Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade|others=Frank D. Halsey (trans.)|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|orig-date=1925|url={{googlebooks|TKUN4UdfVaQC|page=27|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-691-00760-1|pages=27–32}}</ref> Nkhondo za [[Nkhondo ya Toulouse (721)|Toulouse]] na [[Nkhondo ya Poitiers (732)|Poitiers]] zikalekeska kuluta panthazi kwa Chisilamu ku Manjiliro gha dazi ndipo [[Kuzingilizgika kwa Constantinople (717–718)|kuzingilizgika kwa Constantinople]] iyo yikatondeka yikalekeska ku Mafumiro gha dazi. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 20 panji 30, mu 751, Ufumu wa Byzantium ukataya msumba wa Ravenna uwo [[Exarchate of Ravenna|ukalamuliranga]] vigaŵa vichokovichoko vya Italy, kusazgapo Roma, ivyo vikazomerezga kuti viŵe na mazaza pa ŵa Lombard. Kuwa kwa Ravenna kukang’anamuranga kuti kukhozgeka na exarch uyo wakaŵakoso yayi kukapempheka yayi pa nyengo ya chisankho mu 752 cha [[Papa Stephen II]] ndiposo kuti ŵapapa ŵakachichizgika kupenja malo ghanyake kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza gha boma kuti ŵaŵavikilire.<ref>{{cite book|last=Richards|first=Jeffrey|year=2014|title=The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages|publisher=Routledge|url={{googlebooks|Zod9AwAAQBAJ|page=230|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-1-317-67817-5|page=230}}</ref> Mu 754, pa pempho la mwaluŵiro la Papa Stephen, themba la Frank [[Pepin Mufupi]] likapoka Ŵalombard. Pamanyuma pake [[Kupeleka kwa Pepin|wakapeleka chawanangwa]] vyaru ivyo kale vikaŵa vya exarchate kwa papa, ntheura wakambiska [[Vigaŵa vya Papa]]. Roma na Byzantine East ŵazamuŵa na nkhondo yinyake mu nyengo ya [[kugaŵikana kwa Photian]] mu vilimika vya m’ma 860, apo [[Photios I wa ku Constantinople | Nangauli kugaŵikana uku kukagowokerana, kweni nkhani izo zikaŵa kuti zindamazgike zingapangiska kuti ŵagaŵikaneso.<ref>{{cite book|last=Walker|first=Willston|year=1985|title=History of the Christian Church|publisher=Simon and Schuster|url={{googlebooks|bFw8PtQhpVoC|page=250|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-684-18417-3|pages=250–251}}</ref> Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1000, kuyezgayezga kwa [[Hildebrand wa ku Sovana]] kukapangiska kuti paŵe [[Koleji ya Ŵakadinala]] kuti ŵasankhe ŵapapa ŵaphya, kwamba na [[Papa Alexander II]] mu [[Chisankho cha Papa, 1061|chisankho cha Papa cha 1061]]. Alexander Wachiŵiri wakati wafwa, Hildebrand wakasankhika kuti waŵe m’malo mwake, nga ni [[Papa Gregory VII]]. Nthowa yakwamba ya chisankho cha College of Cardinals iyo Gregory VII wakawovwira kukhazikiska yalutilira kugwira ntchito m’paka mu vilimika vya m’ma 2000. Papa Gregory VII wakambiskaso [[Kusintha kwa Gregory]] pa nkhani ya kujiyimira paŵekha kwa ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ku ŵamazaza ŵa caru. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe [[Nkhondo ya Kuŵika Ndalama]] pakati pa tchalitchi na [[Fumu Yituŵa ya Roma]], iyo yikaŵa na mazaza ghakusankha mabishopu na ŵapapa.<ref name="Vidmar107">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 107–11</ref><ref name="Duffy78">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor [[Pope Eugene II|Eugenius II]] (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under [[Pope Sergius II|Sergius II]] (844–7) it was even agreed that the pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."</ref> Mu 1095, [[Ufumu wa Byzantine|Byzantine]] themba [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexius I]] wakapempha [[Papa Urban II]] kuti wamovwire kulimbana na nkhondo za Ŵasilamu izo zikaŵa kuti zawukiraso ŵasilikari ŵawo. 8</ref> ivyo vikapangiska kuti Urban wambe [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Mtanda]] iyo yikaŵa na chilato chakuti wawovwire Ufumu wa Byzantine na kuwezgerapo [[Charu Chatuŵa]] ku mazaza gha Ŵakhristu.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=140–141}} Mu [[Ubale] wa Chikhristu pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1900, 1111. tchalitchi lakwamba la Chigiriki na Tchalitchi la Chilatini vikaŵapatura mu [[East–West Schism]], chigaŵa chinyake chifukwa cha kugaŵikana pa [[papa]] mazaza. [[Nkhondo Yachinayi ya Mtanda]] na kupoka Constantinople na ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ŵakalongora kuti ŵakaswa malango ghaumaliro. Mu nyengo iyi, matchalitchi ghakuru gha chigothi ku France ghakaŵa ghakumanyikwa chomene. Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1200 [[magulu ghakupemphapempha]] ghakakhazikiska [[Francis wa ku Assisi]] ​​na [[Dominic Mutuŵa|Dominic de Guzmán]]. ''Studia conventualia'' na ''[[sukulu yikuru|studia yikuru]]'' ya malango ghakupemphapempha ŵakawovwira chomene pa kusintha kwa [[sukulu ya katedrale]] iyo yikakhozgekanga na tchalitchi na sukulu za pa nyumba ya ufumu, nga ni ya [[Charlemagne]] ku [[Aachen]], ku mayunivesite gha [[Aachen]], kuŵa gha pro.<ref>Woods, pp. 44–48</ref> [[Masambiro|Masambiro]] ŵasambizgi ŵa visopa na ŵafilosofe nga ni wasembe wa ku Dominican [[Thomas Aquinas]] ŵakasambiranga na kusambizga pa masambiro agha. Aquinas ''Summa Theologica'' yikaŵa chinthu chakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya vinjeru pakusazga chiharo cha [[filosofe yakale ya ku Greece|ŵafilosofe ŵakale ŵa ku Greece]] nga ni Plato na Aristotle na ivyo vikaŵa mu chivumbuzi cha Ŵakhristu.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=158–159}} Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1300, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona nkhondo pakati pa tchalitchi na boma. Kuti ŵaleke kukhazikika mu Roma, [[Papa Clement V|Clement V]] mu 1309 wakazgoka wakwamba pa ŵapapa ŵankhondi na ŵaŵiri awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba wakukhora wa [[Avignon]] kumwera kwa France mu nyengo iyo yikamanyikwanga kuti [[Upapa wa Avignon]]. Upapa wa Avignon ukamara mu 1376 apo papa wakawelera ku Roma, kweni mu 1378 ukalondezgeka na [[Kugaŵikana kwa Kumanjiliro gha dazi|Kugaŵikana kwa Kumanjiliro gha dazi]] uko kukatora vyaka 38, ndipo awo ŵakatenge ŵaŵe ŵapapa ku Roma, Avignon na (pamanyuma pa 1409) Pisa.<ref name="McManners232"/> Nkhani iyi yikamazgika chomene mu 1415–17 pa [[Council of Constance]], ndipo awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaŵe na boma ku Roma na Pisa ŵakazomera kuleka ntchito ndipo uyo wakakhumbanga boma wachitatu wakafumiskikapo na ŵakadinala, awo ŵakachita chisankho chiphya na zina lakuti [[Papa Martin V|Martin V]] papa.<ref name="McManners240">McManners, p. 240</ref> [[File:Lightmatter Sistine Chapel ceiling.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Nyengo ya Renaissance yikaŵa nyengo ya golide ya [[luso lwa Ŵakatolika]]. Pa cithuzithuzi: [[Siling’i ya Nyumba ya Kusopa ya Sistine]] iyo yikapenteka na [[Michelangelo]].]] Mu 1438, [[Council of Florence]] yikawungana, iyo yikaŵa na kudumbiskana kwakukhora uko kukaŵika mtima pa kupulikiska mphambano za visopa pakati pa Mafumiro gha dazi na Kumanjiliro gha dazi, na cigomezgo cakuti matchalitchi gha Katolika na gha Orthodox ghazamukoleranaso.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geanakoplos|first=Deno John|year=1989|title=Constantinople and the West|url=https://archive.org/details/constantinoplewe0000gean|location=Madison, WI|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-11880-8}}</ref> Matchalitchi ghanandi gha kumafumiro gha dazi ghakakoleranaso, ndipo ghakapanga chigaŵa chikuru cha [[Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Collinge|first=William J.|year=2012|title=Historical Dictionary of Catholicism|publisher=Scarecrow Press|url={{googlebooks|LR0Nyt3bi_MC|page=169|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-8108-5755-1|page=169}}</ref> == Bungwe == [[File:Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg|thumb|"Nizamukupani makiyi gha ufumu wa kuchanya, ndipo chilichose icho muzamukaka pa charu chapasi chizamukakika kuchanya, ndipo chilichose icho muzamufwatura pa charu chapasi chizamufwatuka kuchanya." Yesu kwa Petrosi mu [[Uthenga Uwemi wa Mateyu]], Matthew 16:19.]] Mpingo wa Katolika ukulondezga ndondomeko ya episcopal polity, iyo yikulongozgeka na mabishopu awo ŵapokera sakramenti ya Holy Orders awo ŵakupika mazaza ghakulongozga mukati mwa mpingo.[186][187] Pali vigaŵa vitatu vya ŵaliska: episcopate, iyo yili na mabishopu agho ghali na mazaza pa malo agho ghakuchemeka diocese panji eparchy; presbyterate, iyo yili na ŵasembe awo ŵakuŵikika na mabishopu ndipo ŵakugwira ntchito mu madayosisi gha mu chigaŵa panji mu mabungwe gha visopa; na udikoni, uwo uli na ŵadikoni awo ŵakovwira mabishopu na ŵasembe pa milimo yakupambanapambana ya uteŵeti. Paumaliro uyo wakulongozga Mpingo wose wa Katolika ni bishopu wa ku Roma, uyo wakumanyikwa kuti papa (mu Chilatini: papa, lit. 'dada'), uyo mazaza ghake ghakuchemeka Mpando Mutuŵa (Sancta Sedes mu Chilatini).[188] Pakuyana waka na kapangikiro ka dayosizi pali mabungwe ghakupambanapambana gha visopa agho ghakugwira ntchito mwakujiyimira paŵekha, kanandi ghakulongozgeka na mazaza gha papa pera, nangauli nyengo zinyake ghakulongozgeka na bishopu wa malo agha. Mabungwe ghanandi gha visopa ghakuŵa na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera kweni ghanyake ghakuŵa na wose ŵaŵiri. Kweniso, ŵantu ŵambura kusopa ŵakuwovwira pa milimo yinandi ya cisopo pa nyengo ya kusopa. === Mpando Wakupatulika, upapa, Curia ya Roma, na Koleji ya Ŵakadinali === Ŵalongozgi ŵa Tchalitchi la Katolika ŵakulongozgeka na papa—sono ni Papa Francis, uyo wakasankhika pa 13 March 2013 na msonkhano wa ŵapapa.[118] Ofesi ya papa yikumanyikwa kuti papacy. Tchalitchi la Katolika likuyowoya kuti Khristu wakambiska upapa apo wakapeleka makiyi gha Kuchanya kwa Petrosi Mutuŵa. Mazaza ghake gha tchalitchi ghakuchemeka Holy See, panji Mpando wa Ŵapositole (kung'anamura Mpando wa mpositole Petrosi).[119][120] Ŵanthu awo ŵakuteŵetera papa mwaluŵiro ni Roman Curia, wupu ukuru uwo ukulaŵilira bizinesi ya zuŵa na zuŵa ya Tchalitchi la Katolika. Papa nayo ni muwusi wa Vatican City,[121] msumba-boma lichoko ilo lili mu msumba wa Roma, uwo ni gulu lakupambana na Holy See. Ni nga ni mutu wa Holy See, nga ni mutu wa Vatican City State yayi, apo papa wakupokelera ŵamishonale ŵa vyaru na kuŵatumira ŵamishonale ŵake ŵa boma.[122] Mpando Wakupatulika ukupelekaso malango, kukongozga na mendulo, nga ni malango gha chivalry agho ghakafuma mu nyengo ya Middle Ages. Nangauli tchalitchi lakumanyikwa la Saint Peter lili mu msumba wa Vatican, pachanya pa malo ghakumanyikwa gha dindi la Saint Peter, tchalitchi likuru la papa la Dayosizi ya Roma ni Archbasilica ya Saint John Lateran, iyo yili mukati mwa msumba wa Roma, nangauli yili na mwaŵi wa kuzomerezgeka na Holy. Malo gha kadinala ni udindo wa ntchindi uwo ŵapapa ŵakupeleka ku ŵaliska ŵanyake, nga mbalongozgi ŵa mu Roman Curia, mabishopu agho ghakuteŵetera mu misumba yikuruyikuru na ŵasambizgi ŵakumanyikwa ŵa visopa. Kuti ŵamupe ulongozgi na wovwiri pa kulamulira, papa wangaluta ku College of Cardinal.[123] Pamanyuma pa nyifwa panji kuleka kwa papa,[wonani 3] ŵabali ŵa College of Cardinals awo ŵali pasi pa vyaka 80 ŵakuchita nga ni koleji ya visankho, ŵakukumana mu msonkhano wa papa kuti ŵasankhe uyo wazamuŵalondezga.[125] Nangauli conclave yingasankha mwanalume waliyose wa Katolika kuŵa papa, kufuma mu 1389 ŵakasankhika waka makadinala.[126] === Dango la Canon === Catholic canon law (Chilatini: jus canonicum) ni ndondomeko ya malango na fundo za malango izo zikupangika na kukhozgeka na ŵalara ŵa boma la Katolika kuti ŵalongozge bungwe lake la kuwaro na boma ndiposo kuti ŵalongozge na kulongozga milimo ya Ŵakatolika ku mulimo wa tchalitchi. Lamulo la canon la Tchalitchi la Latin ndilo likaŵa lakwamba la mazuŵa ghano la malango gha ku Manjiliro gha dazi,[115] ndipo ndilo dongosolo lakale chomene ilo likulutilira kugwira ntchito ku Manjiliro gha dazi,<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Edward N. |last1=Peters |author1-link=Edward N. Peters |url=http://canonlaw.info |title=CanonLaw.info Home Page |access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first1=Raymond |last1=Wacks |author1-link=Raymond Wacks |title=Law: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Ed. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |page=13 |isbn=978-0198745624}}</ref> apo mitheto yakupambanapambana ya malango gha Katolika ya Kummaŵa yikulamulira matchalitchi 23 gha ku Eastern Catholic particular sui iuris. Malango ghawemi gha tchalitchi, ghakukhazikika mwachindunji panji mwambura kumanyikwa pa dango la Chiuta ilo likusintha yayi panji dango la chilengiwa, ghakupokera mazaza ghakuzomerezgeka pa nkhani ya malango gha pa charu chose kufuma ku kupharazgika na wakupanga malango mulara—Pontiff Mukuru—uyo wali na mazaza ghose ghakuŵika malango, ghakulongozga munthu, na ghakweruzga mu]. mazaza kufuma ku kupharazgika na wakupanga malango uyo wali pasi pa wakupanga malango mulara, kwali ni wakupanga malango wambura kumanyikwa panji wakupeleka malango. Nkhani yeneco ya mu mabuku gha malango nja visambizgo panji nkharo pera yayi, kweni yikukhwaska vyose umo munthu waliri. Lili na vinthu vyose vyambura kumanyikwa vya ndondomeko ya malango yakukhwima: malango, makhoti, ŵaloya, ŵeruzgi, malango ghakumanyikwa makora gha Tchalitchi la Chilatini pamoza na malango gha Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kumafumiro gha dazi, fundo zakulongosora malango, na penalties. Malango gha mu Tchalitchi la Katolika ghakukhwaskana na umoyo na gulu la Tchalitchi ndipo ghakupambana na malango gha boma. Mu munda wake ukupereka nkhongono ku malango gha boma pera mwa kuŵika malango ghanyake mu nkhani nga nkhupwelelera ŵana ŵachoko. Mwakuyana waka, dango la boma lingapereka nkhongono mu munda wake ku dango la canon, kweni mwa kuŵika waka dango lakumanyikwa, nga umo vikuŵira na nthengwa za canon. Pasono, 1983 Code of Canon Law yikugwira ntchito ku Mpingo wa Chilatini. Malango ghakupambana gha 1990 gha Matchalitchi gha Kummaŵa (CCEO, pamanyuma pa vimanyikwiro vyakwamba vya Chilatini) ghakugwira ntchito ku Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kummaŵa ghakujiyimira paŵekha. === Matchalitchi gha Chilatini na gha ku Mafumiro gha dazi === Mu vyaka chikwi vyakwamba vya mdauko wa Katolika, mitundu yakupambanapambana ya Chikhristu yikapangika mu vigaŵa vya Chikhristu vya Kumanjiliro gha dazi na Kummaŵa kwa Europe, Asia na Africa. Nangauli matchalitchi ghanandi gha ku mafumiro gha dazi ghakukoleranaso yayi na Tchalitchi la Katolika pamanyuma pa Kugaŵikana Kukuru kwa 1054 (na kugaŵikana kwakwamba kwa Nestorian na Chalcedonian Schism), matchalitchi 23 ghakujiyimira paŵekha gha mitheto ya kumafumiro gha dazi ghakutorapo mbali mu chiyanjano cha Katolika, icho chikumanyikwaso kuti "church one:i'i's). Tchalitchi likuru chomene ndiposo lakumanyikwa chomene ni Tchalitchi la Chilatini, ilo ndilo pera ilo likulondezga mitheto ya ku Manjiliro gha dazi, ndipo lili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 biliyoni pa charu chose. Pakuyowoya za ŵalondezgi ŵachoko chomene pakuyaniska na Tchalitchi la Chilatini, ni Matchalitchi 23 ghakujiyimira pawokha gha Katolika gha Kummaŵa agho ghali na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 17.3 miliyoni kufuma mu 2010. Tchalitchi la Chilatini likulongozgeka na papa na mabishopu gha mu dayosizi agho wali kusankhika na iyo mwaluŵiro. Papa wakuchita mulimo wa ŵasekuru pa Tchalitchi la Chilatini, ilo likuwoneka kuti likapanga chigaŵa chakwamba ndiposo chikuru cha Chikhristu cha Kumanjiliro gha dazi, chiharo cha vigomezgo vinyake na mitheto iyo yikafuma ku Europe na kumpoto chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, vinyake mwa ivyo vikahara na visopo vinandi vya Chikhristu ivyo vikulondezgapo kufuma kwawo ku Reformation. Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi ghakulondezga mitheto na uzimu wa Chikhristu cha kumafumiro gha dazi ndipo ni matchalitchi agho nyengo zose ghakulutilira kukolerana chomene na Tchalitchi la Katolika panji agho ghasankha kunjiraso mu ubwezi wose mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vikalondezgapo pa East–West Schism panji kugaŵikana kwakwambilira. Matchalitchi agha ni mitundu ya Ŵakhristu ŵa Katolika awo mitundu yawo ya kusopa yikulongora kuti ŵali na mdauko na mitheto yakupambanapambana m’malo mwa kupambana mu visambizgo. Kweni chifukwa chakuti papa wakazomerezga Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kumafumiro gha dazi, ivi vyapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pa nkhani ya kukolerana kwa matchalitchi gha Eastern Orthodox na matchalitchi ghanyake gha kumafumiro gha dazi. Kuyana na mdauko, kucicizgika kuti ŵalondezgenge mitheto ya Cikhristu ca ku Manjiliro gha dazi iyo yikacitikanga na Tchalitchi la Latin ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kukapangiska kuti ŵanjirepo (kusintha Cilatini) pa mitheto yinyake ya Ŵakatolika ŵa ku Mafumiro gha dazi. Chikalata chachiŵiri cha Vatican Council, Orientalium Ecclesiarum, chikazengeka pa kusintha kwakumanyuma kuti chikhozgereso wanangwa wa Ŵakatolika ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mikhaliro yawo yakupambanapambana ya chisopa. Mpingo sui iuris ukulongosoreka mu Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches nga ni "gulu la ŵakugomezgeka ŵa Chikhristu awo ŵakukolerana na ŵalongozgi" awo ŵakumanyikwa na papa mu udindo wake nga ni mulara wapacanya pa nkhani za visambizgo mukati mwa mpingo. Lizgu ili ni chinthu chiphya icho CCEO yikapanga kuti yilongore kuti Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha ku Mafumiro gha dazi ghakujiyimira paŵekha, agho ghakulutilira kukolerana chomene na papa, kweni ghali na ndondomeko ya boma na mitheto ya chisopa yakupambana na ya Tchalitchi la Latin. Nangauli mabuku gha Tchalitchi la Chilatini ghakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu ili mwakudunjika yayi, kweni ŵakuzomerezga kuti likuyana waka. Matchalitchi ghanyake gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi ghakulamulirika na patriarch uyo wakusankhika na sinodi ya mabishopu gha tchalitchi ilo, ghanyake ghakulongozgeka na archbishop mulara,[124] ghanyake ghali pasi pa metropolitan, ndipo ghanyake ghakupangika nga ni eparchies paŵekha. Mpingo uliwose uli na mazaza pa vigaŵa vya bungwe lake la mukati, mitheto ya chisopa, kalendara ya chisopa na vinyake vya uzimu wake, vikulondezga waka mazaza gha papa. Roman Curia ili na dipatimenti yinyake, Mpingo wa Matchalitchi gha Kumafumiro gha dazi, kuti yiŵe paubwezi nawo. Kanandi papa wakusankha yayi mabishopu panji ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa mu Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kummaŵa, ndipo wakuchedweska ndondomeko yawo ya boma la mukati, kweni wanganjilirapo usange wakuwona kuti nchakwenelera. === Ma dayosizi, ma parishi, mabungwe, na mabungwe === Vyaru vinyake, vigaŵa, panji misumba yikuruyikuru yikuteŵetereka na matchalitchi ghanyake agho ghakumanyikwa kuti ma dayosizi mu Tchalitchi la Chilatini, panji ma eparchies mu Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kummaŵa, ndipo matchalitchi ghanyake ghakulaŵilirika na bishopu. Kufuma mu 2008, Mpingo Katolika uli na madayosisi 2,795. Mabishopu mu charu chinyake mba membala ŵa msonkhano wa ŵabishopu ŵa charu panji ŵa chigaŵa. Ma dayosizi ghagaŵika mu ma parishi, ndipo lililose lili na wasembe yumoza panji ŵanandi, ŵadikoni, panji ŵateŵeti ŵa tchalitchi ŵambura kusambizgika. Ma Parish ndiwo ghakuchitiska chikondwelero cha zuŵa na zuŵa cha masakramenti na kupwelelera ŵaliska ŵa ŵanthu ŵambura kusopa. Kufuma mu 2016, pali ma parishi 221,700 pa charu chose. Mu Tchalitchi la Chilatini, ŵanalume ŵa Katolika ŵangateŵetera nga mbadikoni panji ŵasembe mwa kupokera udindo wa sakramenti. Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵangateŵetera nga mbateŵeti ŵapadera ŵa Mgonero Utuŵa, nga mbaŵazgi (ŵasambizgi), panji nga mbateŵeti ŵa pa jotchero. Kuyana na mdauko, ŵanyamata na ŵanalume ŵakazomerezgekanga waka kuteŵetera nga mbateŵeti ŵa pa jotchero; kweni kufuma mu 1990s, ŵasungwana na ŵanakazi nawo ŵazomerezgeka. Ŵakatolika ŵakuŵikika, pamoza na ŵantu ŵambura kusopa, ŵanganjira mu umoyo wakupatulika panji paŵekha, nga ni hermit panji mwali wakupatulika, panji mwa kunjira mu wupu wa umoyo wakupatulika (wupu wa cisopo panji wupu wa ŵantu ŵambura kusopa) umo ŵangacitira malumbiro ghakukhozgera khumbo lawo la kulondezga vigaŵa vitatu vya chavertistigel na eselyun, . kupulikira. Viyelezgero vya mabungwe gha umoyo wakupatulika ni ŵa Benedictine, ŵa Carmelite, ŵa Dominican, ŵa Franciscan, ŵa Mishonale ŵa Chitemwa, Ŵasilikari ŵa Khristu na Ŵadumbu ŵa Lusungu. "Mabungwe gha chisopa" ni lizgu la mazuŵa ghano ilo likukhwaska "malango gha chisopa" na "mipingo ya chisopa," iyo nyengo yinyake yikaŵa yakupambana mu malango gha chisopa. Mazgu ghakuti "ndondomeko ya chisopa" na "bungwe la chisopa" ghakugwiriskirika nchito nga ni mazgu ghakuyana waka. Kwizira mu vyakovwira vya Katolika na vinyake, Mpingo Wa Katolika ndiwo ukupeleka masambiro na wovwiri wa umoyo pa charu chose chapasi kwambura boma. === Kuŵa membala === Chikatolika ndicho chisopa chachiŵiri pa charu chose, chikuluska Chisilamu cha Sunni pera.[115] Ŵanthu ŵa mu tchalitchi, awo ŵakulongosoreka kuti mba Katolika ŵakubatizika, ŵakaŵa 1.345 biliyoni kuumaliro wa 2019, awo ni 18% ya ŵanthu ŵa pa charu chose. Brazil ndiyo yili na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa Katolika pa charu chose, ndipo pamanyuma pake pali Mexico, Philippines, na United States.[117] Ŵakatolika ŵakuyimira pafupifupi hafu ya Ŵakhristu wose. Kugaŵika kwa malo kwa Ŵakatolika pa charu chose kukulutilira kusintha, na 18.7% ku Africa, 48.1% ku America, 11.0% ku Asia, 21.2% ku Europe, na 0.8% ku Oceania. Ŵateŵeti ŵa Katolika ŵakusazgapo ŵaliska ŵakuŵikika, ŵateŵeti ŵa tchalitchi ŵambura kusambizgika, ŵamishonale, na ŵasambizgi ŵa katekisimu. Kweniso ku umaliro wa 2019, pakaŵa ŵaliska ŵakuŵikika 467,938, kusazgapo mabishopu 5,364, ŵasembe 414,336 (ŵa dayosizi na ŵa chisopa), na ŵadikoni 48,238 (ŵanyengo zose). Ŵateŵeti ŵambura kuŵikika ŵakaŵa ŵasambizgi ŵa katekisimu 3,157,568, ŵamishonale ŵambura kusambizgika 367,679, na ŵateŵeti ŵambura kusambizgika ŵa matchalitchi 39,951. Ŵakatolika awo ŵali kujipeleka ku umoyo wa cisopo panji wakupatulika m’malo mwa nthengwa panji kuŵa ŵambura kutora panji kutengwa, nga ni umoyo panji nchito ya ubwezi, ŵakusazgapo ŵanalume 54,559 ŵakusopa na ŵanakazi 705,529 ŵakusopa. Iwo ŵakuŵikika yayi, panji ŵakuwoneka kuti mbateŵeti pekha usange nawo ŵakuchitako chimoza mwa vigaŵa vya ŵateŵeti ŵambura kumanyikwa ivyo vili pachanya apa. ==Chisambizgo== Chisambizgo cha Katolika chakura mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo chikulongora visambizgo vyakudunjika vya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, kulongosora kwakuzomerezgeka kwa vigomezgo vyakugaluka na vya orthodox na makhonsolo gha visopo vyose na mu ng’ombe za ŵapapa, ndiposo mphindano za vya chisopa na ŵasambiri. Mpingo ukugomezga kuti nyengo zose ukulongozgeka na Mzimu Mutuŵa apo ukumanya nkhani ziphya za chisopa ndipo ukuvikilirika kwambura kubudiska kuti uleke kugwa mu visambizgo vyambura kwenelera para ŵasankha mwakukhora pa nkhani yinyake. Likusambizga kuti kuvumbulika kuli na mtundu umoza wakuyana, Chiuta, na nthowa ziŵiri zakupambanapambana zakupharazgira: Malemba Ghatuŵa na Mitheto Yakupatulika, ndipo ivi vikung’anamulika nadi na Magisterium. Malemba Ghakupatulika ghali na mabuku 73 gha Baibolo la Katolika, ndipo ghali na mabuku 46 gha Testamente Lakale na 27 gha Testamente Lasono. Sacred Tradition yili na visambizgo ivyo mpingo ukugomezga kuti vikapelekeka kufuma mu nyengo ya ŵapositole. Malemba Ghakupatulika na Mwambo Wakupatulika vyose pamoza vikumanyikwa kuti "kuŵika chipulikano" (depositum fidei mu Chilatini). Ivi vikung'anamulikaso na Magisterium (kufuma ku magister, Chilatini "msambizgi"), mazaza ghakusambizga gha tchalitchi, agho ghakuchitika na papa na College of Bishops pamoza na papa, Bishopu wa Roma.[179] Chisambizgo cha Katolika chikulongosoreka mwakudumura mu Katekisimu wa Tchalitchi la Katolika, ilo likalembeka na Holy See. === Mtundu wa Chiuta === Ŵakatolika ŵakugomezga kuti Yesu Khristu ni "Munthu Wachiŵiri" wa Utatu, Chiuta Mwana. Mu chinthu icho chikumanyikwa kuti Kuzgoka Munthu, kwizira mu nkhongono ya Mzimu Mutuŵa, Chiuta wakakolerana na chilengiwa cha munthu kwizira mu kubabika kwa Khristu mu nthumbo ya Mariya Namwali Mutumbikika. Ntheura, Khristu wakupulikiskika kuti ni Ciuta wakukwana ndiposo munthu wakukwana, kusazgapo kuŵa na mzimu wa munthu. Ŵakusambizgika kuti mulimo wa Khristu pa charu chapasi ukaŵa wakupeleka ku ŵanthu visambizgo vyake na kupereka chiyelezgero chake kuti ŵalondezgenge nga umo vili kulembekera mu mabuku ghanayi gha Uthenga Uwemi. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Yesu wakakhala wambura kwananga apo wakaŵa pa charu chapasi, ndipo wakazomerezga kuti ŵamukome kwambura urunji mwa kupayikika pa khuni, nga ni sembe yake kuti waphemaniske ŵanthu na Chiuta; kugowokerana uku kukumanyikwa kuti Chisisi cha Paska. Lizgu la Chigiriki lakuti "Khristu" na la Chihebere lakuti "Mesiya" ghose ghakung'anamura "wakuphakazgika", ghakung'anamura chigomezgo cha Ŵakhristu chakuti nyifwa na chiwuka cha Yesu ni kufiskika kwa mauchimi gha mesiya gha mu Testamente Lakale. Mpingo Wa Katolika ukusambizga mwakusimikizga kuti "Mzimu Mutuŵa wakufuma kwa Ŵadada na Mwana kwamuyirayira, kufuma ku fundo ziŵiri yayi kweni kufuma ku fundo yimoza". Iwo ukuyowoya kuti Ŵadada, nga ni "fundo yambura fundo", ndiwo ŵakwamba kufuma ku Mzimu, kweniso kuti iyo, nga ni Ŵadada ŵa Mwana yumoza pera, wali na Mwana fundo yimoza iyo Mzimu wakufumiramo. Chigomezgo ichi chikulongosoreka mu fundo ya ''Filioque'' iyo yikasazgikira ku mtundu wa Chilatini wa Nicene Creed wa 381 kweni yikasazgikira yayi mu mtundu wa Chigiriki wa chigomezgo icho chikagwiriskirika nchito mu Chikhristu cha Kummaŵa. === Mtundu wa tchalitchi === Mpingo Katolika ukusambizga kuti ni "tchalitchi limoza launenesko",[172][173] "sakaramenti la chiponosko cha ŵanthu wose", na "chisopa chimoza chaunenesko". Kuyana na Katekisimu, Mpingo Katolika ukulongosorekaso mu Chigomezgo cha Nicene kuti "Mchalitchi umoza, utuŵa, wa Katolika, na wa ŵapositole". Vinthu ivi vyose pamoza vikumanyikwa kuti Vimanyikwiro Vinayi vya Mpingo. Mpingo ukusambizga kuti uyo wakambiska ni Yesu Khristu. Testamente Lasono likulemba vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti vikaŵa vyakuzirwa chomene pakukhazikiska Tchalitchi la Katolika, kusazgapo milimo na visambizgo vya Yesu ndiposo kusankha ŵapositole kuŵa ŵakaboni ŵa uteŵeti wake, masuzgo ghake, na chiwuka chake. Mulimo Ukuru, wakati wawuka, wakaphalira ŵapositole kuti ŵalutilire mulimo wake. Kuza kwa Mzimu Mutuŵa pa ŵapositole, mu chinthu icho chikumanyikwa kuti Pentekoste, chikuwoneka nga ni kwamba kwa uteŵeti wa pa wumba wa Mpingo Katolika. Mpingo ukusambizga kuti mabishopu ghose ghakupatulika ghakwenelera ghali na mzere wakulondezgapo kufuma ku ŵapositole ŵa Khristu, uwo ukumanyikwa kuti mzere wa ŵapositole. Makamaka, Bishopu wa Roma (papa) wakuwoneka kuti ni uyo wakalondezgapo mpositole Simoni Petrosi, udindo uwo wakupokerapo udindo wake pa mpingo. Chigomezgo cha Katolika chikuti mpingo "ni kuŵapo kwa Yesu kwakulutilira pa charu chapasi" ndipo ndilo pera ilo lili na nthowa zose za chiponosko. Kwizira mu suzgo (kusuzgika) kwa Khristu uko kukapangiska kuti wakomeke pa khuni nga umo vikulongosolekera mu Mauthenga Ghawemi, ŵakuti Khristu wakajipanga yekha kuŵa sembe kwa Chiuta Ŵadada kuti waphemaniske ŵanthu na Chiuta; Chiwuka cha Yesu chikumupangiska kuŵa mwana wakwamba kufuma ku ŵakufwa, wakwamba pakati pa ŵabali ŵanandi. Pakuphemana na Chiuta na kulondezga mazgu na milimo ya Khristu, munthu wanganjira mu Ufumu wa Chiuta. Mpingo ukuwona kuti liturgy yake na masakramenti ghake vikukhozga lusungu ilo likusangika kwizira mu sembe ya Khristu kuti likhozge ubwezi wa munthu na Khristu na kovwira pakuthereska kwananga. === Kweruzgika kwaumaliro === Tchalitchi la Katolika likusambizga kuti, para munthu waliyose wafwa waka, mzimu wake uzamupokera cheruzgo chinyake kufuma kwa Chiuta, mwakuyana na zakwananga zawo na ubwezi wawo na Khristu. Chisambizgo ichi chikukhozgeraso zuŵa linyake ilo Khristu wazamukhalapo na kweruzga ŵanthu wose. Kweruzgika kwaumaliro uku, mwakuyana na chisambizgo cha tchalitchi, kuzamumara mdauko wa ŵanthu na kwamba kwa vyose viŵiri, kuchanya na charu chapasi viphya na viwemi ivyo vizamuwusika na Chiuta mu urunji. Kuyana na umo munthu wakweruzgikira para wafwa, ŵakugomezga kuti mzimu unganjira mu chimoza mwa vigaŵa vitatu vya umoyo wa pamanyuma pa nyifwa: * Kuchanya ni mkhaliro wa kukolerana kwambura kumara na kacitiro ka Ciuta ka Ciuta, ontologically yayi, kweni mwa lusungu. Ni umoyo wamuyirayira, umo mzimu ukughanaghanira Chiuta mu chimwemwe chambura kumara. * Purgatory ni nyengo ya nyengo yichoko waka yakutozgera mizimu iyo, nangauli yili kuŵikika kucanya, yikupatukana yayi na kwananga ndipo ntheura yinganjira yayi kuchanya nyengo yeneyiyo.Mu Purigatoriyo, mzimu ukusuzgika, ndipo ukutozgeka na kufikapo. Mizimu iyo yili mu purigatoriyo yingawovwirika kuti yifike kuchanya na malurombo gha ŵakugomezgeka pa charu chapasi na kuŵeyelera kwa ŵatuŵa. * Kuzengeka kwaumaliro: Paumaliro, awo ŵakulutilira kukhala mu mkhaliro wa kwananga kwakufwa ndipo ŵakulapa yayi pambere ŵandafwe ŵakujiŵika ku gehena, kupatukana na Ciuta kwamuyirayira.[178] Mpingo ukusambizga kuti palije uyo wakususkika ku gehena kwambura kuti wasankha mwakufwatuka kukana Chiuta. Palije uyo wali kuŵikika kale ku gehena ndipo palije uyo wangamanya mwakusimikizga uyo wali kuzengeka mulandu ku gehena. Chikatolika chikusambizga kuti kwizira mu lusungu lwa Chiuta munthu wangalapa nyengo yiliyose pambere wandafwe, kuŵalirika na unenesko wa chipulikano cha Chikatolika, ndipo ntheura wangasanga chiponosko. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵa chisopa ŵa Katolika ŵakughanaghana kuti mizimu ya ŵana ŵachoko awo ŵandabatizike na awo mbakhristu yayi awo ŵalije kwananga kwa nyifwa kweni ŵakufwa mu kwananga kwakwamba ŵakuŵikika ku limbo, nangauli ichi nchisambizgo cha boma cha tchalitchi yayi. Nangauli Mpingo Wakatolika ukusambizga kuti ndiyo pera ndiyo yili na nthowa zose za chiponosko, yikuzomerezgaso kuti Mzimu Mutuŵa wangagwiliskira ntchito mitundu ya Ŵakhristu iyo yili kupatukana na iyo kuti "yikhuŵirizge ku umoza wa Katolika" na "kutemwa na kulongozgera ku Mpingo wa Katolika this and paravation to peoples",[184] muli vinthu vinyake vya chisambizgo chakwenelera, nangauli vikusazgana na viheni. Likusambizga kuti waliyose uyo wakuponoskeka wakuponoskeka kwizira mu Mpingo Katolika kweni ŵanthu ŵangaponoskeka kuwaro kwa nthowa zambura kumanyikwa izo zikumanyikwa kuti ubatizo wa khumbo, ndiposo na kukomeka pambere ŵandabatizike, uko kukumanyikwa kuti ubatizo wa ndopa, ndiposo para mikhaliro ya kuleka kumanya kwambura kuthereskeka yilipo, nangauli invincible is not a ignorance of me5. === Ŵatuŵa na kujipeleka === Mutuŵa (uyo wakumanyikwaso kuti hallow) ni munthu uyo wakumanyikwa kuti wali na msinkhu wapadera wa utuŵa panji wakuyana panji pafupi na Chiuta, apo kuzgoka mutuŵa ni chinthu icho tchalitchi la Chikhristu likupharazga kuti munthu uyo wafwa wakaŵa mutuŵa, pa kupharazga uko munthu wakusazgikika mu "canon of sagn", panji list. Ŵanthu ŵakwamba awo ŵakachindikika nga mbatuŵa ŵakaŵa awo ŵakakomeka chifukwa cha chipulikano chawo. Nthano zakusopa zakukhwaskana na nyifwa zawo zikawonekanga kuti zikukhozgera unenesko wa cipulikano cawo mwa Khristu. Kweni mu vilimika vya m’ma 400 C.E., “ŵakuzomera”—ŵanthu awo ŵakazomera cipulikano cawo mwa kufwa yayi kweni na mazgu na umoyo—ŵakamba kucindikika pakweru. Mu Tchalitchi la Katolika, mu matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Chilatini na gha Kumafumiro gha dazi, mulimo wa kuŵika munthu kuŵa mutuŵa ukusungikira ku Mpando wa Ŵapositole ndipo ukuchitika pa umaliro wa ndondomeko yitali iyo yikukhumbikwira ukaboni ukuru wakuti munthu uyo wakukhumba kuŵikika munthu mutuŵa wakakhala na kufwa mu nthowa ya ciyerezgero ndiposo yituŵa mwakuti ngwakwenelera kumanyikwa kuti ni saint. Kuzomerezga kwa tchalitchi kuti munthu ni mutuŵa kukung’anamura kuti munthu uyo sono wali Kuchanya ndipo wangachemeka pakweru na kuzunulika mu chisopa cha tchalitchi, kusazgapo mu Litany of the Saints. Kuŵikika pa malo ghatuŵa kukuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu wose ŵamusopenge mutuŵa mu liturgy ya Rite ya Ŵaroma; kuti ŵazomerezgeke kusopa waka pa malo ghawo, beatification pera ndiyo yikukhumbikwa. Kusopa ni "mikhaliro ya kuwaro ya kusopa" iyo ni chigaŵa cha liturgy yakuzomerezgeka ya Tchalitchi la Katolika yayi kweni ni chigaŵa cha mikhaliro yauzimu yakumanyikwa ya Ŵakatolika. Vinthu ivi vikusazgapo mikhaliro yakupambanapambana yakukhwaskana na kusopa ŵatuŵa, comenecomene kusopa Namwali Mariya. Vinyake ivyo vikuchitika pakusopa ni Masiteshoni gha Mtanda, Mtima Wakupatulika wa [[Yesu Khristu|Yesu]], Nkhope Yituŵa ya Yesu, ma scapulars ghakupambanapambana, ma novena ku ŵatuŵa ŵakupambanapambana, maulendo gha pa chisopa na kusopa ku Sakramenti Lakutumbikika, na kusopa vikozgo vya mutuŵa. Mabishopu gha pa Second Vatican Council ghakakumbuska Ŵakatolika kuti "kusopa kukwenera kulembeka mwakuti kuŵe kwakukolerana na nyengo za chisopa, kukolerana na chisopa chakupatulika, mu nthowa yinyake chikufumiramo, ndipo chikulongozga ŵanthu ku chisopa ichi, chifukwa, nadi, chisopa mwa mtundu wake chikuluska chomene." === Namwali Mariya === [[File:Murillo-inmaculada del coro-sevilla-mba.JPG|alt=|thumb|Namwali Mariya Mutumbikika wakuchindikika chomene mu Tchalitchi la Katolika, ŵakumupharazga kuti ni Mama wa Chiuta, wambura kwananga kwakwambilira ndiposo wakuŵeyelera.]] Mariology wa Katolika wakuyowoya za visambizgo na visambizgo vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Mariya, nyina wa Yesu, ndiposo umo ŵakugomezgeka ŵakuchindikira Mariya. Mariya wakuchindikika chomene, wakupharazgika kuti ni Mama wa Chiuta (Chigiriki: Θεοτόκος, Chiroma: Theotokos, lit. 'Wakunyamura Chiuta'), ndipo wakugomezga kuti wakakhala mwaliri umoyo wake wose. Visambizgo vinyake ni visambizgo vya Immaculate Conception (kutora nthumbo yake kwambura banga la kwananga kwakwamba) na Kukwezgeka kwa Mariya (kuti thupi lake likatoleka mwaluŵiro kucanya pa umaliro wa umoyo wake). Visambizgo vyose ivi vikalongosoreka kuti ni visambizgo vyambura kubudiska, na Papa Pius IX mu 1854 na Papa Pius XII mu 1950 mwakuyana, kweni pamanyuma pakuti ŵadumbiskana na mabishopu gha Katolika pa charu chose kuti ŵakhorweske kuti ichi nchigomezgo cha Katolika. Kweni mu matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi, ŵakulutilira kukondwelera chiphikiro cha Kukwezgeka kwa Chiuta pasi pa zina lakuti Dormition of the Mother of God pa zuŵa limoza.Chisambizgo chakuti Mariya wakafwa pambere ŵandamuwone kuti ni munthu wakuzirwa chikwamba pambere fundo yakuti wakafwa yayi. St John Damascene wakalemba kuti "St Juvenal, Bishopu wa Yerusalemu, pa ungano wa Chalcedon (451), wakamanyiska Themba Marcian na Pulcheria, awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵa na thupi la Mama wa Chiuta, kuti Mariya wakafwa pamaso pa Ŵapositole wose, kweni kuti dindi lake likasangika pa upon wa St Thomas, apo likajulika; Ŵapositole ŵakadumura kuti thupi likatoleka kucanya." Kusopa kwa Mariya nchigaŵa ca kusopa kwa Katolika kweni nkhwakupambana na kusopa Ciuta. Ntchito zikusazgapo malurombo na luso lwa Marian, sumu, na vyakuzengazenga. Viphikiro vinandi vya chisopa cha Marian vikukondwelereka mu chaka chose cha Mpingo ndipo wakuchindikika na maudindo ghanandi nga ni Fumukazi ya Kuchanya. Papa Paul VI wakamuchema kuti Mama wa Mpingo chifukwa, pakubaba Khristu, wakuwoneka kuti ni mama wauzimu wa chiŵaro chilichose cha Thupi la Khristu. Chifukwa cha mulimo wake ukuru mu umoyo wa Yesu, malurombo na kujipeleka nga ni Hail Mary, Rosary, Salve Regina na Memorare ni mikhaliro ya Katolika yakumanyikwa chomene. Ulendo wa ku malo ghakuwonekerapo gha Marian ghanandi agho ghakukhozgeka na tchalitchi, nga ni Lourdes, Fátima, na Guadalupe, nawo ni visopa vyakumanyikwa vya Katolika. ===Nyengo ya Kusanga Charu=== {{Main|Mpingo wa Katolika na Nyengo ya Kusanga Charu}} [[Nyengo ya Kusanga Charu]], iyo yikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, yikapangiska kuti mazaza gha ndyali na chikhalidwe gha ku Western Europe ghafalikire pa charu chose. Chifukwa cha udindo ukuru uwo vyaru vya [[Spain]] na [[Portugal]], ivyo vikaŵa vya Chikatolika chomene, vikachita mu kulamulira vyaru vinyake (Western colonialism), Chikatolika chikafalikira ku [[Americas]], [[Asia]], na [[Oceania]] kwizira mu ŵakwendakwenda, ŵakuthereska vyaru (conquistadors), na ŵamishonale. Chikafalikiraso kwizira mu kusintha kwa vyaru na ŵanthu mwakugwiriska ntchito ndondomeko za ndyali na chikhalidwe za ulamuliro wa ŵakoloni. [[Papa Alexander VI]] wakapeleka [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] na [[Portuguese Empire|Portugal]] wanangwa wa kulamulira malo ghanandi agho ghakasangika sonosono,<ref name="Koschorke13">Koschorke, pp. 13, 283</ref> ndipo ndondomeko ya ''[[Patronato real|patronato]]'' yikapangiska kuti ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma, m'malo mwa Vatican, ndiwo ŵaŵenge na mazaza ghakusankha ŵasembe na ŵalara ŵa mpingo mu vyaru viphya.<ref>Hastings (1994), p. 72</ref> Mu 1521, wakwendakwenda wa ku Portugal [[Ferdinand Magellan]] wakapembuzga ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa Chikatolika mu [[Spanish East Indies|Philippines]].<ref name="Koschorke21">Koschorke, p. 21</ref> Kumalo ghanyake, ŵamishonale ŵa ku Portugal pamoza na Mjesuiti wa ku Spain [[Francis Xavier]] ŵakapharazga uthenga uwemi ku India, China, na Japan.<ref name="Koschorke3">Koschorke, pp. 3, 17</ref> Ulamuliro wa ŵaFrance mu [[Americas]], uwo ukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ukapangiska kuti paŵe ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵa Chikatolika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵambura kuŵa Ŵakatolika ŵakakanizgika kukhazikika mu [[Quebec]].<ref>Lyons (2013), p. 17</ref> ===Kusintha kwa Chiprotesitanti na Kusintha kwa Mpingo wa Katolika (Counter-Reformation)=== {{Main|Protestant Reformation|Counter-Reformation}} {{multiple image | footer = [[Martin Luther]] (kumazere), uyo pakwamba wakaŵa mmonke wa [[Order of Saint Augustine|gulu la Augustine]], wakapharazga ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' (kumalyero) mu 1517. | align = left | image1 = Martin Luther by Cranach-restoration.jpg | width1 = 186 | caption1 = | alt1 = | image2 = Luther 95 Thesen.png | width2 = 140 | caption2 = | alt2 = }} Mu 1415, [[Jan Hus]] wakawotcheka pa moto chifukwa chakuti wakasuskikanga kuti wakasambizganga visambizgo vyautesi (heresy), kweni ivyo wakachitanga pakukhumbanga kusintha mpingo vikakhozga [[Martin Luther]], mmonke wa [[Order of Saint Augustine|gulu la Augustine]] ku Germany wa mazuŵa ghano. Mu 1517, Luther [[History of Lutheranism#The start of the Reformation|wakatuma]] ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' zake ku mabishopu ghanandi.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=215}} Mu mabuku agha wakasuska visambizgo vinyake vikuru vya Chikatolika na kuguliska [[indulgence]]s. Pamanyuma pa [[Leipzig Debate]], ichi chikapangiska kuti wafumiskike mu Mpingo wa Katolika (excommunication) mu 1521.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=215}}<ref name="Vidmar184">Vidmar, p. 184.</ref> Ku [[Switzerland]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], na ŵakusintha ŵanyake ŵa Chiprotesitanti ŵakalutilira kususka visambizgo vya Chikatolika. Kususka uku ndiko kukambiska Kusintha kwa Chiprotesitanti (Reformation), uko kukapangiska kuti paŵe visopo vinandi vya [[Protestantism|Chiprotesitanti]].{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=223–224}} Kukasoŵaso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasunganga visambizgo vya Chiprotesitanti mwakubisika mukati mwa Mpingo wa Katolika ([[crypto-protestantism|crypto-Protestantism]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fernández|first=Luis Martínez|title=Crypto-Protestants and Pseudo-Catholics in the Nineteenth-Century Hispanic Caribbean|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-ecclesiastical-history_2000-04_51_2/page/347|journal=Journal of Ecclesiastical History|volume=51|issue=2|pages=347–365|year=2000|doi=10.1017/S0022046900004255|s2cid=162296826}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, [[Henry VIII]] wakalomba [[Pope Clement VII]] kuti wapereke [[Annulment (Catholic Church)|chilango chakukanizga nthengwa]] yake na [[Catherine of Aragon]]. Apo papa wakakana, Henry VIII wakapangiska kuti [[Acts of Supremacy]] zipasikike, ndipo wakajizgora yekha kuŵa [[Supreme Head of the Church of England|Mulongozgi Mukuru wa Mpingo wa England]]. Ichi chikambiska [[English Reformation]] ndipo pamanyuma pake chikapangiska kuti [[Anglicanism]] yikure.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=235–237}} Kusintha kwa Chiprotesitanti kukapangiska nkhondo pakati pa [[Schmalkaldic League]] ya Ŵaprotesitanti na Themba la Ufumu Watuŵa wa Roma, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], pamoza na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵa Chikatolika. Nkhondo yakwamba ya vyaka 9 yikamara mu 1555 na [[Peace of Augsburg]], kweni mphindano zikalutilira ndipo zikambiska nkhondo yikuru chomene ya [[Thirty Years' War]], iyo yikamba mu 1618.<ref name="Vidmar233"/> Ku France, pakati pa 1562 na 1598 pakaŵa nkhondo zakuchemeka [[French Wars of Religion]] pakati pa [[Huguenot]]s (Ŵacalvinist ŵa ku France) na ŵankhondo ŵa [[Catholic League (French)|French Catholic League]], awo ŵakawovwirikanga na mapapa ghakupambanapambana.<ref name="Duffy177">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 177–178</ref> Nkhondo izi zikamaliska apo [[Pope Clement VIII]] wakazomerezga, nangauli mwakusuzgika, kuti Themba [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] lipharazge [[Edict of Nantes]] mu 1598, ilo likapeleka wanangwa wa chisopa na kuzomerezga Ŵaprotesitanti ŵa ku France kukhala mwamtende.<ref name="Vidmar233">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 233</ref><ref name="Duffy177"/> [[Council of Trent]] (1545–1563) ndiyo yikaŵa nkhongono yikuru ya [[Counter-Reformation]], kusintha uko Mpingo wa Katolika ukachita pakuzgora Kusintha kwa Chiprotesitanti. Pa nkhani ya chisambizgo, yikakhozgeraso visambizgo vikuru vya Chikatolika nga ni [[transubstantiation]] na kuti munthu wapokere chiponosko kwizira mu chipulikano, chitemwa, na chigomezgo.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=242–244}} Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, Chikatolika chikafalikira chomene pa charu chose, chomenechomene kwizira mu ŵamishonale na [[imperialism]]. Ndipouli, nkhongono yake pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe yikamba kuchepa chifukwa cha kukura kwa [[religious scepticism]] pa nyengo ya [[Enlightenment]] na pamanyuma pake.<ref>Maxwell, Melvin. ''Bible Truth or Church Tradition'', p. 70</ref> ===Nyengo ya Ungweru na Nyengo Yasono=== {{Main|Nyengo ya Ungweru}} {{Persecutions of the Catholic Church sidebar}} [[File:São Miguel das Missões (Brazil).jpg|thumb|left|Vikaya vya [[Jesuit Reduction|misumba ya Ayeswiti]] ku [[São Miguel das Missões]] ku Brazil]] Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, [[Nyengo ya Ungweru]] yikamba kufumba na kususka nkhongono na mazaza gha [[Mpingo wa Katolika]] pa umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi.<ref name="Pollard8">Pollard, pp. 7–8</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ŵalembi nga ni [[Voltaire]] na [[Encyclopédistes]] ŵakalemba mazgu ghakususkira chomene chisopa na [[Mpingo wa Katolika]]. Chimoza mwa vinthu ivyo ŵakasuskanga chikaŵa [[revocation of the Edict of Nantes|kufumiskikapo kwa Edict of Nantes]] mu 1685 na Fumu [[Louis XIV of France]], ico chikamalizga ndondomeko ya vyaka pafupifupi 100 ya kuzomerezga [[Huguenot]] ŵa Chiprotesitanti kusopa mwawanangwa. Apo upapa ukakananga [[Gallicanism]], [[French Revolution|Chiwukirano cha ku France]] cha 1789 chikapeleka mazaza ku boma, chikaparanya matchalitchi ghanandi, chikambiska [[Cult of Reason]],{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=283–285}} ndipo ŵasungwana ŵanyake ŵa chisopa ([[Martyrs of Compiègne|ŵanakazi ŵa ku Compiègne]]) ŵakakomeka chifukwa cha chipulikano chawo pa nyengo ya ''[[Reign of Terror]]''.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=The Sixteen Blessed Teresian Martyrs of Compiègne}}</ref> Mu 1798, Jenerale wa [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], [[Louis-Alexandre Berthier]], wakanjira mu [[Italian Peninsula]], ndipo wakakora [[Papa Pius VI]], uyo wakafwira mu jele. Pamanyuma pake Napoleon wakawuskaso [[Mpingo wa Katolika]] ku France kwizira mu [[Concordat of 1801]].<ref name="Collins176">Collins, p. 176</ref> Kumara kwa [[Napoleonic Wars]] kukawovwira kuti Mpingo wa Katolika uwuskeso nkhongono zake ndipo [[Papal States]] zikaweleraso.<ref>Duffy, pp. 214–216</ref> Mu 1854, [[Papa Pius IX]], na wovwiri wa mabishopu ghanandi gha Katolika awo wakaŵafumbapo pakati pa 1851 na 1853, wakapharazga [[Immaculate Conception]] kuŵa [[dogma in the Catholic Church|chisambizgo chakwimikika cha Mpingo wa Katolika]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19930324en.html|title=John Paul II, General Audience|publisher=Vatican.va|date=24 March 1993|access-date=30 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810175256/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19930324en.html|archive-date=10 August 2011}}</ref> Mu 1870, [[First Vatican Council|Msonkhano Wakwamba wa Vatican]] ukakhozga chisambizgo cha [[papal infallibility|kusabudiska kwa papa]] para wakupharazga chisambizgo cha chipulikano mwakuzomerezgeka.<ref name="Leith">Leith, ''Creeds of the Churches'' (1963), p. 143</ref><ref name="Duffy232">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 232</ref> Ivi vikakanizga maghanoghano gha [[Conciliar Church|conciliarism]]. Kususkana pa nkhani iyi na zinyake kukapangiska gulu linyake kupatukana na Mpingo wa Katolika na kupanga [[Old Catholic Church|Mpingo Wakale wa Katolika]].<ref name="Fahlbusch">Fahlbusch, ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001), p. 729</ref> [[Kukolerana kwa Italy]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1860 kukasazgapo [[Papal States]], kusazgapo Roma mu 1870, mu [[Kingdom of Italy|Ufumu wa Italy]], ndipo ivi vikamalizga mazaza gha papa pa vyaru. Pakuzgora, [[Papa Pius IX]] wakamuchimbizga mu mpingo [[Victor Emmanuel II|Fumu Victor Emmanuel II]], wakakana kupokera malipiro gha charu, ndipo wakakana [[Dango la Law of Guarantees]] ilo likamupa wanangwa wapadera. Kuti waleke kuwoneka nga wali pasi pa boma la Italy, wakakhala nga ni "[[mukaidi wa ku Vatican]]".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kertzer|first=David I.|year=2006|title=Prisoner of the Vatican|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|url={{googlebooks|y_4eaFsFdI4C|pg=PT155|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-547-34716-5|page=PT155}}</ref> Suzgo ili, ilo likachemekanga kuti [[Roman Question|Soka la Roma]], likamara mu 1929 apo pakachitika [[Lateran Treaties|Mapangano gha Lateran]]. Pa nyengo iyi, Holy See yikazomera kuti Italy ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa Papal States zakale, ndipo Italy yikazomera kuti Vatican City ni boma lakujiyimira palokha pasi pa mazaza gha papa.<ref>{{cite book|chapter='Utterly Faithless Specimens': Italians in the Catholic Church in America|first=Peter R.|last=D'Agostino|editor-last=Connell|editor-first=William J.|editor2-last=Gardaphé|editor2-first=Fred|title=Anti-Italianism: Essays on a Prejudice|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2010|chapter-url={{googlebooks|qp_GAAAAQBAJ|page=33|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-230-11532-3|pages=33–34}}</ref> Ŵamishonale ŵa Katolika kanandi ŵakawovwiranga ndipo ŵakakhozgeranga kuwukira kwa maboma gha ku Europe pa [[kupoka Africa]] muumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Kuyana na mulembi wa mdauko wa visopa [[Adrian Hastings]], ŵamishonale ŵa Katolika kanandi ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa panji kuŵawovwira kuti ŵajiwonenge kuti mbakuyana waka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Ivi vikaŵa vyakusiyana na ŵamishonale ŵa Chiprotesitanti, awo kanandi ŵakasuskanga ukali na urunji uheni wa maboma gha ukoloni.<ref>Adrian Hastings, ''The Church in Africa, 1450 – 1950'', Oxford: Clarendon, 1996, 394–490</ref> ===Vyaka vya m'ma 20=== {{Main|Mpingo wa Katolika mu vyaka vya m'ma 20}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 20, kufika kwa mpingo pa charu chose kukalutilira kukukura, nangauli maboma ghaulamuliro agho ghakasuskanga Chikatolika ghakakwera ndipo ma ufumu gha ku Europe ghakawa. Pamoza na ivi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku vyaru vya ku mpoto kwa charu ŵakaleka kulondezga chisopa nga kale. Mu nyengo ya ŵapapa [[Benedict XV]] na [[Pius XII]], [[Mpando Mutuŵa]] ukayezga kulutilira kuŵa wakusankhapo yayi pa nkhondo za pa charu, uku ukuchita ntchito ya kuphalizgira mtende na kovwira awo ŵakasuzgika chifukwa cha nkhondo. Mu ma 1960, [[Papa John XXIII]] wakachema [[Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican]], uwo ukaleta kusintha kukuru mu mwambo na machitiro gha mpingo. Mu chigaŵa chaumaliro cha vyaka vya m'ma 20, nyengo yitali ya ulamuliro wa [[Papa John Paul II]] yikawovwira ku [[kuwa kwa chikomyunizimu]] mu Europe, ndipo yikapeleka papa udindo uphya wa pa charu chose. ; Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose Papa [[Pius X]] (1903–1914) wakakhazikiska so kujiyimira kwa ofesi ya papa mwa kufumiska veto ya maboma gha Chikatolika pa kusankha papa. Ŵalondezgi ŵake [[Benedict XV]] (1914–1922) na [[Pius XI]] (1922–1939) ŵakakhozga kujiyimira kwa boma la Vatican mu Italy. Benedict XV wakasankhika pa nyengo iyo [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose]] yikambanga. Wakaŵa wakuyesga kuphalizgira pakati pa ŵankhondo na kukhazikiska ofesi ya wovwiri ya Vatican kuti yovwire awo ŵakasuzgika na nkhondo na kuweleska mbumba pamoza. Wakapeleka maudindo ghanandi gha mtende, kweni ndondomeko yake ya “Dès le début” ya 1 Ogasiti 1917 yikakanika na vyaru vyankhondo. ; Vyaka vya pakati pa nkhondo Maboma ghanandi agho ghakasuskanga mpingo ghakafuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 20. Mu Mexico, [[Dango la Calles]] la 1926 ilo likapatula mpingo na boma likapangiska [[Nkhondo ya Cristero]], umo ŵasembe ŵakujumpha 3,000 ŵakachimbizgika panji kukomeka, matchalitchi ghakachitirika nkhaza, mautumiki ghakasekeka, masisitere ghakachitikirika nkhaza ndipo ŵasembe ŵakakakika na kuwomberwa. Pamanyuma pa [[Revolution ya Okutobala]] ya 1917, kusuzgika kwa mpingo na Akatolika mu [[Soviet Union]] kukalutilira mpaka mu ma 1930, uku ŵasembe, ŵamonke na ŵanthu wamba ŵakukomeka panji kuchimbizgika, vinthu vya chisopa kutoreka na matchalitchi kujara. Mu [[Nkhondo ya ku Spain]] ya 1936–1939, ŵalongozgi ŵa Katolika ŵakakolerana na ŵa [[Nationalist]] ŵa [[Francisco Franco]] kulimbana na boma la [[Popular Front]], ŵakuti nkhaza izo ŵa Republic ŵakachitanga pa mpingo ndizo zikaŵachitiska. [[Papa Pius XI]] wakachema vyaru ivi kuti “katatu yakofya”. [[File:V-2 Rocket On Meillerwagen.jpg|thumb|Nangauli kufuma mu ma 1960 [[Papa Pius XII]] wakasuskika kuti wakachita yayi vyakukwana kovwira Ŵayuda ku [[Holocaust]], ŵakumuvikilira ŵakuti wakaŵa wakovwira mwakubisika magulu gha Akatolika agho ghakalimbana na Nazi, nga ni gulu ilo likalongozgekanga na wasembe [[Heinrich Maier]]. Maier wakawovwira ŵa Allies kulimbana na ma rocket gha V-2 agho ghakapangikanga na ŵakayidi ŵa ma camp gha Nazi.]] Papa [[Pius XI]] wa nyengo ya pakati pa nkhondo wakasintha machitiro gha upapa mwa kuwoneka mu St Peter’s Square, kukhazikiska [[Vatican Radio]] na [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]], kusankha ŵabishopu 40 ŵa ku vyaru vinyake na kupanga mapangano 15, kusazgapo [[Lateran Treaty]] na Italy iyo yikakhazikiska [[Boma la Vatican City]]. Pamanyuma pa kuswa kwa [[Reichskonkordat]] ya 1933 pakati pa mpingo na [[Nazi Germany]], Pius XI wakafumiska kalata ya papa ya 1937 yakuti ''[[Mit brennender Sorge]]'', iyo yikasuska poyera kusuzgika kwa mpingo na Ŵa Nazi kweniso fundo zawo za [[kupulikira visopa vya ŵakale]] na [[kusankha mtundu umoza kuti ngwapachanya]]. ; Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose Wakulondezgapo wake [[Papa Pius XII]] wakalongozga Mpingo wa Katolika pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]] na kuyambika kwa [[Cold War]]. Nga umo ŵapapa ŵa kale ŵakachitiranga, Pius XII wakayezga kulutilira kuŵa wakusankhapo yayi poyera pa nkhondo, ndipo wakakhazikiska njira za wovwiri kuti zovwire awo ŵakasuzgika, kweni mwakubisika wakawovwira [[kulimbana na Hitler]] ndipo wakapelekanga uthenga kwa ŵa Allies. Kalata yake yakwamba ya papa, ''[[Summi Pontificatus]]'' (1939), yikalongora chitima pa [[kuwukira Poland mu 1939]] ndipo yikakumbuska chisambizgo cha Chikatolika chakususka [[kusankhana mtundu]]. Wakalongora nkhawa pa kukomeka kwa ŵanthu chifukwa cha mtundu pa [[Vatican Radio]], ndipo wakachitapo kanthu mwa dipulomasiyo kuti wayezge kulekeska kusamuskika kwa Ŵayuda mu vyaru vinyake kufuma mu 1942 mpaka 1944. Ndipouli, kulutilira kwake kuŵa wakusankhapo yayi poyera na kuyowoya mwachenjezgo kwapangiska kususkika kukuru na kukambirana. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, mu vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Germany, ŵasembe ŵakachita ntchito yikuru pakuvikilira Ŵayuda. Mwakulemba mdauko wa ku Israel [[Pinchas Lapide]] wakayezgera kuti Akatolika ŵakavikilira pakati pa Ŵayuda 700,000 na 860,000. Kusuzgika kwa Mpingo wa Katolika na Ŵa Nazi kukaŵa kukuru chomene mu Poland, ndipo [[kulimbana kwa Akatolika na Nazi Germany]] kukachitika mu nthowa zakupambanapambana. Ŵasembe ŵa Katolika 2,579 ŵakatumika ku [[Dachau Concentration Camp]], kusazgapo ŵa Germany 400. Ŵasembe, masisitere na ŵabale ŵanandi ŵakakakika, kutorereka ku ma camp gha kusuzgirako ŵanthu, kutambuzgika na kukomeka, kusazgapo ŵatuŵa [[Maximilian Kolbe]] na [[Edith Stein]]. Akatolika ŵakalwa ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vya nkhondo. Ŵasembe ŵa Katolika ŵakaŵa na udindo ukuru mu boma la fascist la [[Slovakia]] ilo likakolerananga na Ŵa Nazi, kukopera malango ghawo ghakususka Ŵayuda na kuŵawovwira kuchita Holocaust mu Slovakia. [[Jozef Tiso]], pulezidenti wa boma la Slovakia na wasembe wa Katolika, wakovwiranga kutumizga Ŵayuda ŵa Slovakia ku ma camp gha kukomekera ŵanthu. Vatican yikasuska kutumizgika uku ku Slovakia na mu maboma ghanyake gha Nazi nga ni [[Vichy France]], Croatia, [[Bulgaria]], Italy na Hungary. Gulu la Akatolika lakulimbana na Nazi ilo likalongozgekanga na wasembe [[Heinrich Maier]] likapelekanga ku ŵa Allies mapulani na malo ghakupangirako ma bomba gha [[V-1 flying bomb]], ma rocket gha [[V-2]], [[Tiger tank]], [[Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet]] na ndege zinyake, kuti ŵa Allies ŵalase mafakitale gha Germany. Uthenga unandi ukaŵa wakuzirwa ku [[Operation Hydra (1943)|Operation Hydra]] na [[Operation Crossbow]], ntchito zikuru zakunozgekera [[Operation Overlord]]. Maier wakovwiranga nkhondo yakulimbana na Ŵa Nazi chifukwa wakaŵa na fundo yakuti “bomba lililose ilo likugwa pa mafakitale gha vilwero likufupikiska nkhondo ndipo likuponoska ŵanthu wamba”. [[File:Members of the Royal 22e Regiment in audience with Pope Pius XII.jpg|thumb|right|Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Canada ŵa [[Royal 22e Regiment]] pa nyengo yakukumana na [[Papa Pius XII]] pamanyuma pa [[Kuwomboreka kwa Rome]] mu 1944 pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]]]] Pafupifupi mu 1943, [[Adolf Hitler]] wakanozga kutora papa na kumukakilira ku Germany. Wakapeleka dango ku General Wolff wa SS kuti wanozge ntchito iyi. Nangauli [[Papa Pius XII]] wakulumbika kuti wakawovwira kuponoska Ŵayuda masauzandi ghanandi pa nyengo ya [[Holocaust]], mpingo wakasuskikaso chifukwa cha kusambizga kwake kwa nyengo yitali uko ŵanyake ŵakuti kukalimbikiska [[kususka Ŵayuda]], kweniso chifukwa chakuchita yayi vyakukwana kulekeska nkhaza za Ŵa Nazi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa Nazi awo ŵakachita milandu ŵakachimbilira ku vyaru vinyake pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose chifukwa ŵakaŵa na ŵakuvikilirira ŵankhongono kufuma ku Vatican. Kusankha umo Pius XII wakeneranga kuweruzgikira kukusuzga chifukwa ma archive gha mpingo gha nyengo yake nga ni nuncio, mlembi mukuru wa boma na papa ghali kujara panji ghandaŵikike makora. Mu [[Yugoslavia]] iyo yikabwanganduka, mpingo ukatemwanga boma la fascist la Katolika la ku Croatia la [[Ustaše]] ilo likakhazikiskika na Ŵa Nazi chifukwa cha kususka chikomyunizimu na chifukwa cha chigomezgo chakuti mphamvu ya Chikatolika yingaweleraso mu chigaŵa ichi pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa [[Austria-Hungary]]. Ndipouli, mpingo ukaŵa usindandikazomerezge mwalamulo [[Independent State of Croatia]] (NDH). Nangauli wakamanya za [[kukomeka kwa Aserbia Ŵa Orthodox mu Independent State of Croatia]], [[Holocaust mu Independent State of Croatia]] na kukomeka kwa ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵambura kuŵa A-Croatia, mpingo ukaŵa usindayowoyepo poyera kususka, ndipo ukatemwanga kugwiliskira ntchito dipulomasiyo. Polemba za malo gha Vatican pa nkhani iyi, mdauko [[Jozo Tomasevich]] wakalemba kuti “vikuwoneka kuti Mpingo wa Katolika wakawovwiranga chomene boma la Ustaše na ndondomeko zake.” ; Kuyambika kwa Cold War Pamanyuma pa nkhondo, maboma gha chikomyunizimu mu [[Central Europe]] na [[Eastern Europe]] ghakakanizga chomene wanangwa wa chisopa. Nangauli ŵasembe na ŵanthu ŵa umoyo wa chisopa ŵanyake ŵakakolerananga na maboma agha, ŵanandi ŵakakakika, kuchimbizgika panji kukomeka. Mpingo ukaŵa na udindo ukuru pa [[kuwa kwa chikomyunizimu]] mu Europe, chomenechomene mu [[Polish People’s Republic]]. Mu 1949, kupambana kwa ŵa Communist mu [[Nkhondo ya ku China]] kukapangiska kuchimbizgika kwa ŵamishonale wose ŵa ku vyaru vinyake. Boma liphya likakhazikiskaso [[Patriotic Church]] ndipo likasankhanga ŵabishopu lake. Pakwamba, kusankhika uku kukakanika na Rome, kweni pamanyuma ŵanandi ŵakazomerezgeka. Mu ma 1960, pa nyengo ya [[Cultural Revolution]], ŵa Communist ŵa ku China ŵakajara malo ghose gha chisopa. Matchalitchi gha ku China ghakati ghanjira so, ghakalutilira kuŵa pasi pa ulamuliro wa Patriotic Church. Ŵasembe ŵanandi ŵa Katolika ŵakalutilira kutumizgika ku jele chifukwa chakukana kukanira kugomezgeka kwawo ku Rome. ====[[Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican]]==== {{Main|Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican|Mbiri ya Mpingo wa Katolika kufuma mu 1962|Mzimu wa Vatican II}} [[File:Second Vatican Council by Lothar Wolleh 003.jpg|right|thumb|Ŵabishopu ŵakupulika pa nyengo ya Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican.]] [[Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican]] (1962–1965) ukaleta kusintha kukuru chomene mu machitiro gha Chikatolika kufuma pa nyengo ya [[Msonkhano wa Trent]], vyaka 400 ivyo vikajumpha. Wakwambiskika na [[Papa John XXIII]], msonkhano uwu ukasintha machitiro gha Mpingo wa Katolika, kuŵikapo chilolezgo chakuti misa yichitikenge mu [[chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu]], na kukhozga “kunjilirapo mwakumanya na mwakugwira ntchito” pa mauthenga gha liturugiya. Cholinga chake chikaŵa chakuti mpingo uŵe pafupi chomene na charu cha sono (''aggiornamento''), ndipo ŵakawovwira ŵakati ichi chikaŵa “kujura mawindo” gha mpingo. Kusazgapo kusintha kwa liturugiya, msonkhano uwu ukapangiska kusintha kwa umo mpingo ukawonera [[ecumenism]], kweniso ukachema kuti paŵe ubwezi uwemi na visopa vinyake ivyo vili vyachikhristu yayi, chomenechomene [[Chiyuda]], mu chikalata chake ''[[Nostra aetate]]''. Ndipouli, msonkhano uwu ukabwereska mkangano ukuru pa kugwiliskira ntchito kusintha uku. Ŵakukhozga “[[Mzimu wa Vatican II]]” nga ni wakusambira vya chisopa wa ku Switzerland [[Hans Küng]] ŵakati Vatican II “yikafika kutali yayi” pa kusintha ndondomeko za mpingo. Kweni [[Akatolika ŵa chikhalidwe]] nga ni [[Archbishop]] [[Marcel Lefebvre]] ŵakasuska chomene msonkhano uwu, ŵakuti kusintha kwa liturugiya “kwakabwangandura Sembe Yituŵa ya Misa na masakramenti”, kusazgapo vinthu vinyake. Visambizgo vinyake vya Mpingo wa Katolika vikamba kufufuzgika chomene pa nyengo ya msonkhano uwu na pamanyuma pake. Chimoza mwa visambizgo ivi chikaŵa chakukhwaskana na ubudi wa [[kuvimbikira kubaba]]. Kuŵapo kwa [[kuvimbikira kubaba kwa mahomoni]] (nga ni “mapilisi”), uko ŵanyake ŵakawonanga kuti kukapambana na nthowa zakale, kukapangiska John XXIII kukhazikiska komiti kuti yimuphalire nkhani za makhaliro na chisambizgo cha chisopa pa nthowa yiphya iyi. Pamanyuma pake [[Papa Paul VI]] wakasazgirapo komiti iyi udindo wakufufuza nthowa zose mwakufwatuka, ndipo lipoti laumaliro ilo likafuma yayi likamanyikwanga kuti likasimikizganga kuzomerezga nthowa zinyake za kuvimbikira kubaba. Paul VI wakazomerezgana yayi na fundo izo zikapelekeka, ndipo wakafumiska kalata ya papa ''[[Humanae vitae]]'', iyo yikati yikakhozga chisambizgo chakukhazikika cha mpingo chakususka kuvimbikira kubaba. Kalata iyi yikaphalira mwakudunjika kuti nthowa za mahomoni nazo zili kuletsedwa. Ichi chikapangiska kuyankha kwakususkika chomene na Akatolika ŵanandi. ====[[Papa John Paul II]]==== {{Main|Papa John Paul II}} [[File:President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan Meeting with Pope John Paul Ii at The Papal Library Vatican Pontifical Palace During Visit to The Vatican - DPLA - 5f33de6fe59d61cb712405563ab04adc.jpg|thumb|left|[[Papa John Paul II]] wakuwoneka nga ni munthu wakovwira chomene pa kumara kwa [[Cold War]] na [[kuwa kwa chikomyunizimu]]. Pano wali na pulezidenti wa United States [[Ronald Reagan]] na muwoli wake [[Nancy Reagan]] mu 1982.]] Mu 1978, [[Papa John Paul II]], uyo wakaŵa [[Archbishop wa Kraków]] mu [[Polish People’s Republic]], wakazgoka papa wakwamba wambura kuŵa wa ku Italy mu vyaka 455. Nyengo yake ya upapa ya vyaka 26 na hafu yikaŵa yimoza mwa zitali chomene mu mdauko. [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], pulezidenti wa [[Soviet Union]], wakati papa wa ku Poland wakovwira kufulumizgiska kuwa kwa chikomyunizimu mu Europe. John Paul II wakayezga kupharazga uthenga wa chisopa ku charu icho chikamba kuŵa [[chakuleka chisopa]]. Wakakhazikiska [[World Youth Day]] nga ni “kukumana kwa ŵawukirano ŵa pa charu chose na papa”, ndipo sono kukuchitika vyaka viŵiri panji vitatu vyose. Wakaluta ku vyaru 129, kujumpha papa waliyose, ndipo wakagwiliskira ntchito wayilesi na televizioni pakuthandazga visambizgo vya mpingo. Wakasindika chomene [[ulemu wa ntchito]] na wanangwa wa ŵantchito kuŵa na [[malipiro ghakukwana]] na malo ghakuvikilirika gha ntchito mu kalata yake ya papa ''[[Laborem exercens]]''. Wakasindika visambizgo vinandi vya mpingo, kusazgapo kuchenjezga pa makhaliro ghaheni gha [[kubapa]], [[kufwa mwakovwira munthu]], na kugwiliskira ntchito chomene [[chilango cha nyifwa]], mu kalata yake ''[[Evangelium Vitae]]''. Kufuma kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 20, Mpingo wa Katolika wasuskika chifukwa cha visambizgo vyake pa [[mikhaliro ya kugonana]], chifukwa cha kutondeka kwake [[kusankha ŵanakazi kuŵa ŵasembe]], na chifukwa cha umo wachitira na [[milandu ya nkhaza za kugonana mu Mpingo wa Katolika]]. Mu 1992, Vatican yikazomera kuti yikanangiska pakusuzga [[Galileo]] vyaka 359 ivyo vikajumpha chifukwa chakulongora kuti charu chikuzingilira zuŵa. ===Mwaka wa m'ma 21=== Mu 2005, pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Yohane Paulo II, [[Papa Benedict XVI]], uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa [[Mpingo wa Chisopa cha Chikhristu|Mpingo wa Chisopa cha Chikhristu wa Chisambizgo cha Chipulikano]] pasi pa Yohane Paulo II, wakasankhika kuŵa papa. Wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha kusungilira [[mikhaliro ya Chikhristu]] ya kale kwimikana na [[kusazgika kwa chisopa mu umoyo wa ŵanthu]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,635185276,00.html |title=Benedict's encyclical offers hope for world |work=Deseret News |first=Jerry Earl |last=Johnston |date=18 February 2006 |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092429/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1%2C5143%2C635185276%2C00.html |archive-date=2 April 2015}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20120307235713/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/635185276/Benedicts-encyclical-offers-hope-for-world.html WebCitation archive]</ref> ndiposo chifukwa cha kusazomerezga chomene kugwiliskira ntchito [[Misa ya Tridentine]] iyo yikusangika mu [[Buku la Misa la ku Roma]] la 1962, iyo wakayichema "Mawonekedwe Ghanthazi".<ref>Gledhill, Ruth [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article667813.ece "Pope set to bring back Latin Mass that divided the Church"] ''The Times'' 11 October 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2010 [https://web.archive.org/web/20110805040153/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article667813.ece WebCitation archive]</ref> Mu 2012, pa chikumbusko cha vyaka 50 kufuma ku [[Vatican II]], ungano wa [[Msonkhano wa Ŵabishopu (Chikatolika)|Msonkhano wa Ŵabishopu]] ukadumbiskana vya kupharazga upya makani gha chisopa kwa [[Ŵakatolika awo ŵali kuleka kulondezga chisopa]] mu charu [[charu chakutukuka|chakutukuka]].<ref name="Summary">{{Citation |contribution=Summary of the synod assemblies |date=9 March 2005 | contribution-url = https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/synod/documents/rc_synod_20050309_documentation-profile_en.html#V._SUMMARY_OF_THE_SYNOD_ASSEMBLIES |title=Synodal Information |place=Rome, IT |publisher=The Vatican}}</ref> Pakuyowoya vya kufoka chifukwa cha uchekuru, Benedict wakalekera udindo wa upapa mu 2013, ndipo wakaŵa papa wakwamba kuchita nthena mu vyaka pafupifupi 600.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/12/world/europe/pope-benedict-resignation/ |first1=Laura |last1=Smith-Spark |first2=Hada |last2=Messia |title=Pope's resignation was not forced by health issues, spokesman says |work=CNN |date=13 February 2013 |access-date=30 March 2015}}</ref> Kulekeŵa kwake kukapangiska mphindano pakati pa Ŵakatolika ŵachoko awo ŵakuti Benedict wakalekera yayi nadi udindo wa upapa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 March 2021|title=Former pope Benedict says 'fanatical' Catholics still won't believe he's not the pope|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/02/former-pope-benedict-fanatical-catholics-wont-believe-resignation|access-date=25 May 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> ====Papa Francis==== {{Main|Papa Francis}} Papa Francis, uyo sono ndiyo papa wa Mpingo wa Katolika, wakalondezgana na Papa Benedict XVI mu 2013 ndipo wakaŵa papa wakwamba kufuma ku [[Amerika]], wakwamba kufuma ku [[Chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa charu chapasi]], kweniso papa wakwamba kufuma kuwaro kwa Europe kufuma pa nyengo ya Msyriya [[Papa Gregory III|Gregory III]], uyo wakawusa mu vyaka vya m'ma 8. Papa Francis wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha [[kujiyuyura kwake]], kugomezgapo lusungu lwa Chiuta, kupwelelera ŵanthu [[umpoveri|ŵakavu]] na [[chilengedwe]], kweniso kujipereka kwake ku [[mazgu gha pakati pa visopa vyakupambanapambana]]. Ŵakulemba vya vyakusanguluska na vya ndyali Rachel Donadio wa mu ''[[The Atlantic]]'' na Brandon Ambrosino wa mu ''[[Vox Media|Vox]]'' ŵakayowoya kuti Papa Francis wali na nthowa yakupulikikwa mwambura mwambo chomene ya kulongozga upapa kuluska ŵapapa awo ŵakamwambiranga.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Donadio|first=Rachel|date=27 October 2019|title=Pope Francis, the Revolutionary, Takes On the Traditionalists|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/10/pope-francis-revolutionary-culture-war/600877/|access-date=19 June 2021|website=The Atlantic|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ambrosino|first=Brandon|date=13 July 2018|title=Everything you need to know about Pope Francis|url=https://www.vox.com/2018/7/13/17570124/who-is-pope-francis|access-date=19 June 2021|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref> == Notes == <references group="note"/> == References == {{reflist}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|wikt=no|v=no|b=Catholicism}} * {{URL|https://www.vatican.va|Vatican.va}} Holy See official website * {{YouTube|u=vatican|The Vatican}} {{Catholic Church footer}} {{Navboxes top|title= Articles related to Catholic Church}} {{Seven Sacraments}} {{Roman Curia footer}} {{Popes}} {{Papal symbols and rituals}} {{Holy See}} {{Particular churches sui iuris footer}} {{History of the Catholic Church}} {{History of Christianity}} {{Christianity footer}} {{Religion topics}} {{Western culture}} {{Navboxes bottom}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Tchalitchi la Katolika| ]]<!-- Leave the empty space as is standard --> 3twd7gj9dtim2mm68vcdtki39z4mcn1 0 47765 122364 119321 2026-09-25T02:15:36Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122364 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Mulara wa charu na boma la United States}} {{Hatnote group| {{For-multi|list ya mapulezidenti ŵa United States|List of presidents of the United States}} {{Other uses}} }} {{Pp-move}} {{Pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use American English|date=March 2021}} {{Use mdy dates|date=September 2022}} {{Infobox official post | post = Mulara | body = wa United States | insignia = Seal Of The President Of The United States Of America.svg | insigniasize = 145 | insigniacaption = [[Seal of the president of the United States|Chidindo cha pulezidenti]] | flag = Flag of the President of the United States of America.svg | flagsize = 145 | flagborder = yes | flagcaption = [[Flag of the president of the United States|Mbendera ya pulezidenti]] | image = Official Presidential Portrait of President Donald J. Trump (2025) (cropped)(2).jpg | incumbent = [[Donald Trump]] | incumbentsince = January 20, 2025 | department = {{plainlist| * [[Executive branch of the U.S. government]] * [[Executive Office of the President]] }} | style = {{plainlist| * [[President (government title)|Mulara wa boma]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1891/08/02/archives/how-to-address-the-president-he-is-not-your-excellency-or-your.html |agency=The Washington Star |title=How to Address the President; He Is Not Your Excellency or Your Honor, But Mr. President |date=August 2, 1891 |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual/handbook/hb/431-2-h/chap4.html |title=USGS Correspondence Handbook—Chapter 4 |date=July 18, 2007 |publisher=United States Geological Survey |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926000950/http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual/handbook/hb/431-2-h/chap4.html |archive-date=September 26, 2012 |access-date=November 15, 2012}}</ref> (mwakawiro) * [[The Honourable#United States|Mweneko]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ita.doc.gov/ita_sec/Address%20and%20Salutation.htm |title=Models of Address and Salutation |publisher=[[International Trade Administration]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100720073107/http://www.ita.doc.gov/ita_sec/Address%20and%20Salutation.htm |archive-date=July 20, 2010 |access-date=September 4, 2010 }}</ref> (mwakuzirwika) * [[Excellency|Mwenekeso]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120927014351/http://www.un.int/protocol/documents/Hspmfm.pdf "Heads of State, Heads of Government, Ministers for Foreign Affairs"], Protocol and Liaison Service, [[United Nations]]. Retrieved November 1, 2012.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2010/09/01/remarks-president-obama-president-mubarak-his-majesty-king-abdullah-prim |title=Remarks by President Obama, President Mubarak, His Majesty King Abdullah, Prime Minister Netanyahu and President Abbas Before Working Dinner |last=The White House Office of the Press Secretary |date=September 1, 2010 |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |via=White House |access-date=July 19, 2011}}</ref> (pa vyakukhwaskana na vyalo) }} | type = {{plainlist| * [[Head of state]] * [[Head of government]] * [[Commander-in-chief]] }} | abbreviation = POTUS | member_of = {{plainlist| * [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet]] * [[United States Domestic Policy Council|Domestic Policy Council]] * [[National Economic Council (United States)|National Economic Council]] * [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] }} | residence = [[White House]] | seat = [[Washington, D.C.]] | appointer = [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] panji kwizira mu kulondeka | termlength = Vyaka vinayi | termlength_qualified = ([[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|wakusazgikaso kamoza pera]]) | constituting_instrument = [[Constitution of the United States]] (1789) | succession = [[United States presidential line of succession|Mndandanda wa ŵakusazgapo]] | formation = {{start date and age|1789|3|4|p=1|br=1}}<ref name="formation">"The conventions of nine states having adopted the Constitution, Congress, in September or October, 1788, passed a resolution in conformity with the opinions expressed by the Convention and appointed the first Wednesday in March of the ensuing year as the day, and the then seat of Congress as the place, 'for commencing proceedings under the Constitution.' <p>"Both governments could not be understood to exist at the same time. The new government did not commence until the old government expired. It is apparent that the government did not commence on the Constitution's being ratified by the ninth state, for these ratifications were to be reported to Congress, whose continuing existence was recognized by the Convention, and who were requested to continue to exercise their powers for the purpose of bringing the new government into operation. In fact, Congress did continue to act as a government until it dissolved on the first of November by the successive disappearance of its members. It existed potentially until March 2, the day preceding that on which the members of the new Congress were directed to assemble." {{ussc|name=Owings v. Speed|link=supreme.justia.com|volume=18|page=420|pin=422|year=1820|reporter=Wheat|reporter-volume=5}}</p></ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maier |first=Pauline |title=Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788 |url=https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop00paul |date=2010 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86854-7 |location=New York, New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop00paul/page/433 433] |author-link=Pauline Maier}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/march-4-a-forgotten-huge-day-in-american-politics/ |title=March 4: A forgotten huge day in American history |date=March 4, 2013 |publisher=[[National Constitution Center]] |access-date=July 29, 2018 |archive-date=February 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224184927/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/march-4-a-forgotten-huge-day-in-american-politics |url-status=dead }}</ref> | first = [[George Washington]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/presidential-election-of-1789/ |title=Presidential Election of 1789 |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |access-date=July 29, 2018}}</ref> | salary = $400,000 pa chaka{{efn|In addition to $100,000 in travel reimbursement, $19,000 for entertainment and $50,000 for additional expenses.<ref name="cnbc">{{Cite news |last=Elkins |first=Kathleen |date=February 19, 2018 |title=Here's the last time the president of the United States got a raise |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/02/16/how-much-the-president-on-the-united-states-gets-paid.html |access-date=October 22, 2025 |agency=[[CNBC]]}}</ref>}} | website = {{URL|https://www.whitehouse.gov/|whitehouse.gov}} }} {{Politics of the United States}} {{United States constitutional law}} The '''pulezidenti<!--"pulezidenti" is uncapitalized as per [[MOS:JOBTITLES]]. Specifically, it is uncapitalized because it is preceded by the modifier "the" (see [[MOS:JOBTITLES]] bullet 3 and table column 2 example 1)--> wa United States''' ('''POTUS'''){{efn|Lizgu lakuti POTUS likambira mu [[Phillips Code]], nthowa yakulemba mwakudumura iyo yikapangika mu 1879 na [[Walter P. Phillips]] kuti yithandizge kutumiza mwaluŵiro malipoti gha manyuzipepala kwizira pa telegraph.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Safire |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6ARDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA564 |title=Safire's Political Dictionary |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-534061-7 |page=564}}</ref>}} ni [[head of state|mulongozgi wa charu]] na [[head of government|mulongozgi wa boma]] wa [[United States]]. Pulezidenti wakulongozga [[Federal government of the United States#Executive branch|nthambi yakulongozga]] ya [[Federal government of the United States|boma la federo]] ndipo ni [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|mulara mukuru]] wa [[United States Armed Forces]]. Nkhongono za upulezidenti zikasazgikira<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ford|first=Henry Jones|date=1908|title=The Influence of State Politics in Expanding Federal Power|journal=Proceedings of the American Political Science Association|volume=5|pages=53–63|doi=10.2307/3038511|jstor=3038511| issn=1520-8605}}</ref> kufuma apo pulezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakambira uteŵeti mu 1789.<ref name=formation /> Nangauli nkhongono za pulezidenti zikakwera na kuchepa nyengo na nyengo, upulezidenti wakhala na ntchito yikuru mu ndyali za America kufuma kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 20, ndipo vikulutilira mu vyaka vya m'ma 21 na kuŵa na kusazgikira kwa nkhongono mu maulamuliro gha [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] na [[George W. Bush]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=September 11, 2021 |title=How 9/11 Radically Expanded The Power of the U.S. Government |url=https://time.com/6096903/september-11-legal-history/ |access-date=September 29, 2023 |magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Peterson |first=Erin |title=Presidential Power Surges |url=https://hls.harvard.edu/today/presidential-power-surges/ |access-date=September 29, 2023 |publisher=Harvard Law School}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 21, pulezidenti ni yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵankhongono chomene mu ndyali pa charu chose ndipo ni mulongozgi wa [[superpower|charu chankhongono]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4657665/steve-bannon-donald-trump/|title=Is Steve Bannon the Second Most Powerful Man in the World?|last=Von Drehle|first=David|date=February 2, 2017|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/03/uselections2008.world|title=Who should be the world's most powerful person?|date=January 3, 2008|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/meacham-history-power-83117|title=Meacham: The History of Power|last=Meacham|first=Jon|date=December 20, 2008|magazine=[[Newsweek]]|access-date=September 4, 2010}}</ref> Pakuŵa mulongozgi wa charu icho chili na [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|chuma chikuru chomene pa GDP yakuyana waka]], pulezidenti wali na nkhongono zikuru za mu charu na zakuwaro, zakuchema kuti [[Hard power|nkhongono zakukhora]] na [[soft power|nkhongono zakuzika]]. Kwa nyengo yitali mu vyaka vya m'ma 20, chomenechomene mu nyengo ya [[Cold War]], pulezidenti wa United States kanandi wakachemekanga kuti "mulongozgi wa charu chaufulu".<ref name="freeworld">{{cite web |last1=Tierney |first1=Dominic |title=What Does It Mean That Trump Is 'Leader of the Free World'? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/01/trump-free-world-leader/514232/ |magazine=The Atlantic |date=January 24, 2017}}</ref> [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Ndime Yachiŵiri ya Dango la United States]] yikakhazikiska nthambi yakulongozga ya boma la federo ndipo yikapeleka nkhongono zakulongozga kwa pulezidenti. Nkhongono izi zikusazgapo kusazga na kukhazikiska malango gha federo na udindo wa kusankha ŵalara ŵa boma, ŵa vyakuyana na vyalo, ŵa maofesi gha malango, na ŵa makhoti. Kwizira mu ndondomeko za dango izo zikapeleka kwa pulezidenti nkhongono zakusankha na kupokelera ŵa kazembe na kupanga mapangano na vyaru vinyake, kweniso malango agho ghakazomerezgeka na Congress, upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano uli na udindo ukuru pa ndyali zakuwaro za United States. Udindo uwu ukusazgapo kulongozga gulu lankhondo lakudura chomene pa charu chose, ilo lili na [[List of states with nuclear weapons|vyankhondo vya nyukiliya vinandi chomene pa charu chachiŵiri]]. Pulezidenti wakuchitapo kanthu kukuru pa malango gha federo na ndondomeko za mu charu. Mu ndondomeko ya [[Separation of powers under the United States Constitution|kupatukana kwa nkhongono]], [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 7: Bills|Ndime Yakwamba, Gawo 7]] la Dango likumupa pulezidenti nkhongono zakusaina panji [[Veto power in the United States|kukana]] malango gha federo. Pakuti mapulezidenti ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakuwoneka nga mbalongozgi ŵa vyipani vyawo vya ndyali, kupanga ndondomeko zikuru kukwenera chomene na ivyo vikuchitika pa visola vya pulezidenti, ndipo mapulezidenti ŵakuchitapo kanthu kulimbikiska ivyo ŵakukhumba mu ŵabali ŵa Congress awo kanandi ŵakuthemba pa pulezidenti pa nkhani za visola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pfiffner |first=J. P. |year=1988 |title=The President's Legislative Agenda |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=499 |pages=22–35 |doi=10.1177/0002716288499001002 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716288499001002 |s2cid=143985489 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mu nyengo yasono, mapulezidenti ŵasazgirapo kugwiliskira ntchito [[executive order]]s, malango gha maofesi, na kusankha ŵeruzgi kuti ŵakhwaskenge ndondomeko za mu charu. Pulezidenti wakusankhika kwizira mu [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] kuŵa na nyengo ya vyaka vinayi, pamoza na [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. Kwizira mu [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Kusintha kwa Dango kwa Makumi Aŵiri na Viŵiri]], uko kukazomerezgeka mu 1951, munthu uyo wasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti maulendo ghaŵiri wangasankhikaso yayi kuŵa pulezidenti ulendo wachitatu. Kweniso, ma vice president 9 ŵakazgoka mapulezidenti chifukwa cha [[List of presidents of the United States who died in office|nyifwa ya pulezidenti mu nyengo ya uteŵeti]] panji [[Richard Nixon's resignation speech|kuleka ntchito]].{{efn|Ma vice president 9 awo ŵakatora udindo wa upulezidenti pamanyuma pa nyifwa panji kuleka ntchito kwa pulezidenti wakale ndipo ŵakamalizga nyengo yake ni: [[John Tyler]] (1841); [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850); [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865); [[Chester A. Arthur]] (1881); [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901); [[Calvin Coolidge]] (1923); [[Harry S. Truman]] (1945); [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1963); na [[Gerald Ford]] (1974).}} Pakuŵa na wose, [[List of presidents of the United States|ŵanthu 45]] ŵateŵetera, panji ŵakuteŵetera sono, mu ma pulezidenti 47 kufika pa nyengo ya sono ya 60 ya vyaka vinayi.{{efn|[[Grover Cleveland]] wakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri zambura kulondezgana, ndipo [[Donald Trump]] sono wakuteŵetera nyengo yake yachiŵiri yambura kulondezgana, ntheura waliyose wakupendeka kaŵiri.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/grover-cleveland-24/ |title=Grover Cleveland—24 |publisher=White House}}</ref>}} [[Donald Trump]] ndiyo ni pulezidenti wa 47 ndipo wakuteŵetera sono kufuma pa January 20, 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Zeke |last2=Price |first2=Michelle L. |last3=Weissert |first3=Will |last4=Colvin |first4=Jill |date=November 5, 2024 |title=Trump wins the White House in political comeback rooted in appeals to frustrated voters |url=https://apnews.com/article/election-day-trump-harris-white-house-83c8e246ab97f5b97be45cdc156af4e2 |access-date=November 6, 2024 |publisher=[[Associated Press]] }}</ref> == Mbiri na chitukuko == === Kwamba === Mu Julayi 1776, [[Thirteen Colonies|Makoloni Khumi na Ghatatu]], agho ghakimirika pa [[Second Continental Congress|Kongiresi Yachiŵiri ya Kontinenti]] mu [[Philadelphia]], ghakazomera mwakukolerana [[United States Declaration of Independence|Chilango cha Wanangwa cha United States]] umo makoloni ghakajilengeka kuti ni [[sovereign state|vyaru vyakujiyimira vyekha]] ndipo kuti ghakaŵaso pasi pa muwuso wa [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Ufumu wa Britain]] yayi.<ref name="Milkis">{{Cite book |last1=Milkis |first1=Sidney M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KkUvAAAAYAAJ |title=The American Presidency: Origins and Development |last2=Nelson |first2=Michael |publisher=CQ Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-87289-336-8 |edition=5th |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=1–25}}</ref> Kuzomera uku kukalembeka mu [[United States Declaration of Independence|Chilango cha Wanangwa]], icho chikalembeka chomene na [[Thomas Jefferson]] ndipo chikazomerezgeka mwakukolerana pa Julayi 4, 1776, na [[Second Continental Congress|Kongiresi Yachiŵiri ya Kontinenti]]. Pakumanya kuti ŵakakhumbikwiranga kukolerana chomene pa nkhondo yawo yakulimbana na [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Ufumu wa Britain]],<ref name="Kelly">{{Cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=Alfred H. |title=The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development |last2=Harbison |first2=Winfred A. |last3=Belz |first3=Herman |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-393-96056-3 |edition=7th |volume=I |location=New York |pages=76–81}}</ref> Kongiresi ya Kontinenti pa nyengo yimoza yikamba kulemba dango ilo likakoleranenge [[U.S. state|vyaru]] pamoza. Pakachitika kudumbiskana kwa nyengo yitali pa nkhani zinandi, kusazgapo kuyimirika na kuvota, kweniso nkhongono izo boma likuru likeneranga kuŵa nazo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204233742/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2009 |title=Articles of Confederation, 1777–1781 |publisher=Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=January 20, 2019 }}</ref> Kongiresi wakamalizga kulemba [[Articles of Confederation|Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana]] kuti wakhazikiske [[Perpetual Union|umoza wa nyengo zose]] pakati pa vyaru mu Novembala 1777 ndipo wakatumizga kwa vyaru kuti vikazomerezge.<ref name=Milkis /> Pasi pa [[Articles of Confederation|Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana]], agho ghakaŵa na nkhongono kufuma pa Malichi 1, 1781, [[Congress of the Confederation|Kongiresi ya Kukolerana]] yikaŵa ulamuliro wa ndyali wa pakati kweni ukaŵavya nkhongono zakupanga malango. Ukakwananga kupanga fundo, vyeruzgo, na malango ghake, kweni ukatenge ungapanga malango yayi, kweniso ukatenge ungatozga misonkho yayi panji kukhazikiska malango gha malonda gha mu vyaru pa ŵanthu ŵake.<ref name=Kelly /> Ndondomeko iyi yikalongora umo ŵa America ŵakaghanaghaniranga kuti ndondomeko ya Britain ya [[The Crown|Korona]] na [[Parliament of Great Britain|Nyumba ya Malango]] yikwenera kuti yikagwiranga ntchito pakuyowoya za [[dominion|muwuso wa ufumu]]: wupu wakulongozga pa vinthu ivyo vikakhwaskanga ufumu wose.<ref name=Kelly /> Vyaru vikaŵa kuti vyafwatuka ku muwuso wa ufumu uliwose ndipo vikapeleka vinyake mwa [[royal prerogative|maufulu gha ufumu]] agho ghakaŵapo kale (mwachiyelezgero, kupanga nkhondo, kupokelera ŵakazembe, na vinyake) kwa Kongiresi; maufulu ghanyake ghakakhala mu maboma gha vyaru vyawo. Ŵabali ŵa Kongiresi ŵakasankha [[President of the Continental Congress|Pulezidenti wa United States mu Kongiresi Yakuwungana]] kuti walongozge madiskusoni ghawo nga ni munthu wambura kutemwera pa nkhani za [[discussion moderator|kulongozga kudumbiskana]]. Uwu ukaŵa udindo wakupambana chomene na wa pulezidenti wa United States uyo wakiza pamanyuma, chifukwa ukaŵa udindo wa mwambo pera kwambura nkhongono zakulongozga, kupatulapo kulongozga wupu wa nyumba ya malango.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Richard J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybmeEcpEvlsC |title=Founding the American Presidency |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=1999 |isbn=0-8476-9499-2 |location=Lanham, Maryland |page=1}}</ref> Mu 1783, [[Phangano la Paris (1783)|Phangano la Paris]] likakhazikiska wanangwa wa makoloni ghose ghakale. Pakuti mtende ukaŵapo, vyaru vikalazga kuyang'anira vinthu vyawo vya mukati.<ref name=Milkis /> Kufika mu 1786, ŵa America ŵakawona kuti mphaka zawo za ku kontinenti zikaŵa zakufoka ndipo zikuvutika, ndipo vyaru vyawo vikakumana na masuzgo gha chuma apo vyaru vya pafupi vikambanga kulimbana pa malonda. Ŵakawona [[hard currency|ndalama zakukhora]] zawo zikwenda ku misika ya ku vyaru vinyake kulipira vinthu vyakunjira mu charu, malonda ghawo mu [[Mediterranean Sea|Nyanja ya Mediterranean]] ghakakhwaskika na ŵa [[North Africa]] awo ŵakaba mu nyanja, ndipo ngongoli za nkhondo ya wanangwa izo zikapokera ndalama zakuwaro zikaleka kulipirika ndipo zikamba kusazgikira na chiwongolero.<ref name=Milkis /> Vyakusuzga vya wanthu na ndyali vikamba kuwoneka. Vinthu nga ni [[Newburgh Conspiracy|Chiŵembu cha Newburgh]] na [[Shays' Rebellion|Muvundiko wa Shays]] vikulongora kuti [[Articles of Confederation|Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana]] zikatondeka kugwira ntchito, chomenechomene kuti pakaŵa pakukhumbikwa boma lankhongono la charu chose ilo likaŵenge na mulongozgi wa boma wakupika nkhongono. Pamanyuma pa kumazga mwakukolerana masuzgo gha malonda na somba pakati pa [[Virginia]] na Maryland pa [[Mount Vernon Conference|Ungano wa Mount Vernon]] mu 1785, Virginia wakachema kuti paŵe ungano wa malonda pakati pa vyaru vyose, uwo ukakhazikiskika mu Seputembala 1786 ku [[Annapolis, Maryland]], na chilato cha kumazga masuzgo ghakuru gha malonda pakati pa vyaru. Kweni [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Ungano ya Annapolis]] yikatondeka chifukwa cha ŵanthu ŵachoko awo ŵakiza chifukwa cha kukayikira kwa vyaru vinandi, ndipo [[Alexander Hamilton]] wa New York wakalongozga ŵimiliri ŵa Annapolis kuti ŵacheme ungano wakusintha Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana, uwo ukeneranga kuchitika chaka chakulondezgapo ku [[Philadelphia]]. Ivyo vingachitika pa ungano uwu vikawoneka kuti ni vichoko mpaka apo [[James Madison]] na [[Edmund Randolph]] ŵakafiska kusanga kuti [[George Washington]] wize ku Philadelphia nga ni muyimiliri wa Virginia.<ref name=Milkis /><ref name="Beeman">{{Cite book |last=Beeman |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/plainhonestmenm00beem |title=Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution |publisher=Random House |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8129-7684-7 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> Apo [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Ungano wa Dango la United States]] ukakumana mu Meyi 1787, ŵimiliri ŵa vyaru 12 awo ŵakiza ([[Rhode Island]] yikatuma yayi ŵimiliri) ŵakiza na ivyo ŵakasambira mu ndondomeko zakupambana za maboma gha vyaru vyawo pa nkhani ya nthambi zakupanga malango na zakulongozga. Vyaru vinandi vikaŵa na mulongozgi wakufoka wambura nkhongono zakukana malango panji kusankha ŵalara, wakasankhikanga chaka chilichose na nyumba ya malango ku nyengo yimoza pera, wakagawana nkhongono na wupu wa ulongozgi, ndipo wakasangana na nyumba ya malango yankhongono.<ref name=Milkis /> [[New York (state)|New York]] ndiyo yikaŵa yapadera chomene, chifukwa yikaŵa na kazembe wankhongono yumoza uyo wakaŵa na nkhongono zakukana malango na kusankha ŵalara, wakasankhikanga vyaka vitatu ndipo wangasankhikaso maulendo ghanandi.<ref name=Milkis /> Kwizira mu kudumbiskana kwakubisika ku Philadelphia ndiko udindo wa upulezidenti uwo uli mu [[Constitution of the United States|Dango la United States]] ukapangika. === 1789–1933 === [[File:Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg|thumb|[[George Washington]], pulezidenti wakwamba wa United States]] Nga ni pulezidenti wakwamba wa charu, [[George Washington]] wakakhazikiska maluso ghanandi agho ghakazakaŵa chilangilo cha udindo uwu.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://millercenter.org/president/washington/life-in-brief|title=George Washington: Life in Brief|last=Steven|first=Knott|date=October 4, 2016|work=Miller Center|access-date=September 14, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205001103/https://millercenter.org/president/washington/life-in-brief|archive-date=February 5, 2018|url-status=live|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Stockwell |first1=Mary |title=Presidential Precedents |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/presidential-precedents/ |publisher=Mount Vernon, Washington Library, Center for Digital History |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> Kusankha kwake kusiya ntchito pamanyuma pa nyengo ziŵiri kukawovwira kumazga wofi wakuti charu chingazakasanduka ufumu ndipo kukakhazikiska chiyerezgero icho chikaphyokeka yayi mpaka mu 1940 ndipo pamanyuma chikazakaŵa chakukhazikika kwizira mu [[Kusintha kwa Dango kwa Makumi Aŵiri na Viŵiri kwa Dango la United States|Kusintha kwa Dango kwa Makumi Aŵiri na Viŵiri]]. Kuumaliro wa upulezidenti wake, vipani vya ndyali vikaŵa kuti vyamba kuŵapo,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Feeling |first1=John |title=How the Rivalry Between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton Changed History |url=https://time.com/4210440/jefferson-hamilton-excerpt/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Time |date=February 15, 2016}}</ref> ndipo [[John Adams]] wakathereska [[Thomas Jefferson]] mu 1796, visola vyakwamba vya pulezidenti ivyo vikapikisana chomene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=NCC staff |title=On This Day: The first bitter, contested presidential election takes place |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-the-first-bitter-contested-presidential-election-takes-place |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=November 4, 2019}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti Jefferson wathereska Adams mu 1800, iyo pamoza na [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]] ŵaliyose ŵakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakalamulira chomene ndyali za charu mu [[Nyengo ya Makhaliro Ghawemi]] mpaka mwana wa Adams [[John Quincy Adams]] wakathereska visola mu 1824 pamanyuma pa kupatulika kwa [[Chipani cha Democratic-Republican]]. Kusankhika kwa [[Andrew Jackson]] mu 1828 kukaŵa kakwamba munthu wakufuma kuwaro kwa ŵakulongozga ŵa Virginia na Massachusetts kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti, vyaka 40 pamanyuma pakuti Washington wasankhika.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Kenneth |title=The Most Consequential Elections in History: Andrew Jackson and the Election of 1828 |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/08/20/the-most-consequential-elections-in-history-andrew-jackson-and-the-election-of-1828 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=August 20, 2008}}</ref> [[Demokilase ya Jackson|Demokilase ya Jackson]] yikakhumbanga kukhozga nkhongono za upulezidenti pa mtengo wa Congress, uku yikukuzga kutora nawo mbali kwa ŵanthu apo charu chikakuranga mwaluŵiro kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kweni uyo wakiza mu malo ghake, [[Martin Van Buren]], wakaleka kutemweka pamanyuma pa [[Chiwawa cha 1837]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bomboy |first1=Scott |title=Martin Van Buren's legacy: Expert politician, mediocre president |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/martin-van-burens-legacy-was-more-than-just-muttonchops-2/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=December 5, 2017}}</ref> ndipo nyifwa ya [[William Henry Harrison]] na ubwezi uheni pakati pa [[John Tyler]] na Congress vikapangiska kuti udindo uwu uŵe wakufoka chomene.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freehling |first1=William |title=John Tyler: Impact and Legacy |url=https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/impact-and-legacy |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> Pamoza na Van Buren, mu vyaka 24 pakati pa 1837 na 1861, ma nyengo 6 gha upulezidenti ghakazuzgika na ŵanalume 8 ŵakupambana, ndipo palije uyo wakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McNamara |first1=Robert |title=Seven Presidents Served in the 20 Years Before the Civil War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidents-before-the-civil-war-1773447 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=ThoughtCo |date=July 3, 2019}}</ref> Senate yikaŵa na ntchito yikuru mu nyengo iyi, apo [[Wupu Ukulu Watatu]] wa [[Henry Clay]], [[Daniel Webster]], na [[John C. Calhoun]] ukaŵa na ntchito yikuru pakupanga ndondomeko za charu mu ma 1830 na ma 1840, mpaka apo kudumbiskana pa nkhani ya wuzga kukamba kupatulanya charu mu ma 1850.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heidler |first1=David |last2=Heidler |first2=Jeanne |title=The Great Triumvirate |url=https://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/the-great-triumvirate.html |website=Essential Civil War Curriculum |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Winters |first1=Michael Sean |title='Do not trust in princes': the limits of politics |url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/politics/do-not-trust-princes-limits-politics |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Catholic Reporter |date=August 4, 2017}}</ref> Ulongozgi wa [[Abraham Lincoln]] mu nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya pa Wanangwa ya America|Nkhondo ya pa Wanangwa ya America]] wapangiska ŵakulemba mbiri kumuwona nga ni yumoza wa mapulezidenti ŵakuru chomene ŵa charu.{{efn|Pafupifupi ŵakusambira mbiri wose ŵakumuyika Lincoln mu mapulezidenti ŵatatu ŵakwamba ŵa charu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakumuyika pa malo ghakwamba. Wonani [[Malo gha mapulezidenti ŵa United States mu mbiri|Malo gha mapulezidenti ŵa United States mu mbiri]] kuti muwone ivyo kafukufuku wakulongora.}} Vinthu ivyo vikachitika pa nkhondo na kuwusa kwa Republican mu Congress vikapangiska udindo uwu kuŵa wankhongono chomene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Frank |title=Lincoln's War Powers: Part Constitution, Part Trust |url=https://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/lincolns_war_powers_part_constitution_part_trust |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=American Bar Association |date=April 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weber |first1=Jennifer |title=Was Lincoln a Tyrant? |url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/was-lincoln-a-tyrant/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=New York Times Opinionator |date=March 25, 2013}}</ref> Kusankhikaso kwa Lincoln mu 1864 kukaŵa kakwamba pulezidenti kusankhikaso kufuma apo Jackson wakachitira mu 1832. Pamanyuma pa kuphedwa kwa Lincoln, uyo wakiza mu malo ghake [[Andrew Johnson]] wakataya chovwiro chose cha ndyali<ref>{{cite web |last1=Varon |first1=Elizabeth |title=Andrew Johnson: Campaigns and Elections |url=https://millercenter.org/president/johnson/campaigns-and-elections |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> ndipo wakakhala pafupi kufumiskika pa udindo.<ref>{{cite news |last1=NCC Staff |title=The man whose impeachment vote saved Andrew Johnson |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-man-whose-impeachment-vote-saved-andrew-johnson |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=May 16, 2020}}</ref> Congress yikalutilira kuŵa yankhongono mu nyengo ziŵiri za upulezidenti wa mulongozgi wa nkhondo ya Civil War [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Pamanyuma pa kumara kwa [[Nyengo ya Kuzengaso|Nyengo ya Kuzengaso]], [[Grover Cleveland]] wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa Democrat kusankhika kufuma pambere pa nkhondo, wakaluta ku visola vitatu vyakulondezgana (1884, 1888, 1892) ndipo wakathereska kaŵiri. Mu 1900, [[William McKinley]] wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba uyo wakaŵapo pa udindo kusankhikaso kufuma apo Grant wakachitira mu 1872. Pamanyuma pa [[Kuphedwa kwa William McKinley|kuphedwa]] kwa McKinley na [[Leon Czolgosz]] mu 1901, [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wakaŵa munthu wakumanyikwa chomene mu ndyali za America.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Boissoneault |first1=Lorraine |title=The Debate Over Executive Orders Began With Teddy Roosevelt's Mad Passion for Conservation |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-theodore-roosevelts-executive-orders-reshaped-countryand-presidency-180962908/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine (website) |date=April 17, 2017}}</ref> Ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakugomezga kuti Roosevelt wakasintha mwakukhalapo ndondomeko ya ndyali chifukwa cha kukhozga udindo wa upulezidenti,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Posner |first1=Eric |title=The inevitability of the imperial presidency |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/political-bookworm/post/the-inevitability-of-the-imperial-presidency/2011/04/22/AFTRBoPE_blog.html |access-date=September 12, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=April 22, 2011}}</ref> ndipo vinthu vinyake ivyo wakachita vikuphatikizapo kumazga ma wupu ghakuru gha malonda, kusungilira chilengedwe, kusintha kwa ntchito, kupanga mikhaliro ya munthu kuŵa yakuzirwa nga ni nkhani za ndondomeko, na kusankha yekha uyo wakeneranga kulondezga, [[William Howard Taft]]. Mu ma 1910, [[Woodrow Wilson]] wakalongozga charu ku chigonjetso mu [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Charu Chose|Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Charu Chose]], kweni fundo ya Wilson ya kukhazikiska [[Wupu wa Mitundu|Wupu wa Mitundu]] yikakanika na Senate.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Senate rejects League of Nations, Nov. 19, 2019 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2014/11/senate-rejects-league-of-nations-nov-19-1919-113006 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=November 19, 2014}}</ref> [[Warren Harding]], nangauli wakatemwikwanga apo wakaŵa pa udindo, mbiri yake yikafipiskika chifukwa cha vinyake vyakuchita uheni, chomenechomene [[Teapot Dome scandal|Wubishi wa Teapot Dome]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robenalt |first1=James |title=If we weren't so obsessed with Warren G. Harding's sex life, we'd realize he was a pretty good president |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/08/13/if-we-werent-so-obsessed-with-warren-g-hardings-sex-life-wed-realize-he-was-a-pretty-good-president/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> ndipo [[Herbert Hoover]] wakaleka kutemweka luŵiro pamanyuma pakutondeka kumazga [[Soka Likuru la Chuma|Soka Likuru la Chuma]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Richard Norton |last2=Walch |first2=Timothy |title=The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover |journal=Prologue Magazine |date=Summer 2004 |volume=36 |issue=2 |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/hoover-1.html |publisher=National Archives}}</ref> === Upulezidenti wa Ufumu === {{Main|Upulezidenti wa Ufumu}} [[File:Franklin D Roosevelt - radio broadcast.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakuyowoya pa wayilesi mu 1933.]] Kukwera kwa [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] mu 1933 kukalutilira kulazga ku ivyo wakulemba mbiri [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]] wakachema kuti ni [[Upulezidenti wa Ufumu|upulezidenti wa ufumu]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialpresiden00schl|title=The Imperial Presidency|last=Schlesinger| first=Arthur M. Jr. |date=1973|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|others=Frank and Virginia Williams Collection of Lincolniana (Mississippi State University. Libraries)|isbn=0-395-17713-8|location=Boston|pages=x|oclc=704887|author-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.|url-access=registration}}</ref> Chifukwa cha chovwiro cha ma Republican ghanandi mu Congress na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kusintha kukuru, [[New Deal|Ndondomeko Yiphya]] ya Roosevelt yikakura chomene ukuru na mulimo wa boma la pakati, kusazgapo ma wupu ghakulongozga ghanandi.<ref name=JohnYooFDR>{{cite journal |last1=Yoo |first1=John |title=Franklin Roosevelt and Presidential Power |journal=Chapman Law Review |date=February 14, 2018 |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=205 |ssrn=3123894 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3123894}}</ref>{{rp|211–12}} Ŵantchito awo ŵakateŵeteranga pulezidenti, awo kale ŵakaŵa ŵachoko, ŵakasazgikira chomene, ndipo [[Ofesi Yikuluwakuru ya Pulezidenti|Ofesi Yikuru ya Pulezidenti]] yikakhazikiskika mu 1939, ndipo palije yumoza wa ŵantchito aŵa wakakhumbikwiranga kuzomerezgeka na Senate.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|229–231}} Kusankhikaso kwa Roosevelt mwakupambana na kale ku nyengo yachitatu na yachinayi, chigonjetso cha United States mu [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose|Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], na kukura kwa chuma cha charu vyose vikawovwira kukhazikiska udindo uwu kuŵa wa ulongozgi wa charu chose.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|269}} Awo ŵakamulondezga, [[Harry S. Truman]] na [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], waliyose wakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri apo [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima|Nkhondo Yakuzizima]] yikapangiska kuti upulezidenti uwoneke nga ni "[[mulongozgi wa charu chafwatuka|mulongozgi wa charu cha wanangwa]]",<ref name="freeworld" /> apo [[John F. Kennedy]] wakaŵa mulongozgi muwukirano kweniso wakatemweka uyo wakapokera chandulo kufuma ku kukura kwa TV mu ma 1960.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Eschner |first1=Kat |title=A Year Before His Presidential Debate, JFK Foresaw How TV Would Change Politics |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/what-jfk-had-say-about-tv-politics-180967172/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |date=November 14, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Simon |first1=Ron |title=See How JFK Created a Presidency for the Television Age |url=https://time.com/4795637/jfk-television/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Time |date=May 29, 2017}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] wakataya chovwiro cha ŵanthu chifukwa cha [[Nkhondo ya ku Vietnam|Nkhondo ya Vietnam]] ndipo upulezidenti wa [[Richard Nixon]] ukamara mu [[Wubishi wa Watergate|wubishi wa Watergate]], Congress yikakhazikiska masinthiro ghanandi agho ghakakhumbanga kuti yijikhazikiske panthazi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wallach |first1=Philip |title=When Congress won the American people's respect: Watergate |url=https://www.legbranch.org/2018-4-25-when-congress-won-the-american-peoples-respect-watergate/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=LegBranch.org |date=April 26, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Sam |last2=Tausanovitch |first2=Alex |title=Lessons From Watergate |url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/democracy/reports/2018/07/30/454058/lessons-from-watergate/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Center for American Progress |date=July 30, 2018}}</ref> Ivyo vikasazgapo [[War Powers Resolution|Dango la Mphamvu za Nkhondo]], ilo likapangika kuŵa dango nangauli Nixon wakaliveta mu 1973,<ref>{{USStat|87|555}}, 559–560.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Madden |first1=Richard |title=House and Senate Override Veto by Nixon on Curb of War Powers; Backers of Bill Win 3-Year Fight |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/08/archives/house-and-senate-override-veto-by-nixon-on-curb-of-war-powers.html |access-date=September 12, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 8, 1973}}</ref> ndiposo [[Dango la Bajeti la Congress na Kulongora Ndalama la 1974|Dango la Bajeti la Congress na Kulongora Ndalama la 1974]], ilo likakhumbanga kukhozga mazaza gha Congress pa nkhani za ndalama.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Budget and Impoundment Control Act becomes law, July 12, 1974 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/07/12/budget-and-impoundment-control-act-becomes-law-july-12-1974-240372 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=July 12, 2017}}</ref> Mu 1976, [[Gerald Ford]] wakazomerezga kuti "pendulum ya mbiri" yikasintha kulazga ku Congress, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe suzgo la "kuswa" luso lake la kulamulira.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shabecoff |first1=Philip |title=Presidency Is Found Weaker Under Ford |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/03/28/archives/presidency-is-found-weaker-under-ford-curbs-on-exerting-power-seen.html |access-date=September 9, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 28, 1976}}</ref> Ford wakatondeka kusankhikaso kuti watemwere nyengo yakukwana ndipo uyo wakamulondezga, [[Jimmy Carter]], nayo wakatondeka kusankhikaso. [[Ronald Reagan]], uyo wakaŵa wakuseŵera mafilimu pambere wandambe mulimo wake wa ndyali, wakagwiliskira ntchito luso lake la kuyowoya kuti wawovwire kusintha ndondomeko ya America kufuma ku ndondomeko za New Deal kulazga ku fundo za ndyali za kusungilira miyambo.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Edwards |first1=Lee |title=What Made Reagan a Truly Great Communicator |url=https://www.heritage.org/conservatism/commentary/what-made-reagan-truly-great-communicator |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615012306/https://www.heritage.org/conservatism/commentary/what-made-reagan-truly-great-communicator |url-status=unfit |archive-date=June 15, 2018 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |date=February 5, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Brands |first1=H. W. |title=What Reagan Learned from FDR |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/159389 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=History News Network}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima|Nkhondo Yakuzizima]], United States yikazgoka charu chakulongozga chomene pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Theodore |title=America's First Post-Cold War President |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=Fall 1992 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=13–30 |doi=10.2307/20045307 |jstor=20045307 |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1992-09-01/americas-first-post-cold-war-president|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Bill Clinton]], [[George W. Bush]], na [[Barack Obama]] wose ŵakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri nga ni mapulezidenti. Pa nyengo iyi, charu chikamba kuŵa chakugaŵikana chomene pa ndyali, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵabali ŵa Congress awo ŵali na maghanoghano ghakupambana chomene ŵakure, chomenechomene pamanyuma pa [[Chisankho cha pakati pa nyengo cha United States cha 1994|visola vya pakati pa nyengo vya 1994]] ivyo vikawona ma Republican ghapoka mazaza mu Nyumba yakuwungana kwa nyengo yakwamba mu vyaka 40, kweniso kukura kwa kugwiliskira ntchito mwakawiro [[Filibuster mu Senate ya United States|filibuster]] mu Senate.<ref>Barber, Michael; McCarty, Nolan (2013), [https://web.archive.org/web/20210114193351/https://www.apsanet.org/portals/54/Files/Task%20Force%20Reports/Chapter2Mansbridge.pdf Causes and Consequences of Polarization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114193351/https://www.apsanet.org/portals/54/Files/Task%20Force%20Reports/Chapter2Mansbridge.pdf |date=January 14, 2021 }}, American Political Science Association Task Force on Negotiating Agreement in Politics report, at 19–20, 37–38.</ref> Ntheura izi, mapulezidenti ŵasono ŵakulutilira kugomezga chomene pa [[Executive order|malango gha pulezidenti]], ndondomeko za ma wupu, na kusankha ŵeruzgi kuti ŵakhazikiske ndondomeko zikuru, m'malo mwa malango ghakupangika na Congress kweniso mazaza gha Congress.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rudalevige |first1=Andrew |title=The Letter of the Law: Administrative Discretion and Obama's Domestic Unilateralism |journal=The Forum |date=April 1, 2014 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=29–59 |doi=10.1515/for-2014-0023 |s2cid=145237493 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Visola vya upulezidenti mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 vyalongora kulutilira kwa kugaŵikana uku, chifukwa palije munthu uyo wakapambana na mavoti gha ŵanthu na mphambano yakuluska pa 5 peresenti, kupatulapo Obama mu 2008, ndipo ŵaŵiri, George W. Bush ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2000|2000]]) na [[Donald Trump]] ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016|2016]]), ŵakawina mu Electoral College kweni ŵakataya mavoti gha ŵanthu.<ref>{{efn|Wonani [[Mndandanda wa visola vya pulezidenti vya United States mwakuyana na mphambano ya mavoti gha ŵanthu]].}}</ref> Bush ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2004|2004]]) na Trump ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2024|2024]]) pamanyuma ŵakasankhikaso, ndipo wose ŵakawina mu Electoral College kweniso mu mavoti gha ŵanthu. === Ŵakususka kusintha kwa upulezidenti === Ŵakakhazikiska charu ichi [[Ŵakakhazikiska charu cha United States|Ŵakakhazikiska charu cha United States]] ŵakaghanaghananga kuti [[Congress ya United States|Congress]], iyo yikaŵa nthambi yakwamba ya boma yakuzunulika mu [[Dango la Malango la United States|Dango la Malango]], ndiyo yizamuŵa nthambi yikuru ya boma; ŵakaghanaghananga yayi kuti paŵenge dipatimenti yankhongono ya vya ukulongozga.<ref name="tws9nov09">{{Cite news |last=Kakutani |first=Michiko |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/06/books/06book.html |title=Unchecked and Unbalanced |date=July 6, 2007 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 9, 2009 |quote=the founding fathers had "scant affection for strong executives" like England's king, and{{nbsp}}... Bush White House's claims are rooted in ideas "about the 'divine' right of kings"{{nbsp}}... and that certainly did not find their way into our founding documents, the 1776 Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of 1787.}}</ref> Kweni mazaza gha pulezidenti ghakusintha mu nyengo, ndipo ichi chapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoye kuti upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano waŵa na nkhongono zinandi chomene,<ref name="twsSEPnnxcvdf1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-conquest-of-president_b_120582 |first=David |last=Sirota |title=The Conquest of Presidentialism |date=August 22, 2008 |work=HuffPost |access-date=September 20, 2009}}</ref><ref name="twsSEPnn5454">{{Cite news |last=Schimke |first=David |url=http://www.utne.com/2008-09-01/Politics/presidential-Power-to-the-People.aspx |title=Presidential Power to the People—Author Dana D. Nelson on why democracy demands that the next President be taken down a notch |date=September–October 2008 |work=Utne Reader |access-date=September 20, 2009}}</ref> wambura kuŵa na vyakupimika,<ref name="tws9nov07">{{Cite news |last=Linker |first=Ross |url=http://www.jhunewsletter.com/2007/09/26/critical-of-presidency-prof-ginsberg-and-crenson-unite-18626/ |title=Critical of Presidency, Prof. Ginsberg and Crenson unite |date=September 27, 2007 |access-date=November 9, 2017 |publisher=The Johns-Hopkins Newsletter |quote=Presidents slowly but surely gain more and more power with both the public at large and other political institutions doing nothing to prevent it.}}</ref> ndiposo uli na mikhaliro ya "uchifumu".<ref name="tws9nov08">{{Cite news |last=Kakutani |first=Michiko |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/06/books/06book.html |title=Unchecked and Unbalanced |date=July 6, 2007 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 9, 2009 |quote=Unchecked and Unbalanced: Presidential Power in a Time of Terror By Frederick A. O. Schwarz Jr. and Aziz Z. Huq (authors)}}</ref> Mu 2008 pulofesa [[Dana D. Nelson]] wakayowoya kuti mapulezidenti mu vyaka 30 ivyo vikajumpha ŵakagwira ntchito yakuti ŵaŵe na "mazaza ghose pa nthambi ya vya ukulongozga na ma wupu ghake".<ref name="twsSEPrt8jyh5">{{Cite news |last=Nelson |first=Dana D. |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-nelson11-2008oct11,0,224216.story |title=Opinion—The 'unitary executive' question—What do McCain and Obama think of the concept? |date=October 11, 2008 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=September 21, 2009}}</ref> Wakususka awo ŵakukhozgera [[Chisambizgo cha nthambi yimoza ya ukulongozga|chigomezgo cha nthambi yimoza ya ukulongozga]] chifukwa cha kusazgirako "mazaza ghanandi gha ukulongozga agho ghakuleka kupimika—nga ni malango gha pulezidenti, vyilongolero, makalata gha ndondomeko, vipharazgo, malango gha vya chitetezo cha charu, na mazgu gha pulezidenti pa kusayina malango—ivyo vikuzomerezga kale mapulezidenti kupanga ndondomeko zinandi za vya charu cha kuwaro na mukati kwambura wovwiri, kususkika, panji kuzomerezgeka na Congress".<ref name=twsSEPrt8jyh5 /> [[Bill Wilson (activist)|Bill Wilson]], membala wa wupu wa [[Americans for Limited Government]], wakayowoya kuti upulezidenti wakusazgikira "ni suzgo likuru chomene ilo likukumana na wanangwa wa munthu payekha na ulamuliro wa demokilase".<ref name="tws8nov06">{{Cite news |last=Shane |first=Scott |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/26/us/politics/26activist.html |title=A Critic Finds Obama Policies a Perfect Target |date=September 25, 2009 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=There is the small, minority-owned firm with deep ties to President Obama's Chicago backers, made eligible by the Federal Reserve to handle potentially lucrative credit deals. "I want to know how these firms are picked and who picked them," Mr. Wilson, the group's president, tells his eager researchers.}}</ref> == Mazaza gha kupanga malango == [[Vigaŵa vya kupika mazaza|Article I, Gawo{{nbsp}}1]] la Dango la Malango likuŵika mazaza ghose gha [[Ukwamba kupika dango|kupanga malango]] mu mawoko gha Congress, ndipo [[Dango lakukanizga kuŵa mu malo ghaŵiri|Article 1, Gawo 6, Ndime{{nbsp}}2]] likukanizga pulezidenti (na ŵantchito wose ŵa nthambi ya ukulongozga) kuŵa membala wa Congress nyengo yeneyiyo. Nangauli vili nthena, upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano uli na mazaza ghakuru pa vya malango, chifukwa cha fundo za mu dango la malango kweniso kusintha kwa mbiri mu nyengo. === Kusayina na kuveta malango === [[File:Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964.jpg|alt=|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] wakusayina [[Dango la Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu la 1964|Dango la Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu la 1964]] pa [[Nyumba Yituŵa|Nyumba Yituŵa]] pa Julayi 2, 1964, apo [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] na ŵanyake ŵakulaŵiska.]] Mazaza ghakuru chomene gha pulezidenti pa kupanga malango ghakufuma ku [[Ndime ya Kupereka Dango|Ndime ya Kupereka Dango]], iyo yikupeleka mazaza kwa pulezidenti kuveta [[Bill (law)|dango lililose]] ilo lapokelereka na [[Congress ya United States|Congress]]. Nangauli Congress yingasintha veto ya pulezidenti, yikukhumbikwira [[Voti zinandi chomene#Voti ziŵiri pa zitatu|voti ziŵiri pa zitatu]] za nyumba zose ziŵiri, ndipo kanandi ichi chikuŵa chakusuzga kuchitika kwambura malango agho ghakukhozgeka na magulu ghaŵiri gha ndyali. Ŵakulemba dango la malango ŵakawopanga kuti Congress yingayezga kusazgirako mazaza ghake na kupangiska "uwofya wa ŵanandi", ntheura kupeleka veto kwa pulezidenti uyo wakusankhika mwakudunjika yayi kukaŵa nthowa yakuzikika ya kupima mazaza gha kupika malango. Nangauli George Washington wakagomezganga kuti veto yikwenera kugwiliskirika ntchito pera para dango lili kwambiska yayi, sono veto yikugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi apo mapulezidenti ŵali na mphambano za ndondomeko na dango. Ntheura veto—panji chiwopsezo cha veto—yikasintha ndipo yapangiska upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano kuŵa chigaŵa chakuzirwa chomene cha ndondomeko ya kupanga malango mu America. Chomenechomene, pasi pa [[Ndime ya Kupereka Dango|Presentment Clause]], para dango laperekeka na Congress, pulezidenti wali na nthowa zitatu: # Kusayina dango mu mazuŵa khumi, kwambura kupenda mazuŵa gha Sabata. Dango ili [[Coming into force|likwamba kugwira ntchito]]. # [[Veto power mu United States|Kuveta]] dango mu nyengo iyo yazunulika pachanya na kuliwezgera ku nyumba ya Congress iyo yikalambika, pakuyowoya ivyo wakususka. Dango ili likwamba yayi kugwira ntchito, kwambura kuti nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress zivote kuti ziviske veto iyi na [[Voti zinandi chomene#Voti ziŵiri pa zitatu|voti ziŵiri pa zitatu]]. # Kuleka kuchitapo kanthu pa dango mu nyengo iyo yazunulika pachanya. Dango ili likwamba kugwira ntchito nga ni kuti pulezidenti wakalisayina, kweni pekha para Congress yili pa holide yayi. Usange Congress yili kumalizga nyengo yake yakuwungana, dango ili likwamba yayi kugwira ntchito, ndipo ichi chikudziwika kuti [[pocket veto]]. Mu 1996, Congress yikayezga kusazgirako mazaza gha veto gha pulezidenti kwizira mu [[Dango la Line Item Veto la 1996|Dango la Line Item Veto]]. Dango ili likapeleka mazaza kwa pulezidenti kusayina dango lililose la ndalama kuti liŵe dango kweniso nyengo yeneyiyo kufumiskapo vinthu vinyake vya ndalama mu dango ilo, chomenechomene ndalama ziphya, ndalama zakugwiliskirika ntchito mwakukhumbikwa, panji chandulo chiphya cha msonkho chakupimika. Congress yikatenge yingapangaso chinthu icho chafumiskika. Usange pulezidenti wakaveta dango liphya ili, Congress yikatenge yingasintha veto iyi mwakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa yake yakawiro, iyo ni voti ziŵiri pa zitatu mu nyumba zose ziŵiri. Mu ''[[Clinton v. City of New York]]'', {{ussc|524|417|1998}}, [[Khoti Likuru la United States|Khoti Likuru la United States]] likati kusintha uku kwa mazaza gha veto mu kupanga dango kukaŵa kwambura kulondezga dango la malango. === Kukhazikiska ndondomeko === [[File:2018 SOTU 27628831.jpg|alt=|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Donald Trump]] wakuyowoya [[Uthenga wa Boma la Charu wa 2018]] panthazi pa [[Congress ya United States|Congress]].]] Kwa nyengo yitali mu mbiri ya America, ŵanthu awo ŵakapenjanga kuŵa mapulezidenti ŵakapenjanga kusankhika chifukwa cha layizgo la ndondomeko ya malango iyo ŵakakhumbanga kuchita. [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 3: Presidential responsibilities|Article II, Gawo 3, Ndime 2]] likukhumba kuti pulezidenti walongozge vinthu ivi ku Congress ivyo pulezidenti wakuwona kuti "nchakukhumbikwa kweniso chakwenelera". Ivi vikuchitika kwizira mu uthenga wa [[State of the Union|Umo Boma la Charu Liliri]], uwo kanandi ukuyowoya fundo za malango agho pulezidenti wakukhumba kuti ghapangike mu chaka chakulondezgapo, kweniso kwizira mu mauthenga ghanyake ghakuwoneka panji ghambura kuwoneka na Congress. Pulezidenti wangawovwirapo pakupanga malango mwa kupereka maghanoghano, kupempha, panji nanga nkhukoserezga kuti Congress ipange malango agho pulezidenti wakugomezga kuti ngakukhumbikwa. Kweniso, pulezidenti wangayezga kusintha umo dango likupangikira apo likali mu ndondomeko ya kupanga dango kwizira mu kukopa ŵabali ŵa Congress payekha.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/95/recommendations-clause |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/95/recommendations-clause |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Recommendations Clause |last=Pfiffner |first=James |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> Mapulezidenti ŵali na mazaza agha chifukwa Dango la Malango likuyowoya yayi uyo wangapanga malango, kweni mazaza agha ghali na mphaka chifukwa mbabali ŵa Congress pera ndiwo ŵangambiska dango.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-legislative-branch/ |title=Our Government: The Legislative Branch |website=[[White House]] |publisher=The White House |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> Pulezidenti panji ŵalara ŵanyake ŵa nthambi ya ukulongozga ŵangapanga vyakulemba vya malango na kupempha maseneta panji ŵimiliri kuti ŵaloweske vyakulemba ivi mu Congress. Kweniso, pulezidenti wangayezga kuchiska Congress kuti yisinthire dango ilo laperekeka, mwakuti wayowoye kuti wavetenge dango ilo usange vinthu ivyo wakukhumba vikasinthika yayi.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42843.pdf |title=Introduction to the Legislative Process in the U.S. Congress |last=Heitshusen |first=Valerie |date=November 15, 2018 |website=R42843 · Version 14 · updated |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> === Kukhazikiska malango ghakulongozga === Malango ghanandi agho Congress yikapanga ghakuyowoya yayi vyose ivyo vingachitika, ndipo ghakupeleka mwakudunjika panji mwambura kudunjika mazaza gha kugwiliskira ntchito malango ku wupu wakwenelera wa boma. Nga ni mulongozgi wa nthambi ya ukulongozga, mapulezidenti ŵakulongozga ma wupu ghanandi gha [[List of federal agencies in the United States|boma la United States]] agho ghangapanga malango ghakulongozga kwambura kulaŵililika chomene na Congress. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵakususkika ŵakayowoya kuti mazaza ghanandi gha kupanga malango na bajeti agho ghakeneranga kuŵa gha Congress ghakajumphira mu mawoko gha mapulezidenti. Munthu yumoza wakususka wakayowoya kuti mapulezidenti ŵangapanga "gulu la ŵanthu ŵakukwana nga ni gulu la ŵankhondo la 'ma czar'—waliyose wambura kuyankha kwa Congress kweni wakupika mulimo wa kulongozga ndondomeko zikuru za ku White House".<ref name="tws28sep08">{{Cite news |last=Cantor |first=Eric |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/29/AR2009072902624.html |title=Obama's 32 Czars |date=July 30, 2009 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 28, 2009}}</ref> Mapulezidenti ŵakususkika chifukwa cha kupanga [[mazgu gha kusayina|mazgu gha kusayina]] apo ŵakusayina malango gha Congress, pakuyowoya umo ŵakupulikira dango panji umo ŵazamugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="twsSEPrt8jyh5" /> Chizgoŵezi ichi chasukika na [[American Bar Association]] kuti nchakususkana na dango la malango.<ref name="tws11nov301">{{Cite news |last=Suarez |first=Ray |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/july-dec06/signing_07-24.html |title=President's Use of 'Signing Statements' Raises Constitutional Concerns |date=July 24, 2006 |access-date=November 11, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321035900/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/july-dec06/signing_07-24.html |archive-date=March 21, 2007 |publisher=PBS Online NewsHour |quote=The American Bar Association said President Bush's use of "signing statements", which allow him to sign a bill into law but not enforce certain provisions, disregards the rule of law and the separation of powers. Legal experts discuss the implications. |display-authors=etal }}</ref> Wakasangazga wa kusungilira miyambo [[George Will]] wakalemba vya "nthambi ya ukulongozga iyo yikusazgikira chomene" kweniso "kuzimirika kwa Congress".<ref name="tws28sep">{{Cite news |last=Will |first=George F. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/19/AR2008121902929.html |title=Making Congress Moot |date=December 21, 2008 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 28, 2009}}</ref> === Kucemera na kuzimiska Congress === Kuti boma lichitenge mwaluŵiro para pali suzgo likuru la mukati mwa charu panji la pa charu chose ilo likuchitika apo Congress yili pa nyengo yayi yakukumana, pulezidenti wali kupika nkhongono kwizira mu [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 3: Extraordinary sessions and prorogation of Congress|Nkhani Yachiŵiri, Chigaŵa 3]] cha Malango kuti wacheme [[special session|ungano wapadera]] wa nyumba yimoza panji zose ziŵiri za Congress. Kufuma apo [[John Adams]] wakachita nthena kakwamba mu 1797, pulezidenti wachema Congress yose kuti yikumanenge pa ungano wapadera maulendo 27. [[Harry S. Truman]] ndiyo wakaŵa waumaliro kuchita nthena mu Julayi 1948, ndipo ungano uwu ukamanyikwa kuti [[Turnip Day Session]].<ref name="Forte">{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/96/convening-of-congress |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/96/convening-of-congress |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Convening of Congress |last=Forte |first=David F. |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=Heritage Foundation |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Steinmetz">{{Cite magazine |last=Steinmetz |first=Katy |date=August 10, 2010 |title=Congressional Special Sessions |url=https://content.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,2009480,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> Kweniso, pambere [[Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Chigaziso cha Makumiŵiri]] chindazomerezgeke mu 1933, icho chikiza nyengo iyo Congress yikakumananga kufuma mu Disembala kuluta mu Janyuwale, ŵapulezidenti ŵaphya awo ŵakamba maudindo ŵakachemanga Senate kuti yikumanenge kuti yikhozge kusankhika kwa ŵanthu panji kuzomera mapangano. Kweni mu nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano, nkhongono iyi yili kuleka kugwiritsidwa ntchito chifukwa Congress sono yikukhalilira pa ungano chaka chose, ndipo yikuchita maungano gha pro forma mazuŵa ghose ghatatu nangauli yikuwoneka nga yili pa kupumura. Mwakuyana na ichi, pulezidenti wali na mazaza kuzimiska Congress usange Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri na Senate zingatondeka kupulikana pa nyengo ya kuzimiska; palije pulezidenti uyo wagwiriskapo ntchito nkhongono iyi.<ref name="Forte"/><ref name="Steinmetz"/> == Nkhongono za kulongozga == {{Main|Nkhongono za pulezidenti wa United States}} {{Quote box|align=right|width=25%|quote=Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States, and the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed.|source=''[[Nixon v. General Services Administration]]'', '''{{ussc|433|425|1977}}''' ([[William Rehnquist|Rehnquist, J.]], [[Dissenting opinion|dissenting]])}} Pulezidenti ni mulongozgi wa nthambi yakulongozga ya boma la feduro ndipo wali na udindo wakuyana na [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Malango]] wa "kuwona kuti malango ghakugwiriskika ntchito mwakugomezgeka".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articleii#section3 |title=Article II, Section 3, U.S. Constitution |year=2012 |publisher=Legal Information Institute |access-date=August 7, 2012}}</ref> Nthambi yakulongozga yili na ŵantchito ŵakujumpha 4 miliyoni, kusazgapo ŵasilikari.<ref name="obamapresidency">{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/executive-branch |title=Executive Branch |date=April 2015 |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |access-date=January 24, 2020}}</ref> === Nkhongono za ulamuliro === Ŵapulezidenti ŵakusankha ŵanthu mu maudindo gha ndyali. Pulezidenti uyo wanjira waka mu udindo wangasankha ŵanthu 4,000, ndipo 1,200 mwa iwo ŵakwenera kuzomerezgeka na [[Advice and consent#United States|Senate ya United States]]. [[Ambassador|Ŵakazembe]], ŵabali ŵa [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]], na ŵalara ŵanyake, ni mwa maudindo agho ghakuzuzgika kwizira mu kusankhika kwa pulezidenti na kuzomerezgeka na Senate.<ref>{{cite web| title=Presidentially Appointed Positions| date=April 14, 2021| url=https://presidentialtransition.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2020/12/Presidentially-Appointed-Positions.pdf| publisher=[[Partnership for Public Service]]| location=Washington, D.C.| access-date=March 7, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Biden Political Appointee Tracker| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/interactive/2020/biden-appointee-tracker/| newspaper=The Washington Post| access-date=March 7, 2023}}</ref> Nkhongono za pulezidenti zakuchimbiska ŵalara ŵa nthambi yakulongozga zakhala nkhani yakukwaskana chomene mu ndyali. Kanandi, pulezidenti wangawuskamo ŵalara ŵa nthambi yakulongozga nyengo yiliyose.<ref>See ''Shurtleff v. United States'', {{ussc|189|311|1903}}; ''[[Myers v. United States]]'', {{ussc|272|52|1926}}.</ref> Kweni, Congress yingachepeska na kukhora mazaza gha pulezidenti pakuwuskamo ŵalongozgi ŵa mawupu ghakujiyimira ghakulongozga malango na ŵalara ŵanyake ŵa pasi mu nthambi yakulongozga kwizira mu [[statute|dango]].<ref>See ''[[Humphrey's Executor v. United States]]'', {{ussc|295|602|1935}} and ''[[Morrison v. Olson]]'', {{ussc|487|654|1988}}, respectively.</ref> Kuti ŵalamulire boma la feduro ilo likukulirakulira, ŵapulezidenti ŵakamba kuzijala na magulu ghanandi gha ŵantchito, agho pamanyuma ghakanozgekera mu [[Executive Office of the President of the United States]]. Mu Executive Office iyi, gulu la mukati chomene la ŵawovwiri ŵa pulezidenti na ŵawovwiri ŵawo likusangika mu [[White House Office]]. Pulezidenti wali na nkhongono zakulongozga milimo ya boma la feduro kwizira mu kupereka mitundu yakupambanapambana ya [[Presidential directive|malanguro]], nga ni [[Presidential proclamation (United States)|chilango cha pulezidenti]] na [[executive order|malanguro gha pulezidenti]]. Para pulezidenti wakugwiriskira ntchito mwakwenelera udindo uwo wali kupika na malango, ukuru wa nkhongono iyi ngukuru.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/the-constitution/report/executive-summary-the-use-and-abuse-executive-orders-and-other-presidential |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331030907/http://www.heritage.org/the-constitution/report/executive-summary-the-use-and-abuse-executive-orders-and-other-presidential |url-status=unfit |archive-date=March 31, 2017 |title=Executive Summary: The Use and Abuse of Executive Orders and Other Presidential Directives |last=Gaziano |first=Todd |date=February 21, 2001 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=January 23, 2018}}</ref> Nangauli vili nthena, malanguro agha ghali pasi pa [[Judicial review in the United States|kuweleruzgika na ŵeruzgi]] mu makhoti gha feduro gha United States, agho ghangasanga kuti ngambula kukolerana na malango. Congress yingazgora malanguro gha pulezidenti kuŵa ghambura ntchito kwizira mu dango. === Vya vyakuwaro (Foreign affairs) === [[File:President George H. W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev.jpg|thumb|Mulongozgi George H. W. Bush na mulongozgi wa Soviet [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] ŵali kusayina [[1990 Chemical Weapons Accord|Phangano la 1990 pa vya vilwero vya makemikolo]] ku [[White House|Nyumba ya White House]].]] [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 3: Presidential responsibilities|Article II, Section 3, Clause 4]] chikukhumba kuti pulezidenti "wapokelere Mabambasada". Dango ili, ilo likumanyikwa kuti Reception Clause, lili kupulikikwa kuti likung'anamura kuti pulezidenti wali na mazaza ghakuru pa nkhani za vyakuwaro,<ref>''[[United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.]]'', {{ussc|299|304|1936}}, likalongosora Pulezidenti kuti ni "chiŵaro chekha cha charu mu ubale wake wakuwaro", fundo iyo [https://fas.org/sgp/eprint/fisher.pdf yikatsutsika] na Louis Fisher wa [[Library of Congress|Layibulare ya Kongiresi]].</ref> ndiposo kumovwira pulezidenti pa mazaza ghake ghakupokera [[diplomatic recognition|kuwoneska kuzomera]] boma la charu chinyake.<ref>''[[Zivotofsky v. Kerry]]'', {{Ussc|576|___|2015|el=no}}.</ref> Malango gha Dango la Malango gha charu ghakumupaso pulezidenti mazaza ghakuŵika mabambasada gha United States, kweniso kupereka na kudumbiskana chomene mapangano pakati pa United States na vyaru vinyake. Mapangano agha, para ghazomerezgeka na ulangizi na chivomerezgo cha Seneti ya U.S. (na mavoti gha [[Supermajority|maghanaghano ghaŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu]]), ghakuŵa ghakukaka nga ni dango la boma. Nangauli nkhani za vyakuwaro zikaŵa nyengo zose chigaŵa chakuzirwa cha maudindo gha pulezidenti, kusintha kwa tekinoloje kufuma apo Dango la Malango likakhazikiskikira kwasazgirako mazaza gha pulezidenti. Kale mabambasada ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakuru gha kudumbiskana mwakujiyimira paŵekha mu zina la United States, kweni sono mapulezidenti ŵakukumana nyengo zose mwakudunjika na ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake. === Mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari (Commander-in-chief) === [[File:Lincoln O-62 by Gardner, 1862-crop.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Abraham Lincoln]] wakavikilira mwakukwana [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] mu nyengo ya [[American Civil War|Nkhondo ya pa Wenenawene ya ku America]]. Pano wali (pakati) na General [[George B. McClellan]] (kumazere), ndiposo ŵasilikari ku [[Antietam National Battlefield|Antietam]], pa Okutobala 3, 1862.]] Chimoza mwa mazaza ghakuzirwa chomene gha wupu wakulongozga ni mulimo wa pulezidenti nga ni [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari]] wa [[United States Armed Forces|Ŵasilikari ŵa United States]]. Mazaza ghakupharazga nkhondo ghali mu mawoko gha Kongiresi mwakuyana na dango la malango, kweni pulezidenti wali na mulimo wakumalizga wakulongozga na kupangiska ndondomeko za ŵasilikari. Mlingo weneko wa mazaza agho Dango la Malango likumupa pulezidenti nga ni mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari waŵa nkhani ya kudumbirana chomene mu mdauko, apo Kongiresi nyengo zinyake yamupanga mazaza ghakuru ndipo nyengo zinyake yikayezga kuchepeska mazaza agha.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/articles/article-ii/commander-in-chief-clause-ramsey-and-vladeck/clause/25 |title=Common Interpretation: Commander in Chief Clause |last1=Ramsey |first1=Michael |last2=Vladeck |first2=Stephen |website=National Constitution Center Educational Resources (some internal navigation required) |publisher=National Constitution Center |access-date=May 23, 2017}}</ref> Ŵalembi ŵa Dango la Malango ŵakaphalira makora kuchepeska mazaza gha pulezidenti pa nkhani za ŵasilikari; [[Alexander Hamilton]] wakalongosora mu [[Federalist No. 69]] kuti:{{blockquote|Pulezidenti ndiyo wakwenera kuŵa mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari na sitima za nkhondo za United States.{{nbsp}}... Ichi chikung'anamura waka ulongozgi ukuru na kulongozga ŵasilikari na ŵanyamata ŵa sitima za nkhondo{{nbsp}}... apo [mazaza] gha [[Monarchy of Great Britain|themba la Britain]] ghakusazgapo KUPHARAZGA nkhondo na KULENGA NA KULONGOZGA magulu gha ŵasilikari na sitima za nkhondo, vyose ivi{{nbsp}}... vikeneranga kuŵa vya wupu wakupanga malango.<ref>[[Alexander Hamilton|Hamilton, Alexander]]. [http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa69.htm ''The Federalist'' #69] (reposting). Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref> [Mazgu ghakudidimizgika mu chakwamba.]|sign=|source=}} Mu nyengo yasono, mwakuyana na [[War Powers Resolution|Dango la Mazaza gha Nkhondo]], Kongiresi yikwenera kuzomerezga kutumizga ŵasilikari kuluta ku malo ghanyake kwa mazuŵa ghakujumpha 60, nangauli ndondomeko iyi yikuthemba pa vinthu vyakuyambiska ivyo vindagwiriskikepo ntchito, ndipo ichi chapangiska kuti yileke kugwira ntchito makora.<ref name="miller-center">{{Cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |title=The National War Powers Commission Report |last1=Christopher |first1=James A. |last2=Baker, III |date=July 8, 2008 |publisher=The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia |format=PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126165009/http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |archive-date=November 26, 2010 |access-date=December 15, 2010 |quote=No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the president and Congress to consult. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements. Instead, it relies on reporting requirements that, if triggered, begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular armed conflict. By the terms of the 1973 Resolution, however, Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional, and no president in the past 35 years has filed a report "pursuant" to these triggering provisions. }}</ref> Kweniso, Kongiresi yikupeleka mphaka ku mazaza gha pulezidenti pa ŵasilikari kwizira mu kulamulira ndalama za ŵasilikari na malango ghawo. Mapulezidenti mu mdauko ŵakambiska nyengo zinandi ndondomeko zakunjira mu nkhondo,<ref name="tws12novef">{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107101712/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 7, 2008 |title=The Law: The President's War Powers |date=June 1, 1970 |magazine=Time |access-date=September 28, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="tws8nov102">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II.}}</ref> kweni ŵakususka ŵayowoya kuti pakaŵa mikangano yinandi iyo mapulezidenti ŵakachitapo nkhondo kwambura kupokera chiphani chakuzomerezgeka, kusazgapo kuluta kwa ŵasilikari ŵa [[Theodore Roosevelt]] ku [[Panama]] mu 1903,<ref name="tws12novef" /> [[Korean War|Nkhondo ya Korea]],<ref name="tws12novef" /> [[Vietnam War|Nkhondo ya Vietnam]],<ref name="tws12novef" /> ndiposo kuwukira kwa [[Grenada]] mu 1983<ref name="tws8nov101">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=President Reagan told Congress of the invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing. He told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft were on their way.}}</ref> na [[Panama]] mu 1989.<ref name="tws8nov100">{{Cite news |last=Gordon |first=Michael R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1220.html#article |title=U.S. troops move in Panama in effort to seize Noriega; gunfire is heard in capital |date=December 20, 1990 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=It was not clear whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about the military action, or notified them in advance. Thomas S. Foley, the Speaker of the House, said on Tuesday night that he had not been alerted by the Administration.}}</ref> Nkhongono ya usilikari iyo pulezidenti wakulongozga yekha pa nyengo ya nkhondo yasintha chomene.Andrew J. Polsky, ''Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=37003 online review] [[George Washington]], pulezidenti wakwamba wa United States, wakakhazikiska mwamphamvu [[Kulongozgeka kwa ŵasilikari na ŵanthu bweka|kujilambika kwa usilikari ku mazaza gha ŵanthu bweka]]. Mu 1794, Washington wakagwiliskira ntchito nkhongono zake za mu dango la malango kuwunganya ŵasilikari ŵa [[Militia]] ŵakukwana 12,000 kuti ŵamazge [[Chiwukirano cha Whiskey|Chiwukirano cha Whiskey]], nkhondo iyo yikachitika mu [[Western Pennsylvania|Western Pennsylvania]] yakukhwaskana na ŵalimi ŵakuvwara vilwero na ŵakupanga moŵa awo ŵakakana kulipira msonkho wa pa moŵa wa mizimu. Mwakuyana na mulembi wa mdauko [[Joseph Ellis]], iyi yikaŵa "nyengo yakwamba ndiposo yimoza pera apo pulezidenti wa America uyo wakaŵa pa udindo wakalongozga ŵasilikari pa malo gha nkhondo", nangauli [[James Madison]] wakalongozga kwa kanyengo waka magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵa mfuti zikuru pakuvikilira [[Kuwotcheka kwa Washington|Washington, D.C.]], pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya 1812|Nkhondo ya 1812]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/summer12/george.cfm |title=George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander in Chief |publisher=The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation}} [[Abraham Lincoln]] wakachitanga mulimo ukuru pakunozga ndondomeko yose ya nkhondo ndiposo pa ntchito za zuŵa na zuŵa pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya pa Charu ya ku America|Nkhondo ya pa Charu ya ku America]], 1861–1865; ndipo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakamulumba chomene Lincoln chifukwa cha mahara ghake gha ndondomeko ya nkhondo ndiposo luso lwake lwakusankha na kukhozga ŵalongozgi ŵasilikari nga ni [[Ulysses S. Grant]].James M. McPherson, ''Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln As Commander in Chief'' (2009) Ulongozgi wa ntchito za zuŵa na zuŵa za ŵasilikari masiku ghano ukupika ku [[Dipatimenti ya Vyakuvikilira ya United States|Dipatimenti ya Vyakuvikilira]] ndipo kanandi ukuchitika kwizira mwa [[Mlembi wa Vyakuvikilira wa United States|Mlembi wa Vyakuvikilira]]. [[Mulongozgi wa Joint Chiefs of Staff|Mulongozgi wa Joint Chiefs of Staff]] pamoza na [[Combatant Commands|Combatant Commands]] ŵakovwira pa ulongozgi wa ntchito izi mwakuyana na Unified Command Plan (UCP) iyo yavomerezgeka na pulezidenti.{{Cite news |url=https://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |title=DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011 |date=April 8, 2011 |work=[[United States Department of Defense]] |access-date=February 25, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513070316/http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |archive-date=May 13, 2011}}{{USC|10|164}}[[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090416022040/http://www.jcs.mil/page.aspx?id=2 About the Joint Chiefs of Staff]. Retrieved February 25, 2013. == Nkhongono za vyeruzgo == {{Further|[[Mndandanda wa ŵanthu awo ŵakapika chigowokero panji kulekelereka na pulezidenti wa United States|Mndandanda wa ŵanthu awo ŵakapika chigowokero panji kulekelereka na pulezidenti wa United States]]}} {{Update|section|reason=The case [[Trump v. United States (2024)|Trump v. United States (2024)]]|date=July 2024}} [[File: P20220408AS-1467 (52067437977).jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Joe Biden]] pamoza na wakweruzga wa [[Khoti Likuru Chomene la United States|Khoti Likuru Chomene]] uyo wakamusankha, [[Ketanji Brown Jackson]], kweniso Wachiwiri wa Pulezidenti [[Kamala Harris]] (uyo wali kumanyuma) pamanyuma pakuti Brown Jackson wazomerezgeke na [[Senate ya United States|Senate ya United States]] mu 2022]] Pulezidenti wali na mazaza ghakusankha [[Muweruzgi wa federo wa United States|ŵeruzgi ŵa federo]], kusazgapoŵanthu mu [[Makhoti gha Chikwenu gha United States|Makhoti gha Chikwenu gha United States]] na [[Khoti Likuru la United States|Khoti Likuru la United States]]. Kweni, visankho ivi vikukhumbikwira [[Ndangaulizgi na chizomerezgo#United States|kuzomerezgeka na Senate]] pambere ŵangamba mulimo. Kupokelera chizomerezgo cha Senate chingaŵa chinthu chikuru chakususka ku ŵalongozgi awo ŵakukhumba kunyoloska makhoti gha federo kuya na maghanoghano ghawo. Para ŵakusankha ŵeruzgi mu [[Khoti la Boma la United States|makhoti gha boma gha United States]], ŵalongozgi kanandi ŵakuchindika muzgo wakale wa [[Muzgo wa Senate|muzgo wa Senate]]. Ŵalongozgi ŵangaŵaso na mazaza ghakupereka [[Chigowokero|vigowokero]] na kuchedweska chilango. [[Gerald Ford]] wakagowokera [[Richard Nixon]] mwezi umoza pamanyuma pa kwamba mulimo wake. Ŵalongozgi kanandi ŵakupereka vigowokero pafupi na para ŵakuti ŵafumepo mu udindo wawo, nga umo [[Bill Clinton]] wakagowokera [[Patty Hearst]] pa zuŵa lake laumaliro mu udindo; ichi nchakukayikiska kanandi.<ref name="tws8nov12">{{Cite news |last=Johnston |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html |title=Bush Pardons Six in Iran Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up' |date=December 24, 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=But not since President Gerald R. Ford granted clemency to former President Richard M. Nixon for possible crimes in Watergate has a Presidential pardon so pointedly raised the issue of whether the president was trying to shield officials for political purposes.}}</ref><ref name="tws8nov11">{{Cite news |last=Johnston |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html |title=Bush Pardons Six in Iran Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up' |date=December 24, 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=The prosecutor charged that Mr. Weinberger's efforts to hide his notes may have 'forestalled impeachment proceedings against President Reagan' and formed part of a pattern of 'deception and obstruction'.{{nbsp}}... In light of President Bush's own misconduct, we are gravely concerned about his decision to pardon others who lied to Congress and obstructed official investigations.}}</ref><ref name="tws8nov10">{{Cite news |last=Eisler |first=Peter |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-03-06-clinton-library-foia_N.htm |title=Clinton-papers release blocked |date=March 7, 2008 |work=USA Today |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Former president Clinton issued 140 pardons on his last day in office, including several to controversial figures, such as commodities trader Rich, then a fugitive on tax evasion charges. Rich's ex-wife, Denise, contributed $2,000 in 1999 to Hillary Clinton's Senate campaign; $5,000 to a related political action committee; and $450,000 to a fund set up to build the Clinton library.}}</ref> Malango ghaŵiri ghakukhwaskana na mazaza gha boma ghakawoneka agho ghakuzomerezga pulezidenti kuti wachite milimo yake mwakujilongozga yekha munjila yinyake. Lakwamba ni [[Ufulu Wapadera wa Boma|ufulu wapadera wa boma]], uwo ukuzomerezga pulezidenti kuti waleke kuvumbura nkhani zauzgani izo zikachitika pakati pake nayo pakuchita milimo ya boma. George Washington ndiyo wakayambirizga kudemba ufulu uwu apo Bungwe la Congress likaŵeya kuwona vyalembo vya [[Muweruzgi Mkuru wa United States|Muweruzgi Mkuru]] [[John Jay]] kufuma ku chiwerengero cha phangano lakusuzga na [[Ufumu wa Great Britain|Great Britain]]. Nangauli chindindindi ichi chindalembeke mu Constitution panji dango linyake lililose, kuchita kwa Washington kukapangiska umboni wakwamba wa ufulu uwu. Apo Nixon wakayezga kugwiliskira ntchito ufulu wapadera wa boma kuŵa chifukwa chakukana kupeleka ukaboni uwo ukalongozgeka na Congress mu nyengo ya [[Nkhani ya Watergate|nkhani ya Watergate]], Khoti Likuru likazomerezga mu ''[[United States v. Nixon]]'', kuti ufulu wapadera wa boma ukazomerezgeka yayi mu nkhani izo pulezidenti wakayezganga kutaŵaka ku milandu yaupolisi. Apo Bill Clinton wakayezga kugwiliskira ntchito ufulu wapadera wa boma pa nkhani ya [[Nkhani ya Clinton–Lewinsky|nkhani ya Lewinsky]], Khoti Likuru likazomerezga mu ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'', kuti ufulu uwu ungagwiliskikaso ntchito yayi mu milandu ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri. Milandu iyi yikakhazikiska [[Fundo Yakale|fundo yakale ya malango]] yakuti ufulu wapadera wa boma ngwaunenesko, nangauli umo ufulu uwu ukufikira nkhathomo undalongosoreke makora. Kuwonjezgapo, makhoti gha federo ghazomerezga ufulu uwu kuti ukhwaskeso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakuteŵetera mu nthowa ya boma kweni ghawovwira yayi comene ku uzgani wa nthowa ya boma uwo pulezidenti wandavutikepo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |title=Executive Privilege 101 |last=Millhiser, Ian |date=June 1, 2010 |publisher=Center for American Progress |access-date=October 8, 2010 |archive-date=June 9, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609224239/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Mwaŵi wakubisa vyamchindindi vya boma]] ukupeleka mazaza kwa pulezidenti na nthambi ya ulongozgi kubisa uthenga panji mabuku ku [[Discovery (law)|kufufuza kwa umboni]] mu milandu ya pa khoti usange kuwonekera kwake kungananga [[chivikiliro cha charu]]. Chiyambi cha mwaŵi uwu chikawoneka kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakakana kupeleka mabuku gha nkhondo pa mulandu wa [[chiwembu chakugalukira boma]] wa [[Aaron Burr]], ndipo pamanyuma mu ''[[Totten v. United States]]'', apo Khoti Likuru Chomene likadumura mulandu uwo ukapelekeka na kazondi wakale wa Union.{{cite case |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-9th-circuit/1537579.html |title=Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan |chapter=Part III |via=FindLaw |access-date=November 29, 2010}} Ndipouli, mwaŵi uwu ukazomerezgeka mwalamulo na Khoti Likuru Chomene la United States yayi m'paka pa mulandu wa ''[[United States v. Reynolds]]'', apo ukawonekera kuti ni mwaŵi wa [[common law]] wa [[Evidence (law)|umboni]].{{Cite web |url=https://www.acslaw.org/issue_brief/briefs-2007-2011/reforming-the-state-secrets-privilege/ |title=Reforming the State Secrets Privilege |last1=Frost |first1=Amanda |last2=Florence |first2=Justin |year=2009 |publisher=[[American Constitution Society]] |access-date=November 9, 2017}} Pambere [[vigaŵa vya pa Seputembala 11]] vindachitike, kugwiliskira ntchito mwaŵi uwu kukaŵa kwakuchitika nyengo zinyake waka, kweni kukamba kwasazgikiranga chomene.{{Cite journal |last1=Weaver |first1=William G. |last2=Pallitto |first2=Robert M. |year=2005 |title=State Secrets and Executive Power |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_political-science-quarterly_spring-2005_120_1/page/85 |journal=[[Political Science Quarterly]] |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=85–112 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165x.2005.tb00539.x |quote=Use of the state secrets privilege in courts has grown significantly over the last twenty-five years. In the twenty-three years between the decision in Reynolds [1953] and the election of Jimmy Carter, in 1976, there were four reported cases in which the government invoked the privilege. Between 1977 and 2001, there were a total of fifty-one reported cases in which courts ruled on invocation of the privilege. Because reported cases represent only a fraction of the total cases in which the privilege is invoked or implicated, it is unclear precisely how dramatically the use of the privilege has grown. But the increase in reported cases is indicative of greater willingness to assert the privilege than in the past.}} Kwambira mu 2001, boma lagwiliskira ntchito mwaŵi uwu mu milandu yinandi ndiposo pa nyengo yakwambilira ya mulandu, ndipo nyengo zinyake ichi chachitiska kuti milandu yimare pambere khoti lindafike pa fundo zikuru za madandawuro, nga umo vikawonekera pa cheruzgo cha [[Khoti la Apilu la United States la Dera la Naini|Khoti la Apilu la Dera la Naini]] mu ''[[Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc.]]''.{{Cite news |last=Savage |first=Charlie |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/us/09secrets.html |title=Court Dismisses a Case Asserting Torture by C.I.A. |date=September 8, 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}}{{Cite news |last=Finn |first=Peter |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/09/08/AR2010090807334.html |title=Suit dismissed against firm in CIA rendition case |date=September 9, 2010 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}} Ŵakususka mwaŵi uwu ŵakuti kugwiliskira ntchito kwake kwazgoka nthowa yakubisira milimo ya boma iyo yikaŵa yakwambura kuzomerezgeka panji yakukhozga soni.{{Cite web |url=http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2009/02/10/obama |title=The 180-degree reversal of Obama's State Secrets position |last=Glenn Greenwald |author-link=Glenn Greenwald |date=February 10, 2009 |website=Salon |access-date=October 8, 2010}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.aclu.org/national-security/background-state-secrets-privilege |title=Background on the State Secrets Privilege |date=January 31, 2007 |publisher=[[American Civil Liberties Union]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}} Kasi pulezidenti wali na [[absolute immunity|chivikiliro chakukwana]] kufuma ku milandu ya pa khoti mpaka pa mlingo wuli, nkhani iyi yikususkana ndipo yakhala yikweruzgikapo mu vyeruzgo vinandi vya Khoti Likuru Chomene. ''[[Nixon v. Fitzgerald]]'' (1982) yikadumura mulandu wa boma uwo ukapelekeka ku pulezidenti wakale Richard Nixon chifukwa cha milimo yake ya pa udindo. ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'' (1997) yikadumura kuti pulezidenti walije chivikiliro ku milandu ya boma pa milimo iyo wakachita pambere wandazgoke pulezidenti, ndipo yikadumura kuti mulandu wa kuzunura munthu pa nkhani ya kugonana ungapitilirira kwambura kuchedwa, nangauli uyo wakususkika wakaŵa pulezidenti wakukhala pa udindo. [[Lipoti la Mueller]] la 2019 pa kunjilirapo kwa Russia mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016|visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016]] likalongosora ukaboni wa [[kunangiska urunji]], kweni ŵakufufuza ŵakakana kupeleka [[Donald Trump]] ku mulandu chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya [[Unduna wa Chilungamo wa United States]] yakukanizga kususka pulezidenti uyo wachali pa udindo. Lipoti ili likati kufumiska pulezidenti pa udindo na Congress kukaŵa nthowa yimoza yakumazgira suzgo ili. Kufika mu Okutobala 2019, mulandu ukaŵa uchali mu makhoti gha boma pa nkhani ya kusanga malipoti gha msonkho gha Donald Trump pa mulandu wa uheni uwo ukapelekeka na [[Loya Mukuru wa Chigaŵa cha New York]] chifukwa cha kuswa malango gha boma la New York.{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/10/07/767830713/federal-judge-rules-trump-must-hand-over-8-years-of-tax-returns|title=President Trump Doesn't Need To Release His Tax Returns — For Now|website=[[NPR]]|date=October 7, 2019|access-date=April 28, 2020|last1=Brown|first1=Tanya Ballard}} Makalata gha [[Office of Legal Counsel]] agho ghakafuma mu 1973 na 2000 ghakakanizga mukati mwa Unduna wa Chilungamo kususka pulezidenti pa mulandu wa uheni, icho ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵa malango ŵakususkira kweni ŵanyake ŵakuchizomerezga.{{cite journal |last1=Prakash |first1=Saikrishna Bangalore |title=Prosecuting and Punishing Our Presidents. |journal=[[Texas Law Review]] |date=November 2021 |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=55–113 |url=https://texaslawreview.org/prosecuting-and-punishing-our-presidents/ |access-date=31 March 2023 |ssrn=4039230 |id={{EBSCOhost|154035452|dbcode=a9h}}}} Pakujivikilira ku mulandu wa boma wa uheni pa [[Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case)|ivyo wakususkikira kuti wakayezga kunangiska visola vya 2020]], mu Janyuwale 2024, Trump wakaphalira [[Khoti la Apilu la DC Circuit]] kuti pulezidenti wali na [[absolute immunity|chivikiliro chakukwana]] ku milandu ya uheni pa vinthu ivyo wachita apo wakaŵa pa udindo. Mwezi wakulondezgapo, gulu la ŵeruzgi ŵatatu la khoti ili likadumura mwakukolerana kuti Trump wakaŵavya mazaza agha. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti khoti la apilu lidumbiskane nkhani ya chivikiliro cha pulezidenti cha mtundu uwu, chifukwa pakaŵavya pulezidenti uyo wakaŵa pa udindo panji wakale uyo wakasuskikapo pa mulandu wa uheni.{{cite news |title=Federal Appeals Court Rejects Trump's Claim of Absolute Immunity |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/06/us/politics/trump-immunity-appeals-court.html |work=The New York Times |date=February 6, 2024|author1=Alan Feuer|author2=Charlie Savage}} Mu ''[[Trump v. United States (2024)|Trump v. United States]]'', pa Julayi 1, 2024, Khoti Likuru Chomene likadumura kuti mapulezidenti ŵali na [[absolute immunity|chivikiliro chakukwana]] para ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazaza ghakuru agho ghali kulembeka mu Dango Likuru, [[presumption|kughanaghana kuti pali chivikiliro]] pa milimo yinyake ya pa udindo, kweni palije chivikiliro pa milimo ya munthu payekha iyo yikukhwaskana yayi na udindo. Mulandu uwu ukaweleraso ku makhoti ghapasi kuti ghadumbiske kuti ni milimo yili iyo yikwenera kuwoneka kuti nja pa udindo panji nja munthu payekha.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/jul/02/presidential-immunity-trump-lawsuits|title=What does the immunity ruling mean for Trump's criminal cases?|work= The Guardian}} Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti makhoti ghapeleke pulezidenti chivikiliro ku milandu ya uheni. == Maudindo gha ulongozgi == === Mutu wa boma === {{listen|filename=Four ruffles and flourishes, hail to the chief (long version).ogg|title=Four ruffles and flourishes and 'Hail to the Chief' (long version)}} Nga ni [[mutu wa boma]], pulezidenti wakwimira boma la United States ku ŵanthu ŵake ndipo wakwimira charu ku vyaru vinyake pa charu chose. Mwachiyelezgero, para mutu wa boma wa charu chinyake wafika pa ulendo wa boma, kanandi pulezidenti wakuchitiska [[State visits to the United States|mwambo wakupokelera mutu wa boma]] uwo ukuchitikira pa [[South Lawn (White House)|South Lawn]], mwambo uwo ukambika na [[John F. Kennedy]] mu 1961.{{Cite book |last1=Abbott |first1=James A. |url=https://archive.org/details/designingcamelot0000abbo |title=Designing Camelot: The Kennedy White House Restoration |last2=Rice |first2=Elaine M. |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-442-02532-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/designingcamelot0000abbo/page/9 9]–10 |url-access=registration}} Pamanyuma pake pakuchitika [[state dinner]] iyo pulezidenti wakupeleka mu [[State Dining Room of the White House|State Dining Room]] kumise.{{Cite web |url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/the-white-house-state-dinner |title=The White House State Dinner |website=The White House Historical Association |access-date=November 9, 2017}} [[File:Wilson opening day 1916.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Woodrow Wilson]] wakuponya bola lakwamba la mwambo pa [[Opening Day]] mu 1916.]] [[File:President Bill Clinton at Buckingham Palace.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Bill Clinton]] wakuwona gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ntchindi pa [[Buckingham Palace]] pa ulendo wa boma ku United Kingdom mu 1995.]] Nga ni mulongozgi wa charu, pulezidenti wakufiska maudindo ghanandi ghambura kuŵa gha boma chomene agho ghakukhwaskana na mwambo. Mwachiyelezgero, [[William Howard Taft]] wakambiska mwambo wa kuponya [[ceremonial first pitch|bola lakwamba la mwambo]] mu 1910 pa [[Griffith Stadium]], Washington, D.C., pa [[Opening Day]] ya [[Minnesota Twins#Washington Nationals/Senators: 1901–1960|Washington Senators]]. Pulezidenti waliyose kufuma kwa Taft, kupatulapo [[Jimmy Carter]], waponya bola limoza lakwamba la mwambo pa Opening Day, pa [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]], panji pa [[World Series]], kanandi pakuŵa chikondwelero chikuru.{{Cite news |last=Duggan |first=Paul |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/01/AR2007040101262.html |title=Balking at the First Pitch |date=April 2, 2007 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |page=A01}} Pulezidenti waliyose kufuma kwa [[Theodore Roosevelt]] waŵa pulezidenti wa ntchindi wa [[Boy Scouts of America]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.scouting.org/filestore/pdf/210-531_WB.pdf |title=History of the BSA Fact Sheet |publisher=Boy Scouts of America |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629031545/http://www.scouting.org/filestore/pdf/210-531_WB.pdf |archive-date=June 29, 2014 |access-date=November 9, 2017}} === Mutu wa chipani === [[File:President Reagan giving his acceptance speech at the Republican National Convention in Dallas Texas.jpg|alt=|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Ronald Reagan]] wakuyowoya mazgu ghake ghakuzomera kusankhika pa [[1984 Republican National Convention]].]] Kanandi pulezidenti wakuwoneka nga ni mutu ndiposo muyowoyeri wa chipani chake cha ndyali. Kufuma apo visola vya kuwoneska ŵanthu ŵakusankhika (binding primaries) vikambira mu vyaru vinandi vya boma, ŵanthu awo ŵakusankhika kuŵa ŵakwimilira chipani pa visola vya pulezidenti kanandi ŵakuŵa na wovwiri wa ŵavoti ŵanandi ŵa chipani chawo. Pakuti Nyumba yose ya Ŵimiliri na pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vitatu cha Seneti vikusoleka pa nyengo yimoza na pulezidenti, kupunda kwa ŵakwimira chipani pa visola kanandi kukukolerana na umo wakwimira chipani pa visola vya pulezidenti wachitira. [[Coattail effect]], panji kusoŵa kwake, nayo kanandi wakukhwaska ŵakwimira chipani pa visola vya boma na vya mu vigaŵa. Ndipouli, kanandi pakuŵa mphindano pakati pa pulezidenti na ŵanyake mu chipani, ndipo mapulezidenti awo ŵakutaya wovwiri ukuru wa ŵa chipani chawo mu Congress kanandi ŵakuwoneka kuti mbafoka ndiposo ŵakuchita makora yayi. Kweniso, chifukwa United States ni boma la ndondomeko ya phalamende yayi, chipani cha pulezidenti chikusoŵa kanandi unandi wa ŵimiliri mu nyumba yimoza panji zose za Congress, panji pa maudindo gha mabwanamkubwa na mu nyumba za malango za vyaru vinandi. === Mulongozgi wa pa charu chose === Na kukura kwa United States kuŵa [[superpower|charu chankhongono chomene]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ndiposo kuŵa na chuma chikuru chomene pa charu chose mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, kanandi pulezidenti wakuwoneka nga ni mulongozgi wa pa charu chose, ndipo nyengo zinyake nga ni munthu wa ndyali wali na nkhongono zikuru chomene pa charu. Udindo wa United States nga ni membara mukuru wa [[NATO]], ndiposo ubwezi wake wakukhora na vyaru vinyake vyasambazi panji vya demokilase nga ni ivyo vili mu [[European Union]], vyapangiska kuti pulezidenti wachemekenge kuti "[[mulongozgi wa charu cha wanangwa]]". == Ndondomeko ya kusankha == === Ivyo munthu wakwenera kuŵa navyo === [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 5: Qualifications for office|Article II, Section 1, Clause 5]] ya Dango Likuru yikulongosora vinthu vitatu ivyo munthu wakwenera kuŵa navyo kuti waŵe pulezidenti. Kuti munthu waŵe pulezidenti wakwenera: waŵe [[Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)|mwenekaya wa United States mwa kubabikira]]; waŵe na vyaka vyakukwana 35 panji kujumpha; waŵe [[Residency (domicile)#United States|wakukhala mu United States]] kwa vyaka vyakukwana 14.{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/articles/article-ii/article-ii-annenberg/interp/19 |title=Article II. The Executive Branch, Annenberg Classroom |website=The Interactive Constitution |publisher=The National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=June 15, 2018}} Munthu uyo wakufiska vyose ivyo vyalembeka pachanya wangatondeka kuŵa pulezidenti usange pali chilichose mwa ivi: Kuyana na [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 7: Judgment in cases of impeachment; Punishment on conviction|Article I, Section 3, Clause 7]], usange munthu wakafumiskika pa udindo, wakasangika na mulandu ndiposo wakakanizgika kuŵaso na udindo uliwose wa boma, nangauli pali mphindano za malango pa nkhani yakuti dango ili likukhwaska so udindo wa pulezidenti: ŵanthu pera awo ŵali kukanizgikapo kuyana na dango ili ni ŵeruzgi ŵatatu ŵa boma.{{cite web |last1=Bernstein |first1=Richard D. |title=Lots of People Are Disqualified From Becoming President |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/02/trump-disqualification-president/617908/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=March 1, 2021 |language=en |date=February 4, 2021 |quote=In addition to the list of people who are ineligible for reasons of mere demographic chance, the Constitution adds a category of people who cannot be elected as a result of their misdeeds. This category includes presidents (along with vice presidents and federal "civil officers") who are impeached, convicted by two-thirds of the Senate, and disqualified for serious misconduct committed while they were in office.}}{{cite web |last1=Wolfe |first1=Jan |title=Explainer: Impeachment or the 14th Amendment – Can Trump be barred from future office? |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-impeachment-explainer-idUSKBN29I356 |website=Reuters |access-date=March 1, 2021 |language=en |date=January 14, 2021}} Kuyana na [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Participants in rebellion|Section 3 ya Amendment ya 14]], munthu waliyose uyo wakalapa kuti wavikilirenge Dango Likuru ndipo pamanyuma wakagalukira United States ngwakwenelera yayi kuŵa na udindo uliwose wa boma. Ndipouli, kukanizgika uku kungafumiskikapo na voti ya magawo ghaŵiri pa ghatatu gha nyumba yiliyose ya Congress.{{cite web|last=Moreno|first=Paul|title=Articles on Amendment XIV: Disqualification for Rebellion|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/amendments/14/essays/173/disqualification-for-rebellion|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/amendments/14/essays/173/disqualification-for-rebellion|url-status=unfit|archive-date=April 21, 2012|website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=June 15, 2018}} Kweniso, pali mphindano pa nkhani yakuti dango ili, umo lili kulembekera, lingakanizga munthu kuŵa pulezidenti panji lingakhumbikwira dankha mulandu kuwaro kwa Congress, nangauli pali viyelezgero vya kugwiliskira ntchito amendment iyi pa vinthu vinyake padera pa chilato chake chakwambilira cha kukanizga [[Confederate States of America|ŵa Confederacy]] kuŵa pa maudindo gha boma pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Ŵanaŵene.{{cite web |last1=Vlamis |first1=Kelsey |title=Here's how the 14th Amendment could be used to prevent Trump from running again |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/how-the-14th-amendment-could-prevent-trump-from-office-2021-2 |website=Business Insider |access-date=March 1, 2021}} Kuyana na [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Amendment ya 22]], palije munthu wangasoleka kuŵa pulezidenti kujumpha kaŵiri. Amendment iyi yikulongosoraso kuti usange munthu wakwenerera wateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti panji pulezidenti wakuchitapo ntchito kwa vyaka vyakujumpha viŵiri vya nyengo iyo munthu munyake wakasoleka kuŵa pulezidenti, munthu wakwamba wangasolekaso kuŵa pulezidenti kamoza pera.{{cite journal|last1=Peabody|first1=Bruce G.|last2=Gant|first2=Scott E.|date=February 1999|title=The Twice and Future President: Constitutional Interstices and the Twenty-Second Amendment|url=http://alpha.fdu.edu/~peabody/Twice_and_Future_President.html|journal=Minnesota Law Review|volume=83|issue=3|pages=565–635|access-date=June 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115121046/http://alpha.fdu.edu/~peabody/Twice_and_Future_President.html|archive-date=January 15, 2013}}{{cite journal|last=Albert|first=Richard|title=The Evolving Vice Presidency|journal=Temple Law Review|date=Winter 2005|volume=78|issue=4|url=https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1624&context=lsfp|pages=811–896|access-date=July 31, 2018|via=Digital Commons @ Boston College Law School}} === Uteŵeti wakale === {{Main|List of presidents of the United States by other offices held|List of presidents of the United States by previous experience|List of presidents of the United States by education}} Palije chakukhumbikwa kuti pulezidenti panji ŵakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti ŵaŵepo na udindo unyake pambere ŵandanjire pa udindo panji pa nyengo yeneyiyo. Ndipouli, pulezidenti waliyose, kupatulapo Donald Trump, wali kuŵapo [[Governor (United States)|kazembe wa boma]], [[United States Senate|seneta wa United States]], [[United States House of Representatives|membara wa Congress]], [[General officers in the United States|mulara wa ŵasilikari]], panji [[Cabinet of the United States|membara wa nduna za boma]]. Ntchito iyo mapulezidenti ŵanandi ŵakachitanga ni ya muloya, pakuti ŵanalume 27 pa 45 awo ŵateŵeterapo nga ni pulezidenti ŵakaŵa maloya.International Law, US Power: The United States' Quest for Legal Security, p 10, Shirley V. Scott—2012 Mapulezidenti ŵanyake awo ŵakazakaŵa mapulezidenti ŵakaleka kusambira panji kuchita ntchito ya uloya pambere ŵandazgoke mapulezidenti. Palije nyengo iyo munthu wakakhumbikwiranga kuŵa na katundu kuti waŵe pulezidenti panji kuŵa na udindo unyake wa boma, kweni mu vyaka vyakwambilira vya republic, pakaŵa [[Property qualification#United States of America|vyakukhumbikwa vya katundu kuti munthu wavote]] panji kuti waŵe pa maudindo ghanyake agho ghakafiskanga munthu kuŵa pulezidenti, chomenechomene pa udindo wa kazembe wa boma. Pambere Nkhondo ya Ŵanaŵene yindachitike, chikaŵa chakuzara kuti mapulezidenti ŵaŵe ŵanthu ŵa katundu munandi: mapulezidenti ŵa ku North kanandi ŵakaŵa na mafamu ghachoko, apo ŵanandi ŵa ku South ŵakaŵa na minda yikuru ndiposo [[List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves|ŵazga]].{{cite news|url=https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/|title=The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|date=November 10, 2016|work=24/7 Wall St.|access-date=April 10, 2019|publisher=247wallst.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410142809/https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/|archive-date=April 10, 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web |last1=Whitney |first1=Gleaves |title=Slaveholding Presidents |url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=ask_gleaves |website=Ask Gleaves |publisher=Grand Valley State University |access-date=October 14, 2020 |ref=gvsu}} Nangauli mapulezidenti ŵanyake ŵakamanyuma ŵakafuma mu ukavu ukuru, ŵanyake, nga ni mbumba ya Roosevelt, John Kennedy, na Donald Trump, ŵakafuma mu mbumba zisambazi chomene. Ŵanalume 33 pa 45 awo ŵateŵeterapo nga ni pulezidenti, kusazgapo pulezidenti waliyose kwambira mu 1953 na wose kupatulapo yumoza kufuma mu 1901, ŵali kuŵa na digiri ya bachelor. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, [[Ivy League#U.S. presidents in the Ivy League|mapulezidenti 16]] ŵakasanga digiri ya Bachelor panji ya pachanya kufuma ku makoleji gha mu [[Ivy League]]. === Makampeni na kusankhika === {{Main|United States presidential primary|United States presidential nominating convention}} {{See also|United States presidential debates}} [[File:Carter Reagan Debate 10-28-80.png|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Jimmy Carter]] (kumazere) wakudumbiskana na wakwimira chipani cha Republican [[Ronald Reagan]] pa Okutobala 28, 1980, pa nyengo ya [[1980 United States presidential election|kampeni ya visola vya pulezidenti vya United States ya 1980]].]] Kampeni ya mazuŵa ghano ya pulezidenti yikwamba pambere [[United States presidential primary|visola vyakwambilira]] vindachitike, ivyo vipani viŵiri vikuru vya ndyali vikugwiliskira ntchito kupatura ŵakwimira pa visola pambere [[United States presidential nominating convention|misonkhano yawo ya kusankha wakwimira chipani]] yindachitike, uko munthu uyo wapunda chomene wakuzgoka wakwimira chipani pa visola vya pulezidenti. Kanandi, wakwimira chipani pa udindo wa pulezidenti wakusankha munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, ndipo chisankho ichi [[Rubber stamp (politics)|chikuzomerezgeka]] na msonkhano. Ŵakwimira pa visola ŵakuchita [[United States presidential debates|nkhani za kudumbiskana]] izo zikuwoneskeka pa TV ya charu chose, ndipo nangauli nkhani izi kanandi zikuperekeka ku ŵakwimira [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] na [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] pera, [[Third party (United States)|ŵakwimira vipani vinyake]] nawo ŵangachemeka, nga ni [[Ross Perot]] pa [[1992 United States presidential debates|nkhani za 1992]]. Ŵakwimira pa visola ŵakwendakwenda mu charu chose kulongosora maghanoghano ghawo, kukopa ŵavoti na kupempha ndalama zakwendeskera kampeni. Chigaŵa chikuru cha visola vya mazuŵa ghano chikukhwaskana na kupunda mu [[swing state|vyaru vya boma vyakusintha voti]] kwizira mu maulendo ghanandi na malonda gha pa [[mass media]]. === Visola === {{Main|United States presidential election}} {{See also|United States Electoral College}} [[File:ElectoralCollege2028.svg|thumb|293x293px|Mapu gha [[United States]] agho ghakulongora unandi wa mavoti gha Electoral College agho ghakapelekeka ku [[U.S. state|boma]] lililose na [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] pamanyuma pa [[2020 United States census]] pa visola vya pulezidenti vya 2024 na 2028. Mavoti 270 gha Electoral College ghakukhumbikwa kuti munthu waŵe na unandi pa mavoti 538 agho ghali ghose.]] Pulezidenti wakusoleka mwambura kulunjika na ŵavoti ŵa boma lililose na [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] kwizira mu Electoral College, gulu la ŵakusora ilo likupangika pa vyaka vinayi vilivyose kuti lisore pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake pa nyengo ya vyaka vinayi. Nga umo vikulembekera mu Article II, Section 1, Clause 2, boma lililose likuŵa na unandi wa ŵakusora wakuyana na unandi wa ŵimiliri ŵake mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. [[Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution|Amendment ya 23]] yikupereka kuti District of Columbia yiŵe na unandi wa ŵakusora uwo yiŵenge nayo usange yikaŵa boma, kweni yingajumphanga yayi uwo boma ilo lili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene lili nawo.{{Cite web|url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-third-amendment|title=Twenty-third Amendment|date=March 29, 1961|website=Annenberg Classroom|publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|access-date=July 30, 2018}} Sono, maboma ghose na District of Columbia ghakusankha ŵakusora ŵawo kwizira mu visola vya ŵanthu wose.{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32611.pdf|title=The Electoral College: How It Works in Contemporary Presidential Elections|last=Neale|first=Thomas H.|date=May 15, 2017|website=CRS Report for Congress|publisher=Congressional Research Service|location=Washington, D.C.|page=13|access-date=July 29, 2018}} Mu maboma ghose kupatulapo ghaŵiri, chipani icho [[Ticket (election)|tikiti]] yake ya pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake yapokera [[Plurality (voting)|mavoti ghanandi chomene]] mu boma, chikupokera [[Slate (elections)|gulu lose]] la ŵakusora ŵake kuŵa ŵakusora ŵa boma ilo.{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/electors.html|title=About the Electors|website=U.S. Electoral College|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 2, 2018}} [[Maine]] na [[Nebraska]] vikulondezga yayi ndondomeko iyi ya {{nowrap|winner-take-all}}; vikupereka ŵakusora ŵaŵiri kwa uyo wapunda mu boma lose, na yumoza kwa uyo wapunda mu [[List of United States congressional districts|dela lililose la Congress]].{{Cite web|url=http://www.fairvote.org/maine_nebraska|title=Maine & Nebraska|publisher=FairVote|location=Takoma Park, Maryland|access-date=August 1, 2018|archive-date=August 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802041058/http://www.fairvote.org/maine_nebraska|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.270towin.com/content/split-electoral-votes-maine-and-nebraska/|title=Split Electoral Votes in Maine and Nebraska|website=[[270towin.com]]|access-date=August 1, 2018}} Pa Mande wakwamba pamanyuma pa Chitatu chachiŵiri cha mwezi wa Disembala, pafupifupi masabata ghankhondi na limoza pamanyuma pa visola, ŵakusora ŵakuwungana mu misumba yikuru ya maboma ghawo, na mu Washington, D.C., kuti ŵavotere pulezidenti, ndipo pa pepala linyake la voti, ŵavotere wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti. Kanandi ŵakuvotera ŵakwimira chipani icho chikaŵasankha. Nangauli palije dango la mu Malango Ghakuru panji la boma ilo likuŵakakamizga kuchita nthena, District of Columbia na maboma 32 ghali na malango agho ghakukhumba kuti ŵakusora ŵavotere ŵakwimira awo ŵali [[Promise|kulayizgika]] kuvotera.{{cite web |title=Faithless Elector State Laws |url=https://www.fairvote.org/faithless_elector_state_laws |website=Fair Vote |access-date=March 4, 2020 |archive-date=December 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219162610/https://www.fairvote.org/faithless_elector_state_laws |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |title=Laws Binding Electors |url=http://presidentialelectorlaws.us |access-date=March 4, 2020}} Kuzomerezgeka kwa malango agha kukakhozgeka mu mulandu wa ''[[Chiafalo v. Washington]]'' (2020).{{Cite web|last=Howe|first=Amy|date=July 6, 2020|title=Opinion analysis: Court upholds "faithless elector" laws|url=https://www.scotusblog.com/2020/07/opinion-analysis-court-upholds-faithless-elector-laws/|access-date=July 11, 2020|website=[[SCOTUSblog]]}} Pamanyuma pa kuvota, boma lililose likutumizga mbiri yakukhozgeka ya mavoti ghake gha Electoral College ku Congress. Mavoti gha ŵakusora ghakujurika na kuŵerengeka pa ungano wakuphatikizika wa Congress uwo ukuchitika mu sabata yakwamba ya Janyuwale. Usange wakwimira pa visola wapokera [[Unandi wakukwana wa mavoti|mavoti ghanandi chomene]] gha Electoral College pa udindo wa pulezidenti, sono 270 pa 538, munthu yura wakupharazgika kuŵa wapunda. Para palije uyo wapokera mavoti agha, [[Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States|Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]] yikwenera kuwungana kuti yisore pulezidenti kwizira mu ndondomeko ya [[visola vyapadera]], umo ŵimiliri, awo ŵakuvota mwakuyimira boma lawo, ndipo boma lililose likupeleka voti yimoza, ŵakusankhapo pakati pa ŵanthu ''ŵatatu'' awo ŵapokera mavoti ghanandi gha Electoral College pa udindo wa pulezidenti. Kuti munthu waŵe pulezidenti, wakwimira pa visola wakwenera kupokera mavoti gha unandi wa maboma, sono 26 pa maboma 50. Mu mbiri ya charu ichi, pali visola viŵiri pera vya pulezidenti ivyo vikamara na [[visola vyapadera]]. Mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1800|visola vya 1800]], [[Thomas Jefferson]] na munyake wa chipani cha Democratic-Republican [[Aaron Burr]] ŵakapokera mavoti ghakuyana, 73–73, gha Electoral College, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti pakhale visola vyapadera vyakwamba. Vikachitika mwakukolerana na ndondomeko yakwamba iyo yikakhazikiskika na [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 3: Electoral College|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 3]] ya Dango Likuru, ilo likuti usange ŵanthu ŵaŵiri panji ŵatatu ŵapokera mavoti ghanandi ndiposo ghakuyana, Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri yikusankha yumoza wa iwo kuŵa pulezidenti; ndipo uyo waŵa pa malo ghachiŵiri wakuzgoka wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti.{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/80/electoral-college|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/80/electoral-college|url-status=unfit|archive-date=April 21, 2012|title=Essays on Article II: Electoral College|last=Kuroda|first=Tadahisa|website=The Heritage Guide to The Constitution|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=July 27, 2018}} Pa Febuluwale 17, 1801, Jefferson wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti pa voti ya 36, ndipo Burr wakasankhika kuŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti. Pamanyuma pake, ndondomeko iyi yikasinthika kwizira mu [[Amendment ya 12 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 12]] kuti yigwiliskike ntchito pa [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1804|visola vya 1804]].{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/amendments/12/essays/165/electoral-college|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/amendments/12/essays/165/electoral-college|url-status=unfit|archive-date=April 21, 2012|title=Essays on Amendment XII: Electoral College|last=Fried|first=Charles|website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=February 20, 2018}} Pakati pajumpha vyaka pafupifupi 25, kusankha pulezidenti kukaweleraso ku Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri apo palije wakwimira pa visola uyo wakapokera [[Unandi wakukwana wa mavoti|mavoti ghanandi chomene]] gha Electoral College, 131 pa 261, mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1824|visola vya 1824]]. Kuyana na Amendment ya 12, Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri yikeneranga kusankha pulezidenti pakati pa ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakapokera mavoti ghanandi gha Electoral College: [[Andrew Jackson]], [[John Quincy Adams]], na [[William H. Crawford]]. Visola vyapadera ivi vyachiŵiri, ndiposo vyamumaliro mpaka sono, vikachitika pa Febuluwale 9, 1825, ndipo vikapangiska kuti John Quincy Adams wasankhike kuŵa pulezidenti pa voti yakwamba.{{Cite book|last=Boller|first=Paul F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZ_fSmFIabQC|title=Presidential Campaigns: From George Washington to George W. Bush|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-516716-0|edition=2nd revised|location=New York, New York|pages=36–39|access-date=August 2, 2018}} === [[Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States|Kunjira pa udindo]] === {{Main|[[Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States|Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States]]}} Kuyana na [[Amendment ya 20 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 20]], nyengo ya vyaka vinayi ya uteŵeti wa pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake yikwamba pa 12 koloko muhanya pa Janyuwale 20, mu chaka icho chikulondezga visola vya pulezidenti ivyo vyajumpha.{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xx |title=The Twentieth Amendment |last1=Larson |first1=Edward J. |last2=Shesol |first2=Jeff |website=The Interactive Constitution |publisher=The National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=June 15, 2018}} Nyengo zakwamba za uteŵeti wa pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake izo zikambira pa zuŵa ili, ilo likumanyikwa kuti [[Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States|Zuŵa la kunjira pa udindo]], zikaŵa [[Kunjira pa udindo kwachiŵiri kwa Franklin D. Roosevelt|nyengo yachiŵiri ya uteŵeti]] wa Pulezidenti [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] na Wachiŵiri kwa Pulezidenti [[John Nance Garner]] mu 1937.{{Cite web |url=http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35948?ret=True |title=The First Inauguration after the Lame Duck Amendment: January 20, 1937 |publisher=Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=July 24, 2018}} Kale, Zuŵa la Kunjira pa Udindo likaŵa pa Malichi 4. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa deti ili, nyengo yakwamba ya uteŵeti (1933–37) ya ŵanalume aŵa yikachepeskeka na {{age in days|1937|1|20|1937|3|4}} mazuŵa.{{Cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/content/conan/pdf/GPO-CONAN-2017-10-21.pdf |title=Commencement of the Terms of Office: Twentieth Amendment |website=Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation |publisher=United States Government Printing Office, Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=2297–98 |access-date=July 24, 2018}} Pambere wandambe kugwiliskira ntchito mazaza gha udindo wake, pulezidenti wakwenera [[Kuyowoya mwakuzomerezgeka|kuyowoya]] [[Chilapo cha udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|chilapo cha udindo wa pulezidenti]], icho chili mu [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 8: Chilapo panji kukhozgera|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 8 ya Dango Likuru]]. Ichi ndicho chigaŵa chekha cha mwambo wa kunjira pa udindo icho chikukhumbikwa na Dango Likuru: {{blockquote|Nikulapa mwakuzirwa (panji [[Kukhozgera mu malango|kukhozgera]]) kuti nichitenge mwakugomezgeka ntchito ya Udindo wa Pulezidenti wa United States, ndipo mwakukwaniska kwane, nisungenge, nivikirirenge, na kudefendera Dango Likuru la United States.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/85/oath-of-office |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/85/oath-of-office |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Oath of Office |last=Kesavan |first=Vasan |website=The Heritage Guide to The Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 2, 2018}}}} Mapulezidenti kanandi ŵakuŵika woko limoza pa [[Baibolo|Baibolo]] apo ŵakulapa chilapo, ndipo ŵakusazgapo mazgu ghakuti "Chiuta wanovwire" paumaliro wa chilapo.{{Cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014507/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/how-presidents-use-bibles-at-inaugurations |title=How Presidents use Bibles at inaugurations |last=NCC Staff |date=January 20, 2017 |website=Constitution Daily |publisher=National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 3, 2018 |archive-date=August 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014507/https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014507/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/how-presidents-use-bibles-at-inaugurations |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014505/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/who-said-that-a-quick-history-of-the-presidential-oath |title=Who said that? A quick history of the presidential oath |last=Munson |first=Holly |date=July 12, 2011 |website=ConstitutionDaily |publisher=National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 3, 2018 |archive-date=August 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014505/https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014505/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/who-said-that-a-quick-history-of-the-presidential-oath |url-status=dead }} Nangauli chilapo ichi chingapelekeka na munthu waliyose uyo wali na mazaza gha kulolezgeka na dango kupereka vilapo, mapulezidenti kanandi ŵakulapiskika na [[Chief Justice wa United States|Chief Justice wa United States]]. == Uteŵeti pa udindo == === Malire gha nyengo ya uteŵeti === [[File:William MacKinley (1843-1901), de 25ste president van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika, met naast, SFA002006258.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[William McKinley]] na munyake wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, kazembe wa boma la New York [[Theodore Roosevelt]], {{Circa|1900}}]] [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakapunda pa visola vya pulezidenti vinayi, [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1932|1932]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1936|1936]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1940|1940]], na [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1944|1944]] pambere [[Amendment ya 22 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 22]] yindambe kugwira ntchito mu 1951, iyo yikakhazikiska malire gha nyengo ziŵiri za uteŵeti.]] Apo pulezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakapharazga mu [[Mazgu ghaumaliro gha George Washington|Mazgu Ghake Ghaumaliro]] kuti wazamukwimira yayi pa nyengo yachitatu ya uteŵeti, wakakhazikiska mwambo wa "nyengo ziŵiri pera". Mwambo uwu ukazgoka mwambo wakulondezgeka pamanyuma pakuti [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakawuzomerezga pakweru mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri ya uteŵeti, nga umo ŵakachitira ŵamanyuma ŵake ŵaŵiri, [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Nangauli mwambo wa nyengo ziŵiri ukaŵa wakukhora chomene, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakapenja kusankhika pa [[Msonkhano wa Chipani cha Republican wa 1880]] kuti wakwimire pa nyengo yachitatu yakulondezgana yayi, kweni wakatondeka.{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Mu 1940, pamanyuma pakulongozga charu mu nyengo ya [[Great Depression|Suzgo Likuru la Chuma]] ndiposo pakukhwimiska wovwiri ku vyaru vya [[Allies of World War II|ŵabwezi ŵa nkhondo]] ivyo vikamenyananga na [[Axis powers|vyaru vya Axis]], Franklin Roosevelt wakasankhikaso pa nyengo yachitatu ya uteŵeti, ndipo wakaphwanya mwambo uwo ukaŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Vyaka vinayi pamanyuma pake, apo United States yikanjilirapo kale mu [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], wakasankhikaso pa nyengo yachinayi nangauli thupi lake likafowokanga; wakafwa pa Epulero 12, 1945, mazuŵa 82 ghati ghajumphapo kufuma apo wakambira nyengo yake yachinayi ya uteŵeti.{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}} Pakuzgora nyengo yitali iyo Roosevelt wakateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti, [[Amendment ya 22 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 22]] [[kuzomerezgeka|yikazomerezgeka]] mu 1951. Amendment iyi yikukanizga munthu waliyose kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kujumpha kaŵiri, panji kamoza pera usange munthu yura wakateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti kwa vyaka vyakujumpha viŵiri (myezi 24) pa nyengo ya uteŵeti wa vyaka vinayi ya pulezidenti munyake. [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti pa nyengo iyo amendment iyi yikapelekekera ku maboma na Congress, wakafwatulika ku malire agha. Usange nthena yayi, nthena wakaŵavya mwaŵi wakwimira pa nyengo yachiŵiri yakukwana mu 1952, iyo wakayezga dankha kupenjera, chifukwa wakateŵetera pafupifupi nyengo yose yakukhalapo ya Roosevelt ya 1945–1949 ndipo wakasankhika pa nyengo yakukwana ya vyaka vinayi iyo yikambira mu 1949. === Malo ghambura munthu pa udindo na kulondezgana pa udindo === {{Main|[[Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States]]}} Kuyana na [[Amendment ya 25 ya Dango Likuru la United States#Chigaŵa 1: Kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti|Chigaŵa 1 cha Amendment ya 25]], iyo yikazomerezgeka mu 1967, wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakuzgoka pulezidenti para pulezidenti [[Mulandu wa kufumiska pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|wafumiskika pa udindo]], wafwa, panji waleka udindo. Nyifwa za mapulezidenti zachitikapo kanandi, kuleka udindo kwachitikapo kamoza pera, ndipo kufumiskika pa udindo kundachitikepo yayi. Pambere Amendment ya 25 yindazomerezgeke (iyo yikapambaniska makora nkhani ya kulondezgana pa udindo), [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 6: Malo ghambura munthu pa udindo na kuleka kukwaniska ntchito|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6]], yikayowoyanga waka kuti wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakutora "mazaza na milimo" ya pulezidenti para pulezidenti wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kuchita ntchito zake.{{Cite journal |last=Feerick |first=John D. |date=2011 |title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr |journal=Fordham Law Review |location=New York City |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=907–949 |access-date=December 13, 2018}} Kuyana na ndime iyi, pakaŵa kususkana pa nkhani yakuti kasi wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakuzgoka nadi pulezidenti para udindo wasoŵa munthu, panji wakuŵa waka [[Kuchita udindo mwakanyengo|wakuchita udindo wa pulezidenti]],{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession |last=Feerick |first=John |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=December 13, 2018}} icho nthena chikapangiska kuti pachitike [[visola vyapadera]]. Pulezidenti [[William Henry Harrison]] wakati wafwa mu 1841, Wachiŵiri kwa Pulezidenti [[John Tyler]] wakapharazga kuti walondezga udindo wose wa pulezidenti, ndipo wakakana kupokera mapepala ghose agho ghakalembekanga kwa "Pulezidenti Wakuchita Udindo". Pamanyuma pake, Congress yikazomerezga fundo yake. == Umulongozgi mu udindo == === Malire gha nyengo ya udindo === [[File:William MacKinley (1843-1901), de 25ste president van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika, met naast, SFA002006258.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[William McKinley]] na munyake uyo wakapikanga nayo pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, kazembe wa New York [[Theodore Roosevelt]], {{Circa|1900}}]] [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakathereska visola vinayi vya [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States|pulezidenti]] mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1932|1932]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1936|1936]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1940|1940]], na [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1944|1944]] pambere [[Sintho la nambara 22 la Dango Likuru la United States|Sintho la nambara 22]] lindambe kugwira ntchito mu 1951, ilo likakhazikiska mphaka wa maudindo ghaŵiri.]] Apo pulezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakapharazga mu [[Mazgu gha George Washington pakulekana na udindo|Mazgu ghake ghakulekana na udindo]] kuti walekenge kupikaso pa nyengo yachitatu, wakakhazikiska mwambo wa "maudindo ghaŵiri pera". Mwambo uwu ukazgoka mwambo wakulondezgeka pamanyuma pakuti [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakawovwira pakweru fundo iyi mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri, nga umo ŵakachitira ŵalongozgi ŵaŵiri awo ŵakamulondezga, [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Nangauli mwambo wa maudindo ghaŵiri ukaŵa wakukhora, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakapenja kusankhika pa [[Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 1880|Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 1880]] kuti wapike pa nyengo yachitatu yambura kulondezgana, kweni wakatondeka.{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Mu 1940, pamanyuma pakulongozga charu mu nyengo ya [[Great Depression]] ndipo wakakhumbanga kovwira [[Ŵabwezi ŵa United States mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose|ŵabwezi ŵa United States]] awo ŵakarwanga nkhondo na [[Mphara za Axis|ŵa Axis]], Franklin Roosevelt wakasankhika pa nyengo yachitatu, kuphwanya mwambo uwo ukaŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Vyaka vinayi pamanyuma, apo United States yikachitanga [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]], wakasankhikaso nangauli thupi lake likamba kufoka; wakafwa pa Epulero 12, 1945, mazuŵa 82 kufuma apo wakambira nyengo yake yachinayi.{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}} Pakuzgora utali wakuluska wa ulamuliro wa Roosevelt, [[Sintho la nambara 22 la Dango Likuru la United States|Sintho la nambara 22]] likazomerezgeka mu 1951. Sintho ili likukanizga munthu waliyose kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kaŵiri kuluska, panji kamoza pera usange munthu yura wakateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti kwa vyaka vyakuluska viŵiri (myezi 24) vya nyengo ya pulezidenti munyake. [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti pa nyengo iyo Sintho ili likatumizgikira ku vyaru na Congress, wakafwatulika ku malire agha. Usange nthena wakafwatulikapo yayi, nthena wakatondekanga kupika pa nyengo yake yachiŵiri yakukwana mu 1952, iyo wakayezga pachoko waka, pakuti wakateŵetera pafupifupi nyengo yose ya Roosevelt yakusazgikira ya 1945–1949 ndipo wakasankhika ku nyengo yakukwana ya vyaka vinayi iyo yikambira mu 1949. === Malo ghambura munthu na kulondezgana pa udindo === {{Main|[[Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States]]}} Pasi pa [[Sintho la nambara 25 la Dango Likuru la United States#Chigaŵa 1: Kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti|Chigaŵa 1 cha Sintho la nambara 25]], ilo likazomerezgeka mu 1967, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakuŵa pulezidenti para pulezidenti [[Mulandu wa kufumiskapo pa udindo wa boma ku United States|wafumiskika pa udindo]], wafwa, panji waleka ntchito. Nyifwa zachitika kanandi, kuleka ntchito kwachitika kamoza pera, ndipo kufumiskika pa udindo kundachitikepo. Pambere Sintho la nambara 25 lindazomerezgeke (ilo likalongosora makora nkhani ya kulondezgana pa udindo), [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 6: Malo ghambura munthu na kuleka kutondeka kuchita ntchito|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6]], yikayowoya waka kuti wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakupokera "mazaza na milimo" ya pulezidenti para pulezidenti wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka ntchito, panji watondeka kuchita milimo yake.{{Cite journal |last=Feerick |first=John D. |date=2011 |title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr |journal=Fordham Law Review |location=New York City |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=907–949 |access-date=December 13, 2018}} Pasi pa ndime iyi, pakaŵa kususkana pa nkhani yakuti kasi wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti waŵenge nadi pulezidenti para malo ghaba ghambura munthu, panji waŵenge waka [[Kuchita ntchito ya munyake mu dango|wakuchita ntchito nga ni pulezidenti]],{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession |last=Feerick |first=John |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=December 13, 2018}} ndipo ichi nthena chikapangiska kuti paŵe [[Visola vyapadera|visola vyapadera]]. Pulezidenti [[William Henry Harrison]] wakati wafwa mu 1841, Wachiŵiri wa Pulezidenti [[John Tyler]] wakapharazga kuti walondezga udindo wose wa pulezidenti, ndipo wakakana kupokera mapepala agho ghakalembekanga ku "Pulezidenti Wakuchita Milimo". Pamanyuma pake, Congress yikazomera fundo yake. Para pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ŵalije wose, Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6 nayo yikupaso mazaza ku Congress kuti yidumbe uyo waŵenge wakuchita ntchito ya pulezidenti para "Pulezidenti na Wachiŵiri wa Pulezidenti ŵafumiskika pa udindo, ŵafwa, ŵaleka ntchito, panji ŵatondeka kuchita milimo yawo". [[Dango la Kulondezgana pa Udindo wa Pulezidenti la 1947]] (ilo lili mu 3 U.S.C. § 19) likuti usange pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ŵafumapo pa udindo panji ŵangateŵetera yayi mu nyengo yawo ya udindo, [[Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti]] yikulondezga nthowa iyi: wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri, ndipo usange pakukhumbikwa, pulezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate, ndipo usange pakukhumbikwaso, ŵalongozgi ŵakwenelera ŵa [[Madipatimenti gha boma la United States|madipatimenti gha boma]] awo ŵakupanga [[Kabineti ya United States|Kabineti]] ya pulezidenti.{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/27/us/succession-presidential-and-vice-presidential-fast-facts/index.html |title=Succession: Presidential and Vice Presidential Fast Facts |date=October 24, 2017 |access-date=July 19, 2018 |website=CNN}} Kabineti sono yili na ŵanthu 15, ndipo mulembi wa vya kuwaro ndiyo wali pakwamba pa mzere wa kulondezgana pa udindo. Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵa Kabineti ŵakulondezga mwakulondezgana na nyengo iyo dipatimenti yawo, panji dipatimenti iyo yikaluta m'malo mwa yawo, yikapangikira. Ŵanthu awo Dango Likuru likuŵazomerezga yayi kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti nawo ŵakukanizgika kupokera mazaza na milimo ya pulezidenti kwizira mu kulondezgana pa udindo. Pakaŵavya munthu wakudumbika na dango uyo wali kuchitapo ntchito ya pulezidenti. === Kupharazga kuleka kukwaniska kuchita ntchito === {{Main|[[Sintho la nambara 25 la Dango Likuru la United States]]}} Pasi pa Sintho la nambara 25, pulezidenti wangasamuskira kwa kanyengo mazaza na milimo yake kwa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, uyo pamanyuma wakuŵa [[Pulezidenti wakuchita milimo wa United States|pulezidenti wakuchita milimo]], para watumizga kalata ku [[Wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States|wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]] na [[Pulezidenti pro tempore wa Senate ya United States|pulezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate]] yakuyowoya kuti wangakwaniska yayi kuchita milimo yake. Pulezidenti wakupokeraso mazaza ghake para watumizga kalata yachiŵiri yakuyowoya kuti wangachitaso ntchito zake. Nthowa iyi yagwiliskirika ntchito na [[Ronald Reagan]] (kamoza), [[George W. Bush]] (kaŵiri), na [[Joe Biden]] (kamoza), wose pambere ŵandachite opaleshoni.{{cite news| last=Olsen| first=Jillian| title=How many other vice presidents have temporarily taken over presidential powers?| date=November 19, 2021| url=https://www.wtsp.com/article/news/history/presidential-transfer-of-power-biden-bush-reagan/67-17f1fa96-f44a-4050-a53c-593f55e4949f| publisher=[[WTSP]]| location=St. Petersburg, Florida| access-date=May 11, 2022}}{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Kate|title=For 85 minutes, Kamala Harris became the first woman with presidential power|date=November 19, 2021|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/19/politics/kamala-harris-presidential-power/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 19, 2021}} Sintho la nambara 25 likupangaso kuti wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, pamoza na ŵanandi mwa ŵabali ŵanyake ŵa [[Kabineti ya United States|Kabineti]], wasamuske mazaza na milimo ya pulezidenti kwa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti para ŵatumizga kalata yakulembeka ku wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri na pulezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate, yakuyowoya kuti pulezidenti wangakwaniska yayi kuchita mazaza na milimo yake. Usange pulezidenti pamanyuma wayowoya kuti kuleka kukwaniska uku kulije, wakupokeraso mazaza ghake, kweni usange wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti na Kabineti ŵatumizga kalata yachiŵiri yakuyowoya kuti pulezidenti wangakwaniska yayi, Congress ndiyo yikusankha nkhani iyi. Kuti mazaza gha pulezidenti ghafumiskike, pakukhumbikwa mavoti gha magawo ghaŵiri pa vitatu mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. === Kufumiskika pa udindo === {{Main|[[Mndandanda wa vyakuyesera kufumiska ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States pa udindo|Mndandanda wa vyakuyesera kufumiska ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States pa udindo]]|[[Kufumiska pa udindo wa boma ku United States]]|[[Mulandu wa kufumiska pa udindo wa boma ku United States]]}} [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Chigaŵa 4: Kufumiska pa udindo|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 4]] ya Dango Likuru yikuzomerezga kuti ŵalongozgi ŵakuru ŵa boma, kusazgapo pulezidenti, ŵafumiskike pa udindo chifukwa cha "[[kupandukira charu]], [[kupokera viwongo]], panji [[milandu yikuru na viheni vikuru]]". [[Nkhani Yakwamba ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 5: Wakulongozga na ŵalara ŵanyake; kufumiska pa udindo|Nkhani I, Chigaŵa 2, Ndime 5]] yikupereka mazaza ku Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri kuti yichite nga ni "[[juri yikuru]]" yakuti yisuske ŵalara aŵa na voti ya ŵanandi.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Impeachment |last=Presser |first=Stephen B. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}} [[Nkhani Yakwamba ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 6: Milandu ya kufumiska pa udindo|Nkhani I, Chigaŵa 3, Ndime 6]] yikupereka mazaza ku Senate kuti yichite nga ni [[khoti]], ndipo yingafumiska pa udindo ŵalara awo ŵasangika na mulandu para ŵavotera na ŵanandi ŵakukwana magawo ghaŵiri pa vitatu.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Trial of Impeachment |last=Gerhardt |first=Michael J. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Ŵapulezidenti ŵatatu ŵasuskika na Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri: Andrew Johnson mu [[Kufumiska Andrew Johnson pa udindo|1868]], Bill Clinton mu [[Kufumiska Bill Clinton pa udindo|1998]], na Donald Trump mu [[Kufumiska Donald Trump pa udindo kakwamba|2019]] na [[Kufumiska Donald Trump pa udindo kachiŵiri|2021]]. Palije nanga njumoza uyo wakasangika na mulandu na Senate. [[Komiti ya Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States ya vya Malango|Komiti ya Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya vya Malango]] yikachita kafukufuku wa kufumiska Richard Nixon pa udindo mu [[Ndondomeko ya kufumiska Richard Nixon pa udindo|1973–74]] ndipo yikapeleka nkhani zitatu za kufumiska pa udindo ku Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri kuti yichitepo kanthu. Kweni wakaleka ntchito pambere Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri yindavotepo pa nkhani izi. === Kulekeska mazaza === Vinthu vyakususkana navyo vichitikirapo nyengo zinyake kwambura kufika pa kumufumiska pulezidenti pa udindo kuti ŵamazge nkharo yake yakuwoneka nga njambura kupwelera panji chifukwa cha kuleka kukwaniska kuchita ntchito kwa nyengo yitali. Nyengo zinyake, ŵantchito ŵakuleka dala kupeleka mauthenga kwa pulezidenti panji kufuma kwa iyo, kanandi kuti ŵaleke kuchita panji kovwira pulezidenti kulemba malango ghanyake. Ivi vyachitika kufuma apo Mulara wa Ŵantchito ŵa [[Richard Nixon]] wakatondeka kutumizga malango ku Kabineti chifukwa cha kumwa chomene kwa pulezidenti, mpaka apo ŵantchito ŵakafumyapo mapepala pa desiki la [[Donald Trump]].{{cite book |author=David Priess |title=How to Get Rid of a President: History's Guide to Removing Unpopular, Unable, or Unfit Chief Executives |url=https://archive.org/details/howtogetridofpre0000davi |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2018 |isbn=978-1541788206 |chapter=2 Undermined by Opponents or Subordinates}} Vyaka vinandi pambere [[Sintho la nambara 25 la Dango Likuru la United States|Sintho la nambara 25]] lindazomerezgeke, mu 1919, Pulezidenti Woodrow Wilson wakadwala [[Ulongozgi wa Woodrow Wilson#Kuleka kukwaniska kuchita ntchito, 1919–1921|sitiroko]] iyo yikamulekeska kuchita milimo yinyake. Muwoli wake wakwamba, [[Edith Wilson]], wakabisa nkhani iyi kwa nyengo ku ŵanthu, ndipo mwakususkana, [[Edith Wilson#Udindo ukuru pamanyuma pa sitiroko ya mfumu wake|wakaŵa yekha munthu wakuzomerezga ŵanthu kufika kwa pulezidenti]] (kupatulako dokotala wake), wakamovwiranga na mapepala na kusankha ivyo vikaŵa "vyakuzirwa" kuti vimanyiskike kwa iyo.{{cite book |author=David Priess |title=How to Get Rid of a President: History's Guide to Removing Unpopular, Unable, or Unfit Chief Executives |url=https://archive.org/details/howtogetridofpre0000davi |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2018 |isbn=978-1541788206 |chapter=2 Undermined by Opponents or Subordinates}} === Malipiro === {| class="wikitable floatright" ; margin-right:2em" |- ! colspan="3" |Mbiri ya malipiro gha pulezidenti |- ! Chakachakakhazikiskikira !! Malipiro !! Malipiro mu{{Inflation/year|US}} USD |- | 1789 || style="text-align:right;"| $25,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|25000|1789|fmt=c}} |- | 1873 || style="text-align:right;"| $50,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|50000|1873|fmt=c}} |- | 1909 || style="text-align:right;"| $75,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|75000|1909|fmt=c}} |- | 1949 || style="text-align:right;"| $100,000 || style="text-align:right;"|${{Inflation|US|100000|1949|fmt=c}} |- | 1969 || style="text-align:right;"| $200,000 || style="text-align:right;"|${{Inflation|US|200000|1969|fmt=c}} |- | 2001 || style="text-align:right;"| $400,000 || style="text-align:right;"|${{Inflation|US|400000|2001|fmt=c}} |- ! colspan="3" | Malo ghakufumira:{{Cite web|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~graceyor/govdocs/fedprssal.html|title=Presidential and Vice Presidential Salaries Exclusive of Perquisites|website=Data from Congressional Quarterly's Guide to the Presidency|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|access-date=July 31, 2020}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/index.php|title=Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to Present|last=Williamson|first=Samuel H.|publisher=MeasuringWorth|access-date=July 31, 2020}}{{inflation/fn|US}} |} Kwambira mu 2001, malipiro gha chaka gha pulezidenti ghakhala $400,000, pamoza na ndalama za vyakugwiliskira ntchito zakukwana $50,000; akaunti yambura msonkho ya ndalama zakwendera ya $100,000; na akaunti ya ndalama zakuchitira mphwando ya $19,000{{clarify|date=August 2022}}. Malipiro gha pulezidenti ghakukhazikiskika na Congress, ndipo pasi pa [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 7: Malipiro|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 7]] ya Dango Likuru, kusazgirako panji kuchepeskako malipiro gha pulezidenti kungamba yayi kugwira ntchito pambere nyengo yakulondezgapo ya pulezidenti yindambe.{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidential-pay-and-compensation-3322194|title=Presidential Pay and Compensation|last=Longley|first=Robert|date=September 1, 2017|publisher=[[ThoughtCo]]|access-date=July 31, 2018}} === Malo ghakukhala === {{for-multi|malo ghakukhala gha boma agho Pulezidenti Washington wakakhalanga|[[Ulongozgi wa George Washington#Malo ghakukhala|Ulongozgi wa George Washington § Malo ghakukhala]]|malo ghakukhala gha munthu yekha gha ŵapulezidenti ŵakupambanapambana ŵa United States|[[Mndandanda wa malo ghakukhala gha ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States]]}} [[Malo Ghakukhala gha Executive]] gha [[White House]] ku [[Washington, D.C.]], ndigho [[malo ghakukhala gha boma]] gha pulezidenti. Malo agha ghakasankhika na George Washington, ndipo libwe lakwamba la maziko likayikika mu 1792. Pulezidenti waliyose kwambira [[John Adams]] mu 1800 wakhalapo penepapo. Mu nyengo zakupambanapambana za mbiri ya United States, nyumba iyi yikamanyikwanga kuti "Nyumba ya Pulezidenti", "Nyumba ya Mlongozgi", na "Nyumba ya Executive". Theodore Roosevelt ndiyo wakapeleka zina lakuti White House mwalamulo mu 1901.{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/the-white-house/|title=The White House Building|website=[[White House|whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}} Boma la federal ndilo likulipira vyakurya vya pa mphwando za boma na milimo yinyake ya boma, kweni pulezidenti yekha ndiyo wakulipira ndalama za kulongoska vyakuvwara, vyakurya vya mbumba yake, na vya ŵalendo ŵake.{{Cite magazine|last=Bulmiller|first=Elisabeth|date=January 2009|title=Inside the Presidency: Few outsiders ever see the President's private enclave|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714224047/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2018|magazine=[[National Geographic]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 3, 2018}} [[Camp David]], ilo mwalamulo likuchemeka Naval Support Facility Thurmont, ni msasa wa ŵasilikari uwo uli mu mapiri mu [[Frederick County, Maryland]]. Ni malo gha pulezidenti ghakupumulirako ku mizi. Malo agha ghakumanyikwa chifukwa cha mtende na kupumura, ndipo ghagwiliskirika ntchito chomene kwambira m'ma 1940 pakupokelera ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake.{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/camp-david/|title=The White House Building|website=[[White House|whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}} == Kukhala pa Udindo == === Malire gha nyengo ya uteŵeti === [[File:William MacKinley (1843-1901), de 25ste president van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika, met naast, SFA002006258.jpg|thumb|Purezidenti [[William McKinley]] na munyake wake wakuphalirika kuŵa wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti, kazembe wa New York [[Theodore Roosevelt]], {{Circa|1900}}]] [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakathereska ma [[chisankho cha purezidenti wa United States|chisankho cha purezidenti]] vinayi, mu [[1932 United States presidential election|1932]], [[1936 United States presidential election|1936]], [[1940 United States presidential election|1940]], na [[1944 United States presidential election|1944]], pambere [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sintho la Malango la 22]] lindambe kugwira ntchito mu 1951, ilo likakhazikiska mphaka wa nyengo ziŵiri za uteŵeti.]] Apo purezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakapharazga mu [[George Washington's Farewell Address|mazgu ghake gha kupatura pa udindo]] kuti wangalutilira yayi kuphalirika nyengo yachitatu, wakakhazikiska mwambo wa "nyengo ziŵiri pera". Mwambo uwu ukazgoka mwambo wa boma apo [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakawovwira fundo iyi pakweru mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri, nga umo ŵakachitira ŵalondezgani ŵake ŵaŵiri, [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]].<ref name="TermsTenure">{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Nangauli mwambo wa kuteŵetera nyengo ziŵiri ukaŵa wakukhora, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakapenja kusankhika pa [[1880 Republican National Convention|Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 1880]] kuti waphalirikeso nyengo yachitatu yakulondezgana yayi, kweni wakatondeka.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Mu 1940, pamanyuma pakulongozga charu mu nyengo ya [[Great Depression]] ndipo wakakhazikika pa kovwira ŵabwezi ŵa United States pa nkhondo na [[Axis powers]], Franklin Roosevelt wakasankhikaso ku nyengo yachitatu, kuswa mwambo uwo ukaŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Vyaka vinayi pamanyuma pake, apo United States yikachitanga nkhondo mu [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], wakasankhikaso nangauli thupi lake likalutilira kufoka; wakafwa mazuŵa 82 kufuma apo wakambira nyengo yake yachinayi pa Epulero 12, 1945.<ref name="22ndAPPC">{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref> Pakuzgora uteŵeti utali wakuluska wa Roosevelt, [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sintho la Malango la 22]] likazomerezgeka mu 1951. Sintho ili likukanizga munthu waliyose kusankhika kuŵa purezidenti kanandi kuluska kaŵiri, panji kamoza pera usange wakateŵetera kujumpha vyaka viŵiri (myezi 24) ya nyengo ya vyaka vinayi ya purezidenti munyake. [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo wakaŵa purezidenti pa nyengo iyo sintho ili likatumizgikira ku maboma na Congress, wakafumiskikapo pa malire agha. Usange mphakawavyenge kulekeskeka uku, mphanyi wakazomerezgekanga yayi kuphalirikaso ku nyengo yachiŵiri yakukwana mu 1952, iyo wakayezga mwachoko kuyipenja, chifukwa wakateŵetera pafupifupi nyengo yose yakukhalako ya Roosevelt ya 1945–1949 ndipo wakasankhika ku nyengo yakukwana ya vyaka vinayi iyo yikambira mu 1949.<ref name=22ndAPPC /> === Malo ghambura munthu pa udindo na kulondezgana === {{Main|United States presidential line of succession}} Mwakuyana na [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Section 1: Presidential succession|Gawo 1 la Sintho la Malango la 25]], ilo likazomerezgeka mu 1967, wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti wakuŵa purezidenti para purezidenti wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, panji waleka yekha. Kufwa kwa purezidenti kwachitika kanandi, kuleka udindo kwachitika kamoza pera, ndipo kufumiskika pa udindo kundachitikepo. Pambere Sintho la Malango la 25 lindazomerezgeke (ilo likalongosora makora nkhani ya kulondezgana), [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 6: Vacancy and disability|Article II, Section 1, Clause 6]] likati waka wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti wakutora "nkhongono na milimo" ya purezidenti para wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kuchita milimo yake.<ref name="FordhamLaw2011">{{Cite journal |last=Feerick |first=John D. |date=2011 |title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr |journal=Fordham Law Review |location=New York City |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=907–949 |access-date=December 13, 2018}}</ref> Mwakuyana na ndime iyi, pakaŵa kususkana usange wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti waŵenge purezidenti nadi para malo ghakhala ghawaka, panji waŵenge waka [[Acting (law)|wakuchita milimo]] ya purezidenti,<ref name="ArticleIIessays">{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession |last=Feerick |first=John |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=December 13, 2018}}</ref> ndipo ichi mphanyi chikapangiska kuti paŵe [[chisankho chapadera]]. Pamasinda pakufwa kwa Purezidenti [[William Henry Harrison]] mu 1841, Wachiŵiri kwa Purezidenti [[John Tyler]] wakapharazga kuti wali kunjira mu udindo uwu wekha, ndipo wakakana kupokera mapepala agho ghakalembekera "Purezidenti Wakuchita Milimo". Pamanyuma pake, Congress yikazomerezga fundo iyi. Usange malo gha purezidenti na gha wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti ghose ghawaka pa nyengo yimoza, Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 yikovwiraso Congress nkhongono zakulongosora uyo waŵenge wakuchita milimo ya purezidenti para purezidenti na wachiŵiri wake wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kuchita milimo yawo.<ref name=ArticleIIessays /> [[Presidential Succession Act]] ya 1947 (iyo yili kulembeka mu 3 U.S.C. § 19) yikulongora kuti usange purezidenti na wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti ŵafumapo pa udindo panji ŵaleka kutondeka kuteŵetera mu nyengo yawo, [[United States presidential line of succession|ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa purezidenti]] yikulondezgana nthena: [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker wa Nyumba ya Wimiliri]], ndipo usange ntchakukhumbikwa, [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|purezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate]], ndipo usange ntchakukhumbikwiraso, ŵalongozgi ŵakwenelera ŵa [[United States federal executive departments|madipatimenti gha boma]] agho ghakupanga [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]] ya purezidenti.<ref name="cnn.com">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/27/us/succession-presidential-and-vice-presidential-fast-facts/index.html |title=Succession: Presidential and Vice Presidential Fast Facts |date=October 24, 2017 |access-date=July 19, 2018 |website=CNN}}</ref> Kabineti sono yili na ŵanthu 15, ndipo nduna ya vya kuwaro ndiyo yili pa malo ghakwamba mu mzere wa kulondezgana. Nduna zinyake zikulondezgana mwakuyana na nyengo iyo dipatimenti yawo, panji dipatimenti iyo yikazgoka yawo, yikapangikira. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukanizgika na Dango Likuru kusankhika kuŵa purezidenti nawo ŵakukanizgika kutora nkhongono na milimo ya purezidenti kwizira mu kulondezgana. Palije munthu uyo wakulongosoreka na dango uyo wali kuchitapo milimo ya purezidenti chifukwa cha ndondomeko iyi.<ref name="cnn.com"/> === Kuphara kuti watondeka kuchita milimo === {{Main|Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution}} Mwakuyana na Sintho la Malango la 25, purezidenti wangapeleka nkhongono na milimo yake kwa wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti kwa nyengo yichoko waka, uyo pamanyuma wakuŵa [[Acting president of the United States|purezidenti wakuchita milimo]], para watumizga kalata kwa [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker wa Nyumba ya Wimiliri]] na [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|purezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate]] yakulongora kuti watondeka kuchita milimo yake. Purezidenti wakuweleraso ku nkhongono zake para watumizga kalata yachiŵiri yakulongora kuti sono wangachitaso milimo yake. Ndondomeko iyi yikagwiliskirika ntchito na [[Ronald Reagan]] (kamoza), [[George W. Bush]] (kaŵiri), na [[Joe Biden]] (kamoza), wose ŵakanozgekanga kuchita opareshoni.<ref>{{cite news| last=Olsen| first=Jillian| title=How many other vice presidents have temporarily taken over presidential powers?| date=November 19, 2021| url=https://www.wtsp.com/article/news/history/presidential-transfer-of-power-biden-bush-reagan/67-17f1fa96-f44a-4050-a53c-593f55e4949f| publisher=[[WTSP]]| location=St. Petersburg, Florida| access-date=May 11, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Kate|title=For 85 minutes, Kamala Harris became the first woman with presidential power|date=November 19, 2021|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/19/politics/kamala-harris-presidential-power/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 19, 2021}}</ref> Sintho la Malango la 25 likulongoraso kuti wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti, pamoza na ŵanandi mwa ŵabali ŵanyake ŵa [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]], wangatora nkhongono na milimo ya purezidenti mwa kutumizga chikalata chakulembeka kwa Speaker wa Nyumba ya Wimiliri na purezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate, chakulongora kuti purezidenti watondeka kuchita milimo yake. Usange pamanyuma purezidenti wakuti palije kutondeka kulikose, wakuweleraso ku nkhongono zake, kwambura kuti wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti na Kabineti ŵatumizge chikalata chachiŵiri chakulongora kuti watondeka. Para vyachitika nthena, Congress ndiyo yikusankha nkhani iyi. Kuti purezidenti watoreke nkhongono zake, pakukhumbikwa voti ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. === Kufumiskika pa udindo === {{Main|List of efforts to impeach presidents of the United States|Federal impeachment in the United States|Federal impeachment trial in the United States}} [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 4: Impeachment|Article II, Section 4]] ya Dango Likuru yikovwira kufumiska pa udindo ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma, kusazgapo purezidenti, chifukwa cha "[[treason|kupandukira charu]], [[bribery|kupokera vimbundi]], panji [[high crimes and misdemeanors|milandu yikuru na viheni vikuru]]". [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 5: Speaker and other officers; Impeachment|Article I, Section 2, Clause 5]] yikovwira Nyumba ya Wimiliri kuchita nga ni [[grand jury]], ndipo yili na nkhongono zakwambiska mulandu wa impeachment na voti ya ŵanandi.<ref name="A1essaySBP">{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Impeachment |last=Presser |first=Stephen B. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 6: Trial of Impeachments|Article I, Section 3, Clause 6]] yikovwira Senate kuchita nga ni [[court|khoti]] ilo lili na nkhongono zakufumiska pa udindo ŵanthu awo ŵasangika na mulandu wa impeachment, na voti ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Trial of Impeachment |last=Gerhardt |first=Michael J. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Apurezidenti ŵatatu ŵali kupika mulandu wa impeachment na Nyumba ya Wimiliri: Andrew Johnson mu [[Impeachment of Andrew Johnson|1868]], Bill Clinton mu [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|1998]], na Donald Trump mu [[First impeachment of Donald Trump|2019]] na [[Second impeachment of Donald Trump|2021]]. Palije nanga njumoza uyo wakasangika na mulandu mu Senate. [[United States House Committee on the Judiciary|Komiti ya Vyamalango ya Nyumba ya Wimiliri]] yikachita kufufuza kwa impeachment pa Richard Nixon mu [[Impeachment process against Richard Nixon|1973–74]] ndipo yikapeleka nkhani zitatu za impeachment ku Nyumba ya Wimiliri kuti yivoterenge. Kweni wakaleka udindo pambere Nyumba yindavotere pa nkhani izi.<ref name=A1essaySBP /> === Kulekeska nkhongono za purezidenti mwa nthowa zinyake === Nthowa zakususkana zinyake zili kugwiliskirika ntchito, kwambura kufumiska purezidenti pa udindo, kuti ŵachitepo kanthu pa purezidenti uyo wakuwoneka kuŵa wakupusa panji uyo wali na suzgo la nyengo yitali. Mu vinyake, ŵantchito ŵakakana dala kupeleka mauthenga ku purezidenti panji kufumira kwa iyo, kanandi kuti ŵalekeske kuchita panji kukhozgera malango agho purezidenti wakakhumbanga kulemba. Ivi vikachitika kufuma pa apo Chief of Staff wa [[Richard Nixon]] wakatondeka kutumizga malango ku Kabineti chifukwa cha kumwa chomene kwa purezidenti, m'paka apo ŵantchito ŵakafumiskanga memos pa desiki la [[Donald Trump]].<ref>{{cite book |author=David Priess |title=How to Get Rid of a President: History's Guide to Removing Unpopular, Unable, or Unfit Chief Executives |url=https://archive.org/details/howtogetridofpre0000davi |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2018 |isbn=978-1541788206 |chapter=2 Undermined by Opponents or Subordinates}}</ref> Vyaka vinandi pambere Sintho la Malango la 25 lindachitike, mu 1919, Purezidenti Woodrow Wilson wakapwetekeka na [[Presidency of Woodrow Wilson#Incapacity, 1919–1921|stroke]] iyo yikamulemesa pachoko. Mwanakazi wake, [[Edith Wilson]], wakabisa nkhani iyi kwa nyengo yinyake, ndipo mwakususkana wakazgoka [[Edith Wilson#Increased role after husband's stroke|munthu yekha wakuzomerezga ŵanthu kufika kwa purezidenti]] (kupatulako dokotala wake), wakamovwiranga na mapepala ndipo wakasankhanga uthenga uwo wakaŵa "wakukhumbikwa" kuti ulongoreke kwa iyo. === Malipiro === {| class="wikitable floatright" ; margin-right:2em" |- ! colspan="3" |Mbiri ya malipiro gha purezidenti |- ! Chaka !! Malipiro !! Malipiro mu<br />{{Inflation/year|US}} USD |- | 1789 || style="text-align:right;"| $25,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|25000|1789|fmt=c}} |- | 1873 || style="text-align:right;"| $50,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|50000|1873|fmt=c}} |- | 1909 || style="text-align:right;"| $75,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|75000|1909|fmt=c}} |- | 1949 || style="text-align:right;"| $100,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|100000|1949|fmt=c}} |- | 1969 || style="text-align:right;"| $200,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|200000|1969|fmt=c}} |- | 2001 || style="text-align:right;"| $400,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|400000|2001|fmt=c}} |- ! colspan="3" | Vyakufumira:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~graceyor/govdocs/fedprssal.html|title=Presidential and Vice Presidential Salaries Exclusive of Perquisites|website=Data from Congressional Quarterly's Guide to the Presidency|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/index.php|title=Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to Present|last=Williamson|first=Samuel H.|publisher=MeasuringWorth|access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref>{{inflation/fn|US}} |} Kufuma mu 2001, malipiro gha chaka gha purezidenti ni $400,000, pamoza na ndalama za vyakugwiliskira ntchito zakukwana $50,000; akaunti ya ulendo ya $100,000 yambura msonkho; na akaunti ya kulandilirako ŵalendo ya $19,000. Malipiro gha purezidenti ghakukhazikiskika na Congress, ndipo mwakuyana na [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 7: Salary|Article II, Section 1, Clause 7]] ya Dango Likuru, kusazgirako panji kuchepeskako malipiro gha purezidenti kungamba yayi kugwira ntchito pambere nyengo yakulondezgako ya purezidenti yindambe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidential-pay-and-compensation-3322194|title=Presidential Pay and Compensation|last=Longley|first=Robert|date=September 1, 2017|publisher=[[ThoughtCo]]|access-date=July 31, 2018}}</ref><ref name="cnbc"/> === Malo ghakukhala === {{for-multi|the official residences in which President Washington resided|Presidency of George Washington#Residences|the private residences of the various U.S. presidents|List of residences of presidents of the United States}} [[Executive Residence]] ya [[White House]] mu [[Washington, D.C.]], ndiyo [[malo ghakukhala gha boma]] gha purezidenti. Malo agha ghakasankhika na George Washington, ndipo libwe lakwamba likayikika mu 1792. Purezidenti waliyose kufuma pa John Adams mu 1800 wakhalapo penepapo. Pa nyengo zakupambanapambana mu mbiri ya United States, nyumba iyi yikachemekanga "President's Palace", "President's House", na "Executive Mansion". Theodore Roosevelt ndiyo wakapeleka zina lakuti White House mu 1901.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/the-white-house/|title=The White House Building|website=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Boma la federali ndilo likulipira chakurya cha boma na vyakuchitika vinyake vya boma, kweni purezidenti yekha ndiyo wakulipira vyakurya vyake, vya banja lake, vya ŵalendo ŵake, kweniso kuwuska malaya ghake.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Bulmiller|first=Elisabeth|date=January 2009|title=Inside the Presidency: Few outsiders ever see the President's private enclave|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714224047/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2018|magazine=[[National Geographic]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> [[Camp David]], ilo likumanyikwa mwaboma kuti Naval Support Facility Thurmont, ni msasa wa nkhondo wa mu mapiri ku [[Frederick County, Maryland]], ndipo ni malo gha kupumulirako gha purezidenti. Malo agha ghakumanyikwa chifukwa cha mtende na kuzgeŵa phokoso, ndipo ghagwiliskirika ntchito chomene kulandira ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake kufuma m'ma 1940.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/camp-david/|title=The White House Building|website=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> === Kuleka ntchito ya pulezidenti (Post-presidency) === [[File:Five Presidents Oval Office.jpg|thumb|Kufuma kumazere kuya kumalyero: Mapulezidenti [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Barack Obama]], [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], na [[Jimmy Carter]] mu [[Oval Office]] pa Janyuwale 7, 2009; Obama wakanjira pa udindo mazuŵa 13 pamanyuma.]] ==== Milimo iyo ŵakuchita pamanyuma pa udindo ==== Mapulezidenti ghanyake ghakale ghakaŵa na ntchito zikuru chomene pamanyuma pakufuma pa udindo. Viyelezgero vikuru ni [[William Howard Taft]], uyo wakaŵa [[Chief Justice of the United States|mweruzgi mukuru wa United States]], na [[Herbert Hoover]], uyo wakalongozga ntchito zakuweleraso kupanga boma pamanyuma pa [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]]. Mapulezidenti ŵaŵiri ŵakaweleraso ku [[United States Congress|Congress]] pamanyuma pakufuma mu White House: [[John Quincy Adams]] wakasankhika ku [[United States House of Representatives|Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]], uko wakateŵetera vyaka 17, ndipo [[Andrew Johnson]] wakaweleraso ku [[United States Senate|Senate]] mu 1875, nangauli wakafwa nyengo yichoko waka pamanyuma. Mapulezidenti ŵaŵiri nawo ŵakaweleraso ku upulezidenti: [[Grover Cleveland]] wakathera pa [[1888 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 1888]] ndipo wakatheraso pa [[1892 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 1892]], apo [[Donald Trump]] wakathera pa [[2020 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 2020]] ndipo wakatheraso pa [[2024 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 2024]]. Ŵapulezidenti ŵanyake ŵakakhalaso ŵakuchita vinandi pa nkhani za pa charu chose, kusazgapo [[Theodore Roosevelt]],<ref>Edmund Morris, ''Colonel Roosevelt'' (2011)</ref> [[Herbert Hoover]],<ref>Gary Dean Best, ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Keeper of the Torch, 1933–1964'' (2013)</ref> [[Richard Nixon]],<ref>Kasey S. Pipes, ''After the Fall: The Remarkable Comeback of Richard Nixon'' (2019)</ref> na [[Jimmy Carter]].<ref>Douglas Brinkley. ''The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter's Journey Beyond the White House'' (1998).</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = John Whiteclay | first1 = Chambers II | year = 1979 | title = Presidents Emeritus | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-heritage_june-july-1979_30_4/page/16 | journal = American Heritage | volume = 30 | issue = 4| pages = 16–25 }}</ref> Mapulezidenti ŵakwambilira ŵakaweleranga ku vikaya vyawo kukulongozga ntchito zachitemwa, panji kulaŵilira milimo yaulimi pa minda yawo na mapulante awo ghakanyalanyazgika apo ŵakaŵa pa udindo. [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakambiska [[University of Virginia]] pamanyuma pa upulezidenti wake, ndipo wakati wafwa, [[James Madison]] ndiyo wakamulondezga nga ni rector. Madison na [[James Monroe]] nawo ŵakawovwira kulemba mtundu umoza wa [[Virginia Constitution]], apo [[John Tyler]] wakateŵeteranga pa [[Confederate Constitution]] na mu [[Confederate Congress]]. Mapulezidenti ŵa pa nyengo iyo ŵaleka udindo ŵangatumika na pulezidenti uyo wali pa udindo kuti ŵafikiskenge mauthenga ghachisisi ku vyaru vinyake panji kuŵa ŵimiliri ŵaboma pa nyifwa za ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru na pa vyakuchitika vikuru vya pa charu chose.<ref name="apreaction19810331">{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |title=Shock and Anger Flash Throughout the United States |date=March 31, 1981 |access-date=March 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906144021/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bM4FAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |agency=Associated Press }}</ref><ref name="4presidentsphotos">{{Cite web |url=http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |title=Four Presidents |publisher=Reagan Presidential Library, National Archives and Records Administration |access-date=April 3, 2011 |archive-date=May 12, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512020542/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Richard Nixon]] wakachita maulendo ghanandi ku vyaru nga ni China na Russia ndipo wakalumbikika nga ni mulongozgi wakumanyikwa chomene.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/richardnixon |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |title=Biography of Richard M. Nixon |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |date=December 30, 2014 }}</ref> Mu [[Post-presidency of Jimmy Carter|umoyo wake pamanyuma pa upulezidenti]], [[Jimmy Carter]] wakaŵa mulimbikira wa [[human rights]], muphalamano wa pa charu chose, na mulaŵiliri wa visankho, ndipo wakapokera [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. [[Bill Clinton]] nayo wakateŵeteranga nga ni nthumwi yambura udindo wa boma, chomenechomene pa kudumbiskana uko kukapangiska kuti ŵamasulike ŵalembi ŵa nkhani ŵa ku America [[Laura Ling]] na [[Euna Lee]] kufuma ku [[North Korea]]. Pa nyengo ya upulezidenti wake, [[George W. Bush]] wakapempha ŵapulezidenti ŵakale [[George H. W. Bush]] na Clinton kuti ŵawovwire pa ntchito za wovwiri wa ŵanthu pamanyuma pa [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]]. Pulezidenti Obama nayo wakachita mwakuyana waka pakupempha Clinton na George W. Bush kuti ŵalongozge ntchito zakovwira Haiti pamanyuma pa [[2010 Haiti earthquake|chindindindi chikuru]] icho chikaparanya charu ichi mu 2010. Ubwezi wa Clinton na ŵa Bush ŵaŵiri ukaŵa wakwamba yayi pakati pa ŵapulezidenti ŵakale; Carter wakaŵaso na ubwezi na kulemberana makalata na [[Gerald Ford]], apo [[Thomas Jefferson]] na [[John Adams]] nawo ŵakalemberananga makalata kwa nyengo yitali pamanyuma pa maudindo ghawo. [[Post-presidency of Bill Clinton|Clinton]] walutilira kuŵa wakugwira ntchito za ndyali pamanyuma pa kuleka udindo, wakawovwira muwoli wake [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary]] pa [[Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign|kampeni ya 2008]] na [[Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign|ya 2016]], kweniso wakawovwira Pulezidenti Obama pa [[Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign|kampeni yake ya kusankhikaso mu 2012]]. Obama nayo walutilira kuŵa wakuchita ndyali pamanyuma pa kuleka udindo, wakawovwira uyo wakaŵa muteŵeti wake [[Joe Biden]] pa [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign|kampeni ya 2020]], kweniso wakawovwira muteŵeti wa Biden [[Kamala Harris]] pa [[Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign|kampeni yake ya 2024]] pamanyuma pakuti Pulezidenti Biden [[Withdrawal of Joe Biden from the 2024 United States presidential election|wafumiskepo bid yake ya kusankhikaso]]. Pamanyuma pakutaya chisankho cha 2020, Trump wakalutilira kuŵa wakugwira ntchito za ndyali ndipo wakasuskanga chomene mulondezgi wake na chipani cha Democratic Party. Wakasanganaso na milandu yinayi ya uchigeŵenga. Trump wakapharazga kuti waŵengepo pa chisankho cha upulezidenti kachinayi mu 2022, ndipo pamanyuma wakazgoka msankho wa chipani chake kachitatu, ndipo wakatheraso pa udindo wa upulezidenti mu 2024. ==== Penshoni na vyawanangwa vinyake ==== [[Former Presidents Act]] (FPA), iyo yikakhazikiskika mu 1958, yikupereka vyawanangwa vya umoyo wose ku ŵapulezidenti ŵakale na ŵalongosi ŵawo, kusazgapo penshoni ya mwezi uliwose, chovwiri cha munkhwala mu vipatala vya ŵasilikari, inshuwalansi ya umoyo, na chivikiliro cha [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]]. Ndiposo boma likupeleka ndalama za ŵantchito ŵanyake na za ofesi. Dango ili lasinthika kanandi kuti likwezge ndalama za penshoni na za ŵantchito ŵa maofesi. FPA yikupereka yayi vyawanangwa ivi kwa pulezidenti uyo wakafumiskika pa udindo chifukwa cha [[Federal impeachment in the United States|impeachment]].<ref name="CRS">{{cite web |author1=Stephanie Smith |title=Federal Pension and Retirement Benefits |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/98-249.pdf |website=Federation of American Scientists |publisher=Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress |access-date=November 10, 2020 |date=March 18, 2008 |archive-date=January 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107170308/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/98-249.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mwakuyana na lipoti la [[Congressional Research Service]] la 2008:<ref name="CRS" /> <blockquote>Ŵalongozgi ŵakuru awo ŵakafumanga pa udindo pambere chaka cha 1958 chindafike kanandi ŵakalutiliranga kuchita ntchito zinyake ndipo ŵakapokeranga wovwiri uliwose yayi kufuma ku boma la federal. Apo mubizinesi Andrew Carnegie wakapharazga ndondomeko mu 1912 yakuti waŵapenge ŵapulezidenti ŵakale penshoni ya $25,000 pa chaka, ŵabali ŵanandi ŵa Congress ŵakawona kuti ntchambura kwenelera kuti kampani ya munthu payekha ndiyo yipelekenge penshoni yanthena. Mu chaka chenechira, dango lakukhazikiska mapenshoni gha ŵapulezidenti likayambiska kudumbiskika kakwamba, kweni likazomerezgeka yayi. Mu 1955, Congress yikawerezgaso kudumbiskana za dango ili chifukwa cha masuzgo gha ndalama agho wakaŵa nagho pulezidenti wakale Harry S. Truman pakulemba ŵantchito ŵa ofesi.</blockquote> Penshoni yakwezgeka kanandi mwakuzomerezgeka na Congress. Ŵapulezidenti ŵakale ŵakupokera penshoni yakuyana na malipiro gha mlembi wa dipatimenti ya Cabinet wa boma ilo lili pa udindo, agho ghakaŵa $199,700 pa chaka mu 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS20115.pdf |title=President of the United States: Compensation |last=Schwemle |first=Barbara L. |date=October 17, 2012 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=January 10, 2013}}</ref> Ŵapulezidenti ŵakale awo ŵakateŵeteraso mu Congress ŵangapokeraso [[congressional pension]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.toledoblade.com/Politics/2007/01/07/Former-presidents-cost-U-S-taxpayers-big-bucks-tab-from-1977-to-2000-is-pegged-at-370-million.html |title=Former presidents cost U.S. taxpayers big bucks |date=January 7, 2007 |website=[[The Blade (Toledo)|Toledo Blade]] |access-date=May 22, 2007}}</ref> Dango ili likupelekaso ndalama za maulendo na wanangwa wa [[franking]]. Pambere chaka cha 1997 chindafike, ŵapulezidenti wose ŵakale, ŵawoli ŵawo, na ŵana ŵawo ŵasinkhu wa pasi pa vyaka 16 ŵakavikilirikanga na [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] mpaka nyifwa ya pulezidenti.<ref>{{usc|18|3056}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |title=Obama signs bill granting lifetime Secret Service protection to former presidents and spouses |date=January 10, 2013 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=January 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823000643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |archive-date=August 23, 2016 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> Mu 1997, Congress yikadumura dango lakuti chivikiliro cha Secret Service chiŵe cha vyaka 10 pera kufuma apo pulezidenti wafumira pa udindo.<ref name="secretservice.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.secretservice.gov/protection/ |title=United States Secret Service: Protection |publisher=United States Secret Service |access-date=November 9, 2017}}</ref> Pa Janyuwale 10, 2013, Pulezidenti Obama wakasayina dango ilo likawelereska chivikiliro cha umoyo wose cha Secret Service kwa iyomwene, [[George W. Bush]], na ŵapulezidenti wose awo ŵazamwiza pamanyuma pake.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/jan/10/inside-politics-obama-signs-protection-bill-for-fo/?page=all |title=Obama signs protection bill for former presidents |date=January 10, 2013 |work=The Washington Times |access-date=August 14, 2013}}</ref> [[First Spouse of the United States|Muwoli wa pulezidenti]] uyo wakutoraso nthengwa wakuleka kuŵa wakwenelera kupokera chivikiliro cha Secret Service.<ref name="secretservice.gov" /> === Kulemba mabuku === {{main|Mndandanda wa mabuku gha umoyo wa mapulezidenti gha United States}} Kufuma apo [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakafumiska buku lake la ''[[Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant|Personal Memoirs]]'' mu 1885, mapulezidenti ghanandi, kusazgapo pulezidenti waliyose uyo wakakhala wamoyo mpaka wamara nyengo yake kufuma kwa [[Calvin Coolidge]] kufika kwa [[Barack Obama]], walemba buku limoza panji ghakujumpha limoza la umoyo wake. Mabuku agha gha umoyo ghakuchita vinthu viŵiri: kuvikilira chuma cha Banja Lakwamba (First Family) (Bill Clinton wakasangapo ndalama zakujumpha $30 miliyoni chifukwa cha kulemba mabuku ghaŵiri<ref>{{cite news| url= https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7331834.stm |title= Clintons' earnings exceed $100m| publisher= BBC News| date= April 5, 2008| access-date= June 26, 2015}}</ref>), kweniso kuvikilira panji kuwezgeraso mbiri ya upulezidenti wawo. === Kulemba === {{main|Mndandanda wa mabuku gha umoyo wa ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States}} Kwambira apo [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakafumiskira buku lake la ''[[Mabuku gha Umoyo gha U. S. Grant]]'' mu 1885, ŵapurezidenti ŵanandi, kusazgapo pulezidenti waliyose uyo wakakhala wamoyo m'paka kumalizga nyengo yake ya uteŵeti kufuma kwa [[Calvin Coolidge]] mpaka [[Barack Obama]], ŵalemba buku limoza panji vinandi vya umoyo wawo. Mabuku agha ghakukhwaskana na umoyo wa ŵapurezidenti ghali na vilato viŵiri: kuvikilira ndalama za [[Banja Lakwamba la United States|Banja Lakwamba]] (mwachiyelezgero, [[Bill Clinton]] wakasanga ndalama zakujumpha madola 30 miliyoni kufuma ku kulemba mabuku ghaŵiri<ref>{{cite news| url= https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7331834.stm |title= Clintons' earnings exceed $100m| publisher= BBC News| date= April 5, 2008| access-date= June 26, 2015}}</ref>), kweniso kuvikilira panji kuwezgerapo mbiri ya ulamuliro wawo. === Malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti na malo ghakale === {{Main|Ndondomeko ya malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti|Mndandanda wa nyumba za ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States}} Nyumba izo ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States ŵakababikiramo, ŵakakhalamo, panji ŵakapumulirangamo, kanandi zikusungika nga ni [[nyumba ya museum]] ndipo zikumanyikwa nga ni [[Mndandanda wa malo ghakale gha charu na mapaki gha mbiri gha United States|Malo Ghakale gha Charu]] panji kulembeka pa [[U.S. National Register of Historic Places]]. [[File:George W. Bush Presidential Center dedication.tif|alt=|thumb|Kufuma kumazere kuya kumanja: Ŵapurezidenti [[Barack Obama]], [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[George H. W. Bush]], na [[Jimmy Carter]] pa kujulira [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti George W. Bush]] ku [[Dallas]] mu 2013.]] Pulezidenti waliyose kwambira [[Herbert Hoover]] wali kupanga [[malo ghakusungiramo vyakulemba]] agho ghakumanyikwa kuti [[ndondomeko ya malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti|laibulale ya pulezidenti]] kuti ŵasungemo mapepala ghake, marekodi, na vinthu vinyake. Malaibulale agho ghazamala kuzengeka ghakuperekeka na kusungika na [[National Archives and Records Administration]] (NARA); ndalama zakwamba zakuzengera na kuvikonzeska zikufuma ku ŵanthu pawokha, osati ku boma la federal.<ref>{{usc|44|2112}}</ref> Pasono pali malaibulale 13 gha ŵapurezidenti agho ghali mu ndondomeko ya NARA. Paliso malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti agho ghakusungika na maboma gha vigaŵa, maziko gha ŵanthu pawokha, kweniso mayunivesite, nga ni: * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Abraham Lincoln]], iyo yikwendeskeka na Boma la [[Illinois]]; * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti George W. Bush]], iyo yikwendeskeka na [[Southern Methodist University]]; * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti George H. W. Bush]], iyo yikwendeskeka na [[Texas A&M University]]; na * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Lyndon Baines Johnson]], iyo yikwendeskeka na [[University of Texas at Austin]]. Ŵapurezidenti ŵanyake ŵakawoneseska kuzenga na kujulira malaibulale ghawo ŵekha. Ŵanyake ŵakanozga kuti ŵazakasungikike pamalo agha para ŵafwa. Malaibulale ghanandi gha ŵapurezidenti ghali na madindi gha pulezidenti uyo ghakumulongosora: * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Harry S. Truman]] ku [[Independence, Missouri]]; * [[Laibulale, Museum na Nyumba ya Uwana ya Dwight D. Eisenhower]] ku [[Abilene, Kansas]]; * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Richard Nixon]] ku [[Yorba Linda, California]]; na * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Ronald Reagan]] ku [[Simi Valley, California]]. Madindi agha ghali kujulika ku ŵanthu wose. Mu viyelezgero vinyake (nga ni vya Nixon), laibulale ya pulezidenti yili pafupi na nyumba yake yakale. Kweni kwa ŵanyake, nga ni [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] na [[Jimmy Carter]], laibulale ya pulezidenti na malo ghakale vili mu misumba yakupambana. == Chipani cha ndale == [[Vipani vya ndale vya United States|Vipani vya ndale]] vyalongozga [[Ndale za United States|ndale za America]] kwa nyengo yitali chomene ya mbiri ya charu ichi. Nangauli [[Ŵadada ŵakwambiska United States]] ŵakawonanga vipani vya ndale kuti vingagaŵa na kunanga wumoza wa charu, ndipo kuŵapo kwake kukayembekezgekanga yayi apo [[Dango Likuru la United States]] likalembekanga mu 1787, vipani vya ndale vyakukhazikika vikamba kuwoneka pakati pa m'ma 1790. Vikafuma ku [[gulu la ndale|magulu gha ndale]], agho ghakamba kuwoneka mwaluŵiro chomene pamanyuma pakukhazikika kwa boma la federal. Awo ŵakawovwiranga [[Ulamuliro wa George Washington]] ŵakamanyikwanga kuti "ŵakukhozgera boma", ndipo pamanyuma ŵakapanga [[Federalist Party]], apo awo ŵakasuskanga ŵakakolerana na [[Democratic-Republican Party]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/history/partydiv.htm|title=U.S. Senate: Party Division|publisher=U.S. Senate|access-date=January 2, 2017}}</ref> Chifukwa cha kufipa mtima na nkhongono izo vipani vya ndale vingamanya kuparanya wumoza wa charu, Washington wakakhalira [[wandale wambura chipani]] mu nyengo yose ya vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri vya ulamuliro wake. Wakaŵa, ndipo wachali, pulezidenti yekha wa United States uyo wandakhalepo wa chipani chilichose cha ndale.<ref name="GWpps">{{Cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/dec/31/george-washingtons-views-political-parties-america/|title=George Washington's views on political parties in America|last=Jamison|first=Dennis|date=December 31, 2014|website=[[The Washington Times]]|access-date=July 1, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-first-president/political-parties/|title=Political Parties|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|location=Mount Vernon, Virginia|access-date=March 24, 2019}}</ref> Kwambira pa Washington, pulezidenti waliyose wa United States wakaŵa wa chipani cha ndale apo wakanjiliranga pa udindo. Ndipo kwambira mu 1869, pulezidenti waliyose wakaŵa wa [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] panji [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.enchantedlearning.com/history/us/pres/list.shtml|title=The Presidents of the United States of America|website=Enchanted Learning|access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.presidentsusa.net/partyofpresidents.html|title=Political Parties of the Presidents|website=Presidents USA|access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref> Chiŵelengero cha ŵapurezidenti malinga na chipani icho ŵakaŵamo apo ŵakalapanga ntchito pakwamba ni ichi: {| class=wikitable |- ! colspan=2| Chipani ! {{vertical header|Chiŵelengero cha<br>ŵapurezidenti}} ! Mazina |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Republican Party (United States)}}" | | [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | style="text-align: center;" |19 | [[Chester A. Arthur]], [[George H. W. Bush]], [[George W. Bush]], [[Calvin Coolidge]], [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[Gerald Ford]], [[James A. Garfield]], [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[Warren G. Harding]], [[Benjamin Harrison]], [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], [[Herbert Hoover]], [[Abraham Lincoln]],{{efn|Republican Abraham Lincoln wakasankhikaso pa tikiti ya [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union Party]] pamoza na Democrat Andrew Johnson mu 1864.}} [[William McKinley]], [[Richard Nixon]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[William Howard Taft]], na '''[[Donald Trump]] (wali pa udindo)''' |- | style="background: {{party color|Democratic Party (United States)}};" | | [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | style="text-align: center;" |15 | [[Joe Biden]], [[James Buchanan]], [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Grover Cleveland]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Barack Obama]], [[Franklin Pierce]], [[James K. Polk]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[Harry S. Truman]], [[Martin Van Buren]], na [[Woodrow Wilson]] |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}" | | [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] | style="text-align: center;" |4 | [[John Quincy Adams]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], na [[James Monroe]] |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Whig Party (United States)}}" | | [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] | style="text-align: center;" |4 | [[Millard Fillmore]], [[William Henry Harrison]], [[Zachary Taylor]], na [[John Tyler]]{{efn|Democrat John Tyler wakasankhika kuŵa vice president pa tikiti ya Whig pamoza na Harrison mu 1840. Ndondomeko zake apo wakaŵa pulezidenti zikapambana na ivyo Whig Party yikakhumbanga, ndipo chipani chikamufumiska mu Seputembala 1841.}} |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Federalist Party}}" | | [[Federalist Party|Federalist]] | style="text-align: center;" |1 | [[John Adams]] |- | style="background-color:{{party color|National Union Party (United States)}}" | | nowrap | [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] | style="text-align: center;" |1 | [[Andrew Johnson]]{{efn|Democrat Andrew Johnson wakasankhika kuŵa vice president pa tikiti ya National Union Party pamoza na Republican Abraham Lincoln mu 1864. Pamanyuma, apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, wakayezga kupanga chipani cha ŵakugomezgeka kwa iyo pasi pa mbendera ya National Union kweni wakatondeka. Kufupi naumaliro wa ulamuliro wake, wakaweleraso ku Democratic Party.}} |- | style="background:#f5f5f5" | | [[Independent politician (United States)|Wambura chipani]] | style="text-align: center;" |1 | [[George Washington]] |} == Nyengo ya ŵapurezidenti == {{see also|Mndandanda wa ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States}} [[Bar chart|Chati ya nyengo]] iyi yikulongora umo ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States ŵakendeleranga mu nyengo kweniso [[chipani cha ndale]] icho ŵakaŵamo pa nyengo iyo ŵakanjiranga pa udindo. <div class="center">{{#tag:timeline| ImageSize = width:1500 height:auto barincrement:18 PlotArea = top:10 bottom:20 right:130 left:10 AlignBars = late DateFormat = x.y Period = from:1788.90 till:{{#expr:{{#time:Y}}+{{#time:m}}/6}} TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1790 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1789 Define $now = {{#expr:{{#time:Y}}+{{#time:m}}/12}} Colors = id:5year value:rgb(0.8, 0.8, 0.8) id:0year value:rgb(0.6, 0.6, 0.6) id:noparty value:rgb(0.7, 0.7, 0.7) id:fed value:rgb(0.85, 0.52, 0.38) id:demrep value:rgb(0, 0.5, 0) id:whig value:rgb(0.84, 0.74, 0.34) id:nlunion value:rgb(0.7, 0.13, 0.13) id:dem value:rgb(0.2, 0.2, 1) id:rep value:rgb(1, 0.2, 0.2) id:seat1 value:rgb(0.60,0.10,0.10) id:blank value:white BarData = barset:PresidentLine barset:Presidents PlotData= width:1 align:right fontsize:S shift:(-3,-4) anchor:from fontsize:8 color:black barset:PresidentLine from:1804 till:end text:Ŵapurezidenti width:6 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till fontsize:10 barset:Presidents from:1789.40 till:1797.17 color:noparty text:"George Washington" from:1797.17 till:1801.17 color:fed text:"John Adams" from:1801.17 till:1809.17 color:demrep text:"Thomas Jefferson" from:1809.17 till:1817.17 color:demrep text:"James Madison" from:1817.17 till:1825.17 color:demrep text:"James Monroe" from:1825.17 till:1829.17 color:demrep text:"John Quincy Adams" from:1829.17 till:1837.17 color:dem text:"Andrew Jackson" from:1837.17 till:1841.17 color:dem text:"Martin Van Buren" from:1841.17 till:1841.26 color:whig text:"William Henry Harrison" from:1841.26 till:1845.17 color:whig text:"John Tyler" from:1845.17 till:1849.17 color:dem text:"James K. Polk" from:1849.17 till:1850.52 color:whig text:"Zachary Taylor" from:1850.52 till:1853.17 color:whig text:"Millard Fillmore" from:1853.17 till:1857.17 color:dem text:"Franklin Pierce" from:1857.17 till:1861.17 color:dem text:"James Buchanan" from:1861.17 till:1865.29 color:rep text:"Abraham Lincoln" from:1865.29 till:1869.17 color:nlunion text:"Andrew Johnson" from:1869.17 till:1877.17 color:rep text:"Ulysses S. Grant" from:1877.17 till:1881.17 color:rep text:"Rutherford B. Hayes" from:1881.17 till:1881.73 color:rep text:"James A. Garfield" from:1881.73 till:1885.17 color:rep text:"Chester A. Arthur" from:1885.17 till:1889.17 color:dem text:"Grover Cleveland" from:1889.17 till:1893.17 color:rep text:"Benjamin Harrison" from:1893.17 till:1897.17 color:dem text:"Grover Cleveland" from:1897.17 till:1901.72 color:rep text:"William McKinley" from:1901.72 till:1909.17 color:rep text:"Theodore Roosevelt" from:1909.17 till:1913.17 color:rep text:"William Howard Taft" from:1913.17 till:1921.17 color:dem text:"Woodrow Wilson" from:1921.17 till:1923.59 color:rep text:"Warren G. Harding" from:1923.59 till:1929.17 color:rep text:"Calvin Coolidge" from:1929.17 till:1933.17 color:rep text:"Herbert Hoover" from:1933.17 till:1945.28 color:dem text:"Franklin D. Roosevelt" from:1945.28 till:1953.05 color:dem text:"Harry S. Truman" from:1953.05 till:1961.05 color:rep text:"Dwight D. Eisenhower" from:1961.05 till:1963.89 color:dem text:"John F. Kennedy" from:1963.89 till:1969.05 color:dem text:"Lyndon B. Johnson" from:1969.05 till:1974.61 color:rep text:"Richard Nixon" from:1974.61 till:1977.05 color:rep text:"Gerald Ford" from:1977.05 till:1981.05 color:dem text:"Jimmy Carter" from:1981.05 till:1989.05 color:rep text:"Ronald Reagan" from:1989.05 till:1993.05 color:rep text:"George H. W. Bush" from:1993.05 till:2001.05 color:dem text:"Bill Clinton" from:2001.05 till:2009.05 color:rep text:"George W. Bush" from:2009.05 till:2017.05 color:dem text:"Barack Obama" from:2017.05 till:2021.05 color:rep text:"Donald Trump" from:2021.05 till:2025.05 color:dem text:"Joe Biden" from:2025.05 till:$now color:rep text:"Donald Trump" LineData= from:1842.00 till:1845.17 atpos:650 color:noparty width:6 from:1885.17 till:1889.17 atpos:439.5 color:dem width:6 from:2017.05 till:2021.05 atpos:52 color:rep width:6 layer:back at:1790.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1795.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1800.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1805.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1810.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1815.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1820.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1825.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1830.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1835.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1840.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1845.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1850.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1855.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1860.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1865.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1870.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1875.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1880.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1885.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1890.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1895.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1900.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1905.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1910.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1915.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1920.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1925.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1930.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1935.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1940.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1945.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1950.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1955.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1960.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1965.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1970.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1975.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1980.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1985.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1990.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1995.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:2000.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:2005.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:2010.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:2015.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:2020.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:2025.00 width:0.1 color:5year }}</div> == Wonani so == {{Portal|United States|Politics}} * [[Outline of American politics]] {{Clear}} == Vyakulemba == {{Notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Vinandi == {{Refbegin}} * Edwards, George C. and Thomas G. Howell (eds.). 2009. ''The Oxford Handbook of the American Presidency''. Oxford University Press. * {{cite journal |last1=Kernell |first1=Samuel |last2=Jacobson |first2=Gary C. |year=1987 |title=Congress and the Presidency as News in the Nineteenth Century |url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~skernell/resources/congresspresasnews.pdf |journal=Journal of Politics |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=1016–1035 |doi=10.2307/2130782 |jstor=2130782 |s2cid=154834781}} * Howell, William G. 2023. ''The American Presidency: An Institutional Approach to Executive Politics''. Princeton University Press. * {{cite journal |last1=Sigelman |first1=Lee |last2=Bullock |first2=David |year=1991 |title=Candidates, issues, horse races, and hoopla: Presidential campaign coverage, 1888–1988 |url=https://blogs.cornell.edu/bigreddc/files/2013/09/SchoolsAmerican-Politics-Research-1991-Sigelman-5-32.pdf |journal=American Politics Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=5–32 |doi=10.1177/1532673x9101900101 |s2cid=154283367}} * [[John William Tebbel|Tebbel, John William]], and Sarah Miles Watts. ''The Press and the Presidency: From George Washington to Ronald Reagan'' (Oxford University Press, 1985). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2131296 online review] * Waterman, Richard W., and Robert Wright. ''The Image-Is-Everything Presidency: Dilemmas in American Leadership'' (Routledge, 2018). * ''[[Presidential Studies Quarterly]]'', published by Wiley, is an academic journal on the presidency. {{Refend}} ==Pa intaneti== {{Sister project links|d=y|wikt=POTUS|voy=y|b=United States Government/The Executive Branch}} * [https://www.whitehouse.gov/ White House homepage] * [[hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.pres|United States Presidents Collection. General Collection]], Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University {{Presidents of the United States}} {{Navboxes|list = {{Lists of US Presidents and Vice Presidents}} {{United States topics}} {{US Chief Executives}} {{United States presidential elections}} {{US presidential memorials}} {{United States Armed Forces}} {{White House}} {{Heads of state and government of North America}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Ŵalongozgi ŵa United States| ]] [[Category:Ulongozgi wa pulezidenti wa United States| ]] [[Category:Vyakukhazikiskika mu United States mu 1789]] [[Category:Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵa United States]] [[Category:Nkhani izo zili na ma timeline gha chithuzithuzi]] 0km5n1hoo40s7z83ktd9x5mlp1s5kh5 0 47774 122362 118850 2026-09-25T02:06:27Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 4 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122362 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|palije}} {{Use American English|date=July 2025}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2023}} [[File:Donald Trump with model of Television City.jpg|thumb|Trump muumaliro wa 1985 pamoza na chithuzithuzi cha "Television City", ntchakuzenga pa malo gha kale gha West Side rail yards, sono [[Riverside South, Manhattan|Riverside South]]]] {{Donald Trump series|expanded=Life and business}} Pambere wandachimbire pa udindo wa [[mlongozgi wa United States]] mu 2016, [[Donald Trump]] wakachitanga bizinesi, chomenechomene pa kunozga na kuzenga vipangwa vikuruvikuru, mahotelo, makasino, na malo ghakuseŵerako [[malo ghakuseŵerako gofu|gofu]]. Umoyo wake wakutchuka, kayowoyero kake kakuwonekera pakweru, ndiposo mulimo wake mu pulogiramu ya [[NBC]] ya ''[[The Apprentice (American TV series)|The Apprentice]]'', vikamupangiska kuŵa [[Ntchito ya Donald Trump mu vyakupharazga|munthu wakumanyikwa chomene mu umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku America]] kwa vyaka pafupifupi 50. Trump wakamba ntchito yake ku kampani ya vyamalo ya awiske [[Fred Trump]], Trump Management, mu 1968, iyo wakayitora mu 1971 ndipo pamanyuma wakayisintha zina kuŵa [[Trump Organization]] mu 1973. Wakakuliska bizinesi yake ku [[Manhattan]], uko wovwiri wa ndalama na wa ndale wa awiske ukamovwira kuchita malonda ghake ghakwamba, kusakaza na kunozga nyumba zakuzirwa. Trump wakanjira mu mabizinesi ghanyake agho ghakakhumbikwiranga yayi ndalama zinandi zakwambira, kusazgapo kupereka zina lake ku mabizinesi gha malo ghakukhalamo na [[mndandanda wa malo ghakuseŵerako gofu|malo ghakuseŵerako gofu]] pa charu chose. Pakuzenga pa kutchuka kwake mu manyuzipepara gha [[tabloid]] gha ku New York, pamanyuma wakazgoka nyenyezi ya pulogiramu ya pa TV ya ''The Apprentice''. Trump wakaŵa mwiniwake wa mpikisano unandi wa kutowa kwa ŵanakazi, panji wakaŵa na chigaŵa chikuru, pakati pa 1996 na 2015. Wakagwiliskiraso ntchito zina lake pakupharazga mapulojekiti ghanandi gha kuzenga na [[Mndandanda wa vinthu ivyo vikuthyeka zina la Donald Trump|vinthu vya malonda]]. Pamanyuma pakutonda [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States mu 2016|visola vya mlongozgi wa United States mu 2016]] na [[Kukhazikiskika kwakwamba kwa Donald Trump pa udindo wa mlongozgi|kukhazikiskika pa udindo mu Janyuwale 2017]], Trump wakaleka maudindo ghose ghakulongozga mu [[Trump Organization]] ndipo wakapeleka katundu wake wa bizinesi ku [[Trust (law)#Types|trust iyo yingasinthika]] yakulongozgeka na ŵana ŵake, [[Donald Trump Jr.|Donald Jr.]] na [[Eric Trump|Eric]].{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-38587628|title=Trump hands over business empire to sons|date=January 11, 2017|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=January 11, 2017}} == Malo na nyumba == {{See also|Trump Organization}} === Ntchito zake zakwambilira === Trump wakamba ntchito yake ya malonda gha malo pa kampani ya awiske,{{cite news |title=In Step With: Donald Trump |work=[[Parade (magazine)|Parade]] |date=November 14, 2004 |url=http://www.parade.com/articles/editions/2004/edition_11-14-2004/in_step_with_0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101014022222/http://www.parade.com/articles/editions/2004/edition_11-14-2004/in_step_with_0 |archive-date=October 14, 2010}} Trump Management,{{cite news|last1=Mahler|first1=Jonathan|last2=Eder|first2=Steve|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/28/us/politics/donald-trump-housing-race.html|title='No Vacancies' for Blacks: How Donald Trump Got His Start, and Was First Accused of Bias|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 27, 2016|access-date=January 31, 2022}} iyo yikakhumbikwiranga chomene pa nyumba zakubwereka za ŵanthu ŵapakati mu [[vigaŵa vya msumba wa New York|vigaŵa vya msumba]] vya [[Brooklyn]], [[Queens]], na [[Staten Island]]. Chimoza mwa ntchito zakwamba za Trump chikaŵa kuyezgayezga kunozga nyumba zakukhalamo za Swifton Village mu [[Cincinnati]], Ohio, izo awiske, [[Fred Trump]], ŵakagura pa malonda gha foreclosure pa ndalama zakukwana US$5.7 miliyoni mu 1962, zakuyana na US$63.2 miliyoni mu 2026.{{Cite web |date=2026-06-10 |title=Inflation Calculator {{!}} Find US Dollar's Value From 1913-2026 |url=https://www.usinflationcalculator.com/ |access-date=2026-06-14 |website=www.usinflationcalculator.com |language=en-US}}{{cite news |title=Donald Trump's Bond Hill connection |newspaper=The Enquirer |date=August 12, 2015}} Fred na Donald Trump ŵakagwiranga lumoza pa ntchito iyi. Pa nyengo iyo Trump wakamalizganga masambiro gha ku yunivesite mu 1968, wakapokanga vyawanangwa vyambura msonkho kufuma kwa awiske vyakuyana na US$1,000,000 pa chaka, mwakuyana na mtengo wa ndalama wa 2019.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/10/02/us/politics/donald-trump-tax-schemes-fred-trump.html|title=Trump Engaged in Suspect Tax Schemes as He Reaped Riches From His Father|last=David|first=Barstow|date=October 2, 2018|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=June 29, 2019}} Wakati waŵa na vyaka 23, wakayezga kwanjira mu bizinesi ya vyakusanguluska kweni wakatondeka, wakati waika ndalama zakukwana US$70,000 kuti waŵe munyake waŵakupanga sewero la pa Broadway la 1970 lakuti ''[[Paris Is Out!]]''.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/07/theater/for-a-young-donald-j-trump-broadway-held-sway.html |title=For a Young Donald J. Trump, Broadway Held Sway |date=March 6, 2016 |access-date=March 7, 2016 |first=Michael |last=Paulson |work=[[The New York Times]]}} Mu 1971 wakazgoka pulezidenti wa kampani iyi ndipo wakamba kugwiliskira ntchito zina lakuti "The Trump Organization" nga ni zina likuru la mabizinesi ghake.{{sfn|Blair|2015b|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uJifCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA250 250]}}{{cite news |first=Conor |last=Kelly |title=Meet Donald Trump: Everything You Need To Know (And Probably Didn't Know) About The 2016 Republican Presidential Candidate |date=July 27, 2015 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/meet-donald-trump-2016-republican-presidential-candidate/story?id=32108595}} Chaka chenechicho, pa vyaka 25, wakasamukira ku [[Manhattan]], uko wakamba kugwira ntchito zikuru zakuzenga ndipo wakagwiliskiranga ntchito mapulani ghakutowa gha nyumba kuti wakope chidwi cha mawayilesi.[https://www.archpaper.com/2020/11/donald-trump-architecture/ How Donald Trump transformed New York without any regard for design quality] [[Nkhani za malango gha munthu na bizinesi ya Donald Trump#Mulandu wa nyumba wa boma la federal wa 1973|Mu 1973]], [[Unduna wa Vyeruzgo wa United States|Unduna wa Vyeruzgo]] ukati Trump Organization yikasankhiranga ŵanthu mwakusankhana mtundu pakubwerekesa nyumba ku ŵabwereki ŵafipa, m'malo mwa kusefa waka ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika ndalama nga umo kampani yikayowoyera. Unduna wa Vyeruzgo ukati ŵanthu ŵafipa awo ŵakachita nga mbakukhumba kubwereka nyumba ŵakatumika ku nyumba zakuluska hafu ya dazeni ndipo ŵakakanika kupokera nyumba, kweni munthu mzungu uyo wakachita mwakuyana waka wakapika nyumba mu nyumba yeneyira.{{cite news|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/12/15/doj-trump-s-early-businesses-blocked-blacks.html|title=DOJ: Trump's Early Businesses Blocked Blacks|date=December 15, 2015|access-date=March 2, 2016|work=[[The Daily Beast]]|first=Gideon|last=Resnick }} Paumaliro, kampani ya Trump na ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la federal ŵakasayina phangano ilo Trump ŵakazomerezgapo yayi kuti ŵakananga, ndipo ŵakakolerana kuti ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghachoko awo ŵakwenelera ŵaŵikenge panthazi na Urban League.{{cite news |last=Dunlap |first=David |date=July 30, 2015 |title=1973: Meet Donald Trump |url=https://www.nytimes.com/times-insider/2015/07/30/1973-meet-donald-trump/ |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150731123300/http://www.nytimes.com/times-insider/2015/07/30/1973-meet-donald-trump/ |archive-date=July 31, 2015 |quote=Trump Management ... was also to allow the league to present qualified applicants for every fifth vacancy... Trump himself said he was satisfied that the agreement did not 'compel the Trump Organization to accept persons on welfare as tenants unless as qualified as any other tenant.'}}{{cite news |last1=Kranish |first1=Michael |last2=O'Harrow |first2=Robert |date=January 23, 2016 |title=Inside the government's racial bias case against Donald Trump's company, and how he fought it |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/inside-the-governments-racial-bias-case-against-donald-trumps-company-and-how-he-fought-it/2016/01/23/fb90163e-bfbe-11e5-bcda-62a36b394160_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |quote=Civil rights groups in the city viewed the Trump company as just one example of a nationwide problem of housing discrimination. But targeting the Trumps provided a chance to have an impact, said Eleanor Holmes Norton, who was then chairwoman of the city's human rights commission. 'They were big names.'}} Kufika mu 1973, Trump, nga ni pulezidenti wa Trump Organization, wakalaŵiliranga nyumba zakukwana 14,000 mu [[Brooklyn]], [[Queens]], na [[Staten Island]]. Mu 1978, msumba ukasankha malo ghake pa [[West Side (Manhattan)|West Side]] ya Manhattan kuti paŵe malo gha [[Jacob K. Javits Convention Center|Jacob Javits Convention Center]], pamanyuma pakusanga kuti wakaŵa yekha uyo wakaŵa na malo ghakunozgeka kale pa ntchito iyi. Wakapokera ndalama za [[mulongozgi wa malonda gha malo|broker]] pa kuguliska malo agha. Phangano lakwamba likuru la Trump mu [[Manhattan]]{{cite news |first=Glenn |last=Kessler |title=Trump's false claim he built his empire with a 'small loan' from his father |date=March 3, 2016 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2016/03/03/trumps-false-claim-he-built-his-empire-with-a-small-loan-from-his-father/}} likaŵa kuzenga [[Grand Hyatt New York|Grand Hyatt Hotel]] mu 1978 pafupi na [[Grand Central Terminal]]. Nyumba yakale ya Commodore Hotel yikabenekereskeka na magalasi, ndipo malo ghakupokelera ŵalendo ghakasinthika na kuŵa atrium.{{cite news |last=Van Zuylen-Wood |first=Simon |date=May 12, 2016 |title=Trump and the Artifice of the Deal |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/05/donald-trump-2016-father-artifice-of-the-deal-213888/ |newspaper=[[Politico]] |access-date= October 28, 2016}} Ntheura Commodore yikajurika nga ni Hyatt hotel iyo yikanozgekaso mu Seputembala 1980, ndipo ichi chikawovwira kuti Trump wamanyikwe chomene na ŵanthu.{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |pages=[https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot/page/n35 32]–35 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} Chigaŵa cha phangano ili chikaŵa ngongoli ya US$1 miliyoni iyo Village Construction Corp. ya Fred Trump yikapeleka kuti yiwezgerepo ndalama izo Donald wakatora pa Chase Manhattan credit line iyo Fred wakamunozgera apo wakazenganga hoteliyo, kweniso ngongoli ya US$70 miliyoni yakuzengera iyo Fred na Hyatt hotel chain ŵakazomerezgana kulipira lumoza. Fred wakaŵa mubwezi wambura kumanyikwa pa ntchito iyi chifukwa mbiri yake yikanangika kale mu bizinesi ya malo mu New York chifukwa cha mafumbo ghakukhwaskana na phindu lakujumphilira na nkhanza zinyake mu ntchito zake, ntheura Donald ndiyo wakaŵa panthazi pa phangano ili. Kuyana na mulembi Wayne Barrett, ubwezi wa vyaka 20 wa Fred na mukuru wa Equitable, Ben Holloway, ukawovwira kuti ŵazomerezge ntchito iyi. Donald wakadumbiskana na msumba kuti hoteliyo yiŵe na vyaka 40 vyambura kulipira msonkho, mwakusintha na kugawana phindu la bizinesi. Phangano ili likachepeskanga chiwopsezo cha ntchito iyi ndipo likakopanga ŵakuŵika ndalama kuti ŵanjirepo.{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |pages=[https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot/page/34 34]–35 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} Mu 1981, Trump wakagura na kunozgaso nyumba iyo pamanyuma yikazgoka Trump Plaza, pa [[Third Avenue]] mu New York City.{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NIPOonZnkDEC&pg=PA51 |pages=51–52 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} Trump wakasandura nyumba iyi kuŵa [[nyumba yakukhalamo ya cooperative|cooperative ya nyumba]], umo ŵakukhala nyumba ŵakaŵirangako ŵenecho gawo la umwini wa nyumba. === Trump Tower === {{Main article|[[Trump Tower|Trump Tower]]}} [[File:Trump-Tower-3.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=a view upward toward the top of the Trump Tower, a 68-story building with a brown-glassed facade|[[Trump Tower]], pa [[Fifth Avenue]] mu [[Midtown Manhattan]]]] Mu 1983, Trump wakamalizga kuzenga [[Trump Tower]], nyumba yitali ya masitepe 58 mu [[Midtown Manhattan]]. Ntchito iyi yikakhumbikwiranga kudumbiskana kwakusuzga na ŵanthu ŵakupambanapambana pa nyumba ya [[Bonwit Teller]], malo, kweniso malo gha muchanya gha nyumba yakuzengeka kufupi nayo. Apo kudumbiskana kukamara mu 1978, ''The New York Times'' yikalemba kuti "chakuti Bambo Trump ŵakafiska kusanga malo agha ... chikulongora kulimbikira kwawo kweniso luso lwawo pakudumbiskana."{{cite news |title=The Expanding Empire of Donald Trump |date=April 8, 1984 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/08/magazine/the-expanding-empire-of-donald-trump.html?pagewanted=3}} Trump Tower yili pa malo agho kale pakaŵa sitolo yikuru ya [[Bonwit Teller]], iyo yikaŵa yakuzirwa pa nkhani ya mapulani gha nyumba. Trump wakabwangandura nyumba iyi mu 1980 wakati wagura malo agha.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/realestate/fifth-avenue-bonwit-teller-opulence-lost.html |title=The Store That Slipped Through the Cracks |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=October 3, 2014 |access-date=August 22, 2015 |first=Christopher |last=Gray}}{{cite news |work=Preservation News |url=https://prn.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/cornell-prn?a=d&d=PRN19800701.2.10&e=-------en-20--1--txt-IN------ |title=New York City Trumped: Developer Smashes Panels |first=Michael |last=Leccese |date=July 1, 1980 |access-date=August 22, 2015}} Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakwiyira chomene apo vithuzithuzi vyakuzirwa vya [[Art Deco]], ivyo vikaŵa pa nkhope ya nyumba ndipo Trump wakalayizga kuti vipelekekenge ku [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], vikaparanyika pa nyengo yakubwangandura nyumba iyi mwakulondezga dango la Trump Organization. Kweniso kubwangandurwa kwa sitolo ya Bonwit Teller kukasuska chifukwa kontrakita wakagwiliskira ntchito ŵantchito ŵakujumpha 200 ŵa ku Poland awo ŵakaŵavya mazaza ghakugwira ntchito. Pakubwangandura nyumba mwaluŵiro, ŵakuti ŵakalipiranga madola 4 panji 5 pa ora pa ntchito ya maora 12.{{cite news |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/13/nyregion/trump-says-he-didn-t-know-he-employed-illegal-aliens.html |date=July 13, 1990 |access-date=August 23, 2015 |title=Trump Says He Didn't Know He Employed Illegal Aliens |first=Dean |last=Baquet}} Mu 1990, Trump wakachitira ukaboni kuti wakalutanga kanandi yayi pa malo agha ndipo wakamanyanga yayi vya ŵantchito ŵambura mazaza agha, ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga penepapo ndipo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti "Polish Brigade". Mu 1991, mweruzgi wakadumura kuti ŵakuzenga nyumba ŵakachita "chiŵembu chakunangira ndalama izo zikeneranga kupelekeka", pakung'anamura ndalama za penshoni na vyawovwiri vya mabungwe gha ŵantchito.{{cite news |last1=Hays |first1=Constance L. |title=Judge Says Trump Tower Builders Cheated Union on Pension Funds |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/27/nyregion/judge-says-trump-tower-builders-cheated-union-on-pension-funds.html |access-date=March 9, 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 27, 1991}} Ndipouli, pa apilo, vigaŵa vinyake vya cheruzgo ichi vikasinthika,{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/14/nyregion/after-15-years-in-court-workers-lawsuit-against-trump-faces-yet-another-delay.html |title=After 15 Years in Court, Workers' Lawsuit Against Trump Faces Yet Another Delay |first=Selwyn |last=Raab |date=June 14, 1998 |access-date=August 24, 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]] |quote=Both sides, however, appealed the findings and each won partial victories. A federal appeals court upheld most of Judge Stewart's decisions but ruled that Trump-Equitable had been denied a full opportunity to rebut the charge that the funds had been damaged by the loss of contributions for the Polish workers. The appeals court also ruled that Judge Stewart wrongly dismissed a claim by the plaintiffs that the Trump group was responsible for payments to the funds because it had been the workers' actual employer.}} ndipo mbiri ya mulandu yikajalika apo mulandu wa ŵantchito uwo ukatora nyengo yitali ukamara mu 1999, pamanyuma pa vyaka 16 mu khoti.{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/07/08/trump-tower-was-built-on-undocumented-immigrants-backs.html |title=Trump Tower Was Built on Undocumented Workers' Backs |date=July 8, 2015 |access-date=August 24, 2015 |first=Michael |last=Daly |work=[[The Daily Beast]]}} Trump Tower yikazengeka na Trump pamoza na [[The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States|Equitable Life Assurance Company]], ndipo yikapangika na wakupanga mapulani gha nyumba [[Der Scutt]] wa [[Swanke Hayden Connell Architects]].{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/16/arts/design/16scutt.html |title=Der Scutt, Modernist Architect, Dies at 75 |first=Fred A. |last=Bernstein |date=March 16, 2010 |access-date=August 23, 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]]}} Trump Tower muli nyumba yikuru ya [[nyumba ya penthouse|penthouse]] ya Donald Trump kweniso ofesi yikuru ya [[The Trump Organization|Trump Organization]].{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/30/us/politics/new-york-primary.html?action=click&contentCollection=nyregion&region=rank&module=package&version=highlights&contentPlacement=2&pgtype=sectionfront&_r=0 |title=With the New York Presidential Primary, the Circus Is Coming Home |first1=Matt |last1=Flegenheimer |first2=Maggie |last2=Haberman |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 29, 2016 |access-date=March 29, 2016}} Nyumba iyi yili na masitolo, makafeyi, maofesi, na malo ghakukhalamo. Atrium yake ya magawo ghankhondi yili na chiŵiya cha maji cha kutalika kwa mafiti 60, icho chili na nthowa yakwendamo yakujingilira pasi pa denga lagalasi.{{cite web |title=About Trump Tower |date=n.d. |access-date=May 24, 2016 |website=Trump Tower New York |url=http://www.trumptowerny.com/about}} Trump Tower ndiyo yikaŵa malo agho pulogiramu ya pa TV ya NBC yakuti ''The Apprentice'' yikajambulikirangapo, kusazgapo studio yakugwirira ntchito ya pa TV.{{cite web |title=History |date=n.d. |access-date=May 24, 2016 |website=Trump Tower New York |url=http://www.trumptowerny.com/trump-tower-new-york |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129203922/http://www.trumptowerny.com/trump-tower-new-york |archive-date=January 29, 2017 |url-status=dead }} Nyumba iyi yikati yamara, nyumba zake za condominium zikaguliskika luŵiro, ndipo Trump Tower yikazgoka malo agho ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakalutanga kukawona.{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |pages=[https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot/page/43 43]–53 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} === Kukura kwa bizinesi === [[Trump Plaza Hotel and Casino|Harrah's at Trump Plaza]] yikajurika mu Atlantic City mu 1984. Hotelo na kasino uyu vikazengeka na Trump na ndalama zakufuma ku Holiday Corp.{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |pages=[https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot/page/57 57]–58 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} ndipo vikendeskekanga na chigaŵa cha njuga cha Holiday Corp. Ivyo vikachitika pa kasino uyu vikayenda makora yayi, ndipo vikapangiska mphindano pakati pa Trump na Holiday Corp.{{cite news |title=Holiday, Trump drafting terms to end rocky alliance over Atlantic City casino |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |first=Steve |last=Swartz |date=November 11, 1985 |id={{ProQuest|397993833}} }} {{subscription required}} Trump wakaguliraso Hilton Corporation nyumba iyo yikaŵa yindamare kuzengeka mu Atlantic City pa ndalama zakukwana US$320 miliyoni. Yikati yamara mu 1985, hotelo na kasino uyu ukamanyikwa kuti Trump Castle. Muwoli wa Trump, [[Ivana Trump|Ivana]], ndiyo wakalaŵiliranga malo agha.{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |pages=[https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot/page/n62 59]–60 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} Trump wakagura malo gha [[Mar-a-Lago]] ku [[Palm Beach, Florida]], mu 1985 pa ndalama zakukwana US$5 miliyoni, kweniso US$3 miliyoni za vinthu vya munyumba. Padera pa kugwiliskira ntchito nyumba iyi nga ni malo ghakupumulirako mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, Trump wakasanduraso nyumba iyi kuŵa kalabu ya ŵanthu payekha, iyo yikaŵa na ndalama zakunjiliramo za US$150,000. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, wakaguraso nyumba zinyake za condominium ku West Palm Beach pamoza na [[Lee Iacocca]], izo pamanyuma zikazgoka [[Trump Plaza (West Palm Beach)|Trump Plaza of the Palm Beaches]].{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |page=[https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot/page/62 62] |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} [[File:Central Park Wollman Rink.jpg|thumb|right|alt=An outdoor skating rink with many people on the rink. There are skyscrapers in the background. This is the Wollman Rink in Central Park|[[Central Park]] [[Wollman Rink]] pamanyuma pa kunozgekaso na Trump]] Mu 1980, ntchito zakunozgekaso [[Wollman Rink]] ya mu [[Central Park]] zikamba, ndipo zikaghanaghanirikanga kuti zizamala mu vyaka viŵiri na hafu. Chifukwa cha masuzgo gha kapangidwe ka pulani na masuzgo ghanandi agho ghakachitika pa kuzenga, ntchito iyi yikaŵa yindamare mpaka mu Meyi 1986 ndipo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti yikakhumbikwiranga myezi yinyake 18 kweniso ndalama zakukwana $2 miliyoni mpaka $3 miliyoni kuti yimare.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/21/nyregion/new-york-hopes-to-learn-from-rink-trump-fixed-wollman-rink-scorecard.html |title=New York Hopes to Learn From Rink Trump Fixed; Wollman Rink Scorecard |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 21, 1986 |access-date=May 9, 2018}}{{cite news |last1=Freedlander |first1=David |title=A 1980s New York City Battle Explains Donald Trump's Candidacy |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/features/2015-09-29/a-1980s-new-york-city-battle-explains-donald-trump-s-candidacy |access-date=October 23, 2016 |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=September 29, 2015}} Trump wakapika kontrakiti nga ni kontrakita mukuru mu Juni 1986 kuti wamalizge ntchito iyi pambere Disembala 15 yindafike, ndipo mtengo wake ukeneranga kulekera pa $3 miliyoni, apo ndalama zose izo zikagwiriskika zikawerezgekanga na msumba. Trump wakalemba mulembezi wa mapulani, kampani yakuzenga, kweniso kampani ya ku Canada yakupanga malo ghakuselerapo pa ayezi, ndipo wakamalizga ntchito iyi mu myezi yinayi, na kugwiliska ntchito ndalama zakukwana $775,000 kuchepera pa bajeti. Wakalongozga malo agha kwa chaka chimoza ndipo wakapeleka gawo la phindu ku vyamawoko na ku ntchito za ŵanthu wose{{cite news |last1=Rosenthal |first1=Andrew |author1-link=Andrew Rosenthal |title=Trump reports large profit from Wollman Rink |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/01/nyregion/trump-reports-large-profit-from-wollman-rink.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 1, 1987 |access-date=November 27, 2017}} mwakusintha na wanangwa wa [[Concession (contract)|chilolezgo cha kugwiliskira ntchito]] malo agha.{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-boasts-of-his-philanthropy-but-his-giving-falls-short-of-his-words/2016/10/29/b3c03106-9ac7-11e6-a0ed-ab0774c1eaa5_story.html |title=Trump boasts about his philanthropy. But his giving falls short of his words. |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=October 29, 2016 |access-date=July 3, 2018 |last=Fahrenthold |first=David A. |author-link=David Fahrenthold}} Trump wakalongozga rink iyi kufuma mu 1987 mpaka 1995. Wakapikaso kontrakiti yinyake mu 2001, iyo yikasazgikirapo mpaka mu 2021.{{cite news |last=Purnick |first=Joyce |author-link=Joyce Purnick |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/opinion/donald-trump-don-love-riding-high-polls-nyc-bad-side-article-1.145485 |title=The Donald Trump we know (and don't love): He's riding high in polls, but NYC's seen his bad side |newspaper=[[New York Daily News]] |date=May 1, 2011 |access-date=May 10, 2018}}{{cite news |last1=Kravitz |first1=Derek |last2=Podkul |first2=Cezary |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/trump-said-he-made-21-million-in-income-from-his-new-york-city-contracts |title=Trump Said He Made $21 Million in Income From His New York Contracts. He Actually Made a Lot Less. |publisher=[[ProPublica]] |date=February 28, 2017 |access-date=May 10, 2018}} Kuyana na mulembi wa nkhani [[Joyce Purnick]], "kupambana kwa Trump pa Wollman kukaŵaso nthano yakujizgora yekha iyo yikanozgekera makora kuti yimulengezge." Apo ntchito yikachitikanga, Trump wakachemeskanga maungano ghanandi gha ŵanthu ŵakulemba nkhani, nga nkhusangika pa kumalizga kuyika mapaipi na kuthira simenti.{{cite news |last=Geist |first=William E. |author-link=Bill Geist |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/15/nyregion/about-new-york-pssst-here-s-a-secret-trump-rebuilds-ice-rink.html |title=Trump reports large profit from Wollman Rink |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 15, 1986 |access-date=May 10, 2018}} Mu 1987, wakayezgaso kwambura kutonda kukopa msumba kuti usinthe zina la malo agha kuŵa lake; chizindikiro cha Trump chikuwoneka chomene pa vigongwe vyakuzingilizga rink iyi, pa [[ice resurfacer|Zamboni]], pa sketi zakubwereka, kweniso pa webusayiti ya rink iyi.{{cite news |last1=Kula |first1=Irwin |author1-link=Irwin Kula |last2=Hatkoff |first2=Craig |author2-link=Craig Hatkoff |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/offwhitepapers/2015/08/24/donald-trump-and-the-wollman-rinking-of-american-politics/ |title=Donald Trump And The Wollman Rinking of American Politics |work=[[Forbes]] |date=August 24, 2015 |access-date=May 10, 2018}} Pa Novembala 30, 1984, Trump wakavumbura pulani yakuzenga msumba uchoko mukati mwa New York City pa "malo ghakuru agho ghakaŵavya chitukuko" pa chilwa cha [[Manhattan]].{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/12/01/nyregion/trump-set-to-but-lincoln-west-site.html|title=TRUMP SET TO BUT LINCOLN WEST SITE|first=Martin|last=Gottlieb|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=December 1, 1984}} Pulani ya Television City, iyo pamanyuma yikachemeka Trump City, yikeneranga kuŵa na "pafupifupi maapatimenti na ma condominium 8,000 ghakukwana ŵanthu 20,000, malo ghakukwana magalimoto pafupifupi 10,000, malo ghakukwana masikweya fiti 3.6 miliyoni gha ma studio gha TV na mafilimu, kweniso malo ghakukwana masikweya fiti 2 miliyoni gha mashopu 'ghapachanya'."{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/06/29/trump-robert-moses-new-york-television-city-urban-development-1980s-218836/|title=The Lost City of Trump|first=Michael|last=Kruse|magazine=Politico|date=July 2018}} Chikuru kuluska nyumba zose chikeneranga kuŵa chisanja chitali chomene pa nyengo iyo, chakukwana kaŵiri utali wa nyumba za vipinda 76 izo zikeneranga kuŵa pasi pake. Gulu la ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ilo likachemekanga Westpride, ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu nga ni [[Jerry Seinfeld]], [[Christopher Reeve]], na ŵanyake, likapangika ndipo likawunganiska ndalama zakususka pulani iyi. Meya [[Ed Koch]] wakakana kupeleka Trump kuchotcheka msonkho kuti wazenge pulani yake, m'malo mwake wakapeleka NBC mwa kuŵakanizga kusama kufuma ku [[Rockefeller Center]] kuluta ku pulani ya Trump. Trump wakagura [[Plaza Hotel]] mu Manhattan mu 1988. Wakapeleka ndalama zakukwana $400 miliyoni pa nyumba iyi ndipo wakapaso [[Ivana Trump|Ivana]] mulimo wakulongozga na kunozgekaso ntchito yake.{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |pages=65–66 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} [[File:AtlanticCityTajMahal.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The facade of the Trump Taj Mahal, a casino in Atlantic City. It has motifs evocative of the Taj Mahal in India. A tall building with the resort's name stands in the background.|[[Trump Taj Mahal]], pa 1000 Boardwalk mu [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]]]] Pamanyuma mu 1988, Trump wakagura [[Trump Taj Mahal|Kasino ya Taj Mahal]] mu [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]], mu mgwirizano na [[Merv Griffin]] kweniso [[Resorts International]].{{cite news |title=Seven Acquisitive Executives Who Made Business News in 1988: Donald Trump – Trump Organization; The Artist of the Deal Turns Sour into Sweet |last=Cuff |first=Daniel |date=December 18, 1988 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/27/business/seven-acquisitive-executives-who-made-business-1988-donald-trump-trump.html |access-date=May 27, 2011 |work=[[The New York Times]]}} Kasino iyi yikajulika mu Epulero 1990, ndipo yikazengeka pa mtengo wose wa $1.1 biliyoni, uwo pa nyengo iyo ukaŵa kasino wakudura chomene kuzengekapo.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/08/business/trump-s-taj-open-at-last-with-a-scary-appetite.html |title=Trump's Taj – Open at Last, With a Scary Appetite |date=April 8, 1990 |last=Glynn |first=Lenny |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=August 14, 2016}}{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/new-owner-of-trumps-taj-mahal-wants-to-make-casino-great-again |title=New owner wants to make Trump's Taj Mahal casino great again |date=May 20, 2016 |first=Wayne |last=Parry |agency=[[Associated Press]] |publisher=[[PBS NewsHour]] |access-date=August 14, 2016}} Yikapeleka ndalama zakukwana $675 miliyoni mu [[junk bonds]] pa chiwongoladzanja cha 14%, ndipo ntchito iyi yikanjira mu [[Chapter 11 bankruptcy|Bankirapuse ya Chapter 11]] chaka chakulondezgapo.{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/donald-trump-filed-bankruptcy-times/story?id=13419250 |first=Amy |last=Bingham |title=Donald Trump's Companies Filed for Bankruptcy 4 Times |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |date=April 21, 2011 |access-date=February 20, 2015}} Mabanki na [[Bond (finance)|ŵakukolezga mabond]] awo ŵakaŵa pangozi yakutaya madola mazana ghanandi gha mamiliyoni, ŵakasankha [[debt restructuring|kunozgaso ngongoli]]. Kuumaliro wa 1990, Trump na Westpride ŵakazomerezgana pulani yinyake yakuleka pulani yakwambilira ya Trump City na kuzenga [[Riverside South, Manhattan|Riverside South]], kwambura chisanja chitali cha Trump ndipo m'malo mwake pakaŵa paki kweniso nyumba zifupi kuluska izo zikaghanaghanirikanga pakwamba za vipinda 76.{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/11/arts/lower-skyline-higher-aspirations.html|title=Lower Skyline, Higher Aspirations|first=Paul|last=Goldberger|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 11, 1991}} Mulembi wa vya mapangidwe gha nyumba [[Paul Goldberger]] wakalemba mu ''[[The New York Times]]'' mu Ogasiti 1991 kuti, "Bambo Trump ŵakamanya kuti likeneranga kuŵa dazi lakuzizima chomene mu Ogasiti pambere pulani yawo yindazomerezgeke, ndipo nga ni ndyali waluso waliyose, wakajibatika ku gulu lakususka mwamahara chomene mwakuti vikawoneka nga ni pulani yake yekha." The Taj Mahal wakafumapo ku bankufwa pa Okutobala 5, 1991, apo Trump wakapeleka 50% ya umwini wa kasinosi ku awo ŵakaŵa na mabondi mu malo mwa kususkika kwa viwongolero vya ndalama zakukwereska na kupokera nyengo yinandi yakumalira ngongoli.{{cite news |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/05/business/company-news-taj-mahal-is-out-of-bankruptcy.html |title=Taj Mahal is out of Bankruptcy |access-date=May 22, 2008 |date=October 5, 1991}} Kweniso wakaguliska ndege yake ya [[Trump Shuttle]] iyo yikaŵa na masuzgo gha ndalama kweniso sitima yake yapachanya ya mamita 282 (86 m), ''[[Kingdom 5KR|Trump Princess]]''.{{cite news |url=http://www.upi.com/Archives/1991/04/09/Trump-reaches-agreement-with-bondholders-on-Taj-Mahal/7261671169600/ |title=Trump reaches agreement with bondholders on Taj Mahal |work=United Press International |date=April 9, 1991 |access-date=March 21, 2016}}{{cite news |url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20122177,00.html |title=The Donald Ducks Out |date=May 19, 1997 |access-date=September 10, 2015 |work=[[People (magazine)|People]] |first=Karen S. |last=Schneider}}{{cite news |url=http://www.phillymag.com/news/2015/08/16/donald-trump-atlantic-city-empire/ |title=The Truth About the Rise and Fall of Donald Trump's Atlantic City Empire |work=Philadelphia Magazine |date=August 16, 2015 |access-date=March 21, 2016 |first=Dan |last=McQuade}} Trump wakasanganga wovwira wa ndalama wa Riverside South kufuma ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku [[Hong Kong]] pafupifupi madola miliyoni 90 gha ku United States, ivyo vikamovwira kulipira ndalama izo wakeneranga kupeleka ku mabanki pa malo agho wakaŵa na ngongoli kweniso pa [[back taxes|misonkho yakale]], ndipo Trump wakapokera 30% ya umwini kweniso kulutilira kulongozga ntchito ya kuzenga zuŵa na zuŵa. Kuyana na loya uyo wakaŵa pafupi na vyakudumbiskana, phangano likapafyanga kusuzgika kumara pamanyuma pakuti Trump "wakayowoya mazgu ghaheni, kusazgapo mazina ghakusuzga gha mitundu ghakuyana na Ŵaasia" pa nyengo ya vyakudumbiskana. Phangano likamovwira Trump kugega kufayiska bankruptcy yake yekha pamanyuma pakuti wakafayiska bankruptcy ya makampani kanayi kumasinda. Malo gha Taj Mahal ghakagulika so mu 1996 ndipo ghakaphatikizgika mu [[Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts]], iyo yikafayiska bankruptcy mu 2004 na ngongoli ya madola mabiliyoni 1.8, ndipo yikafayiskaso bankruptcy vyaka vinkhondi pamanyuma pake na chuma cha madola miliyoni 50 kweniso ngongoli ya madola miliyoni 500. Kukolerana kwa bizinesi pamanyuma pake kukaleka Trump na 10% ya umwini mu Trump Taj Mahal na malo ghanyake gha makasino gha Trump. Trump wakaŵa mulongozgi wa gulu ili, ilo likasintha zina kuŵa Trump Entertainment Resorts, kufuma pakati pa 1995 mpaka kukwambilira kwa 2009, ndipo wakaŵa CEO kufuma pakati pa 2000 mpaka pakati pa 2005.{{cite news |url=http://fortune.com/2016/03/10/trump-hotel-casinos-pay-failure/ |title=How Donald Trump Made Millions Off His Biggest Business Failure |work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |date=March 10, 2016 |access-date=March 21, 2016 |first=Shawn |last=Tully}} === Ma bankruptcy gha bizinesi === {{Further|Vyakupeleka vyakukhwaskana na malango gha Donald Trump#Kugwiliskira ntchito malango gha bankruptcy}} Nangauli Trump wandafayiske bankruptcy yake ya munthu payekha, mahotelo na makasino gha bizinesi yake ghakalengezga [[Chapter 11 bankruptcy|bankruptcy]]{{cite web|last1=Winter|first1=Tom|title=Trump Bankruptcy Math Doesn't Add Up|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/trump-bankruptcy-math-doesn-t-add-n598376|work=[[NBC News]]|date=June 24, 2016 |access-date=October 8, 2016}} kankhondi na kamoza pakati pa 1991 na 2009 chifukwa cha kutondeka kulipira malipiro ghakukhumbikwa kweniso kudumbiskana so vya ngongoli na mabanki, ŵenecho ŵa masheya na mabondi kweniso mabizinesi ghachoko (ŵakupeleka ngongoli ŵambura kuŵikika).{{cite news |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2015/06/donald-trump-companies-bankruptcy-atlantic-city |title=4 Times Donald Trump's Companies Declared Bankruptcy |work=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |date=June 29, 2015 |access-date=January 17, 2016 |author=Hood, Bryan}}{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/donald-trump-questioned-his-bankruptcies-279717 |first=Hao |last=Li |title=Donald Trump Questioned on His Bankruptcies |work=[[International Business Times]] |date=April 12, 2011 |access-date=February 19, 2015}} Chifukwa chakuti mabizinesi agha ghakagwiliskira ntchito [[Chapter 11 bankruptcy|Chapter 11 bankruptcy]], ghakazomerezgeka kulutilira kugwira ntchito apo vyakudumbiskana vikalutilira. Trump wakazunulika na ''Newsweek'' mu 2011 kuti wakati, "Nkhugwiliskira ntchito malango gha bankruptcy—ghakuniwovwira chomene."{{cite news |last1=Kurtz |first1=Howard |title=Kurtz: The Trump Backlash |url=http://www.newsweek.com/kurtz-trump-backlash-66503 |access-date=March 14, 2016 |work=[[Newsweek]] |date=April 24, 2011}}{{cite news |last1=Stone |first1=Peter |title=Donald Trump's lawsuits could turn off conservatives who embrace tort reform |url=http://www.publicintegrity.org/2011/05/05/4478/donald-trumps-lawsuits-could-turn-conservatives-who-embrace-tort-reform |access-date=March 14, 2016 |work=The Center for Public Integrity |date=May 5, 2011}} Ma bankruptcy ghankhondi ghakaŵa chifukwa cha mabizinesi gha mahotelo na makasino agho ghakaŵa na ngongoli zinandi mu Atlantic City na New York: [[Trump Taj Mahal]] (1991), [[Trump Plaza Hotel and Casino]] (1992), [[Plaza Hotel]] (1992), [[Golden Nugget Atlantic City|Trump Castle Hotel and Casino]] (1992), Trump Hotels and Casino Resorts (2004), kweniso [[Trump Entertainment Resorts]] (2009).{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/clareoconnor/2011/04/29/fourth-times-a-charm-how-donald-trump-made-bankruptcy-work-for-him/ |first=Clare |last=O'Connor |title=Fourth Time's A Charm: How Donald Trump Made Bankruptcy Work For Him |work=[[Forbes]] |date=April 29, 2011 |access-date=February 19, 2015}} Trump wakati, "Nagwiliskira ntchito malango gha charu ichi kuchepeska ngongoli. ... Tizamuŵa na kampani. Tizayiponya mu chaputala. Tizadumbiskana na mabanki. Tizapanga phangano liwemi chomene. Mukumanya, vili nga mu ''The Apprentice''. Vili vya munthu yayi. Ni bizinesi pera." === Chiharo na kugula vinandi === Mu 1996, Trump wakagura nyumba ya maofesi yakusuzgika, ya vipinda 70 pa [[40 Wall Street]] ku Manhattan, wakayinozga, ndipo wakayipa zina la ''The Trump Building''.{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |pages=81–82 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} Mu 1998, [[Conseco]] na Trump ŵakagura General Motors Building pa mtengo wa madola miliyoni 878 kufuma ku [[Corporate Property Investors]].{{cite news|first=Charles V.|last=Bagli|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CEFDB173EF933A15751C0A9649C8B63|title=Heavenly Match Becomes Real Estate War Over the G.M. Building|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=February 20, 2002}}{{cite news|first=Jim|last=Yardley|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CEEDE163BF932A05756C0A96E958260|title=Trump Buying The Landmark G.M. Building|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=May 31, 1998}}{{cite book|first1=George H.|last1=Ross|first2=Andrew James|last2=McLean|first3=Donald J.|last3=Trump|title=Trump Strategies for Real Estate: Billionaire Lessons for the Small Investor|url=https://archive.org/details/trumpstrategiesf00geor_0|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|date=February 17, 2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/trumpstrategiesf00geor_0/page/130 129]|isbn=0-471-73643-0}} Gulu likapokera ngongoli ya madola miliyoni 700 kufuma ku [[Lehman Brothers]] pakugula uku ndipo vikayowoyeka kuti Trump wakaŵikamo ndalama zake za pakati pa madola miliyoni 15 na 20 pera pa bizinesi iyi.{{cite news|url=https://nypost.com/1999/04/18/trump-the-smarts-of-the-deal-how-donald-uses-mostly-other-peoples-money-to-build-a-kingdom-in-his-name/|title=Trump: The Smarts Of The Deal; How Donald Uses (Mostly) Other People's Money To Build A Kingdom In His Name|date=April 18, 1999|newspaper=[[New York Post]]|last=Salkin|first=Allen}} Trump wakakwezga malo gha pakati pa nyumba agho ghakaŵa pasi (sunken plaza), uko ŵanthu ŵachoko ŵakendangako, ndipo ghakanyozeka na Huxtable{{clarify|reason=Who is Huxtable?|date=December 2023}}, ndipo wakalembapo zina lake mu zilembo zagolide vya utali wa futi zinayi.{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F02E6DB1F3AF933A05755C0A96F958260| first=David W.|last=Dunlap|title=Courtyard Is Rising With New Look|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=June 30, 1999|access-date=July 18, 2014}} Mu 2003, Trump na ŵanyake ŵakaguliska nyumba iyi pa mtengo wa madola biliyoni 1.4, uwo ukaŵa mtengo wapachanya chomene kulipirapo nyumba ya maofesi ku North America pa nyengo iyo, kwa [[Harry B. Macklowe|Macklowe Organization]].{{cite news|first=Charles V.|last=Bagli|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9400E7DE1738F933A0575BC0A9659C8B63|title=G.M. Building Sells for $1.4 Billion, a Record|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=August 30, 2003|access-date=July 18, 2014}}{{cite news|first=Elaine|last=Misonzhnik|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Macklowe+pays+%241.4B+for+GM+building%2c+highest+ever+paid+in+North...-a0109133630|title=Macklowe pays $1.4B for GM building, highest ever paid in North America|work=[[Real Estate Weekly]]|date=September 3, 2003|access-date=July 18, 2014}} Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya awiske mu 1999, Trump na ŵabali ŵake ŵakapokera vigaŵa vyakuyana{{citation needed|date=March 2017}} vya chiharo cha awiske icho chikaŵa na mtengo wa madola 250–300 miliyoni.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/06/26/nyregion/fred-c-trump-postwar-master-builder-of-housing-for-middle-class-dies-at-93.html |title=Fred C. Trump, Postwar Master Builder of Housing for Middle Class, Dies at 93 |first=Tracy |last=Rozhon |date=June 26, 1999 |access-date=August 19, 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]]}} Mu 2001, Trump wakamalizga kuzenga [[Trump World Tower]], nyumba ya vipinda 72 ya ŵakukhala iyo yili pandunji pa [[Likuru la United Nations]].{{cite web |publisher=[[Emporis]] |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040406233951/http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=100377 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040406233951/https://web.archive.org/web/20040406233951/http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=100377 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=April 6, 2004 |title=Trump World Tower |access-date=May 22, 2008}} Trump wakambaso kuzenga [[Riverside South, Manhattan|Riverside South]], iyo wakayipanga zina la [[Trump Place]], chitukuko cha nyumba zinandi mumphepete mwa [[Mlonga wa Hudson]]. Wakapitilira kuŵa na malo gha malonda mu [[Trump International Hotel and Tower (New York)|Trump International Hotel and Tower]], nyumba ya vipinda 44 yakusazgapo mahotelo na ma kondomu pa [[Columbus Circle]] iyo wakagura mu 1996,{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |page=108 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} kweniso wakalutilira kuŵa na mamiliyoni gha masikweya futi gha malo ghanyake ghakuzirwa gha ku [[Manhattan]].{{cite news |work=[[Forbes]] |url=https://www.forbes.com/2006/09/20/trump-wealth-biz_06rich400_0921trump.html |title=What is Trump Worth? |access-date=July 4, 2008 |date=September 21, 2006 |first=Stephane |last=Fitch}} Trump wakagura hotelo yakale ya Hotel Delmonico ku Manhattan mu 2002. Yikajulika so mu 2004 na vipinda 35 vya ma kondomu gha uchindami ndipo yikachemeka [[Trump Park Avenue]].{{cite book |last=Wooten |first=Sara McIntosh |date=2009 |title=Donald Trump: From Real Estate to Reality TV |url=https://archive.org/details/donaldtrumpfromr0000woot |pages=86–87 |publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-0-7660-2890-6}} Trump waŵa na nyumba pa North [[Rodeo Drive]] mu chigaŵa cha [[Beverly Hills, California]]/[[Los Angeles]] kufuma mu 2007, iyo wakagura pa mtengo wa madola 7 miliyoni. Mu 2008 wakagura nyumba yinyake pafupi na iyi kufuma kwa [[Omar Bongo]], pulezidenti wa [[Gabon]] uyo wakafwa apo wakaŵa mu udindo mu 2009, pa mtengo wa madola 10.35 miliyoni. Trump wakaguliska nyumba yachiŵiri ya ku Los Angeles, iyo yikazengeka mu 1981, pa mtengo wa madola 9,500,095 mu 2009, ndipo wakataya madola 850,000 (8%). Nyumba yachiŵiri yikaweleraso pa msika pakati pa 2016 ndipo yikalembeka pafupifupi madola 30 miliyoni.Leitereg, Neal J., [https://www.latimes.com/business/realestate/hot-property/la-fi-hp-hotprop-20160827-snap-story.html "Daren Metropoulos takes ownership of Playboy Mansion, Hef included > A residential 'Trump' card"], ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', August 27, 2016. The Trump properties have no relationship to the [[Playboy Mansion]]. It is a five-part 'listings and sales' story with the Playboy the lead part and the Trumps the fourth. Retrieved January 15, 2017. Trump [[The Trump Organization#Real estate licensing|wakapeleka layisensi ya zina na chithuzi chake]] kuti vigwiriskike ntchito pa chitukuko cha mapurojekiti ghanandi gha malo, kusazgapo mapurojekiti gha malo gha Trump ghaŵiri mu Florida agho ghakaŵa mu ndondomeko ya kutoleka na mabanki chifukwa cha kutondeka kulipira ngongoli.{{cite news |url=http://www.miamiherald.com/opinion/opn-columns-blogs/carl-hiaasen/article27059140.html |title=Carl Hiaasen: There will never be a President Trump |work=[[Miami Herald]] |date=July 11, 2015 |access-date=September 1, 2015 |first=Carl |last=Hiaasen}} Mwenecho wa ku Turkey wa [[Trump Towers Istanbul]], uyo wakalipiranga Trump kuti wagwiliskire ntchito zina lake, wakayowoyeka mu Disembala 2015 kuti wakapenjanga nthowa za malango kuti watimbanizge malo agha na Trump pamanyuma pa ivyo munthu uyo wakaŵa mupharazgi wa visola wakayowoya vya kujalira kanyengo Ŵasilamu awo ŵakukhumba kunjira mu United States.{{cite news |url=http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0TU0JD20151211 |title=Turkish partner condemns Donald Trump's anti-Muslim remarks, reviews ties |date=December 11, 2015 |access-date=December 11, 2015 |work=[[Reuters]]}} Trump wakapelekaso layisensi ya zina lake kwa mkamwana wake wa munakazi [[Jared Kushner]] wa [[Trump Bay Street]], nyumba ya vipinda 50 ya uchindami ku [[Jersey City]], iyo yikakwezga madola miliyoni 50 gha ndalama zake zakwenera kuŵa miliyoni 200, chomene kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵasambazi ŵa [[Han Chinese|Ŵachina]], awo pamanyuma pakulipira ndalama zakwamba za madola 500,000 mwakukolerana na ndondomeko ya boma ya [[EB-5 visa]], kanandi ŵangasanga wanangwa wakukhala mu United States kwa iwo na mbumba zawo pamanyuma pa vyaka viŵiri.{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2016-03-07/trump-tower-financed-by-rich-chinese-who-invest-cash-for-visas |title=Trump Tower Funded by Rich Chinese Who Invest Cash for Visas |date=March 6, 2016 |access-date=March 7, 2016 |work=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]] |first=Jesse |last=Drucker}} Trump ni munyake wa [[Kushner Properties]] pa nkhani ya kupereka layisensi ya zina pera, kweni yayi pa nkhani ya ndalama zakuzengera nyumba iyi. Mu 2012, nyumba yitali ya 1290 Avenue of the Americas ku Manhattan yikapangaso ndondomeko yiphya ya ngongoli; Trump wakaŵa na 30% ya chigaŵa mu nyumba iyi. Kupanga so ngongoli kukapangiska kuti paŵe ngongoli ya madola miliyoni 211 kufuma ku [[Bank of China]] iyo ni ya boma. Ichi chikaŵa chakwamba kuti banki ya ku China yinjire mu [[commercial mortgage-backed securities]] mu United States. Bank of China yikaguliska ngongoli iyi mu 2012 mu msika, ntheura yikati yikaŵavya "umwini uliwose pa ngongoli iyi" kufuma apo. Chikalata cha 2017 icho chikapelekeka mu New York City chikayika Bank of China mwambura kwenelera nga ni [[ŵakukongozga|creditor]] wa nyengo iyi chifukwa cha kwananga kwa gulu ilo likapweleleranga ngongoli la [[Wells Fargo]]. === Malo gha gofu === {{See also|Donald Trump and golf}} [[File:Turnberry Hotel.jpg|thumb|alt=A wide, sprawling golf course. In the background is the Turnberry Hotel, a two-story hotel with white facade and a red roof. This picture was taken in Ayrshire, Scotland.|[[Turnberry Hotel]] in [[South Ayrshire]], Scotland]] Gulu la Trump likulamulira malo ghanandi gha [[maseŵera gha gofu]] na mahotelo gha mpumulo mu United States kweniso pa charu chose. Chiŵelengero cha malo gha gofu agho Trump wali nagho panji kulongozga chiri pafupifupi 18, kuyana na ''[[Golfweek]]''.{{cite news |first=Brentley |last=Romine |title=Donald Trump announces he will run for president in 2016 |date=July 14, 2015 |website=[[Golfweek]] |url=http://golfweek.com/news/2015/jun/16/donald-trump-us-president-2016-gop-golf-courses/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317081800/http://golfweek.com/news/2015/jun/16/donald-trump-us-president-2016-gop-golf-courses/ |archive-date=March 17, 2016 }} Chikalata cha ndalama za Trump icho wakapeleka ku [[Federal Election Commission]] chikayowoya kuti ndalama izo wakasanga kufuma ku gofu na malo gha mpumulo mu 2015 zikaŵa pafupifupi madola miliyoni 382.{{cite news |url=https://money.cnn.com/2016/05/18/news/trump-finances/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518215705/http://money.cnn.com/2016/05/18/news/trump-finances/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 18, 2016 |title=A peek at Donald Trump's finances |first1=Cristina |last1=Alesci |first2=Laurie |last2=Frankel |first3=Jeanne |last3=Sahadi |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=May 19, 2016 |access-date=May 20, 2016}} Mu 2006, Trump wakagura malo gha Menie Estate mu [[Balmedie]], Aberdeenshire, Scotland, ndipo wakapanga malo gha gofu kwambura kukolerana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu malo agha ŵakakhumbanga{{cite news |url=http://upstart.bizjournals.com/views/columns/the-windup/2008/02/22/Scottish-Clash-Over-Trump-Golf-Plan.html?page=all |title=Landing In The Rough With Trump |date=February 22, 2008 |work=Upstart Business Journal |first=Franz |last=Lidz |author-link=Franz Lidz |access-date=March 14, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405080648/http://upstart.bizjournals.com/views/columns/the-windup/2008/02/22/Scottish-Clash-Over-Trump-Golf-Plan.html?page=all |archive-date=April 5, 2016 }} mu chigaŵa icho chikaŵa cha [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]].{{cite news |first=Carolyn |last=Churchill |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/home-news/first-look-at-trump-plan-for-world-s-best-course-1.1007048?54107 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521014558/http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/home-news/first-look-at-trump-plan-for-world-s-best-course-1.1007048?54107 |archive-date=May 21, 2013 |title=First look at Trump plan for 'world's best course{{'-}} |work=[[The Herald (Glasgow)|The Herald]] |location=Glasgow |date=February 16, 2010 |access-date=June 18, 2012}}{{cite news |first=Laurie |last=Tuffrey |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jul/10/donald-trump-scotland-golf-course |title=Trump opens controversial Scottish golf course |access-date=August 9, 2015}} Chikalata chakujiyimira payekha cha mu 2011, ''[[You've Been Trumped]],'' icho chikapangika na wopanga mafilimu wa ku Britain Anthony Baxter, chikulongosora umo malo gha gofu ghakazengekera kweniso masuzgo agho ghakaŵapo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu malo agha na Donald Trump.{{cite news |first=Roger |last=Ebert |date=October 17, 2012 |url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/youve-been-trumped-2012 |title=You've Been Trumped |work=Rogerebert.com |access-date=January 19, 2016}} Mu Disembala 2015, pempho la Trump lakususka malo ghakupangira nkhongono ya mphepo pa nyanja ([[Aberdeen Bay Wind Farm]]) agho ghakaŵa mukuwoneka kufuma ku malo gha gofu likakanika.{{cite news |first1=Owen |last1=Bowcott |first2=Esther |last2=Addley |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/dec/16/donald-trump-loses-appeal-windfarms-scottish-golf-course |title=Alex Salmond brands Trump 'loser' after judges reject windfarm appeal | Environment |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=December 16, 2015 |access-date=December 16, 2015}} Nangauli Trump wakalayizga ntchito 6,000, mu 2016, mwakuyana na mazgu ghake, malo gha gofu ghakapeleka waka ntchito 200.{{cite news |first=John |last=Sweeney |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/Donald-Trump-fails-to-deliver-on-golf-resorts-jobs-pledge-8693854.html |title=Donald Trump fails to deliver on golf resort jobs pledge |work=[[The Independent]] |date=July 7, 2013 |access-date=January 19, 2016}} Mu Juni 2019, [[Scottish Natural Heritage]] yikati malo gha gofu ghakaŵa "ghananga" ndondomeko ya tumapiri twa mchenga, ndipo vikapangiska kutayika kwamuyirayira kwa malo ghakukhala vinyama, ndipo yikayowoya kuti udindo wa SSSI ulekeke.{{cite news |first=Glenn |last=Campbell |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-48789620 |title='Destroyed' Trump golf course dunes to lose special status |work=[[BBC News]] |date=June 28, 2019 |access-date=June 28, 2019}} Udindo wapadera ukafumiskikapo mu Disembala 2020.{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-north-east-orkney-shetland-55244660 |title=Trump golf course dunes lose special environmental status |work=[[BBC News]] |date=December 9, 2020 |access-date=January 1, 2021}} Mu Epulero 2014, Trump wakagura hotelo ya [[Turnberry (golf course)|Turnberry]] na malo gha gofu ku [[Ayrshire]], Scotland, agho ghakaŵa chigaŵa chakuzomerezgeka nyengo zose mu ndondomeko ya [[the Open Championship]].{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-glasgow-west-27203208 |title=US property tycoon Donald Trump buys Turnberry resort |work=[[BBC News]] |date=April 29, 2014 |access-date=April 29, 2014}}{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/golf/27212412 |title=Turnberry: Donald Trump deal should not affect Open status |work=[[BBC News]] |date=April 29, 2014 |access-date=April 29, 2014 |first=Iain |last=Carter}} Pamanyuma pa [[2021 United States Capitol attack|nkhondo ya pa nyumba ya boma ya United States mu 2021]], awo ŵakapanga mashindano agha, [[The R&A]], ŵakapharazga kuti The Open lizamuŵakoso yayi ku Turnberry apo kukakhala kukolerana kwake na Trump Organization.{{Cite web|title=The R&A - R&A Turnberry Statement|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127060747/https://www.randa.org/en/news/2021/01/turnberry-statement|access-date=2021-07-15|website=www.randa.org|language=en|archive-date=July 18, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718023125/https://web.archive.org/web/20220127060747/https://www.randa.org/en/news/2021/01/turnberry-statement|url-status=dead}}{{Cite news|title=The Open will not be played at iconic Turnberry while it is owned by Donald Trump|url=https://www.skysports.com/golf/news/12176/12185726/the-open-will-not-be-played-at-iconic-turnberry-while-it-is-owned-by-donald-trump |date=January 12, 2021 |access-date=January 1, 2022|website=Sky Sports}} == Masipoti gha maseŵera == {{see also|Donald Trump and American football}} [[File:Donald Trump delivering a press conference in the Trump Tower.jpg|thumb|Trump wakuyowoya mazgu pa ungano wa ŵanyamakuru wa [[New Jersey Generals]] mu 1985.]] [[File:President Trump at the World Series Game (48975694762).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Pulezidenti Donald J. Trump wakuzungunya mawoko ku wumba wa ŵanthu pa Game 5 ya MLB World Series pakati pa Washington Nationals na Houston Astros pa Sabata, Okutobala 27, 2019, pa Nationals Park ku Washington, D.C.]] Mu 1983, [[New Jersey Generals]] ya Trump yikaŵa yumoza mwa ŵambura kwambura mu gulu liphya la [[United States Football League]] (USFL). Pambere nyengo yakwamba yindambe mu 1983, Trump wakaguliska timu iyi kwa J. Walter Duncan, munthu musambazi wa mafuta ku [[Oklahoma]], ndipo wakayigulaso pamanyuma pa nyengo iyo. Pamanyuma wakayezga kumutora kochi wa nyengo yitali wa [[Miami Dolphins]] [[Don Shula]], kweni phangano likatondeka chifukwa chakuti wakakhumba yayi kuzomera ivyo Shula wakakhumbanga vya nyumba mu [[Trump Tower]]. Trump paumaliro wakasankha kochi wakale wa [[New York Jets]] [[Walt Michaels]].{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/04/sports/sports-people-new-jersey-generalities.html |title=Sports People; New Jersey Generalities |access-date=February 11, 2011 |date=April 4, 1984 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}{{cite news |first=Dave |last=Anderson |title=Trump Ace: Michaels |date=December 12, 1983 |website=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/12/12/sports/trump-ace-michaels.html}} USFL yikaseŵera nyengo zitatu zakwamba mu chihanya na chilimika, kweni Trump wakakopa ŵenecho ŵanandi ŵa timu zinyake za USFL kuti ŵasinthe ndondomeko ya 1986 ya USFL kuŵa mu nyengo ya chihanya, mwakuyana na [[National Football League]] (NFL), chifukwa wakaghanaghananga kuti ichi chizamuchitiska kuti pamasinda paŵe kuphatikizika na NFL, ndipo ivi vikatenge vikusazgirenge chomene ndalama izo ŵakaŵikamo.{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/and-then-there-was-the-time-donald-trump-bought-a-football-team-/2015/10/19/35ae71ca-6dd6-11e5-aa5b-f78a98956699_story.html |title=And then there was the time Donald Trump bought a football team |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=October 19, 2015 |access-date=January 17, 2016 |author=Terris, Ben}} Pambere nyengo ya 1985 yindambe, Trump wakasayina [[Heisman Trophy]]-wakupokera mphotho wa quarterback [[Doug Flutie]] pa phangano la ntchito za vyaka 5 la madola 7 miliyoni. Ichi chikapangiska Flutie kuŵa mchezgani wa mpira wa malipiro ghapachanya chomene pa nyengo iyo, kweniso rookie wa malipiro ghapachanya chomene mu maseŵera ghaliyose gha ulendo.{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/02/04/sports/be-honest-mr-trump.html|title=Be Honest, Mr. Trump|last=Anderson|first=Dave|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=February 4, 1985|access-date=October 7, 2016}} Pamanyuma pa nyengo iyo, Generals zikakolerana na [[Houston Gamblers]]. Trump wakaŵa na 50% ya umwini wa timu yiphya iyo yikeneranga kukhala mu New Jersey na kusunga zina lakuti Generals. Pa nyengo iyo, Trump wakajikuzga kuti "mbwenu iyi ni timu yiwemi chomene mu mpira." (New Jersey na Houston zose zikaŵa na nyengo ziwemi kweni zikaŵavya nyengo zakuzizwiska mu 1985: zose zikafika mu playoffs kweni zikathereska mu maseŵero ghakwamba.) Generals zikaseŵeraso yayi maseŵero ghanyake.{{cite news |first=Robert McG. Jr. |last=Thomas |title=Generals-Gamblers merger is official |date=August 2, 1985 |website=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/08/02/sports/generals-gamblers-merger-is-official.html}} Nyengo ya 1986 yikakanika pamanyuma pakuti USFL yikasanga [[pyrrhic victory|chitumbiko chakukwera mtengo kweni kwambura chandulo chikuru]] mu mulandu wa [[United States Football League#USFL v. NFL lawsuit|kususkana na NFL]] wa [[antitrust|malango ghakutondeska ukhali wa mabizinesi]]: NFL yikataya mwalamulo mulandu, kweni USFL yikapokera waka madola 3 gha ndalama zakulipira. USFL, iyo yikaŵa kuti yachepa kufuma pa timu 18 zakwamba kufika pa timu 7 pera izo zikagwiranga ntchito, yikamara pamanyuma pake.{{cite news |first=Arash |last=Markazi |title=5 things to know about Donald Trump's foray into doomed USFL |date=July 14, 2015 |publisher=[[ESPN]] |url=https://www.espn.com/espn/story/_/id/13255737/five-things-know-donald-trump-usfl-experience}}{{cite news |last=Pearlman |first=Jeff |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/sep/11/the-day-donald-trumps-narcissism-killed-the-usfl |title=The day Donald Trump's narcissism killed the USFL |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=September 11, 2018 |access-date=August 13, 2025}} Trump wakalongora kuti wakakhumbanga kugura [[Cleveland Indians]] pa mtengo wa madola 13 miliyoni mu kalata ya Febuluwale 15, 1983 iyo yikalembeka na [[Kenneth Molloy]] kuluta kwa pulezidenti wa timu [[Gabe Paul]]. Trump wakasazgirako mtengo wake kufika pa madola 34 miliyoni mu chaka chenecho. Kutondeka kwake kulayizga kuti wasungenge timu iyi mu [[Cleveland]] kwa vyaka vitatu vyekha kukamutondeska kumalizga kugula uku.[http://www.cleveland.com/opinion/index.ssf/2015/10/donald_trumps_bid_for_the_clev.html Larkin, Brent. "Donald Trump's failed bid to buy the Cleveland Indians", ''The Plain Dealer'' (Cleveland), Thursday, October 8, 2015.] Trump wakalutilira kuŵa wakukhwaskika na maseŵera ghanyake pamanyuma pakuti Generals yamara, ndipo wakalutilira kulongozga malo gha gofu mu vyaru vinandi. Kweniso wakanozga maseŵero ghanandi gha nkhonya mu Atlantic City pa Trump Plaza, kusazgapo [[Mike Tyson vs. Michael Spinks|nkhonya ya Mike Tyson ya 1988]] yakulimbana na [[Michael Spinks]], ndipo nyengo yinyake wakaŵa wakupereka ulongozgi wa ndalama kwa [[Mike Tyson|Tyson]].{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/12/sports/sports-of-the-times-trump-promoter-or-adviser.html |title=Sports of The Times; Trump: Promoter Or Adviser? |access-date=February 11, 2011 |date=July 12, 1988 |work=[[The New York Times]] |author=Anderson, Dave}}{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/25/sports/trump-gets-tyson-fight.html |title=Trump Gets Tyson Fight |access-date=February 11, 2011 |date=February 25, 1988 |work=[[The New York Times]]}} Mu 1988, Trump wakagura kavalo ka mpikisano ka mtundu wa thoroughbred zina lake "D.J. Trump" pa mtengo wa madola 500,000, ndipo kakasambizgika na [[H. Allen Jerkens|Allen Jerkens]]. Kavalo aka kakatondeka kuchita mpikisano chifukwa cha matenda gha virus ndipo kakamba kuŵa na masuzgo ghakuru gha malundi. Ŵakuchizga ŵakachita nthowa yakofya kuti ŵawovwire tumakandiro twa kavalo kuti tukure so, kweni kakatondeka kuchita mpikisano. Kavalo aka kakafwa vyaka vitatu pamanyuma mu 1991.{{Cite news |date=2017-05-19 |title=The sad saga of thoroughbred D.J. Trump, Donald Trump's lone foray into horse racing |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/sports/wp/2017/05/19/the-sad-saga-of-thoroughbred-d-j-trump-donald-trumps-lone-foray-into-horse-racing/ |access-date=2025-11-02 |newspaper=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}} Mu 1989 na 1990, Trump wakapeleka zina lake ku [[Tour de Trump]], mpikisano wa njinga uwo ukaŵa wakuyezga kupanga mpikisano wa ku America wakuyanako na mipikisano ya ku Europe nga ni [[Tour de France]] panji [[Giro d'Italia]]. Zina ili likapelekeka na munyake wa bizinesi, wakuyowoya vya mpira wa basketball [[Billy Packer]], uyo pakwamba wakakhumbanga kuchema mpikisano uwu kuti Tour de [[New Jersey|Jersey]]. Chigaŵa chakwamba cha mpikisano wakwamba chikamara mu msumba wa ŵasambiri wa [[New Paltz (village), New York|New Paltz, New York]], uko ŵakususka ŵakalindilira ŵaseŵeri na vimanyikwiro vyakususkana na Trump. Chigaŵa chachiŵiri chikambira mu New York City, ndipo [[Mayor of New York|Meya]] [[Ed Koch]], uyo wakayowoya kuti Trump ni "yumoza mwa ŵakupusika ŵakuru", wakakana kwiza ku ungano uwu. Chigaŵa chaumaliro cha mpikisano wa mtunda wa 837 miles wa ma stage 10 chikaŵa chakususka chomene. Pambere chigaŵa chaumaliro chindambe, msesele wa ku Belgium [[Eric Vanderaerden]] wakawonengeka kuti ndiyo wangatora chiphalizgano ichi, kweni wakataya nyengo ya sekondi 1 miniti na 20 chifukwa wakasankha nthowa yiheni pa msewu uwo ukaŵa na vimanyikwiro vyambura kuwoneka makora mu [[Atlantic City]], ndipo wakendapo mtunda wa kotala la mailo panji kujumphapo pa nthowa yake. Paumaliro wakamalira malo gha chitatu mu mpikisano wose, pamanyuma pa wakuluska [[Dag-Otto Lauritzen]] (msesele wa ku Norway uyo wakaŵa mu timu ya ku America ya [[7-Eleven (cycling team)|7-Eleven team]]) na wakatora malo gha chiŵiri [[Henk Lubberding]], uyo nayo wakasankha nthowa yiheni mu chigaŵa chaumaliro. Trump wakalekezga kovwira ndalama pa Tour de Trump yachiŵiri mu 1990 chifukwa mabizinesi ghake ghanyake ghakaŵa na masuzgo gha ndalama. Mpikisano uwu ukalutilira vyaka vinyake nga ni Tour DuPont.{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/04/donald-trump-2016-tour-de-trump-bike-race-213801/|title=The Strange Tale of Donald Trump's 1989 Biking Extravaganza|website=[[Politico]] |date=April 10, 2016 }}{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/15/sports/dispute-mars-end-of-the-tour-de-trump.html|title=Dispute Mars End of the Tour de Trump|first=Frank|last=Litsky|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=May 15, 1989|access-date=April 12, 2016}} Trump wakapeleka pempho la [[stalking horse bidder|wakwamba wakugula]] pa [[Buffalo Bills]] apo timu iyi yikaguliskikanga pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya [[Ralph Wilson]] mu 2014; paumaliro wakathereskeka pa malonda agha, nga umo wakaghanaghaniranga, ndipo [[Kim Pegula|Kim]] na [[Terrence Pegula]] ndiwo ŵakapokera timu iyi.{{cite news |url=http://www.torontosun.com/2014/07/29/probably-few-new-bidders-will-bid-today-for-bills |title=Probably few new bidders will bid today for Bills |date=July 29, 2014 |access-date=July 30, 2014 |first=John |last=Kryk |newspaper=[[Toronto Sun]]}} Pa nyengo iyo wakachitanga chiphalizgano cha visola vya pulezidenti mu 2016, wakasuska malango ghaphya gha NFL gha kuvikilira awo ŵakupwetekeka ku mutu, ndipo wakadandawura kuti maseŵero agha ghapangika kuŵa "ghapasi" na "ghakulopwa", ndipo wakati kupweteka ku mutu nkhwakuyana waka na "kugwazika pachanya pa mutu." Wakapokera ŵakwendeska maseŵero mulandu wakuti ŵakuponya [[penalty flag|vimanyikwiro vya chilango]] kwambura chifukwa kuti ŵawonekere pa TV "kuti ŵawoli ŵawo ŵaŵawone ku nyumba."{{cite news |first=Chuck |last=Schilken |date=October 13, 2016 |url=https://www.latimes.com/sports/nfl/la-sp-donald-trump-nfl-concussions-20161013-snap-story.html |title=Video: Donald Trump mocks the NFL for being too soft, calls concussions 'a little ding on the head' |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}} Mu 2012, kilabu ya bola ya ku Scotland [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]] yikaŵa mu suzgo la ndalama, ndipo chikapangiska kuti yiŵe mu ndondomeko ya [[Administration and liquidation of the Rangers Football Club plc|kulipiskika na kupanga so]]. Trump wakaghanaghananga kugura kilabu iyi, kweni wakawelera nyuma chifukwa cha ukuru wa masuzgo gha ndalama agho yikaŵa nagho.{{cite news |title=When US President Donald Trump backed out of buying Rangers |url=https://www.scotsman.com/sport/football/when-us-president-donald-trump-backed-out-of-buying-rangers-1462839 |access-date=November 16, 2024 |work=[[The Scotsman]] |date=November 9, 2016}}{{cite news |title=How Donald Trump almost bought Rangers (and Pablo Escobar's club) |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/copa90/2017/jan/26/donald-trump-rangers-football-club-pablo-escobar |access-date=November 16, 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=January 26, 2017}} == Mapikisheni gha urembo == {{Further |Miss USA |Miss Universe|Miss Teen USA}} Kufuma mu 1996 mpaka 2015, apo wakaguliska chigaŵa chake cha umwini,<ref name=pageantsaleWME>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/15/business/media/trump-sells-miss-universe-organization-to-wme-img-talent-agency.html |title=Trump Sells Miss Universe Organization to WME-IMG Talent Agency |date=September 15, 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=January 9, 2016}}</ref> Trump wakaŵa na chigaŵa panji umwini wose wa mapikisheni gha urembo gha [[Miss Universe]], [[Miss USA]], na [[Miss Teen USA]]. Miss Universe yikamba kuwoneka pa [[CBS]], ndipo Miss Universe na Miss USA zose zikasintha kuluta ku [[NBC]] mu 2002.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/22/business/three-beauty-pageants-leaving-cbs-for-nbc.html |title=Three Beauty Pageants Leaving CBS for NBC |date=June 22, 2002 |first=Jim |last=Rutenberg |access-date=August 14, 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/2002/06/22/there-she-goes-pageants-move-to-nbc/2ba81b9a-bf67-4f3e-b8d6-1c2cc881ed19/ |title=There She Goes: Pageants Move to NBC |date=June 22, 2002 |first=Lisa |last=de Moraes |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=August 14, 2016}}</ref> Mu 2012, Trump wakapokera mphotho ya madola 5 miliyoni mu ndondomeko ya kususka phangano kwa mupikisana uyo wakayowoya kuti chiwonetsero ichi chikanozgeka kale.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/pay-usa-contestant-ordered-fork-5-million-donald-trump-calling-pageant-rigged-article-1.1390931|title=Miss USA contestant ordered to pay $5 million to Donald Trump for calling pageant 'rigged'|newspaper=[[New York Daily News]]|date=July 5, 2013|first1=Barbara|last1=Ross|first2=Larry|last2=McShane}}</ref> Mu 2015, NBC na [[Univision]] zose zikamara ubwezi wawo wa bizinesi na Miss Universe Organization mu nyengo ya chiphalizgano cha Trump cha kuŵa pulezidenti.<ref name="Tadena1">{{cite news |first=Natalie |last=Tadena |date=July 2, 2015 |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/cmo/2015/07/02/donald-trumps-miss-usa-pageant-lands-on-reelz-cable-channel/ |title=Donald Trump's Miss USA Pageant Lands on Reelz Cable Channel |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Washington Post Staff |title=Full text: Donald Trump announces a presidential bid |date=June 16, 2015 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/06/16/full-text-donald-trump-announces-a-presidential-bid/}}</ref> Pamanyuma pake Trump wakapharazga kuti wakaŵa mwenecho yekha wa Miss Universe Organization chifukwa wakagura chigaŵa cha NBC.<ref name="Corriston11Sept">{{cite news |url=http://www.people.com/people/mobile/article/0,,20951882,00.html |title=Donald Trump Says He Bought Out NBC, Now Owns All of Miss Universe Organization |date=September 11, 2015 |access-date=September 11, 2015 |work=[[People (magazine)|People]] |first=Michele |last=Corriston|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925081034/http://www.people.com/people/mobile/article/0,,20951882,00.html|archive-date=September 25, 2015 }}</ref> Wakaguliska umwini wake mu mapikisheni agha nyengo yichoko pamanyuma pake kwa [[William Morris Endeavor|WME]]/[[IMG (company)|IMG]].<ref name="pageantsaleWME" /> Mu 1999, vyaka vichoko pamanyuma pa kugura chigaŵa mu Miss Universe, Trump wakambiska kampani ya masambiro gha ŵanthu ŵakuwoneka, [[Trump Model Management]], iyo yikugwira ntchito mu chigaŵa cha [[SoHo]] mu [[Lower Manhattan]].<ref>{{cite news |first1=Blake |last1=Ellis |first2=Melanie |last2=Hicken |title=Trump's modeling agency broke immigration laws, attorneys say |url=https://money.cnn.com/2016/03/10/news/trump-model-visas/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311032312/http://money.cnn.com/2016/03/10/news/trump-model-visas/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 11, 2016 |access-date=March 17, 2016 |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=March 10, 2016}}</ref> Pamoza na kampani yinyake ya Trump, Trump Management Group LLC, Trump Model Management yikizanga ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwoneka ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake kunjira mu United States kuti ŵagwire ntchito mu [[fashion industry|makampani gha mafashoni]] kufuma mu 2000.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Mica |last1=Rosenberg |first2=Ryan |last2=McNeill |first3=Megan |last3=Twohey |first4=Michelle |last4=Conlin |title=Exclusive&nbsp;– Donald Trump's companies have sought visas to import at least 1,100 workers |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-usa-election-trump-exclusive-idUKKCN0Q62RV20150801 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225063445/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-usa-election-trump-exclusive-idUKKCN0Q62RV20150801 |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 25, 2015 |access-date=March 17, 2016 |agency=Reuters UK |date=August 1, 2015}}</ref> Bizinesi iyi na mapikisheni gha urembo vikakolerana pachoko, chifukwa ŵapikisana ŵanandi ŵa mapikisheni ŵakapokera mapangano gha ntchito ya kuwoneka.{{sfn|Kranish|Fisher|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x2jUDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 165]}} == Yunivesite ya Trump == {{Main article|Yunivesite ya Trump|Cohen v. Trump (Yunivesite ya Trump)}} Trump University LLC<ref>{{cite news |last=Gitell |first=Seth |date=March 8, 2016 |title=I Survived Trump University |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/03/i-survived-trump-university-213710/ |newspaper=[[Politico]] |access-date=March 18, 2016}}</ref> yikaŵa kampani ya ku America ya [[for-profit education|masambiro gha kupenja phindu]] iyo yikendeskanga ndondomeko yakusambizga vya malo kufuma mu 2005 mpaka 2010 panji kusazgirapo. Pamanyuma pa milandu yinandi, sono yili kumara. Yikapangika na Donald Trump na ŵanyake ŵake, Michael Sexton na Jonathan Spitalny.<ref name=vf>{{cite news |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2014/01/trump-university-fraud-scandal |title=Big Hair on Campus: Did Donald Trump Defraud Thousands of Real-Estate Students? |last=Cohan |first=William D. |website=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]|access-date=March 6, 2016}}</ref> Kampani iyi yikapelekanga masambiro gha vya malo, kulongozga chuma, kuyambiska mabizinesi, na kupanga usambazi, ndipo yikalipiskanga pakati pa madola 1,500 na 35,000 pa kosi yimoza.<ref name=nyt511>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Barbaro |title=New York Attorney General Is Investigating Trump's For-Profit School |date=May 19, 2011 |website=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/20/nyregion/trumps-for-profit-school-said-to-be-under-investigation.html}}</ref> Mu 2005 ntchito iyi yikaphalazgika na ŵamazaza ŵa New York State kuti kugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti "university" kukaswa malango gha boma. Pamanyuma pa chenjezgo linyake mu 2010, zina la ntchito iyi likasintha kuŵa "Trump Entrepreneurial Institute".<ref name="AppealsCourt2016" /> Trump wakasangika kuti wali na mulandu yekha chifukwa cha kutondeka kusanga layisensi ya bizinesi ya ntchito iyi.<ref name="reuters.2014">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-trump-nyag-lawsuit-idUSKCN0I52MW20141016 |first=Karen |last=Freifeld |title=New York judge finds Donald Trump liable for unlicensed school |work=[[Reuters]] |date=October 16, 2014 |access-date=February 20, 2015 |archive-date=June 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627033957/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-trump-nyag-lawsuit/new-york-judge-finds-donald-trump-liable-for-unlicensed-school-idUSKCN0I52MW20141016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu 2013 boma la New York likapeleka mulandu wa madola 40 miliyoni likuyowoya kuti Trump University yikapeleka mawu gha utesi ndipo yikapusikanga ŵanthu awo ŵakaguranga mautumiki agha.<ref name="AppealsCourt2016">{{cite news |first=David |last=Halperin |title=NY Court Refuses to Dismiss Trump University Case, Describes Fraud Allegations |date=March 3, 2016 |website=[[The Huffington Post]] |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/davidhalperin/ny-court-refuses-to-dismi_b_9358360.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2016/02/27/donald-trumps-misleading-claim-that-hes-won-most-of-lawsuits-over-trump-university/ |first=Michelle Ye Hee |last=Lee |title=Donald Trump's misleading claim that he's 'won most of' lawsuits over Trump University |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=February 27, 2016 |access-date=February 27, 2016}}</ref> Kweniso, milandu yiŵiri ya gulu la ŵanthu yikapelekeka ku khoti la boma yakukhwaskana na Trump University; yikachema Donald Trump yekha kweniso makampani ghake.<ref name=twofront>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2013/08/26/trump-entrepreneur-initiative-case/2700811/ |title=Trump faces two-front legal fight over 'university' |work=[[USA Today]] |first=Kevin |last=McCoy |date=August 26, 2013}}</ref> Milandu yose yitatu yikamara na phangano mu Novembala 2016, pamanyuma pa chisankho cha Trump kuŵa pulezidenti, pa ndalama zose za madola 25 miliyoni.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Carroll|first1=Rory|title=Donald Trump settles fraud lawsuits relating to Trump University for $25m|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/nov/18/donald-trump-university-settles-president-lawsuit-25-million|access-date=November 18, 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=November 18, 2016}}</ref> Trump repeatedly criticized a judge, [[Gonzalo P. Curiel]], who is overseeing two of the Trump University cases. During campaign speeches and interviews up until June 2016, Trump called Curiel a "hater of Donald Trump", saying his rulings have been unfair, and that Curiel "happens to be, we believe, Mexican, which is great. I think that's fine",<ref name="rule-of-law">{{cite news |work=[[The New York Times]] |title=Donald Trump Could Threaten U.S. Rule of Law, Scholars Say |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/04/us/politics/donald-trump-constitution-power.html |date=June 3, 2016 |first=Adam |last=Liptak |quote=Mr. Trump accused the judge of bias, falsely said he was Mexican and seemed to issue a threat}}</ref> while suggesting that the judge's ethnicity posed a conflict of interest in light of Trump's proposal to build a wall on the United States–Mexican border.<ref name=RappeportNYT>{{cite news |last=Rappeport |first=Alan |date=June 3, 2016 |title=That Judge Attacked by Donald Trump? He's Faced a Lot Worse |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/04/us/politics/donald-trump-university-judge-gonzalo-curiel.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date= June 4, 2016}}</ref><ref name=Ford>{{cite magazine |last=Ford |first=Matt |date=June 3, 2016 |title=Why Is Donald Trump So Angry at Judge Gonzalo Curiel? |magazine=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/06/donald-trump-gonzalo-curiel/485636/|access-date=June 3, 2016}}</ref><ref name=Finnegan>{{cite news |last1=Finnegan |first1=Michael |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |title=Trump trashes judge overseeing Trump University fraud case, says it's fine that he's Mexican |url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-trailguide-05272016-trump-trashes-judge-overseeing-1464393140-htmlstory.html |date=May 27, 2016 |access-date=May 29, 2016}}</ref> Many legal experts were critical of Trump's attacks on Curiel, often viewing them as racially charged, unfounded, and an affront to the concept of an independent judiciary.<ref>{{cite news |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |title=Trump Says Judge's Mexican Heritage Presents 'Absolute Conflict' |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/donald-trump-keeps-up-attacks-on-judge-gonzalo-curiel-1464911442 |date=June 3, 2016 |first=Brent |last=Kendall |quote=Donald Trump on Thursday escalated his attacks on the federal judge presiding over civil fraud lawsuits against Trump University, amid criticism from legal observers who say the presumptive GOP presidential nominee's comments are an unusual affront on an independent judiciary}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |title=Trump's personal, racially tinged attacks on federal judge alarm legal experts |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2016/06/01/437ccae6-280b-11e6-a3c4-0724e8e24f3f_story.html |first1=Jose |last1=DelReal |first2=Katie |last2=Zezima |date=June 1, 2016 |quote=Donald Trump's highly personal, racially tinged attacks on a federal judge overseeing a pair of lawsuits against him have set off a wave of alarm among legal experts, who worry that the Republican presidential candidate's vendetta signals a remarkable disregard for judicial independence}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |title=Legal Experts Worry After Trump Attacks Judge for Alleged Bias, Judge's Brother Calls Trump a 'Blowhard' |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/legal-experts-worry-trump-attacks-judge-alleged-bias/story?id=39589590 |date=June 3, 2016 |first1=Shushannah |last1=Walshe |first2=Meghan |last2=Keneally}}</ref> On June 7, 2016, Trump issued a lengthy statement saying that his criticism of the judge had been "misconstrued" and that his concerns about Curiel's impartiality were not based upon ethnicity alone, but also upon rulings in the case.<ref name=Jackson>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2016/06/07/donald-trump-paul-ryan-mitch-mcconnell/85559392/ |title=Trump says judge comments 'misconstrued' amid GOP uprising |last=Jackson |first=David |date=June 7, 2016 |work=[[USA Today]] |access-date=June 8, 2016 |quote=I do not intend to comment on this matter any further}}</ref><ref>[full text] {{cite news |first=Donald J. |last=Trump |title=Donald Trump's Statement on Trump University |date=June 7, 2016 |website=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/08/us/politics/trump-university-statement.html}}</ref> == ACN, Inc. == Kufuma mu 2005 mpaka 2015, Trump wakapokera $8.8&nbsp; miliyoni cifukwa ca kuphalazga kampani ya matelefoni ya [[multi-level marketing]] [[ACN Inc.]] na malonda ghake pa webusayiti ya ACN,<ref name="Donald J. Trump on ACN's Home Based Business2">{{cite web|title=Donald J. Trump on ACN's Home Based Business |url=http://acninc.com/acn/us/trump_events.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303071345/http://www.acninc.com/acn/us/trump_events.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 3, 2011 |access-date=July 20, 2012 |website=acninc.com}}</ref> ma DVD gha kuphalazgira na pa vyakucitika vyawo, kweniso pa pulogiramu yake ya pa TV ya ''The Apprentice''.<ref>{{cite news |last=Voytko |first=Lisette |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/09/28/us/donald-trump-taxes-apprentice.html |title=Trump's Biggest Side Hustle Outside Of 'Apprentice'? Multi-Level Marketing Schemes |work=[[Forbes]] |date=September 29, 2020 |access-date=July 3, 2021 |archive-date=October 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001172923/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/09/28/us/donald-trump-taxes-apprentice.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=McIntire |first1=Mike |last2=Buettner |first2=Russ |last3=Craig |first3=Susanne |author-link2=Susanne Craig |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/09/27/us/donald-trump-taxes.html |title=Reality-TV Fame Handed Trump a $427 Million Lifeline |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 28, 2020 |access-date=July 3, 2021 |archive-date=September 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927211558/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/09/27/us/donald-trump-taxes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu 2018, ŵanthu ŵakugura vinthu ŵanayi ŵakafayila mulandu wa boma mu khoti la [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York|Southern District of New York]] kwimikana na Donald Trump na ŵana ŵake Donald Jr., [[Ivanka Trump|Ivanka]], na Eric cifukwa ca vimbundi na milandu ya kucita vinthu mwa upandu. Mu Julayi 2019, jaji wa khoti wakazomerezga kuti mulandu ulutilire na milandu ya boma ya vimbundi, malonda ghakupusika, na kuphalazga mwambura kwenelera.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/8096633/doe-v-the-trump-corporation/ |title=Docket for Doe v. The Trump Corporation, 1:18-cv-09936 |website=CourtListener.com |date=2019-05-09 |access-date=2019-10-08 |archive-date=November 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127172737/https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/8096633/doe-v-the-trump-corporation/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.503637/gov.uscourts.nysd.503637.1.0.pdf |title=Complaint (final for filing) 4818-9714-0089 v.1 - gov.uscourts.nysd.503637.1.0 - Case 1:18-cv-09936 - Document 1 |website=CourtListener.com |date=2018-10-29 |access-date=2019-10-08 |archive-date=March 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315231431/https://www.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.nysd.503637/gov.uscourts.nysd.503637.1.0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Stempel |first=Jonathan |title=Trump must face marketing scam lawsuit, escapes racketeering claims: NY judge |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-marketing-lawsuit/trump-must-face-marketing-scam-lawsuit-escapes-racketeering-claims-ny-judge-idUSKCN1UJ349 |date=2019-07-24 |access-date=2019-10-08 |work=[[Reuters]] |archive-date=July 26, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726062428/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-marketing-lawsuit/trump-must-face-marketing-scam-lawsuit-escapes-racketeering-claims-ny-judge-idUSKCN1UJ349 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵa Trump ŵakaphalirika kuti ŵakaphaliranga yayi kuti ŵakapokeranga malipiro kufuma ku ACN apo ŵakakhumbanga kupangiska ŵanthu kugura masheya mu kampani iyi. Nga cigaŵa ca kusanda ukaboni wa mulandu, mu Malici 2020, Ŵa Trump ŵakalangulirika kupereka malipoti kufuma ku mabuku gha bizinesi ya Trump Organization kwambira mu 2005.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jacobs |first=Shayna |title=Trump ordered to expand document search in suit alleging he endorsed pyramid scam |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/trump-ordered-to-expand-document-search-in-suit-alleging-he-endorsed-pyramid-scam/2020/03/14/c903fa0e-6579-11ea-acca-80c22bbee96f_story.html |date=March 14, 2020 |access-date=March 14, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |archive-date=March 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315053058/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/trump-ordered-to-expand-document-search-in-suit-alleging-he-endorsed-pyramid-scam/2020/03/14/c903fa0e-6579-11ea-acca-80c22bbee96f_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu Epulero 2020, jaji wa boma wakalangura [[MGM]], uyo ni mwimiliri mukuru wa ''[[Celebrity Apprentice]]'', kuti wapereke matepi gha vigaŵa viŵiri vya pulogiramu iyi ivyo vikaŵa vindawoneke ku maloya gha ŵalanda awo ŵakati Ŵa Trump ŵanayi ŵakaŵapusika kuti ŵagule mu ACN; mu vigaŵa ivi, ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵakacitanga cipharazgo ca malonda gha ACN.<ref name=":13" /> Ŵa Trump ŵakapempha kuti languro ili lisinthike ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kumazga nkhani iyi kwizira mu [[arbitration]], kweni ŵakatondeka.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chan |first=J. Clara |url=https://www.thewrap.com/mgm-must-hand-over-unaired-celebrity-apprentice-trump-tapes-judge-rules/ |title=MGM Must Hand Over Unaired 'Celebrity Apprentice' Trump Tapes, Judge Rules |work=[[TheWrap]] |date=April 9, 2020 |access-date=November 27, 2021 |archive-date=October 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011134003/https://www.thewrap.com/mgm-must-hand-over-unaired-celebrity-apprentice-trump-tapes-judge-rules/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu Novembala 2021, jaji wa boma wakalangura MGM kuti yipe matepi agha ku maloya gha ŵalanda pa malo ghakusungika mwakuvikilika.<ref name=":13">{{cite news |last=Paglieri |first=Jose |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/angry-entrepreneurs-will-finally-see-trumps-apprentice-outtakes |title=Angry Entrepreneurs Will Finally See Trump's 'Apprentice' Outtakes |work=[[The Daily Beast]] |date=November 25, 2021 |access-date=November 27, 2021 |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126145109/https://www.thedailybeast.com/angry-entrepreneurs-will-finally-see-trumps-apprentice-outtakes |url-status=live }}</ref> Trump na ŵana ŵake ŵakapokelereka mafumbo gha khoti mu 2022.<ref>{{cite news |last=Scannell |first=Kara |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/25/politics/donald-trump-children-deposition-lawsuit/index.html |title=Donald Trump and his children agree to be deposed in fraudulent marketing lawsuit |work=[[CNN]] |date=March 25, 2022 |access-date=August 8, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Larson |first=Eric |url=https://www.pressherald.com/2022/10/20/trump-deposed-in-suit-by-investors-claiming-fraud-in-apprentice-videophone-pitches/ |title=Trump deposed in suit by investors claiming fraud in 'Apprentice' videophone pitches |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |via=[[Portland Press Herald]] |date=March 25, 2022 |access-date=August 8, 2023}}</ref> Mu Meyi 2023, ŵalanda ŵakawuskako milandu yawo kwimikana na ŵana ŵake kuti "ŵapange kuti nkhani iyi yiŵe yipusu pambere pajumpha pa mulandu".<ref>{{cite news |last=Larson |first=Eric |url=https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/trump-children-dropped-from-suit-over-apprentice-pitches-1.1922734 |title=Trump Children Dropped From Suit Over 'Apprentice' Pitches |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |via=[[BNN Bloomberg]] |date=June 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525224830/https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/trump-children-dropped-from-suit-over-apprentice-pitches-1.1922734 |archive-date=May 25, 2023 |access-date=August 8, 2023}}</ref> Mulandu uwu ukakhazikika kuti uyambe pa Januwale 29, 2024.<ref>{{cite news |last=Orden |first=Erica |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2023/06/15/trump-trial-date-carroll-lawsuit-00102328 |title=Trump now faces four trials over six-month span during critical phase of 2024 campaign |work=[[Politico]] |date=June 15, 2023 |access-date=August 8, 2023}}</ref> == Donald J. Trump Foundation == {{Main article|Donald J. Trump Foundation}} The Donald J. Trump Foundation yikaŵa [[foundation ya pachoko|bungwe la vyawanangwa la pachoko]] la ku United States<ref name=":0b">{{Cite web|url=https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/133404773|title=Nonprofit Explorer – ProPublica|last=ProPublica|first=Mike Tigas, Sisi Wei|date=May 9, 2013 |access-date=September 9, 2016}}</ref> ilo likakhazikiskika mu 1988 na chilato chakwamba chakuti lipereke ndalama izo zikafumanga mu buku ''[[Trump: The Art of the Deal|Trump: Luso la Kuchita Malonda]]'' ilo lili kulembeka na Trump pamoza na [[Tony Schwartz (author)|Tony Schwartz]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.guidestar.org/profile/13-3404773|title=Donald J Trump Foundation Inc – GuideStar Profile|publisher=guidestar.org|access-date=September 9, 2016}}</ref><ref name=":1b">{{Cite news |first=David A. |last=Fahrenthold |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/09/01/trump-pays-irs-a-penalty-for-his-foundation-violating-rules-with-gift-to-florida-attorney-general/ |title=Trump pays IRS a penalty for his foundation violating rules with gift to aid Florida attorney general |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=September 1, 2016}}</ref> Ndalama zinandi za foundation iyi zikafumanga ku ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakaperekanga vyawanangwa, padera pa Trump,<ref name="WaPoMissing">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/a-portrait-of-trump-the-donor-free-rounds-of-golf-but-no-personal-cash/2016/04/10/373b9b92-fb40-11e5-9140-e61d062438bb_story.html |title=Missing from Trump's list of charitable giving: His own personal cash |date=April 10, 2016 |last2=Helderman |first2=Rosalind S. |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |first1=David A. |last1=Fahrenthold}}</ref> ndipo ndalama zakumalizga izo Trump wakapereka yekha ku foundation iyi zikaŵa mu 2008.<ref name="WaPoMissing" /> Ŵanthu awo ŵakapereka ndalama zinandi chomene ku foundation iyi pakati pa 2004 na 2014 ŵakaŵa [[Vince McMahon|Vince]] na [[Linda McMahon]] ŵa ku [[World Wrestling Entertainment]], awo ŵakapereka $5 miliyoni ku foundation iyi pamanyuma pakuti Trump wawonekera pa [[WrestleMania]] mu 2007.<ref name="WaPoMissing" /> Kwizira mu mafomu gha misonkho gha foundation iyi, awo ŵakapokera vyawanangwa ŵakaŵa mabungwe gha vya umoyo na maseŵero, kweniso magulu gha ndyali gha chisungililo.<ref>Solnik, Claude. [http://libn.com/2016/09/15/taking-a-peek-at-trumps-foundation-tax-returns/ "Taking a peek at Trump's (foundation) tax returns"], [[Long Island Business News]] (September 15, 2016): "charitable giving to conservative political groups, healthcare and sports-related charities".</ref> Mu 2009, mwachiyelezgero, foundation iyi yikapeleka $926,750 ku magulu pafupifupi 40, ndipo ndalama zikuru zikapelekeka ku [[Arnold Palmer Hospital for Children#Arnold Palmer Medical Center|Arnold Palmer Medical Center Foundation]] ($100,000), [[New York Presbyterian Hospital]] ($125,000), [[Police Athletic League]] ($156,000), na [[Clinton Foundation]] ($100,000).<ref name="SearchingforEvid">{{Cite news |first1=David A. |last1=Fahrenthold |first2=Danielle |last2=Rindler |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/politics/2016-election/trump-charity-donations/ |title=Searching for evidence of Trump's personal giving |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 18, 2016}}</ref><ref>Qiu, Linda (August 28, 2016). [http://www.politifact.com/punditfact/statements/2016/aug/28/david-plouffe/yes-donald-trump-donated-100000-clinton-foundation/ Yes, Donald Trump donated $100,000 to Clinton Foundation.] ''PolitiFact.com''. Retrieved September 16, 2016.</ref> Kuyambira mu 2016, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' yikamba kufufuza umo foundation iyi yikasonkhera na kuperekera ndalama. ''Post'' yikasanga vinthu ivyo vingapangiska kuti pakhale kuswa malango na nkhani za makhaliro, nga ni vinthu vya [[self-dealing|kujipindulira yekha]] kweniso kusuzga pa vya misonkho.<ref>Cillizza, Chris and Fahrenthold, David. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161002103244/https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/the-fix/wp/2016/09/15/how-the-reporter-behind-the-trump-foundation-stories-does-it/ "Meet the reporter who's giving Donald Trump fits"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002103244/https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/the-fix/wp/2016/09/15/how-the-reporter-behind-the-trump-foundation-stories-does-it/ |date=October 2, 2016 }}, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' (September 15, 2016).</ref> [[New York State attorney general|Mwanangwa mukuru wa malango wa boma la New York]] wakamba kufufuza foundation iyi "kuti wawone usange yikukolerana na malango agho ghakulongozga mabungwe gha vyawanangwa mu New York."<ref name=hit>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/09/13/politics/eric-schneiderman-donald-trump-foundation/|title=NY attorney general began investigating Trump Foundation practices|date=September 14, 2016|publisher=[[CNN]]|access-date=September 25, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2016/09/14/donald-trump-foundation/|title=Trump Foundation Falls Under Investigation By New York Attorney General|date=September 14, 2016|website=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]|access-date=September 27, 2016}}</ref> Munthu uyo wakayimiranga Trump wakati kufufuza uku kukaŵa "ntchito ya ndyali yakumupweteka."<ref name=hit /> Pa Okutobala 3, 2016, ofesi ya mwanangwa mukuru wa malango wa New York yikaphalira Trump Foundation kuti yikaŵa ikuswa malango gha New York agho ghakukhwaska mabungwe gha vyawanangwa ndipo yikalangura foundation iyi kuti yileke mwaluŵiro kusonkha ndalama mu boma la New York. Foundation iyi, iyo yikazomera kuti yikachitapo vinthu vya [[self-dealing|kujipindulira yekha]] pa fomu yake ya misonkho ya IRS ya 2015, yikazomera kulondezga languro ili.<ref>Farenthold, David. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-foundation-ordered-to-stop-fundraising-by-ny-attorney-generals-office/2016/10/03/1d4d295a-8987-11e6-bff0-d53f592f176e_story.html "Trump Foundation ordered to stop fundraising by N.Y. attorney general's office"], ''[[The Washington Post]]'' (October 3, 2016).</ref> Mlandu uwo ukayambika mu 2018 na mwanangwa mukuru wa malango wa New York ukati Trump wakagwiliskira ntchito ndalama za foundation mwambura kwenelera, kusazgapo kugura vithuzithuzi vyake, kulipira vyakukwana vya malango gha mabizinesi ghake, kweniso kovwira kampeni yake ya kupenja urongozgi wa charu.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-paid-2-million-in-damages-ordered-by-judge-over-misuse-of-charity-funds-new-york-attorney-general-said/2019/12/10/2132645e-1b7e-11ea-b4c1-fd0d91b60d9e_story.html|first=David A.|last=Fahrenthold|title=Trump pays $2 million in damages ordered by judge over misuse of charity funds, according to NY attorney general|date=December 10, 2019|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=January 19, 2021}}</ref> Mweruzgi wakasanga kuti Donald J. Trump Foundation yikaswa malango ndipo wakalangura Trump kulipira $2 miliyoni nga ni chilangulo. Trump wakazomera kupereka ndalama izi pamoza na ndalama zakukhalapo mu foundation iyi, zakukwana $1.8 miliyoni, ku mabungwe 8 gha vyawanangwa, kusazgapo Army Emergency Relief, United Negro College Fund, na U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, kweniso kutseka foundation iyi.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-paid-2-million-in-damages-ordered-by-judge-over-misuse-of-charity-funds-new-york-attorney-general-said/2019/12/10/2132645e-1b7e-11ea-b4c1-fd0d91b60d9e_story.html|first=David A.|last=Fahrenthold|title=Trump pays $2 million in damages ordered by judge over misuse of charity funds, according to NY attorney general|date=December 10, 2019|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=January 19, 2021}}</ref> == Kupanga zina na kupereka mazina gha malonda == {{Further|List of things named after Donald Trump|Mndandanda wa vinthu ivyo vili na zina la Donald Trump}} [[File:20140627 Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago) sign 2.JPG|thumb|right|[[Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago)|Hotelo na Tower ya Trump International ku Chicago]]]] [[File:Panama 08 2013 Trump Ocean Tower 7085.JPG|thumb|upright|alt=A tall, white- and grey-colored building with a curved facade, towering above shorter buildings nearby. This is the Trump Ocean Club International Hotel and Tower in Panama City, Panama|[[Trump Ocean Club International Hotel and Tower]] mu [[Panama City]], Panama]] Trump wakalembesha zina lake pa mapulojekiti ghanandi gha nyumba, kweniso pa vinthu vya malonda na mauteŵeti ghanyake. Ichi chikaŵa na vyakupambana pa umo vikayendera kwa iyo, ŵanyake awo wakachitira nawo malonda, na awo ŵakaŵa na ndalama mu mapulojekiti agha.<ref name="MiamiH3Mar2016">{{cite news |last1=Sallah |first1=Michael |title=From the Herald archives: Donald Trump's tower of trouble |url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/politics-government/election/article63879697.html |access-date=March 11, 2016 |work=[[Miami Herald]] |date=March 3, 2016 }}</ref><ref name=Trumps_Hollywood_Star>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=M. Alex |title='The Answer Is No': Bill Cosby's Hollywood Walk of Fame Star Is Staying Put |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/bill-cosby-scandal/answer-no-bill-cosbys-hollywood-walk-fame-star-staying-put-n390836 |access-date=August 1, 2015 |work=[[NBC News]] |date=July 13, 2015}}</ref> {{refn|group=nb|Mabizinesi na mapulojekiti ghake gha kuwaro kweniso ndalama ghakasazgapo [[Trump Mortgage|Trump Financial]] (kampani ya ngongoli za nyumba), Trump Sales and Leasing (malonda gha nyumba), Trump International Realty (kampani yakuguliska na kubwerekeska malo gha nyumba), [[The Trump Entrepreneur Initiative|Trump Entrepreneur Initiative]] (kampani ya masambiro gha bizinesi yakupangira phindu, iyo kale yikachemekanga [[Trump University|Trump University]]), Trump Restaurants (malo gha vyakurya agho ghakaŵa mu Trump Tower ndipo ghakasazgapo Trump Buffet, Trump Catering, Trump Ice Cream Parlor, na Trump Bar), GoTrump (injini yakusangira maulendo pa intaneti<ref name="auto10">{{cite news |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/12-donald-trump-businesses-that-no-longer-exist-204923129.html |title=12 Donald Trump businesses that no longer exist |work=Yahoo Finance |date=October 10, 2014 |access-date=January 17, 2016 |author=Holodny, Elena}} See also [https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.gotrump.com archived website] of this business.</ref>), Select By Trump (mzere wa zakumwa za khofi),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tworiversco.com/brands/select-by-trump/ |title=Select By Trump |access-date=January 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124043610/http://tworiversco.com/brands/select-by-trump/ |archive-date=January 24, 2016 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Trump Drinks (chakumwa cha mphamvu cha misika ya Israel na Palestine),<ref name="Max Abelson">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/graphics/2015-how-trump-invented-trump/ |title=How Trump Invented Trump |magazine=Bloomberg Business |date=September 3, 2015 |access-date=January 17, 2016 |first=Max |last=Abelson}}</ref> Donald J. Trump Signature Collection (malaya gha ŵanalume, vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya ŵanalume, na mawotchi), Donald Trump The Fragrance (2004), SUCCESS by Donald Trump (furuŵeya yinyake iyo yikafumiskika mu 2012), [[Trump Ice]] maji gha mu mabotolo, ''[[Trump magazines|Trump Magazine]]'', Trump Golf, Trump Chocolate, [[Trump Home]] (vyakupangira mu nyumba), [[Trump Productions]] (kampani yakupanga mapulogalamu gha pa TV), [[Trump Institute]], [[Trump: The Game]] (maseŵero gha pa bolodi gha 1989), [[Donald Trump's Real Estate Tycoon]] (maseŵero gha kompyuta gha bizinesi), mabuku gha Trump, [[Trump Model Management]], Trump Shuttle, [[Trump Mortgage]], [[The Trump Network|Trump Network]] (kampani ya malonda gha mavitamini, vyakutowa, na urayizi wa milimo ya thupi), [[Trump Vodka]], Trump Steakhouse, na [[Trump Steaks]].<ref name=Koffler7Aug />}} Mu 2011, ŵakusanda vya ndalama ku ''[[Forbes]]'' ŵakayaniska kuti mtengo wa zina la Trump ukaŵa pafupifupi $200 miliyoni. Trump wakasuska chiŵerengero ichi, wakati zina lake likwenera kuŵa na mtengo wa pafupifupi $3 biliyoni.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://blogs.forbes.com/kerenblankfeld/2011/04/28/donald-trump-on-his-brand-value-forbes-numbers-are-ridiculous/ |title=Donald Trump on His Brand Value: Forbes' Numbers Are Ridiculous |work=[[Forbes]] |first=Keren |last=Blankfeld}}</ref> The Donald J. Trump Foundation likaŵa [[private foundation|mazaza gha vya lusungu gha pawokha]] gha ku United States<ref name=":0b"/> agho ghakakhazikiskika mu 1988 na chilato chakwamba cha kupeleka ndalama izo zikasangika kufuma mu buku ''[[Trump: The Art of the Deal]]'' ilo lili la Trump na [[Tony Schwartz (author)|Tony Schwartz]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.guidestar.org/profile/13-3404773|title=Donald J Trump Foundation Inc – GuideStar Profile|publisher=guidestar.org|access-date=September 9, 2016}}</ref><ref name=":1b">{{Cite news |first=David A. |last=Fahrenthold |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/09/01/trump-pays-irs-a-penalty-for-his-foundation-violating-rules-with-gift-to-florida-attorney-general/ |title=Trump pays IRS a penalty for his foundation violating rules with gift to aid Florida attorney general |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=September 1, 2016}}</ref> Ndalama za mazaza agha zikafumanga chomene kwa ŵakupeleka ndalama ŵanyake kuluska Trump yekha,<ref name="WaPoMissing">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/a-portrait-of-trump-the-donor-free-rounds-of-golf-but-no-personal-cash/2016/04/10/373b9b92-fb40-11e5-9140-e61d062438bb_story.html |title=Missing from Trump's list of charitable giving: His own personal cash |date=April 10, 2016 |last2=Helderman |first2=Rosalind S. |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |first1=David A. |last1=Fahrenthold}}</ref> ndipo ivyo Trump wakapeleka yekha ku mazaza agha paumaliro vikaŵa mu 2008.<ref name="WaPoMissing" /> Ŵakupeleka ndalama ŵakuru chomene ku mazaza agha pakati pa 2004 na 2014 ŵakaŵa [[Vince McMahon|Vince]] na [[Linda McMahon]] ŵa [[World Wrestling Entertainment]], awo ŵakapeleka ndalama zakukwana $5 miliyoni ku mazazas agha pamanyuma pakuti Trump wawonekera pa [[WrestleMania]] mu 2007.<ref name="WaPoMissing" /> Mwakuyana na malipoti gha msonkho gha mazaza agha, awo ghakapokera chandulo ghakaŵa ma charity gha vya munkhwala na maseŵero, kweniso magulu ghakulongozgeka na fundo za ndyali za ku chitemwa.<ref>Solnik, Claude. [http://libn.com/2016/09/15/taking-a-peek-at-trumps-foundation-tax-returns/ "Taking a peek at Trump's (foundation) tax returns"], [[Long Island Business News]] (September 15, 2016): "charitable giving to conservative political groups, healthcare and sports-related charities".</ref> Mu 2009, mwachiyelezgero, mazazas agha ghakapeleka $926,750 ku magulu pafupifupi 40, ndipo vyawanangwa vikuru vikapelekeka ku [[Arnold Palmer Hospital for Children#Arnold Palmer Medical Center|Arnold Palmer Medical Center Foundation]] ($100,000), [[New York Presbyterian Hospital]] ($125,000), [[Police Athletic League]] ($156,000), na [[Clinton Foundation]] ($100,000).<ref name="SearchingforEvid">{{Cite news |first1=David A. |last1=Fahrenthold |first2=Danielle |last2=Rindler |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/politics/2016-election/trump-charity-donations/ |title=Searching for evidence of Trump's personal giving |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 18, 2016}}</ref><ref>Qiu, Linda (August 28, 2016). [http://www.politifact.com/punditfact/statements/2016/aug/28/david-plouffe/yes-donald-trump-donated-100000-clinton-foundation/ Yes, Donald Trump donated $100,000 to the Clinton Foundation.] ''PolitiFact.com''. Retrieved September 16, 2016.</ref> Kwambira mu 2016, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' yikamba kufufuza umo mazazas agha ghakasangiranga na kupeleka ndalama. ''Post'' yikasanga vinthu vinyake ivyo vikawonekanga kuti vingaŵa vyakususkana na malango na vya makhaliro, nga ni [[self-dealing|kuchita vinthu vya ndalama ivyo vikamovwiranga mwenecho]] na kukhweŵa msonkho.<ref>Cillizza, Chris and Fahrenthold, David. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161002103244/https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/the-fix/wp/2016/09/15/how-the-reporter-behind-the-trump-foundation-stories-does-it/ "Meet the reporter who's giving Donald Trump fits"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002103244/https://www.washingtonpost.com/amphtml/news/the-fix/wp/2016/09/15/how-the-reporter-behind-the-trump-foundation-stories-does-it/ |date=October 2, 2016 }}, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' (September 15, 2016).</ref> Wakhala wa boma la [[New York State attorney general|ŵimiliri wa boma wa New York]] wakamba kufufuza mazazas agha "kuti wawoneseske kuti ghakukolerana na malango agho ghakulongozga ma charity mu New York."<ref name=hit>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/09/13/politics/eric-schneiderman-donald-trump-foundation/|title=NY attorney general began investigating Trump Foundation practices|date=September 14, 2016|publisher=[[CNN]]|access-date=September 25, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2016/09/14/donald-trump-foundation/|title=Trump Foundation Falls Under Investigation By New York Attorney General|date=September 14, 2016|website=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]|access-date=September 27, 2016}}</ref> Muyowoyeri wa Trump wakati kufufuza uku kukaŵa "nkhondo ya ndyali".<ref name=hit /> Pa Okutobala 3, 2016, ofesi ya ŵimiliri wa boma la New York yikaphalira Trump Foundation kuti yikuswa malango gha New York agho ghakukhwaska ma charity ndipo yikayilangura kuti yileke nyengo yeneyiyo kupenja ndalama mu chigaŵa cha New York. Mazazas agha, agho ghakazomera kuti ghakachita vinthu vya kujipempha chandulo mu fomu yake ya IRS ya 2015, ghakazomera ivyo vikalangulirika.<ref>Farenthold, David. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-foundation-ordered-to-stop-fundraising-by-ny-attorney-generals-office/2016/10/03/1d4d295a-8987-11e6-bff0-d53f592f176e_story.html "Trump Foundation ordered to stop fundraising by N.Y. attorney general's office"], ''[[The Washington Post]]'' (October 3, 2016).</ref> Mulandu uwo ukapelekeka mu 2018 na ŵimiliri wa boma la New York ukati Trump wakagwiliskira ntchito ndalama za mazazas agha mwambura kuzomerezgeka kuti wagule vithuzithuzi vyake, kulipira ivyo mabizinesi ghake ghakeneranga kulipira, na kovwira kampeni yake ya usankho. Mweruzgi wakaweruzga kwakususkana na Donald J. Trump Foundation ndipo wakalangura Trump kulipira $2 miliyoni nga ni chilango. Trump wakazomera kupeleka ndalama izo pamoza na ndalama zakukhalapo za mazazas agha zakukwana $1.8 miliyoni ku ma charity 8, kusazgapo Army Emergency Relief, United Negro College Fund, na US Holocaust Memorial Museum, ndipo kumazga mazazas agha.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-paid-2-million-in-damages-ordered-by-judge-over-misuse-of-charity-funds-new-york-attorney-general-said/2019/12/10/2132645e-1b7e-11ea-b4c1-fd0d91b60d9e_story.html|first=David A.|last=Fahrenthold|title=Trump pays $2 million in damages ordered by judge over misuse of charity funds, according to NY attorney general|date=December 10, 2019|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=January 19, 2021}}</ref> == Kulemba zina na kuphalazga malonda == {{Further|List of things named after Donald Trump}} [[File:20140627 Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago) sign 2.JPG|thumb|right|[[Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago)|Trump International Hotel and Tower]]]] [[File:Panama 08 2013 Trump Ocean Tower 7085.JPG|thumb|upright|alt=A tall, white- and grey-colored building with a curved facade, towering above shorter buildings nearby. This is the Trump Ocean Club International Hotel and Tower in Panama City, Panama|Trump Ocean Club International Hotel and Tower mu [[Panama City]], Panama]] Trump wakagwiliskira ntchito zina lake pa mapulojekiti ghanandi gha nyumba kweniso pa malonda na mauteŵeti ghakupambanapambana, ndipo ichi chikawovwira iye, ŵanyake awo wakachitanga nawo bizinesi, na ŵakuŵika ndalama mu mapulojekiti agha mwakupambanapambana.<ref name="MiamiH3Mar2016">{{cite news |last1=Sallah |first1=Michael |title=From the Herald archives: Donald Trump's tower of trouble |url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/politics-government/election/article63879697.html |access-date=March 11, 2016 |work=[[Miami Herald]] |date=March 3, 2016 }}</ref><ref name=Trumps_Hollywood_Star>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=M. Alex |title='The Answer Is No': Bill Cosby's Hollywood Walk of Fame Star Is Staying Put |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/bill-cosby-scandal/answer-no-bill-cosbys-hollywood-walk-fame-star-staying-put-n390836 |access-date=August 1, 2015 |work=[[NBC News]] |date=July 13, 2015}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuzenga nyumba ŵakalipiranga Trump kuti walangiske malo ghawo na kuŵa chisko cha mapulojekiti ghawo.<ref name="Trump on Trump">{{cite news |last=Frangos |first=Alex |title=Trump on Trump: Testimony Offers Glimpse of How He Values His Empire |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124261067783429043 |date=May 18, 2009 |access-date=April 14, 2011 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> Chifukwa cha ichi, Trump kuti ndiyo mweneko wa nyumba zinandi yayi izo zili na zina lake.<ref name="Trump on Trump" /> Mwakuyana na ''Forbes'', chigaŵa ichi cha bizinesi ya Trump, icho ŵana ŵake ndiwo ŵakuchendeska chomene, ndicho chikaŵa chakuzirwa chomene, ndipo chikaŵa na mtengo wa madola mamiliyoni 562. Mwakuyana na ''Forbes'', pakaŵa mapulojekiti 33 gha malayisensi agho ghakaŵa mu ndondomeko yakuzengeka, kusazgapo "condo hotels" 7 (mapulojekiti 7 gha Trump International Hotel and Tower). Mu Juni 2015, ''Forbes'' yikati mtengo wa zina lakuti Trump ukaŵa madola mamiliyoni 125.<ref name="auto4">{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/erincarlyle/2015/06/16/trump-exaggerating-his-net-worth-by-100-in-presidential-bid/ |title=Trump Exaggerating His Net Worth (By 100%) In Presidential Bid |work=[[Forbes]] |date=June 16, 2015 |access-date=January 27, 2016 |first=Erin |last=Carlyle}}</ref> Ivi vikachitika apo makampani nga ni [[Macy's Inc.]] na [[Serta Mattresses]] ghakamba kuleka kuguliska vinthu vyakulembeka zina la Trump.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/07/01/politics/donald-trump-macys/ |title=First on CNN: Macy's dumps Donald Trump |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=July 1, 2015 |access-date=January 27, 2016 |first=MJ |last=Lee}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/serta-mattress-maker-latest-dump-trump-n385851 |title=Serta Mattress Maker Latest to Dump Trump |work=[[NBC News]] |date=July 2, 2015 |access-date=January 27, 2016}}</ref> Mtengo wa zina la Trump ukwenera kuti ukakhira chifukwa cha kampeni yake ya kukhala purezidenti. Pamanyuma pakuti kampeni yake ya 2016 yayamba, kafukufuku wa mkati wa kampani ya [[Young & Rubicam]] pa umo ŵanthu ŵasambazi ŵakawonera zina la Trump ukalongora kuti fundo nga ni "yapachanya", "ya ŵanthu ŵapachanya", na "yakukondweska" zikakhira chomene kuumaliro wa chaka cha 2015. Ichi chikang'anamuranga kuti mabizinesi gha Trump ghangasangana na masuzgo gha msika na kusanga ndalama mu nyengo yakunthazi.<ref name="Johnson11Jan">{{cite news |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/01/donald-trump-2016-brand-business-213515/ |title=Trump's Campaign Is Damaging His Brand |date=January 11, 2016 |access-date=January 11, 2016 |first1=Will |last1=Johnson |first2=Michael |last2=D'Antonio |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakati ŵakukana kugura vinthu na mauteŵeti agho ghali na zina la Trump nga ni nthowa yakulwera Trump na kampeni yake.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/18/us/politics/donald-trump-brand-reaction.html|title=The New Protesters Defying Donald Trump: His Customers|last=Barbaro|first=Michael|date=October 17, 2016|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|issn=0362-4331|access-date=October 18, 2016}}</ref> Mu 2016, ŵanthu awo ŵakalutanga ku mahotelo na kasino izo zikaŵa na zina la Trump ŵakakhira chomene, chomenechomene chifukwa chakuti ŵanakazi ŵakachepeska kuluta ku malo agha.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wolff-Mann |first=Ethan |date=May 26, 2016 |title=8 Epic Business Failures with Donald Trump's Name on Them |work=[[Money.com]] |url=https://money.com/donald-trump-name-business-failures/ |url-status=live |access-date=October 18, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531144158/https://money.com/donald-trump-name-business-failures/ |archive-date=May 31, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/08/04/trump-hotels-and-casino-traffic-has-taken-a-huge-hit-since-trump-started-running-for-president-commentary.html|title=Trump hotels and casino traffic has taken a huge hit since Trump started running for president|date=August 4, 2016|work=[[CNBC]]|access-date=October 18, 2016}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakufumiskika kwa matepi gha [[Access Hollywood tape recordings|''Access Hollywood'']] mu Okutobala 2016, mtengo wa zina la Trump ukati wakhira chomene, ndipo ŵakawona kuti mtengo wa zina lake ukakhira kufika pa 13 [[percentage point]]s.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/is-trump-teflon-most-say-no-as-brand-perception-takes-a-hit-1476202205|title=Is Trump Teflon? Most Say No as Brand Perception Takes a Hit|last=Bruell|first=Alexandra|date=October 11, 2016|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|issn=0099-9660|access-date=October 12, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/10/10/tape-release-further-erodes-trump-brand-survey.html|title=Tape release further erodes Trump brand: Survey|last=Castillo|first=Michelle|date=October 10, 2016|website=[[CNBC]]|access-date=October 12, 2016}}</ref> Mu Malichi 2024, Trump wakamba kulimbikiska Baibolo la $60 lakuti ''[[God Bless the U.S.A. Bible]]'', ilo lili na Baibolo la chiyowoyero cha [[King James Version|King James]]; [[Constitution of the United States|Dango likuru la United States]], [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], na [[Pledge of Allegiance|Layizgo la Kugomezgeka ku Charu]]. Kweniso lili na mazgu gha sumu ya [[Lee Greenwood]] yakuti [[God Bless the U.S.A.]], agho ghali kulembeka na woko. Webusayiti iyo yikuguliska Baibolo ili yikuti iyi ni "Baibolo yekha iyo Trump wakuzomerezga", ndipo zina lake, chithuzithuzi chake, na umo wakuwonekera vikugwiliskirika ntchito mwakulipira layisensi kufuma ku gulu limoza la Trump lakuti CIC Ventures LLC.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gold |first1=Michael |last2=Haberman |first2=Maggie | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/26/us/politics/trump-bible.html |title=Trump's Newest Venture? A $60 Bible. |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 26, 2024 |access-date=March 28, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Colvin |first=Jill |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-god-bless-usa-bible-greenwood-2713fda3efdfa297d0f024efb1ca3003 |title=Trump is selling 'God Bless the USA' Bibles for $59.99 as he faces mounting legal bills|work=[[Associated Press]] |date=March 26, 2024 |access-date=March 28, 2024}}</ref> == Masheya, mabondi, ndalama zakusungiramo ndalama, na vinthu vinyake vyakuyana == {{ multiple image | total_width=450 | image1= 20240326 Trump Media DJT stock price, weekly.svg |caption1= Mtengo wa masheya gha DJT ukafika pachanya pa madola 79 pa share yimoza pamanyuma pa kwamba kuguliskika ku msika wa masheya, kweni pamanyuma ukakhira.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trump Media & Technology Group Corp. (DJT) |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/quote/DJT/history/?period1=1709251200&period2=1764440401&frequency=1wk |website=finance.yahoo.com |publisher=Yahoo Finance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251130043633/https://finance.yahoo.com/quote/DJT/history/? |archive-date=30 November 2025 |date=29 November 2025 |url-status=live}} (Select time span / Historical prices / Weekly)</ref> | image2= 2024- DJT net income.svg | caption2= Kufuma apo yikamba kuguliskika ku msika wa masheya, Trump Media & Technology Group Corp. yikhalanga na kupeleka ndalama zakutaya pa ntchito zake.<ref>[https://finance.yahoo.com/quote/DJT/financials/ Trump Media & Technology Group Corp. (DJT)], Yahoo Finance, accessed January 22, 2026</ref> }} Malo agho Trump wali kusungamo ndalama mu misika ya ndalama ghakukoleka chomene ku misika ya vya ndalama na katundu.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VucCAAAAMBAJ&q=Trump&pg=PA24 | title=Feeding Frenzy | work=New York | date=June 26, 1999 | access-date=January 17, 2016| publisher=New York Media }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Business/Saving-Money/2015/1010/Stocks-or-real-estate-What-Trump-can-teach-us-about-investing | title=Stocks or real estate? What Trump can teach us about investing | work=The Christian Science Monitor | date=October 10, 2015 | access-date=January 17, 2016 | author=Bogart, Jeff}}</ref> Ndalama izi zikumupangira phindu na ndalama zakugwiliskira ntchito kwizira mu nthowa zakupambanapambana nga ni magawa gha masheya (dividends), phindu la kuguliska vinthu (capital gains), na ndalama zakupokelera chifukwa cha kusunga ndalama kwa nyengo yitali (carried interest). Wakaŵikamo ndalama zakukwana madola 70 miliyoni mu masheya.<ref name=zacks>{{cite web | url=http://www.zacks.com/stock/news/188898/why-its-worth-watching-donald-trumps-stock-portfolio | title=Why It's Worth Watching Donald Trump's Stock Portfolio | publisher=Zacks Equity Research | date=September 3, 2015 | access-date=January 16, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131055755/http://www.zacks.com/stock/news/188898/why-its-worth-watching-donald-trumps-stock-portfolio | archive-date=January 31, 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Nangauli malo gha nyumba (real estate) ghakaŵa mtundu wa katundu uwo wakatemwanga chomene, Trump wakamba kuŵa msangali wa misika ya ndalama mu 2011 pamanyuma pakukhuŵara chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa msika wa nyumba ku America. Pa nyengo iyo, ndalama zakupokera chiwongolero mu ma certificate of deposit (CDs) kufuma ku Federal Reserve zikaŵa zichoko chomene.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveschaefer/2011/08/11/trump-grabs-blue-chips-in-battered-market/#2715e4857a0b6b9bdc6e28e5 | title=Trump Grabs Blue-Chips in Battered Market | work=[[Forbes]] | date=August 11, 2011 | access-date=January 17, 2016 | author=Schaefer, Steve}}</ref><ref name=Forbes02/> Trump wakati wakakhumbanga chomene yayi kuŵa msangali wa msika wa masheya, kweni malo ghapachanya gha nyumba agho ghakaŵa na mitengo yiwemi ghakaŵa ghakusuzga kusanga pa nyengo iyo, ndipo masheya na vinthu vya ndalama vikaŵa vyakutchipa kweniso vikapanga ndalama ziwemi kwizira mu dividends.<ref name="auto6">{{cite web | url=http://seekingalpha.com/article/287974-6-stocks-that-donald-trump-recently-bought | title=6 Stocks That Donald Trump Recently Bought | publisher=Seeking Alpha | date=August 7, 2011 | access-date=January 16, 2016}}</ref> Wakapanga phindu pa masheya 40 pa masheya 45 agho wakagura ndipo wakaguliska mu 2014, ichi chikapangiska kuti waŵe na chipambano cha pafupifupi 90% pa kuŵa na phindu la mtengo wa katundu (capital appreciation), padera pa mamiliyoni gha madola agho wakapokera nga ni dividends. Masheya agho ghakamupangira phindu likuru chomene ghakaŵa gha [[Bank of America Corporation]], [[The Boeing Company]], na [[Facebook, Inc.]], agho ghakamupangira phindu la madola 6.7 miliyoni, madola 3.96 miliyoni, na madola 3.85 miliyoni, mwakuyana.<ref name="zacks" /> Malo agho Trump wakaŵikamo masheya ghakaŵa na mtengo wakukhala pakati pa madola 33.4 miliyoni na madola 87.9 miliyoni mu 2015 ndipo ghakaŵa mu vigawo vinandi, kusazgapo makampani ghakuguliska vinthu, malo ghakuguliskirako vinthu, makampani gha mankhwala, makampani ghakupanga vinthu vya mafakitale, magulu gha mabanki, makampani gha mafuta, makampani gha tekinoloje yapachanya, na makampani ghakupanga vinthu vya vya nkhondo.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.businessinsider.com/donald-trumps-10-billion-financial-disclosure-report-2015-7 | title=The government just released a document detailing Donald Trump's alleged $10 billion fortune | website=[[Business Insider]] | date=July 22, 2015 | access-date=January 17, 2016 | first=Hunter |last=Walker}}</ref> Masheya gha makampani agho ghakaŵa mu malo ghake gha ndalama ghakasazgapo [[General Electric]], [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]], [[United Parcel Service|UPS]], [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], [[Home Depot]], [[Comcast]], [[Sanofi]], [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[ConocoPhillips]], [[Energy Transfer Partners]], [[Altera]], [[Verizon Communications]], [[Procter & Gamble]], [[Bank of America]], [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], [[Google]], [[Apple Inc.]], [[Altria Group|Philip Morris]], [[Citigroup]], [[Morgan Stanley]], [[Whole Foods Market|Whole Foods]], [[Intel]], [[IBM]], [[Bristol-Myers Squibb]], [[Johnson & Johnson]], [[Caterpillar Inc.|Caterpillar]], [[Kinder Morgan]], [[AT&T]] na Facebook.<ref name="auto6" /><ref name="auto7">{{cite web | url=https://blogs.wsj.com/moneybeat/2015/07/24/wealth-adviser-daily-briefing-a-peek-inside-donald-trumps-portfolio/ | title=Wealth Adviser Daily Briefing: A Peek Inside Donald Trump's Portfolio | work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] | date=July 24, 2015 | access-date=January 17, 2016}}</ref> Wakaŵa na ndalama zakukwana madola 78 miliyoni mu vinthu vya ndalama nga ni masheya, mabondi, mutual funds, private equity funds, fund of funds, na hedge funds.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.moneytalksnews.com/why-youre-probably-better-investing-than-donald-trump/2/ | title=Trump Worth $10 Billion Less Than If He'd Simply Invested in Index Funds | publisher=Money Talks News | date=December 9, 2015 | access-date=January 17, 2016 | author=Bowsher, Karla}}</ref> Maakaunti ghake gha ndalama ghakaŵikika ku [[JPMorgan]], [[Barclays]], [[Deutsche Bank]] na [[Oppenheimer Holdings|Oppenheimer]].<ref name="auto7" /><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.investmentnews.com/article/20150723/FREE/150729940/donald-trumps-investment-portfolio-a-messy-hodgepodge-advisers | title=Donald Trump's investment portfolio a messy hodgepodge: advisers | publisher=Investment News | date=July 23, 2015 | access-date=January 17, 2016 | author=Hunnicutt, Trevor}}</ref> Trump wakasazgirako kuŵika ndalama mu ndalama zakuguliska izo zikuyang'ana mabizinesi ghapakati na ghachoko nga ni [[Tesla Motors]], kampani iyo yikupanga magalimoto gha magesi, ndipo wakaŵikangaso ndalama pa charu chose mu ndalama zakuguliska za misika iyo yikwamba kukura, ndalama zakukulira mabizinesi, kweniso hedge funds izo zili mu Europe na Asia.<ref name="auto8">{{cite web | url=http://www.seattletimes.com/business/how-donald-trump-rates-as-a-fund-investor/ | title=How Donald Trump rates as a fund investor | work=[[The Seattle Times]] | date=August 1, 2015 | access-date=January 16, 2016 | author=Jaffe, Chuck}}</ref> Wakaŵikangaso ndalama mu private equity na hedge funds zinandi, kusazgapo ndalama zakukwana $1 miliyoni m'paka $5 miliyoni mu Advantage Plus, $1 miliyoni m'paka $5 miliyoni mu AG Diversified Funds, $2 miliyoni mu [[MidOcean Partners|MidOcean Credit Opportunities]], $4 miliyoni mu [[Paulson & Co.]], kweniso pafupifupi $5 miliyoni mu [[Angelo, Gordon & Co.]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://dealbreaker.com/2015/07/president-trump-cant-even-deal-with-these-financial-disclosure-forms-designed-for-poor-people/ | title=President Trump Can't Even Deal With These Financial Disclosure Forms Designed For Poor People | newspaper=Dealbreaker | date=July 15, 2015 | access-date=January 17, 2016 | author=Mcenery, Thornton}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hedgefundintelligence.com/Article/3482050/Absolute-Return-News/The-Donald-trumps-expectations-in-election-poll.html | title=The Donald' trumps expectations in election poll | publisher=Hedge Fund Intelligence | access-date=January 16, 2016 | author=Kemmerer, Gillian}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://ca.finance.yahoo.com/news/peak-donald-trumps-mutual-funds-120012162.html | title=A Peak into Donald Trump's Mutual Funds | work=Yahoo Finance | date=October 7, 2015 | access-date=January 16, 2016 | author=Das, Gourab}}</ref> Ndalama zikuru chomene izo Trump wakaŵikamo ndalama zikaŵa mu Obsidian Fund ya [[BlackRock|Black Rock]], ndipo chigaŵa chake chikayowoyeka kuti chikaŵa pakati pa $25 miliyoni na $50 miliyoni.<ref name="auto9">{{cite web | url=http://www.myajc.com/news/business/stock-market-blues-dont-look-for-trumps-bets-to-da/nnT58/ | title=Stock market blues? Don't look for Trump's bets to dazzle | publisher=myAJC | date=August 31, 2015 | access-date=January 16, 2016 | author=Kempner, Matt}}</ref> Pafupifupi ndalama zose za Trump izo zikaŵa mu open-end mutual funds zikaŵa mu Baron Capital Management, gulu la mutual funds la ukuru wapakati ilo likulongozgeka na munthu wakumanyikwa pa vya ndalama zakuguliska, [[Ronald S. Baron]].<ref name="auto8" /><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/money/mutualfunds/donald-trump-fails-the-fiscal-responsibility-test-in-his-fund-picks/ar-AAdylqM | title=Donald Trump fails the fiscal responsibility test in his fund picks | publisher=MSN Money | access-date=January 17, 2016 | author=Jaffe, Chuck | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127183451/http://www.msn.com/en-us/money/mutualfunds/donald-trump-fails-the-fiscal-responsibility-test-in-his-fund-picks/ar-AAdylqM | archive-date=January 27, 2016 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> Trump wakaŵika ndalama zakukwana $16.2 miliyoni mu Baron Capital Management, ndipo ichi chikamupanga kuŵa mweneko wa chigaŵa chikuru cha masheya gha kampani iyi.<ref name=Forbes02>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveschaefer/2015/09/30/donald-trump-stock-investments-facebook-bofa-boeing/#2715e4857a0b51ec5a303a82 | title=When Donald Trump Dabbled in Stocks: Why He Started Buying And How Much He Made | work=[[Forbes]] | date=September 30, 2015 | access-date=January 17, 2016 | author=Schaefer, Steve}}</ref> Wakati wakasanga ndalama zakujumpha $22 miliyoni kufuma ku private equity, hedge funds, na mutual fund investments zake, ndipo wakasanga ndalama zapakati pa $1.5 miliyoni na $10 miliyoni mu chaka, chomene kufuma ku vinthu nga ni dividends, capital gains, na carried interest.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.businessinsider.com/donald-trump-relationship-with-hedge-funds-2015-8 | title=Donald Trump has millions invested with 'paper pusher' hedge fund managers | website=[[Business Insider]] | access-date=January 16, 2016 | author=LaRoche, Julia}}</ref> Trump wakaŵikangaso chigaŵa cha ndalama zake mu mabondi gha boma la United States (U.S. Treasury bonds).<ref name="auto9" /> Pa fomu ya boma iyo wakajaza mu 2015, Trump wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa na golide wathupi, uyo mtengo wake ukaŵa pakati pa $100,001 na $250,000.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.businessinsider.com/donald-trump-owns-gold-2015-7 | title=Donald Trump owns gold | website=[[Business Insider]] | date=July 22, 2015 | access-date=January 16, 2016 | author=Udland, Myles}}</ref> == Misonkho na ndalama == {{main|Tax returns of Donald Trump}} {{See also|Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016|Wealth of Donald Trump}} [[File:1982- Net worth of Donald Trump.svg |thumb |upright=1.25 |Ndalama izo Trump wakaŵa nazo nyengo na nyengo, kuyana na umo magazini ya ''[[Forbes]]'' yikawerengera<ref name=Forbes1982->Chigaba cha vyaka 1982–2000: {{cite magazine |date=October 3, 2023 |title=Here's How Much Donald Trump Is Worth |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danalexander/article/the-definitive-networth-of-donaldtrump/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110003952/https://www.forbes.com/sites/danalexander/article/the-definitive-networth-of-donaldtrump/ |archive-date=November 10, 2023 |magazine=[[Forbes]] |access-date=March 28, 2026}} Palije vyakulongora vya vyaka 1990 m'paka 1995 chifukwa Trump wakalembeka yayi mu ndandanda ya [[Forbes 400|''Forbes'' 400]].</ref><ref name=Forbes2001->Chigaba cha vyaka 2001–2026: {{cite magazine |date=March 25, 2026 |title=Here's How Much Donald Trump Is Worth |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danalexander/article/the-definitive-networth-of-donaldtrump/ |magazine=[[Forbes]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260325200507/https://www.forbes.com/sites/danalexander/article/the-definitive-networth-of-donaldtrump/ |archive-date=25 March 2026 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] Trump wakafumiska chigaŵa cha chidziŵitso cha ndalama zake mu 2015,<ref name="Financial 2015" /> kweni wakakana kufumiska pa wumba mafomu ghake ghose gha misonkho,<ref name=WSJ19FebTax>{{cite news |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=February 19, 2016 |access-date=February 22, 2016 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/donald-trumps-tax-obligation-1455925753 |title=Donald Trump's Tax Obligation}}</ref> nangauli wakati wazamufumiska pambere chisankho cha 2016 chindafike usange kafukufuku wa [[income tax audit|Internal Revenue Service (IRS)]] uyo maloya ghake ghakayowoya kuti wachitika wakamara, uwo ukaŵa pa mafomu gha misonkho gha vyaka 2009 m'paka 2016.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jeremy |last=Diamond |title=Trump campaign releases letter confirming IRS audit |date=March 31, 2016 |website=[[CNN]] |url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/03/30/politics/donald-trump-tax-audit-letter/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Jeremy |last=Diamond |title=Donald Trump: I'll release tax returns after audit |date=May 12, 2016 |website=[[CNN]] |url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/05/11/politics/donald-trump-tax-returns/}}</ref> Kuyana na uthenga uwo kampeni yake yikafumiska mu Julayi 2015, "ndalama" za Trump mu 2014 zikaŵa $362 miliyoni ("izo zikasazgangapo dividends, interest, capital gains, rent, na ndalama zakufuma ku malayisensi").<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=https://www.donaldjtrump.com/images/uploads/DJT_PFD_Statement_(1).pdf |title=Donald J. Trump Files Personal Financial Disclosure Statement With Federal Election Commission |first=Corey R. |last=Lewandowski |date=July 15, 2015 |access-date=March 8, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309043101/https://www.donaldjtrump.com/images/uploads/DJT_PFD_Statement_%281%29.pdf |archive-date=March 9, 2016 }}</ref> Mafomu ghake ghakulongora ndalama gha chaka cha 2015 ghakalongora kuti ndalama zake zose izo zikafuma zikaŵa zakujumpha $611 miliyoni.<ref name="Financial 2015">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-stat/graphics/politics/trump-archive/docs/trump-fec-financial-disclosure-2015.pdf |title=Donald Trump Personal Financial Disclosure Form 2015|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> Magazini ya ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'' yikati ndalama zakukwana $362 miliyoni izo zikalembeka mu mafomu gha [[Federal Election Commission]] (FEC) zikaŵa yayi "ndalama izo wakasanga" kweni zikaŵa ndalama zose izo zikanjira pambere malipiro gha ŵantchito, chiwongolero cha ngongoli, na ndalama zinyake za bizinesi zindachitike. Ndalama izo Trump wakasanga nadi zikaghanaghanirika kuti zikaŵa pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza mwa vitatu cha ndalama izo zikalembeka.<ref name=Tully2Mar>{{cite news |url=http://fortune.com/2016/03/02/donald-trump-tax-returns-income/ |title=Why Donald Trump's Tax Returns May Prove He's Not That Rich |work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |first=Shawn |last=Tully |date=March 2, 2016 |access-date=March 10, 2016}}</ref><ref name=Elstein8Mar /> Kuyana na malipoti gha wumba, Trump wakapokera chikwaniro cha msonkho cha ku New York cha $302 mu 2013 (kweniso mu vyaka vinyake viŵiri vyasono), icho chikapelekeka ku ŵanthu awo ŵakupanga ndalama zakukhira pa $500,000 pa chaka ndipo ŵakupereka mafomu gha misonkho gha boma lawo kuti ŵalongore umboni.<ref name=Elstein8Mar>{{cite news |url=http://www.crainsnewyork.com/article/20160308/BLOGS02/160309865/how-did-trump-qualify-for-a-middle-class-tax-break |title=Trump qualified for a tax break for New Yorkers making $500K or less |work=Crain's |date=March 8, 2016 |access-date=March 10, 2016 |first=Aaron |last=Elstein}}</ref> Mulaŵiliri wa kampeni ya Trump wakayowoya kuti chikwaniro cha msonkho ichi chikaŵa kupuvya.<ref name=Elstein8Mar /> Mu Okutobala 2016, vikavumbukwa kuti Trump wakalemba kuti wakataya ndalama zakukwana $916 miliyoni pa mafomu gha misonkho gha 1995. Chifukwa chakuti kutaya ndalama pa chaka chimoza kungagwiliskirika ntchito kuchepeska ndalama izo zikulipirika msonkho mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, kutaya ndalama uku kukamovwira kuchepeska panji kuleka kulipira msonkho wa ndalama ku boma la United States mu nyengo ya vyaka 18 iyo ndalama zakutayika zikapokera kunthazi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/02/us/politics/donald-trump-taxes.html|title=Donald Trump Tax Records Show He Could Have Avoided Taxes for Nearly Two Decades, The Times Found|date=October 2, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Trump wakazomera kuti wakagwiliskira ntchito kutaya ndalama uku, kweni wakakana kupereka unenesko wakukwana nga ni vyaka ivyo kutaya ndalama uku kukagwiliskirika ntchito.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/10/us/politics/donald-trump-taxes.html|title=Donald Trump Acknowledges Not Paying Federal Income Taxes for Years|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=October 10, 2016|first1=Steve|last1=Eder|first2=Megan|last2=Twohey}}</ref> Nkhani yakufufuza ya ''New York Times'' yikasanga kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 pakwamba, kuti vileke kufika ku "kuparanyika kwachuma", mabizinesi gha Trump ghakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa izo zikaŵa "zakukayikiska pa nkhani ya malango" kuti ghaleke kulipira misonkho, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa malango ŵa Trump ŵakayowoya kuti vinthu ivi vikaŵa "vambura kwenelera".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Salisbury |first1=Ian |date=November 1, 2016 |title=Did Trump Really Lose $1 Billion in One Year? |url=https://money.com/trump-tax-strategies-business-practices/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814121636/https://money.com/trump-tax-strategies-business-practices/ |archive-date=August 14, 2020 |access-date=November 1, 2016 |website=[[Money.com]] |quote=Trump, or his tax advisers, had somehow devised a way to claim large business losses tied to debts that had been forgiven without reporting offsetting income that would have reduced his staggering loss ... documents that appear to show during the early 1990s Trump indeed used a strategy of swapping partnership interests to his creditors in exchange for having his businesses debts forgiven, eliminating the need for him to report this relief as income. There are still plenty of unknowns.}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakuzimanya makora nkhani za misonkho ŵakayowoya kuti "nthowa yakuzengera apa yikaŵa kuti yikagwiliskika ntchito mwakwenelera yayi, kweni yikakankhika kufika ku malo agho yikaŵa yakuleka kumanyikikwa", ndipo yikaŵa ya "mauryarya gha manambara". Chifukwa chakuti misonkho iyi yikaŵa yakukhwaskana na kuchepa kwa ngongoli zikuru za Trump za ma bond gha pachanya kweniso kuparanyika kwa makasino ghatatu gha Trump, nthowa izi zikuyowoyeka kuti zikukolerana na hasara ya $916 miliyoni iyo Trump wakayowoya pa fomu yake ya misonkho ya mu 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/01/us/politics/donald-trump-tax.html|title=Donald Trump Used Legally Dubious Method to Avoid Paying Taxes|date=November 1, 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=November 1, 2016}}</ref> == Wonaniso == * [[Annual financial disclosures of Donald Trump|Kuvumbura chuma kwa chaka kwa Donald Trump]] * [[Business projects of Donald Trump in Russia|Mapulojekiti gha bizinesi gha Donald Trump ku Russia]] * [[Media career of Donald Trump|Umoyo wa Donald Trump mu vyakufalitsa nkhani]] == Ukaboni == {{Reflist|group="nb"}} == Ukaboni unyake == {{reflist|30em}} == Mabuku agho ghagwiliskika ntchito == <!-- TChigaŵa ichi chili cha mabuku pera agho ghazunulika mu mazgu gha pasi gha nkhani iyi ya Wikipedia. --> {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJifCgAAQBAJ|title=The Trumps: Three Generations That Built an Empire|last=Blair|first=Gwenda|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=2015b|orig-year=2001|isbn=978-1-5011-3936-9}} * {{cite book|last1=Kranish|first1= Michael|last2= Fisher|first2= Marc|author-link1=Michael Kranish|author-link2=Marc Fisher|year=2016|title=Trump Revealed: An American Journey of Ambition, Ego, Money, and Power|publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]]|isbn=9781508226758|quote=His new agency, originally conceived as Trump Models Inc., ended up with the name T Models...|title-link=Trump Revealed}} * {{cite book|title=Trumped! The Inside Story of the Real Donald Trump, His Cunning Rise and Spectacular Fall|url=https://archive.org/details/trumpedinsidesto00odon|last=O'Donnell|first=James R.|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=1991|isbn=978-0-671-73735-1}} {{refend}} {{Donald Trump}} {{Trump businesses}} [[Category:Ntchito za bizinesi za Donald Trump| ]] [[Category:Ntchito za bizinesi za munthu payekha|Trump, Donald]] fyh31n7xttrb1abacfaei49hyhhlgyl 0 47778 122359 118847 2026-09-25T01:43:57Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122359 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Banja la ku America la bizinesi na ndale}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use American English|date=August 2023}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2023}} {{Infobox family | name = Banja la Trump | image = {{multiple image |align=center |direction=horizontal |border=infobox |image1=Frederick Trump (cropped).jpg |width1=92 |caption1=[[Frederick Trump]] |image2=Fred Trump in the 1980s (cropped2) (b).jpg |width2=92 |caption2=[[Fred Trump]] |image3=Donald Trump in the Oval Office, June 2017 (cropped) (b).jpg |width3=96 |caption3=[[Donald Trump]] | total_width = }} | founder = Frederick Trump | origin = [[Kallstadt]], Germany | region = [[Msumba wa New York]] na [[Palm Beach, Florida]], U.S. | members = {{Collapsible list|[[Frederick Trump|Frederick]]|[[Fred Trump|Fred]]|[[Maryanne Trump Barry|Maryanne]]|[[Fred Trump Jr.|Fred Jr.]]|[[Fred Trump III|Fred III]]|[[Mary L. Trump|Mary]]|[[Donald Trump|Donald]]|[[Donald Trump Jr.|Donald Jr.]]|[[Kai Trump|Kai]]|[[Ivanka Trump|Ivanka]]|[[Eric Trump|Eric]]|[[Tiffany Trump|Tiffany]]|[[Barron Trump|Barron]]|[[Robert Trump|Robert]]|[[John G. Trump|John]]}} | connectedmembers = [[Elizabeth Christ Trump]][[Mary Anne MacLeod Trump|Mary Anne Trump]][[John W. Walter]][[Melania Trump]][[Jared Kushner]][[Lara Trump]][[Michael Boulos]] | otherfamilies = [[Fuko la MacLeod]][[Banja la Kushner]] | current head = Donald Trump | titles = {{Collapsible list | [[Pulezidenti wa United States]] ([[Ulongozgi wakwamba wa Donald Trump|wa 45]] & [[Ulongozgi wachiŵiri wa Donald Trump|wa 47]]) | [[Mama wakwamba wa United States]] | [[Ofesi ya White House|Mulongozgi wa Ofesi ya Economic Initiatives and Entrepreneurship]] | [[Mulongozgi wa Pulezidenti wa United States#Mndandanda wa alangizi ŵa pulezidenti|Mulongozgi wa Pulezidenti]] | [[Mweruzgi wa boma la United States]] (wa [[Khoti la Chigaŵa la United States la Chigaŵa cha New Jersey|Khoti la Chigaŵa la New Jersey]] na [[Khoti la United States la Apilo la Dera Lachitatu|Khoti la Apilo la Dera Lachitatu]]) | [[Udindo wa mweruzgi mukuru|Mweruzgi mukuru]] wa Khoti la United States la Apilo la Dera Lachitatu | [[Republican National Committee|Wachiŵiri Mulongozgi wa Republican National Committee]] }} }} {{Donald Trump series|expanded=Life and business}} '''Banja la Trump''' ni banja lakumanyikwa chomene la ku America ilo lili na usambazi ukuru. Munthu uyo wakumanyikwa chomene mu banja ili ni [[Donald Trump]], mutu wa banja, uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wa 45 ndipo sono ni pulezidenti wa 47 wa [[Pulezidenti wa United States]] (2017–2021, 2025–sono). Ŵa Trump mba [[Ŵa Germany|Ŵa German]].{{cite web |url=https://www.scottishroots.com/people/donald.php |title=Scottish Roots – Donald Trump |website=Scottish Roots |access-date=January 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126235639/https://www.scottishroots.com/people/donald.php |archive-date=January 26, 2018 |url-status=live }} Mbakuchita bizinesi, vyakusanguluska, ndale, na vya malo na nyumba. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa mu banja ili ni awiske ŵa Donald Trump [[Fred Trump]], na sekuru ŵake [[Frederick Trump]]. == Banja lapafupi == === Mutu wa banja === ==== Donald Trump ==== {{Main|Donald Trump}} === Wives === ==== Ivana Trump ==== {{Main|Ivana Trump}} Ivana Marie Trump ({{née| Zelníčková}}), muwoli wakwamba wa Donald Trump, wakababikira pa February 20, 1949, mu [[Zlín]], [[Czechoslovakia]] (sono [[Czech Republic]]). Wakaŵa wakuwoneska mafashoni na mwanakazi wa bizinesi uyo wakaŵa nzika ya ku United States mu 1988. Ŵakaŵa pa nthengwa kufuma mu 1977 m'paka 1990. Ivana wakafwa mu 2022 chifukwa cha [[Vikuluzikulu vya kuvulala chifukwa cha kugongana mwankhongono|vikuluzikulu vya kuvulala chifukwa cha kugongana mwankhongono]] pa [[Chifuŵa|chigaŵa cha thupi]] pamanyuma pakuti wawa pa masitepu pa nyumba yake ku [[Upper East Side]] ya [[Manhattan]]. Ivana wakaŵa mukuru wa [[Trump Organization]] kwa vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri, kusazgapo udindo wa vice president mukuru wa kapangidwe ka mukati mwa nyumba. Wakalongozga kapangidwe ka mukati mwa [[Trump Tower]] uko kukamanyikwa na malibwe gha pink marble. Ivana wakimikika kuŵa CEO kweniso pulezidenti wa [[Trump Castle Hotel and Casino]] mu [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]], ndipo pamanyuma wakaŵa mulembi mukuru wa [[Plaza Hotel]] mu Manhattan. ==== Marla Maples ==== {{main|Marla Maples}} Marla Ann Maples, muwoli wachiŵiri wa Donald Trump, wakababikira pa October 27, 1963, mu [[Cohutta, Georgia]], U.S. Wakaŵa mulembi wa mafilimu, munthu wakumanyikwa pa kanema wa pa TV, wakuwoneska mafashoni, wakwimba sumu ndiposo wakulongozga mapulogalamu. Ŵakanjira nthengwa mu December 1993, myezi yiŵiri pamanyuma pa kubabika kwa mwana wawo mwanakazi [[Tiffany Trump|Tiffany]], ŵakapatukana mu 1997 ndipo ŵakaparana mu 1999. ==== Melania Trump ==== {{Main|Melania Trump}} Melania Trump ({{née|Knauss}}), muwoli wachitatu ndiposo wa sono wa Donald Trump, wakababikira pa April 26, 1970, mu [[Novo Mesto]], [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] (sono [[Slovenia]]). Wakaŵa na ntchito yitali ya kuwoneska mafashoni ndipo ni mama wakwamba wachiŵiri wa ku United States wakubabikira ku charu chinyake, wakwamba wakaŵa [[Louisa Adams]]. Ŵakanjira nthengwa mu 2005. Melania wakaŵa nzika ya ku United States pa July 28, 2006. Wakasamukira nyengo yeneyiyo yayi ku [[White House]] apo mfumu wake yikazgoka pulezidenti, kweni wakakhala ku [[Trump Tower]] pamoza na mwana wawo [[Barron Trump]] m'pakaumaliro wa chaka cha masambiro cha 2016–2017. Melania na mwana wake ŵakasamukira ku White House pa June 11, 2017. === Ŵana === {{See also|[[Mndandanda wa ŵana ŵa mapulezidenti ŵa United States#Donald na Ivana Trump|Mndandanda wa ŵana ŵa mapulezidenti ŵa United States#Donald na Ivana Trump]]|l1=Mndandanda wa ŵana ŵa mapulezidenti ŵa United States#Donald na Ivana Trump|[[Mndandanda wa ŵana ŵa mapulezidenti ŵa United States#Donald Trump na Marla Maples|Mndandanda wa ŵana ŵa mapulezidenti ŵa United States#Donald Trump na Marla Maples]]|l2=#Donald Trump na Marla Maples|[[Mndandanda wa ŵana ŵa mapulezidenti ŵa United States#Donald na Melania Trump|Mndandanda wa ŵana ŵa mapulezidenti ŵa United States#Donald na Melania Trump]]|l3=#Donald na Melania Trump}} Trump wali na ŵana ŵankhondi kufuma ku nthengwa zitatu: [[Donald Trump Jr.|Don{{spaces}}Jr.]], [[Ivanka Trump|Ivanka]], na [[Eric Trump]] na [[Ivana Trump]]; [[Tiffany Trump]] na [[Marla Maples]]; kweniso [[Barron Trump|Barron]] na [[Melania Trump]]. ==== Nthengwa yakwamba ==== {{Main|Donald Trump Jr.|Ivanka Trump|Eric Trump}} Donald Jr., Ivanka, na Eric mbaŵana ŵatatu ŵalara chomene ŵa Trump, kufuma ku nthengwa yake yakwamba na [[Ivana Trump]]. Pambere visola vindachitike, waliyose wa ŵabali aŵa wakaŵa na udindo wa vice president mukuru pa [[Trump Organization]]. Pa nyengo ya kampeni, ŵakimilira awiske pa mapulogalamu gha nkhani gha charu chose. Pamanyuma pakuti Trump watonda pa visola, wose ŵatatu ŵakasankhika ku [[gulu la kusinthana kwa ulamuliro wa pulezidenti]]. Pamanyuma pa kukhazikiskika mu udindo, Donald{{spaces}}Jr. na Eric ŵakapokera ulongozgi wa bizinesi ya mbumba ya malo na nyumba. Ivanka wakasamukira ku [[Washington, D.C.]], pamoza na mfumu wake [[Jared Kushner]], uyo wakimikika kuŵa [[Mulongozgi Mukuru wa Pulezidenti wa United States|mulongozgi mukuru wa White House]]. ==== Nthengwa yachiŵiri ==== {{Main|Tiffany Trump}} Tiffany Ariana Trump (wakababika pa October 13, 1993) ni mwana yekha wa Donald Trump na [[Marla Maples]]. Mu 2016, wakachitako pachoko waka pa kampeni ya awiske chifukwa wakasambiranga [[Sociology|sociology]] na [[Urban studies|masambiro gha misumba]] pa [[Yunivesite ya Pennsylvania]]. Pati pajumpha kanyengo kachoko waka kufuma apo wakamalizgira masambiro ghake, wakayowoya mazgu ghakukhozgera awiske pa [[Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 2016|Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 2016]] apo wakaŵa na vyaka 22. Wakapokera digiri ya [[Doctor of Jurisprudence|J.D.]] kufuma ku [[Georgetown University Law Center]] mu [[Washington, D.C.]], mu May 2020. ==== Nthengwa yachitatu ==== {{main|Barron Trump}} [[File:Barron Trump at Donald Trump's second inauguration (2).jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Barron Trump mu 2025]] Barron William Trump (wakababika pa March 20, 2006) ni mwana muchoko chomene wa Trump ndiposo mwana wake yekha na [[Melania Trump]]. Mu May 2006, Barron waka[[Ubapatizo|batizika]] ku tchalitchi la [[Tchalitchi la Episcopal (United States)|Episcopal]] la [[Bethesda-by-the-Sea]] ku Palm Beach, Florida. Wakasambira pa [[Columbia Grammar & Preparatory School]] mu [[Manhattan]] na [[Oxbridge Academy (Florida)|Oxbridge Academy]] mu [[West Palm Beach, Florida]]. Sono wakusambira pa [[Leonard N. Stern School of Business]] ya [[Yunivesite ya New York]] mu [[Manhattan]]. Padera pa [[Chingelezi|Chingelezi]], Barron wakuyowoya makora [[Chislovenia]]. Trump wakaŵa munthu wambura kunjilirapo mu ndale pa nyengo ya maulamuliro gha awiske, kweni wakakopa chidwi cha vyakupharazga nkhani nangauli Melania wakayezgayezga kulekeska mwana wake kulekana na ndale. Pamanyuma pakuti nyengo yakwamba ya ulamuliro wa awiske yamara, wakasamukira ku Florida ndipo wakamalizga masambiro mu May 2024 pa [[Oxbridge Academy]] mu [[West Palm Beach]]. Trump wakachemeka kuŵa mulembi mukuru wa Florida pa [[Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 2024]], kweni wakakana. === Ŵazukuru === Trump wali na ŵazukuru 11. Mwana wake [[Donald Trump Jr.]] na muwoli wake wakale [[Vanessa Trump|Vanessa]] ŵali na ŵana ŵankhondi, mukuru wawo ni [[Kai Trump|Kai]]; mwana wake mwanakazi [[Ivanka Trump]] na mfumu wake [[Jared Kushner]] ŵali na ŵana ŵatatu; mwana wake [[Eric Trump]] na muwoli wake [[Lara Trump|Lara]] ŵali na ŵana ŵaŵiri; ndipo mwana wake mwanakazi [[Tiffany Trump]] na mfumu wake [[Michael Boulos]] ŵali na mwana yumoza. == Uthenga wa mphapu == [[File:Kallstadt Hauptstrasse.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kallstadt]], Germany, uko banja la Trump likwambira]] Kuyana na mulembi wa mbiri [[Gwenda Blair]], banja ili likafuma kwa loya wakwendakwenda zina lake Hanns Drumpf, uyo wakakhazikika mu [[Kallstadt]], msumba uchoko mu [[Electoral Palatinate]] wa [[Holy Roman Empire]], mu 1608, ndipo ŵana ŵake ŵakasintha zina la mbumba kufuma ku Drumpf kuya ku Trump pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya Vyaka Makhumi Ghatatu]] (1618–1648). Zina la Trump likusangika mu mabuku gha Kallstadt kwambira m'ma 1700. Mupharazgi wa nkhani Kate Connolly, wakati waluta ku Kallstadt, wakasanga mitundu yakupambanapambana ya kalembero ka zina la mbumba mu mabuku gha msumba, kusazgapo Drumb, Tromb, Tromp, Trum, Trumpff, na Dromb. Johannes Trump, wakababikira mu msumba wapafupi wa [[Bobenheim am Berg]] mu 1789, wakaŵa mulimi wa mpheska mu Kallstadt kwambira m'ma 1830, apo malo agha ghakaŵa chigaŵa cha [[Ufumu wa Bavaria]], uko muzukuru wake [[Frederick Trump|Friedrich Trump]], sekuru ŵa Donald Trump, wakababikira mu 1869. Ŵanandi mwa mphapu zake nawo ŵakaŵa [[Ŵalimi ŵa mpheska|ŵalimi ŵa mpheska]] mu Kallstadt, yimoza mwa misumba yinandi ya chigaŵa chakumanyikwa cha kulima mpheska cha [[Palatinate (chigaŵa)|Palatinate]] (''Pfalz''). Mudumbu wa Johannes Trump, Charlotte Louisa, wakatora Johann Georg Heinz. Ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa [[Henry J. Heinz]] (1844–1919), uyo wakambiska kampani ya [[Heinz]]. Mphapu iyi ya Chijeremani yikabiskika kwa nyengo yitali na awiske ŵa Donald Trump, [[Fred Trump]], awo ŵakakulira mu malo agho ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga Chijeremani m'paka apo ŵakaŵa na vyaka 10;Blair, ''The Trumps'', p. 115. pamanyuma pa [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]] m'paka m'ma 1980, ŵakaphaliranga ŵanthu kuti ŵakaŵa ŵa mphapu ya ku Sweden. Donald Trump nayo wakawerezgapo fundo iyi mu ''The Art of the Deal'' (1987), kweni pamanyuma wakati wakunyadira mphapu yake ya Chijeremani, ndipo wakaŵa [[Grand marshal|grand marshal]] wa [[German-American Steuben Parade]] wa 1999 mu [[Msumba wa New York]]. Banja la Trump ku Germany likaŵa la [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]].The small town of Kallstadt has only one religious building, the Central Lutheran church. See [[Kallstadt]] for more information. Apapi ŵa Donald Trump ŵakasopanga ku [[First Presbyterian Church in Jamaica, Queens]], uko Trump waka[[Confirmation|khwaskika mu chisimikizgo]] mu 1959. === Mndandanda === {{Tree list}} [[File:Trumpoathofoffice2025.jpg|thumb|Kufuma kumazere kuya kumalyero: [[Barron Trump]], [[Donald Trump Jr.]], [[Eric Trump]], [[Ivanka Trump]], [[Tiffany Trump]], na [[Kai Trump]] (''kumanyuma kwa Tiffany'') pa [[Kukhazikiskika kwa Donald Trump mu 2025|kukhazikiskika kwa Donald Trump mu 2025]].]] {{Tree list/final branch}} Johann Paul Trump (1727–1792), wakatora Maria Elisabetha Setzer ** Charlotte Louisa Trump (1789–1833), wakatora Johann Georg Heinz *** John Henry Heinz (1811–1891), wakasamukira ku United States mu 1840, wakatora Anna Margaretha Schmidt (1822–1899), uyo nayo wakasamukira ku United States mu 1840{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PxqCy0R-VzAC |title= H.J. Heinz: A Biography |first= Quentin R. |last= Skrabec |publisher= McFarland & Company |year= 2009 |isbn= 978-0-7864-4178-5 |pages= 28–29}} **** [[Henry J. Heinz|Henry John Heinz]] (1844–1919), wakambiska kampani ya [[Heinz]]{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PxqCy0R-VzAC |title= H.J. Heinz: A Biography |first= Quentin R. |last= Skrabec |publisher= McFarland & Company |year= 2009 |isbn= 978-0-7864-4178-5 |page= 28}} ***** Howard Heinz (1877–1941) ****** [[Jack Heinz|Henry John "Jack" Heinz II]] (1908–1987), CEO wa [[Heinz|H. J. Heinz Company]], wakatora ndipo wakaparana na Joan Diehl (1911–1999) ******* [[John Heinz|Henry John Heinz III]], [[Mubali wa Congress ya United States|Mubali wa Congress]] ndipo pamanyuma [[Mndandanda wa ŵaseneta ŵa United States kufuma ku Pennsylvania|Seneta wa United States kufuma ku Pennsylvania]] (1938–1991), wakatora [[Teresa Heinz|Teresa Simões-Ferreira]] (wakababika mu 1938), uyo pamanyuma wakatoraso [[John Kerry]] ******** [[André Heinz]] (wakababika mu 1969) ******** [[Christopher Heinz]] (wakababika mu 1973) ** {{Tree list/final branch}} Johannes Trump (1789–1835), wakatora Susanna Maria Bechtloff *** Johannes Trump Jr. (1829–1877), wakatora Katharina Kober (1836–1922){{cite book | last = Blair | first = Gwenda | author-link = Gwenda Blair | title = The Trumps: Three Generations of Builders and a Presidential Candidate | publisher = Simon & Schuster | edition = 1st | date = 2001 | page = [https://archive.org/details/trumps00gwen/page/27 27] | url = https://archive.org/details/trumps00gwen/page/27 | isbn = 9780743210799 }} **** [[Friedrich Trump]] (1869–1918), wakumeta sisi, mulembi wa malo ghakurya na mahotelo, wakasamukira ku United States mu 1885/1905, ndipo wakatora [[Elizabeth Christ Trump|Elisabeth Christ]] (1880–1966), uyo nayo wakasamukira ku United States mu 1902/1905. ***** Elizabeth (Elisabeth) Trump (1904–1961), wakatora William Otto Walter ****** William Trump Walter (1931–2020) ****** [[John Whitney Walter]] (1934–2018), wakumanyikwa kuti ni "mulembi wa mbiri ya banja la Trump", meya wa nambara 14 wa [[Flower Hill, New York]], ndipo pamanyuma wakaŵa mulembi wa mbiri ya msumba uwu,[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/22/us/politics/for-donald-trumps-family-an-immigrants-tale-with-2-beginnings.html For Donald Trump's Family, an Immigrant's Tale With 2 Beginnings] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815192005/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/22/us/politics/for-donald-trumps-family-an-immigrants-tale-with-2-beginnings.html |date=August 15, 2018 }}, ''The New York Times'' wakatora Joan Smith{{cite web|url=https://theislandnow.com/news-98/john-walter-flower-hill-mayor-cousin-president-dies/|title=John Walter, Flower Hill mayor and cousin of the president, dies|date=January 10, 2018|publisher=The Island Now|access-date=November 23, 2020|archive-date=January 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128052147/https://theislandnow.com/news-98/john-walter-flower-hill-mayor-cousin-president-dies/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128052150/https://fairchildsons.com/tribute/details/1766/John-Walter/obituary.html|title=Obituary of John Walter – Fairchild and Sons Funeral Chapel Inc.|website=fairchildsons.com|access-date=August 15, 2020|archive-date=January 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128052150/https://web.archive.org/web/20200128052150/https://fairchildsons.com/tribute/details/1766/John-Walter/obituary.html|url-status=live}} ******* Christine Walter ******* Nancy Walter ******* {{Tree list/final branch}} Cindy Walter ***** [[Fred Trump|Frederick Christ "Fred" Trump]] (1905–1999), wakuzenga na kusambaza malo na nyumba, wakatora [[Mary Anne MacLeod Trump|Mary MacLeod]] (1912–2000), uyo wakasamukira ku United States kufuma ku [[Scotland]] mu 1930. ****** [[Maryanne Trump Barry|Maryanne Trump]] (1937–2023), mweruzgi wa boma, wakatora ndipo wakaparana na David Desmond; pamanyuma wakatora John Barry ******* David William Desmond, wakatora Lisa Aitken ****** [[Fred Trump Jr.|Frederick Crist "Freddy" Trump Jr.]] (1938–1981), wakwendeska ndege wa [[Trans World Airlines|TWA]],{{Cite news |first=Gerber |last=Drew |date=August 3, 2016 |url=http://forward.com/news/346731/trumps-brother-rebelled-against-their-authoritarian-father-by-joining-a-jew/ |title=Trump's Brother Rebelled Against Their Authoritarian Father By Joining a Jewish Frat |newspaper=[[The Forward]] |access-date=January 23, 2017 |archive-date=January 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170120165856/http://forward.com/news/346731/trumps-brother-rebelled-against-their-authoritarian-father-by-joining-a-jew/ |url-status=live }} wakatora ndipo wakaparana na Linda Clapp ******* [[Fred Trump III|Frederick Crist "Fritz" Trump III]] (wakababika mu 1962), wakatora Lisa Beth Lorant{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/17/style/f-c-trump-3d-realty-manager-weds-ms-lorant.html|title=F. C. Trump 3d, Realty Manager, Weds Ms. Lorant|date=September 17, 1989|website=The New York Times|access-date=May 7, 2022|archive-date=March 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315005336/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/17/style/f-c-trump-3d-realty-manager-weds-ms-lorant.html|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.stamfordadvocate.com/news/article/Trump-family-gives-back-to-agency-that-helps-4590816.php|title=Trump family gives back to agency that helps developmental disabled|date=June 10, 2013|access-date=May 7, 2022|archive-date=January 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128052157/https://www.stamfordadvocate.com/news/article/Trump-family-gives-back-to-agency-that-helps-4590816.php|url-status=live}} ******** Cristopher Trump ******** Andrea Trump ******** William Trump ******* [[Mary Lea Trump]] (wakababika mu 1965), wakusambira vya maghanoghano gha ŵanthu, mulembi, wakatora ndipo wakaparana na Dina Nowak ******** {{Tree list/final branch}} Avary Trump{{cite news |last1=Phelps |first1=Rob |title=Mary L. Trump on her life as an openly gay member of the First Family |url=https://bostonspiritmagazine.com/2020/11/mary-l-trump-on-her-life-as-an-openly-gay-member-of-the-first-family/ |access-date=July 14, 2022 |publisher=Boston Spirit Magazine |date=November 16, 2020 |archive-date=July 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714234334/https://bostonspiritmagazine.com/2020/11/mary-l-trump-on-her-life-as-an-openly-gay-member-of-the-first-family/ |url-status=live }} ****** Elizabeth Joan Trump (wakababika mu 1942), wakatora James Walter Grau ****** '''[[Donald Trump|Donald John Trump]]''' (wakababika mu 1946), wakuzenga na kusambaza malo na nyumba, pulezidenti wa 45 na wa 47 wa United States, wakatora ndipo wakaparana na [[Ivana Trump|Ivana Zelníčková]] (1949–2022); wakatora ndipo wakaparana na [[Marla Maples]]; wakatora [[Melania Trump|Melania Knauss]] ******* [[Donald Trump Jr.|Donald John Trump Jr.]] (wakababika mu 1977; wa nthengwa yakwamba), wakatora ndipo wakaparana na [[Vanessa Haydon]]; wakatora [[Bettina Anderson]] ******** [[Kai Trump|Kai Madison Trump]] (wakababika mu 2007; wa nthengwa yakwamba) ******** Donald John Trump III (wakababika mu 2009; wa nthengwa yakwamba) ******** Tristan Milos Trump (wakababika mu 2011; wa nthengwa yakwamba) ******** Spencer Frederick Trump (wakababika mu 2012; wa nthengwa yakwamba) ******** Chloe Sophia Trump (wakababika mu 2014; wa nthengwa yakwamba) ******* [[Ivanka Trump|Ivana Marie "Ivanka" Trump]] (wakababika mu 1981; wa nthengwa yakwamba), wakatora [[Jared Kushner]] ******** Arabella Rose Kushner (wakababika mu 2011) ******** Joseph Frederick Kushner (wakababika mu 2013) ******** Theodore James Kushner (wakababika mu 2016) ******* [[Eric Trump|Eric Frederick Trump]] (wakababika mu 1984; wa nthengwa yakwamba), wakatora [[Lara Yunaska]] ******** Eric Luke Trump (wakababika mu 2017) ******** Carolina Dorothy Trump (wakababika mu 2019) ******* [[Tiffany Trump|Tiffany Ariana Trump]] (wakababika mu 1993; wa nthengwa yachiŵiri), wakatora [[Michael Boulos]] ******** Alexander Trump Boulos (wakababika mu 2025) ******* {{Tree list/final branch}} [[Barron Trump|Barron William Trump]] (wakababika mu 2006; wa nthengwa yachitatu) ****** {{Tree list/final branch}} [[Robert Trump|Robert Stewart Trump]] (1948–2020),{{Cite news|last=Phillips|first=Morgan|date=August 14, 2020|title=Robert Trump, brother of President Trump, dead at 71|url=https://www.foxnews.com/politics/robert-trump-dead|access-date=August 15, 2020|agency=Fox News|archive-date=January 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114215857/https://www.foxnews.com/politics/robert-trump-dead|url-status=live}} wakatora ndipo wakaparana na [[Blaine Trump|Blaine Beard]];{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/20/fashion/michael-kors-anna-wintour-gods-love-we-deliver-gala.html|title=Michael Kors, Anna Wintour, Kate Hudson and Blaine Trump at God's Love We Deliver Gala|date=October 18, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=May 7, 2022|archive-date=March 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315005439/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/20/fashion/michael-kors-anna-wintour-gods-love-we-deliver-gala.html|url-status=live |last1=Bernstein |first1=Jacob }} pamanyuma wakatora Ann Marie Pallan ***** [[John G. Trump|John George Trump]] (1907–1985), wakatora Elora Gordon Sauerbrun (1913–1983) ****** John Gordon Trump (1938–2012) ****** Christine Elora Trump Philp (1942–2021) ****** {{Tree list/final branch}} Karen Elizabeth Trump Ingraham (wakababika mu 1949) {{Tree list/end}} {{Trump family tree}} == Ŵapapi == === Fred Trump === {{Main|Fred Trump}} [[File:Fred Trump in the 1980s (cropped2) (b).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Fred Trump]] mu 1986]] Wiske wa Donald Trump, Fred Trump (1905–1999), wakababikira mu New York, wakaŵa munthu wakuzenga na kusambaza malo na nyumba wakuchita makora chomene mu [[Msumba wa New York]]. Pakugwiliskira ntchito chiharo chawo, Fred Trump na anyina Elizabeth ŵakambiska kampani ya E. Trump & Son mu 1927.{{cite news|date=April 16, 1927|title=New concerns function with Queens capital|page=16|newspaper=The Daily Star|quote=E. Trump & Son Company, Inc., of Jamaica, has been formed with $50,000 capital to deal in realty.}} Kampani iyi yikakura ndipo yikazenga na kulaŵilira nyumba za mbumba yimoza mu [[Queens]], nyumba za ŵasilikari na maapartment gha munda gha ŵantchito ŵa [[Nkhondo ya pa Nyanja ya United States|U.S. Navy]] kufupi na malo ghakuru ghakuzengera ngalaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi, kweniso maapartment ghakujumpha 27,000 mu [[Msumba wa New York]]. Trump wakafufuzika na komiti ya [[Seneti ya United States]] chifukwa cha [[Kupenja phindu mwakujumphizga mu bizinesi|kupenja phindu mwakujumphizga]] mu 1954, ndipo so na [[Boma la New York]] mu 1966.{{sfn|Blair|2015|pages=213–216}} Donald Trump wakaŵa pulezidenti wa bizinesi ya malo na nyumba ya wiske wake mu 1971, ndipo wakayizunura zina lakuti Trump Organization pafupifupi mu 1973. Chaka chenechicho, Donald na wiske ŵakapelekeka ku khoti na [[Dipatimenti ya Malango ya United States, Chigaŵa cha Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu|Chigaŵa cha Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu cha Dipatimenti ya Malango ya U.S.]] chifukwa cha kuswa [[Dango la Nyumba Zakwenelera kwa Wose]]. Pakati pa m'ma 1970, Donald wakapokera ngongoli kufuma kwa wiske wake zakujumpha $14{{spaces}} miliyoni (pamanyuma Donald wakati zikaŵa $1{{spaces}} miliyoni pera). Donald wakateŵetera nga ni mulaŵiliri mukuru na pulezidenti wa Trump Organization mpaka wakati waŵa [[Pulezidenti wa United States|Pulezidenti wa U.S.]]. === Mary Anne MacLeod Trump === {{Main|Mary Anne MacLeod Trump}} {{further|MacLeod}} Wakababika nga ni Mary Anne MacLeod (1912–2000) ku [[Tong, Lewis|Tong]], mizi uchoko kufupi na [[Stornoway]], mu [[Vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi vya Scotland|Western Isles]] vya Scotland. Wakaŵa mwana wa mulovi Malcolm MacLeod na Mary MacLeod ({{née|Smith}}). Wakati waŵa na vyaka 17, wakasamukira ku United States na madola 50 pera ({{Inflation|index=US|value=50|start_year=1929|fmt=eq}}), ndipo wakakhala na mudumbu wake pambere wandambe ntchito ya [[Muteŵeti wa pa nyumba|muteŵeti wa pa nyumba]] mu New York. Mary na Fred Trump ŵakakumana mu New York ndipo ŵakatorana mu 1936, na kukhazikika pamoza mu [[Queens]]. Mary wakaŵa mwanarume wa United States mu 1942. Apo Donald Trump wakaluta ku Scotland mu Juni 2008, wakati, "Nkhujipulika kuti nili wa ku Scotland." == Ŵasekuru == === Frederick Trump === {{Main|Frederick Trump}} Mu 1885, sekuru ŵa Donald Trump, Friedrich Trump, ŵakasamuka kufuma ku Kallstadt, Palatinate (pa nyengo iyo chikaŵa chigaŵa cha [[Ufumu wa Bavaria]]) kuluta ku United States apo wakaŵa na vyaka 16. Wakasintha zina lake ku Chingelezi kuŵa ''Frederick'' mu 1892 apo wakaŵa mwanarume wa United States. Pa nyengo ya [[Kudumbuka kwa golide kwa Klondike]], wakasanga usambazi mwa kujura malo ghakurya na hotelo ku [[Bennett, British Columbia|Bennett]] ndipo pamanyuma ku [[Whitehorse, Yukon|Whitehorse]], uko wakateŵeteranga [[Ŵakupenja golide|ŵakupenja golide]] awo ŵakalutanga ku chigaŵa ichi. Mulembi munyake wa mbiri wakalemba kuti bizinesi iyi yikaŵaso na nyumba ya uhule, ivyo Donald Trump wakati "mbutesi kwambura unenesko". Wakati wawelera ku Kallstadt mu 1901, Frederick wakatemwa Elisabeth Christ. Ŵakatorana mu 1902 ndipo ŵakaweleraso ku United States. Kweni Elisabeth wakakhumbanga kwawo, ntheura ŵakawelera ku Germany. Ndipouli, boma likamukanizga Frederick kukhazikika kwenekuko ndipo likamuchimbizga mu Germany mu 1905 chifukwa chakuti wakateŵetera yayi usilikari uwo ukaŵa wakukhumbikwa ndipo wakaphalira yayi boma apo wakafumanga mu 1885. Kupempha kwake kukakanika. Wakafwa mu chigaŵa chakwamba cha nthenda ya [[Nthenda ya chimfine ya ku Spain]] mu 1918. Wakati wafwa, usambazi wake ukapokelereka na muwoli wake na mwana wake. === Elizabeth Christ Trump === {{Main|Elizabeth Christ Trump}} Donald Trump's grandmother, Elizabeth Christ Trump, was born in 1880 and died on June 6, 1966. She married Frederick Trump in 1902 and moved to the United States with him. Like her husband, she was a native of Kallstadt, born as the daughter of Philipp and Marie Christ. Philipp Christ was descended from Johannes Christ of [[Flörsheim]], [[Hesse]]. Elizabeth Christ Trump was a descendant of organ builder [[Johann Michael Hartung]] through her paternal grandmother Sabina Christ.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gedbas.genealogy.net/person/ancestors/1178251526|title=GEDBAS: Vorfahren von Frederick Christ TRUMP|access-date=November 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104075957/https://gedbas.genealogy.net/person/ancestors/1178251526|archive-date=November 4, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Siblings == === Maryanne Trump Barry === {{Main|Maryanne Trump Barry}} Maryanne Trump Barry (1937–2023) was Donald Trump's eldest sister. She was a senior [[United States federal judge|federal judge]] on the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit|Third Circuit Court of Appeals]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/01/trump-supreme-court-pick-234202|title=Trump's sister weighs in on Supreme Court pick|last=Goldmacher|first=Shane|date=January 25, 2017|work=[[Politico]]|access-date=August 16, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816194016/http://www.politico.com/story/2017/01/trump-supreme-court-pick-234202|archive-date=August 16, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> became inactive in 2017 after her brother took office, and retired in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.apnews.com/872fc6adeaca4bd8a2875b23c3f3782a |title=Trump's sister retires, negating judicial ethics complaints |work=[[Associated Press]] |first1=Larry |last1=Neumeister |first2=Maryclaire |last2=Dale |date=April 11, 2019 |access-date=May 26, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526105259/https://www.apnews.com/872fc6adeaca4bd8a2875b23c3f3782a |archive-date=May 26, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Fred Trump Jr. === {{Main|Fred Trump Jr.}} Frederick "Freddy" Crist Trump{{spaces}}Jr. (1938–1981){{Sfn|Trump|2020|p=31}}<ref name=":0">{{cite episode|title=Part 1: New Frontiers|series=[[Biography (TV program)|Biography]]: The Trump Dynasty|date=February 25, 2019|time=1:21|network=[[A&E (TV network)|A&E]]}}</ref> was Donald Trump's older brother. On September 26, 1981,<ref name=":0" /> at the age of 42, he died from a heart attack.{{sfn|Blair|2015|p=320}} === Elizabeth Trump Grau === Elizabeth Joan Trump Grau (born 1942) is an older sister of Donald Trump.<ref>{{cite news|title=Meet the Trumps: The family tree of Donald Trump|newspaper=MSN News|date=May 8, 2018|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/photos/meet-the-trumps-the-family-tree-of-president-elect-donald-trump/ss-AAkkfXe#image=15|access-date=May 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529054348/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/photos/meet-the-trumps-the-family-tree-of-president-elect-donald-trump/ss-AAkkfXe#image=15|archive-date=May 29, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1989, she married film producer James Grau.<ref name=jamesgrau>{{cite news|title=Elizabeth Trump weds James Grau|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=March 27, 1989|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/27/style/elizabeth-trump-weds-james-grau.html|access-date=May 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529054327/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/27/style/elizabeth-trump-weds-james-grau.html|archive-date=May 29, 2018|url-status=live|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> She worked as an administrative assistant for [[Chase Manhattan Bank]],<ref name=jamesgrau /> before retiring to Florida.<ref>{{cite news|title=Trump sister sells oceanfront Westhampton Beach home for $3.8M|newspaper=[[Newsday]]|location=Melville, New York City|first=Michael|last=Gavin|date=June 23, 2017|url=https://www.newsday.com/classifieds/real-estate/trump-sister-sells-oceanfront-westhampton-beach-home-for-3-8m-m14488|access-date=May 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529130104/https://www.newsday.com/classifieds/real-estate/trump-sister-sells-oceanfront-westhampton-beach-home-for-3-8m-1.13759122|archive-date=May 29, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2026, she is the only living sibling of Donald Trump.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/maryanne-trump-barry-former-presidents-older-sister-retired-104856529 |title=Maryanne Trump Barry, the former president's older sister and a retired federal judge, dies at 86 |date=November 13, 2023 |work=ABC News |agency=Associated Press |first1=MaryClaire |last1=Dale |first2=Karen |last2=Matthews |access-date=November 14, 2023 |archive-date=November 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231114021041/https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/maryanne-trump-barry-former-presidents-older-sister-retired-104856529 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Robert Trump === {{Main|Robert Trump}} Donald Trump gogo wawo, Elizabeth Christ Trump, wakababika mu 1880 ndipo wakafwa pa Juni 6, 1966. Wakatorana na Frederick Trump mu 1902 ndipo wakasamukira nayo ku United States. Nga ni mfumu wake, nayo wakaŵa wakwawo ku Kallstadt, ndipo wakababika nga ni mwana wa Philipp na Marie Christ. Philipp Christ wakaŵa mphapu ya Johannes Christ wa ku [[Flörsheim]], [[Hesse]]. Elizabeth Christ Trump wakaŵa mphapu ya munthu wakazenganga maorgani, [[Johann Michael Hartung]], kwizira mwa gogo wawo wa kwa awiske, Sabina Christ.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://gedbas.genealogy.net/person/ancestors/1178251526|title=GEDBAS](https://gedbas.genealogy.net/person/ancestors/1178251526|title=GEDBAS): Vorfahren von Frederick Christ TRUMP|access-date=November 10, 2016|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20161104075957/https://gedbas.genealogy.net/person/ancestors/1178251526|archive-date=November](https://web.archive.org/web/20161104075957/https://gedbas.genealogy.net/person/ancestors/1178251526|archive-date=November) 4, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Abali na ŵadumbu == === Maryanne Trump Barry === {{Main|Maryanne Trump Barry}} Maryanne Trump Barry (1937–2023) wakaŵa mudumbu mukuru wa Donald Trump. Wakaŵa [[mulongi wa khoti la boma la United States|mulongi mukuru wa khoti la boma]] pa [[Khoti la United States la Madandawuro la Dera Lachitatu]],<ref>{{cite news|url=[https://www.politico.com/story/2017/01/trump-supreme-court-pick-234202|title=Trump's](https://www.politico.com/story/2017/01/trump-supreme-court-pick-234202|title=Trump's) sister weighs in on Supreme Court pick|last=Goldmacher|first=Shane|date=January 25, 2017|work=[[Politico]]|access-date=August 16, 2017|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170816194016/http://www.politico.com/story/2017/01/trump-supreme-court-pick-234202|archive-date=August](https://web.archive.org/web/20170816194016/http://www.politico.com/story/2017/01/trump-supreme-court-pick-234202|archive-date=August) 16, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> wakaleka kugwira ntchito mu 2017 pamanyuma pakuti mudumbu wake wakaŵa pulezidenti, ndipo wakapumura ntchito mu 2019.<ref>{{cite news |url=[https://www.apnews.com/872fc6adeaca4bd8a2875b23c3f3782a](https://www.apnews.com/872fc6adeaca4bd8a2875b23c3f3782a) |title=Trump's sister retires, negating judicial ethics complaints |work=[[Associated Press]] |first1=Larry |last1=Neumeister |first2=Maryclaire |last2=Dale |date=April 11, 2019 |access-date=May 26, 2019 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190526105259/https://www.apnews.com/872fc6adeaca4bd8a2875b23c3f3782a](https://web.archive.org/web/20190526105259/https://www.apnews.com/872fc6adeaca4bd8a2875b23c3f3782a) |archive-date=May 26, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Fred Trump Jr. === {{Main|Fred Trump Jr.}} Frederick "Freddy" Crist Trump{{spaces}}Jr. (1938–1981){{Sfn|Trump|2020|p=31}}<ref name=":0"/> wakaŵa mukuru wa Donald Trump. Pa Seputembala 26, 1981,<ref name=":0" /> wali na vyaka 42, wakafwa chifukwa cha matenda gha mtima.{{sfn|Blair|2015|p=320}} === Elizabeth Trump Grau === Elizabeth Joan Trump Grau (wakababika mu 1942) ni mudumbu mukuru wa Donald Trump.<ref>{{cite news|title=Meet the Trumps: The family tree of Donald Trump|newspaper=MSN News|date=May 8, 2018|url=[https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/photos/meet-the-trumps-the-family-tree-of-president-elect-donald-trump/ss-AAkkfXe#image=15|access-date=May](https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/photos/meet-the-trumps-the-family-tree-of-president-elect-donald-trump/ss-AAkkfXe#image=15|access-date=May) 28, 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180529054348/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/photos/meet-the-trumps-the-family-tree-of-president-elect-donald-trump/ss-AAkkfXe#image=15|archive-date=May](https://web.archive.org/web/20180529054348/https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/photos/meet-the-trumps-the-family-tree-of-president-elect-donald-trump/ss-AAkkfXe#image=15|archive-date=May) 29, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mu 1989, wakatorana na James Grau, uyo wakapanganga mafilimu.<ref name=jamesgrau>{{cite news|title=Elizabeth Trump weds James Grau|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=March 27, 1989|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/27/style/elizabeth-trump-weds-james-grau.html|access-date=May](https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/27/style/elizabeth-trump-weds-james-grau.html|access-date=May) 28, 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180529054327/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/27/style/elizabeth-trump-weds-james-grau.html|archive-date=May](https://web.archive.org/web/20180529054327/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/03/27/style/elizabeth-trump-weds-james-grau.html|archive-date=May) 29, 2018|url-status=live|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Wakagwirapo ntchito nga ni mulembi wa ofesi ku [[Chase Manhattan Bank]],<ref name=jamesgrau /> pambere wandapumure na kusamukira ku Florida.<ref>{{cite news|title=Trump sister sells oceanfront Westhampton Beach home for $3.8M|newspaper=[[Newsday]]|location=Melville, New York City|first=Michael|last=Gavin|date=June 23, 2017|url=[https://www.newsday.com/classifieds/real-estate/trump-sister-sells-oceanfront-westhampton-beach-home-for-3-8m-m14488|access-date=May](https://www.newsday.com/classifieds/real-estate/trump-sister-sells-oceanfront-westhampton-beach-home-for-3-8m-m14488|access-date=May) 28, 2018|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180529130104/https://www.newsday.com/classifieds/real-estate/trump-sister-sells-oceanfront-westhampton-beach-home-for-3-8m-1.13759122|archive-date=May](https://web.archive.org/web/20180529130104/https://www.newsday.com/classifieds/real-estate/trump-sister-sells-oceanfront-westhampton-beach-home-for-3-8m-1.13759122|archive-date=May) 29, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Kufika mu 2026, ndiyo yekha mudumbu wa Donald Trump uyo wachali wamoyo.<ref>{{cite news |url=[https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/maryanne-trump-barry-former-presidents-older-sister-retired-104856529](https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/maryanne-trump-barry-former-presidents-older-sister-retired-104856529) |title=Maryanne Trump Barry, the former president's older sister and a retired federal judge, dies at 86 |date=November 13, 2023 |work=ABC News |agency=Associated Press |first1=MaryClaire |last1=Dale |first2=Karen |last2=Matthews |access-date=November 14, 2023 |archive-date=November 14, 2023 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20231114021041/https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/maryanne-trump-barry-former-presidents-older-sister-retired-104856529](https://web.archive.org/web/20231114021041/https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/maryanne-trump-barry-former-presidents-older-sister-retired-104856529) |url-status=live }}</ref> === Robert Trump === {{Main|Robert Trump}} Robert Stewart Trump (1948–2020) wakaŵa munung'una wa Donald Trump.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chabba|first1=Seerat|title=Who Are Donald Trump's Siblings?|url=[https://www.yahoo.com/news/donald-trump-siblings-121333034.html|access-date=March](https://www.yahoo.com/news/donald-trump-siblings-121333034.html|access-date=March) 23, 2016|work=[[International Business Times]]|agency=[[Yahoo News]]|date=November 15, 2016|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170324000111/https://www.yahoo.com/news/donald-trump-siblings-121333034.html|archive-date=March](https://web.archive.org/web/20170324000111/https://www.yahoo.com/news/donald-trump-siblings-121333034.html|archive-date=March) 24, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Wakaŵa mulongozgi wa bizinesi uyo wakalaŵiliranga Trump Management Inc, iyo yikalaŵiliranga nyumba na malo gha Trump Organization kuwaro kwa Manhattan.{{sfn|Blair|2015|p=454}} Robert Trump wakatorana na [[Blaine Trump|Blaine Beard]] mu 1980.<ref>{{cite news|date=October 28, 1987|title=The Winning Ways of Blaine Trump|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/28/garden/the-winning-ways-of-blaine-trump.html|url-status=live|access-date=February](https://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/28/garden/the-winning-ways-of-blaine-trump.html|url-status=live|access-date=February) 11, 2017|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170127082911/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/28/garden/the-winning-ways-of-blaine-trump.html|archive-date=January](https://web.archive.org/web/20170127082911/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/28/garden/the-winning-ways-of-blaine-trump.html|archive-date=January) 27, 2017}}</ref> Ŵakapatukana mu 2009 pamanyuma pakuti Robert wasiya muwoli wake chifukwa cha wantchito wa Trump Organization, Ann Marie Pallan. Wakatorana na Pallan kukwambilira kwa 2020.<ref>{{cite news |url=[https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/robert-trump-obituary-f9qz0sx7t](https://www.thetimes.com/uk/article/robert-trump-obituary-f9qz0sx7t) |title=Robert Trump obituary |date=August 17, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |access-date=May 27, 2023 |archive-date=May 27, 2023 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20230527211948/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/robert-trump-obituary-f9qz0sx7t](https://web.archive.org/web/20230527211948/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/robert-trump-obituary-f9qz0sx7t) |url-status=live }}</ref> Robert wakafwa pa Ogasiti 15, 2020, wali na vyaka 71.<ref>{{Cite news|date=August 16, 2020|title=Robert Trump: brother of president Donald Trump dies aged 71|language=en-GB|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=[https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/aug/16/robert-trump-brother-of-president-donald-trump-dies-aged-71|access-date=August](https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/aug/16/robert-trump-brother-of-president-donald-trump-dies-aged-71|access-date=August) 16, 2020|archive-date=January 14, 2021|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210114215845/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/aug/16/robert-trump-brother-of-president-donald-trump-dies-aged-71|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20210114215845/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/aug/16/robert-trump-brother-of-president-donald-trump-dies-aged-71|url-status=live}})</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Phillips|first=Morgan|date=August 14, 2020|title=Robert Trump, brother of President Trump, dead at 71|url=[https://www.foxnews.com/politics/robert-trump-dead|access-date=August](https://www.foxnews.com/politics/robert-trump-dead|access-date=August) 16, 2020|website=[[Fox News]]|language=en-US|archive-date=January 14, 2021|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210114215857/https://www.foxnews.com/politics/robert-trump-dead|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20210114215857/https://www.foxnews.com/politics/robert-trump-dead|url-status=live}})</ref> Kuyana na ''The New York Times'', wakaŵa na [[kukha magazi mu ubongo|kukha magazi mu ubongo]] pamanyuma pa kuwa sonosono apa.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Karni|first=Annie|author-link=Annie Karni|date=August 15, 2020|title=Robert S. Trump, the President's Younger Brother, Dies at 71|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/us/politics/robert-s-trump-dead.html|access-date=August](https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/us/politics/robert-s-trump-dead.html|access-date=August) 16, 2020|archive-date=August 16, 2020|archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200816024006/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/us/politics/robert-s-trump-dead.html|url-status=live}}](https://web.archive.org/web/20200816024006/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/us/politics/robert-s-trump-dead.html|url-status=live}})</ref> == Ŵabali ŵanyake == === John G. Trump === {{Main|John G. Trump}} John George Trump (1907–1985), dada munyake wa Donald Trump kwa awiske, wakaŵa enjiniya wa magetsi, msambiri wa sayansi, kweniso munthu wakapanganga vinthu viphya. Wakambiska mtundu wa [[chithandizo cha radiation]] wakuzingilira, ndipo pamoza na [[Robert J. Van de Graaff]], wakapanga yimoza mwa makina ghakwambilira gha [[X-ray generator|kupangira ma X-ray]] agho ghakaŵa na miliyoni yimoza ya ma volti. Wakapokera [[National Medal of Science]] kufuma kwa Pulezidenti [[Ronald Reagan]], ndipo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵa [[National Academy of Engineering]]. === John W. Walter === {{Main|John W. Walter}} Donald Trump wa munyake wa mwanakazi wa sekuru ŵake, Elizabeth Christ Trump, wakababika mu 1880 ndipo wakafwa pa Juni 6, 1966. Wakatorana na Frederick Trump mu 1902 ndipo wakaluta nayo ku United States. Nga ni mfumu wake, nayo wakababikira ku Kallstadt, ndipo wakaŵa mwana wa Philipp na Marie Christ. Philipp Christ wakafuma mu mphapu ya Johannes Christ wa [[Flörsheim]], [[Hesse]]. Elizabeth Christ Trump wakaŵa mphapu ya mupangi wa maorgani [[Johann Michael Hartung]] kwizira mwa gogomukuru wake wa upande wa awiske, Sabina Christ. == Abali na azilumbu == === Maryanne Trump Barry === {{Main|Maryanne Trump Barry}} Maryanne Trump Barry (1937–2023) wakaŵa mudumbu mukuru wa Donald Trump. Wakaŵa [[mulongi wa khoti la boma la United States|mulongi mukuru wa khoti la boma]] pa [[Khoti la Apilu la United States la Dera Lachitatu]]. Wakaleka kugwira ntchito mu 2017 pamanyuma pakuti mudumbu wake wakamba uteŵeti wake nga ni purezidenti, ndipo wakapumura ntchito mu 2019. === Fred Trump Jr. === {{Main|Fred Trump Jr.}} Frederick "Freddy" Crist Trump{{spaces}}Jr. (1938–1981){{Sfn|Trump|2020|p=31}}{{cite episode|title=Part 1: New Frontiers|series=[[Biography (TV program)|Biography]]: The Trump Dynasty|date=February 25, 2019|time=1:21|network=[[A&E (TV network)|A&E]]}} wakaŵa mukuru wa Donald Trump. Pa Seputembala 26, 1981, wali na vyaka 42, wakafwa chifukwa cha nthenda ya mtima.{{sfn|Blair|2015|p=320}} === Elizabeth Trump Grau === Elizabeth Joan Trump Grau (wakababika mu 1942) ni mudumbu mukuru wa Donald Trump. Mu 1989, wakatorana na mupangi wa mafilimu James Grau. Wakagwiranga ntchito nga ni mulembi wa ofesi pa [[Chase Manhattan Bank]], pambere wandapumure na kukhala ku Florida. Kufika mu 2026, ndiyo yekha mubali wa Donald Trump uyo wachali wamoyo. === Robert Trump === {{Main|Robert Trump}} Robert Stewart Trump (1948–2020) wakaŵa mudumbu muchoko wa Donald Trump. Wakaŵa mulongozgi wa bizinesi uyo wakalongozganga Trump Management Inc, kampani iyo yikalaŵiliranga katundu wa nyumba wa Trump Organization kuwaro kwa Manhattan. Wakaŵaso mmoza wa ŵa ndalama mu SHiRT LLC, yimoza mwa makampani ghaŵiri agho ghakaŵa na CertiPathx ya ku Virginia, iyo yikapokera mgwirizano wa boma wa madola 33 miliyoni mu 2019. Robert Trump wakatorana na [[Blaine Trump|Blaine Beard]] mu 1980. Ŵakapatukana mu 2009 pamanyuma pakuti wakaleka muwoli wake chifukwa cha wantchito wa Trump Organization Ann Marie Pallan. Wakatorana na Pallan kukwambilira kwa 2020. Robert wakafwa pa Ogasiti 15, 2020, wali na vyaka 71. Kuyana na ''The New York Times'', wakaŵa na [[intracerebral hemorrhage|kutuluka ndopa mu ubongo]] pamanyuma pa kuwa sonosono apa. == Ŵabali ŵanyake == === John G. Trump === {{Main|John G. Trump}} Sekuru wa Donald Trump wa upande wa awiske, John George Trump (1907–1985), wakaŵa mainjiniya wa magetsi, mupangi wa vinthu, ndiposo wasayansi wa fiziki uyo wakapangiska [[radiation therapy]] yakuzungulira, ndipo pamoza na [[Robert J. Van de Graaff]], wakapanga yimoza mwa makina ghakwamba gha [[X-ray generator|kupangira ma X-ray]] gha miliyoni yimoza ya volts. Wakapokera [[National Medal of Science]] kufuma kwa Purezidenti [[Ronald Reagan]] ndipo wakaŵa membala wa [[National Academy of Engineering]]. === John W. Walter === {{Main|John W. Walter}} John W. Walter (1934–2018), uyo wakaŵa muzukuru wa Donald Trump, wakaŵa mwana wa Elizabeth Trump (mudumbu wa Fred Trump) na William Walter. Wakagwira ntchito ku Trump Organization kwa umoyo wake unandi ndipo wakaŵa vice president mukuru wa Trump Management, Inc.{{sfn|Trump|2020|pp=193–94}} Wakaŵaso na umwini wa All County Building Supply & Maintenance Corp pamoza na Donald Trump, Maryanne Trump Barry, Elizabeth Trump Grau, na Robert Trump. Walter wakaŵaso meya wa [[Flower Hill, New York]] kufuma mu 1988 m'paka 1996, ndipo wakaŵa mulembi wa mdauko wa tawuni iyi kufuma mu 1996 m'paka nyifwa yake mu 2018. === Mary L. Trump === {{Main|Mary L. Trump}} Mary L. Trump, muzukuru wa Donald Trump, ni [[clinical psychology|dokotala wa sayansi ya maghanoghano]], munthu wa bizinesi, ndiposo mulembi. Wamanyikwa chifukwa cha kususka Donald Trump ndipo wakalemba buku lakukhwaskana nayo na mbumba yake lakuti ''[[Too Much and Never Enough]]'' (2020). === Fred Trump III === {{Main|Fred Trump III}} Fred Trump III, muzukuru wa Donald Trump, ni munthu wa bizinesi, mulembi, ndiposo mulwani wa wanthu ŵakukhala na ulwari. Wakamususka Donald Trump mu [[memoir]] yake ya 2024 ndipo walutilira kumususka kufuma apo buku ili likafumira. == Chidule cha mbumba == {| class="wikitable sortable" !Kubabika !Nyifwa !Chithuzithuzi !Zina !Ubale na Donald Trump !Ufumu !Udindo !Nchito !{{Reference column heading}} |- |1869 |1918 |[[File:Friedrich Trump (cropped).jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Frederick Trump]] |Sekuru wa awisi wa Donald Trump |Mujeremani | |Wakumeta sisi, mwenecho wa malo ghakurughirako vyakurya na hotelo, kweniso mwenecho wa nyumba ya uhule |<ref name="brothel">{{cite web |last1=Panetta |first1=Alexander |date=September 19, 2015 |title=Donald Trump's grandfather ran Canadian brothel during gold rush |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/trump-canada-yukon-1.3235254 |access-date=December 10, 2015 |website=[[CBC News]] |archive-date=April 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427112759/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/trump-canada-yukon-1.3235254 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="WhoHeIs">{{cite web |last=Blair |first=Gwenda |date=August 24, 2015 |title=The Man Who Made Trump Who He Is |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/08/the-man-who-made-trump-who-he-is-121647/ |access-date=March 11, 2016 |publisher=[[Politico]] |ref=none |archive-date=April 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428214907/https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/08/the-man-who-made-trump-who-he-is-121647 |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1880 |1966 |[[File:Elisabeth_Christ.jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Elizabeth Christ Trump]] |Sekuru mwanakazi wa awisi wa Donald Trump |Mujeremani-Muamerika | |Wamalonda wa bizinesi ya malo |<ref>{{cite news |date=August 3, 1918 |title=Real Estate News |page=16 |work=The Brooklyn Daily Eagle |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/55626090/?terms=%22e%20trump%22&match=1 |access-date=March 1, 2023 |archive-date=August 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814041345/https://www.newspapers.com/image/55626090/?terms=%22e%20trump%22&match=1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=November 22, 1918 |title=Real Estate Field |page=18 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/26761488/?terms=%22e%20trump%22&match=1 |access-date=March 1, 2023 |archive-date=August 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814041337/https://www.newspapers.com/image/26761488/?terms=%22e%20trump%22&match=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1905 |1999 |[[File:Fred Trump in the 1980s (3x4 cropped).jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Fred Trump]] |Awiske Donald Trump |Muamerika | |Mupangiska wa malo na wamalonda |{{Sfn|Blair|2015|pp=90, 94–5}} |- |1907 |1985 |[[File:John G Trump portrait c1955 cropped.png|frameless|100px]] |[[John G. Trump]] |Dada wa awiske Donald Trump |Muamerika | |Injiniya wa vya magetsi, msambiri, na wasayansi wa fiziki |<ref name="NAP2">{{cite book |url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=1384&page=333 |title=John George Trump &#124; Memorial Tributes: National Academy of Engineering, Volume 3 &#124; The National Academies Press |publisher=Nap.edu |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-309-03939-0 |doi=10.17226/1384 |access-date=2016-12-24 |archive-date=September 10, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910075219/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=1384&page=333 |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1912 |2000 | |[[Mary Anne MacLeod Trump]] |Anyina a Donald Trump |Muskotilandi-Muamerika | |Wantchito wa pa nyumba |<ref name="kruse">{{cite news |last=Kruse |first=Michael |date=November 4, 2017 |title=The Mystery of Mary Trump |work=[[Politico Magazine]] |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/11/03/mary-macleod-trump-donald-trump-mother-biography-mom-immigrant-scotland-215779/ |access-date=November 4, 2017 |archive-date=April 20, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420055351/https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/11/03/mary-macleod-trump-donald-trump-mother-biography-mom-immigrant-scotland-215779 |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1934 |2018 | |[[John W. Walter]] |Mubali wakwamba wa Donald Trump |Muamerika |Meya wa nambara 14 wa [[Flower Hill, New York|Flower Hill]] |Mulembi wa mdauko, injiniya, wamalonda, mulembi, na wandale |<ref name="obituary" /><ref name=":02" /> |- |1937 |2023 |[[File:Maryanne_Trump_Barry.png|frameless|100px]] |[[Maryanne Trump Barry]] |Mudumbu wa Donald Trump |Muamerika |Mweruzgi wa [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit|Khoti la Apilu la Third Circuit]] |Loya, mweruzgi |<ref name="Blair_2000">{{cite book |last=Blair |first=Gwenda |url=https://archive.org/details/trumps00gwen/page/592 |title=The Trumps: Three Generations of Builders and a President |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0743210799 |location=New York City |pages=[https://archive.org/details/trumps00gwen/page/592 592] |orig-year=2000}}</ref> |- |1938 |1981 |[[File:Fred_Trump_Jr._1966_(cropped).jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Fred Trump Jr.]] |Mubali mukuru wa Donald Trump |Muamerika | |Wakwendeska ndege |<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kordes |first1=John |date=March 29, 2018 |title=The Kordes Korner |work=Garden City News |location=Garden City, NY |url=https://www.gcnews.com/articles/the-kordes-korner-55/ |access-date=March 1, 2023 |archive-date=January 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112172254/https://www.gcnews.com/articles/the-kordes-korner-55/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1946 |– |[[File:Official Presidential Portrait of President Donald J. Trump (2025) (cropped)(2).jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Donald Trump]] |Iyomwene |Muamerika |Purezidenti wa nambara 45 na 47 wa [[Purezidenti wa United States]] |Wandale, munthu wa pa mawayilesi, na wamalonda |<ref>{{cite news |title=Certificate of Birth |publisher=[[New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene|Department of Health]] – City of New York – Bureau of Records and Statistics |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/page?id=13248168 |access-date=October 23, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512232306/https://abcnews.go.com/US/page?id=13248168 |archive-date=May 12, 2016 |via=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Certificate of Birth: Donald John Trump |publisher=[[Jamaica Hospital Medical Center]] |url=https://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/20110328125536753.pdf |access-date=October 23, 2018 |archive-date=April 9, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110409070650/https://www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/20110328125536753.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1948 |2020 | |[[Robert Trump]] |Mubali wa Donald Trump |Muamerika | |Wamalonda |<ref name="NYT">{{Cite news |last=Karni |first=Annie |date=August 15, 2020 |title=Robert S. Trump, the President's Younger Brother, Dies at 71 |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/us/politics/robert-s-trump-dead.html |access-date=August 16, 2020 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=August 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200816024006/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/15/us/politics/robert-s-trump-dead.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1949 |2022 |[[File:Ivana Trump cropped retouched.jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Ivana Trump]] |Muwoli wakwamba wa Donald Trump |Muchiki na Muamerika | |Wamalonda |<ref>{{cite web |author=Adela Suliman and Shayna Jacobs |date=July 16, 2022 |title=Ivana Trump died of 'blunt impact injuries,' medical examiner says |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/07/16/ivana-trump-death-accident-torso/ |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=March 1, 2023 |archive-date=July 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716160620/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/07/16/ivana-trump-death-accident-torso/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1962 |– | |[[Fred Trump III]] |Mupwa wa Donald Trump |Muamerika | |Wamalonda, mulembi, na wakuvikilira wanthu ŵakulemala |<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/17/style/f-c-trump-3d-realty-manager-weds-ms-lorant.html|title=F. C. Trump 3d, Realty Manager, Weds Ms. Lorant |date=September 17, 1989|website=The New York Times|access-date=May 7, 2022 |archive-date=March 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315005336/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/09/17/style/f-c-trump-3d-realty-manager-weds-ms-lorant.html |url-status=live}}</ref> |- |1963 |– |[[File:Marla_Maples_LF_crop_(cropped).jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Marla Maples]] |Muwoli wachiŵiri wa Donald Trump |Muamerika | |Woseŵera mafilimu, munthu wa pa wayilesi ya kanema, modeli, muvwiri, na mupharazgi |<ref>{{cite web |editor=David L. Beckwith |title=Marla Ann Maples b. 27 Oct 1963 Georgia |url=https://www.smokykin.com/tng/getperson.php?personID=I179444&tree=Smokykin |access-date=December 1, 2016 |work=Smoky Mountain Ancestral Quest |archive-date=June 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140317/https://www.smokykin.com/tng/getperson.php?personID=I179444&tree=Smokykin |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1965 |– |[[File:Mary L. Trump (3x4 cropped).jpg|left|frameless|100px]] |[[Mary L. Trump]] |Muzukuru mwanakazi wa Donald Trump |Muamerika | |Wakumanya vya maghanoghano na mulembi |<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Carlson |first=Adam |date=June 15, 2020 |title=What to Know About Donald Trump's Niece Mary, Who Fought Him in Court & Is Writing a Tell-All |url=https://people.com/politics/what-to-know-about-donald-trump-niece-mary-trump/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[People (magazine)|People]] |location=United States |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704013654/https://people.com/politics/what-to-know-about-donald-trump-niece-mary-trump/ |archive-date=July 4, 2020 |access-date=July 4, 2020}}</ref> |- |1970 |– |[[File:Melania Trump’s Official White House Portrait (2025) (much further cropped).jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Melania Trump]] |Muwoli wachitatu wa Donald Trump |Musloveni na Muamerika |[[First Lady of the United States|Dona Wakwamba wa United States]] |Modeli na wamalonda |<ref name="CollinsModel">{{cite news |last=Collins |first=Lauren |date=May 9, 2016 |title=The Model American: Melania Trump is the exception to her husband's nativist politics |magazine=The New Yorker |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/05/09/who-is-melania-trump |url-status=live |access-date=May 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119152650/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/05/09/who-is-melania-trump |archive-date=November 19, 2018}}</ref> |- |1977 |– |[[File:Donald_Trump,_Jr._(51770696331)_(cropped).jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Donald Trump Jr.]] |Mwana wa Donald Trump na Ivana |Muamerika | |Wakovwira vya ndale, wamalonda, mulembi na wakale wakupharazga pa wayilesi ya kanema |<ref name="gq">{{cite news |last=Ioffe |first=Julia |date=June 20, 2018 |title=The Real Story of Donald Trump Jr. |work=[[GQ (magazine)|GQ]] |url=https://www.gq.com/story/real-story-of-donald-trump-jr |url-status=live |access-date=June 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621141307/https://www.gq.com/story/real-story-of-donald-trump-jr |archive-date=June 21, 2018}}</ref> |- |1981 |– |[[File:Ivanka_Trump_official_portrait_(cropped_2).jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Ivanka Trump]] |Mwana mwanakazi wa Donald Trump na Ivana |Muamerika |[[Senior Advisor to the President of the United States|Mulongozgi wa Purezidenti]] |Wamalonda na wakale wantchito wa ndale |<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 8, 2017 |title=From rich kid to first daughter: The fabulous life of Ivanka Trump |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/from-rich-kid-to-first-daughter-the-fabulous-life-of-ivanka-trump-a7618966.html |access-date=January 26, 2022 |website=The Independent |language=en |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126190924/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/from-rich-kid-to-first-daughter-the-fabulous-life-of-ivanka-trump-a7618966.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |1984 |– |[[File:Eric_Trump_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Eric Trump]] |Mwana wa Donald Trump na Ivana |Muamerika | |Wamalonda, wakovwira vya ŵanthu na wakale wakupharazga pa wayilesi ya kanema ya ''reality'' |- |1993 |– |[[File:Tiffany_Trump_RNC_2016_cropped.jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Tiffany Trump]] |Mwana mwanakazi wa Donald Trump na Marla Maples |Muamerika | |Mulongozgi wakovwira pa kafukufuku wa malango |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Struyk |first=Ryan |date=April 11, 2016 |title=Trump Kids Eric and Ivanka Miss Deadline to Vote in NY GOP Primary |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/donald-trumps-kids-eric-ivanka-miss-deadline-vote/story?id=38303943 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012105540/http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/donald-trumps-kids-eric-ivanka-miss-deadline-vote/story?id=38303943 |archive-date=October 12, 2017 |access-date=October 11, 2017 |publisher=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref> |- |2006 |– |[[File:Barron Trump at Donald Trump's second inauguration (2).jpg|frameless|100px]] |[[Barron Trump]] |Mwana wa Donald Trump na Melania |Muamerika | |Msambiri wa pa yunivesite |<ref name="peopleCM">{{cite magazine |last1=Chamlee |first1=Virginia |date=August 20, 2021 |first2=Linda |last2=Marx |title=Barron Trump Enrolls in Private School in Palm Beach After Family Leaves White House |url=https://people.com/politics/barron-trump-enrolls-in-palm-beach-private-school/ |magazine=[[People (magazine)|People]] |access-date=February 18, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=February 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216155331/https://people.com/politics/barron-trump-enrolls-in-palm-beach-private-school/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |} == Heraldry == [[Joseph E. Davies]], mfumu wachitatu wa [[Marjorie Merriweather Post]] ndiposo wakaŵa nthumwi yakale ya United States wa mphapu ya [[Wales|Welsh]], wakapika chimanyikwiro cha mbumba (coat of arms), icho chikaŵa na [[motto]] yakuti ''Integritas'', na [[King of Arms#Kings of Arms for England, Wales and Northern Ireland|British heraldic authority]] pa [[College of Arms]], mu 1939. Davies wakaŵavya ŵana ŵanalume ŵakuhara, ndipo wakati wafwa, mwana wake mukuru mwanakazi Eleanor Tydings wakaŵa [[heraldic heiress]]. Pamanyuma pake, kuyana na mwambo wa [[Anglosphere]] wa [[male primogeniture]], chimanyikwiro chakuhalira icho Tydings wakapokera chikafuma kwa mwana wake, [[Joseph Tydings|Senator Joseph Tydings]], ndipo pamanyuma pake chikapita ku mwana wake wakwamba mwanalume wakubabika mwakwenelera, nga mbahaliri ŵa chimanyikwiro icho, muyirayira. Donald Trump wakagura malo gha ku Florida gha [[Mar-a-Lago]] mu 1985. Malo agha ghakazengeka na Merriweather Post, uyo wakalongoranga chomene chimanyikwiro cha mbumba cha mfumu wake wakufwa pa malo agha. Wakati wagura malo agha, Trump wakamba kugwiliskira ntchito chimanyikwiro cha mbumba cha Davies nga ntchake. Vimanyikwiro ivi vikugwiliskirika ntchito pa [[Trump National Golf Club (disambiguation)|malo gha gofu gha Trump]] ndiposo pa malo ghanyake ghanandi gha [[Trump Organization]] mu United States yose. Pamanyuma pake Trump wakambaso kugwiliskira ntchito mtundu wakusintha pachoko wa chimanyikwiro cha Davies, uwo nawo ukalembeskeka na Trump ku ofesi ya United States ya ma patent na ma trademark.{{Infobox COA wide|image=File:Coat of Arms of Trump (Davies).svg|escutcheon=Argent ermined Or, two Chevronels couped between three demi-Lions, all Or.|crest=A Cubit Arm erected Argent, enfiling a Mascle and holding a Spear point upward, all Or.|name=Donald Trump|armiger=Donald Trump (1946–)|symbolism=|year_adopted=1985}} Mu 2008, Trump wakayezga kukhazikiska logo ya ku America pa [[Trump International Golf Links, Scotland|Trump International Golf Links]] yake yiphya mu [[Balmedie]], Scotland, kweni wakachenjezgeka na [[Lord Lyon King of Arms]], uyo ni mukuru chomene pa nkhani za [[Scottish heraldry]], kuti dango la Nyumba ya Malango ya Scotland la mu 1672 likukanizga ŵanthu kugwiliskira ntchito vimanyikwiro vya mbumba vyambura kulembeskeka. Mu Janyuwale 2012, pati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo malo gha gofu ghakajulikiranga, Trump wakavumbura chimanyikwiro chiphya cha mbumba icho chikapika ku "The Trump International Golf Club Scotland Ltd" na Lord Lyon mu 2011. Sarah Malone, muteŵeti mukuru wakulongozga wa "The Trump International Golf Links, Scotland", wakati: "chimanyikwiro cha mbumba ichi chikuphatikizapo vimanyikwiro vyakuwoneka ivyo vikulongora vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya mphapu ya mbumba ya Trump [...], Lion Rampant (pa crest) wakuyimira Scotland ndipo nyenyezi zikuyimira America. Ma chevronels ghatatu ghakuyimira kuchanya, mchenga wa mapiri gha m'mphepete mwa nyanja, na nyanja—ivyo ni vigaŵa vikuru vya malo agha. Mphungu ya mitu yiŵiri yikuyimira mphapu ziŵiri na mtundu wa Trump (wa ku Scotland na wa ku Germany). Mphungu iyi yikukora mipira ya gofu, yakuyimira zina likuru la maseŵero gha gofu, ndipo [[motto]] yakuti ''Numquam Concedere'' ni Chilatini chakung'anamura kuti 'Kuleka yayi'—ivyo ni fundo ya umoyo wa Trump." Kwambira mu 2014, Trump wakamba kugwiliskiraso ntchito logo yeneyiyi pa [[Trump International Golf Links and Hotel Ireland|Trump International Golf Links, Ireland]], malo gha gofu agho wakazenga pamanyuma pa kugura [[Doonbeg]] Golf Club.{{Infobox COA wide|image=File:Coat of Arms of Trump International Golf Club.svg|escutcheon=Party per chevron: Azure two Mullets Argent; Vert a double headed Eagle of the second, wings displayed and inverted, armed and langued Gules, holding in its talons two Globes of the second; overall three chevronels Or.|crest=A demi-Lion rampant Gules, armed and langued Azure, holding in the paws a Pennon Or flowing to the sinister.|name=the Trump International Golf Links|armiger=Trump International Golf Links (2012–)|symbolism=|year_granted=2011|motto="Numquam concedere" (Chilatini chakung'anamura kuti "Kuleka yayi").}} ==Wonaniso== * [[Mbumba ya Barack Obama]], uyo wakalongozga Donald Trump pa udindo wa purezidenti mu nyengo yake yakwamba (2009–2017) * [[Mbumba ya Joe Biden]], uyo wakalondezgapo Donald Trump pa nyengo yake yakwamba ndipo wakamulongozga pambere wandawelere pa nyengo yake yachiŵiri (2021–2025) * [[Mbumba ya JD Vance]], waŵiri wa purezidenti wa Donald Trump pa nyengo yake yachiŵiri == Maukaboni == === Maukaboni gha m'malemba === {{Reflist|30em}} === Mabuku ghakugwiliskirika ntchito === <!--Chigaŵa ichi ntcha mabuku pera agho ghakuzunulika mu maukaboni gha pasi pa peji la nkhani iyi ya Wikipedia.--> {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|last=Blair|first=Gwenda|title=The Trumps: Three Generations of Builders and a Presidential Candidate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJifCgAAQBAJ|author-link=Gwenda Blair|year=2015|orig-year=2000|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|isbn=978-1-5011-3936-9|location=New York|language=en|access-date=April 8, 2017|archive-date=April 18, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418082225/https://books.google.com/books?id=uJifCgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=Too Much and Never Enough |url=https://archive.org/details/toomuchneverenou0000trum |last=Trump |first=Mary L. |author-link=Mary L. Trump |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-982141-46-2 |location=New York |oclc=1164093746 }} {{refend}} {{Trump family|state=expanded}} {{Donald Trump}} {{United States presidential family political lines}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Trump family}} [[Category:Trump family|*]] [[Category:Mbumba za ku America za mphapu ya ku Scotland]] [[Category:Mbumba za bizinesi za United States]] [[Category:Mbumba zakwamba za United States]] [[Category:Mbumba kuyana na munthu]] jnvv3zed6ze28e5t58desceasv9wadr 0 48486 122369 119065 2026-09-25T02:33:18Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122369 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Thempele la Chibuda mu Zhangjiajie, Hunan, China}} {{Infobox religious building | name = Thempele la Tianmenshan | native_name = 天門山寺 | native_name_lang = zh | image = Tian Men Shan Temple 2.jpg | caption = [[Shanmen]]. | pushpin_map = China Hunan#China | pushpin_map_size = 200px | location = [[Zhangjiajie]], [[Hunan]] | coordinates = {{coord|29|2|26.70|N|110|28|40.04|E|format=dms|display=inline,title}} | religious_affiliation = [[Chibuda cha Chan]] | sect = | deity = | country = China | functional_status = | website = | founded_by = | completed = AD 870 }} '''Thempele la Tianmenshan''' ({{lang-zh|s=天门山寺|t=天門山寺|p=Tiānménshān Sì}}) ni thempele la [[Chibuda]] ilo lili pa [[Phiri la Tianmen]] mu [[Zhangjiajie]], [[Hunan]], [[China]]. Thempele ili na malo ghakukwana {{convert|20000|m2}}. ==Mbili== Thempele la Tianmenshan likazengeka mu nyengo ya [[Ulamuliro wa Tang]] (AD 870), ndipo likapika zina lakuti "Thempele la Lingquan" ({{lang-zh|t=靈泉院 |s= | hp=|labels=no}}). Mu nyengo ya [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]], likaparanyika chifukwa cha nkhondo.{{when|date=May 2018}} Pamanyuma pa 1949, boma la ku malo likazengaso thempele ili. Pa Juni 8, 2009, yimoza ya [[Gautama Buddha]]'s [[Śarīra]] yikasungika mwenemumo.{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090524031352/http://www.tianmenshan.com.cn/webinfo/info_list.asp?infoid=445 |script-title=zh:《天门山为释迦牟尼佛舍利投保亿元》 |date=2009-05-15 |publisher= |language=zh |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090524031352/http://www.tianmenshan.com.cn/webinfo/info_list.asp?infoid=445 |archivedate=2009-05-24)}} ==Kapangilo== * [[Nyumba ya Daxiongbao]] * [[Nyumba ya Guanyin|Guanyin Pavilion]] ({{lang-zh | t=觀音閣 | s= | hp=|labels=no}}) * [[Nyumba ya Tianwang]] ({{lang-zh | t=| s=四大天王殿| hp=|labels=no}}) * [[Malo gha Mabuku gha Chibuda]] ({{lang-zh | t=藏經閣 | s= | hp=|labels=no}}) * Nyumba ya Mabelu ({{lang-zh | t=鐘樓 | s= | hp=|labels=no}}) * [[Nyumba ya Ngoma mu Asia|Nyumba ya Ngoma]] ({{lang-zh | t=鼓樓 | s= | hp=|labels=no}}) ==Malo gha vithuzi== {{Gallery |align=center |File:Tian Men Shan Temple 1.jpg |[[Shanmen]]. |File:Tian Men Shan Temple 3.jpg |[[Nyumba ya Mafumu Ŵaŵili Ŵa Kuchanya]]. |File:Tian Men Shan Temple 4.jpg |[[Nyumba ya Ngoma mu Asia|Nyumba ya Ngoma]] |File:Tian Men Shan Temple 5.jpg |Nyumba ya Mabelu. |File:Tian Men Shan Temple 8.jpg |[[Malo gha Mabuku gha Chibuda]]. |File:Tian Men Shan Temple 6.jpg |[[Nyumba ya Mahavira]]. |File:Tian Men Shan Temple 7.jpg |[[Nyumba ya Guanyin|Guanyin Pavilion]] }} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Pa intaneti== {{Commons category|Tian Men Shan Temple|Tianmenshan Temple}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Thempele la Tianmenshan}} [[Category:Ma thempele gha Chibuda mu Hunan]] [[Category:Nyumba na vyakuzenga mu Zhangjiajie]] [[Category:Malo ghakukopa ŵalendo mu Zhangjiajie]] [[Category:Ma thempele gha Chibuda gha mu vyaka vya m'ma 9 mu China]] [[Category:Vinthu vyakwambika mu 870]] [[Category:Nyumba za chisopa na vyakuzenga vyakumalizgika mu vyaka vya m'ma 870]] je9ychoco36gz3fknjuoce6wl27s0vw 0 49578 122329 121870 2026-09-24T23:51:50Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122329 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (عَدَنْ) ni msumba mu [[chigaŵa cha Aden]] mu charu cha {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P17}}.<ref>https://geonames.org</ref> Muli ŵanthu 863,000 (2017).<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20210120130028/http://www.cso-yemen.com/content.php?lng=english&id=690</ref> Pakuti Aden uli pa malo ghawemi gha ku mtunda, uli nga ni chipata pakati pa Nyanja Yiswesi na Nyanja ya Arabia, ndipo ukupangiska kuti uŵe malo ghakuzirwa chomene gha pa nyanja agho ghakukoleska [[Afilika]], [[Asia]], na [[Middle East]]. ==Mbiri== Aden ni doko lakale ndipo likazunulika na ŴaGiriki pasi pa zina lakuti Αραβία Εμπόριον (''Arabia Emporion''), ilo likung’anamura doko la malonda la ŴaArabu.<ref>https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fowc%2F9780199554942.003.0028</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{Sister project links|auto=yes|d=yes}} {{Library resources box}} {{EB1911 poster|Aden}} * {{cite web|website=ArchNet|publisher=MIT School of Architecture and Planning|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123144204/http://www.archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=1432|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224005632/http://www.archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=1432|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 December 2007|title=Aden|access-date=9 February 2013}} *[https://acor.digitalrelab.com/index.php?s=filter=place_name:Aden%20(Yemen) Photos of Aden] pa [[American Center of Research]] * {{OSM relation}} * [https://unhabitat.org/aden-city-profile Aden City Profile] pa [[United Nations Human Settlements Programme]] [[Category:Yemen]] i1q3pb7aydbwmnrwrnk9dl2p404onju 0 49632 122354 122083 2026-09-25T01:28:01Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122354 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Rub al Khali 002.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|Mapiri gha mchenga mu [[Rub 'al Khali]] ("Kotala yambura kanthu") ya ku Arabia]] [[File:Groupe de dromadaire avec son chamelier dans le sud tunisien.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=A human with a group of camels in a desert|Muliska wa ngamila kumwera kwa [[Tunisia]]]] '''Mapopa''' ni malo agho vula yikuwira vichoko ndipo chifukwa cha ichi, umoyo ukupangiska kuti paŵe vyamoyo vyapadera na vyamoyo. Kusoŵa kwa vyakumera kukupangiska kuti malo ghambura kuvikilirika ghaŵe ghakuvunda. Pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza mwa vigaŵa vitatu vya charu chapasi nchakuwomira panji chakuwomira hafu. Ichi chikusazgapo vigaŵa vinandi vya ku mpoto, uko vula yikuŵa yichoko waka, ndipo nyengo zinyake vikuchemeka kuti mapopa gha ku mpoto panji "mapopa ghakuzizima". Mapopa ghangagaŵika na unandi wa vula iyo yikuwira, na kutentha uko kukuchitika, na ivyo vikupangiska kuti [[mapopa ghaŵe mapopa]] panji na malo agho ghali.<ref>{{Cite web |title=desert {{!}} National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/desert/ |access-date=2022-12-26 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org}}</ref> ==Ukaboni== <references /> == Malinki gha kuwaro == {{Wikibooks|Historical Geology|Deserts}}{{Commons category|Deserts}}{{Wikivoyage|Deserts}} * {{cite web |year=2006 |title=Global Deserts Outlook |url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20080317073608/http://www.unep.org/geo/gdoutlook/ |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060616224837/http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20080317073608/http://www.unep.org/geo/gdoutlook/ |archive-date=2006-06-16 |publisher=[[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP)}}, lipoti mu mndandanda wa [[Global Environment Outlook]] (GEO). ** {{webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060616224837/http://www.unep.org/geo/news_centre/|date=June 16, 2006|title=Global Deserts Outlook in PDF}} ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20180714193223/http://old.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/relative-biodiversity-scenarios-for-deserts-2000-2050_ed3c Map with biodiversity scenarios for desert areas, from the Global Deserts Outlook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714193223/http://old.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/relative-biodiversity-scenarios-for-deserts-2000-2050_ed3c|date=2018-07-14}}. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Mapopa]] da0d14i6pwbpjell4l5epn0qubzqroi 0 49718 122308 122249 2026-09-24T16:47:23Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo cithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122308 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Ndomo |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Closeup of female breast.jpg|220px|Ndomo, areola, na bere la mwanakazi wali pa nthumbo]]<br/><small>Ndomo, areola, na bere la mwanakazi wali pa nthumbo</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Chigaŵa ca | class="infobox-data" |[[Bere]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''papilla mammaria'' |} '''Ndomo''' ni chigaŵa cakukwezgeka pa mtundira wa [[bere]].<ref>Hansen 2010, p. 80.</ref> Mwa ŵanakazi awo ŵakuyamwiska, [[mkaka]] ukupangika mu chiŵaya ca mabere. Mkaka ukufumira mu thupi kwizira mu nthowa za mkaka, kuti mwana wayamwe. Mkaka ungatuluka waka kwizira mu ndomo. Panji ungatuliskika na kukolerana kwa minofu yakuzingilira nthowa za mkaka. Ndomo yikuzingilirika na mphepete wa ndomo. Mphepete uwu kanandi uli na khungu lakusuzgika kuluska khungu lakuzingilira.<ref>"nipple". Taber's Online.</ref> Mu Cingelezi, ndomo ya vinyama yikuŵa na lizgu linyake kuluska ndomo ya munthu. Lizgu ili lingagwiliskikiraso kulongosora pakamwa pa cupa ca kunyamwiskira mwana wanchoko. Vinyama vyanalume navyo vili na ndomo. Kweni ndomo yawo njambura nchito panji ukuru wakuyana na wa vinyama vyanakazi. Mwa ŵanthu, ndomo za ŵanakazi na ŵanalume vyose vingatolekera. Vingakwezga mahara pa nkhani za tenda. Mu vikhalidwe vinandi, ndomo za ŵanakazi zikuwoneka nga ni chinthu cakukhwaskana na tenda.<ref>Beer, Todd (2015). "Social Construction of the Body: The Nipple".</ref> Panji zikuwoneka nga chinthu cakupendekezgeka na kupendeka kwaso.<ref>Dewar, Gwen (2012). "The sexualization of girls".</ref> Ntheura, mu vyalo vinandi mwakhala vinthu vyakubenekelera vyakuvikilira ndomo. == Muwiro wa lizgu == Mu Cingelezi, lizgu ilo likung'anamura ndomo likafuma ku lizgu la Old English ilo kwambiravo likang'anamuranga "mulomo wa kayuni" panji "mphuno".<ref>Harper, Douglas. "nipple". Online Etymological Dictionary.</ref> == Muundo == Mu vinyama, ndomo (yikuchemekaso mammary papilla) ni chibaya cichoko ca khungu. Chili na milyango 15–20 ya nthowa za mkaka. Milyango iyi yili mu muzere uzingilira nsonga ya ndomo. Vinyama vya mtundu wa marsupial na eutherian kanandi vili na ndomo zakwenelana. Zingaŵa kwambira ziŵiri mpaka zikhumi na zinkhonde na zinayi.<ref>Ramel, Gordon. "Mammalian Milk".</ref> Khungu la ndomo lili na misipa yakusanda. Misipa iyi yikupulika vinthu vinyake comene. Yinyake ni ya mtundu wakuzomerezga luŵiro. Yinyake ni yakuzomerezga pacoko-pacoko. Musimbo wa maghanoghano ukuru ukwiza ku ndomo. Ukufuma mu songo za kunthazi za musipa wa mzere ghwakhumi na chinayi wa mbaru. Ndomo yikugwiliskikiraso ntchito kuŵa fundo ya kupima pa thupi. Chifukwa yikulongora dermatome ya T4 (chiwangwa cha mbaru cha chinayi). Ndipo yikuŵa pafupi na muyeso wa diaphragm.<ref>Grabb & Smith's Plastic Surgery, ch. 59.</ref> Musimbo wakufuma na musimbo wakuwelera vikwenda ku ndomo na bere. Vikufuma mu songo za kunthazi za musimbo ukuru wa mkati wa mbaru. Vikufumaso ku musimbo wakufuma wa mbali, na ku musimbo wakufuma wa msana. Nthowa za lymph izo zikutuzga ndomo ni zizo zikutuzganso bere. 75% ya lymph yikutuzgika kwizira mu viŵaya vya lymph vya pa nkhwapa. Vinandi vyakukhalira vikufuma mu ndomo na bere kwizira mu viŵaya vinyake vyakupafupi. Ndomo zikusintha pakati pa nyengo ya umoyo wa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi. Ntheura muundo wa ndomo ungasintha. Kusintha uku kungaŵa kwakwenelera na kwakuzomerezgeka. == Mwa vinyama vyanalume == Vinyama vinandi vili na ndomo. Cifukwa nchi cake ŵanalume ŵali na ndomo cikaŵa nkhani ya kafukufuku wa sayansi. Kupambana pakati pa mahanya (kukuchemeka sexual dimorphism) kungawoneka mu chiŵalo chimoza. Ŵasayansi ŵa evolution ŵakuti kupambana uku nkhwakufuma comene mu kusankha kwa tenda (sexual selection). Ici nkhwambura kunanga panji kwambura kukwaskana. Pali cizomerezgo cakuti ndomo ya mwanalume yikukhalapo chifukwa kulije candamizo lakupambuka pa ŵanalume kutaya nkhawa iyi. Ntheura, ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuti ndomo ya mwanalume njakuwoneka waka pa thupi, kwambura nchito yeneko. Nga umo cikuŵira na vinyake ivyo vikwiza pamoza na kukura kwa vinthu vinyake ku evolution.<ref>Lawrence, Eleanor (1999). "Why do men have nipples?". Nature News.</ref> Mwa ŵanthu, ndomo zikuzingilirikaso kanandi na sisi la thupi. == Nchito == Nchito ya thupi ya ndomo njakupeleka mkaka. Mkaka ukupangika mu chiŵaya ca mabere gha ŵanakazi mu nyengo ya kuyamwiska, kuti mwana wanchoko wayamwe. Pakuyamwiska, kukwaskika kwa ndomo na mwana kukukwezga kutuluka kwa oxytocin kufuma mu hypothalamus. Oxytocin ni homoni iyo yikwenjerezgeka mu nyengo ya nthumbo. Yikugwira ntchito pa bere kovwira kupanga kang'anamuro ka kutuluska mkaka. Kutuluska kwa oxytocin chifukwa ca kukwaskika kwa ndomo kukukwezgaso [[nthumbo]] kukolerana napo pamanyuma pakubabika kwa mwana.<ref>Henry 2016, p. 117.</ref> Kukolerana kwankhongono uku kwa nthumbo kukwiza chifukwa ca kukwaskika kwa ndomo za ŵamama. Kukovwira nthumbo kukolerana kuti kukoke musimbo wakufuma wa nthumbo. Kukolerana uku nkhwakukhumbikwa kuti kwambe kutuluka mwazi kwakuzirwa panyuma pakubabika.<ref>Abedi et al. (2016). "Breastfeeding or nipple stimulation".</ref> Para mwana wakuyamwa panji kukwaska ndomo, muyeso wa oxytocin ukukwera. Minofu yichoko mu bere yikukolerana, kutuzga mkaka kwizira mu nthowa za mkaka. Kukolerana uku kukuchemeka kang'anamuro ka "kutuluska mkaka". Kuti mwana wakolerane makola pa ndomo, chigaŵa cakusi ca mphepete wa ndomo chikwenera kuŵa mkati mwa kanwa ka mwana. Ndomo yikwenera kukolekeka mkati mwa kanwa kake. Kukolerana kwambura kwenelera kukupangiska ndomo kuleka kukwaskika makola. Ici cikupangiska kang'anamuro ka kutuluska mkaka kuleka kukwaniriska. Kukolerana uku kwambura kwenelera kungapangiska ndomo kuŵinyika na kupasuka. Mama wangaleka kukhumba kuyamwiskaso chifukwa ca ici.<ref>WomensHealth.gov guide.</ref> Pamanyuma pakubabika, mkaka ukwenjerezgeka kuyana na umo mwana wakukwaskira ndomo. Usange mwana wakukwaskira ndomo mwakukhorwa na mwakwenjelezgeka, mkaka ukwenjerezgekaso. Usange mwana wakwenjezga nyengo ya kuyamwa pa ndomo, chiŵaya ca mabere chikwankha ku kukwaskika uku na kwenjezgeka mkaka. == Umoza na masuzgo == === Kuŵinyika === Kuŵinyika kwa ndomo kungaŵa candamizo la kuleka kuyamwiska.<ref>Santos et al. (2016). "Prevalence and factors associated with cracked nipples".</ref> Ndomo iyo yikuŵinya na kwamba kupasuka njakukhwaskana chomene. Ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakuleka kuyamwiska chifukwa ca kuŵinyika uku. Nyengo zinyake, chironda chingapanga pa ndomo.<ref>"nipple". Retrieved 4 August 2017.</ref> Chifukwa chimoza ca kupasuka na kuŵinyika kwa ndomo ni kukolerana kwambura kwenelera kwa mwana pa ndomo. Usange ndomo yikuwoneka nga ni ya cizuŵa, yeya, ndipo yakupatalala, ici cingalongora kuti kukolerana kwa mwana nkhwambura kwenelera. Pali candamizo la kupanga vipasuko pa nyengo iyi. Nthenda ya herpes pa ndomo njakuŵinya chomene. Kuŵinyika kwa ndomo kungawakaso na kukwaskana chomene kwa vyakuvwara pa ndomo. Ici cikupangiska kupasuka. === Kutuluska vinthu === Kutuluska vinthu mu ndomo nkhukhwaskana na cinyake cakutuluka mu ndomo ya bere. Kutuluska uku nkhukuŵako yayi mu ŵanakazi awo ŵakuyamwiska. Kutuluska mu ŵanakazi awo ŵali na nthumbo yayi panji ŵambura kuyamwiska kungaŵa kwambura kukhwaskana. Ŵanalume awo ŵakutuluska vinthu mu ndomo nkhwakukhwaskana yayi mwakumanyikwa. Kutuluska mu ndomo za ŵanalume panji ŵasepuka kungalongora suzgo linyake. Kutuluska kungaŵapo kwambura kukamiskika. Panji kungawoneka waka usange ndomo yikamiskika. Ndomo yimoza yingaŵa na kutuluska apo yinyake yikuŵavya. Kutuluska kungaŵa kwakuŵalala, kwakuwiskirira, kwa mwazi, kwakubvunda panji kwacilundu. Kunona kwake kungaŵa kwakukola, kwakhweta, kwakunyamatira panji kwakwiskirira.<ref>MedlinePlus. "Nipple discharge".</ref> Vinyake vya kutuluska uku vikumalira paviri kwambura kunozgeka. Kutuluska mu ndomo mu vinthu vinandi njayayi khansa (mbwenu vitowa). Kweni pacoko, kungaŵa cimanyikwiro ca khansa ya bere. Nchakukhumbikwa kumanya icho cikupangiska kutuluska na kupoka mankhwala. Vifukwa vya kutuluska mu ndomo vikusazgapo: * Nthumbo * Kuyamwiska kwaposachedu * Kukwaskana kwa cigaŵa ici na vyakuvwara vyapasi pa shati * Kupwetekeka kwa bere * Kwananga * Kufura na kujalika kwa nthowa za bere * Vinthu vyakukura vyambura kuŵa khansa mu chiŵaya ca pituitary * Kukura kucoko mu bere (kanandi njayayi khansa) * Chiŵaya ca pa singo cakuleka kugwira nchito mwakwenelera (hypothyroidism) * Bere lakukoreka (kukolela kwakwenelera mu bere) * Kugwiliskira ntchito mankhwala ghanyake * Kugwiliskira ntchito vyakukura vinyake, nga ni anise na fennel * Kupharazgika kwa nthowa za mkaka<ref>MedlinePlus. "Nipple discharge".</ref> Nyengo zinyake, ŵana ŵanchoko ŵangaŵa na kutuluska mu ndomo. Ici nchakuchitiskika na homoni kufuma kwa mama pambere kubabika. Kanandi kukumala mu masabata ghaŵiri. Khansa nga Paget's disease (mtundu wa khansa uwo ukukhwaskana na khungu la ndomo) nagho ungapangiska kutuluska mu ndomo.<ref>MedlinePlus. "Nipple discharge".</ref> Kutuluska mu ndomo uko nkhwambura kwenelera nkhwa mwazi. Kukufuma waka mu ndomo yimoza. Panji kukutuluka pambura kukamiskika panji kukwaskika. Kutuluska mu ndomo nkhukwenelera comene usange kukufuma mu ndomo zose ziŵiri. Panji usange kukucitika para ndomo zikamiskika. Kukamiska ndomo kuti muwone usange muli kutuluska kungapangiska kuti vikuriske. Kuleka kukwaska ndomo kungapangiska kutuluska kumara.<ref>MedlinePlus. "Nipple discharge".</ref> Kutuluska mu ndomo mwa mwanalume nkhukukhwaskana chomene comene. Kanandi mammogram na kusanda mazi wakutuluska vikucitika. Biopsy kanandi yikucitika. Fine needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy yingaŵa yaluŵiro na yambura kupweteka chomene. Sindano yichoko, yakuvunduka yikugwiliskikira ntchito na kukoka kucoko kuti vitolekepo cakusanda pasi pa ndomo. Ŵanalume ŵanyake ŵakusangika na nthenda yakuchemeka gynecomastia. Mu nthenda iyi, nyama ya bere pasi pa ndomo yikukura na kukwezgeka. Kutuluska mu ndomo kungachitika. Ndomo yingafura mu ŵanalume ŵanyake panji chifukwa ca kukwera kwa muyeso wa estrogen.<ref>Cuhaci et al. (2014). "Gynecomastia".</ref> === Muwoneskero === Pambere za msinkhu wakukura, ndomo za ŵasungwana zikuyana chomene na za ŵasepuka. Kusintha kwa muwoneskero kungaŵa kwakwenelera panji kwakukhwaskana na nthenda. * '''Ndomo yakugwazgamira mkati''' – Ici nchakwenelera usange ndomo yili nga umo yili nyengo zose kufuma pamwambo, ndipo yingafumapo luŵiro para yikwaskika. Usange ndomo zikuŵa kunthazi kwambura kufumirapo, ndipo ici nchiphya, ici nchakuzizwiska. * '''Kufinyana kwa khungu la ndomo''' – Ici cingachitiskika na chironda cakusazgika chifukwa ca opaleshoni panji kwananga. Kanandi, chironda cakusazgika chikupanga kwambura fundo yakumanyikwa. Kanandi suzgo ili nkhukhumbikwa mankhwala yayi. Ici nchiphya. Kusintha uku kungaŵa kwakukhwaskana chomene chifukwa kufinyana panji kukoka kwa ndomo kungalongora kusintha mu nyama ya bere kwakukhwaskana na khansa. * '''Ndomo yikuŵa yakupya para yikwaskika, yakufiira panji yakupweteka''' – Ici cingaŵa kwananga. Nkhusoŵa comene kufuma ku khansa ya bere. * '''Ndomo yakugwaduka, yakupatuka panji yakupapa''' – Ici nkhwacomene kufuma ku eczema panji kwananga kwa bacteria panji fungus. Kusintha uku nkhuphya. Kugwaduka, kupatuka panji kupapa kwa ndomo kungaŵa cimanyikwiro ca Paget's disease. * '''Khungu lakuzunda na milyango yikuru''' – Ici chikuchemeka peau d'orange chifukwa khungu likuwoneka nga mphapa ya cungwa. Kwananga mu bere panji khansa ya bere ya kufura yingapangiska suzgo ili. Ici nchiphya. * '''Ndomo yakugwazgamira mkati''' – Ndomo yikaŵa yakukwezgeka kuluska khungu, kweni yasintha, yamba kugwazgamira mkati, ndipo yikufumapo yayi para yikwaskika.<ref>Walker 2011, p. 533.</ref> Muyeso wakwenelera wa kukwezgeka na ukuru wa ndomo za ŵanakazi ni pafupifupi mamilimita 9.5.<ref>Hansen 2010, p. 83.</ref> === Khansa ya bere === Vimanyikwiro vya khansa ya bere kanandi vikuwoneka pakwamba na kusintha kwa ndomo na mphepete wake. Nangauli ŵanakazi wose ŵakusangika yayi na vimanyikwiro vyakuyana, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakusangika yayi na cimanyikwiro cilicose. Munthu wangamanya kuti wali na khansa ya bere pamanyuma pa kusanda kwakukhazikika kwa mammogram. Vimanyikwiro vyakucenjezga vikusazgapo: * Cifula ciphya mu ndomo, panji bere panji nkhwapa * Kufula panji kuzunda kwa cigaŵa cinyake ca bere, mphepete wa ndomo, panji ndomo * Kupwetekeka panji kubvunganyika kwa khungu la bere * Kufiira panji kugwaduka kwa khungu mu cigaŵa ca ndomo panji bere * Kukoka kwa ndomo panji kupweteka mu cigaŵa ca ndomo * Kutuluska mu ndomo kwambura kuŵa mkaka wa bere, kusazgapo mwazi * Kusintha kulikose mu ukuru panji muwoneskero wa bere panji ndomo * Kupweteka mu cigaŵa cilicose ca bere<ref>CDC. "Bring Your Brave Campaign".</ref> Kusintha mu ndomo nkhwakwenelera yayi kuŵa vimanyikwiro panji cizindikiro ca khansa ya bere. Masuzgo ghanyake gha ndomo ghangayana na vimanyikwiro vya khansa ya bere. === Kufuma kwa nthenda kwa mama kupeleka mwana === Nthenda zinyake zikupelekeka kwizira mu ndomo. Ici nkhwakuchitika comenecomene usange kwananga panji kupasuka kwa ndomo kwacitika. Mu vyakwenelera ivi, ndomo yayekha yingasangika na Candida iyo yili mu kanwa ka mwana wakuyamwiska. Mwana wakupeleka nthenda kwa mama. Kanandi, nthenda iyi yikukhalira waka pa cigaŵa ca ndomo. Nyengo zinyake, nthenda yingakura na kuŵa mastitis panji kwananga kwa bere.<ref>MedlinePlus. "Breastfeeding vs. Formula Feeding".</ref> Nyengo zinyake, usange mama wali na nthenda kwambura kupasuka panji vironda pa ndomo, njakwenelera kuyamwiskabe mwana. Nthenda ya herpes pa ndomo yingaleka kumanyikwa chifukwa vironda ni vichoko. Kweni kanandi vikupweteka chomene. Herpes mu mwana wanchoko ni nthenda yakukhwaskana chomene. Nyengo zinyake yingakomora mwana. Kupelekeka kwa Hepatitis C na B kwa mwana kungachitika usange ndomo zapasuka. Vinthu vinyake vyakuchitiska nthenda vingapelekeka kwizira mu vipasuko vya khungu la ndomo ndipo vingapatiska mwana. === Masuzgo ghanyake === * Cizuŵa cichoko pa ndomo * Kufuma kwa Candida pa ndomo * Eczema ya ndomo * Ndomo yakugwazgamira mkati * Kufuma kwa Staphylococcus pa ndomo * Mphepete wa ndomo wakufura * Kufuma kwa herpes pa ndomo * Reynaud phenomenon pa ndomo * Ndomo yakupatalala == Opaleshoni == Opaleshoni yakukoserako bere kwambura kudumura ndomo (nipple-sparing/subcutaneous mastectomy) ni nthowa ya opaleshoni imoza. Mu nthowa iyi, nyama ya bere yikufumiskika, kweni ndomo na mphepete wake vikukhalilira. Kwakale, opaleshoni iyi yikacitikanga waka kuti vithinkhe nthenda yambura kupwelelera. Panji yikacitikanga pamoza na mastectomy ya nthenda yambura kunanga. Ici chikaŵa chifukwa ca wofi wa kuti khansa ingakura mu nyama ya nthowa za mkaka iyo yakhalilira. Kafukufuku waposachedu wakulongora kuti opaleshoni iyi yingaŵa yiwemi pa nkhani ya khansa ku vinthu vyakukura ivyo vili yayi pa cigaŵa ca subareolar.<ref>Gerber et al. (2003).</ref> == Mu chikhalidwe na mikoko == === Kulongoreka pakuwaro === Nkhani ikulu: [[Toplessness|Kuŵa wambura shati]] Chikhalidwe ca kubisa ndomo ya mwanakazi pasi pa vyakuvwara chili kukhalapo mu chikhalidwe ca Kumadzulo kufuma mu vyaka vya 1800. Ndomo za ŵanakazi kanandi zikuwoneka nga chigaŵa cakukhwaskana chomene. Ntheura kuvikilira kwake kungaŵa kwakamba pasi pa masindiro gha Victorian. Nga umo viliri na kukwera kavalo mu mbali yimoza. Kufumiska bere lose na ndomo ni njira yimoza yakukanizga kwa ŵanyake. Nayo ni ulongozgi kwa ŵanyake. Kufumiska ndomo kanandi kukuwoneka kuti nkhwambura mchindo. Nyengo zinyake kukuwoneka kuti nkhwakuipa panji kwakusuzga. Nkhani yinyake mu Erie, Pennsylvania, yakukhwaskana na kufumiska mabere na ndomo yikafika ku khoti likuru la United States. Ndondomeko ya Erie yikakhazikiska kuti ndomo pa waro ni cinthu ico munthu wangananga malango. Ici nkhwakuŵa usange wawonekera pa waro wambura kuvwara ("appears in a state of nudity commits Public Indecency", umo ndondomeko yeneyiyo yikuyowoyera). Munyuma mu ndondomeko iyi, kuŵa wambura kuvwara kukalongoseka kwambiraso kuti ni ndomo ya mwanakazi yambura kuvikilirika. Kweni kufumiska ndomo ya mwanalume nkhukakhazikiskika yayi. Ndondomeko za pa kufumiska kwa ndomo nkhukupambanapambana comene mu United States. Vyalo vinyake vikukanizga kuwoneka kwa cigaŵa cilicose ca bere. Vyalo vinyake vikukanizga muundo wa chisko cha ŵanakazi kwa kukanizga vithupa ivyo vili pasi pa mphepete wakuchanya wa ndomo panji ndomo yeneyo. Webusayiti yakuchemeka Instagram yili na ndondomeko yakuti vithuzi vya ndomo vikanizgike. Kweni pali visankho vinyake. Vithuzi vya vironda pamanyuma pa mastectomy vikuzomerezgeka. Vithuzi vya ŵanakazi awo ŵakuyamwiska mwakwenelera navyo vikuzomerezgeka. Vithuzi vya ndomo mu vikozgo panji vithuzi vyakujaka nako nkhwakwenelera. Kwambiraku, Instagram yikafumiskangako vithuzi vya ŵamama awo ŵakuyamwiska. Instagram yikafumiskako vithuzi vya nyimbi Rihanna. Yikadumura akaunti yake mu 2014 apo wakapeleka mavithuzi na ndomo zakuwoneka. Ici ntchakwambiska mulimo uwo ukachemeka #FreeTheNipple. === Tenda === Nkhani ikulu: [[Nipple stimulation|Kukwaskika kwa ndomo]] Ndomo zingaŵa zakusanda kwa kukwaskika. Kukwaskika kwa ndomo kungakwezga mahara gha tenda. Ŵanakazi ŵachoko waka ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵakusanga orgasm chifukwa ca kukwaskika kwa ndomo. Pambere pa kafukufuku wa Komisaruk na ŵanyake wa fMRI pa kukwaskika kwa ndomo mu 2011, malipoti gha ŵanakazi awo ŵakufiska orgasm chifukwa ca kukwaskika kwa ndomo ghakagomezganga waka nkhani zakuyowoyeka. Kafukufuku wa Komisaruk ukaŵa wakwamba kulongora umo viŵalo vyakubabira vya ŵanakazi vikukolerana na cigaŵa ca wongo ico chikupulika. Ukulongora kuti kupulika kufuma ku ndomo kukuluta ku cigaŵa cimoza ca wongo. Ni cigaŵa cikuyana na ico kukuluta kupulika kufuma ku vagina, clitoris na mlomo wa nthumbo. Ntheura, malipoti gha orgasm agha ni orgasm za viŵalo vyakubabira ivyo vikuchitiskika na kukwaskika kwa ndomo. Vingaŵa vyakukolerana comene na cigaŵa ca wongo ico chikupulika viŵalo vyakubabira. === Kubowola === Nkhani ikulu: [[Nipple piercing|Kubowola ndomo]] Kubowola ndomo ni mtundu wa kubowola thupi, ukucitikira comenecomene ku musinjiro wa ndomo. Vingabowoleka mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya ndomo, kweni kanandi vikucitika mwakuyanjana napo panji, kanandi comene, mwakwimilira. Nkhwakuthekekaso kubowola pafupifupi kanandi pa fundo yimoza. === Mu bizinesi === Makhampani ghanyake na mabungwe ghambura khumbo la ndalama ghakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu la ndomo panji vithuzi vya ndomo kuti ghakwezge chisisi ku vinthu vyawo panji cifukwa cawo. == Wonanisoso == * [[Mkaka wa bere]] * [[Fleischer's syndrome]] * [[Nipple prosthesis|Ndomo yakupangika]] kwa awo ŵasanga khansa ya bere * [[Pasties|Vyakuvwara vichoko vyakubisa ndomo]] * [[Udder|Bere la vinyama]] * [[Supernumerary nipple|Ndomo yakusazgikirapo (yacitatu)]] == Vyakuwelenga == {{Reflist}} === Vitabu === * Davidson, Michele (2014). ''Fast facts for the antepartum and postpartum nurse''. Springer Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8261-6887-0. * Durham, Roberta (2014). ''Maternal-newborn nursing: the critical components of nursing care''. F.A. Davis Company. ISBN 978-0-8036-3704-7. * Hansen, John (2010). ''Netter's clinical anatomy''. Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN 978-1-4377-0272-9. * Henry, Norma (2016). ''RN maternal newborn nursing: review module''. Assessment Technologies Institute. ISBN 978-1-56533-569-1. * Walker, Marsha (2011). ''Breastfeeding management for the clinician''. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7637-6651-1. [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 9kqe7uzjrumf368un8x0pv0ar51cqcf 0 49719 122309 122248 2026-09-24T16:50:46Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo cithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122309 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Chifuwa |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Chest.jpg|220px|Cithuzi ca X-ray ca chifuwa ca munthu]]<br/><small>Cithuzi ca X-ray ca chifuwa ca munthu</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''thorax'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Greek language|Chigiriki]] | class="infobox-data" |θώραξ |} '''Chifuwa''' ni chigaŵa ca thupi la vinyama vyakuyamwiska ŵana na vinyama vinyake vya mtundu wa tetrapod. Chili pakati pa [[singo]] na [[nthumbo]] (mbali ya thupi).<ref>Oxford Learner's Dictionaries.</ref> Mwa vibawo, ma crustacean, na ma trilobite ghakufwa, chifuwa ni chimoza mwa vigaŵa vitatu vikuru vya thupi. Chilichose mwa ivi chili na vigaŵa vinandi vichoko. Chifuwa ca munthu chili na mphako wa mkati na thako lakuzingilira mphako uwo. Muli viŵalo nga mtima, mapapu, na chiŵaya ca thymus. Muli so minofu na vinthu vinyake vinandi vya mkati. Chifuwa chingaŵa na nthenda zinandi. Cimanyikwiro cakuwoneka comene ni kupweteka kwa chifuwa. == Muwiro wa lizgu == Lizgu la mu Chigiriki ilo likung'anamura chifuwa likang'anamuranga kwambiravo "chakuvwara cakuvikilira pachifuwa mu nkhondo".<ref>θώραξ, Liddell & Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon.</ref> == Kwa ŵanthu == === Muundo === Kwa ŵanthu na vinyama vinyake vyakuyana navyo, chifuwa ni cigaŵa ca thupi ico chili pakati pa singo na nthumbo. Muli viŵalo vyake vya mkati na vinyake ivyo vilimo. Chikuvikilirika na kukhozgeka comene na muzere wa mbaru, msana, na viwangwa vya chiŵegha. === Ivyo vilimo === Nkhani ikulu: [[Thoracic cavity|Mphako wa mu chifuwa]] Ivyo vilimo mu chifuwa vikusazgapo mtima na mapapu (na chiŵaya ca thymus). Vikusazgamoso minofu yikuru na yichoko ya pachifuwa, minofu ya trapezius, na minofu ya singo. Vikusazgamoso vinthu vya mkati nga umo ni diaphragm, nthowa ya cakurya, chigoromiro ca mvuchi, na cigaŵa ca chiwangwa cha chifuwa ico chikuchemeka xiphoid process. Musimbo wakufuma na musimbo wakuwelera navyo vilimo: aorta, vena cava yakuchanya, vena cava yapasi, na musimbo wakufuma wa mapapu. Viwangwa navyo vilimo: fundo ya chiŵegha iyo yili na cigaŵa cakuchanya ca humerus, scapula, chiwangwa cha chifuwa, cigaŵa ca msana ca pachifuwa, clavicle, na muzere wa mbaru pamoza na mbaru zakuyendayenda. Vinthu vya kuwaro ni khungu na ndomo. === Chifuwa === Mu thupi la munthu, cigaŵa ca chifuwa ico chili pakati pa singo na diaphragm, kunthazi kwa thupi, ndico chikuchemeka chifuwa. Cigaŵa cakuyana mu nyama nayo chingachemekaso chifuwa. Muwoneskero wa chifuwa ukuyana yayi na cigaŵa ca viwangwa vya chifuwa ico chikuzingilira mtima na mapapu. Utali wose wa chiŵegha ukufuma ku viwangwa vya chiŵegha. Umu ndimo muli nkhwapa na mitu ya viwangwa vya humerus. Pakati-na-kati pa chifuwa pali mphuvya yakuwoneka pamwamba. Pasi pake pacoko pali fundo yakwenda yakwendayika iyo yikumanyikwa kuti sternal angle. Fundo iyi yikulongora apo chiwangwa ca chifuwa chikukolerana na cigaŵa cake cakuchanya. Pa fundo iyi mbaru zachiŵiri zikukolerana na chiwangwa ca chifuwa. Mbaru zapasi zingaŵerengeka kufuma apo. Kupasi kwa chiwangwa ca chifuwa, apo mbaru za mzere ghwacinkhonde panji ghakumaliro zikukolerana nacho, pali cartilage yakuchemeka ensiform. Pamwamba pake, nyengo zinandi, pali phako lakumanyikwa kuti phako la nthumbo. === Viwangwa === Viwangwa vya chifuwa, ivyo vikuchemeka "chiwangwa cha thoracic", ni cigaŵa ca chiwangwa cakukolerana ca thupi lose (axial skeleton). Vikusazgapo mbaru na chiwangwa cha chifuwa. Mbaru za chifuwa zikuwerengeka kwambira 1 mpaka 12. Mbaru za 11 na 12 zikuchemeka mbaru zakuyendayenda. Nchifukwa zilije fundo yakukolerana kunthazi na chiwangwa ca chifuwa, nga umo ziliri mbaru za 1 mpaka 7. Mbaru za 8 mpaka 10 zikuchemeka mbaru zambura unenesko. Nchifukwa cartilage yake yikukolerana na cartilage ya mbaru yakuchanya yake. Viwangwa vya chifuwa navyo vili na nchito yikuru: kuvikilira mtima, mapapu, na musimbo ukuru wa ndopa mu chifuwa, nga umo ni aorta. === Fundo zakumanyikwira === Muundo wa chifuwa ungalongosekaso kwizira mu fundo zakumanyikwira pa thupi. Ndomo ya mwanalume yili panthazi pa mbaru yacinayi panji pacoko pasi pake. Mu mzere wakwima, yili pacoko kunja kwa mzere wakufuma pakati-na-kati pa clavicle. Mu mwanakazi, fundo iyi njakukhozgeka yayi comene. Pacoko pasi pa ndomo pali fundo yapasi ya minofu yikuru ya pachifuwa. Fundo iyi yikuluta kuchanya na kuwaro kuja ku nkhwapa. Mu mwanakazi fundo iyi njakubisika na bere. Bere likufuma ku mbaru yaciŵiri mpaka ku mbaru yacinkhonde mu mzere wakwima. Likufumaso ku mphepete wa chiwangwa cha chifuwa mpaka ku mzere wa pakati pa nkhwapa mu mzere wakupinduka. Ndomo ya mwanakazi yikuzingilirika na mphepete wa ndomo. Nsonga ya mtima wakwenelera yili mu cigaŵa ca zinayi na chinkhonde ca mbali yamawoko ghakumazgero. Yili ku mtali wakupambana na mzere wapakati-na-kati. == Umoza na masuzgo == Nthenda zakupambanapambana zingakhwaskana na chifuwa. Ciyelezgero ni pleurisy, kuphulika kwa mbaru zinandi pamoza (flail chest), na atelectasis. Icho cikuchitika comene ni kupweteka kwa chifuwa. Masuzgo ghanyake gha chifuwa ghangaŵa gha kupokelerana. Ghanyake ghangachitika chifukwa ca kubabika mwambura kwenelera panji kwananga. Suzgo lililose ilo likuponyeska nkhongono ya kupumira mwakunjilira panji kukolowora likuwoneka kuti ni nthenda ya chifuwa. === Kwananga === Kwananga kwa chifuwa (kukuchemekaso chifuwa cakupwetekeka mwakukhwaskana, panji thoracic injury) kukupangiska nyifwa zinandi. Pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza mwa vinayi vya nyifwa zose izo zikwiza chifukwa ca kwananga mu United States, chikwiza chifukwa ca ici.<ref>Shahani, Rohit (2005). Penetrating Chest Trauma. eMedicine.</ref> Masuzgo ghakuru comene agho ghakusangika mu kwananga kwa chifuwa nkhwakukhwaskana na kunanga kwa mwazi. Ghakusazgapo kubvunganyika mu kwenda kwa mvuchi, ndopa, panji vyose viŵiri pamoza. Kufuma kwa nthenda chifukwa ca kutulukira kwa vinthu vya mu nthumbo, nga umo viliri mu vipasuko vya nthowa ya cakurya, nakoso nkhwakukhumbikwa kughanaghaniwa. Kwananga kwa kutimbana kanandi kukupangiska vironda vya khungu la chifuwa, nga ni kuphuka kwa mbaru. Kupweteka uko kukwiza na vironda ivi kungapangiska kupumira kusuzga. Ici cingaponyeska kwenda kwa mvuchi mu mapapu. Kwananga kwa mapapu mwenemura, nga ni kupwetekeka kwa nyama ya mapapu, kanandi kukusangika pamoza na kwananga kukuru kwa chifuwa. Nakoso kungaponyeska kwenda kwa mvuchi munjila yiyakuyana. === Kupweteka === Kupweteka kwa chifuwa kungafuma ku masuzgo ghanandi. Ghanyake ni gha kupumira, gha m'mimba, na gha viwangwa na minofu. Kupweteka uku kungakwezga masuzgo gha mtima nagho. Kupweteka kwose ico munthu wakupulika nkhwakukhwaskana na mtima yayi. Kweni nchambura kwenelera kukuwuskapo waka. Vimanyikwiro vingapambana kuyana na icho cikupangiska kupweteka.<ref>Chest Diseases.</ref> Masuzgo gha mtima ghakupangiska kupulika kwa kudinginyika mwaluŵiro mu chifuwa. Ghangapangiskaso kupweteka kwakukoma mu msana, singo, na mawoko. Kupweteka uko kukwiza chifukwa ca masuzgo ghambura kukhwaskana na mtima nkhwakupambana. Kungapeleka kupya, nga umo mvuchi yikupya mu nthowa ya cakurya. Panji kungapweteka para munthu wayezga kupumira mwakunjilira. Ŵanthu ŵakupambanapambana ŵakupulika kupweteka mwakupambana chifukwa ca suzgo limoza lira. Ni mulwari yekha uyo wangamanya usange vimanyikwiro nkhwakofya panji yayi. Kupweteka kwa chifuwa kungaŵa cimanyikwiro ca kufwa kwa nyama ya mtima. Aka nkhaŵa chifukwa ca kutimbanizgika kwa musimbo wakufuma (myocardial infarction, panji "kudinginyika kwa mtima"). Usange suzgo ili lili mu thupi, kupweteka mu chifuwa kungapulikika nga umo cinthu cakulemera cikuŵikika pa thupi. Kutuwa thukuta, kupumira mwakusuzga, kuzizwa mutu, na mtima kupwapwa mwambura kwenelera navyo vingapulikika. Usange nthenda iyi yayambika, unandi wa kononga ukuchitika mu maora ghakwamba ghatandatu. Ntheura kupoka mankhwala mwaluŵiro nkhwakukhumbikwa. Ŵanthu ŵanyake, comenecomene ŵalara panji awo ŵali na shuga, ŵangaŵavya kupweteka kwa chifuwa kwakuyana na ŵanyake. Kweni ŵangaŵa na vimanyikwiro vinyake vinandi vya nthenda iyi. Nkhwakukhumbikwa kuti ŵalwari aŵa na ŵakuŵapwelelera ŵamanye makola vimanyikwiro vya nthenda iyi. ==== Vinthu ivyo navyo nkhwambura mtima ==== Nga umo viliri na nthenda ya mtima, kupweteka kwose kwa chifuwa nkhwambura kufuma ku masuzgo gha mtima yayi. Kupweteka kwa khungu la chifuwa kungapulikika pamanyuma pa kwenjezgeka kwa nchito za thupi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakwamba kusazgapo nchito za thupi mu vyakucita vyawo vya zuŵa na zuŵa kanandi ŵakupulika mtundu uwu wa kupweteka pakwamba. Nkhwakukhumbikwa kulaŵiska kupweteka uku, kuti muwone usange nchambura kuŵa cimanyikwiro ca suzgo linyake likuru. Kupweteka kungapulikikaso mu ŵanthu awo ŵali na nthenda ya kupumira kwakuchanya. Iyi yikwiza pamoza na kupya kwa thupi na kucekula. Shingles nayo ni nthenda yinyake ya virus. Ingapeleka vimanyikwiro vya kupweteka kwa chifuwa panji mbaru, pambere khungu lindanjilepo kupapa. Kwananga ku muzere wa mbaru panji chiwangwa ca chifuwa nakoso nkhwakukhwaskana comene na kupweteka kwa chifuwa. Kanandi kukupulikika para munthu wapumira mwakunjilira panji wakolowora. ==== Atelectasis ==== Cinyake icho nchambura kufuma ku mtima, kweni cikupangiska kupweteka kwa chifuwa, ni atelectasis. Ili ni suzgo ilo likucitika para cigaŵa ca papu likuvunda chifukwa ca kusoŵa mvuchi. Para nthowa za mvuchi zajalika, suzgo ili likukura. Likupangiska mulwari kupulika kupumira kusuzga. Cifukwa cakuwanda comene ca atelectasis ni para bronchus, iyo yikufuma ku chigoromiro ca mvuchi, yajalika na kukoleka mvuchi mkati. Kujalika uku kungachitiskika na cinthu cakuŵa mkati mwa bronchus, nga ni ndulo ya nthenda, cinthu cakukura, panji cinthu ico munthu wamezga mwangaŵi nga ndalama, cakurya, panji cakusevyera. Nkhwakuthekaso kuti cinthu icho chili kuwaro kwa bronchus ndico cikupangiska kujalika. ==== Pneumothorax ==== Pneumothorax ni suzgo umo mvuchi panji gesi vikwenjerezgeka mu mphambano wa pleura. Vingachitika kwambura cifukwa cakumanyikwa. Panji vingachitika chifukwa ca nthenda ya mapapu panji kwananga kwaluŵiro kwa mapapu. Ukuru wa pneumothorax ukusintha umo mvuchi panji gesi vikwenjerezgeka. Ntheura ndondomeko ya uzengezgeni yingagwiliskikira ntchito sindano, kuti yifumiskepo mvuchi uwo wakwenjerezgeka. Usange yayamba kunozgeka, kwenda kwa ndopa kungadinginyika. Kungapangiska muyeso wa ndopa kutsikira pasi, uko kukuchemeka tension pneumothorax. Vyakwenelera vichoko vingamalira paviri vyokha. Vimanyikwiro vya suzgo ili kanandi vikupulikika mu mbali yimoza ya papu waka, panji nga kupumira kusuzga. == Mwa vinyama vya mtundu wa tetrapod == Mu vinyama vyakuyamwiska ŵana, chifuwa ni cigaŵa ca thupi cakupangika na chiwangwa cha chifuwa, viwangwa vya msana pachifuwa, na mbaru. Chikufuma ku singo mpaka ku diaphragm. Chilije mawoko ghakuchanya. Mtima na mapapu vili mu mphako wa mu chifuwa, pamoza na musimbo unandi wa ndopa. Viŵalo vya mkati vikuvikilirika na muzere wa mbaru na chiwangwa cha chifuwa. Viwangwa vya msana pachifuwa navyo vikupambanikapo mu tuyuni. Kweni yayi mu vinyama vyakukwaŵa. == Mwa vibawo == Nkhani ikulu: [[Thorax (insect anatomy)|Chifuwa ca vibawo]] Thupi la trilobite likagaŵikanga mu vigaŵa vitatu vikuru: cephalon ico chili na maso, vigaŵa vya mlomo, na viŵalo vyakusanda nga maantenna; chifuwa ico chili na vigaŵa vinandi vyakuyana (ivyo mu mitundu yinyake vikaŵavya kujigongeka nga ntolo); na pygidium, panji cigaŵa ca mciira. Mwa vibawo, ma crustacean, na ma trilobite ghakufwa, chifuwa ndico cigaŵa ca pakati-na-kati mwa vigaŵa vitatu vikuru vya thupi la chinyama. Chilichose chili na vigaŵa vinandi vichoko. Ndico cigaŵa umo mapapindo na malundi ghakukolerana mu vibawo. Ndicoso cigaŵa ca vibaya vinandi ivyo vikukolerana mu ma trilobite. Mu vibawo vinandi, chifuwa chilicho chili na vigaŵa vitatu: prothorax, mesothorax, na metathorax. == Wonanisoso == * [[Pectus carinatum]] * [[Pectus excavatum]] * [[Thoracic cavity|Mphako wa mu chifuwa]] * [[Cardiothoracic surgery|Opaleshoni ya mtima na chifuwa]] == Vyakuwelenga == {{Reflist}} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] afz54rpv1jw1whb41q6d4lzey1ap04z 0 49720 122310 122247 2026-09-24T16:57:52Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122310 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Bere |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Weibliche brust en.jpg|220px|Muwonekero wa mabere gha mwanakazi, na areola, ndomo, na vigaŵa vinyake]]<br/><small>Muwonekero wa mabere gha mwanakazi, na areola, ndomo, na vigaŵa vinyake</small> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Chest young male yellow.jpg|220px|Mabere gha mwanalume, na minofu ya pachifuwa yakuwoneka]]<br/><small>Mabere gha mwanalume, na minofu ya pachifuwa yakuwoneka</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Musimbo wakufuma | class="infobox-data" |Musimbo wakufuma wa mkati wa mbaru |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Musimbo wakuwelera | class="infobox-data" |Musimbo wakuwelera wa mkati wa mbaru |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''mamma'' |} '''Mabere''' ni vigaŵa viŵiri vyakufewa. Vili pa cigaŵa cakuchanya ca kunthazi ca thupi. Ivi vikuchitika ku ŵanthu na ma primate ghanyake. Mu ŵanalume na ŵanakazi wose, mabere ghakukura kufuma mu nyama yiyeneyiyo ya embryo. Mlingo wa kukura kwa mabere ukupambana chomene pakati pa ŵanakazi na ŵanalume. Kweniso vikupambana pakati pa munthu na munthu. Kukura kwa mabere pa nyengo ya kukomera kwa thupi kukupangika na estrogen. Homoni yakukura nayo yikovwira. Ŵanthu ndiwo pera vinyama ivyo mabere ghawo ghakukhalilira kukura pamanyuma pa kukomera kwa thupi. Vinyama vinyake vyose vikukura nyama ya mabere pera pa nyengo ya kumazgirako kwa nthumbo. Mu ŵanakazi, mabere ghali na chiŵaya ca mabere. Chiŵaya ici cikupanga na kufumiska mkaka wakuyamwiskira ŵana. Nyama ya mafuta yili pasi pa khungu. Nyama iyi yikuzingilira nthowa za mkaka izo zikukolerana pa ndomo. Nyama iyi ndiyo yikupeleka bere ukuru na muwoneskero wake wakuzingiskika. Ku mphelo za nthowa muli vigaŵa vichoko, panji viŵungu vya alveoli. Apo ndipo mkaka ukupangikira na kusungikira, para mahomoni ghayowoya. Mu nyengo ya nthumbo, bere likuzgora ku mahomoni ghanandi. Ghakusazgamo estrogen, progesterone, na prolactin. Mahomoni agha ghakovwira bere kufiska ukuru wake wose. Comene ghakukwezga kukura kwa vigaŵa vya alveoli, pakunozgekera kuyamwiska. Kweniso nchito yake yikuru ya kupeleka cakurya kwa ŵana, mabere ghalinso na mzuzu ukuru. Mzuzu uwu ukuwoneka mu umo thupi la mwanakazi likuwonekera. Ukuwonekaso mu kukwezgeka kwa mahara pa nkhani za tenda. Mabere, comenecomene ndomo, ghakukwezga tenda. Ni chigaŵa ca nchito ya tenda. Vikhalidwe vinyake vikupeleka mzuzu wa mbumba na tenda ku mabere gha ŵanakazi. Vinyake vikuwona mabere ghakufumiskika pa waro kuti nkhwambura mchindo panji nkhwakuipa. Mabere ghangayimira vinthu nga umoyo wakubaba, uchimwali, panji kusazgika. Mabere ghawoneka mu vithuzi na zisema vyakale na vyamachiku ghano. == Muwiro wa lizgu == Lizgu la Cingelezi ilo likung'anamura bere likafuma ku lizgu la Old English. Lizgu ili likang'anamuranga "bere, cifuŵa". Kwa ŵanthu, lizgu "mabere" nkhukugwiliskikira comene kung'anamura mabere gha ŵanakazi. Nangauli lizgu la anatomy likung'anamura cigaŵa ceneico ku ŵanalume na ŵanakazi vyose. == Citukuko ca evolution == Ŵanthu ndiwo ŵakekha mwa vinyama vyakuyamwiska ŵana awo mabere ghawo ghakukura mwakukhalilira. Aka nkhukuchitika pamanyuma pa msinkhu wa kukomera kwa thupi. Cifukwa cinesi ca kusintha uku nkhukumanyikwa yayi. Maghanoghano ghanandi ghapelekeka. Ghanyake ghakuti kukura kwa mabere kukukolerana na kupangika kwa mahomoni ghanyake mu nyama ya mafuta. Ici cikovwira citukuko ca wongo. Ghanyake ghakuti ukuru wa mabere ukulongora umoyo wiwemi na nkhongono ya mwanakazi. Ici cikovwira kupendekezga ŵanalume. Ghanyake ghakuti mabere ghakizga mu malo mwa kufula kwa matako. Aka nkhaŵa cimanyikwiro ca kukhwima kwa tenda. Ghanyake ghakuti muwoneskero wakuzingiskika wa bere ukovwira mwana kuti waleke kujalikira mphuno pakuyamwa. == Muundo == Mwa ŵanakazi, mabere ghali pachanya pa minofu yikuru ya pachifuwa. Ghakufuma pa mbaru yaciŵiri mpaka ku mbaru yacinkhonde. Ntheura mabere ghakuzingilira comene cigaŵa ca chifuwa. Ku kunthazi, nyama ya bere yingafuma ku clavicle mpaka pakati pa chiwangwa cha chifuwa. Ku mbali, nyama ya bere yingajumphira mu nkhwapa. Yingakafika pamanyuma nga umo minofu ya latissimus dorsi yiliri. Nga chiŵaya ca mabere, bere lili na masaya ghakupambana gha nyama. Ghaŵiri comenecomene: nyama ya mafuta, na nyama ya chiŵaya. Nyama ya chiŵaya njiyo yikukhwaskana na nchito za kuyamwiska. Mwakuyana na muundo, bere lili na mathako ghakuzingilirana. Waliwose ukupambana na munyake. Thako lakuchanya (superficial fascia) likupatukana na thako la kuwaro na mafuta gha 0.5–2.5 cm. Mikoka ya Cooper ni mphangwe zakufuma mu thako lakuchanya kufika ku thako la kuwaro. Mikoka iyi ndiyo yikukoleska bere. Bere la mwanakazi wakukura lili na vigaŵa 14–18 ivyo vikukolerana pa ndomo. Nthowa za mkaka zili na muyeso wa 2.0–4.5 mm. Zikuzingilirika na nyama yakukolerana iyo yikukhozga chiŵaya. Mkaka ukufumira mu bere kwizira mu ndomo. Ndomo yikuzingilirika na mphepete wa ndomo. Ukuru wa mphepete wa ndomo ukupambana comene pakati pa ŵanakazi. Mphepete wa ndomo uli na viŵaya vichoko vyakuchemeka viŵaya vya Montgomery. Viŵaya ivi vikutuluska mafuta ghakuzuzga na kuvikilira ndomo pakuyamwiska. Ukuru na kulemera kwa bere kukupambana comene pakati pa ŵanakazi. Bere lichoko-na-lapakati likulemera makilogalamu 0.5 panji kwenaco. Bere likuru lingalemera pafupifupi makilogalamu 0.75 mpaka 1. Mu muundo wake, mabere ghali na nyama ya mafuta na yakukolerana pakati pa 80–90%. Nyama ya chiŵaya njiyo yikupeleka 10–20% ya ukuru wake. Muyelezgero wa nyama izi ukupambananso pakati pa ŵanakazi. Vinyake vikukolerana na mahomoni kufuma ku msinkhu wa kukomera kwa thupi, nyengo ya mwezi, nthumbo, kuyamwiska, na nyengo yakumaliro ya mwezi. === Muundo wa chiŵaya === Nkhani ikulu: [[Mammary gland|Chiŵaya ca mabere]] Bere ni chiŵaya ico chikupanga mkaka wa kuyamwiskira mwana. Ndomo ya bere yikuzingilirika na mphepete wa ndomo. Mphepete uwu uli na viŵaya vinandi. Mtundu wa khungu wake ukupambana kufuma pinki mpaka bulauni yakukoma. Vigaŵa vyakuzgoka vya bere ni terminal duct lobular units (TDLU). Ivi ndivyo vikupanga mkaka wa mafuta. Ndivyo vikupeleka bere nchito yake ya kuyeghera mwana. Vili pose mu nyama ya bere. Pafupifupi vigaŵa viŵiri kufuma vitatu vya nyama ya nthowa vili mkati mwa mm 30 kufuma pasi pa ndomo. Nthowa zakumazgirako zikutuzga mkaka kufuma mu ma TDLU. Zikuluta ku nthowa 4–18 izo zikuya ku ndomo. Muyelezgero wa chiŵaya na mafuta ni 2:1 mu mwanakazi wakuyamwiska. Ni 1:1 mu uyo wakuyamwiska yayi. Kupatula viŵaya, bere lilinso na nyama yakukolerana, mafuta ghatuŵa, na mikoka ya Cooper. Kupulika mu bere kukupelekeka na musipa wa maghanoghano. Musipa uwu ukwizira mu songo za kunthazi na za mbali za musipa wa mbaru wacinayi, wacinkhonde, na wacitandatu. Musipa wa T-4 ukupeleka kupulika ku dermatome yake. Ndiwo ukupelekaso kupulika ku ndomo na mphepete wake. === Kutuzga kwa lymph === Pafupifupi 75% ya lymph ya bere yikuluta ku viŵaya vya lymph vya pa nkhwapa. Ni vya mbali yiyeneyiyo ya thupi. Apo 25% yikuluta ku viŵaya vyakupafupi na chiwangwa cha chifuwa. Kanandi kucoko ka lymph kukuluta ku bere linyake. Kanyake kukuluta ku viŵaya vya lymph vya m'mimba. Cigaŵa cakupasi pa mphepete wa ndomo cili na muzere wa lymph wakuchemeka "subareolar plexus of Sappey". Viŵaya vya lymph vya pa nkhwapa vikusazgamo viŵaya vya pachifuwa, vya pasi pa scapula, na vya pafupi na humerus. Ivi vikutuzga ku viŵaya vikuru vya pakati na vyakuchanya vya pa nkhwapa. Kutuzga kwa lymph mu mabere nkhwakukhwaskana comene na sayansi ya khansa. Chifukwa khansa ya bere njakuwanda mu chiŵaya ca mabere. Tumakola twa khansa tungatuka pa cinthu cakukura. Tungafumira ku vigaŵa vinyake vya thupi kwizira mu nthowa za lymph. === Muwoneskero === Ukuru, muwoneskero, ukuru wa nyama, na kwakukolerana kwa bere vikupambana. Kupambana uku ndiko kukupanga muwoneskero wa bere pa chifuwa ca mwanakazi. Ukuru wa bere pera ukulongosora yayi muyelezgero wa mafuta na chiŵaya. Ukuru wa bere ukulongosoraso yayi nkhongono ya mwanakazi ya kuyamwiska. Ukuru na muwoneskero wa mabere ghakukhwaskika na kusintha kwa mahomoni kwakuzgoka. Kusintha uku nkhwakuŵa pa kwamba kwa mabere, nyengo ya mwezi, nthumbo, na nyengo yakumaliro ya mwezi. Ghakukhwaskikaso na masuzgo gha thupi. Muwoneskero wa mabere ukukhazikiskika na mikoka ya Cooper, viwangwa na minofu ya mkati ya chifuwa, na khungu la kuwaro. Mikoka iyi yikukoleska bere kufuma ku clavicle. Bere likukolelekeka pa cifuwa. Muwoneskero wake ukukhazikiskikaso na khungu la kuwaro. Mu ŵanakazi ŵanandi, bere limoza lili likuru pacoko kuluska linyake. Fundo ya bere lililose yikukoleka pa chifuwa. Yikukoleka na thako lakunkha (deep fascia) pachanya pa minofu yikuru ya pachifuwa. Pakati pa bere na minofu iyi pali mphako. Mphako uwu ukupeleka bere kuzuzuka kwake. Fundo umo cigaŵa capasi ca bere cikukwaskana na chifuwa yikuchemeka inframammary fold. === Kukoleska === Ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti kuyamwiska nkhukupangiska mabere kupendeka pasi. Kweni kafukufuku wakulongora kuti ni fundo yayi. Kupendeka uku kukwiza chifukwa ca vinthu vinayi: kusuta fodya, unandi wa nthumbo, kukoka kwa charu, na kucepa panji kwenjezgeka kwa kulemera kwa thupi. Ŵanakazi ŵanyake ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vyakukoleska mabere. Ŵakugomezga mwambura kwenelera kuti vikuvikilira mabere ku kupendeka pasi apo ŵakukura. Chakuvwara cakukoleska mabere ca masewera cikugwiliskikira ntchito pa nchito za thupi izo zikukwezga mtima. Cikovwira kuti mabere ghaleke kuzuzumuka comene mu nchito zakusuzga. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti chakuvwara ico cikukoleska comene chingasuzga nchito ya kupumira. == Kukura == Nkhani ikulu: [[Breast development|Kukura kwa bere]] Mabere ghakupangika comene na nyama ya mafuta, ya chiŵaya, na yakukolerana. Nyama izi zili na vipokelero vya mahomoni. Lekani ukuru wa bere ukusintha kuyana na mahomoni. Ghakusintha pa nyengo ya kukomera kwa thupi, ya mwezi, ya nthumbo, ya kuyamwiska, na ya kumaliro kwa mwezi. === Kukomera kwa thupi === Muundo wa bere la munthu ngwakuyana pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi. Ngwakuyana mpaka pa msinkhu wa kukomera kwa thupi. Ku ŵasungwana awo ŵali pa nyengo ya kwamba mabere, mahomoni gha ŵanakazi (comene estrogen) ghakukwezga kwamba na kukura kwa mabere. Homoni yakukura nayo yikovwira. Mu nyengo iyi, chiŵaya ca mabere chikukura mu ukuru. Chikukolelaso pachanya pa chifuwa. Masitepe gha kukura kwa vimanyikwiro vyakuŵiri vya tenda ghakulongoreka mu masitepe ghankhonde gha Tanner. Mu nyengo iyi, mabere ghakukura kanandi ghambura kuyana ukuru. Kanandi bere la kumazgoso likuŵa likuru pacoko. Kupambana uku nkhwa kanyengo pera. Nkhwakwenelera pa citukuko ca thupi na tenda ca msungwana. Masuzgo ghanyake ghangapangiska mabere kukura comene panji kukura pacoko. Pafupifupi vyaka viŵiri pamanyuma pa kwamba kwa msinkhu wa kukomera (nyengo yakwamba ya mwezi ya msungwana), estrogen na homoni yakukura vikukwezga kukura kwa nyama ya mafuta na yakukoleska. Nyama iyi njiyo yikupanga bere. Ici cikulutilira kwa vyaka pafupifupi vinayi. Muwoneskero wakumaliro wa bere ukhazikika pa msinkhu wa vyaka 21. Kukura kwa bere kukwamba pa msinkhu wa kukomera. Ici nkhwakupambana na vinyama vinyake vyose. Ivyo bere likukura waka mu nyengo ya kuyamwiska. === Mankhwala ghakuwezgerapo mahomoni === Mankhwala ghakuwezgerapo mahomoni ghakusazgamo mankhwala ghakusintha mahomoni kwa awo ŵakusintha hanya yawo. Mankhwala agha ghakukwezga kukura kwa nyama ya chiŵaya na mafuta. Ghakuchita ici kwizira mu kusazgikako estrogen. Mu ŵanakazi awo ŵafiska nyengo yakumaliro ya mwezi, mankhwala agha ghakovwira kuwezgerapo ukuru wa bere. Ghakovwiraso kunyoloka kwa khungu uko kukucepa na kucepa kwa estrogen. Mu awo ŵakusintha hanya yawo kufuma mwanalume kuŵa mwanakazi, kukura kwa bere kukwenjerezgeka na mankhwala gha estrogen. Kanandi ghakusazgikapo mankhwala ghakukanizga testosterone. Kukura kukuru kanandi kukufiskika pamanyuma pa vyaka 2–3. Vinthu nga msinkhu, uzukulu, na muyeso wa mankhwala vikukhwaskana na icho cikufumamo. === Kusintha mu nyengo ya mwezi === Mu nyengo ya mwezi, mabere ghakukurirathu. Ici nkhu chifukwa ca maji ghakukoleka pambere mwezi ukwiza. Nkhwakuŵaso chifukwa ca kukura kwakanyengo kuyana na kusintha kwa mahomoni. === Nthumbo na kuyamwiska === Bere likufiska ukuru wake wose waka pa nthumbo yakwamba ya mwanakazi. Kusintha kwa bere nkhukuŵa cimoza mwa vimanyikwiro vyakwamba vya nthumbo. Bere likukura. Ndomo na mphepete wake nawo vikukura na kukoma. Viŵaya vya Montgomery navyo vikukura. Nyengo zinyake minyaŵi yikuwoneka comene. Kupwetekeka kwa bere mu nyengo ya nthumbo nkhukuŵako comene. Nkhukuŵako comenecomene mu myezi yitatu yakwamba. Pakati pa nthumbo, bere likukwaniska kale kupanga mkaka. Ŵanakazi ŵanyake ŵangatuluska colostrum, mtundu wa mkaka wakwamba. Nthumbo yikwenjezga muyeso wa prolactin. Prolactin ni homoni yeneyiyo yili na mulimo ukuru pa kupangika kwa mkaka. Ndipouli, kupangika kwa mkaka kukujalikizgika na progesterone na estrogen. Ici nkhukuŵa mpaka pamanyuma pa kubabika, apo muyeso wa mahomoni agha ukutsikira mwaluŵiro. === Nyengo yakumaliro ya mwezi === Pa nyengo yakumaliro ya mwezi, bere likucepa. Bere lingacepa mu ukuru para muyeso wa estrogen ukutsikira pasi. Nyama ya mafuta na chiŵaya cha mabere navyo vikwamba kucepa. Bere lingakuraso chifukwa ca masuzgo ghakufuma ku mankhwala ghakukanizga nthumbo. Ukuru wa bere ungakweraso panji kutsikira kuyana na kusintha kwa kulemera kwa thupi. Kusintha uku kwa mu thupi kukujalengeka kanandi mu minyaŵi ya pa khungu la bere. == Kuyamwiska == Nkhani ikulu: [[Breastfeeding|Kuyamwiska]] Nchito yikuru ya mabere, nga chiŵaya, ni kuyeghera mwana na mkaka wa bere. Mkaka ukupangika mu maselo ghakupanga mkaka, mu alveoli. Para bere likukwaskika na mwana wakuyamwa, wongo wa mama ukutuluska oxytocin. Oxytocin yinandi yikukwezga kukolerana kwa minofu iyo yikuzingilira alveoli. Ici nkhukupangiska mkaka kwenda mu nthowa izo zikukolerana alveoli na ndomo. Ŵana ŵanchoko awo ŵababika pa nyengo yeneyiyo ŵali na khumbo lakuyamwa pa ndomo. Ŵana awo ŵakuyamwiska ŵakuyamwa cifukwa ca cakurya na kukhorwa vyose viŵiri. Mkaka wa bere ukupeleka vinthu vyose ivyo vikukhumbikwa mu myezi yitandatu yakwamba ya umoyo. Ukulutilira kuŵa nthowa yikuru ya cakurya, pamoza na cakurya cakukola, mpaka vyaka vimoza panji viŵiri. == Nchito za thupi == Kafukufuku wakulongora fundo yakuzizwiska. Para mwanakazi wakwenda panji wakucimbira kwambura kuvwara chakuvwara cakukoleska mabere, bere lake lingazuzumuka. Lingazuzumuka mtali wa masentimita 4 mpaka 18 panji kwenaco. Lingazuzumukaso ku mbali. Ukuru wa zuzumuko uwu ukukhwaskana na ukuru na nchito ya bere. Ŵafukufuku ŵasangaso fundo yinyake. Umo ukuru wa bere la mwanakazi ukukurira, ndimo wakuchitiranga pacoko nchito za thupi. Comenecomene nchito zankhongono. Ŵanakazi ŵachoko waka awo ŵali na mabere ghakuru chomene ndiwo ŵakucimbiranga. Ŵasekele ŵakupendekezga kuti ŵanakazi ŵavware chakuvwara cakukoleska mabere ico chikwenelera pa nchito za thupi. Ici nchakuti ŵaleke kupulika kupweteka. == Umoza na masuzgo == Nkhani ikulu: [[Breast disease|Nthenda za bere]] Bere lingasangika na masuzgo ghanandi. Ghanyake ghambura khansa, ghanyake gha khansa. Masuzgo ghakuwanda comene ghambura khansa ni mastitis ya ŵamama, kusintha kwa bere kwa fibrocystic, na kupweteka kwa bere. Kutuluska mkaka kwambura kukhwaskana na nthumbo kukuchemeka galactorrhea. Kungachitiskika na mankhwala ghanyake, nga ni mankhwala gha antipsychotic. Kungachitiskikaso na masuzgo ghankhongono gha thupi, panji masuzgo gha mahomoni. Kutuluska mkaka mu ŵana ŵanchoko kukuchitiskika na mahomoni gha mama. Mahomoni agha ghakanjira mu ndopa za mwana pa nyengo ya nthumbo. === Khansa ya bere === Nkhani ikulu: [[Breast cancer|Khansa ya bere]] Khansa ya bere yikufuma mu nyama ya bere. Ndico cifukwa cakuwanda comene ca nyifwa za khansa mwa ŵanakazi. Nkhukuŵaso cimoza mwa vifukwa vikuru vya nyifwa yose mwa ŵanakazi. Vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka kucepeska candamizo ca khansa ya bere ni vinandi. Vikusazgapo kusanda bere mwakukhazikika na ŵasekele, mammogram zakukhazikika, na kujisanda ŵekha. Vikusazgapo so cakurya ciwemi, nchito za thupi kucepeska mafuta ghakujumphizga, na kuyamwiska. Vimanyikwiro vya khansa ya bere vingasazgamo cifula mu bere, kusintha kwa muwoneskero wa bere, na kufinyana kwa khungu. Vingasazgamoso kukanizga mkaka, kutuluska mazi mu ndomo, ndomo iyo yayamba kugwazgamira mkati mwaphya, panji khungu lakugwaduka na lakuzunda. Mwa awo nthenda yajumphira ku vigaŵa vinyake vya thupi, pangaŵa kupweteka kwa viwangwa, kufula kwa viŵaya vya lymph, na kusuzga kupumira. Pangaŵaso khungu kusanduka na mtundu wa jaundice. Vinthu ivyo vikukwezga candamizo ca khansa ya bere ni vinandi. Vikusazgamo kulemera kwa thupi kwanadi, kusoŵa nchito za thupi, na kumwa waini mwakujumphizga. Vikusazgamoso mankhwala ghakuwezgerapo mahomoni pa nyengo yakumaliro ya mwezi, na kukwaskika kwa ma radiation kanandi. Vikusazgamoso msinkhu wakucoko comene wa mwezi wakwamba, kuŵa na ŵana pamanyuma comene panji kuŵavya nawo, na msinkhu wakuru. Vikusazgamoso kale kuŵa na khansa ya bere, na mbumba iyo yili na sono la khansa ya bere. Pafupifupi asenula gha vyakwenelera vikwiza chifukwa ca uzukulu wakupokelerana. Ivi vikusazgamo vipangiro vya BRCA. Khansa ya bere kanandi yikufuma mu maselo gha mphepete wa nthowa za mkaka. Yingafumaso mu vigaŵa vichoko ivyo vikupeleka nthowa izi mkaka. Khansa iyo yikufuma mu nthowa yikuchemeka ductal carcinoma. Iyo yikufuma mu vigaŵa vichoko yikuchemeka lobular carcinoma. Pali mitundu yinyake yakujumphapo 18 ya khansa ya bere. Kumanyikwa kwa khansa ya bere kukukhozgeka na biopsy ya nyama iyo yikukayikika. == Mabere gha ŵanalume == Ŵanakazi na ŵanalume vyose ŵakukura mabere kufuma mu nyama yiyeneyiyo ya embryo. Mwakwenderako, mabere gha ŵanalume ghalije vigaŵa vichoko na acini ivyo vili mwa ŵanakazi. Mu vyakwenelera vichoko, vigaŵa vichoko vingaŵako. Ndipo ici nkhucipangiska kuti ŵanalume ŵanyake ŵangasangika na khansa ya bere ya lobular. Kwenderathu, ŵanalume ŵakupanga estrogen zichoko na androgen zinandi, comenecomene testosterone. Izi zikukanizga estrogen kukura kwa nyama ya bere yakujumphizga. Mu ŵasepuka na ŵanalume, kukura kwambura kwenelera kwa bere kukuchemeka gynecomastia. Ici cikwizira chifukwa ca kusoŵa uyelela pakati pa estrogen na testosterone mu thupi la mwanalume. Pafupifupi 70% ya ŵasepuka ŵakukura nyama ya bere kwakanyengo mu nyengo ya kukomera. Suzgo ili likumazgikira lyekha mu vyaka viŵiri. Para mwanalume watuluska mkaka, ici nchimanyikwiro ca suzgo la chiŵaya ca pituitary. == Opaleshoni yakupendeskera == Opaleshoni yakupendeskera yingachitika kukuzga panji kucepeska ukuru wa mabere. Ingachitikaso kuwezgerapo bere pa vyakwenelera vya nthenda, nga khansa ya bere. Opaleshoni ya kukuzga bere na yakunyoloska bere (mastopexy) zikucitika waka chifukwa ca kupendeka. Opaleshoni ya kucepeska bere nyengo zinyake njakukhumbikwa pa nthenda. Pa vyakwenelera umo mabere gha mwanakazi ghambura kuyana comene, opaleshoni yingachitika. Yingakuzga bere lichoko, kucepeska bere likuru, panji vyose viŵiri. Opaleshoni ya kukuzga bere kanandi njayayi kutimbanizga nkhongono yakuyamwiska panyuma. Opaleshoni ya kucepeska bere kanandi yikupangiska kucepa kwa kupulika mu mphepete wa ndomo. Yikupangiskaso kucepa kwa mkaka mwa awo ŵakusankha kuyamwiska. == Mu chikhalidwe na mikoko == === Comweco === Mu vithuzi vya Chikhristu, mabuku ghanyake gha luso ghakulongora ŵanakazi na mabere ghawo mu mawoko panji pa mbale. Ivi vikulongora kuti ŵakafwa nga ŵakapatulika chifukwa ca kudumulika mabere. Ciyelezgero cimoza ni Ŵapatulika Agatha wa Sicily. Femen ni gulu la ŵanakazi ŵakukanizga ivyo vikukwaskana na tenda. Likugwiliskira ntchito kufumiska mabere pa waro nga njira ya kukanizga. Likukanizga turisti wa tenda, mabungwe gha chipembedzo, na kusankhana kwa mahanya. Likukanizgaso kususka ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwana ŵa mahanya ghakuyana. Ŵakhalikiro ŵa Femen ŵakolekanga kanandi na apolisi chifukwa ca vikanizgo vyawo. Pali mdauko utali wa kugwiliskira ntchito mabere gha ŵanakazi nga chinthu ca kuseskana na ŵaseŵezgi. === Mdauko wa luso === Mu vibumba vya kale vya ku Ulaya, zisema za ŵanakazi zikaŵa zakuwanda. Zisema izi zikulongora mabere ghakukura chomene. Ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa comene ni Venus wa Willendorf. Vinthu nga mabakuli, vithuzi vyakusembeka pa malibwe, na zisema zakupatulika izo zili na mabere vyasangika. Vyasangika kufuma 15,000 BC mpaka pamazgiro gha nyengo ya kale. Vyasangika mu Ulaya, Afrika Yakumpoto, na Middle East. Ŵawuchi ŵanandi ŵa citemwa na kufuma ŵakakolerananga na mabere na mkaka wa bere. Ŵakakolerana chiŵanda ca Phoenicia Astarte kuyimiligwa nga vikuni ivyo vili na mabere. Isis ni chiŵanda ca ku Egypt ico cikayimira uchimwali wiwemi. Kanandi cikalongoreka kuti chikuyamwiska ŵafumu, kukhozga uwemi wawo wa uchindami. Nanga viŵanda vinyake vyanalume, ivyo vikayimira kuwezgekaso na kufuma, vikalongoreka na vinthu vyakuyana na mabere. Ciyelezgero ni chiŵanda ca lwizi Hapy, ico cikawoneka kuti nchakupangiska Nile kuzura mwaka uliwose. Mabere gha ŵanakazi ghakawoneka comene mu luso lwa Minoan. Ghakawoneka mu vikozgo vya "Snake Goddess", na mu vinthu vinyake vichoko. Nangauli mabere ghanandi ghakabisikanga. Ku Girisi wakale, pakaŵa magulu ghakusopa "Kourotrophos", mama wakuyamwiska. Ghakuyimirika na viŵanda nga Gaia, Hera, na Artemis. Kusopa viŵanda ivyo vikuyimirika na bere la mwanakazi ku Girisi kukacepa. Kukacepa mu vyaka vyakwamba vya milleniya yakwamba. Pakati pa milleniya yakwamba BC, chikhalidwe ca Girisi chikasintha. Chikasintha munjila umo mabere gha ŵanakazi ghakawonekeranga mu luso. Ŵanakazi mu luso ŵakavwalikanga kufuma pa singo kuya pasi. Ici cikusazgamo viŵanda vyanakazi nga Athena. Kukaŵa vyakupambuka: Aphrodite, chiŵanda ca citemwa. Kanandi cikalongoreka kwambura kuvwara. Nangauli mu vithuzi ivyo vikayezgekanga kulongora kujivikilira panji nsoni. === Muwoneskero wa thupi === Ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakuwona mabere ghawo kuti nkhwakukhumbikwa pa kupendeka kwawo kwa tenda. Nkhucimanyikwiro ca uchimwali icho nchakukhumbikwa pa umo ŵakujiwonera. Mwanakazi uyo wali na mabere ghachoko wangawona mabere ghake kuti ngambura kupendeka. === Vyakuvwara === Mabere ghakupangika comene na mafuta. Lekani muwoneskero wake ungasinthika na vyakuvwara, nga chakuvwara cakukoleska mabere. Ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵa Kumadzulo ŵakuvwara chakuvwara cakukoleska mabere. Kanandi ŵakucivwara kuti chiŵakoleske. Mzimu wa comweco mu vikhalidwe vinandi vya Kumadzulo ni kubisa mabere pa waro. Nangauli muyelezgero wa kubisa uku ukupambana kuyana na fundo ya comweco. Vipembedzo vinyake vikupeleka mzuzu wapadera ku bere la mwanakazi. Mwakwenderapo panji kwizira mu vimanyikwiro. Chisilamu chikukanizga ŵanakazi kufumiska mabere ghawo pa waro. Vikhalidwe vinandi, kusazgamo vya ku North America, vikukolerana mabere na tenda. Vikuwona mabere ghakufumiskika kuti ngambura mchindo panji ngakuipa. Mu vikhalidwe vinyake, nga Ŵahimba ku Namibia yakumpoto, ŵanakazi kuŵa wambura kuvikilira mabere ni vyakwenelera vyakuzomerezgeka. Mu vikhalidwe vinyake vya ku Afrika, mwaciyelezgero, chigha nchakuwoneka kuti nchakukhwaskana na tenda comene. Chigha nkhukufumiskika pa waro yayi. Kweni kufumiska bere nkhukuwoneka kuti nkhwakukanizgika yayi. Maghanoghano na malango pa nkhani ya kuyamwiska pa waro ghakupambanapambana comene. Mu vyalo vinandi, kuyamwiska pa waro nkhwakuwanda. Nkhwakuvikilirika na malango. Nkhukuwoneka kuti ni suzgo yayi. Ndipouli, nangauli nchakuzomerezgeka mwa malango panji mu chikhalidwe, ŵamama ŵanyake ŵangaŵa na wofi. Wofi wa kufumiska bere pa waro kuti ŵayamwiske. Ici chifukwa ca vikanizgo panji vyowoyeka vyakukanizga kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanyake. === Vimanyikwiro vya tenda === Mu vikhalidwe vinyake, mabere ghali na mulimo mu nchito za tenda za ŵanthu. Mabere, comenecomene ndomo, ni yimoza mwa vigaŵa vinandi vya thupi ivyo vikutolekera na tenda. Ni vyakusanda pakukwaskika chifukwa vili na musipa unandi wa maghanoghano. Nchakuwanda kuvikamiska panji kuvipukuta na mawoko panji pakamwa, pambere panji pa nyengo ya tenda. Para munthu wakukwezgeka na tenda, ukuru wa bere ukukwezgeka. Mizere ya musimbo wakufuma yikuwoneka comene. Ndomo zikukolelaso. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona mabere gha ŵanakazi ghambura kuvikilirika kuti ngakutowa panji ngakukwezga tenda. Mu buku lakale la ku India la Kama Sutra, kukwaruzga kucoko mabere na minwe vikuwoneka kuti nchakukwezga tenda. Ndiposo kuluma na meno vikuwoneka nthena yiyo. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakukhumbikwira mabere gha ŵanakazi pera kuluska thupi lose. Ici ni khumbo lapadera. === Mahara pa vyalo === Nkhani ikulu: [[Breast-shaped hill|Lupiri lwakuyana na bere]] Pali mapiri ghanandi ghakuchemeka pa comweco ca bere. Ici nkhu chifukwa ghakuyana nalo mu muwoneskero. Ntheura ghakuŵa vinthu vya kusopa kwa tenda na kusopa ŵasekulu, nga cimanyikwiro ca kubaba na umoyo wiwemi. == Muyeso == Nkhani ikulu: [[Breast measurement|Muyeso wa bere]] Kukura na ukuru wa mabere kungapimika mwa njira zakupambanapambana, kusazgamo Tanner staging, muyeso wa ukuru wa chakuvwara cakukoleska mabere, ukuru wa bere, na vipimo vinyake. == Wonanisoso == * [[Udder|Bere la vinyama]] == Vyakuwelenga == {{Reflist}} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] e3l3cop4s31tn2zjtve7q7nukym3dgx 0 49723 122311 122260 2026-09-24T17:01:28Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122311 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Chigaŵa ca thupi ico chili pakati pa chifuwa na chiuno}} '''Nthumbo''' m'nkhani iyi yikung'anamura chigaŵa ca thupi. Lizgu ili lingagwiliskikiraso kuyowoyera kuti mwanakazi watora nthumbo (ali pa nthumbo), kweni ng'anamuro ili nkhwakupambana na icho nkhani iyi yikulongosora. {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Nthumbo |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Abdomen-periumbilical region.png|220px|Nthumbo ya munthu]]<br/><small>Nthumbo ya munthu</small> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Anatomy Abdomen Tiesworks.jpg|220px|Nthumbo ya mwanalume na viŵalo ivyo vili mkati]]<br/><small>Nthumbo ya mwanalume na viŵalo ivyo vili mkati</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''abdomen'' |} Nthumbo ni cigaŵa ca kunthazi ca thupi. Mwa ŵanthu na vinyama vinyake ivyo vili na muwongo, nthumbo yili pakati pa chifuwa na chiuno. Malo agho nthumbo yikuŵapo ghakuchemeka mzia wa nthumbo. Mu vibawo, nthumbo yikuchemekaso kuti metasoma. Ni cigaŵa ca umaliro wa thupi ndipo chikulondezga chifuwa panji cephalothorax.<ref name="dictionary">{{Cite web|title=Abdomen|publisher=Dictionary.com|access-date=2007-10-22}}</ref> Mwa ŵanthu, nthumbo yikufuma ku chifuwa pa diaphragm mpaka ku chiuno pa mphepete wa chiuno. Mphepete wa chiuno ukufuma ku nkhomano ya msana na chiuno (disc yakupakati pa L5 na S1) mpaka ku pubic symphysis. Ndiwo mphepete wa mulyango wa chiuno. Malo agho ghali pachanya pa mulyango uwu na pasi pa diaphragm ghakuchemeka mzia wa nthumbo. Malire gha mzia wa nthumbo ni khoma la nthumbo kunthazi na peritoneum kunyuma. Mu vinyama ivyo vili na muwongo, nthumbo ni mzia ukuru wa m'thupi. Ukuzingilirika na minofu ya nthumbo kunthazi na mumphepete, na chigaŵa ca msana kunyuma. Mbaru zapasi zingazingilirapo khoma la kunthazi na la mumphepete. Mzia wa nthumbo ukukolerana na kuŵa pachanya pa mzia wa chiuno. Ukukolerana na mzia wa chifuwa kwizira mu diaphragm. Vinthu nga aorta, vena cava yapasi, na nthowa ya cakurya vikujumphira mu diaphragm. Mzia wa nthumbo na mzia wa chiuno vyose vikuzingilirika na thako lakuchemeka peritoneum yakumphepete.<ref name="peritoneum">{{Cite book|title=The Veterinary Dictionary|publisher=Elsevier|year=2007}}</ref> Thako ili likukolerana na peritoneum yakuzingilira viŵalo. Nthumbo mu vinyama ivyo vili na muwongo yili na viŵalo vinandi, nga umo ni vya mzia wakugaya chakurya, mzia wakuthuta mvuchi, na mzia wa minofu. ==Ivyo vilimo== Mzia wa nthumbo uli na viŵalo vinandi vya mzia wakugaya chakurya. Muli chiŵaya ca cakurya, mala machoko, na colon pamoza na appendix yake. Viŵalo vinyake vyakugaya chakurya vikuchemeka viŵalo vyakovwira, ndipo vikusazgapo chiwindi, chiŵaya ca nyongo cakukolerana nacho, na pancreas. Ivi vikukolerana na vinyake kwizira mu nthowa zakupambanapambana. Spleen, na viŵalo vya mzia wakuthuta mvuchi nga ni maimpso, na viŵaya vya pachanya pa maimpso, navyo vili mu nthumbo. Muli misimbo yinandi ya ndopa, kusazgapo aorta na vena cava yapasi. Chiŵaya ca mkodzo, nthumbo (chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo), nthowa za mazira, na viŵaya vya mazira, vingaŵikika kuŵa viŵalo vya nthumbo panji vya chiuno. Pauumaliro, nthumbo yili na thako likuru lakuchemeka peritoneum. Peritoneum yingazingilira comene viŵalo vinyake. Kweniso yingazingilira mbali yimoza yekha ya viŵalo ivyo vili pafupi na khoma la nthumbo. Ici chikuchemeka retroperitoneum, ndipo maimpso na ureter vikuchemeka viŵalo vya retroperitoneum. ==Minofu ya nthumbo== Mu khoma la nthumbo muli mathako ghatatu gha minofu. Kufuma kuwalo kuya mkati ni: external oblique, internal oblique, na transverse abdominal. Mathako ghatatu agha ghakufuma ku msana, ku mbaru zapasi, ku iliac crest, na ku pubis ya chiuno. Vinjiri vyake vyose vikukolerana pakati na kuzingilira minofu ya rectus abdominis mu thako, kufuma apo vikukolerana mumphepete linyake pa linea alba. Nkhongono yikufuma mu kujintha kwa vinjiri, umo external oblique yikwendera pasi na kunthazi, internal oblique yikwendera pachanya na kunthazi, ndipo transverse abdominal yikwendera cimwaŵi na kunthazi.<ref name="EB">{{Cite book|title=Abdominal cavity|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|volume=I|edition=15th|location=Chicago|year=2010|pages=19–20|isbn=978-1-59339-837-8}}</ref> Mnofu wa transverse abdominal ni wakupapatala na wa makona ghatatu. Vinjiri vyake vikwendera cimwaŵi. Uli pakati pa internal oblique na transverse fascia iyo yili pasi pake. Ukufuma ku inguinal ligament, ku ma cartilage gha mbaru 7–12, ku iliac crest, na ku thoracolumbar fascia. Ukukolerana ku conjoint tendon, ku xiphoid process, ku linea alba, na ku pubic crest. Minofu ya rectus abdominis njitali na yakupapatala. Minofu iyi yikujintika na vinjiri vitatu ivyo vikuchemeka tendinous intersections. Rectus abdominis njakuzingilirika na thako likuzito, ilo lanozgeka kufuma mu vinjiri vya minofu yitatu ya khoma la mumphepete la nthumbo. Yikufuma ku chiwangwa ca pubis, yikukwera nthumbo mumphepete zoseŵiri za linea alba, ndipo yikukolerana ku ma cartilage gha mbaru yacinkhonde, yamphambano, na yankhondi na ziŵiri. Mu chigaŵa ca ntangararo, inguinal canal ni nthowa yakujumphira mu mathako agha. Mu mpherembezi uwu ndimo ma testes ghakusuzgikira kujumphira mu khoma. Ndimoso mzati kufuma ku nthumbo (chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo) mu mwanakazi ukwendera. Apa nchakoso apo kupepuka kungapangika, na kuvyusa inguinal hernia.<ref name="EB"/> Mnofu wa pyramidalis ni muchoko na wa makona ghatatu. Uli mu nthumbo yapasi, kunthazi kwa rectus abdominis. Ukufuma ku chiwangwa ca pubis ndipo ukukolerana ku linea alba, pakati pa apo na mbwera. ==Ntchito== Pa nchito yake, nthumbo ya munthu ndimo muli chigaŵa cinandi ca mzia wakugaya chakurya. Ntheura, kutolera na kugaya kwa cakurya kukuchitikira comene apa. Mzia wa cakurya mu nthumbo uli na cigaŵa capasi ca nthowa ya cakurya, chiŵaya ca cakurya, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum na appendix, ma colon ghakukwera, ghapakati, na ghakukhira, sigmoid colon, na rectum. Viŵalo vinyake vyakuzirwa mu nthumbo vikusazgapo chiwindi, maimpso, pancreas, na spleen. Khoma la nthumbo likugaŵikana mu makhoma gha kunyuma, gha mumphepete, na gha kunthazi. Minofu ya nthumbo yili na nchito zakupambanapambana zakuzirwa. Yikovwira pakupumira, comenecomene pakupumira kuwaro mwankhongono. Kuwonjezgapo, minofu iyi yikuvikilira viŵalo vya mkati. Pamoza na minofu ya msana, yikovwiraso kwimilira makola na kukhozgera muwoneskero wa thupi. Apo glottis yijalika ndipo chifuwa na chiuno vikukhazikika, minofu iyi njakukhumbikwa comene pa nchito za kukolowora, kusuzga, kufuma cakurya, kubaba mwana, kukalasika, na kwimba. Para chiuno chikhazikika, minofu iyi yingambiska kwenda kwa thupi kunthazi. Yikuvikiliraso kuti thupi lireke kupinduka comene kunyuma. Para chifuwa chikhazikika, minofu iyi yingakoka chiuno kuchanya. Pamalizgo, yingapinda msana mumphepete na kovwira mu kuzunguluska thupi.<ref name="EB"/> Mnofu wa transverse abdominis ndiwo wa mkati comene. Ntheura, ungakhwaskika yayi kufuma kuwaro. Ungakhwaska comene muwoneskero wa thupi. Minofu ya internal oblique nayo yili mkati, ndipo yikukhwaskaso muwoneskero wa thupi. Yoseŵiri yikovwira pakuzunguluska na kupinda msana mumphepete, ndipo yikugwiliskikira ntchito pakupinda na kukhozgera msana kufuma kunthazi. Minofu ya external oblique yili kuwaro comene, ndipo nayoso yikovwira pakuzunguluska na kupinda msana mumphepete. Yikukhozgeraso msana para munthu wimilira. Mnofu wa rectus abdominis ndiwo wakuwaro yayi comene pa minofu ya nthumbo. Thako lakufuma ku external oblique likuzingilira rectus abdominis. Rectus abdominis ndiwo mnofu uwo ŵanthu ŵakukhwima chomene ŵakuwukuzga kuŵa "six-pack", nangauli muli vigaŵa vinkhonde vyakwima mumphepete zoseŵiri. Vigaŵa viŵiri vyapasi vili pacoko pachanya pa chiwangwa ca pubis, ndipo kanandi vikuwoneka yayi. Nchito ya rectus abdominis ni kupinda msana kunthazi (flexion). Nchito yikuru ya minofu ya nthumbo ni kupinda msana kunthazi para yikukolerana.<ref name="abdominalmusclegroup">{{Cite web|title=The Abdominal Muscle Group|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref name="hockey">{{Cite book|last1=Terry|first1=Michael|last2=Goodman|first2=Paul|title=Hockey Anatomy|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2019|pages=74–75|isbn=978-1-4925-3588-1}}</ref> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Maghanoghano gha vikhalidwe pa muwoneskero wa nthumbo ghakupambanapambana pa charu chapasi. Kuyana na mtundu wa chikhalidwe, kunenepa comene kungawoneka kuti nkhwakulongora usambazi na mchindo chifukwa ca cakurya chinandi. Panji kungawoneka kuti nkhwakulongora umoyo uheni chifukwa ca kusoŵa kuzenga thupi. Mu vikhalidwe vinandi, nthumbo yakufumiskika pakuwaro yikuwoneka nga chinthu cakukhwaskana na tenda, munjila yakuyana na umo bere likuwonekera. ==Umoyo makola na kuzenga thupi== Minofu ya nthumbo njakuzirwa comene pakukhozgera msana na kwimilira makola. Ntheura, nchakukhumbikwa kuzenga minofu ya nthumbo makola pamoza na minofu ya msana. Usange minofu iyi njakupepuka panji njakukhinyilira comene, yingasuzgika na kupweteka na kulemazgika. Para minofu ya nthumbo yazengeka makola, yikovwira kukhozgera muwoneskero wa thupi na kwenda makola. Yikucepeskaso kupweteka kwa msana, na kuvikilira ku kulemazgika.<ref name="backpain">{{Cite book|last=Raj|first=Joshua|title=A Guide to the Prevention and Treatment of Back Pain|publisher=Armour|location=Singapore|year=2011|page=23|isbn=978-981-4305-32-7}}</ref><ref name="wellness">{{Cite book|last1=Reger-Nash|first1=Bill|last2=Smith|first2=Meredith|last3=Juckett|first3=Gregory|title=Foundations of Wellness|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2015|page=96|isbn=978-1-4504-0200-2}}</ref> Yikovwiraso kutaŵiska ma opaleshoni ghanyake gha msana, na kovwira kuzuka kwa masuzgo gha msana panji pamanyuma pa opaleshoni ya msana. Minofu ya nthumbo yikakhozga, yikuŵikaso viwezgero. Minofu ya nthumbo yingazengeka na masuzo gha nkhongono na kuzenga thupi, kwizira mu mizirwe nga ni Pilates,<ref name="pilates">{{Cite book|last=Isacowitz|first=Rael|title=Pilates|edition=2nd|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2014|page=36|isbn=978-1-4504-3416-4}}</ref> yoga,<ref name="yoga">{{Cite book|last=Swenson|first=Doug|title=Power Yoga for Dummies|publisher=Wiley|year=2001|chapter=Accumulating strong abs}}</ref> tai chi, na kucimbira mwakwenderera. Kunenepa kwa nthumbo ni suzgo umo mafuta gha nthumbo ghakuwungana comene pakati pa viŵalo vya nthumbo. Ici nkhwakolerana na ntchindi yikuru ya nthenda ya mtima, asthma, na shuga wa mtundu wachiŵiri. Kwananga kwa nthumbo ni kulemazgika kwa nthumbo, ndipo kungakhwaskana na kunanga kwa viŵalo vyake. Muli ntchindi ya kutaya ndopa zinandi na kupokelera nthenda.<ref name="trauma">{{Cite journal|last1=Jansen|first1=JO|last2=Yule|first2=SR|last3=Loudon|first3=MA|title=Investigation of blunt abdominal trauma|journal=BMJ|volume=336|issue=7650|pages=938–942|date=April 2008}}</ref> Kwananga kwa chifuwa capasi kungapangiska kunanga kwa spleen na chiwindi.<ref name="emergency">{{Cite book|last=Wyatt|first=Jonathon|title=Oxford Handbook of Emergency Medicine|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|page=346|isbn=978-0-19-920607-0}}</ref> Nthumbo ya scaphoid ni apo nthumbo yikutolekera mkati.<ref name="dorland">{{Cite book|title=Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary|edition=32nd|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia|year=2012|page=2|isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8}}</ref> Mwa mwana wakubabika kumaliro, ici chingalongora diaphragmatic hernia.<ref name="newborn">{{Cite book|last1=Durward|first1=Heather|last2=Baston|first2=Helen|title=Examination of the Newborn: A Practical Guide|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2001|page=134|isbn=978-0-415-19184-5}}</ref> Comenecomene, chikulongora kusoŵa kwa cakurya chakwenelera.<ref name="clinicalmethods">{{Cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Charles|title=Clinical Methods|edition=3rd|chapter=Inspection, Auscultation, Palpation, and Percussion of the Abdomen|publisher=Butterworths|location=Boston|year=1990}}</ref> ==Nthenda== Nthenda zinandi za mzia wakugaya chakurya zikukhwaska viŵalo vya nthumbo. Izi zikusazgapo nthenda za chiŵaya ca cakurya, za chiwindi, za pancreas, na za chiŵaya ca nyongo na nthowa zake. Nthenda za mala zikusazgapo enteritis, coeliac disease, diverticulitis, na irritable bowel syndrome. ==Kusanda na kupima nthenda== Nthowa zakupambanapambana za uganga zingagwiliskikira ntchito kusanda viŵalo vya mzia wakugaya chakurya. Izi zikusazgapo endoscopy, colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, enteroscopy, oesophagogastroduodenoscopy, na virtual colonoscopy. Kulipo so nthowa zinandi zakujura vithuzi vya mkati mwa thupi izo zingagwiliskikira ntchito. Fundo zakumanyikwira pachanya pa nthumbo nkhwakukhumbikwa comene pakusanda nthumbo. ==Fundo zakumanyikwira pachanya== Pa mzere wapakati, muli mphuvya yicoko iyo yikufuma ku xiphoid process kuchanya mpaka ku pubic symphysis kupasi. Iyi ndiyo linea alba mu khoma la nthumbo. Pakati-na-kati pake pali mbwera. Mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima, rectus abdominis mumphepete zoseŵiri za linea alba yikuwoneka comene. Muwoneskero wa minofu iyi ukudumulikamo na vithukuta vitatu panji kuluska, ivyo vikulongora tendinous intersections. Kanandi pali cimoza pafupi na xiphoid process, cinyake pa mbwera, na cinyake pakati pake. Ni kukolerana kwa linea alba na tendinous intersections ndiko kukupanga "six-pack" iyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhumba. Malire gha kuchanya mumphepete mwa nthumbo ni subcostal margin, iyo yikupangika na ma cartilage gha mbaru zambura unenesko (8, 9, 10) apo zikukolerana. Malire ghapasi mumphepete ni iliac crest ya kunthazi na Poupart's ligament, iyo yikufuma ku iliac spine ya kunthazi mpaka ku pubic spine. Malire agha ghapasi ghakulongoreka na vithukuta ivyo vikuwoneka. Pacoko pachanya pa pubic spines mumphepete zoseŵiri pali external abdominal rings. Agha ni maenje mu khoma la minofu ya nthumbo, agho spermatic cord yikufumira mu mwanalume, na agho inguinal hernia yingapasukira. Nthowa yimoza yakumanyira malo agho vinthu vya mu nthumbo vilimo ni kujora mizere yitatu yakugonda na yiŵiri yakwima: * Mzere wakuchanya comene ni transpyloric line ya C. Addison. Uli pakati-na-kati pa suprasternal notch na pachanya pa pubic symphysis. Kanandi ukujumphira pa phako la pyloric la chiŵaya ca cakurya, inchi yimoza kumalyerero kwa mzere wapakati. Hilum ya impso yiliyose yili pacoko pasi pake. Umaliro wake wa kumazgoji ukukhwaska pafupi na malire ghapasi gha spleen. Kunyuma, ukuyana na chiwangwa cakwamba ca lumbar. * Mzere wachiŵiri ni subcostal line, wakujorwa kufuma pa fundo yapasi comene ya subcostal arch (mbaru yakhumi). Ukuyana na cigaŵa cakuchanya ca chiwangwa cacitatu ca lumbar, ndipo uli pafupifupi inchi yimoza pachanya pa mbwera. Ukulongora pafupifupi transverse colon, maumaliro ghapasi gha maimpso, na malire ghakuchanya gha cigaŵa cacitatu ca duodenum. * Mzere wacitatu ni intertubercular line, wakwenda pakati pa vithuza viŵiri ivyo vikupulikika pa mphepete wakuwaro wa iliac crest, pafupifupi mainchi ghaŵiri na hafu (64 mm) kufuma ku iliac spine ya kunthazi. Mzere uwu ukuyana na thupi la chiwangwa cacinkhonde na cimoza ca lumbar, ndipo ukujumphira pa ileo-caecal valve panji pacoko pachanya pake, apo mala machoko ghakukolerana na mala makuru. Mizere yiŵiri yakwima (mid-Poupart) yikujorwa kufuma pa fundo yapakati-na-kati pa iliac spine ya kunthazi na pubic symphysis, mumphepete zoseŵiri, kuya kuchanya mpaka ku costal margin. * Mzere wakumalyerero ndiwo wakuzirwa comene, chifukwa ileo-caecal valve yili apo ukujumphira intertubercular line. Phako la appendix lili inchi yimoza pasi pake, pa McBurney's point. Kuchanya kwake, mzere uwu ukukumana na transpyloric line pa malire ghapasi gha mbaru, kanandi mbaru yacinkhondi na yimoza, ndipo apa ndimo chiŵaya ca nyongo chilimo. * Mzere wa mid-Poupart wa kumazgoji, mu vigaŵa vitatu vya vinayi vyake vyakuchanya, ukuyana na mphepete wa mkati wa descending colon. Costal margin ya kumalyerero yikuyana na malire ghapasi gha chiwindi. Apo ndomo ya kumalyerero yili pafupifupi hafu ya inchi pachanya pa malire ghake ghakuchanya. ==Magaŵa na vigaŵa== Nthumbo yingagaŵikika mu magaŵa panji vigaŵa kuti vilongosore malo agho chiŵalo panji chinthu chilimo. Kwamba kale, magaŵa ghakulongoseka kuti: kumazgoji kuchanya, kumazgoji kupasi, kumalyerero kuchanya, na kumalyerero kupasi. Magaŵa ghakugwiliskikiraso ntchito pakulongosora malo agho kupweteka kwa nthumbo kulimo.<ref name="saladin">{{Cite book|last=Saladin|first=Kenneth|title=Human Anatomy|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=2011|page=14|isbn=9780071222075}}</ref> Nthumbo yingagaŵikikaso mu vigaŵa vinkhonde, ivyo vikunozgeka mu mizere yitatu na maolamu ghatatu: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | hypochondriac (kumalyerero) || epigastric || hypochondriac (kumazgoji) |- | lumbar/flank (kumalyerero) || umbilical || lumbar/flank (kumazgoji) |- | inguinal/iliac (kumalyerero) || hypogastric/suprapubic || inguinal/iliac (kumazgoji) |} Mazgu agha ghakufuma mu Chigiriki: "hypo" kung'anamura "pasi" na "epi" kung'anamura "pachanya". "Chondron" kung'anamura "cartilage" (apa nkhu cartilage ya mbaru), ndipo "gaster" kung'anamura "chiŵaya ca cakurya". Kusinthirapo kwa "kumazgoji" na "kumalyerero" nkhwakwenelera, chifukwa mazina agha ghakulongora kumalyerero na kumazgoji kwa mulwari mwene, ntheura nkhwakupinduka pakuwona kwa uyo wakulaŵiska. "Right iliac fossa" (RIF) ni malo ghakuwanda ghakupwetekera ŵalwari awo ŵali na appendicitis. Fossa iyi yikuchemeka nga umo iliac fossa ya chiwangwa ca chiuno yiliri. Ntheura zina lake nlambura kwenelera comene, chifukwa vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangiska kupweteka mu cigaŵa ici nkhwambura kuŵa mu mphako wa iliac fossa yeneyo. Ndipouli, lizgu ili nkhwakugwiliskikira ntchito comene. ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Viŵalo vya nthumbo vingaŵa vyakupambana comene mu vinyama vinyake vyakuyamwiska ŵana. Mwaciyelezgero, chiŵaya ca cakurya ca ruminants (mtundu wa vinyama vyakuyamwiska ŵana uwo ukusazgamo ng'ombe na mberere) chikugaŵikana mu vyipinda vinayi — rumen, reticulum, omasum, na abomasum.<ref name="ruminant">{{Cite book|title=Ruminant|encyclopedia=The Veterinary Dictionary|publisher=Elsevier|year=2007}}</ref> Mu vibawo, nthumbo yikupangika na mbale zakuchanya izo zikuchemeka tergites na mbale zapasi izo zikuchemeka sternites. Vyose vikukolerana na thako likukhora kweni lakuthambalira. Mu tuyuni twa vibawo, nthumbo yili na mzia wakugaya chakurya na viŵalo vyakubabira vya kayuni. Mu tuyuni tunandi, nthumbo yili na vigaŵa likhumi na chimoza. Nangauli mu tuyuni tukuru tunandi tukakura, cigaŵa cakhumi na chimoza chikusoŵa. Unandi wa vigaŵa ivi ukupambana kufuma ku mtundu umoza kuya ku unyake. Mwa njuci yakuwanda, vigaŵa ivyo vikuwoneka ni vinkhonde vyekha. Mu Collembola (tuyuni twakuchemeka springtails), nthumbo yili na vigaŵa vitatandatu pera. Nyengo zinyake, nthumbo njakusintha comene. Mu Apocrita (njuci, masache, na maphiphi), cigaŵa cakwamba ca nthumbo chikukolerana na chifuwa ndipo chikuchemeka propodeum. Mu masache, cigaŵa cachiŵiri chikupanga petiole yakupapa. Masache ghanyake ghali na cigaŵa cinyake cakuchemeka postpetiole, ndipo vigaŵa vyakukhalira vikupanga gaster yakufuluma. Petiole na gaster (vigaŵa vya nthumbo kwamba pa vyaciŵiri) pamoza vikuchemeka metasoma.<ref name="glossary">{{Cite web|title=Glossary of Descriptive Terminology|url=https://desertants.org|access-date=2013-07-08}}</ref> Kupambana na vibawo vinyake, tuyuni twakura tulije malundi pa nthumbo. Nangauli Protura yili na viŵalo vichoko vyakuyana na malundi pa vigaŵa vitatu vyakwamba vya nthumbo. Archaeognatha nayo yili na "styli" zichoko izo nyengo zinyake zikuwoneka kuti ni viŵalo vichoko vyakuyambirira. Tuyuni tunandi tukuchali twa larva, kusazgapo Lepidoptera na Symphyta, tuli na viŵalo vyakupepuka vyakuchemeka prolegs pa vigaŵa vya nthumbo, kuwonjezgapo malundi ghawo ghakumanyikwa comene gha pa chifuwa. Ivi vikuvwira kukolerana na mphepete za masamba pakwenda kwawo. Mu arachnids (nkhwakala, chiŵelu, na vibawo vyakuyana navyo), lizgu "nthumbo" likugwiliskikira ntchito pamoza na "opisthosoma" ("thupi lakumanyuma"). Ici ni cigaŵa ca thupi ico chili kunyuma kwa cigaŵa ico chili na malundi na mutu (prosoma panji cephalothorax). ==Wonaniso== * [[Chifuwa]] * [[Chiuno]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist}} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] hxsxwja6w6ykhcc6u6cve8q281wapk9 0 49724 122290 122262 2026-09-24T15:38:29Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Anthonymunthali44 moved page [[Chiuno]] to [[Luwunda]]: Kusintha zina la nkhani - "luwunda" ndilo lizgu lakwenelera la chiuno (waist), "chiuno" wasazgika kugwiliskikira ntchito ku ntchafu (hip). 122262 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi cha pakati pa khoma la mbaru na ntchafu}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Chiuno |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |228775 |} '''Chiuno''' ni cigaŵa ca thupi icho chili pakati pa khoma la mbaru na ntchafu. Kanandi, ndico cigaŵa cichoko comene pa thupi. Mzere wa chiuno ukung'anamura mzere wakuthambalira apo chiuno chili chichoko comene. Ungang'anamuraso muwoneskero wose wa chiuno. Chifukwa cha ici, na chifukwa chakuti chiuno kanandi chikuyowoyeka pamoza na nthumbo, ŵanthu ŵangasokonezgeka pakumanya nadi malo agho chiuno chilipo. Chinthu cinyake icho chikusokoneska ni kuti mzere wa chiuno ukupambana pa ŵanthu ŵakupambana. Kafukufuku wimoza ukalongora kuti kuyeza kwa munthu mwene, m'malo mwa kuyezgeka na wakusanda, kukupungura ukuru wa chiuno uwo ukumanyikwa, ndipo kupungura uku kukukura para thupi la munthu lili likuru comene. Mu kafukufuku uyu, chiuno chikayezgeka pa mbwera chikaŵa chikuru kuluska apo chikayezgeka pa chiuno chanadi.<ref name="selfreport">{{Cite journal|last1=Bigaard|first1=Janne|last2=Spanggaard|first2=Iben|last3=Thomsen|first3=Birthe Lykke|last4=Overvad|first4=Kim|title=Self-Reported and Technician-Measured Waist Circumferences Differ in Middle-Aged Men and Women|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=135|issue=9|pages=2263–2270|date=2005-09-01|doi=10.1093/jn/135.9.2263|pmid=16140909}}</ref> Kuti muvimanye malo gha chiuno chanadi, imilirani cimira, ndipo mupende thupi mbali yimoza, mwakukhozga malundi na ntchafu kuti viŵe cimira. Malo agho thupi likujintha ndimo ni mzere wa chiuno wanadi. Kwakukho, chiuno chikuyezgeka pa mzere uwo uli pakati na pakati pa mbaru yapasi comene iyo yingakhwaskika na iliac crest. Ndiwo mung'anamuriro uwo World Health Organization yikugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="who">{{Cite web|author=World Health Organization|title=Waist Circumference and Waist–Hip Ratio, Report of a WHO Expert Consultation|date=2008-12-11|url=https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/44583/9789241501491_eng.pdf|access-date=2024-08-06}}</ref> Kwenekwene, chiuno chikuyezgeka pa mzere uwo uli mucoko comene, kanandi pacoko pachanya pa mbwera. Apo chiuno chikuŵa chakutupa m'malo mwa kuŵa chakunjilira mkati, nga umo mwanakazi wali pa nthumbo panji wanenepa comene, chiuno chingayezgeka pa mzere wa inchi yimoza pachanya pa mbwera. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mzere wa mbwera pera, kweni ici chingapangiska kupungura ukuru wa chiuno pakuyezga.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Female Body Characteristics Related to Bra Fit|year=2007|page=20}}</ref> Para wakugwiliskira ntchito makina ghakusanda thupi lose ghakupanga vithuzi vyakugwirizana (point cloud), viwangwa na mbwera vikusuzgika kumanyikwa kufuma mu vithuzi vyene. Mung'anamuriro umoza uwo ukugwiliskikira ntchito comene ni kuyeza pa masentimita 4 pachanya pa malo ghacoko gha kunyuma (SOB). Ici nkhwakwenelera yayi comene ku mung'anamuriro wakwenelera, ndipo masentimita 2 pachanya pa SOB nkhwakwenelera comene, umo vikawoneka mu kafukufuku wa ŵanakazi 106 ŵa vyaka, utali, uzito, na muwoneskero wakupambanapambana.<ref name="scanner1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|last3=Hayes|first3=Steve|last4=Brownbridge|first4=Kathryn|last5=Wren|first5=Paula|last6=Panchenko|first6=Anastasiia|title=The True Height of the Waist: Explorations of Automated Body Scanner Waist Definitions of the TC2 scanner|journal=Proc. of 5th Int. Conf. On 3D Body Scanning Technologies|pages=55–65|date=2014|doi=10.15221/14.055|isbn=978-3-033-04763-1}}</ref> Vinthu nga umo munthu wimilira (posture) vikukhwaska comene kuyeza kwa chiuno. Ntheura, kuyeza kwa gulu la ŵanthu kukukhumbikwira kuti wose ŵimilire munjila yiyeneyiyene.<ref name="scanner2">{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|title=Scan posture definition and hip girth measurement: the impact on clothing design and body scanning|journal=Ergonomics|volume=60|issue=8|pages=1123–1136|date=2017|doi=10.1080/00140139.2016.1251621|pmid=27764997}}</ref> Chiyelekezgero cha chiuno na ntchafu (waist–hip ratio) nkhu chiyelekezgero cha ukuru wa chiuno na ukuru wa ntchafu. Chikuyezga umo mafuta ghakugaŵikira mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Han|first1=T.|last2=Van Leer|first2=E.|last3=Seidell|first3=J.|last4=Lean|first4=M.|title=Waist circumference action levels in the identification of cardiovascular risk factors: prevalence study in a random sample|journal=BMJ|volume=311|issue=7017|pages=1401–1405|date=1995|doi=10.1136/bmj.311.7017.1401|pmid=8520275}}</ref> Ukuru wa chiuno (waist circumference) ukulongora kunenepa kwa nthumbo, ndipo ni cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito pakusanda "metabolic syndrome". Mafuta ghanandi mu nthumbo ni ntchindi yikuru ya nthenda ya mtima na nthenda zinyake izo zikwiza na kunenepa. Kafukufuku wakupharazgika mu European Heart Journal mu Epulo 2007 ukalongora kuti ukuru wa chiuno na chiyelekezgero cha chiuno na ntchafu vyose ni vakulongolera masuzgo gha mtima.<ref name="ehj">{{Cite journal|last1=de Koning|first1=Lawrence|last2=Merchant|first2=A.T.|last3=Pogue|first3=J.|last4=Anand|first4=S.S.|title=Waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio as predictors of cardiovascular events: meta-regression analysis of prospective studies|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=28|issue=7|pages=850–856|date=2007|doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehm026|pmid=17403720}}</ref> The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute yikuŵika ntchindi ya nthenda izi kuŵa yikuru comene usange ŵanalume ŵali na chiuno chakuluska masentimita 102 (mainchi 40) na ŵanakazi ŵali na chiuno chakuluska masentimita 88 (mainchi 35).<ref name="nhlbi">{{Cite web|title=Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk|url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/risk.htm|website=www.nhlbi.nih.gov|publisher=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute}}</ref> Kuwonjezgapo, ukuru wa chiuno ukuwoneka kuti ni cakulongolera makora comene kuluska BMI (body mass index). Mwaciyelezgero, awo ŵakunyamula vinthu vitopa mu masuzo gha nkhongono ŵangaŵa na BMI yikuru, kweni ŵali na ntchindi yichoko ya masuzgo gha mtima. Kwa ŵanthu nga aŵa, ukuru wa chiuno ungaŵa cakulongolera makora comene umoyo wawo wose.<ref name="canada">{{Cite journal|last1=Dobbelsteyn|first1=C.J.|last2=Joffres|first2=M.R.|last3=MacLean|first3=D.R.|last4=Flowerdew|first4=G.|title=A comparative evaluation of waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index as indicators of cardiovascular risk factors. The Canadian Heart Health Surveys|journal=International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders|volume=25|issue=5|pages=652–661|date=May 2001|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0801582|pmid=11360147}}</ref> Kafukufuku winyake ukulongora kuti ukuru wa chiuno ungamanyikwa kwizira mu nchito za ubongo, kulongora kukolerana kwa ubongo na kunenepa.<ref name="brain">{{Cite journal|last1=Farruggia|first1=M.C.|last2=Van Kooten|first2=M.J.|last3=Perszyk|first3=E.|last4=Burke|first4=M.V.|last5=Scheinost|first5=D.|last6=Constable|first6=T.C.|last7=Small|first7=D.M.|title=Identification of a brain fingerprint for overweight and obesity|journal=Physiology & Behavior|volume=222|pages=112940|date=August 2020|doi=10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112940|pmid=32417645}}</ref> Ukuru wa chiuno wakuluska comene ungapangiska kumanyikwa kwambura unenesko kwa umoyo wa viwangwa, para wakugwiliskira ntchito mung'anamuriro wakuchemeka "trabecular bone score".<ref name="tbs">{{Cite journal|last1=Stokar|first1=Joshua|last2=Ben-Porat|first2=Tair|last3=Kaluti|first3=Donia|last4=Abu-Gazala|first4=Mahmud|last5=Weiss|first5=Ram|last6=Mintz|first6=Yoav|last7=Elazari|first7=Ram|last8=Szalat|first8=Auryan|title=Trabecular Bone Score Preceding and during a 2-Year Follow-Up after Sleeve Gastrectomy: Pitfalls and New Insights|journal=Nutrients|volume=15|issue=15|pages=3481|date=2023|doi=10.3390/nu15153481|pmid=37571418}}</ref> Mu vyakuvwara vya sono, cigaŵa ico chikuchemeka chiuno nchapasi comene kuluska umo chiuno chikumanyikwira mu sayansi ya thupi. Pamanyuma pa kwiza kwa vyakuvwara vyapasi ivyo vikukhumba yayi kukolelezgeka kufuma pachanya, chiuno mu vyakuvwara chikasamira pasi, apo thupi likwamba kutupa na kupanga ntchafu, apo pali cakukolelezgera. Ndipouli, cigaŵa ca chiuno chikupwelelekabe comene pakuyeza vyakuvwara pakupanga. Vinthu vyakujintha, nga ni unyolo wa nthumbo, vingavwarika pa chiuno cha vyakuvwara panji pa chiuno chanadi cha thupi. Kupungura chiuno panji "kufundiska chiuno" (waist training) nkhwakuvwara corset panji cakuvwara cinyake icho chikukakira thupi kuti chiuno chipunguke panji chisinthe muwoneskero wake. Mbaru zinayi izo zikuyenda-yenda (floating ribs) zingakakika panji kusinthika kwamuyaya na vyakuvwara ivi. Girdle nayo yingagwiliskikira ntchito kusintha muwoneskero wa chiuno. Kupungura chiuno kungagwiliskikira ntchito waka kupungura utali wa chiuno. Kusintha uku kungaŵa kwamuyaya panji kwakanyengo kacoko. Kufundiska chiuno kungagwiliskikira ntchito kuti chiuno chiŵe na muwoneskero wamuyaya wakupambana, nga umo ni chiuno chichoko comene comene. ==Ng'anamuro la lizgu== Mu Chingelezi, lizgu "waist" likung'anamura "cigaŵa capakati pa thupi", panjiso "cigaŵa ca vyakuvwara icho chikukolerana na chiuno". Kwamba kale, lizgu ili likafuma ku Chingelezi Chakale "wæst" ilo likang'anamura "kukura", pakuyowoya kuti ndimo thupi likukurira. Likafuma ku Proto-Germanic "*wahs-tu-", ilo likukolerana na mazgu gha vyaro vinyake nga ni Old Norse "vöxtr", Swedish "växt", na Old High German "wahst", ghose ghakung'anamura "kukura".<ref name="etymonline">{{Cite web|title=waist – Origin and meaning of waist by Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/waist|website=www.etymonline.com|access-date=2026-09-23}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Ntchafu]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist}} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] dg7vc1c89h45ylx0atntwhj7bibvhjt 122294 122290 2026-09-24T15:41:20Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgu: "luwunda" pasono ndilo lizgu la chiuno (waist), "chiuno" wasazgika ku ntchafu (hip). 122294 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi cha pakati pa khoma la mbaru na chiuno}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Luwunda |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |228775 |} '''Luwunda''' ni cigaŵa ca thupi icho chili pakati pa khoma la mbaru na chiuno. Kanandi, ndico cigaŵa cichoko comene pa thupi. Mzere wa luwunda ukung'anamura mzere wakuthambalira apo luwunda luli luchoko comene. Ungang'anamuraso muwoneskero wose wa luwunda. Chifukwa cha ici, na chifukwa chakuti luwunda kanandi lukuyowoyeka pamoza na nthumbo, ŵanthu ŵangasokonezgeka pakumanya nadi malo agho luwunda lulipo. Chinthu cinyake icho chikusokoneska ni kuti mzere wa luwunda ukupambana pa ŵanthu ŵakupambana. Kafukufuku wimoza ukalongora kuti kuyeza kwa munthu mwene, m'malo mwa kuyezgeka na wakusanda, kukupungura ukuru wa luwunda uwo ukumanyikwa, ndipo kupungura uku kukukura para thupi la munthu lili likuru comene. Mu kafukufuku uyu, luwunda lukayezgeka pa mbwera lukaŵa lukuru kuluska apo lukayezgeka pa luwunda lwanadi.<ref name="selfreport">{{Cite journal|last1=Bigaard|first1=Janne|last2=Spanggaard|first2=Iben|last3=Thomsen|first3=Birthe Lykke|last4=Overvad|first4=Kim|title=Self-Reported and Technician-Measured Waist Circumferences Differ in Middle-Aged Men and Women|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=135|issue=9|pages=2263–2270|date=2005-09-01|doi=10.1093/jn/135.9.2263|pmid=16140909}}</ref> Kuti muvimanye malo gha luwunda lwanadi, imilirani cimira, ndipo mupende thupi mbali yimoza, mwakukhozga malundi na chiuno kuti viŵe cimira. Malo agho thupi likujintha ndimo ni mzere wa luwunda wanadi. Kwakukho, luwunda lukuyezgeka pa mzere uwo uli pakati na pakati pa mbaru yapasi comene iyo yingakhwaskika na iliac crest. Ndiwo mung'anamuriro uwo World Health Organization yikugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="who">{{Cite web|author=World Health Organization|title=Waist Circumference and Waist–Hip Ratio, Report of a WHO Expert Consultation|date=2008-12-11|url=https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/44583/9789241501491_eng.pdf|access-date=2024-08-06}}</ref> Kwenekwene, luwunda lukuyezgeka pa mzere uwo uli mucoko comene, kanandi pacoko pachanya pa mbwera. Apo luwunda lukuŵa lwakutupa m'malo mwa kuŵa lwakunjilira mkati, nga umo mwanakazi wali pa nthumbo panji wanenepa comene, luwunda lungayezgeka pa mzere wa inchi yimoza pachanya pa mbwera. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mzere wa mbwera pera, kweni ici chingapangiska kupungura ukuru wa luwunda pakuyezga.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Female Body Characteristics Related to Bra Fit|year=2007|page=20}}</ref> Para wakugwiliskira ntchito makina ghakusanda thupi lose ghakupanga vithuzi vyakugwirizana (point cloud), viwangwa na mbwera vikusuzgika kumanyikwa kufuma mu vithuzi vyene. Mung'anamuriro umoza uwo ukugwiliskikira ntchito comene ni kuyeza pa masentimita 4 pachanya pa malo ghacoko gha kunyuma (SOB). Ici nkhwakwenelera yayi comene ku mung'anamuriro wakwenelera, ndipo masentimita 2 pachanya pa SOB nkhwakwenelera comene, umo vikawoneka mu kafukufuku wa ŵanakazi 106 ŵa vyaka, utali, uzito, na muwoneskero wakupambanapambana.<ref name="scanner1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|last3=Hayes|first3=Steve|last4=Brownbridge|first4=Kathryn|last5=Wren|first5=Paula|last6=Panchenko|first6=Anastasiia|title=The True Height of the Waist: Explorations of Automated Body Scanner Waist Definitions of the TC2 scanner|journal=Proc. of 5th Int. Conf. On 3D Body Scanning Technologies|pages=55–65|date=2014|doi=10.15221/14.055|isbn=978-3-033-04763-1}}</ref> Vinthu nga umo munthu wimilira (posture) vikukhwaska comene kuyeza kwa luwunda. Ntheura, kuyeza kwa gulu la ŵanthu kukukhumbikwira kuti wose ŵimilire munjila yiyeneyiyene.<ref name="scanner2">{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|title=Scan posture definition and hip girth measurement: the impact on clothing design and body scanning|journal=Ergonomics|volume=60|issue=8|pages=1123–1136|date=2017|doi=10.1080/00140139.2016.1251621|pmid=27764997}}</ref> Chiyelekezgero cha luwunda na chiuno (waist–hip ratio) nkhu chiyelekezgero cha ukuru wa luwunda na ukuru wa chiuno. Chikuyezga umo mafuta ghakugaŵikira mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Han|first1=T.|last2=Van Leer|first2=E.|last3=Seidell|first3=J.|last4=Lean|first4=M.|title=Waist circumference action levels in the identification of cardiovascular risk factors: prevalence study in a random sample|journal=BMJ|volume=311|issue=7017|pages=1401–1405|date=1995|doi=10.1136/bmj.311.7017.1401|pmid=8520275}}</ref> Ukuru wa luwunda (waist circumference) ukulongora kunenepa kwa nthumbo, ndipo ni cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito pakusanda "metabolic syndrome". Mafuta ghanandi mu nthumbo ni ntchindi yikuru ya nthenda ya mtima na nthenda zinyake izo zikwiza na kunenepa. Kafukufuku wakupharazgika mu European Heart Journal mu Epulo 2007 ukalongora kuti ukuru wa luwunda na chiyelekezgero cha luwunda na chiuno vyose ni vakulongolera masuzgo gha mtima.<ref name="ehj">{{Cite journal|last1=de Koning|first1=Lawrence|last2=Merchant|first2=A.T.|last3=Pogue|first3=J.|last4=Anand|first4=S.S.|title=Waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio as predictors of cardiovascular events: meta-regression analysis of prospective studies|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=28|issue=7|pages=850–856|date=2007|doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehm026|pmid=17403720}}</ref> The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute yikuŵika ntchindi ya nthenda izi kuŵa yikuru comene usange ŵanalume ŵali na luwunda lwakuluska masentimita 102 (mainchi 40) na ŵanakazi ŵali na luwunda lwakuluska masentimita 88 (mainchi 35).<ref name="nhlbi">{{Cite web|title=Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk|url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/risk.htm|website=www.nhlbi.nih.gov|publisher=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute}}</ref> Kuwonjezgapo, ukuru wa luwunda ukuwoneka kuti ni cakulongolera makora comene kuluska BMI (body mass index). Mwaciyelezgero, awo ŵakunyamula vinthu vitopa mu masuzo gha nkhongono ŵangaŵa na BMI yikuru, kweni ŵali na ntchindi yichoko ya masuzgo gha mtima. Kwa ŵanthu nga aŵa, ukuru wa luwunda ungaŵa cakulongolera makora comene umoyo wawo wose.<ref name="canada">{{Cite journal|last1=Dobbelsteyn|first1=C.J.|last2=Joffres|first2=M.R.|last3=MacLean|first3=D.R.|last4=Flowerdew|first4=G.|title=A comparative evaluation of waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index as indicators of cardiovascular risk factors. The Canadian Heart Health Surveys|journal=International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders|volume=25|issue=5|pages=652–661|date=May 2001|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0801582|pmid=11360147}}</ref> Kafukufuku winyake ukulongora kuti ukuru wa luwunda ungamanyikwa kwizira mu nchito za ubongo, kulongora kukolerana kwa ubongo na kunenepa.<ref name="brain">{{Cite journal|last1=Farruggia|first1=M.C.|last2=Van Kooten|first2=M.J.|last3=Perszyk|first3=E.|last4=Burke|first4=M.V.|last5=Scheinost|first5=D.|last6=Constable|first6=T.C.|last7=Small|first7=D.M.|title=Identification of a brain fingerprint for overweight and obesity|journal=Physiology & Behavior|volume=222|pages=112940|date=August 2020|doi=10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112940|pmid=32417645}}</ref> Ukuru wa luwunda wakuluska comene ungapangiska kumanyikwa kwambura unenesko kwa umoyo wa viwangwa, para wakugwiliskira ntchito mung'anamuriro wakuchemeka "trabecular bone score".<ref name="tbs">{{Cite journal|last1=Stokar|first1=Joshua|last2=Ben-Porat|first2=Tair|last3=Kaluti|first3=Donia|last4=Abu-Gazala|first4=Mahmud|last5=Weiss|first5=Ram|last6=Mintz|first6=Yoav|last7=Elazari|first7=Ram|last8=Szalat|first8=Auryan|title=Trabecular Bone Score Preceding and during a 2-Year Follow-Up after Sleeve Gastrectomy: Pitfalls and New Insights|journal=Nutrients|volume=15|issue=15|pages=3481|date=2023|doi=10.3390/nu15153481|pmid=37571418}}</ref> Mu vyakuvwara vya sono, cigaŵa ico chikuchemeka luwunda nchapasi comene kuluska umo luwunda lukumanyikwira mu sayansi ya thupi. Pamanyuma pa kwiza kwa vyakuvwara vyapasi ivyo vikukhumba yayi kukolelezgeka kufuma pachanya, luwunda mu vyakuvwara lukasamira pasi, apo thupi likwamba kutupa na kupanga chiuno, apo pali cakukolelezgera. Ndipouli, cigaŵa ca luwunda chikupwelelekabe comene pakuyeza vyakuvwara pakupanga. Vinthu vyakujintha, nga ni unyolo wa nthumbo, vingavwarika pa luwunda lwa vyakuvwara panji pa luwunda lwanadi lwa thupi. Kupungura luwunda panji "kufundiska luwunda" (waist training) nkhwakuvwara corset panji cakuvwara cinyake icho chikukakira thupi kuti luwunda lupunguke panji lusinthe muwoneskero wake. Mbaru zinayi izo zikuyenda-yenda (floating ribs) zingakakika panji kusinthika kwamuyaya na vyakuvwara ivi. Girdle nayo yingagwiliskikira ntchito kusintha muwoneskero wa luwunda. Kupungura luwunda kungagwiliskikira ntchito waka kupungura utali wa luwunda. Kusintha uku kungaŵa kwamuyaya panji kwakanyengo kacoko. Kufundiska luwunda kungagwiliskikira ntchito kuti luwunda luŵe na muwoneskero wamuyaya wakupambana, nga umo ni luwunda luchoko comene comene. ==Ng'anamuro la lizgu== Mu Chingelezi, lizgu "waist" likung'anamura "cigaŵa capakati pa thupi", panjiso "cigaŵa ca vyakuvwara icho chikukolerana na luwunda". Kwamba kale, lizgu ili likafuma ku Chingelezi Chakale "wæst" ilo likang'anamura "kukura", pakuyowoya kuti ndimo thupi likukurira. Likafuma ku Proto-Germanic "*wahs-tu-", ilo likukolerana na mazgu gha vyaro vinyake nga ni Old Norse "vöxtr", Swedish "växt", na Old High German "wahst", ghose ghakung'anamura "kukura".<ref name="etymonline">{{Cite web|title=waist – Origin and meaning of waist by Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/waist|website=www.etymonline.com|access-date=2026-09-23}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Chiuno]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist}} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] q7coqb11hro7aibon5ahead1tjpy397 122307 122294 2026-09-24T16:42:10Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi cha pakati pa khoma la mbaru na chiuno}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Luwunda |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Waist.svg|220px|Luwunda la munthu]]<br/><small>Luwunda la munthu</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |228775 |} [[File:Waist to hip ratio-en.svg|thumb|Chiyelekezgero cha luwunda na chiuno]] '''Luwunda''' ni cigaŵa ca thupi icho chili pakati pa khoma la mbaru na chiuno. Kanandi, ndico cigaŵa cichoko comene pa thupi. Mzere wa luwunda ukung'anamura mzere wakuthambalira apo luwunda luli luchoko comene. Ungang'anamuraso muwoneskero wose wa luwunda. Chifukwa cha ici, na chifukwa chakuti luwunda kanandi lukuyowoyeka pamoza na nthumbo, ŵanthu ŵangasokonezgeka pakumanya nadi malo agho luwunda lulipo. Chinthu cinyake icho chikusokoneska ni kuti mzere wa luwunda ukupambana pa ŵanthu ŵakupambana. Kafukufuku wimoza ukalongora kuti kuyeza kwa munthu mwene, m'malo mwa kuyezgeka na wakusanda, kukupungura ukuru wa luwunda uwo ukumanyikwa, ndipo kupungura uku kukukura para thupi la munthu lili likuru comene. Mu kafukufuku uyu, luwunda lukayezgeka pa mbwera lukaŵa lukuru kuluska apo lukayezgeka pa luwunda lwanadi.<ref name="selfreport">{{Cite journal|last1=Bigaard|first1=Janne|last2=Spanggaard|first2=Iben|last3=Thomsen|first3=Birthe Lykke|last4=Overvad|first4=Kim|title=Self-Reported and Technician-Measured Waist Circumferences Differ in Middle-Aged Men and Women|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=135|issue=9|pages=2263–2270|date=2005-09-01|doi=10.1093/jn/135.9.2263|pmid=16140909}}</ref> Kuti muvimanye malo gha luwunda lwanadi, imilirani cimira, ndipo mupende thupi mbali yimoza, mwakukhozga malundi na chiuno kuti viŵe cimira. Malo agho thupi likujintha ndimo ni mzere wa luwunda wanadi. Kwakukho, luwunda lukuyezgeka pa mzere uwo uli pakati na pakati pa mbaru yapasi comene iyo yingakhwaskika na iliac crest. Ndiwo mung'anamuriro uwo World Health Organization yikugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="who">{{Cite web|author=World Health Organization|title=Waist Circumference and Waist–Hip Ratio, Report of a WHO Expert Consultation|date=2008-12-11|url=https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/44583/9789241501491_eng.pdf|access-date=2024-08-06}}</ref> Kwenekwene, luwunda lukuyezgeka pa mzere uwo uli mucoko comene, kanandi pacoko pachanya pa mbwera. Apo luwunda lukuŵa lwakutupa m'malo mwa kuŵa lwakunjilira mkati, nga umo mwanakazi wali pa nthumbo panji wanenepa comene, luwunda lungayezgeka pa mzere wa inchi yimoza pachanya pa mbwera. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mzere wa mbwera pera, kweni ici chingapangiska kupungura ukuru wa luwunda pakuyezga.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Female Body Characteristics Related to Bra Fit|year=2007|page=20}}</ref> Para wakugwiliskira ntchito makina ghakusanda thupi lose ghakupanga vithuzi vyakugwirizana (point cloud), viwangwa na mbwera vikusuzgika kumanyikwa kufuma mu vithuzi vyene. Mung'anamuriro umoza uwo ukugwiliskikira ntchito comene ni kuyeza pa masentimita 4 pachanya pa malo ghacoko gha kunyuma (SOB). Ici nkhwakwenelera yayi comene ku mung'anamuriro wakwenelera, ndipo masentimita 2 pachanya pa SOB nkhwakwenelera comene, umo vikawoneka mu kafukufuku wa ŵanakazi 106 ŵa vyaka, utali, uzito, na muwoneskero wakupambanapambana.<ref name="scanner1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|last3=Hayes|first3=Steve|last4=Brownbridge|first4=Kathryn|last5=Wren|first5=Paula|last6=Panchenko|first6=Anastasiia|title=The True Height of the Waist: Explorations of Automated Body Scanner Waist Definitions of the TC2 scanner|journal=Proc. of 5th Int. Conf. On 3D Body Scanning Technologies|pages=55–65|date=2014|doi=10.15221/14.055|isbn=978-3-033-04763-1}}</ref> Vinthu nga umo munthu wimilira (posture) vikukhwaska comene kuyeza kwa luwunda. Ntheura, kuyeza kwa gulu la ŵanthu kukukhumbikwira kuti wose ŵimilire munjila yiyeneyiyene.<ref name="scanner2">{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|title=Scan posture definition and hip girth measurement: the impact on clothing design and body scanning|journal=Ergonomics|volume=60|issue=8|pages=1123–1136|date=2017|doi=10.1080/00140139.2016.1251621|pmid=27764997}}</ref> Chiyelekezgero cha luwunda na chiuno (waist–hip ratio) nkhu chiyelekezgero cha ukuru wa luwunda na ukuru wa chiuno. Chikuyezga umo mafuta ghakugaŵikira mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Han|first1=T.|last2=Van Leer|first2=E.|last3=Seidell|first3=J.|last4=Lean|first4=M.|title=Waist circumference action levels in the identification of cardiovascular risk factors: prevalence study in a random sample|journal=BMJ|volume=311|issue=7017|pages=1401–1405|date=1995|doi=10.1136/bmj.311.7017.1401|pmid=8520275}}</ref> Ukuru wa luwunda (waist circumference) ukulongora kunenepa kwa nthumbo, ndipo ni cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito pakusanda "metabolic syndrome". Mafuta ghanandi mu nthumbo ni ntchindi yikuru ya nthenda ya mtima na nthenda zinyake izo zikwiza na kunenepa. Kafukufuku wakupharazgika mu European Heart Journal mu Epulo 2007 ukalongora kuti ukuru wa luwunda na chiyelekezgero cha luwunda na chiuno vyose ni vakulongolera masuzgo gha mtima.<ref name="ehj">{{Cite journal|last1=de Koning|first1=Lawrence|last2=Merchant|first2=A.T.|last3=Pogue|first3=J.|last4=Anand|first4=S.S.|title=Waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio as predictors of cardiovascular events: meta-regression analysis of prospective studies|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=28|issue=7|pages=850–856|date=2007|doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehm026|pmid=17403720}}</ref> The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute yikuŵika ntchindi ya nthenda izi kuŵa yikuru comene usange ŵanalume ŵali na luwunda lwakuluska masentimita 102 (mainchi 40) na ŵanakazi ŵali na luwunda lwakuluska masentimita 88 (mainchi 35).<ref name="nhlbi">{{Cite web|title=Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk|url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/risk.htm|website=www.nhlbi.nih.gov|publisher=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute}}</ref> Kuwonjezgapo, ukuru wa luwunda ukuwoneka kuti ni cakulongolera makora comene kuluska BMI (body mass index). Mwaciyelezgero, awo ŵakunyamula vinthu vitopa mu masuzo gha nkhongono ŵangaŵa na BMI yikuru, kweni ŵali na ntchindi yichoko ya masuzgo gha mtima. Kwa ŵanthu nga aŵa, ukuru wa luwunda ungaŵa cakulongolera makora comene umoyo wawo wose.<ref name="canada">{{Cite journal|last1=Dobbelsteyn|first1=C.J.|last2=Joffres|first2=M.R.|last3=MacLean|first3=D.R.|last4=Flowerdew|first4=G.|title=A comparative evaluation of waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index as indicators of cardiovascular risk factors. The Canadian Heart Health Surveys|journal=International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders|volume=25|issue=5|pages=652–661|date=May 2001|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0801582|pmid=11360147}}</ref> Kafukufuku winyake ukulongora kuti ukuru wa luwunda ungamanyikwa kwizira mu nchito za ubongo, kulongora kukolerana kwa ubongo na kunenepa.<ref name="brain">{{Cite journal|last1=Farruggia|first1=M.C.|last2=Van Kooten|first2=M.J.|last3=Perszyk|first3=E.|last4=Burke|first4=M.V.|last5=Scheinost|first5=D.|last6=Constable|first6=T.C.|last7=Small|first7=D.M.|title=Identification of a brain fingerprint for overweight and obesity|journal=Physiology & Behavior|volume=222|pages=112940|date=August 2020|doi=10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112940|pmid=32417645}}</ref> Ukuru wa luwunda wakuluska comene ungapangiska kumanyikwa kwambura unenesko kwa umoyo wa viwangwa, para wakugwiliskira ntchito mung'anamuriro wakuchemeka "trabecular bone score".<ref name="tbs">{{Cite journal|last1=Stokar|first1=Joshua|last2=Ben-Porat|first2=Tair|last3=Kaluti|first3=Donia|last4=Abu-Gazala|first4=Mahmud|last5=Weiss|first5=Ram|last6=Mintz|first6=Yoav|last7=Elazari|first7=Ram|last8=Szalat|first8=Auryan|title=Trabecular Bone Score Preceding and during a 2-Year Follow-Up after Sleeve Gastrectomy: Pitfalls and New Insights|journal=Nutrients|volume=15|issue=15|pages=3481|date=2023|doi=10.3390/nu15153481|pmid=37571418}}</ref> Mu vyakuvwara vya sono, cigaŵa ico chikuchemeka luwunda nchapasi comene kuluska umo luwunda lukumanyikwira mu sayansi ya thupi. Pamanyuma pa kwiza kwa vyakuvwara vyapasi ivyo vikukhumba yayi kukolelezgeka kufuma pachanya, luwunda mu vyakuvwara lukasamira pasi, apo thupi likwamba kutupa na kupanga chiuno, apo pali cakukolelezgera. Ndipouli, cigaŵa ca luwunda chikupwelelekabe comene pakuyeza vyakuvwara pakupanga. Vinthu vyakujintha, nga ni unyolo wa nthumbo, vingavwarika pa luwunda lwa vyakuvwara panji pa luwunda lwanadi lwa thupi. Kupungura luwunda panji "kufundiska luwunda" (waist training) nkhwakuvwara corset panji cakuvwara cinyake icho chikukakira thupi kuti luwunda lupunguke panji lusinthe muwoneskero wake. Mbaru zinayi izo zikuyenda-yenda (floating ribs) zingakakika panji kusinthika kwamuyaya na vyakuvwara ivi. Girdle nayo yingagwiliskikira ntchito kusintha muwoneskero wa luwunda. Kupungura luwunda kungagwiliskikira ntchito waka kupungura utali wa luwunda. Kusintha uku kungaŵa kwamuyaya panji kwakanyengo kacoko. Kufundiska luwunda kungagwiliskikira ntchito kuti luwunda luŵe na muwoneskero wamuyaya wakupambana, nga umo ni luwunda luchoko comene comene. ==Ng'anamuro la lizgu== Mu Chingelezi, lizgu "waist" likung'anamura "cigaŵa capakati pa thupi", panjiso "cigaŵa ca vyakuvwara icho chikukolerana na luwunda". Kwamba kale, lizgu ili likafuma ku Chingelezi Chakale "wæst" ilo likang'anamura "kukura", pakuyowoya kuti ndimo thupi likukurira. Likafuma ku Proto-Germanic "*wahs-tu-", ilo likukolerana na mazgu gha vyaro vinyake nga ni Old Norse "vöxtr", Swedish "växt", na Old High German "wahst", ghose ghakung'anamura "kukura".<ref name="etymonline">{{Cite web|title=waist – Origin and meaning of waist by Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/waist|website=www.etymonline.com|access-date=2026-09-23}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Chiuno]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist}} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 9rz0x9ztpwt3h5vtdm19542bmhvhwbt 0 49725 122292 122264 2026-09-24T15:39:37Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Anthonymunthali44 moved page [[Ntchafu]] to [[Chiuno]]: Kusintha zina la nkhani - "chiuno" ndilo lizgu lakwenelera la ntchafu (hip); "luwunda" wasazgika kugwiliskikira ntchito ku chiuno (waist). 122264 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi panji mphambano icho chili mumphepete mwa chiuno}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Ntchafu |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''coxa'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D006615 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.2.08.005 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24964 |} '''Ntchafu''' panji ''coxa'' (mu uganga) ni cigaŵa ca thupi panji mphambano icho chili mumphepete mwa chiuno. Cigaŵa ca ntchafu chili mumphepete na kunthazi kwa mbombo, pasi pa iliac crest, na mumphepete mwa obturator foramen. Minofu na vinjiri vikuvundikira greater trochanter ya fupa la chigha. Mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima, mafupa ghatatu gha chiuno (ilium, ischium, na pubis) ghakukolerana kuŵa fupa limoza, ilo likupanga khoma la mkati la cigaŵa ca ntchafu. Mphambano wa ntchafu, uwo mu sayansi ukuchemeka acetabulofemoral joint, ni mphambano wa mpira na thumba (ball-and-socket joint) wapakati pa acetabulum ya chiuno na mutu wa fupa la chigha. Nchito yake yikuru ni kunyamula uzito wa thupi, kwenerakwene apo munthu wimilira panji wakwenda panji wakucimbira. Mphambano wa ntchafu ukovwiraso pakukhozgera kwimilira makola na kukhazikika kwa chiuno. Kupweteka kwa ntchafu kungiza chifukwa cha masuzgo gha mizirwe, gha mafupa, gha maka, gha kupwetekeka, panji gha kupokelera. ==Mafupa na mphambano== Mafupa ghatatu gha chiuno — ilium, ischium, na pubis — ghakukolerana pamoza kupanga thumba la acetabulum, ilo likupokelera mutu wa fupa la chigha. Mu ŵana, thako la kukura lakuwoneka nga chibonachibona (triradiate cartilage) likupambanikizga mafupa ghatatu agha; likukolerana comene pakati pa vyaka 14 na 16. Acetabulum yikulaŵiskira pasi na kunthazi-mumphepete. Yikukola pafupifupi hafu ya mutu wa fupa la chigha. Mumphepete mwake muli acetabular labrum, cigaŵa cakuzingilira cakuwoneka nga chibvunda ico chikuwonjezgapo kutali kwa thumba. Pakati pa acetabulum pali fovea, iyo yikukolerananga yayi na mutu wa fupa la chigha, ndipo yili na mafuta na kukolerana na ligamentum teres. Kupendeka kwa acetabulum kukumanyikwa kwizira mu vipimo vinandi ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito mu uganga, nga umo ni acetabular angle (Sharp's angle), sagittal angle, Hilgenreiner angle, Wiberg's centre-edge angle, na VCA angle.<ref name="lequesne"/> Vipimo ivi vikusintha na vyaka vya munthu, ndipo vikovwira kumanya usange acetabulum yajintha makora panji yayi.<ref name="saikia"/> ==Mutu na singo la fupa la chigha== Mutu wa fupa la chigha uli wa mphinjika, wakuŵa na radius ya masentimita pafupifupi 2.5. Ukukolerana na thupi la fupa kwizira mu singo lichoko, ilo lingatimbanyika mwaphesya mwa ŵanthu ŵalara, comenecomene chifukwa cha osteoporosis. Pakati pa singo na thupi la fupa la chigha pali kupendeka kuchemeka caput-collum-diaphyseal (CCD) angle. Mu ŵana ŵaŵanda kupendeka uku nkhukuru comene, kweni mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima nkhwa madigiri pafupifupi 126 (ico chikuchemeka "coxa norma"). Usange kupendeka nkhuchoko comene, ici chikuchemeka coxa vara; usange nkhukuru comene, chikuchemeka coxa valga. Kupendeka uku kukukhwaska umo nkhongono yikwendera mu fupa, na umo trabecular bone yikupangikira mkati mwa fupa.<ref name="thieme2015"/> ==Thumba la mphambano== Mphambano wa ntchafu uli na thumba likukhora kweni lakuthambalira, ilo likuvomerezga muwendero wamuzitali comene kuluska mphambano yiliyose mu thupi kwambura mphambano ya bega. Nangauli, thumba ili likukhozgekabe kunyamula uzito wa thupi. Thumba ili likukolerana ku mumphepete mwa acetabulum, ku acetabular labrum, na ku transverse acetabular ligament. Kunyake, likukolerana ku ma trochanter gha fupa la chigha na ku intertrochanteric line kunthazi, na ku malo pafupi na intertrochanteric crest kunyuma. Kufuma pa malo agha kunyuma, vinjiri vya thumba vikuwelera kuluta ku acetabulum kuŵa "retinacula", ivyo vikunyamula misambizi ya ndopa kuluta ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Vinjiri vinyake vya thumba vikuzingilira singo la fupa la chigha nga mphete, ivi vikuchemeka zona orbicularis. Zona orbicularis yikovwira kukoleska mutu wa fupa la chigha mkati mwa acetabulum. ==Ligament== Muli ligament zinayi izo zikukhozgera mphambano wa ntchafu: zitatu zili kuwaro kwa thumba, ndipo yimoza yili mkati mwake. Ku wuwaro: *'''Iliofemoral ligament''' (ligament ya Bigelow) — ndiyo ligament yankhongono comene mu thupi la munthu. Yili na muwoneskero wa chikwana C, ndipo yikuvikilira thupi kuti lireke kuwa kunyuma para munthu wimilira, kwambura kukhumbikwa kwa nkhongono ya minofu. *'''Ischiofemoral ligament''' — yikuvikilira kuti ntchafu yireke kunyoloka comene. *'''Pubofemoral ligament''' — yikuvikilira kuti ntchafu yireke kupatukana panji kunyoloka comene. Ligament izi zitatu zikukhozgeka comene para ntchafu yanyoloka, ntheura zikupungura nkhongono iyo minofu yikukhumbikwa kuti munthu wimilire.<ref name="moore"/> Mkati mwa thumba muli: *'''Ligamentum teres''' — yikukolerana pakati pa acetabulum na fovea ya mutu wa fupa la chigha. Yikukhozgeka pera para ntchafu yaguka pa malo pake. Nchito yake yikuru ni kunyamula msambizi wichoko wa ndopa (foveal artery) uwo ukupeleka ndopa ku mutu wa fupa la chigha, comenecomene mwa ŵana ŵakuti singo la fupa lawonongeka. ==Thako na fascia== Vyanya vya mphambano vikuvundikirika na thako likukhora, lakusenderezgeka la cartilage, ilo likovwira kuti vyanya vireke kukwaskana mwakukalipa. Mumphepete mwa ntchafu, fascia lata yikukhora kupanga iliotibial tract, iyo yikupungura nkhongono iyo yikukwaska fupa la chigha. Chifukwa fupa la chigha lavundikirika comene na minofu, greater trochanter ndico cinthu cimoza pera ico ŵanthu ŵangakhwaska pachanya pa thupi mu cigaŵa ca ntchafu. ==Ndopa== Ntchafu yikupokelera ndopa comenecomene kwizira mu medial circumflex femoral artery na lateral circumflex femoral artery, izo zikufuma mu profunda femoris panji mu femoral artery. Foveal artery, msambizi uwo ukujumphira mu ligamentum teres, ukupelekaso ndopa yichoko ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Misambizi iyi yikukolerana pamoza kuti yiŵe cruciate anastomosis na trochanteric anastomosis, ndipo trochanteric anastomosis ndiyo yikupeleka ndopa yinandi ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Usange singo la fupa la chigha latimbanyika, misambizi iyi yingadumulika. Pa nyengo iyi, foveal artery yingaŵa yekha iyo yikupeleka ndopa ku mutu wa fupa la chigha, ntheura kunyamula ndopa uku nkhwakuzirwa comene kuvikilira kufwa kwa thako la fupa (avascular necrosis), comenecomene mwa ŵana.<ref name="statpearls"/> ==Minofu== Minofu yinandi yikukhwaska mphambano wa ntchafu, uku yikupanga kupinda (flexion), kunyoloka (extension), kupatukana (abduction), kukolerana (adduction), na kuzungusika (rotation). Minofu ya kupinda ntchafu yikusazgapo iliopsoas, tensor fasciae latae, pectineus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, gracilis, rectus femoris, na sartorius. Minofu ya kunyoloka yikusazgapo gluteus maximus, vinjiri vya kunyuma vya gluteus medius na gluteus minimus, adductor magnus, piriformis, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, na biceps femoris. Minofu ya kupatukana yikusazgapo gluteus medius, tensor fasciae latae, gluteus maximus, gluteus minimus, piriformis, na obturator internus. Minofu ya kukolerana yikusazgapo adductor magnus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, gluteus maximus, gracilis, pectineus, quadratus femoris, na obturator externus. Minofu ya kuzungusika kuwaro yikusazgapo gluteus maximus, quadratus femoris, obturator internus, obturator externus, na vinyake vinandi. Minofu ya kuzungusika mkati yikusazgapo vinjiri vyakunthazi vya gluteus medius na gluteus minimus, na tensor fasciae latae. ==Muwendero wa mphambano== Ntchafu yingapinda (flexion) mpaka madigiri 140. Yingapinduka kunyuma (extension) mpaka madigiri 20, apo iliofemoral ligament yikwimikapo. Yingazungusika kuwaro (external rotation) mpaka madigiri 30 apo ntchafu yanyoloka, panji mpaka madigiri 50 apo yapindika. Yingazungusika mkati (internal rotation) mpaka madigiri 40. Yingapatukana (abduction) mpaka madigiri 50 apo yanyoloka, panji mpaka madigiri 80 apo yapindika. Yingakolerana (adduction) mpaka madigiri 30 apo yanyoloka, panji madigiri 20 apo yapindika. Kuzungulushika (circumduction) ni muwendero uwo ukukolezgapo kupinda, kunyoloka, kupatukana, na kukolerana pamoza. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la ntchafu (hip fracture) ni kutimbanyika kwa fupa la chigha pachanya pake. Vimanyikwiro vyake vikusazgapo kupweteka kwa ntchafu, kwenerakwene para munthu wenda, na kufupika kwa lundi. Singo la fupa la chigha likutimbanyika mwaphesya mwa ŵanthu ŵalara, comenecomene chifukwa cha osteoporosis.<ref name="orthoinfo"/> Kusintha ntchafu (hip replacement panji arthroplasty) ni nthowa ya opaleshoni iyo yingagwiliskikira ntchito kunozga kutimbanyika kwa fupa panji nthenda ya osteoarthritis. Hip dysplasia ni kupendeka kwambura kwenelera kwa acetabulum, ico chingapangiska mutu wa fupa la chigha kuguka pang'ono (subluxation) panji kunanga kwa acetabular labrum.<ref name="setia"/> Usange acetabulum yavundikira mutu wa fupa comene, ici chingapangiska femoroacetabular impingement.<ref name="mannava"/> ==Kupambana pakati pa mwanalume na mwanakazi== Kupambana na vinyama vinyake vinandi, mafupa gha ntchafu gha munthu ghakupambana comene pakati pa mwanalume na mwanakazi. Ntchafu za mwanakazi zikutandalika pa nyengo ya kukura. Mafupa gha chigha gha mwanakazi ghali kutali comene, ici chikuwongolera kutandalika kwa mulyango wa chiuno kuti kovwire pakubaba mwana. Ilium na minofu yake mwa mwanakazi vikupangika munjila yakupambana, kuti mabele gha kunyuma ghaŵe kutali na nthowa ya kubaba, mwakuti kukolerana kwa minofu iyi pa nyengo ya kubaba kureke kupwetekera mwana. Ntchafu zitandalika zikuwoneka kuti nkhwakovwira pakubaba mwana, ndiposo kanandi zikuwoneka kuti ni cimanyikwiro ca umaliro wa unyamwali, ndipo kwa vyaka vinandi zaŵa cakukhumbika mu muwoneskero wa mwanakazi. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Ntchafu za mwanakazi zakolerananga na vyakubaba ŵana na muwoneskero wa unyamwali kwa nyengo yitali. Muwoneskero wa ŵanakazi mu vithuzi, mu vithuzi vyakujorwa, panji mu vithuzi vyakukoperezgeka kanandi vikulongora ntchafu zawo comene. Vyakuvwara vya ŵanakazi mu mbiri yicharu vyanandi vyakuwongolera maso ku ukuru wa ntchafu. ==Ng'anamuro la lizgu== Mu Chilatini, lizgu "coxa" likagwiliskikira ntchito na Celsus kung'anamura "ntchafu", kweni Pliny Mkuru wakaligwiliskira kung'anamura "fupa la ntchafu". Mu Chigiriki, lizgu ili likuchemeka "ischío". ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiuno]] *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Chigha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="lequesne">{{Cite journal|last=Lequesne|first=M.|title=The normal hip joint space: variations in width, shape, and architecture on 223 pelvic radiographs|journal=Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases|volume=63|issue=9|pages=1145–1151|year=2004|doi=10.1136/ard.2003.018424|pmid=15308525}}</ref> <ref name="saikia">{{Cite journal|last1=Saikia|first1=K.C.|title=Anthropometric study of the hip joint in northeastern region population with computed tomography scan|journal=Indian Journal of Orthopaedics|volume=42|issue=3|date=July 2008|doi=10.4103/0019-5413.39572|pmid=19753150}}</ref> <ref name="thieme2015">{{Cite book|last1=Schuenke|first1=M.|last2=Schulte|first2=E.|last3=Schumacher|first3=U.|title=THIEME Atlas of Anatomy – Vol. 1: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System|edition=2nd|publisher=Thieme Medical Publishers|year=2015|page=439|isbn=978-1-60406-923-5}}</ref> <ref name="statpearls">{{Cite web|last1=Gold|first1=M.|last2=Munjal|first2=A.|last3=Varacallo|first3=M.|title=Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb, Hip Joint|publisher=StatPearls|year=2021|pmid=29262200|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470555/}}</ref> <ref name="moore">{{Cite book|last=Moore|first=Keith L.|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|edition=8th|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=Philadelphia|year=2018|page=728|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="orthoinfo">{{Cite web|title=Hip Fractures|publisher=OrthoInfo (AAOS)|date=April 2009|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629225405/http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00392|access-date=2017-09-27}}</ref> <ref name="setia">{{Cite web|last1=Setia|first1=Rahul|last2=Gaillard|first2=Frank|title=Developmental dysplasia of the hip|publisher=Radiopaedia|date=2008-05-02|url=https://radiopaedia.org/articles/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip}}</ref> <ref name="mannava">{{Cite journal|last1=Mannava|first1=S.|title=Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation of Femoroacetabular Impingement, Part 2: Plain Radiography|journal=Arthroscopy Techniques|volume=6|issue=5|pages=e2003–e2009|date=October 2017|doi=10.1016/j.eats.2017.06.011|pmid=29399468}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 98x1gh70qvl5tzkp65fm3e21mj0cvsi 122295 122292 2026-09-24T15:43:35Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgu: "chiuno" pasono ndilo lizgu la ntchafu (hip), "luwunda" ndilo lizgu la chiuno lakale (waist). 122295 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi panji mphambano icho chili mumphepete mwa chiuno}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Chiuno |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''coxa'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D006615 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.2.08.005 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24964 |} '''Chiuno''' panji ''coxa'' (mu uganga) ni cigaŵa ca thupi panji mphambano icho chili mumphepete mwa chiuno. Cigaŵa ca chiuno chili mumphepete na kunthazi kwa mbombo, pasi pa iliac crest, na mumphepete mwa obturator foramen. Minofu na vinjiri vikuvundikira greater trochanter ya fupa la chigha. Mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima, mafupa ghatatu gha chiuno (ilium, ischium, na pubis) ghakukolerana kuŵa fupa limoza, ilo likupanga khoma la mkati la cigaŵa ca chiuno. Mphambano wa chiuno, uwo mu sayansi ukuchemeka acetabulofemoral joint, ni mphambano wa mpira na thumba (ball-and-socket joint) wapakati pa acetabulum ya chiuno na mutu wa fupa la chigha. Nchito yake yikuru ni kunyamula uzito wa thupi, kwenerakwene apo munthu wimilira panji wakwenda panji wakucimbira. Mphambano wa chiuno ukovwiraso pakukhozgera kwimilira makola na kukhazikika kwa chiuno. Kupweteka kwa chiuno kungiza chifukwa cha masuzgo gha mizirwe, gha mafupa, gha maka, gha kupwetekeka, panji gha kupokelera. ==Mafupa na mphambano== Mafupa ghatatu gha chiuno — ilium, ischium, na pubis — ghakukolerana pamoza kupanga thumba la acetabulum, ilo likupokelera mutu wa fupa la chigha. Mu ŵana, thako la kukura lakuwoneka nga chibonachibona (triradiate cartilage) likupambanikizga mafupa ghatatu agha; likukolerana comene pakati pa vyaka 14 na 16. Acetabulum yikulaŵiskira pasi na kunthazi-mumphepete. Yikukola pafupifupi hafu ya mutu wa fupa la chigha. Mumphepete mwake muli acetabular labrum, cigaŵa cakuzingilira cakuwoneka nga chibvunda ico chikuwonjezgapo kutali kwa thumba. Pakati pa acetabulum pali fovea, iyo yikukolerananga yayi na mutu wa fupa la chigha, ndipo yili na mafuta na kukolerana na ligamentum teres. Kupendeka kwa acetabulum kukumanyikwa kwizira mu vipimo vinandi ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito mu uganga, nga umo ni acetabular angle (Sharp's angle), sagittal angle, Hilgenreiner angle, Wiberg's centre-edge angle, na VCA angle.<ref name="lequesne"/> Vipimo ivi vikusintha na vyaka vya munthu, ndipo vikovwira kumanya usange acetabulum yajintha makora panji yayi.<ref name="saikia"/> ==Mutu na singo la fupa la chigha== Mutu wa fupa la chigha uli wa mphinjika, wakuŵa na radius ya masentimita pafupifupi 2.5. Ukukolerana na thupi la fupa kwizira mu singo lichoko, ilo lingatimbanyika mwaphesya mwa ŵanthu ŵalara, comenecomene chifukwa cha osteoporosis. Pakati pa singo na thupi la fupa la chigha pali kupendeka kuchemeka caput-collum-diaphyseal (CCD) angle. Mu ŵana ŵaŵanda kupendeka uku nkhukuru comene, kweni mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima nkhwa madigiri pafupifupi 126 (ico chikuchemeka "coxa norma"). Usange kupendeka nkhuchoko comene, ici chikuchemeka coxa vara; usange nkhukuru comene, chikuchemeka coxa valga. Kupendeka uku kukukhwaska umo nkhongono yikwendera mu fupa, na umo trabecular bone yikupangikira mkati mwa fupa.<ref name="thieme2015"/> ==Thumba la mphambano== Mphambano wa chiuno uli na thumba likukhora kweni lakuthambalira, ilo likuvomerezga muwendero wamuzitali comene kuluska mphambano yiliyose mu thupi kwambura mphambano ya bega. Nangauli, thumba ili likukhozgekabe kunyamula uzito wa thupi. Thumba ili likukolerana ku mumphepete mwa acetabulum, ku acetabular labrum, na ku transverse acetabular ligament. Kunyake, likukolerana ku ma trochanter gha fupa la chigha na ku intertrochanteric line kunthazi, na ku malo pafupi na intertrochanteric crest kunyuma. Kufuma pa malo agha kunyuma, vinjiri vya thumba vikuwelera kuluta ku acetabulum kuŵa "retinacula", ivyo vikunyamula misambizi ya ndopa kuluta ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Vinjiri vinyake vya thumba vikuzingilira singo la fupa la chigha nga mphete, ivi vikuchemeka zona orbicularis. Zona orbicularis yikovwira kukoleska mutu wa fupa la chigha mkati mwa acetabulum. ==Ligament== Muli ligament zinayi izo zikukhozgera mphambano wa chiuno: zitatu zili kuwaro kwa thumba, ndipo yimoza yili mkati mwake. Ku wuwaro: *'''Iliofemoral ligament''' (ligament ya Bigelow) — ndiyo ligament yankhongono comene mu thupi la munthu. Yili na muwoneskero wa chikwana C, ndipo yikuvikilira thupi kuti lireke kuwa kunyuma para munthu wimilira, kwambura kukhumbikwa kwa nkhongono ya minofu. *'''Ischiofemoral ligament''' — yikuvikilira kuti chiuno chireke kunyoloka comene. *'''Pubofemoral ligament''' — yikuvikilira kuti chiuno chireke kupatukana panji kunyoloka comene. Ligament izi zitatu zikukhozgeka comene para chiuno chanyoloka, ntheura zikupungura nkhongono iyo minofu yikukhumbikwa kuti munthu wimilire.<ref name="moore"/> Mkati mwa thumba muli: *'''Ligamentum teres''' — yikukolerana pakati pa acetabulum na fovea ya mutu wa fupa la chigha. Yikukhozgeka pera para chiuno chaguka pa malo pake. Nchito yake yikuru ni kunyamula msambizi wichoko wa ndopa (foveal artery) uwo ukupeleka ndopa ku mutu wa fupa la chigha, comenecomene mwa ŵana ŵakuti singo la fupa lawonongeka. ==Thako na fascia== Vyanya vya mphambano vikuvundikirika na thako likukhora, lakusenderezgeka la cartilage, ilo likovwira kuti vyanya vireke kukwaskana mwakukalipa. Mumphepete mwa chiuno, fascia lata yikukhora kupanga iliotibial tract, iyo yikupungura nkhongono iyo yikukwaska fupa la chigha. Chifukwa fupa la chigha lavundikirika comene na minofu, greater trochanter ndico cinthu cimoza pera ico ŵanthu ŵangakhwaska pachanya pa thupi mu cigaŵa ca chiuno. ==Ndopa== Chiuno chikupokelera ndopa comenecomene kwizira mu medial circumflex femoral artery na lateral circumflex femoral artery, izo zikufuma mu profunda femoris panji mu femoral artery. Foveal artery, msambizi uwo ukujumphira mu ligamentum teres, ukupelekaso ndopa yichoko ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Misambizi iyi yikukolerana pamoza kuti yiŵe cruciate anastomosis na trochanteric anastomosis, ndipo trochanteric anastomosis ndiyo yikupeleka ndopa yinandi ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Usange singo la fupa la chigha latimbanyika, misambizi iyi yingadumulika. Pa nyengo iyi, foveal artery yingaŵa yekha iyo yikupeleka ndopa ku mutu wa fupa la chigha, ntheura kunyamula ndopa uku nkhwakuzirwa comene kuvikilira kufwa kwa thako la fupa (avascular necrosis), comenecomene mwa ŵana.<ref name="statpearls"/> ==Minofu== Minofu yinandi yikukhwaska mphambano wa chiuno, uku yikupanga kupinda (flexion), kunyoloka (extension), kupatukana (abduction), kukolerana (adduction), na kuzungusika (rotation). Minofu ya kupinda chiuno yikusazgapo iliopsoas, tensor fasciae latae, pectineus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, gracilis, rectus femoris, na sartorius. Minofu ya kunyoloka yikusazgapo gluteus maximus, vinjiri vya kunyuma vya gluteus medius na gluteus minimus, adductor magnus, piriformis, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, na biceps femoris. Minofu ya kupatukana yikusazgapo gluteus medius, tensor fasciae latae, gluteus maximus, gluteus minimus, piriformis, na obturator internus. Minofu ya kukolerana yikusazgapo adductor magnus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, gluteus maximus, gracilis, pectineus, quadratus femoris, na obturator externus. Minofu ya kuzungusika kuwaro yikusazgapo gluteus maximus, quadratus femoris, obturator internus, obturator externus, na vinyake vinandi. Minofu ya kuzungusika mkati yikusazgapo vinjiri vyakunthazi vya gluteus medius na gluteus minimus, na tensor fasciae latae. ==Muwendero wa mphambano== Chiuno chingapinda (flexion) mpaka madigiri 140. Chingapinduka kunyuma (extension) mpaka madigiri 20, apo iliofemoral ligament yikwimikapo. Chingazungusika kuwaro (external rotation) mpaka madigiri 30 apo chiuno chanyoloka, panji mpaka madigiri 50 apo chapindika. Chingazungusika mkati (internal rotation) mpaka madigiri 40. Chingapatukana (abduction) mpaka madigiri 50 apo chanyoloka, panji mpaka madigiri 80 apo chapindika. Chingakolerana (adduction) mpaka madigiri 30 apo chanyoloka, panji madigiri 20 apo chapindika. Kuzungulushika (circumduction) ni muwendero uwo ukukolezgapo kupinda, kunyoloka, kupatukana, na kukolerana pamoza. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la chiuno (hip fracture) ni kutimbanyika kwa fupa la chigha pachanya pake. Vimanyikwiro vyake vikusazgapo kupweteka kwa chiuno, kwenerakwene para munthu wenda, na kufupika kwa lundi. Singo la fupa la chigha likutimbanyika mwaphesya mwa ŵanthu ŵalara, comenecomene chifukwa cha osteoporosis.<ref name="orthoinfo"/> Kusintha chiuno (hip replacement panji arthroplasty) ni nthowa ya opaleshoni iyo yingagwiliskikira ntchito kunozga kutimbanyika kwa fupa panji nthenda ya osteoarthritis. Hip dysplasia ni kupendeka kwambura kwenelera kwa acetabulum, ico chingapangiska mutu wa fupa la chigha kuguka pang'ono (subluxation) panji kunanga kwa acetabular labrum.<ref name="setia"/> Usange acetabulum yavundikira mutu wa fupa comene, ici chingapangiska femoroacetabular impingement.<ref name="mannava"/> ==Kupambana pakati pa mwanalume na mwanakazi== Kupambana na vinyama vinyake vinandi, mafupa gha chiuno gha munthu ghakupambana comene pakati pa mwanalume na mwanakazi. Viuno vya mwanakazi vikutandalika pa nyengo ya kukura. Mafupa gha chigha gha mwanakazi ghali kutali comene, ici chikuwongolera kutandalika kwa mulyango wa chiuno kuti kovwire pakubaba mwana. Ilium na minofu yake mwa mwanakazi vikupangika munjila yakupambana, kuti mabele gha kunyuma ghaŵe kutali na nthowa ya kubaba, mwakuti kukolerana kwa minofu iyi pa nyengo ya kubaba kureke kupwetekera mwana. Viuno vitandalika vikuwoneka kuti nkhwakovwira pakubaba mwana, ndiposo kanandi vikuwoneka kuti ni cimanyikwiro ca umaliro wa unyamwali, ndipo kwa vyaka vinandi vyaŵa cakukhumbika mu muwoneskero wa mwanakazi. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Viuno vya mwanakazi vyakolerananga na vyakubaba ŵana na muwoneskero wa unyamwali kwa nyengo yitali. Muwoneskero wa ŵanakazi mu vithuzi, mu vithuzi vyakujorwa, panji mu vithuzi vyakukoperezgeka kanandi vikulongora viuno vyawo comene. Vyakuvwara vya ŵanakazi mu mbiri yicharu vyanandi vyakuwongolera maso ku ukuru wa chiuno. ==Ng'anamuro la lizgu== Mu Chilatini, lizgu "coxa" likagwiliskikira ntchito na Celsus kung'anamura "chiuno", kweni Pliny Mkuru wakaligwiliskira kung'anamura "fupa la chiuno". Mu Chigiriki, lizgu ili likuchemeka "ischío". ==Wonaniso== *[[Luwunda]] *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Chigha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="lequesne">{{Cite journal|last=Lequesne|first=M.|title=The normal hip joint space: variations in width, shape, and architecture on 223 pelvic radiographs|journal=Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases|volume=63|issue=9|pages=1145–1151|year=2004|doi=10.1136/ard.2003.018424|pmid=15308525}}</ref> <ref name="saikia">{{Cite journal|last1=Saikia|first1=K.C.|title=Anthropometric study of the hip joint in northeastern region population with computed tomography scan|journal=Indian Journal of Orthopaedics|volume=42|issue=3|date=July 2008|doi=10.4103/0019-5413.39572|pmid=19753150}}</ref> <ref name="thieme2015">{{Cite book|last1=Schuenke|first1=M.|last2=Schulte|first2=E.|last3=Schumacher|first3=U.|title=THIEME Atlas of Anatomy – Vol. 1: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System|edition=2nd|publisher=Thieme Medical Publishers|year=2015|page=439|isbn=978-1-60406-923-5}}</ref> <ref name="statpearls">{{Cite web|last1=Gold|first1=M.|last2=Munjal|first2=A.|last3=Varacallo|first3=M.|title=Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb, Hip Joint|publisher=StatPearls|year=2021|pmid=29262200|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470555/}}</ref> <ref name="moore">{{Cite book|last=Moore|first=Keith L.|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|edition=8th|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=Philadelphia|year=2018|page=728|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="orthoinfo">{{Cite web|title=Hip Fractures|publisher=OrthoInfo (AAOS)|date=April 2009|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629225405/http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00392|access-date=2017-09-27}}</ref> <ref name="setia">{{Cite web|last1=Setia|first1=Rahul|last2=Gaillard|first2=Frank|title=Developmental dysplasia of the hip|publisher=Radiopaedia|date=2008-05-02|url=https://radiopaedia.org/articles/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip}}</ref> <ref name="mannava">{{Cite journal|last1=Mannava|first1=S.|title=Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation of Femoroacetabular Impingement, Part 2: Plain Radiography|journal=Arthroscopy Techniques|volume=6|issue=5|pages=e2003–e2009|date=October 2017|doi=10.1016/j.eats.2017.06.011|pmid=29399468}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 2rl43rjgk903rtyz1lu3pjd8ewwb51k 122306 122295 2026-09-24T16:39:31Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122306 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi panji mphambano icho chili mumphepete mwa chiuno}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Chiuno |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Hip.jpg|220px|Mafupa gha cigaŵa ca chiuno]]<br/><small>Mafupa gha cigaŵa ca chiuno</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''coxa'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D006615 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.2.08.005 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24964 |} '''Chiuno''' panji ''coxa'' (mu uganga) ni cigaŵa ca thupi panji mphambano icho chili mumphepete mwa chiuno. Cigaŵa ca chiuno chili mumphepete na kunthazi kwa mbombo, pasi pa iliac crest, na mumphepete mwa obturator foramen. Minofu na vinjiri vikuvundikira greater trochanter ya fupa la chigha. Mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima, mafupa ghatatu gha chiuno (ilium, ischium, na pubis) ghakukolerana kuŵa fupa limoza, ilo likupanga khoma la mkati la cigaŵa ca chiuno. Mphambano wa chiuno, uwo mu sayansi ukuchemeka acetabulofemoral joint, ni mphambano wa mpira na thumba (ball-and-socket joint) wapakati pa acetabulum ya chiuno na mutu wa fupa la chigha. Nchito yake yikuru ni kunyamula uzito wa thupi, kwenerakwene apo munthu wimilira panji wakwenda panji wakucimbira. Mphambano wa chiuno ukovwiraso pakukhozgera kwimilira makola na kukhazikika kwa chiuno. Kupweteka kwa chiuno kungiza chifukwa cha masuzgo gha mizirwe, gha mafupa, gha maka, gha kupwetekeka, panji gha kupokelera. ==Mafupa na mphambano== [[File:Hueftgelenk-gesund.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca X-ray ca mphambano wa chiuno wamoyo makora]] Mafupa ghatatu gha chiuno — ilium, ischium, na pubis — ghakukolerana pamoza kupanga thumba la acetabulum, ilo likupokelera mutu wa fupa la chigha. Mu ŵana, thako la kukura lakuwoneka nga chibonachibona (triradiate cartilage) likupambanikizga mafupa ghatatu agha; likukolerana comene pakati pa vyaka 14 na 16. Acetabulum yikulaŵiskira pasi na kunthazi-mumphepete. Yikukola pafupifupi hafu ya mutu wa fupa la chigha. Mumphepete mwake muli acetabular labrum, cigaŵa cakuzingilira cakuwoneka nga chibvunda ico chikuwonjezgapo kutali kwa thumba. Pakati pa acetabulum pali fovea, iyo yikukolerananga yayi na mutu wa fupa la chigha, ndipo yili na mafuta na kukolerana na ligamentum teres. Kupendeka kwa acetabulum kukumanyikwa kwizira mu vipimo vinandi ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito mu uganga, nga umo ni acetabular angle (Sharp's angle), sagittal angle, Hilgenreiner angle, Wiberg's centre-edge angle, na VCA angle.<ref name="lequesne"/> Vipimo ivi vikusintha na vyaka vya munthu, ndipo vikovwira kumanya usange acetabulum yajintha makora panji yayi.<ref name="saikia"/> ==Mutu na singo la fupa la chigha== [[File:Coxa-valga-norma-vara-000.svg|thumb|Kusintha kwa mzere wa trabecular pakusintha kwa CCD angle]] Mutu wa fupa la chigha uli wa mphinjika, wakuŵa na radius ya masentimita pafupifupi 2.5. Ukukolerana na thupi la fupa kwizira mu singo lichoko, ilo lingatimbanyika mwaphesya mwa ŵanthu ŵalara, comenecomene chifukwa cha osteoporosis. Pakati pa singo na thupi la fupa la chigha pali kupendeka kuchemeka caput-collum-diaphyseal (CCD) angle. Mu ŵana ŵaŵanda kupendeka uku nkhukuru comene, kweni mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima nkhwa madigiri pafupifupi 126 (ico chikuchemeka "coxa norma"). Usange kupendeka nkhuchoko comene, ici chikuchemeka coxa vara; usange nkhukuru comene, chikuchemeka coxa valga. Kupendeka uku kukukhwaska umo nkhongono yikwendera mu fupa, na umo trabecular bone yikupangikira mkati mwa fupa.<ref name="thieme2015"/> ==Thumba la mphambano== Mphambano wa chiuno uli na thumba likukhora kweni lakuthambalira, ilo likuvomerezga muwendero wamuzitali comene kuluska mphambano yiliyose mu thupi kwambura mphambano ya bega. Nangauli, thumba ili likukhozgekabe kunyamula uzito wa thupi. Thumba ili likukolerana ku mumphepete mwa acetabulum, ku acetabular labrum, na ku transverse acetabular ligament. Kunyake, likukolerana ku ma trochanter gha fupa la chigha na ku intertrochanteric line kunthazi, na ku malo pafupi na intertrochanteric crest kunyuma. Kufuma pa malo agha kunyuma, vinjiri vya thumba vikuwelera kuluta ku acetabulum kuŵa "retinacula", ivyo vikunyamula misambizi ya ndopa kuluta ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Vinjiri vinyake vya thumba vikuzingilira singo la fupa la chigha nga mphete, ivi vikuchemeka zona orbicularis. Zona orbicularis yikovwira kukoleska mutu wa fupa la chigha mkati mwa acetabulum. ==Ligament== [[File:Gray339.png|thumb|Ligament zakuwaro kwa thumba, kulaŵiskira kunthazi]] Muli ligament zinayi izo zikukhozgera mphambano wa chiuno: zitatu zili kuwaro kwa thumba, ndipo yimoza yili mkati mwake. Ku wuwaro: *'''Iliofemoral ligament''' (ligament ya Bigelow) — ndiyo ligament yankhongono comene mu thupi la munthu. Yili na muwoneskero wa chikwana C, ndipo yikuvikilira thupi kuti lireke kuwa kunyuma para munthu wimilira, kwambura kukhumbikwa kwa nkhongono ya minofu. *'''Ischiofemoral ligament''' — yikuvikilira kuti chiuno chireke kunyoloka comene. *'''Pubofemoral ligament''' — yikuvikilira kuti chiuno chireke kupatukana panji kunyoloka comene. Ligament izi zitatu zikukhozgeka comene para chiuno chanyoloka, ntheura zikupungura nkhongono iyo minofu yikukhumbikwa kuti munthu wimilire.<ref name="moore"/> Mkati mwa thumba muli: *'''Ligamentum teres''' — yikukolerana pakati pa acetabulum na fovea ya mutu wa fupa la chigha. Yikukhozgeka pera para chiuno chaguka pa malo pake. Nchito yake yikuru ni kunyamula msambizi wichoko wa ndopa (foveal artery) uwo ukupeleka ndopa ku mutu wa fupa la chigha, comenecomene mwa ŵana ŵakuti singo la fupa lawonongeka. ==Thako na fascia== Vyanya vya mphambano vikuvundikirika na thako likukhora, lakusenderezgeka la cartilage, ilo likovwira kuti vyanya vireke kukwaskana mwakukalipa. Mumphepete mwa chiuno, fascia lata yikukhora kupanga iliotibial tract, iyo yikupungura nkhongono iyo yikukwaska fupa la chigha. Chifukwa fupa la chigha lavundikirika comene na minofu, greater trochanter ndico cinthu cimoza pera ico ŵanthu ŵangakhwaska pachanya pa thupi mu cigaŵa ca chiuno. ==Ndopa== Chiuno chikupokelera ndopa comenecomene kwizira mu medial circumflex femoral artery na lateral circumflex femoral artery, izo zikufuma mu profunda femoris panji mu femoral artery. Foveal artery, msambizi uwo ukujumphira mu ligamentum teres, ukupelekaso ndopa yichoko ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Misambizi iyi yikukolerana pamoza kuti yiŵe cruciate anastomosis na trochanteric anastomosis, ndipo trochanteric anastomosis ndiyo yikupeleka ndopa yinandi ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Usange singo la fupa la chigha latimbanyika, misambizi iyi yingadumulika. Pa nyengo iyi, foveal artery yingaŵa yekha iyo yikupeleka ndopa ku mutu wa fupa la chigha, ntheura kunyamula ndopa uku nkhwakuzirwa comene kuvikilira kufwa kwa thako la fupa (avascular necrosis), comenecomene mwa ŵana.<ref name="statpearls"/> ==Minofu== Minofu yinandi yikukhwaska mphambano wa chiuno, uku yikupanga kupinda (flexion), kunyoloka (extension), kupatukana (abduction), kukolerana (adduction), na kuzungusika (rotation). Minofu ya kupinda chiuno yikusazgapo iliopsoas, tensor fasciae latae, pectineus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, gracilis, rectus femoris, na sartorius. Minofu ya kunyoloka yikusazgapo gluteus maximus, vinjiri vya kunyuma vya gluteus medius na gluteus minimus, adductor magnus, piriformis, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, na biceps femoris. Minofu ya kupatukana yikusazgapo gluteus medius, tensor fasciae latae, gluteus maximus, gluteus minimus, piriformis, na obturator internus. Minofu ya kukolerana yikusazgapo adductor magnus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, gluteus maximus, gracilis, pectineus, quadratus femoris, na obturator externus. Minofu ya kuzungusika kuwaro yikusazgapo gluteus maximus, quadratus femoris, obturator internus, obturator externus, na vinyake vinandi. Minofu ya kuzungusika mkati yikusazgapo vinjiri vyakunthazi vya gluteus medius na gluteus minimus, na tensor fasciae latae. ==Muwendero wa mphambano== Chiuno chingapinda (flexion) mpaka madigiri 140. Chingapinduka kunyuma (extension) mpaka madigiri 20, apo iliofemoral ligament yikwimikapo. Chingazungusika kuwaro (external rotation) mpaka madigiri 30 apo chiuno chanyoloka, panji mpaka madigiri 50 apo chapindika. Chingazungusika mkati (internal rotation) mpaka madigiri 40. Chingapatukana (abduction) mpaka madigiri 50 apo chanyoloka, panji mpaka madigiri 80 apo chapindika. Chingakolerana (adduction) mpaka madigiri 30 apo chanyoloka, panji madigiri 20 apo chapindika. Kuzungulushika (circumduction) ni muwendero uwo ukukolezgapo kupinda, kunyoloka, kupatukana, na kukolerana pamoza. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la chiuno (hip fracture) ni kutimbanyika kwa fupa la chigha pachanya pake. Vimanyikwiro vyake vikusazgapo kupweteka kwa chiuno, kwenerakwene para munthu wenda, na kufupika kwa lundi. Singo la fupa la chigha likutimbanyika mwaphesya mwa ŵanthu ŵalara, comenecomene chifukwa cha osteoporosis.<ref name="orthoinfo"/> Kusintha chiuno (hip replacement panji arthroplasty) ni nthowa ya opaleshoni iyo yingagwiliskikira ntchito kunozga kutimbanyika kwa fupa panji nthenda ya osteoarthritis. Hip dysplasia ni kupendeka kwambura kwenelera kwa acetabulum, ico chingapangiska mutu wa fupa la chigha kuguka pang'ono (subluxation) panji kunanga kwa acetabular labrum.<ref name="setia"/> Usange acetabulum yavundikira mutu wa fupa comene, ici chingapangiska femoroacetabular impingement.<ref name="mannava"/> ==Kupambana pakati pa mwanalume na mwanakazi== Kupambana na vinyama vinyake vinandi, mafupa gha chiuno gha munthu ghakupambana comene pakati pa mwanalume na mwanakazi. Viuno vya mwanakazi vikutandalika pa nyengo ya kukura. Mafupa gha chigha gha mwanakazi ghali kutali comene, ici chikuwongolera kutandalika kwa mulyango wa chiuno kuti kovwire pakubaba mwana. Ilium na minofu yake mwa mwanakazi vikupangika munjila yakupambana, kuti mabele gha kunyuma ghaŵe kutali na nthowa ya kubaba, mwakuti kukolerana kwa minofu iyi pa nyengo ya kubaba kureke kupwetekera mwana. Viuno vitandalika vikuwoneka kuti nkhwakovwira pakubaba mwana, ndiposo kanandi vikuwoneka kuti ni cimanyikwiro ca umaliro wa unyamwali, ndipo kwa vyaka vinandi vyaŵa cakukhumbika mu muwoneskero wa mwanakazi. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== [[File:Canova-Dancer with her hands on her hips 45degree view.jpg|thumb|Ŵakuvina kanandi ŵakwimilira na mawoko pa chiuno]] Viuno vya mwanakazi vyakolerananga na vyakubaba ŵana na muwoneskero wa unyamwali kwa nyengo yitali. Muwoneskero wa ŵanakazi mu vithuzi, mu vithuzi vyakujorwa, panji mu vithuzi vyakukoperezgeka kanandi vikulongora viuno vyawo comene. Vyakuvwara vya ŵanakazi mu mbiri yicharu vyanandi vyakuwongolera maso ku ukuru wa chiuno. ==Ng'anamuro la lizgu== Mu Chilatini, lizgu "coxa" likagwiliskikira ntchito na Celsus kung'anamura "chiuno", kweni Pliny Mkuru wakaligwiliskira kung'anamura "fupa la chiuno". Mu Chigiriki, lizgu ili likuchemeka "ischío". ==Wonaniso== *[[Luwunda]] *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Chigha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="lequesne">{{Cite journal|last=Lequesne|first=M.|title=The normal hip joint space: variations in width, shape, and architecture on 223 pelvic radiographs|journal=Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases|volume=63|issue=9|pages=1145–1151|year=2004|doi=10.1136/ard.2003.018424|pmid=15308525}}</ref> <ref name="saikia">{{Cite journal|last1=Saikia|first1=K.C.|title=Anthropometric study of the hip joint in northeastern region population with computed tomography scan|journal=Indian Journal of Orthopaedics|volume=42|issue=3|date=July 2008|doi=10.4103/0019-5413.39572|pmid=19753150}}</ref> <ref name="thieme2015">{{Cite book|last1=Schuenke|first1=M.|last2=Schulte|first2=E.|last3=Schumacher|first3=U.|title=THIEME Atlas of Anatomy – Vol. 1: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System|edition=2nd|publisher=Thieme Medical Publishers|year=2015|page=439|isbn=978-1-60406-923-5}}</ref> <ref name="statpearls">{{Cite web|last1=Gold|first1=M.|last2=Munjal|first2=A.|last3=Varacallo|first3=M.|title=Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb, Hip Joint|publisher=StatPearls|year=2021|pmid=29262200|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470555/}}</ref> <ref name="moore">{{Cite book|last=Moore|first=Keith L.|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|edition=8th|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=Philadelphia|year=2018|page=728|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="orthoinfo">{{Cite web|title=Hip Fractures|publisher=OrthoInfo (AAOS)|date=April 2009|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629225405/http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00392|access-date=2017-09-27}}</ref> <ref name="setia">{{Cite web|last1=Setia|first1=Rahul|last2=Gaillard|first2=Frank|title=Developmental dysplasia of the hip|publisher=Radiopaedia|date=2008-05-02|url=https://radiopaedia.org/articles/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip}}</ref> <ref name="mannava">{{Cite journal|last1=Mannava|first1=S.|title=Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation of Femoroacetabular Impingement, Part 2: Plain Radiography|journal=Arthroscopy Techniques|volume=6|issue=5|pages=e2003–e2009|date=October 2017|doi=10.1016/j.eats.2017.06.011|pmid=29399468}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] n4fezuekvoniohi0miq0meag81weiiu 0 49729 122296 122269 2026-09-24T15:47:19Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga mazgu: "luwunda" (waist) m'malo mwa "chiuno" pakulongosora khungu la mumphepete, na kunozga wonaniso. 122296 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cimanyikwiro pa nthumbo apo mzati wa mbwera ukakolerananga}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Mbwera |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''umbilicus'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D014472 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.2.04.005 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |61584 |} '''Mbwera''' (mu uganga: ''umbilicus'') ni cimanyikwiro pa nthumbo, cakutuwa panji cakunjilira mkati, apo mzati wa mbwera ukakolerananga na mwana pa nyengo ya nthumbo. Mbwera yikugwiliskikira ntchito kupatura nthumbo mu magaŵa. Ni cimanyikwiro icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali nacho pa malo ghakoleranako, ndipo khungu la mumphepete mwa luwunda pa cigaŵa ca mbwera likutumizgika na mzirwe wa T10 (mzirwe wakhumi wa msana wa cifuwa). Mbwera yikuŵapo pafupifupi pa cigaŵa apo chiwangwa cacitatu na cacinayi cha msana (L3 na L4) vikukolerana, nangauli mwa ŵanthu ŵanyake yingaŵapo kufuma pa L3 mpaka L5.<ref name="khati"/> Mbwera ya munthu mzimu yili na vigaŵa. Pakati pake pali cimanyikwiro cakutuwa cakuchemeka "cikola ca mzati", ico ncimanyikwiro cakusazgika para mzati wa mbwera wadumuka. Kuzingilira cikola ici muli mphete yakukhora yakuchemeka "kola la mbwera". Kuzingilira kola ili muli khungu la mumphepete mwa mbwera. Kunyuma kwa mbwera muli mzati wakukhora wakuchemeka urachus, uwo ukufuma ku chiŵaya ca mkodzo. Chifukwa mbwera njakusazgika, njakupambana pa munthu waliyose. ==Mitundu ya mbwera== Mbwera yingapambanikizgika mu magaŵa ghaŵiri ghakuru: mbwera yakutupa (yikuchemekaso "outie") na mbwera yakunjilira mkati (yikuchemekaso "innie"). Mbwera yakutupa ni iyo cikola ca mzati chikutuwa kuluska khungu la mumphepete mwa mbwera; mbwera yakunjilira mkati ni iyo cikola ca mzati chikutuwa yayi. Muli mitundu yinandi yakupambanikizgika comene, nga umo ni: mbwera yakuzingoka yikuru (round), mbwera yakutandalika kwima (vertical), mbwera yakupapatala (oval), mbwera ya muwoneskero wa "T", mbwera yakutandalika mumphepete (horizontal, iyo yikuwoneka pang'ono comene), mbwera yambura muwoneskero wakwenelera (distorted), mbwera yakuzingilizgika nga chizunguzungu (spiral), na mbwera yakugaŵikamo kuŵa viŵiri na mphuvya (split). Munyake, mbwera yingaŵa yakutuwa yose kwambura kuvundikika (protrusion), panji yingaŵa na mphuvya yicoko pakati pa cikola ca mzati kwambura kudumulapo khungu la kunja (circlet). ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Mbwera yakutupa yikupambana na hernia ya mbwera (umbilical hernia); hernia yikuŵapo usange cigaŵa cakutuwa chili na masentimita 5 panji kuluska.<ref name="meier"/> Muwoneskero wa mbwera ungasintha chifukwa cha kunenepa panji kuzenga thupi, kweni kusintha kwambura kumanyikwa ya cifukwa kungaŵa cimanyikwiro ca ascites (ndopa yakuwungana mu nthumbo). Mbwera yingaŵaso na umbilical sinus panji fistula, ivyo pa nyengo zinyake vingapangiska mvuchi wa nthenda za mwanakazi panji mafunthi kufuma mu mbwera, comenecomene chifukwa cha umbilical endometriosis.<ref name="bagade"/> Omphalitis ni kufuma kwa maka mu mbwera ya mwana mwanchanda, kanandi chifukwa cha tizirombo twakupangiska maka. Nthenda zinyake za kanthendere zingasazgikako kunanga kwa mbwera (umbilical metastases).<ref name="gabriele"/> Kafukufuku wasangaso kuti mbwera njakukhalamo tizirombo tuchoko (bacteria) twakupambanapambana comene pa munthu waliyose.<ref name="moreau"/> ==Mbwera mu opaleshoni== Kuti opaleshoni yireke kusazgapo cimanyikwiro cikuru, mbwera nyengo zinyake yikugwiliskikira ntchito nga malo gha kudumulira, nga umo ni pakuwuska appendix, chiŵaya ca nyongo, panji pa opaleshoni ya umbilicoplasty payekha.<ref name="kaehler"/><ref name="bruekers"/> ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Vinyama vyose ivyo vikubaba ŵana kwizira mu placenta vili na mbwera, nangauli mwa munthu njakuwoneka comene kuluska mwa vinyama vinyake. Vinyama ivyo vikubaba ŵana ŵamoyo vili na mbwera yakuzingoka nga umo ili mwa munthu, kweni mu vinyama ivyo vikutumbuka mazira (nga ni tuyuni), mbwera njakuwoneka nga mphuvya yakwima pa nthumbo. Muli so cizimba ca dinosaur (Psittacosaurus) ico chikasangika na mbwera iyo yikawoneka nga ya vinyama ivyo vikutumbuka mazira. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Kufumiska pakuwaro mbwera na cigaŵa ca nthumbo kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukaŵa kwakuzomerezgeka yayi mu vikhalidwe vinyake vya ku Yuropu na ku America kwa nyengo yakale, ndipo kukawoneka nga kwambura mchindi. Mu malo ghanyake, kufumiska mbwera ya mwanakazi kukajalikizgika na malango, kweni maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ghasintha sono. Vyakuvwara nga ni crop top, ivyo vikufumiska mbwera na nthumbo, vyaŵa vyakuzomerezgeka comene mwa ŵanyamata. Mbwera na nthumbo vikuwoneka soso mu vyakuvwara vya sono nga ni bikini panji mavwalero ghakukwelera pasi pa nthumbo. Ku India, kufumiska mbwera na nthumbo kwaŵa kwakuzomerezgeka nyengo yitali, kwenerakwene mwa ŵanakazi ŵakuvwara sari.<ref name="banerjee"/> Ku Japan, mu nyengo yakale ya Jōmon, viwuni vitatu vichoko vikawikikanga pa vinthu vya dongo kulongora mabele na mbwera, kulongora muwoneskero wa mwanakazi. Mbwera yikakuzgika kuŵa yikuru comene, chifukwa cha kukhulupilira kuti mbwera ndiyo malo agho umoyo ukwambira.<ref name="naumann"/> Mu chikhalidwe ca ku Arabia na ku Levant, kuvina kwa belly dance ni mzimu wakuzomerezgeka uwo ukukhwaska comene nthumbo na mbwera. Mu Buddhism na Hinduism, chakra ya pa mbwera yikuchemeka manipura. Mu Hinduism, nkhongono ya kundalini nyengo zinyake yikuyowoyeka kuti yili pa mbwera. Mu qigong, mbwera yikuwoneka kuti ndiyo malo ghakuru gha nkhongono, ghakuchemeka dantian. ==Wonaniso== *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Luwunda]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="khati">{{Cite journal|last1=Khati|first1=Nadia J.|last2=Enquist|first2=Erik G.|last3=Javitt|first3=Marcia C.|title=Imaging of the Umbilicus and Periumbilical Region|journal=Radiographics|volume=18|issue=2|pages=413–431|year=1998|doi=10.1148/radiographics.18.2.9536487|pmid=9536487}}</ref> <ref name="meier">{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=Donald E.|last2=OlaOlorun|first2=David A.|last3=Omodele|first3=Rachael A.|last4=Nkor|first4=Sunday K.|last5=Tarpley|first5=John L.|title=Incidence of Umbilical Hernia in African Children: Redefinition of "Normal" and Reevaluation of Indications for Repair|journal=World Journal of Surgery|volume=25|issue=5|pages=645–648|year=2001|doi=10.1007/s002680020072|pmid=11369993}}</ref> <ref name="bagade">{{Cite journal|last1=Bagade|first1=Pallavi V.|last2=Guirguis|first2=Mamdouh M.|title=Menstruating from the umbilicus as a rare case of primary umbilical endometriosis: a case report|journal=Journal of Medical Case Reports|volume=3|pages=9326|year=2009|doi=10.1186/1752-1947-3-9326|pmid=20062755}}</ref> <ref name="gabriele">{{Cite journal|last1=Gabriele|first1=Raimondo|last2=Conte|first2=Marco|last3=Egidi|first3=Federico|last4=Borghese|first4=Mario|title=Umbilical metastases: current viewpoint|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=13|year=2005|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-13|pmid=15723695}}</ref> <ref name="moreau">{{Cite journal|last1=Moreau|first1=Corrie S.|last2=Hulcr|first2=Jiri|last3=Latimer|first3=Andrew M.|last4=Henley|first4=Jessica B.|last5=Rountree|first5=Nina R.|last6=Fierer|first6=Noah|last7=Lucky|first7=Andrea|last8=Lowman|first8=Margaret D.|last9=Dunn|first9=Robert R.|title=A Jungle in There: Bacteria in Belly Buttons are Highly Diverse, but Predictable|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=11|pages=e47712|year=2012|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0047712|pmid=23144827}}</ref> <ref name="kaehler">{{Cite journal|last1=Kaehler|first1=G.|last2=Schoenberg|first2=M. B.|last3=Kienle|first3=P.|last4=Post|first4=S.|last5=Magdeburg|first5=R.|title=Transgastric appendicectomy|journal=British Journal of Surgery|volume=100|issue=7|pages=911–915|year=2013|doi=10.1002/bjs.9115|pmid=23575528}}</ref> <ref name="bruekers">{{Cite journal|last1=Bruekers|first1=Sven E.|last2=van der Lei|first2=Berend|last3=Tan|first3=Tik L.|last4=Luijendijk|first4=Roland W.|last5=Stevens|first5=Hieronymus P. J. D.|title="Scarless" Umbilicoplasty|journal=Annals of Plastic Surgery|volume=63|issue=1|pages=15–20|year=2009|doi=10.1097/SAP.0b013e3181877b60|pmid=19546666}}</ref> <ref name="naumann">{{Cite book|last=Naumann|first=Nelly|chapter=First Indications of Symbolic Expression|title=Japanese Prehistory: The Material and Spiritual Culture of the Jōmon Period|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2000|pages=114–115|isbn=978-3-447-04329-8}}</ref> <ref name="banerjee">{{Cite book|last1=Banerjee|first1=Mukulika|last2=Miller|first2=Daniel|title=The Sari|publisher=Berg|year=2003|isbn=1-85973-732-3}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] de5wxlodo2q7w0vrg8beo8bpilby3vq 122312 122296 2026-09-24T17:03:44Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cimanyikwiro pa nthumbo apo mzati wa mbwera ukakolerananga}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Mbwera |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Human navel, female.jpg|220px|Mbwera ni cimanyikwiro cakutuwa, cakupapatala, panji cakunjilira mkati, ico chikukhalako pamanyuma pa mzati wa mbwera kudumuka]]<br/><small>Mbwera ni cimanyikwiro cakutuwa, cakupapatala, panji cakunjilira mkati, ico chikukhalako pamanyuma pa mzati wa mbwera kudumuka</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''umbilicus'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D014472 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.2.04.005 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |61584 |} '''Mbwera''' (mu uganga: ''umbilicus'') ni cimanyikwiro pa nthumbo, cakutuwa panji cakunjilira mkati, apo mzati wa mbwera ukakolerananga na mwana pa nyengo ya nthumbo. Mbwera yikugwiliskikira ntchito kupatura nthumbo mu magaŵa. Ni cimanyikwiro icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali nacho pa malo ghakoleranako, ndipo khungu la mumphepete mwa luwunda pa cigaŵa ca mbwera likutumizgika na mzirwe wa T10 (mzirwe wakhumi wa msana wa cifuwa). Mbwera yikuŵapo pafupifupi pa cigaŵa apo chiwangwa cacitatu na cacinayi cha msana (L3 na L4) vikukolerana, nangauli mwa ŵanthu ŵanyake yingaŵapo kufuma pa L3 mpaka L5.<ref name="khati"/> Mbwera ya munthu mzimu yili na vigaŵa. Pakati pake pali cimanyikwiro cakutuwa cakuchemeka "cikola ca mzati", ico ncimanyikwiro cakusazgika para mzati wa mbwera wadumuka. Kuzingilira cikola ici muli mphete yakukhora yakuchemeka "kola la mbwera". Kuzingilira kola ili muli khungu la mumphepete mwa mbwera. Kunyuma kwa mbwera muli mzati wakukhora wakuchemeka urachus, uwo ukufuma ku chiŵaya ca mkodzo. Chifukwa mbwera njakusazgika, njakupambana pa munthu waliyose. ==Mitundu ya mbwera== [[File:T-shaped navel.jpg|thumb|220px|Mbwera ya muwoneskero wa "T"]] Mbwera yingapambanikizgika mu magaŵa ghaŵiri ghakuru: mbwera yakutupa (yikuchemekaso "outie") na mbwera yakunjilira mkati (yikuchemekaso "innie"). Mbwera yakutupa ni iyo cikola ca mzati chikutuwa kuluska khungu la mumphepete mwa mbwera; mbwera yakunjilira mkati ni iyo cikola ca mzati chikutuwa yayi. Muli mitundu yinandi yakupambanikizgika comene, nga umo ni: mbwera yakuzingoka yikuru (round), mbwera yakutandalika kwima (vertical), mbwera yakupapatala (oval), mbwera ya muwoneskero wa "T", mbwera yakutandalika mumphepete (horizontal, iyo yikuwoneka pang'ono comene), mbwera yambura muwoneskero wakwenelera (distorted), mbwera yakuzingilizgika nga chizunguzungu (spiral), na mbwera yakugaŵikamo kuŵa viŵiri na mphuvya (split). Munyake, mbwera yingaŵa yakutuwa yose kwambura kuvundikika (protrusion), panji yingaŵa na mphuvya yicoko pakati pa cikola ca mzati kwambura kudumulapo khungu la kunja (circlet). ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Mbwera yakutupa yikupambana na hernia ya mbwera (umbilical hernia); hernia yikuŵapo usange cigaŵa cakutuwa chili na masentimita 5 panji kuluska.<ref name="meier"/> Muwoneskero wa mbwera ungasintha chifukwa cha kunenepa panji kuzenga thupi, kweni kusintha kwambura kumanyikwa ya cifukwa kungaŵa cimanyikwiro ca ascites (ndopa yakuwungana mu nthumbo). Mbwera yingaŵaso na umbilical sinus panji fistula, ivyo pa nyengo zinyake vingapangiska mvuchi wa nthenda za mwanakazi panji mafunthi kufuma mu mbwera, comenecomene chifukwa cha umbilical endometriosis.<ref name="bagade"/> Omphalitis ni kufuma kwa maka mu mbwera ya mwana mwanchanda, kanandi chifukwa cha tizirombo twakupangiska maka. Nthenda zinyake za kanthendere zingasazgikako kunanga kwa mbwera (umbilical metastases).<ref name="gabriele"/> Kafukufuku wasangaso kuti mbwera njakukhalamo tizirombo tuchoko (bacteria) twakupambanapambana comene pa munthu waliyose.<ref name="moreau"/> ==Mbwera mu opaleshoni== Kuti opaleshoni yireke kusazgapo cimanyikwiro cikuru, mbwera nyengo zinyake yikugwiliskikira ntchito nga malo gha kudumulira, nga umo ni pakuwuska appendix, chiŵaya ca nyongo, panji pa opaleshoni ya umbilicoplasty payekha.<ref name="kaehler"/><ref name="bruekers"/> ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Vinyama vyose ivyo vikubaba ŵana kwizira mu placenta vili na mbwera, nangauli mwa munthu njakuwoneka comene kuluska mwa vinyama vinyake. Vinyama ivyo vikubaba ŵana ŵamoyo vili na mbwera yakuzingoka nga umo ili mwa munthu, kweni mu vinyama ivyo vikutumbuka mazira (nga ni tuyuni), mbwera njakuwoneka nga mphuvya yakwima pa nthumbo. Muli so cizimba ca dinosaur (Psittacosaurus) ico chikasangika na mbwera iyo yikawoneka nga ya vinyama ivyo vikutumbuka mazira. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Kufumiska pakuwaro mbwera na cigaŵa ca nthumbo kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukaŵa kwakuzomerezgeka yayi mu vikhalidwe vinyake vya ku Yuropu na ku America kwa nyengo yakale, ndipo kukawoneka nga kwambura mchindi. Mu malo ghanyake, kufumiska mbwera ya mwanakazi kukajalikizgika na malango, kweni maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ghasintha sono. Vyakuvwara nga ni crop top, ivyo vikufumiska mbwera na nthumbo, vyaŵa vyakuzomerezgeka comene mwa ŵanyamata. Mbwera na nthumbo vikuwoneka soso mu vyakuvwara vya sono nga ni bikini panji mavwalero ghakukwelera pasi pa nthumbo. Ku India, kufumiska mbwera na nthumbo kwaŵa kwakuzomerezgeka nyengo yitali, kwenerakwene mwa ŵanakazi ŵakuvwara sari.<ref name="banerjee"/> Ku Japan, mu nyengo yakale ya Jōmon, viwuni vitatu vichoko vikawikikanga pa vinthu vya dongo kulongora mabele na mbwera, kulongora muwoneskero wa mwanakazi. Mbwera yikakuzgika kuŵa yikuru comene, chifukwa cha kukhulupilira kuti mbwera ndiyo malo agho umoyo ukwambira.<ref name="naumann"/> Mu chikhalidwe ca ku Arabia na ku Levant, kuvina kwa belly dance ni mzimu wakuzomerezgeka uwo ukukhwaska comene nthumbo na mbwera. Mu Buddhism na Hinduism, chakra ya pa mbwera yikuchemeka manipura. Mu Hinduism, nkhongono ya kundalini nyengo zinyake yikuyowoyeka kuti yili pa mbwera. Mu qigong, mbwera yikuwoneka kuti ndiyo malo ghakuru gha nkhongono, ghakuchemeka dantian. ==Wonaniso== *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Luwunda]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="khati">{{Cite journal|last1=Khati|first1=Nadia J.|last2=Enquist|first2=Erik G.|last3=Javitt|first3=Marcia C.|title=Imaging of the Umbilicus and Periumbilical Region|journal=Radiographics|volume=18|issue=2|pages=413–431|year=1998|doi=10.1148/radiographics.18.2.9536487|pmid=9536487}}</ref> <ref name="meier">{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=Donald E.|last2=OlaOlorun|first2=David A.|last3=Omodele|first3=Rachael A.|last4=Nkor|first4=Sunday K.|last5=Tarpley|first5=John L.|title=Incidence of Umbilical Hernia in African Children: Redefinition of "Normal" and Reevaluation of Indications for Repair|journal=World Journal of Surgery|volume=25|issue=5|pages=645–648|year=2001|doi=10.1007/s002680020072|pmid=11369993}}</ref> <ref name="bagade">{{Cite journal|last1=Bagade|first1=Pallavi V.|last2=Guirguis|first2=Mamdouh M.|title=Menstruating from the umbilicus as a rare case of primary umbilical endometriosis: a case report|journal=Journal of Medical Case Reports|volume=3|pages=9326|year=2009|doi=10.1186/1752-1947-3-9326|pmid=20062755}}</ref> <ref name="gabriele">{{Cite journal|last1=Gabriele|first1=Raimondo|last2=Conte|first2=Marco|last3=Egidi|first3=Federico|last4=Borghese|first4=Mario|title=Umbilical metastases: current viewpoint|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=13|year=2005|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-13|pmid=15723695}}</ref> <ref name="moreau">{{Cite journal|last1=Moreau|first1=Corrie S.|last2=Hulcr|first2=Jiri|last3=Latimer|first3=Andrew M.|last4=Henley|first4=Jessica B.|last5=Rountree|first5=Nina R.|last6=Fierer|first6=Noah|last7=Lucky|first7=Andrea|last8=Lowman|first8=Margaret D.|last9=Dunn|first9=Robert R.|title=A Jungle in There: Bacteria in Belly Buttons are Highly Diverse, but Predictable|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=11|pages=e47712|year=2012|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0047712|pmid=23144827}}</ref> <ref name="kaehler">{{Cite journal|last1=Kaehler|first1=G.|last2=Schoenberg|first2=M. B.|last3=Kienle|first3=P.|last4=Post|first4=S.|last5=Magdeburg|first5=R.|title=Transgastric appendicectomy|journal=British Journal of Surgery|volume=100|issue=7|pages=911–915|year=2013|doi=10.1002/bjs.9115|pmid=23575528}}</ref> <ref name="bruekers">{{Cite journal|last1=Bruekers|first1=Sven E.|last2=van der Lei|first2=Berend|last3=Tan|first3=Tik L.|last4=Luijendijk|first4=Roland W.|last5=Stevens|first5=Hieronymus P. J. D.|title="Scarless" Umbilicoplasty|journal=Annals of Plastic Surgery|volume=63|issue=1|pages=15–20|year=2009|doi=10.1097/SAP.0b013e3181877b60|pmid=19546666}}</ref> <ref name="naumann">{{Cite book|last=Naumann|first=Nelly|chapter=First Indications of Symbolic Expression|title=Japanese Prehistory: The Material and Spiritual Culture of the Jōmon Period|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2000|pages=114–115|isbn=978-3-447-04329-8}}</ref> <ref name="banerjee">{{Cite book|last1=Banerjee|first1=Mukulika|last2=Miller|first2=Daniel|title=The Sari|publisher=Berg|year=2003|isbn=1-85973-732-3}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] aps9bx2m7ukhmqgmp11g71y55js34qo 0 49730 122297 122271 2026-09-24T15:48:45Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kunozga wonaniso: [[Chiuno]] m'malo mwa [[Ntchafu]] pamanyuma pa kusintha kwa mazina. 122297 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mfumo wa viŵalo vya thupi ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito pakubabira}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Viŵalo vyakubabira |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''systemata genitalia'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A09.0.00.000 |} '''Viŵalo vyakubabira''' (mfumo wa kubabira) ni viŵalo vyose vya thupi ivyo vikukolerana pakupanga ŵana. Vinthu ivyo navyo mbambura kuŵa vamoyo, nga ni madzi, mahomoni, na sungho, navyo vikovwira comene pa nchito ya kubabira. Kupambana na mifumo yinyake ya thupi, mwanalume na mwanakazi ŵakuŵa na kupambana kukuru pa viŵalo vyawo vyakubabira, ndipo kupambana uku nkhwakovwira kuti mbeŵu za mwanalume na za mwanakazi zikolerane, kupeleka mwana wakuzenga makola. Mwa ŵanthu na vinyama vinyake ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, viŵalo vikuru vya kubabira vikusazgapo viŵalo vyakuwaro (penis na vulva) pamoza na viŵalo vyinandi vya mkati, kusazgapo gonads izo zikupanga mbeŵu za kubabira. Nthenda za viŵalo vyakubabira ni zakuzomerezgeka comene mu charu chose, comenecomene nthenda izo zikupokerana kwizira mu vyakukolerana kwa thupi.<ref name="cdc"/> ==Viŵalo vya mwanalume== Viŵalo vya kubabira vya mwanalume vili kuwaro kwa thupi, mumphepete mwa chiuno. Nchito yawo yikuru ni kupeleka mbeŵu izo zingakolerane na zira la mwanakazi. Viŵalo ivi vingagaŵikika mu magaŵa ghatatu: *'''Kupanga na kusunga mbeŵu''': mbeŵu zikupangika mu testicle, ivyo vili mu scrotum iyo yikukhozgera thelezi la nyengo. Mbeŵu zichali kukura zikuluta ku epididymis kuti zikure makora na kusungikamo. *'''Chiŵaya izo zikupanga madzi ghakukolerana na mbeŵu''': kusazgapo seminal vesicle, prostate, na vas deferens. *'''Viŵalo vyakukolerana na kupeleka mbeŵu mu mwanakazi''': kusazgapo penis, urethra, na Cowper's gland. Mwanalume ŵakukula ŵakupanga vimanyikwiro vyakupambana nga ni thupi likuru na la nkhongono, mazgu ghakunenepa, ŵere pa cisko na pa thupi, mapewa ghakutandalika, na kukura kwa Adam's apple. Mahomoni gha mwanalume, nga ni testosterone, ndigho ghakupangiska vipambaniro ivi. Testicle zikutuzga homoni iyo yikwendeska kukura kwa mbeŵu na kusintha kwa thupi pa nyengo ya unyamata. ==Viŵalo vya mwanakazi== Viŵalo vya kubabira vya mwanakazi vili comenecomene mkati mwa thupi, mumphepete mwa chiuno. Vili na vigaŵa vitatu vikuru: vulva, iyo yikuluta ku vagina; chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo, ico chikutolera mwana wakukura; na viŵaya vya mazira, ivyo vikupanga mazira gha mwanakazi. Mabele ghakovwira pakulera mwana kweni ghakuŵikikanga yayi nga chiŵalo cha kubabira. Vagina yikukolerana na viŵalo vyakuwaro pa vulva, iyo yiliso na labia, clitoris, na urethra. Chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo chikukolerana na vagina kwizira mu mulyango wake, ndipo chikukolerananso na viŵaya vya mazira kwizira mu nthowa za mazira. Pa nyengo zakwenelera, chiŵaya ca mazira chikutuzga zira limoza kuluta mu nthowa ya mazira, ndipo zira ili likuluta ku chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo. Pafupifupi mazuŵa 28 ghaliyose, chiŵaya ca pasi pa ubongo chikutuzga homoni iyo yikupangiska mazira ghanyake kukura. Zira limoza likutuzgika na kujumphira mu nthowa ya mazira; mahomoni kufuma mu viŵaya vya mazira ghakunozgeraso chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo kuti chipokelere zira. Usange zira likolerane yayi na mbeŵu, thako lakukolerana na zira (endometrium) na zira lambura kukolerana vikutayikira kunja pa nyengo ya nthenda ya mwezi. Usange zira likolerane na mbeŵu, likukolerana na khoma la chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo, ndipo kukura kwa mwana kukwamba. ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana vili na viŵalo vyakubabira vyakuyana na vya munthu, nangauli muli kupambana kwake.<ref name="hyman"/> Ŵanalume ŵa vinyama vinandi vili na baculum (fupa la mu penis), ilo munthu walije.<ref name="schultz"/> Malo agho testicle zikuŵapo ghakupambana: mu vinyama vinandi zikutolokera mu scrotum, mu vinyake zikukhala pa khoma la nthumbo, ndipo mu vinyama vinyake nga ni njobvu, zikukhalilira mkati mwa nthumbo pafupi na maimpso.<ref name="werdelin"/> Marsupial (nga ni kangaroo) ni vinyama vyapadera: mwanakazi wake wali na vagina ziŵiri, ndipo mwanalume wali na penis yakugaŵikamo kuŵa ziŵiri. Ŵana ŵakubabika ŵali ŵachoko comene, ndipo ŵakukwerera mu thumba la nyuma la mama wawo, mwakuŵa nkhukura.<ref name="tyndale"/> Tuyuni tuli na cloaca, njira yimoza iyo mazira, mbeŵu, na taka vikujumphirako. Kanandi tuyuni twanakazi tuli na chiŵaya cimoza pera ca mazira. Vibawo (reptiles) navyo vikugwiliskira ntchito cloaca, ndipo viŵalo vyawo vyakukolerana kanandi vikusungika mkati mwa thupi. Somba (fish) zikutuzga mazira ghanandi mu madzi (spawn), ndipo ŵanalume ŵakutuzgapo madzi ghakuŵamo mbeŵu (milt) pachanya pa mazira agha kuti ghakolerane kuwaro kwa thupi. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiuno]] *[[Nthumbo]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="werdelin">{{Cite journal|last1=Werdelin|first1=L.|last2=Nilsonne|first2=A.|title=The evolution of the scrotum and testicular descent in mammals: a phylogenetic view|journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology|volume=196|issue=1|pages=61–72|year=1999|doi=10.1006/jtbi.1998.0821|pmid=9892556}}</ref> <ref name="schultz">{{Cite journal|last1=Schultz|first1=Nicholas G.|title=The baculum was gained and lost multiple times during mammalian evolution|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology|volume=56|issue=4|pages=644–656}}</ref> <ref name="tyndale">{{Cite book|last=Tyndale-Biscoe|first=C. Hugh|title=Life of Marsupials|publisher=CSIRO Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-643-06257-3}}</ref> <ref name="hyman">{{Cite book|last=Hyman|first=Libbie Henrietta|title=Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-226-87013-7}}</ref> <ref name="cdc">{{Cite web|title=STDs Today|publisher=National Prevention Network, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|url=http://www.cdcnpin.org/scripts/std/std.asp}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] qaykvkca4amqwbcuw9sp2vxqnpqwcd6 122313 122297 2026-09-24T17:05:54Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mfumo wa viŵalo vya thupi ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito pakubabira}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Viŵalo vyakubabira |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Didactic model of a mammal urogenital system-FMVZ USP-17.jpeg|220px|Cizinganya cakusambizgira cakulongora mfumo wa viŵalo vyakubabira na vya mkodzo mwa cinyama]]<br/><small>Cizinganya cakusambizgira cakulongora mfumo wa viŵalo vyakubabira na vya mkodzo mwa cinyama</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''systemata genitalia'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A09.0.00.000 |} '''Viŵalo vyakubabira''' (mfumo wa kubabira) ni viŵalo vyose vya thupi ivyo vikukolerana pakupanga ŵana. Vinthu ivyo navyo mbambura kuŵa vamoyo, nga ni madzi, mahomoni, na sungho, navyo vikovwira comene pa nchito ya kubabira. Kupambana na mifumo yinyake ya thupi, mwanalume na mwanakazi ŵakuŵa na kupambana kukuru pa viŵalo vyawo vyakubabira, ndipo kupambana uku nkhwakovwira kuti mbeŵu za mwanalume na za mwanakazi zikolerane, kupeleka mwana wakuzenga makola. Mwa ŵanthu na vinyama vinyake ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, viŵalo vikuru vya kubabira vikusazgapo viŵalo vyakuwaro (penis na vulva) pamoza na viŵalo vyinandi vya mkati, kusazgapo gonads izo zikupanga mbeŵu za kubabira. Nthenda za viŵalo vyakubabira ni zakuzomerezgeka comene mu charu chose, comenecomene nthenda izo zikupokerana kwizira mu vyakukolerana kwa thupi.<ref name="cdc"/> ==Viŵalo vya mwanalume== Viŵalo vya kubabira vya mwanalume vili kuwaro kwa thupi, mumphepete mwa chiuno. Nchito yawo yikuru ni kupeleka mbeŵu izo zingakolerane na zira la mwanakazi. Viŵalo ivi vingagaŵikika mu magaŵa ghatatu: *'''Kupanga na kusunga mbeŵu''': mbeŵu zikupangika mu testicle, ivyo vili mu scrotum iyo yikukhozgera thelezi la nyengo. Mbeŵu zichali kukura zikuluta ku epididymis kuti zikure makora na kusungikamo. *'''Chiŵaya izo zikupanga madzi ghakukolerana na mbeŵu''': kusazgapo seminal vesicle, prostate, na vas deferens. *'''Viŵalo vyakukolerana na kupeleka mbeŵu mu mwanakazi''': kusazgapo penis, urethra, na Cowper's gland. Mwanalume ŵakukula ŵakupanga vimanyikwiro vyakupambana nga ni thupi likuru na la nkhongono, mazgu ghakunenepa, ŵere pa cisko na pa thupi, mapewa ghakutandalika, na kukura kwa Adam's apple. Mahomoni gha mwanalume, nga ni testosterone, ndigho ghakupangiska vipambaniro ivi. Testicle zikutuzga homoni iyo yikwendeska kukura kwa mbeŵu na kusintha kwa thupi pa nyengo ya unyamata. ==Viŵalo vya mwanakazi== Viŵalo vya kubabira vya mwanakazi vili comenecomene mkati mwa thupi, mumphepete mwa chiuno. Vili na vigaŵa vitatu vikuru: vulva, iyo yikuluta ku vagina; chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo, ico chikutolera mwana wakukura; na viŵaya vya mazira, ivyo vikupanga mazira gha mwanakazi. Mabele ghakovwira pakulera mwana kweni ghakuŵikikanga yayi nga chiŵalo cha kubabira. Vagina yikukolerana na viŵalo vyakuwaro pa vulva, iyo yiliso na labia, clitoris, na urethra. Chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo chikukolerana na vagina kwizira mu mulyango wake, ndipo chikukolerananso na viŵaya vya mazira kwizira mu nthowa za mazira. Pa nyengo zakwenelera, chiŵaya ca mazira chikutuzga zira limoza kuluta mu nthowa ya mazira, ndipo zira ili likuluta ku chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo. Pafupifupi mazuŵa 28 ghaliyose, chiŵaya ca pasi pa ubongo chikutuzga homoni iyo yikupangiska mazira ghanyake kukura. Zira limoza likutuzgika na kujumphira mu nthowa ya mazira; mahomoni kufuma mu viŵaya vya mazira ghakunozgeraso chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo kuti chipokelere zira. Usange zira likolerane yayi na mbeŵu, thako lakukolerana na zira (endometrium) na zira lambura kukolerana vikutayikira kunja pa nyengo ya nthenda ya mwezi. Usange zira likolerane na mbeŵu, likukolerana na khoma la chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo, ndipo kukura kwa mwana kukwamba. ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== [[File:Joey in pouch.jpg|thumb|220px|Mwana wa kangaroo (joey) wakuyamwa mu thumba la nyuma la mama wake]] Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana vili na viŵalo vyakubabira vyakuyana na vya munthu, nangauli muli kupambana kwake.<ref name="hyman"/> Ŵanalume ŵa vinyama vinandi vili na baculum (fupa la mu penis), ilo munthu walije.<ref name="schultz"/> Malo agho testicle zikuŵapo ghakupambana: mu vinyama vinandi zikutolokera mu scrotum, mu vinyake zikukhala pa khoma la nthumbo, ndipo mu vinyama vinyake nga ni njobvu, zikukhalilira mkati mwa nthumbo pafupi na maimpso.<ref name="werdelin"/> Marsupial (nga ni kangaroo) ni vinyama vyapadera: mwanakazi wake wali na vagina ziŵiri, ndipo mwanalume wali na penis yakugaŵikamo kuŵa ziŵiri. Ŵana ŵakubabika ŵali ŵachoko comene, ndipo ŵakukwerera mu thumba la nyuma la mama wawo, mwakuŵa nkhukura.<ref name="tyndale"/> Tuyuni tuli na cloaca, njira yimoza iyo mazira, mbeŵu, na taka vikujumphirako. Kanandi tuyuni twanakazi tuli na chiŵaya cimoza pera ca mazira. Vibawo (reptiles) navyo vikugwiliskira ntchito cloaca, ndipo viŵalo vyawo vyakukolerana kanandi vikusungika mkati mwa thupi. Somba (fish) zikutuzga mazira ghanandi mu madzi (spawn), ndipo ŵanalume ŵakutuzgapo madzi ghakuŵamo mbeŵu (milt) pachanya pa mazira agha kuti ghakolerane kuwaro kwa thupi. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiuno]] *[[Nthumbo]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="werdelin">{{Cite journal|last1=Werdelin|first1=L.|last2=Nilsonne|first2=A.|title=The evolution of the scrotum and testicular descent in mammals: a phylogenetic view|journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology|volume=196|issue=1|pages=61–72|year=1999|doi=10.1006/jtbi.1998.0821|pmid=9892556}}</ref> <ref name="schultz">{{Cite journal|last1=Schultz|first1=Nicholas G.|title=The baculum was gained and lost multiple times during mammalian evolution|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology|volume=56|issue=4|pages=644–656}}</ref> <ref name="tyndale">{{Cite book|last=Tyndale-Biscoe|first=C. Hugh|title=Life of Marsupials|publisher=CSIRO Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-643-06257-3}}</ref> <ref name="hyman">{{Cite book|last=Hyman|first=Libbie Henrietta|title=Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-226-87013-7}}</ref> <ref name="cdc">{{Cite web|title=STDs Today|publisher=National Prevention Network, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|url=http://www.cdcnpin.org/scripts/std/std.asp}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] bq9h0h96xi5hb7m0i3lq53ofdeneyi3 0 49733 122339 122278 2026-09-25T00:11:11Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122339 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (Аԥсшәа) ntchiyowoyero icho chikuyowoyeka ku [[Abkhazia]], chigaŵa chinyake ''de jure'' cha ku [[Georgia]].<ref>https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk/</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{InterWiki|code=ab}} {{wikivoyage|Abkhaz phrasebook}} {{Commons category}} * [https://archive.org/stream/rosettaproject_abk_swadesh-1/abk.txt Abkhaz (abk) Swadesh List] by ''[[The Rosetta Project]]'' at the [[Internet Archive]] * [http://www.abyzshwa.narod.ru/ Introduction, basic phrases and grammar and texts] * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/abkhaz.htm Abkhaz alphabet and pronunciation (Omniglot)] * [http://www.language-museum.com/encyclopedia/a/abkhaz.php Abkhaz at Language Museum] * [http://www.kapba.de/A-Abtsara.html Example of Abkhaz language] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120426090514/http://abc.marlamuter.ru/index.php/list/abhaz/1.xhtml Abkhaz-Russian On-Line Dictionary] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20201212111902/http://www.ethnic-cinema-country.ru/kalligrafia/ Ancient Adyghe Abkhaz–Abaza Ubykh alphabet] * [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ncc\wcc&first=0 Abkhaz basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database] * [http://baltoslav.eu/apsua/index.php?mova=en Abkhaz text corpus] * [http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/Language/ABK/abk.html Recordings of Abkhaz] *{{Cite JIPA|author1=Andersson, Samuel |author2=Vaux, Bert |author3=Pysipa (Şener), Zihni|title=Cwyzhy Abkhaz|pages=1&ndash;21|doi=10.1017/S0025100320000390|printdate=2021-03-31|soundfiles=no}} [[Category:Viyowoyelo]] gh52our509r0kvlejyvd1hdx25noczc 0 49737 122340 122289 2026-09-25T00:12:43Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122340 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (მარგალური) ntchiyowoyero icho chikuyowoyeka ku [[Mingrelia]], chigaŵa chinyake cha ku [[Georgia]],<ref>https://www.ethnologue.com/language/xmf/</ref> ndiposo pa mlingo uchoko waka mu charu chose. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{InterWiki|code=xmf}} *[https://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/caucasica/mingrel/adscham.htm TITUS Caucasica: Megrelisch] (ChiJeremani) *[https://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etca/cauc/megr/kajaia/kajai.htm Otar Kajaia's Megrelian-Georgian dictionary] pa TITUS. *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110927085309/http://www.ling.lu.se/projects/Megrelian/ Megrelian Project] pa [[Lund University]], [[Sweden]] *[https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/nikolaus-von-twickel/do-you-speak-mingrelian Article on the situation in 2017] pa [[OpenDemocracy]] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20250212051534/https://irinalobzhanidze.com/megrelian/converter/converter.html Rusudan Gersamia's and Irina Lobzhanidze's Megrelian Online Converter] pa CML [[Category:Viyowoyelo]] i1krfr8civatqiogxgedd32ncm9jzrm 0 49740 122293 2026-09-24T15:39:37Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Anthonymunthali44 moved page [[Ntchafu]] to [[Chiuno]]: Kusintha zina la nkhani - "chiuno" ndilo lizgu lakwenelera la ntchafu (hip); "luwunda" wasazgika kugwiliskikira ntchito ku chiuno (waist). 122293 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Chiuno]] e61iyouo1t10ry50xbn8lqmqv77aqpd 122319 122293 2026-09-24T18:47:19Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kulembanso nkhani yose kuti yiŵe ya "ntchafu" (hip), yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Hip', pamalo pa iyo yikaŵako pambere (yikaŵa ya chiuno mwakupambanako). 122319 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi capakati pa nthumbo na lundi}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Ntchafu | Latin = coxa | Image = Hip.jpg | Caption = Mafupa gha cigaŵa ca ntchafu | Image2 = Closeup of a right female hip.png | Caption2 = Ntchafu ya mwanakazi, kulaŵiska kuwaro }} Mu sayansi ya viwumba vyakuŵa na msana (''vertebrate''), '''ntchafu''' panji ''coxa''<ref name="diab"/> (mu uganga) ni [[list of human anatomical regions|cigaŵa ca thupi]] panji [[joint|mphambano]] ico chili mumphepete mwa [[pelvis|mbombo]]. Cigaŵa ca ntchafu chili mumphepete na kunthazi kwa [[Buttocks|malo gha tako]], pasi pa [[iliac crest|iliac crest]], na mumphepete mwa [[obturator foramen]], apo [[muscle tendon|misambizi ya minofu]] na viŵaya vyakukhorera vikuvundikira [[greater trochanter]] ya [[femur|fupa la chigha]]. Mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima, mafupa ghatatu gha mbombo ([[Ilium (bone)|ilium]], [[ischium]], na [[pubis (bone)|pubis]]) ghakukolerana kuŵa fupa limoza, ilo likupanga khoma la mkati la cigaŵa ca ntchafu. '''Mphambano wa ntchafu''', mu sayansi ukuchemeka ''acetabulofemoral joint'', ni [[ball-and-socket joint|mphambano wa mpira na thumba]] wapakati pa [[acetabulum]] ya mbombo na mutu wa fupa la chigha. Nchito yake yikuru ni kunyamula uzito wa thupi, kwenerakwene apo munthu wimilira panji wakwenda panji wakucimbira. Mphambano wa ntchafu ukovwiraso pakukhozgera kwimilira makola na kukhazikika kwa mbombo. Kupweteka kwa ntchafu kungiza chifukwa cha masuzgo ghanandi, kusazgamo gha mizirwe, gha kuvunda kwa mafupa (osteoarthritis), gha vindumira, gha kutimbanyika, panji gha kupokelera. ==Muundo== ===Mphambano=== [[File:Hueftgelenk-gesund.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca X-ray ca mphambano wa ntchafu wamoyo makora]] Mphambano wa ntchafu ni mphambano wa mpira na thumba uwo ukupangika na acetabulum ya mbombo na mutu wa fupa la chigha, uwo ukuvundikika na cartilage yakukhorera kweni yakusinyilira. Acetabulum yikulaŵiskira pasi na kunthazi-mumphepete, ndipo yikukola pafupifupi hafu ya mutu wa fupa la chigha; kutali kwake kukuwonjezgeka na cigaŵa cakuzingilira cakuwoneka nga chibvunda ico chikuchemeka ''acetabular labrum''. Fupa la chigha likukolelezgeka na cishaft cake kwizira mu nkhongono yicoko iyo yikutimbanyika comene mwa ŵanthu ŵakukura, chomene chifukwa cha osteoporosis. ===Vipimo vya mphambano=== Sayansi ya uganga yikugwiliskira ntchito vipimo vinandi vya makona kupima umoyo wa ntchafu ya mwana panji wakukura, kusazgamo ''acetabular angle'' (Sharp's angle), ''sagittal angle'', ''centre-edge angle'' ya Wiberg, na ''caput-collum-diaphyseal angle'' (CCD angle) ya nkhongono ya fupa la chigha. Kona iyi yikuŵa pafupifupi 150° mwa wana ŵapapi na 126° mwa ŵanthu ŵakukura. Kona yicoko comene yikuchemeka ''coxa vara'', apo kona yikuru comene yikuchemeka ''coxa valga''; izi zikukolerananga na kusintha kwa khongono (''genu varum'' na ''genu valgum''). ===Thumba la mphambano na ligament=== [[File:Gray339.png|thumb|Ligament za kuwaro kwa thumba la ntchafu]] Thumba la mphambano (''capsule'') la ntchafu likukolerana na mphepete la acetabulum na fupa la chigha, ndipo likovwira mphambano wa ntchafu kuŵa na ntchito yikuru yaciŵiri pakusinthasintha (kulondezga waka [[shoulder|chiŵegha]]), kweni likanyamulirenge waka uzito wa thupi. Ntchafu yikukolelezgeka na ''ligament'' zinayi: zitatu zili kuwaro kwa thumba (''iliofemoral'', ''ischiofemoral'', na ''pubofemoral''), imoza yili mkati mwa thumba (''ligamentum teres''). ''Iliofemoral ligament'' ndiyo yankhongono comene mu thupi la munthu, ndipo yikukanizga kujintha kunyuma comene apo munthu wimilira. ''Ligamentum teres'' yikukolerana na msambizi ucoko uwo ukupeleka ndopa ku mutu wa fupa la chigha, chomene apo msambizi ukuru wagomezgeka. ===Ndopa=== Ntchafu yikupokera ndopa comene kufuma ku misambizi ya ''medial circumflex femoral'' na ''lateral circumflex femoral'', iyo yinandi njakufuma ku msambizi ukuru wa chigha (''profunda femoris''). Msambizi ucoko wa ''ligamentum teres'' ukovwiraso, ndipo ukuŵa wakuzirwa comene usange misambizi yikuru yatimbanyika (mwacisono, pa kutimbanyika kwa nkhongono ya fupa la chigha), kuti aleke kusangika ''avascular necrosis'' ya mutu wa fupa la chigha. ===Minofu na kusinthasintha=== Minofu ya ntchafu yikugwira ntchito pa maazi ghatatu ghakupambana, ghakupeleka kusinthasintha kwa mtundu utatu: kupinda na kunyoloka (''flexion'' na ''extension''), kuzungusika kwa mkati na kwa kuwaro (''medial'' na ''lateral rotation''), na kufumiska na kwandamana (''abduction'' na ''adduction''). Minofu yikuru iyo yikucita nchito izi njakusazgamo ''gluteus maximus'', ''gluteus medius'', ''gluteus minimus'', ''iliopsoas'', na ''adductor'' zinandi. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== [[Hip fracture|Kutimbanyika kwa ntchafu]] ni kudumuka kwa fupa mu cigaŵa cakuchanya ca fupa la chigha, ico chikusanga comene ŵanthu ŵalara. Vimanyikwiro vyake vikusazgamo kupweteka pa kusintha na kufupika kwa lundi. Pa vipwetekero panji nthenda nga ni osteoarthritis, mphambano wa ntchafu ungasinthika na chiŵalo cakupangika (''hip replacement''). Kupweteka kwa ntchafu kungakolerananga na kupweteka kwa msana wa pasi. Kusinthika kwa umo acetabulum yasazgikira, nga umo mukusangika mu ''hip dysplasia'', kungiza chifukwa cha kufuma pang'ono kwa ntchafu panji kuvunda kwa acetabular labrum. ==Kupambana pakati pa mwanarume na mwanakazi== [[File:Canova-Dancer with her hands on her hips 45degree view.jpg|thumb|Ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakwimilira na mawoko pa ntchafu.]] Mwa ŵanthu, kwambura viŵumba vinyake, mafupa gha ntchafu ghakupambana comene pakati pa jinsi ziŵiri. Ntchafu za ŵanakazi zikufuma pa nyengo ya ubwezi. Mafupa gha chigha ghakuŵa kutali comene pakati pawo mwa ŵanakazi, kuti ghawovwire pakubabira. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiuno]] *[[Chigha]] *[[Khongono]] *[[Munkhoza]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="diab">Chilatini ''coxa'' chikagwiliskikira ntchito na Celsus mu ng'anamuro la "ntchafu", kweni na Pliny Wamkulu mu ng'anamuro la "fupa la ntchafu" (Diab, p. 77).</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|website=MediLexicon|url=https://www.medilexicon.com/dictionary/77165|title=hip region|access-date=2018-08-02}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ryan |first1=Stephanie |title=Anatomy for diagnostic imaging |date=2011 |publisher=Elsevier Ltd |isbn=978-0-7020-2971-4 |page=287 |edition=Third}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lequesne|first1=M|title=The normal hip joint space|journal=Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases|volume=63|issue=9|year=2004|pages=1145–1151|doi=10.1136/ard.2003.018424|pmid=15308525}}</ref> <ref>''Thieme Atlas of Anatomy'' (2006), p. 367.</ref> <ref name="platzer">{{Cite book | first = Werner | last = Platzer | title = Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System | publisher = Thieme | isbn = 3-13-533305-1 | year = 2004 | edition = 5th}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |title=Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb, Hip Joint |year=2021|publisher=StatPearls|pmid=29262200|last1=Gold |first1=M. |last2=Munjal |first2=A. |last3=Varacallo |first3=M.}}</ref> <ref name="ao2009">{{Cite web|url=http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00392|title=Hip Fractures|date=April 2009|website=OrthoInfo - AAOS|access-date=2017-09-27}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] npxa8wvymykbtu34tuegmdwvvikdu0t 122320 122319 2026-09-24T18:53:02Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kuwezgera kunyuma: Ntchafu yikaŵa yakuzomerezgeka kwa Chiuno pambere. 122320 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Chiuno]] e61iyouo1t10ry50xbn8lqmqv77aqpd 0 49741 122298 2026-09-24T15:58:35Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Forearm'. 122298 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca woko icho chili pakati pa chigongono na woko}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Woko la pasi |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''antebrachium'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.1.00.024 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |146 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |9663 |} '''Woko la pasi''' ni cigaŵa ca woko lakuchanya icho chili pakati pa chigongono na woko. Lizgu "woko la pasi" likugwiliskikira ntchito mu sayansi ya thupi kuti lipambanyike na "woko", ilo likung'anamura woko lose kufuma ku bega kufika ku woko, kweni pa nyengo zinandi, comenecomene mu kuyowoya kwa zuŵa na zuŵa, lizgu "woko" likugwiliskikirapo kung'anamura woko la pasi pelapera. Woko la pasi likuyana na munkhoza, ico ni cigaŵa ca lundi ico chili pakati pa khongono na kalundi. ==Muundo== Woko la pasi lili na mafupa ghatali ghaŵiri — ''radius'' (ilo lili mumphepete wa chala cikuru) na ''ulna'' (ilo lili mumphepete wa chala cichoko) — ghakukolerana mu vitali vyawo na ''interosseous membrane'', ndipo ghakukolerananso pa mphambano ziŵiri, yakuchanya na yakupasi, izo zikuchemeka ''proximal radioulnar joint'' na ''distal radioulnar joint''.<ref name="grays"/> Khungu la mumphepete wakunthazi wa woko la pasi (uwo ukulaŵiskira uko dzanja likujintha) kanandi nlakuŵa na tsitsi lichoko comene na kusuzgika kukhwaska kuluska khungu la mumphepete wakunyuma. ==Mafupa== ''Radius'' yikukolerana kuchanya na fupa la woko lakuchanya (pa ''capitulum'') na na ''ulna'' (pa ''radial notch''); kupasi yikukolerana na ''ulna'' (pa ''ulnar notch'') na na mafupa gha mumkono (''scaphoid'' na ''lunate''). ''Ulna'' yikukolerana kuchanya na fupa la woko lakuchanya (pa ''trochlea'') na na ''radius''; kupasi yikupanga ''distal radioulnar joint'' na ''radius'', ndipo yikukolerana na mumkono kwizira mu ''triangular fibrocartilage complex'', m'malo mwa kukolerana pe pene na mafupa gha mumkono. ==Minofu== Minofu ya woko la pasi njakunozgeka mu magaŵa ghaŵiri: *'''Cigaŵa cakunthazi''' (minofu ya kupinda na ya kuzungusika mkati, ''pronation'') — yikulongozgeka comenecomene na mzirwe wakuchemeka ''median nerve'', pamoza na cigaŵa cinandi cakufuma ku ''ulnar nerve''. Mu thako lakuwaro muli ''flexor carpi radialis'', ''palmaris longus'', ''flexor carpi ulnaris'', na ''pronator teres''. Mu thako lapakati muli ''flexor digitorum superficialis''. Mu thako lamkati muli ''flexor digitorum profundus'', ''flexor pollicis longus'', na ''pronator quadratus''. *'''Cigaŵa cakunyuma''' (minofu ya kunyoloka na ya kuzungusika kuwaro, ''supination'') — yose yikulongozgeka na ''radial nerve''. Muli ''brachioradialis'' (ilo malo ghake ghakupambanapambana), ''extensor carpi radialis longus'', ''extensor carpi radialis brevis'', ''extensor carpi ulnaris'', ''extensor digitorum'', ''extensor digiti minimi'', ''abductor pollicis longus'', ''extensor pollicis brevis'', ''extensor pollicis longus'', ''extensor indicis'', ''supinator'', na ''anconeus''. Minofu ya kupinda njakukhora comene kuluska minofu ya kunyoloka, chifukwa nchakukhumbikwa nkhongono yikuru pakukamata vinthu mwaukhoma.<ref name="statpearls2"/> ==Ndopa na mizirwe== Msambizi wa ''radial artery'' na wa ''ulnar artery'', pamoza na vinjiri vyawo, ndivyo vikupeleka ndopa mu woko la pasi, vikwendera comenecomene mumphepete wakunthazi. Misambizi ya ndopa iyo yikuwoneka pachanya pa khungu — ''cephalic vein'', ''median antebrachial vein'', na ''basilic vein'' — ndiyo yikugwiliskikira ntchito pakutola ndopa panji pakuŵika minjizgo. ''Median nerve'' ndiwo ukulongozga minofu yinandi ya cigaŵa cakunthazi; nthowa yake, ''anterior interosseous nerve'', yikulongozga minofu ya mkati ya cigaŵa cakunthazi. ''Ulnar nerve'' ukulongozga ''flexor carpi ulnaris'' na cigaŵa ca ''flexor digitorum profundus''. ''Radial nerve'' ukulongozga cigaŵa cose cakunyuma. ==Muwendero== Pa mphambano ya chigongono, woko la pasi lingapinda na kunyoloka. Kuzungusika mkati (''pronation'') na kuzungusika kuwaro (''supination'') — ivyo vikupangiska dzanja kulaŵiskira pasi panji kulaŵiskira pachanya — vikuchitika kwizira mu kukolerana kwa mphambano ya chigongono na mphambano ya ''distal radioulnar joint'', apo ''radius'' yikuzungazunga kuzingilira ''ulna'' iyo yikukhala cimira. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kutimbanyika kwa mafupa gha woko la pasi kukupambanikizgika kuŵa kutimbanyika kwa ''radius'' pera, kwa ''ulna'' pera, panji kwa mafupa ghose ghaŵiri pamoza. Mwa ŵana, kutimbanyika kwakuchemeka ''torus'' panji ''buckle fracture'' kukunozgeka makora comene na kukakikira (splinting) kuluska kuŵikikira mu plasta yakukhora yose (casting).<ref name="torus"/> Nthenda yakupokerana mu mbumba yakuchemeka ''hereditary multiple exostoses'' (panji ''multiple osteochondromas'') yingasokoneza kukura kwa mafupa gha woko la pasi mu vigaŵa vyakukulira (''epiphyses''), na kupangiska kukhotoka kwa woko.<ref name="exostoses"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigongono]] *[[Munkhoza]] *[[Chigha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="statpearls2">{{Cite web|last1=Mitchell|first1=Brittney|last2=Whited|first2=Lacey|title=Anatomy, Shoulder and Upper Limb, Forearm Muscles|publisher=StatPearls|date=2020-08-15|access-date=2021-06-22|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534836/}}</ref> <ref name="grays">{{Cite book|editor-last=Standring|editor-first=Susan|title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice|edition=41st|location=Philadelphia|year=2016|isbn=978-0-7020-5230-9|oclc=920806541}}</ref> <ref name="torus">{{Cite journal|last1=Jiang|first1=N.|last2=Cao|first2=Z.H.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.F.|last4=Lin|first4=Z.|last5=Yu|first5=B.|title=Management of Pediatric Forearm Torus Fractures|journal=Pediatric Emergency Care|volume=32|issue=11|pages=773–778|date=November 2016|doi=10.1097/PEC.0000000000000579|pmid=26555307}}</ref> <ref name="exostoses">{{Cite journal|last1=El-Sobky|first1=T.A.|last2=Samir|first2=S.|last3=Atiyya|first3=A.N.|last4=Mahmoud|first4=S.|last5=Aly|first5=A.S.|last6=Soliman|first6=R.|title=Current paediatric orthopaedic practice in hereditary multiple osteochondromas|journal=SICOT-J|volume=4|pages=10|year=2018|doi=10.1051/sicotj/2018002|pmc=5863686}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 2p2fqsp55p2ka5jsrsrzdh2lwlmag5o 122305 122298 2026-09-24T16:36:14Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122305 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca woko icho chili pakati pa chigongono na woko}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Woko la pasi |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Forearm labeled.png|150px|Woko la pasi likulongoreka mu utoto wa magenta]]<br/><small>Woko la pasi likulongoreka mu utoto wa magenta</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''antebrachium'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.1.00.024 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |146 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |9663 |} '''Woko la pasi''' ni cigaŵa ca woko lakuchanya icho chili pakati pa chigongono na woko. Lizgu "woko la pasi" likugwiliskikira ntchito mu sayansi ya thupi kuti lipambanyike na "woko", ilo likung'anamura woko lose kufuma ku bega kufika ku woko, kweni pa nyengo zinandi, comenecomene mu kuyowoya kwa zuŵa na zuŵa, lizgu "woko" likugwiliskikirapo kung'anamura woko la pasi pelapera. Woko la pasi likuyana na munkhoza, ico ni cigaŵa ca lundi ico chili pakati pa khongono na kalundi. ==Muundo== [[File:Radius and Ulna - Forearm Bones.jpg|thumb|Mafupa gha woko la pasi, ''radius'' kumaso na ''ulna'' kuwaro]] Woko la pasi lili na mafupa ghatali ghaŵiri — ''radius'' (ilo lili mumphepete wa chala cikuru) na ''ulna'' (ilo lili mumphepete wa chala cichoko) — ghakukolerana mu vitali vyawo na ''interosseous membrane'', ndipo ghakukolerananso pa mphambano ziŵiri, yakuchanya na yakupasi, izo zikuchemeka ''proximal radioulnar joint'' na ''distal radioulnar joint''.<ref name="grays"/> Khungu la mumphepete wakunthazi wa woko la pasi (uwo ukulaŵiskira uko dzanja likujintha) kanandi nlakuŵa na tsitsi lichoko comene na kusuzgika kukhwaska kuluska khungu la mumphepete wakunyuma. ==Mafupa== ''Radius'' yikukolerana kuchanya na fupa la woko lakuchanya (pa ''capitulum'') na na ''ulna'' (pa ''radial notch''); kupasi yikukolerana na ''ulna'' (pa ''ulnar notch'') na na mafupa gha mumkono (''scaphoid'' na ''lunate''). ''Ulna'' yikukolerana kuchanya na fupa la woko lakuchanya (pa ''trochlea'') na na ''radius''; kupasi yikupanga ''distal radioulnar joint'' na ''radius'', ndipo yikukolerana na mumkono kwizira mu ''triangular fibrocartilage complex'', m'malo mwa kukolerana pe pene na mafupa gha mumkono. ==Minofu== Minofu ya woko la pasi njakunozgeka mu magaŵa ghaŵiri: *'''Cigaŵa cakunthazi''' (minofu ya kupinda na ya kuzungusika mkati, ''pronation'') — yikulongozgeka comenecomene na mzirwe wakuchemeka ''median nerve'', pamoza na cigaŵa cinandi cakufuma ku ''ulnar nerve''. Mu thako lakuwaro muli ''flexor carpi radialis'', ''palmaris longus'', ''flexor carpi ulnaris'', na ''pronator teres''. Mu thako lapakati muli ''flexor digitorum superficialis''. Mu thako lamkati muli ''flexor digitorum profundus'', ''flexor pollicis longus'', na ''pronator quadratus''. *'''Cigaŵa cakunyuma''' (minofu ya kunyoloka na ya kuzungusika kuwaro, ''supination'') — yose yikulongozgeka na ''radial nerve''. Muli ''brachioradialis'' (ilo malo ghake ghakupambanapambana), ''extensor carpi radialis longus'', ''extensor carpi radialis brevis'', ''extensor carpi ulnaris'', ''extensor digitorum'', ''extensor digiti minimi'', ''abductor pollicis longus'', ''extensor pollicis brevis'', ''extensor pollicis longus'', ''extensor indicis'', ''supinator'', na ''anconeus''. Minofu ya kupinda njakukhora comene kuluska minofu ya kunyoloka, chifukwa nchakukhumbikwa nkhongono yikuru pakukamata vinthu mwaukhoma.<ref name="statpearls2"/> ==Ndopa na mizirwe== [[File:Veins of the forearm and hand.jpg|thumb|Mizirwe ya ndopa ya woko la pasi na woko]] Msambizi wa ''radial artery'' na wa ''ulnar artery'', pamoza na vinjiri vyawo, ndivyo vikupeleka ndopa mu woko la pasi, vikwendera comenecomene mumphepete wakunthazi. Misambizi ya ndopa iyo yikuwoneka pachanya pa khungu — ''cephalic vein'', ''median antebrachial vein'', na ''basilic vein'' — ndiyo yikugwiliskikira ntchito pakutola ndopa panji pakuŵika minjizgo. ''Median nerve'' ndiwo ukulongozga minofu yinandi ya cigaŵa cakunthazi; nthowa yake, ''anterior interosseous nerve'', yikulongozga minofu ya mkati ya cigaŵa cakunthazi. ''Ulnar nerve'' ukulongozga ''flexor carpi ulnaris'' na cigaŵa ca ''flexor digitorum profundus''. ''Radial nerve'' ukulongozga cigaŵa cose cakunyuma. ==Muwendero== Pa mphambano ya chigongono, woko la pasi lingapinda na kunyoloka. Kuzungusika mkati (''pronation'') na kuzungusika kuwaro (''supination'') — ivyo vikupangiska dzanja kulaŵiskira pasi panji kulaŵiskira pachanya — vikuchitika kwizira mu kukolerana kwa mphambano ya chigongono na mphambano ya ''distal radioulnar joint'', apo ''radius'' yikuzungazunga kuzingilira ''ulna'' iyo yikukhala cimira. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== [[File:FracRadUlnaMark.png|thumb|Kutimbanyika kwa mafupa gha ''radius'' na ''ulna'' pakati pa woko la pasi]] Kutimbanyika kwa mafupa gha woko la pasi kukupambanikizgika kuŵa kutimbanyika kwa ''radius'' pera, kwa ''ulna'' pera, panji kwa mafupa ghose ghaŵiri pamoza. Mwa ŵana, kutimbanyika kwakuchemeka ''torus'' panji ''buckle fracture'' kukunozgeka makora comene na kukakikira (splinting) kuluska kuŵikikira mu plasta yakukhora yose (casting).<ref name="torus"/> Nthenda yakupokerana mu mbumba yakuchemeka ''hereditary multiple exostoses'' (panji ''multiple osteochondromas'') yingasokoneza kukura kwa mafupa gha woko la pasi mu vigaŵa vyakukulira (''epiphyses''), na kupangiska kukhotoka kwa woko.<ref name="exostoses"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigongono]] *[[Munkhoza]] *[[Chigha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="statpearls2">{{Cite web|last1=Mitchell|first1=Brittney|last2=Whited|first2=Lacey|title=Anatomy, Shoulder and Upper Limb, Forearm Muscles|publisher=StatPearls|date=2020-08-15|access-date=2021-06-22|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534836/}}</ref> <ref name="grays">{{Cite book|editor-last=Standring|editor-first=Susan|title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice|edition=41st|location=Philadelphia|year=2016|isbn=978-0-7020-5230-9|oclc=920806541}}</ref> <ref name="torus">{{Cite journal|last1=Jiang|first1=N.|last2=Cao|first2=Z.H.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.F.|last4=Lin|first4=Z.|last5=Yu|first5=B.|title=Management of Pediatric Forearm Torus Fractures|journal=Pediatric Emergency Care|volume=32|issue=11|pages=773–778|date=November 2016|doi=10.1097/PEC.0000000000000579|pmid=26555307}}</ref> <ref name="exostoses">{{Cite journal|last1=El-Sobky|first1=T.A.|last2=Samir|first2=S.|last3=Atiyya|first3=A.N.|last4=Mahmoud|first4=S.|last5=Aly|first5=A.S.|last6=Soliman|first6=R.|title=Current paediatric orthopaedic practice in hereditary multiple osteochondromas|journal=SICOT-J|volume=4|pages=10|year=2018|doi=10.1051/sicotj/2018002|pmc=5863686}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] e46h15mrl3wgzqzwy1vdy2gxdba57cd 0 49742 122299 2026-09-24T16:07:03Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Groin'. 122299 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi cha pakati pa nthumbo na chigha}} '''Ntangararo''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''inguinal region'' panji ''iliac region'') ni cigaŵa ico chikukolerana thupi lakuchanya na chigha.<ref name="hoagland"/> Ntangararo uli kunthazi kwa thupi, mumphepete zoseŵiri za ''pubic tubercle'', apo khoma la nthumbo yapasi likukolerana na chigha. Pa malo agha pakupangika chipindo ca khungu, ico chikuchemeka ''inguinal groove'' panji ''crease''. Ntangararo ndiwoso malo agho minofu ya kukolerana ya chiuno (yikuchemekaso minofu ya ntangararo) yikukolerana. "Ntangararo wakupwetekeka" (''groin pull''), uwo ukukolerana na kupwetekeka kwa mbumba ya minofu ya kukolerana ya lundi mu ntangararo, ni cilonda cakuzomerezgeka comene mu masewera. ==Muundo wa thupi== Apo khoma la nthumbo yapasi likukolerana na chigha, pakupangika chipindo icho chikuchemeka ''inguinal groove''. Malo agha ni malo gha cigaŵa ca mkati mwa chigha (''medial compartment'') ico chili na vikolerano vya minofu ya kukolerana ya chiuno, iyo yikuchemekaso minofu ya ntangararo.<ref name="moore2018"/> Minofu ya kukolerana iyo yikupanga ntangararo yikusazgapo ''adductor brevis'', ''adductor longus'', ''adductor magnus'', ''gracilis'', na ''pectineus''. Minofu iyi ya ntangararo yikukolezga chigha na khongono kuluta ku mzere wapakati wa thupi. Ntangararo yikulongozgeka na vinjiri vya ''lumbar plexus''. Mnofu wa ''pectineus'' ukulongozgeka na ''femoral nerve'', ndipo cigaŵa ca ''adductor magnus'' ico chikuyana na minofu ya ''hamstring'' cikulongozgeka na ''tibial nerve''. Mu ntangararo, pasi pa khungu, muli ''lymph node'' zitatu mpaka zinkhonde izo zikovwira mu mzirwe wa kuvikilira thupi ku nthenda. Vinjiri vya ''lymph node'' izo zili pafupi na khungu vikuya kukolerana na izo zili mkati. Muli maenje ghaŵiri ghakuchemeka ''fossae'' mu malo ghakuchemeka ''inguinal triangle'' — ''lateral inguinal fossa'' na ''medial inguinal fossa''. ''Inguinal ligament'' yikufuma ku ''pubic tubercle'' kuluta ku ''anterior superior iliac spine'', ndipo muundo wake nkhwakuzirwa comene mu opaleshoni za hernia. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== "Ntangararo wakupwetekeka" (''pulled groin'') kanandi likung'anamura kupwetekeka kwakukalipa kwa minofu ya kukolerana ya chiuno.<ref name="opara"/> Suzgo ili likukolerana na vinthu ivyo vikwiza navyo, kusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito minofu comene kwambura kupumulira na kupwetekeka kwakale.<ref name="whittaker"/><ref name="bourne"/><ref name="quintana"/> ''Inguinal hernia'' ni hernia ya ntangararo, ndipo yingaŵa ''direct hernia'' panji ''indirect hernia'', kuyana na malo agho yili. Nyengo zinyake, ''direct hernia'' na ''indirect hernia'' zingaŵapo pamoza mumphepete umoza, ndipo ici chikuchemeka "saddlebag hernia". Nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya thupi ivyo vikupinda pa mphambano zikuru (nga ni pasi pa bondo, mu kabaza, na pa cigongono), ntangararo ni malo agho misambizi ya ndopa na mizirwe vikujumphira pafupi na khungu, kweniso muli ''lymph node'' zinandi. Mu opaleshoni yakuchemeka ''venography'', ntangararo ni malo ghakusankhikira comene pakudumulira na kuŵika ''catheter'' mu mzirwe wa ndopa. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Chiuno]] *[[Nthumbo]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="hoagland">{{Cite web|last=Hoagland|first=T.M.|title=Inguinal Region Anatomy: Overview, Gross Anatomy, Pathophysiological Variants|publisher=Medscape|date=2025-04-21|access-date=2026-05-22}}</ref> <ref name="moore2018">{{Cite book|last1=Moore|first1=Keith L.|last2=Dalley|first2=Arthur F.|last3=Agur|first3=Anne M. R.|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|edition=8th|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|year=2018|page=718|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="opara">{{Cite web|last1=Opara|first1=K.|last2=Pinkerman|first2=S.|last3=Kaiser|first3=K.|title=Adductor Strain|publisher=StatPearls, US National Library of Medicine|date=2025-12-13|access-date=2026-05-22}}</ref> <ref name="whittaker">{{Cite journal|last1=Whittaker|first1=Jackie L.|last2=Small|first2=Claire|last3=Maffey|first3=Lorrie|last4=Emery|first4=Carolyn A.|title=Risk factors for groin injury in sport: an updated systematic review|journal=British Journal of Sports Medicine|volume=49|issue=12|pages=803–809|date=2015-06-01|doi=10.1136/bjsports-2014-094287|pmid=25833903}}</ref> <ref name="bourne">{{Cite journal|last1=Bourne|first1=Matthew N.|last2=Williams|first2=Morgan|last3=Jackson|first3=Jeremy|last4=Williams|first4=Kate L.|last5=Timmins|first5=Ryan G.|last6=Pizzari|first6=Tania|title=Preseason Hip/Groin Strength and HAGOS Scores Are Associated With Subsequent Injury in Professional Male Soccer Players|journal=Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy|volume=50|issue=5|pages=234–242|date=2020-04-30|doi=10.2519/jospt.2020.9022|pmid=31530069}}</ref> <ref name="quintana">{{Cite journal|last1=Quintana-Cepedal|first1=Marcos|last2=Calle|first2=Omar de la|last3=Crespo|first3=Irene|last4=Medina-Sánchez|first4=María|last5=Valle|first5=Miguel del|last6=Olmedillas|first6=Hugo|title=The Effect of Match Congestion on Hip Adductor Squeeze Strength in Youth Rink Hockey Players|journal=Apunts Sports Medicine|volume=59|issue=221|pages=100429|date=2024-01-01|doi=10.1016/j.apunsm.2023.100429}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] dxlu1rq25cc1mepdcmm6p3qf02lhdgb 122304 122299 2026-09-24T16:34:35Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122304 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi cha pakati pa nthumbo na chigha}} [[File:Dr Bock plate11a.jpg|thumb|Cikuni cakale cakulongora thupi la munthu, cikulongosora ntangararo (yellow) na cigaŵa ca pubic (bluish)]] [[File:Blausen 0006 AbdominopelvicRegions.png|thumb|Ntangararo za kumaso na kuwaro, zikulongoreka pasi pa muwonekero]] '''Ntangararo''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''inguinal region'' panji ''iliac region'') ni cigaŵa ico chikukolerana thupi lakuchanya na chigha.<ref name="hoagland"/> Ntangararo uli kunthazi kwa thupi, mumphepete zoseŵiri za ''pubic tubercle'', apo khoma la nthumbo yapasi likukolerana na chigha. Pa malo agha pakupangika chipindo ca khungu, ico chikuchemeka ''inguinal groove'' panji ''crease''. Ntangararo ndiwoso malo agho minofu ya kukolerana ya chiuno (yikuchemekaso minofu ya ntangararo) yikukolerana. "Ntangararo wakupwetekeka" (''groin pull''), uwo ukukolerana na kupwetekeka kwa mbumba ya minofu ya kukolerana ya lundi mu ntangararo, ni cilonda cakuzomerezgeka comene mu masewera. ==Muundo wa thupi== Apo khoma la nthumbo yapasi likukolerana na chigha, pakupangika chipindo icho chikuchemeka ''inguinal groove''. Malo agha ni malo gha cigaŵa ca mkati mwa chigha (''medial compartment'') ico chili na vikolerano vya minofu ya kukolerana ya chiuno, iyo yikuchemekaso minofu ya ntangararo.<ref name="moore2018"/> Minofu ya kukolerana iyo yikupanga ntangararo yikusazgapo ''adductor brevis'', ''adductor longus'', ''adductor magnus'', ''gracilis'', na ''pectineus''. Minofu iyi ya ntangararo yikukolezga chigha na khongono kuluta ku mzere wapakati wa thupi. Ntangararo yikulongozgeka na vinjiri vya ''lumbar plexus''. Mnofu wa ''pectineus'' ukulongozgeka na ''femoral nerve'', ndipo cigaŵa ca ''adductor magnus'' ico chikuyana na minofu ya ''hamstring'' cikulongozgeka na ''tibial nerve''. Mu ntangararo, pasi pa khungu, muli ''lymph node'' zitatu mpaka zinkhonde izo zikovwira mu mzirwe wa kuvikilira thupi ku nthenda. Vinjiri vya ''lymph node'' izo zili pafupi na khungu vikuya kukolerana na izo zili mkati. Muli maenje ghaŵiri ghakuchemeka ''fossae'' mu malo ghakuchemeka ''inguinal triangle'' — ''lateral inguinal fossa'' na ''medial inguinal fossa''. ''Inguinal ligament'' yikufuma ku ''pubic tubercle'' kuluta ku ''anterior superior iliac spine'', ndipo muundo wake nkhwakuzirwa comene mu opaleshoni za hernia. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== "Ntangararo wakupwetekeka" (''pulled groin'') kanandi likung'anamura kupwetekeka kwakukalipa kwa minofu ya kukolerana ya chiuno.<ref name="opara"/> Suzgo ili likukolerana na vinthu ivyo vikwiza navyo, kusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito minofu comene kwambura kupumulira na kupwetekeka kwakale.<ref name="whittaker"/><ref name="bourne"/><ref name="quintana"/> ''Inguinal hernia'' ni hernia ya ntangararo, ndipo yingaŵa ''direct hernia'' panji ''indirect hernia'', kuyana na malo agho yili. Nyengo zinyake, ''direct hernia'' na ''indirect hernia'' zingaŵapo pamoza mumphepete umoza, ndipo ici chikuchemeka "saddlebag hernia". Nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya thupi ivyo vikupinda pa mphambano zikuru (nga ni pasi pa bondo, mu kabaza, na pa cigongono), ntangararo ni malo agho misambizi ya ndopa na mizirwe vikujumphira pafupi na khungu, kweniso muli ''lymph node'' zinandi. Mu opaleshoni yakuchemeka ''venography'', ntangararo ni malo ghakusankhikira comene pakudumulira na kuŵika ''catheter'' mu mzirwe wa ndopa. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Chiuno]] *[[Nthumbo]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="hoagland">{{Cite web|last=Hoagland|first=T.M.|title=Inguinal Region Anatomy: Overview, Gross Anatomy, Pathophysiological Variants|publisher=Medscape|date=2025-04-21|access-date=2026-05-22}}</ref> <ref name="moore2018">{{Cite book|last1=Moore|first1=Keith L.|last2=Dalley|first2=Arthur F.|last3=Agur|first3=Anne M. R.|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|edition=8th|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|year=2018|page=718|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="opara">{{Cite web|last1=Opara|first1=K.|last2=Pinkerman|first2=S.|last3=Kaiser|first3=K.|title=Adductor Strain|publisher=StatPearls, US National Library of Medicine|date=2025-12-13|access-date=2026-05-22}}</ref> <ref name="whittaker">{{Cite journal|last1=Whittaker|first1=Jackie L.|last2=Small|first2=Claire|last3=Maffey|first3=Lorrie|last4=Emery|first4=Carolyn A.|title=Risk factors for groin injury in sport: an updated systematic review|journal=British Journal of Sports Medicine|volume=49|issue=12|pages=803–809|date=2015-06-01|doi=10.1136/bjsports-2014-094287|pmid=25833903}}</ref> <ref name="bourne">{{Cite journal|last1=Bourne|first1=Matthew N.|last2=Williams|first2=Morgan|last3=Jackson|first3=Jeremy|last4=Williams|first4=Kate L.|last5=Timmins|first5=Ryan G.|last6=Pizzari|first6=Tania|title=Preseason Hip/Groin Strength and HAGOS Scores Are Associated With Subsequent Injury in Professional Male Soccer Players|journal=Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy|volume=50|issue=5|pages=234–242|date=2020-04-30|doi=10.2519/jospt.2020.9022|pmid=31530069}}</ref> <ref name="quintana">{{Cite journal|last1=Quintana-Cepedal|first1=Marcos|last2=Calle|first2=Omar de la|last3=Crespo|first3=Irene|last4=Medina-Sánchez|first4=María|last5=Valle|first5=Miguel del|last6=Olmedillas|first6=Hugo|title=The Effect of Match Congestion on Hip Adductor Squeeze Strength in Youth Rink Hockey Players|journal=Apunts Sports Medicine|volume=59|issue=221|pages=100429|date=2024-01-01|doi=10.1016/j.apunsm.2023.100429}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 593isvg076ojj0ch2v328hz71vcj1xj 0 49743 122300 2026-09-24T16:18:40Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Thigh'. 122300 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca lundi cha pakati pa chiuno na khongono}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Chigha |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''femur'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D013848 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.1.00.035 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |160 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24967 |} '''Chigha''', mu sayansi ya thupi, ni cigaŵa ca lundi ico chili pakati pa chiuno na khongono. Ni cigaŵa ca lundi lapasi.<ref name="cambridge"/> Fupa lekha ilo lili mu chigha likuchemeka ''fupa la chigha'' (''femur''). Fupa ili nkhwakukhora comene na kunenepa (chifukwa cha kuŵa na thako linandi la fupa), ndipo likupanga mphambano ya mpira na thumba (''ball-and-socket joint'') pa chiuno, na mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo (''modified hinge joint'') pa khongono.<ref name="hss"/> ==Muundo== ===Fupa=== Fupa la chigha ndilo fupa lekha ilo lili mu chigha, ndipo ndimo minofu yose ya chigha yikukolerapo. Mutu wa fupa la chigha ukukolerana na ''acetabulum'' ya chiuno kupanga mphambano ya chiuno, apo cigaŵa cakupasi ca fupa la chigha chikukolerana na ''tibia'' na ''patella'' kupanga khongono. Kuyana na vipimo vinandi, fupa la chigha ndilo fupa lankhongono comene kweniso litali comene mu thupi lose.<ref name="hss"/> Fupa la chigha likuŵikika mu mtundu wa mafupa ghatali, ndipo lili na thupi lake (''diaphysis'') na maumaliro ghaŵiri (''epiphyses'') — umaliro wapasi na umaliro wapachanya — ghakukolerana na mafupa ghakuzingilira pa chiuno na pa khongono.<ref name="bojsen"/> ===Cigaŵa ca minofu=== Para chigha chadumulikamo mu mzere wakuzingoka, chigha nchakugaŵikika mu vigaŵa vitatu, ivyo vikupatulika na thako likukhora (''fascia''), ndipo cigaŵa cilicose chili na minofu yake. Vigaŵa ivi vikugwiliskira fupa la chigha nga mzere wapakati, ndipo vikupatulika na mathako ghakukhora (''septa''). Cigaŵa cilicose chili na msambizi wake wa ndopa na mzirwe wake, kweniso chili na gulu lake lakupambana la minofu. *Cigaŵa cakunthazi cha chigha (kunyoloka) chili na ''sartorius'', pamoza na minofu yinayi iyo yikupanga ''quadriceps'' — ''rectus femoris'', ''vastus medialis'', ''vastus intermedius'', na ''vastus lateralis''. *Cigaŵa cakunyuma cha chigha chili na minofu ya ''hamstring'' — ''semimembranosus'', ''semitendinosus'', na ''biceps femoris''. *Cigaŵa ca mkati mwa chigha (kukolerana) chili na ''pectineus'', ''adductor magnus'', ''adductor longus'', ''adductor brevis'', na ''gracilis'' — minofu izi ndizo zikupangaso ntangararo. Chifukwa minofu yikuru ya chigha ndiyo minofu yikuru comene mu thupi lose, masuzo gha nkhongono (''strength training'') pa minofu iyi ghakwendeska ndopa comene kuluska nchito yiliyose yinyake yakuŵikikira pa cigaŵa cimoza.<ref name="livestrong"/> ==Ndopa== Msambizi wa ''femoral artery'' na wa ''obturator artery'' ndivyo vikupeleka ndopa mu chigha. Madzi gha ''lymph'' ghakulondezga nthowa yeneyiyo ya misambizi ya ndopa, ghakuya ku ''lumbar lymphatic trunks'' za mumphepete weneuwo, izo zikuya ku ''cisterna chyli''.<ref name="amarnath"/> Mzirwe wa ndopa wa mkati mu chigha uli na ''femoral vein'', ''common femoral vein'', ''deep femoral vein'', na cigaŵa cakuchanya ca ''popliteal vein'', pamoza na misambizi yinyake yicoko; mu chigha ndimo mukusangika ''deep vein thrombosis'' iyo yikwamba apo. Misambizi yakujumphizga (''perforating veins'') yikukolezga mzirwe wa mkati na wakuwaro, uwo uli na ''small saphenous vein'' na ''great saphenous vein'' (malo agho ''varicose veins'' zikusangika).<ref name="radiology"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kupepuka kwa minofu ya chigha kungapangiska ''Gowers' sign'' yakuwoneka pakusanda thupi la mulwari.<ref name="gowers"/> Kupwetekeka kwa chigha kwakufuma mu masewera, kwakukalipa panji kwakugwiliskira ntchito comene kwa nyengo yitali, kungapangiska kubuda kukuru pa nchito. Kupwetekeka kwa thako lakuzingilira viŵalo kungasazgapo kupendeka (''sprains''), kupwetekeka kwa minofu (''strains''), kutuŵa (''bruising''), na kuvimba kwa ''tendon'' (''tendinitis''). "Runner's knee" (''patellofemoral pain'') ni mvuli wa fupa la khongono (''patella'') likukwaskana na umaliro wa fupa la chigha. Minofu ya ''hamstring'' iyo njakukhora comene na minofu ya chigha iyo njakupepuka, izo zikukhumbikwa pakukhozgera khongono, vikuwonjezga ntchindi ya kusangika na "runner's knee".<ref name="medicallysound"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Mu vikhalidwe vinandi vya ku Yuropu na ku America, kuvwara vyakuvwara ivyo vikufumiska chigha, nga ni ''shorts'' zifupi na ''miniskirt'', nkhwakuzomerezgeka. Vyakuvwara vya kubeach na vya masewera navyo vikufumiskapo chigha kanandi. Kweni malango ghanyake gha nchito ghakukhumba kuvwikapo chigha. Mu vyaru vinandi vya Chisilamu, kufumiska chigha (comenecomene kwa ŵanakazi) nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi panji kukujalikizgika, chifukwa chigha chikuŵikika kuŵa cigaŵa ca '''awrah''' kwa mwanalume na mwanakazi wose. Kuvikilira panji kufumiska chigha mwaluso nkhwakugwiliskikira ntchito mu vyakuvwara vya sono mu charu chose, nga ni ''thigh-high boots'' na ''zettai ryoiki''. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiuno]] *[[Ntangararo]] *[[Khongono]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="cambridge">{{Cite web|title=Thigh|publisher=Cambridge Dictionary|access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> <ref name="hss">{{Cite web|title=Facts About Bones in Your Skeleton|publisher=Hospital for Special Surgery}}</ref> <ref name="bojsen">{{Cite book|last1=Bojsen-Møller|first1=Finn|last2=Simonsen|first2=Erik B.|last3=Tranum-Jensen|first3=Jørgen|title=Bevægeapparatets anatomi|edition=12th|year=2001|pages=239–241|isbn=978-87-628-0307-7|language=da}}</ref> <ref name="livestrong">{{Cite web|last=Cespedes|first=Andrea|title=How Important Are Leg Workouts for Muscle Gain?|publisher=LiveStrong}}</ref> <ref name="amarnath">{{Cite book|last1=Amarnath|first1=C.|last2=Patel|first2=Hemant|title=Comprehensive Textbook of Clinical Radiology – Volume III: Chest and Cardiovascular System|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2023|page=1072|isbn=9788131263617}}</ref> <ref name="radiology">{{Cite web|title=Thigh|publisher=The Lecturio Medical Concept Library|access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> <ref name="gowers">{{Cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=Richard F.|last2=Mubarak|first2=Scott J.|title=Pathomechanics of Gowers' Sign: A Video Analysis of a Spectrum of Gowers' Maneuvers|journal=Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research|volume=470|issue=7|pages=1987–1991|date=2011-12-28|doi=10.1007/s11999-011-2210-6|pmc=3369091|pmid=22203329}}</ref> <ref name="medicallysound">{{Cite web|title=Field, Court, and Course Related Injuries – Sports Injuries|publisher=Medically Sound|date=2020-08-31|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] dmy2k77r0q2o1un7rtdsdg8ycg3grb8 122303 122300 2026-09-24T16:33:00Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122303 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca lundi cha pakati pa chiuno na khongono}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Chigha |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Braus 1921 277.png|220px|Muwonekero wa chigha wakudumulikamo, ukulongora minofu na fupa]]<br/><small>Muwonekero wa chigha wakudumulikamo, ukulongora minofu na fupa</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''femur'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D013848 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.1.00.035 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |160 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24967 |} '''Chigha''', mu sayansi ya thupi, ni cigaŵa ca lundi ico chili pakati pa chiuno na khongono. Ni cigaŵa ca lundi lapasi.<ref name="cambridge"/> Fupa lekha ilo lili mu chigha likuchemeka ''fupa la chigha'' (''femur''). Fupa ili nkhwakukhora comene na kunenepa (chifukwa cha kuŵa na thako linandi la fupa), ndipo likupanga mphambano ya mpira na thumba (''ball-and-socket joint'') pa chiuno, na mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo (''modified hinge joint'') pa khongono.<ref name="hss"/> ==Muundo== ===Fupa=== Fupa la chigha ndilo fupa lekha ilo lili mu chigha, ndipo ndimo minofu yose ya chigha yikukolerapo. Mutu wa fupa la chigha ukukolerana na ''acetabulum'' ya chiuno kupanga mphambano ya chiuno, apo cigaŵa cakupasi ca fupa la chigha chikukolerana na ''tibia'' na ''patella'' kupanga khongono. Kuyana na vipimo vinandi, fupa la chigha ndilo fupa lankhongono comene kweniso litali comene mu thupi lose.<ref name="hss"/> Fupa la chigha likuŵikika mu mtundu wa mafupa ghatali, ndipo lili na thupi lake (''diaphysis'') na maumaliro ghaŵiri (''epiphyses'') — umaliro wapasi na umaliro wapachanya — ghakukolerana na mafupa ghakuzingilira pa chiuno na pa khongono.<ref name="bojsen"/> ===Cigaŵa ca minofu=== Para chigha chadumulikamo mu mzere wakuzingoka, chigha nchakugaŵikika mu vigaŵa vitatu, ivyo vikupatulika na thako likukhora (''fascia''), ndipo cigaŵa cilicose chili na minofu yake. Vigaŵa ivi vikugwiliskira fupa la chigha nga mzere wapakati, ndipo vikupatulika na mathako ghakukhora (''septa''). Cigaŵa cilicose chili na msambizi wake wa ndopa na mzirwe wake, kweniso chili na gulu lake lakupambana la minofu. *Cigaŵa cakunthazi cha chigha (kunyoloka) chili na ''sartorius'', pamoza na minofu yinayi iyo yikupanga ''quadriceps'' — ''rectus femoris'', ''vastus medialis'', ''vastus intermedius'', na ''vastus lateralis''. *Cigaŵa cakunyuma cha chigha chili na minofu ya ''hamstring'' — ''semimembranosus'', ''semitendinosus'', na ''biceps femoris''. *Cigaŵa ca mkati mwa chigha (kukolerana) chili na ''pectineus'', ''adductor magnus'', ''adductor longus'', ''adductor brevis'', na ''gracilis'' — minofu izi ndizo zikupangaso ntangararo. Chifukwa minofu yikuru ya chigha ndiyo minofu yikuru comene mu thupi lose, masuzo gha nkhongono (''strength training'') pa minofu iyi ghakwendeska ndopa comene kuluska nchito yiliyose yinyake yakuŵikikira pa cigaŵa cimoza.<ref name="livestrong"/> ==Ndopa== [[File:Common femoral and subsartorial artery and vein.jpg|thumb|Misambizi yikuru ya ndopa mu chigha]] Msambizi wa ''femoral artery'' na wa ''obturator artery'' ndivyo vikupeleka ndopa mu chigha. Madzi gha ''lymph'' ghakulondezga nthowa yeneyiyo ya misambizi ya ndopa, ghakuya ku ''lumbar lymphatic trunks'' za mumphepete weneuwo, izo zikuya ku ''cisterna chyli''.<ref name="amarnath"/> Mzirwe wa ndopa wa mkati mu chigha uli na ''femoral vein'', ''common femoral vein'', ''deep femoral vein'', na cigaŵa cakuchanya ca ''popliteal vein'', pamoza na misambizi yinyake yicoko; mu chigha ndimo mukusangika ''deep vein thrombosis'' iyo yikwamba apo. Misambizi yakujumphizga (''perforating veins'') yikukolezga mzirwe wa mkati na wakuwaro, uwo uli na ''small saphenous vein'' na ''great saphenous vein'' (malo agho ''varicose veins'' zikusangika).<ref name="radiology"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kupepuka kwa minofu ya chigha kungapangiska ''Gowers' sign'' yakuwoneka pakusanda thupi la mulwari.<ref name="gowers"/> Kupwetekeka kwa chigha kwakufuma mu masewera, kwakukalipa panji kwakugwiliskira ntchito comene kwa nyengo yitali, kungapangiska kubuda kukuru pa nchito. Kupwetekeka kwa thako lakuzingilira viŵalo kungasazgapo kupendeka (''sprains''), kupwetekeka kwa minofu (''strains''), kutuŵa (''bruising''), na kuvimba kwa ''tendon'' (''tendinitis''). "Runner's knee" (''patellofemoral pain'') ni mvuli wa fupa la khongono (''patella'') likukwaskana na umaliro wa fupa la chigha. Minofu ya ''hamstring'' iyo njakukhora comene na minofu ya chigha iyo njakupepuka, izo zikukhumbikwa pakukhozgera khongono, vikuwonjezga ntchindi ya kusangika na "runner's knee".<ref name="medicallysound"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Mu vikhalidwe vinandi vya ku Yuropu na ku America, kuvwara vyakuvwara ivyo vikufumiska chigha, nga ni ''shorts'' zifupi na ''miniskirt'', nkhwakuzomerezgeka. Vyakuvwara vya kubeach na vya masewera navyo vikufumiskapo chigha kanandi. Kweni malango ghanyake gha nchito ghakukhumba kuvwikapo chigha. Mu vyaru vinandi vya Chisilamu, kufumiska chigha (comenecomene kwa ŵanakazi) nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi panji kukujalikizgika, chifukwa chigha chikuŵikika kuŵa cigaŵa ca '''awrah''' kwa mwanalume na mwanakazi wose. Kuvikilira panji kufumiska chigha mwaluso nkhwakugwiliskikira ntchito mu vyakuvwara vya sono mu charu chose, nga ni ''thigh-high boots'' na ''zettai ryoiki''. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiuno]] *[[Ntangararo]] *[[Khongono]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="cambridge">{{Cite web|title=Thigh|publisher=Cambridge Dictionary|access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> <ref name="hss">{{Cite web|title=Facts About Bones in Your Skeleton|publisher=Hospital for Special Surgery}}</ref> <ref name="bojsen">{{Cite book|last1=Bojsen-Møller|first1=Finn|last2=Simonsen|first2=Erik B.|last3=Tranum-Jensen|first3=Jørgen|title=Bevægeapparatets anatomi|edition=12th|year=2001|pages=239–241|isbn=978-87-628-0307-7|language=da}}</ref> <ref name="livestrong">{{Cite web|last=Cespedes|first=Andrea|title=How Important Are Leg Workouts for Muscle Gain?|publisher=LiveStrong}}</ref> <ref name="amarnath">{{Cite book|last1=Amarnath|first1=C.|last2=Patel|first2=Hemant|title=Comprehensive Textbook of Clinical Radiology – Volume III: Chest and Cardiovascular System|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2023|page=1072|isbn=9788131263617}}</ref> <ref name="radiology">{{Cite web|title=Thigh|publisher=The Lecturio Medical Concept Library|access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> <ref name="gowers">{{Cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=Richard F.|last2=Mubarak|first2=Scott J.|title=Pathomechanics of Gowers' Sign: A Video Analysis of a Spectrum of Gowers' Maneuvers|journal=Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research|volume=470|issue=7|pages=1987–1991|date=2011-12-28|doi=10.1007/s11999-011-2210-6|pmc=3369091|pmid=22203329}}</ref> <ref name="medicallysound">{{Cite web|title=Field, Court, and Course Related Injuries – Sports Injuries|publisher=Medically Sound|date=2020-08-31|access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] iutgwaz2ic32y67zpghtr73sgwzffcr 0 49744 122301 2026-09-24T16:26:46Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Tibia'. 122301 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca lundi cha pasi pa khongono, chapakati pa khongono na kalundi}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Munkhoza |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''(os) tibia'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D013977 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A02.5.06.001 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |1397 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24476 |} '''Munkhoza''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''shinbone'' panji ''shankbone'') ni cigaŵa cakunthazi ca lundi cha pasi pa khongono, chapakati pa khongono na kalundi.<ref name="drake1"/> Mu munkhoza muli mafupa ghaŵiri: '''fupa la munkhoza''' (ilo likuchemekaso ''tibia'') na ''fibula''. Fupa la munkhoza ndilo likuru, likukhora, kweniso ndilo lili kunthazi pakati pa mafupa ghaŵiri agha; ndilo fupa lacaŵiri pakukura mu thupi lose, kulondezga waka fupa la chigha (''femur''). Fupa la munkhoza likukolerana na ''fibula'' kwizira mu ''interosseous membrane'', kupanga mphambano yakuchemeka ''syndesmosis'' iyo njakusinthasintha pacoko waka. Fupa la munkhoza likukolelezga khongono na kalundi.<ref name="drake1"/> ==Muundo== ===Umaliro wakuchanya=== Umaliro wakuchanya wa fupa la munkhoza ukukura mu upapi, ndipo uli na vikolerano viŵiri, cakumaso (''medial condyle'') na cakuwaro (''lateral condyle''), ivyo vikukolerana na fupa la chigha kupanga cigaŵa ca khongono icho chikutola nkhongono ya thupi. Pakati pa vikolerano viŵiri ivi pali malo ghakuchemeka ''intercondylar area'', apo ''ligament'' zakuzingoka (''cruciate ligaments'') na ''menisci'' vikukolerapo.<ref name="drake2"/> Pasi pa vikolerano ndimo muli ''tibial tuberosity'', malo agho ''ligament'' ya khongono (''patellar ligament''), iyo njakulondezga minofu ya ''quadriceps femoris'', yikukolerapo.<ref name="drake2"/> ===Thupi la fupa=== Thupi (panji ''shaft'') la fupa la munkhoza ndakupanga vikwapa vitatu (''triangular'' mu muwonekero), ndipo lili na mphenuzi zitatu — yakunthazi, yakumaso, na yakuwaro — izo zikupanga mphande zitatu za fupa. Mphenuzi yakunthazi njakumanyikwira comene, ndipo yikukhala pasi pa khungu kwambura kuvundikika na minofu.<ref name="drake2"/> ===Umaliro wapasi=== Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza uli mucoko kuluska umaliro wakuchanya, ndipo ukufumiska cigaŵa ca fupa cakukhora chakuchemeka ''medial malleolus''. Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza, pamoza na ''fibula'' na fupa la ''talus'', ukupanga kalundi.<ref name="drake2"/> ==Ndopa== Fupa la munkhoza likupokera ndopa kufuma ku vyanthowa viŵiri: msambizi wakuzirwa comene (''nutrient artery''), na misambizi yicoko ya pachanya pa fupa (''periosteal vessels'') iyo yikufuma ku ''anterior tibial artery''.<ref name="nelson"/> ==Viungo== Fupa la munkhoza nchakusazgika mu viungo vinayi: khongono, kalundi, na viungo viŵiri vya pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' (''superior tibiofibular joint'' na ''inferior tibiofibular joint''), ivyo vikuzomerezga kusinthasintha pacoko waka.<ref name="drake2"/> Kalundi (''talocrural joint'') ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo iyo yikukolezga maumaliro ghapasi gha fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' na fupa la ''talus''.<ref name="drake2"/> ==Kukura kwa fupa== Fupa la munkhoza likukura kufuma ku malo ghatatu: limoza mu thupi la fupa, na linyake mu umaliro uliwose. Kukura uku kukwamba mu upapi, pafupifupi mulungu wacinkhonde na ciŵiri, ndipo kukulutilira mpaka ku maumaliro. Umaliro wakuchanya na wapasi vikukolerana na thupi la fupa mu vyaka vyakukura, cimoza pafupi na vyaka 18 na cinyake pafupi na vyaka 20.<ref name="drake1"/> ==Nkhongono na nchito== Minofu yinandi njakukolerapo pa fupa la munkhoza, kusazgapo ''quadriceps femoris'', ''sartorius'', ''gracilis'', na ''semitendinosus'' (izo zikukolerana pa cigaŵa cakuchemeka ''pes anserinus''), ''popliteus'', ''tibialis anterior'', ''extensor digitorum longus'', ''soleus'', na ''flexor digitorum longus''.<ref name="bojsen"/> Fupa la munkhoza likutola nkhongono yikuru pa nyengo ya kwenda, ndipo mu vigaŵa vyakukalipa vya kwenda likutola nkhongono ya kufika pa 4.7 kuyana na unenepa wa thupi.<ref name="wehner"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la munkhoza kungapambanikizgika kuŵa ako kukukolerana na fupa la munkhoza pelakene, panji ako kukusazgapo fupa la ''fibula'' nako. Cigaŵa ca thupi la fupa la munkhoza ndico malo ghakuzomerezgeka comene agho ŵanthu ŵakucita masewera ŵakusangikirapo kutimbanyika kwakufuma ku kugwiliskira ntchito nyengo yitali (''stress fracture'').<ref name="mccormick"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Mu chisopa ca Chiyuda, fupa la munkhoza la mbuzi panji la mberere likugwiliskikira ntchito pa mbale ya ''Seder'' pa nyengo ya Paska. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Khongono]] *[[Kalundi]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="drake1">{{Cite book|last1=Drake|first1=Richard L.|last2=Vogl|first2=A. Wayne|last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.|title=Gray's Anatomy for Students|edition=2nd|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|year=2010|pages=558–560|isbn=978-0-443-06952-9}}</ref> <ref name="drake2">{{Cite book|last1=Drake|first1=Richard L.|last2=Vogl|first2=A. Wayne|last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.|title=Gray's Anatomy for Students|edition=2nd|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|year=2010|pages=584–588|isbn=978-0-443-06952-9}}</ref> <ref name="nelson">{{Cite journal|last1=Nelson|first1=G.|last2=Kelly|first2=P.|last3=Peterson|first3=L.|last4=Janes|first4=J.|title=Blood supply of the human tibia|journal=Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, American Volume|volume=42-A|issue=4|pages=625–636|year=1960|doi=10.2106/00004623-196042040-00007|pmid=13854090}}</ref> <ref name="bojsen">{{Cite book|last1=Bojsen-Møller|first1=Finn|last2=Simonsen|first2=Erik B.|last3=Tranum-Jensen|first3=Jørgen|title=Bevægeapparatets anatomi|edition=12th|year=2001|pages=364–367|isbn=978-87-628-0307-7|language=da}}</ref> <ref name="wehner">{{Cite journal|last1=Wehner|first1=T.|last2=Claes|first2=L.|last3=Simon|first3=U.|title=Internal loads in the human tibia during gait|journal=Clinical Biomechanics|volume=24|issue=3|pages=299–302|year=2009|doi=10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2008.12.007|pmid=19185959}}</ref> <ref name="mccormick">{{Cite journal|last1=McCormick|first1=Frank|last2=Nwachukwu|first2=Benedict U.|last3=Provencher|first3=Matthew T.|title=Stress Fractures in Runners|journal=Clinics in Sports Medicine|volume=31|issue=2|pages=291–306|year=2012|doi=10.1016/j.csm.2011.09.012|pmid=22341018}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] a7aeh1hss9wqj54ujrhoc1f39a670b5 122302 122301 2026-09-24T16:30:30Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kusazgapo vithuzi kufuma ku Wikimedia Commons. 122302 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca lundi cha pasi pa khongono, chapakati pa khongono na kalundi}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Munkhoza |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Tibia - frontal view.png|220px|Malo gha fupa la munkhoza (lakuwoneka lakusuzumira)]]<br/><small>Malo gha fupa la munkhoza (lakuwoneka lakusuzumira)</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''(os) tibia'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D013977 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A02.5.06.001 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |1397 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24476 |} '''Munkhoza''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''shinbone'' panji ''shankbone'') ni cigaŵa cakunthazi ca lundi cha pasi pa khongono, chapakati pa khongono na kalundi.<ref name="drake1"/> Mu munkhoza muli mafupa ghaŵiri: '''fupa la munkhoza''' (ilo likuchemekaso ''tibia'') na ''fibula''. Fupa la munkhoza ndilo likuru, likukhora, kweniso ndilo lili kunthazi pakati pa mafupa ghaŵiri agha; ndilo fupa lacaŵiri pakukura mu thupi lose, kulondezga waka fupa la chigha (''femur''). Fupa la munkhoza likukolerana na ''fibula'' kwizira mu ''interosseous membrane'', kupanga mphambano yakuchemeka ''syndesmosis'' iyo njakusinthasintha pacoko waka. Fupa la munkhoza likukolelezga khongono na kalundi.<ref name="drake1"/> ==Muundo== ===Umaliro wakuchanya=== [[File:Gray257.png|thumb|left|Mphenuzi yakuchanya ya fupa la munkhoza la kumalyero (kunthazi kuli pachanya)]] Umaliro wakuchanya wa fupa la munkhoza ukukura mu upapi, ndipo uli na vikolerano viŵiri, cakumaso (''medial condyle'') na cakuwaro (''lateral condyle''), ivyo vikukolerana na fupa la chigha kupanga cigaŵa ca khongono icho chikutola nkhongono ya thupi. Pakati pa vikolerano viŵiri ivi pali malo ghakuchemeka ''intercondylar area'', apo ''ligament'' zakuzingoka (''cruciate ligaments'') na ''menisci'' vikukolerapo.<ref name="drake2"/> Pasi pa vikolerano ndimo muli ''tibial tuberosity'', malo agho ''ligament'' ya khongono (''patellar ligament''), iyo njakulondezga minofu ya ''quadriceps femoris'', yikukolerapo.<ref name="drake2"/> ===Thupi la fupa=== [[File:Gray258.png|thumb|Mafupa gha lundi lakumalyero, kulaŵiskira kunthazi]] Thupi (panji ''shaft'') la fupa la munkhoza ndakupanga vikwapa vitatu (''triangular'' mu muwonekero), ndipo lili na mphenuzi zitatu — yakunthazi, yakumaso, na yakuwaro — izo zikupanga mphande zitatu za fupa. Mphenuzi yakunthazi njakumanyikwira comene, ndipo yikukhala pasi pa khungu kwambura kuvundikika na minofu.<ref name="drake2"/> ===Umaliro wapasi=== [[File:Tibia - inferior epiphysis (anterior view).jpg|thumb|Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza la kumalyero, kulaŵiskira kunthazi]] Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza uli mucoko kuluska umaliro wakuchanya, ndipo ukufumiska cigaŵa ca fupa cakukhora chakuchemeka ''medial malleolus''. Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza, pamoza na ''fibula'' na fupa la ''talus'', ukupanga kalundi.<ref name="drake2"/> ==Ndopa== Fupa la munkhoza likupokera ndopa kufuma ku vyanthowa viŵiri: msambizi wakuzirwa comene (''nutrient artery''), na misambizi yicoko ya pachanya pa fupa (''periosteal vessels'') iyo yikufuma ku ''anterior tibial artery''.<ref name="nelson"/> ==Viungo== Fupa la munkhoza nchakusazgika mu viungo vinayi: khongono, kalundi, na viungo viŵiri vya pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' (''superior tibiofibular joint'' na ''inferior tibiofibular joint''), ivyo vikuzomerezga kusinthasintha pacoko waka.<ref name="drake2"/> Kalundi (''talocrural joint'') ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo iyo yikukolezga maumaliro ghapasi gha fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' na fupa la ''talus''.<ref name="drake2"/> ==Kukura kwa fupa== [[File:Gray260.png|thumb|Mzere wa kukura kwa fupa la munkhoza, kufuma ku malo ghatatu]] Fupa la munkhoza likukura kufuma ku malo ghatatu: limoza mu thupi la fupa, na linyake mu umaliro uliwose. Kukura uku kukwamba mu upapi, pafupifupi mulungu wacinkhonde na ciŵiri, ndipo kukulutilira mpaka ku maumaliro. Umaliro wakuchanya na wapasi vikukolerana na thupi la fupa mu vyaka vyakukura, cimoza pafupi na vyaka 18 na cinyake pafupi na vyaka 20.<ref name="drake1"/> ==Nkhongono na nchito== Minofu yinandi njakukolerapo pa fupa la munkhoza, kusazgapo ''quadriceps femoris'', ''sartorius'', ''gracilis'', na ''semitendinosus'' (izo zikukolerana pa cigaŵa cakuchemeka ''pes anserinus''), ''popliteus'', ''tibialis anterior'', ''extensor digitorum longus'', ''soleus'', na ''flexor digitorum longus''.<ref name="bojsen"/> Fupa la munkhoza likutola nkhongono yikuru pa nyengo ya kwenda, ndipo mu vigaŵa vyakukalipa vya kwenda likutola nkhongono ya kufika pa 4.7 kuyana na unenepa wa thupi.<ref name="wehner"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la munkhoza kungapambanikizgika kuŵa ako kukukolerana na fupa la munkhoza pelakene, panji ako kukusazgapo fupa la ''fibula'' nako. Cigaŵa ca thupi la fupa la munkhoza ndico malo ghakuzomerezgeka comene agho ŵanthu ŵakucita masewera ŵakusangikirapo kutimbanyika kwakufuma ku kugwiliskira ntchito nyengo yitali (''stress fracture'').<ref name="mccormick"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Mu chisopa ca Chiyuda, fupa la munkhoza la mbuzi panji la mberere likugwiliskikira ntchito pa mbale ya ''Seder'' pa nyengo ya Paska. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Khongono]] *[[Kalundi]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="drake1">{{Cite book|last1=Drake|first1=Richard L.|last2=Vogl|first2=A. Wayne|last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.|title=Gray's Anatomy for Students|edition=2nd|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|year=2010|pages=558–560|isbn=978-0-443-06952-9}}</ref> <ref name="drake2">{{Cite book|last1=Drake|first1=Richard L.|last2=Vogl|first2=A. Wayne|last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.|title=Gray's Anatomy for Students|edition=2nd|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|year=2010|pages=584–588|isbn=978-0-443-06952-9}}</ref> <ref name="nelson">{{Cite journal|last1=Nelson|first1=G.|last2=Kelly|first2=P.|last3=Peterson|first3=L.|last4=Janes|first4=J.|title=Blood supply of the human tibia|journal=Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, American Volume|volume=42-A|issue=4|pages=625–636|year=1960|doi=10.2106/00004623-196042040-00007|pmid=13854090}}</ref> <ref name="bojsen">{{Cite book|last1=Bojsen-Møller|first1=Finn|last2=Simonsen|first2=Erik B.|last3=Tranum-Jensen|first3=Jørgen|title=Bevægeapparatets anatomi|edition=12th|year=2001|pages=364–367|isbn=978-87-628-0307-7|language=da}}</ref> <ref name="wehner">{{Cite journal|last1=Wehner|first1=T.|last2=Claes|first2=L.|last3=Simon|first3=U.|title=Internal loads in the human tibia during gait|journal=Clinical Biomechanics|volume=24|issue=3|pages=299–302|year=2009|doi=10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2008.12.007|pmid=19185959}}</ref> <ref name="mccormick">{{Cite journal|last1=McCormick|first1=Frank|last2=Nwachukwu|first2=Benedict U.|last3=Provencher|first3=Matthew T.|title=Stress Fractures in Runners|journal=Clinics in Sports Medicine|volume=31|issue=2|pages=291–306|year=2012|doi=10.1016/j.csm.2011.09.012|pmid=22341018}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 87inha89bf5a6lr01xv5v44i5tvn958 0 49745 122314 2026-09-24T17:12:30Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Knee', kusazgapo vithuzi. 122314 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mphambano ya lundi iyo yikukolezga chigha na munkhoza}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Khongono |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Human knees.jpg|150px|Makhongono gha munthu]]<br/><small>Makhongono gha munthu</small> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Blausen 0597 KneeAnatomy Side.png|220px|Khongono la kumalyerero (kulaŵiska cakunthazi-kumalyerero)]]<br/><small>Khongono la kumalyerero (kulaŵiska cakunthazi-kumalyerero)</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''articulatio genus'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Mfumo | class="infobox-data" |Mfumo wa mafupa na minofu |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Mzirwe | class="infobox-data" |Femoral, obturator, sciatic |} Mwa ŵanthu na ma primates ghanyake, '''khongono''' ni mphambano iyo yikukolezga chigha na lundi lapasi, ndipo yili na mphambano ziŵiri: yimoza pakati pa fupa la chigha na fupa la munkhoza (tibiofemoral joint), na yinyake pakati pa fupa la chigha na fupa la khongono (patellofemoral joint).<ref name="chhajer"/> Ndilo mphambano likuru comene mu thupi la munthu.<ref name="kulowski"/> Khongono ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo (''modified hinge joint''), iyo yikuzomerezga kunyoloka na kupinda, kweniso kuzungusika pacoko mkati na kuwaro. Khongono ni malo ghakuzomerezgeka pakupwetekeka na pakusangika osteoarthritis. Kanandi khongono likuchemeka "mphambano yakusazgika" (''compound joint''), chifukwa chili na vigaŵa viŵiri: tibiofemoral na patellofemoral.<ref name="rytter"/> ==Muundo== Khongono ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo, mtundu wa ''synovial joint'', iyo yili na vigaŵa vitatu vyakukolerana: mphambano ya patellofemoral (iyo yili na fupa la khongono na chipindi cakuchemeka ''patellar groove'' pa fupa la chigha, apo fupa la khongono likuzuzumira); na mphambano ziŵiri za tibiofemoral (za kumaso na kuwaro) izo zikukolezga fupa la chigha na fupa la munkhoza.<ref name="burgener"/> Mphambano yili na ''synovial fluid'' iyo yili mu thumba lakuchemeka ''joint capsule''. Khongono ni mphambano likuru comene, ndipo lili na nchito yikuzirwa comene pa kwenda (kucimbira na kwenda) na pakuluka.<ref name="lecturio"/> Pakubabika, fupa la khongono likuŵa lachali kupangika na cartilage pera, ndipo likusintha kuŵa fupa (''ossification'') pakati pa vyaka vitatu na vinkhonde. Chifukwa ndilo fupa likuru comene la mtundu wa ''sesamoid bone'' mu thupi la munthu, nchito ya kusintha uku yikutora nyengo yitali comene.<ref name="howstuffworks"/> ===Viŵalo vyakukolerana=== Viŵalo vikuru vyakukolerana pa fupa la chigha ni condyle ziŵiri, ''lateral condyle'' na ''medial condyle''. Izi zikupambana pacoko mu muwoneskero: ''lateral condyle'' njakutandalika comene kunthazi kuluska kunyuma, apo ''medial condyle'' njakuyana pa utali wake wose.<ref name="platzer"/> Ma condyle gha munkhoza (''tibial condyles'') ghawiri ghakupatulika na malo ghakuchemeka ''intercondylar eminence''.<ref name="platzer"/> Fupa la khongono nalo ndichiŵalo cakukolerana; thupi lake lakunyuma likuchemeka ''trochlea'' ya khongono, ndipo likukolerana na chipindi ca fupa la chigha icho chikukolezga ma condyle ghaŵiri gha kunthazi.<ref name="platzer"/> ===Thumba la mphambano=== Thumba la mphambano (''joint capsule'') lili na thako la ''synovial'' na thako lakukhora, izo zikupatulika na mafuta. Kunthazi, thako la ''synovial'' likukolerana na mphepete za cartilage pa fupa la chigha na pa fupa la munkhoza, ndipo likujintha kuluta ku ''suprapatellar bursa''.<ref name="platzer"/> Kunyuma, thako la ''synovial'' likukolerana na mphepete za ma condyle gha fupa la chigha, kupanga vigaŵa viŵiri (''semimembranosus bursa'' na ''popliteal bursa'').<ref name="ryan"/> ===Mizirwe=== Khongono likulongozgeka na mizirwe yinandi. Cigaŵa ca kumaso-kuchanya cikulongozgeka na mizirwe ya ''vastus lateralis'', ''vastus intermedius'', ''sciatic nerve'', na mizirwe ya ''genicular''. Cigaŵa ca kumalyerero-kuchanya cikulongozgeka na mizirwe ya ''vastus medialis'', ''obturator nerve'', na ''sciatic nerve''. Cigaŵa ca kupasi cikulongozgeka na mizirwe yicoko ya ''genicular'' na nthowa ya ''saphenous nerve''.<ref name="tran"/> Khoma lakunyuma la thumba la mphambano likulongozgeka comene na ''tibial nerve'', pamoza na ''obturator'' na ''common fibular nerve''.<ref name="fonk"/> ===Bursa=== Muli bursa zinandi izo zikuzingilira khongono. Bursa yikuru comene ni ''suprapatellar bursa''. Bursa zinayi zichoko zili kunyuma kwa khongono, ndipo bursa ziŵiri zambura kukolerana zili kunthazi kwa fupa la khongono na pasi pa tendon yake.<ref name="platzer"/> ===Cartilage=== Cartilage ni thako lakuzunguka ndipo lakusinthasintha ilo likuvikilira fupa na kuzomerezga viŵalo vya mphambano kuzuzumirana mwakupepuka. Muli mitundu yiŵiri ya cartilage mu khongono: cartilage yakukhora (''meniscus'') na ''hyaline cartilage''. ''Hyaline cartilage'' yikuvundikira malo agho mphambano yikuzuzumirapo. Mkati mwa ''hyaline cartilage'' mulije misambizi ya ndopa; chakulya chake chikwiza kwizira mu ''synovial fluid'' na mafupa ghakuzingilira. Kwenda kwa vyaka, cartilage yikuvunda, ndipo yili na nkhongono yicoko yakujizenga payekha.<ref name="britannica"/> ===Meniscus=== {{Main|Meniscus}} Vigaŵa vya cartilage vya khongono vikuchemeka ''menisci'' chifukwa vikugaŵa mphambano mu vigaŵa viŵiri pera. Ma meniscus ghaŵiri agha, ''medial meniscus'' na ''lateral meniscus'', ghali na thako la ''connective tissue'' lakuŵa na fiber zinandi za ''collagen''. Ma meniscus ghakupapatalira pakati pa mphambano, ghakukolerana na thako la ''synovial'' mumphepete, ndipo ghangazuzumira pa fupa la munkhoza.<ref name="platzer"/><ref name="ryan"/> ''Medial meniscus'' njikuru, njambura kuzingoka comene, kweniso njakuzunguka comene. ''Lateral meniscus'' nchichoko, chakuzingoka comene (pafupifupi kuŵa mzere wakuzingoka wose), ndipo chili na uzito wakuyana comene kuluska ''medial meniscus''. ''Lateral meniscus'' nchambura kukolerana comene na thumba la mphambano, chifukwa tendon ya ''popliteus'' yikwenda pakati pake na thumba.<ref name="ryan"/> ===Ligament=== [[File:Knee diagram.svg|thumb|220px|Khongono la kumalyerero, kulaŵiska cakunthazi-kuwaro]] Ma ligament ghakuzingilira khongono ghakupeleka nkhongono kwa mphambano, kucepeska kuzuzumira kwake, ndipo pamoza na ma meniscus na bursa, ghakuvikilira thumba la mphambano.<ref name="goldman"/> ====Za mkati mwa thumba (Intracapsular)==== Khongono likukhozgeka na ligament ziŵiri izo zikuzingoka (''cruciate ligaments''), izo zili mkati mwa thumba la mphambano.<ref name="kam"/> ''Anterior cruciate ligament'' (ACL) yikufuma ku ''lateral condyle'' ya fupa la chigha na kuluta ku malo gha kunthazi pakati pa ma condyle gha munkhoza; yikukanizga fupa la munkhoza kuti lireke kusonkhezgeka comene kunthazi.<ref name="ryan"/> ''Posterior cruciate ligament'' (PCL) yikufuma ku ''medial condyle'' na kuluta ku malo gha kunyuma; yikukanizga fupa la munkhoza kusonkhezgeka kunyuma.<ref name="ryan"/> Muli soso ''transverse ligament'' iyo yikukolezga ma meniscus ghaŵiri kunthazi, na ma ligament gha ''meniscofemoral'' (gha Wrisberg na Humphrey) agho ghakukolezga ''lateral meniscus'' na fupa la chigha.<ref name="platzer"/> ====Za kuwaro kwa thumba (Extracapsular)==== ''Patellar ligament'' yikukolezga fupa la khongono na fupa la munkhoza (pa ''tibial tuberosity''); nyengo zinyake yikuchemekaso ''patellar tendon''.<ref name="medterms"/> ''Medial collateral ligament'' (MCL) yikufuma ku fupa la chigha na kuluta ku fupa la munkhoza mumphepete wa mkati, ndipo yikuvikilira khongono ku nkhongono iyo yingapangiska kupinduka kuwaro (''valgus''). ''Lateral collateral ligament'' (LCL) yikufuma ku fupa la chigha na kuluta ku ''fibula'' mumphepete wakuwaro, ndipo yikuvikilira khongono ku nkhongono iyo yingapangiska kupinduka mkati (''varus'').<ref name="platzer"/> Kunyuma kwa khongono muli ma ligament ghaŵiri ghanyake, ''oblique popliteal ligament'' na ''arcuate popliteal ligament''.<ref name="platzer"/> ==Minofu== Minofu yinandi iyo yikukolerapo pa khongono yikufuma ku vigaŵa vya kunthazi, vya mkati, na vya kunyuma vya chigha. Minofu ya kunyoloka (extensors) yikufuma comenecomene ku cigaŵa ca kunthazi, apo minofu ya kupinda (flexors) yikufuma ku cigaŵa ca kunyuma. Minofu yikuru ya kunyoloka ni ''quadriceps femoris'', iyo yikupangika na ''rectus femoris'', ''vastus lateralis'', ''vastus intermedius'', na ''vastus medialis'' — yose yikukolerana pa fupa la khongono na fupa la munkhoza kwizira mu ''patellar ligament''.<ref name="gosling"/> Minofu yikuru ya kupinda ni ''hamstring'' — ''biceps femoris'', ''semitendinosus'', na ''semimembranosus'' — pamoza na ''sartorius'', ''gracilis'', na ''popliteus''. Mnofu wa ''gastrocnemius'', uwo ukufuma pa ma condyle gha fupa la chigha, ukovwiraso pang'ono pakupinda khongono, kweni nchito yake yikuru ni pa lundi.<ref name="gosling"/> ==Ndopa== [[File:Gray552.png|thumb|220px|Misambizi ya ndopa ya khongono]] Msambizi wa ''femoral artery'' na wa ''popliteal artery'' ndivyo vikupanga mtundu wa mzere wa misambizi (''plexus'') uwo ukuzingilira khongono. Muli misambizi yikuru yinkhonde: ziŵiri za ''superior genicular artery'', ziŵiri za ''inferior genicular artery'', ''descending genicular artery'', na nthowa yakuwelera ya ''anterior tibial artery''.<ref name="shim"/> ==Ntchito== Khongono likuzomerezga kunyoloka na kupinda kuzingilira mzere wakupambanika, kweniso kuzungusika pacoko mkati na kuwaro apo khongono lili kupindika. Khongono likuchemeka "lakusunkha" chifukwa fupa la chigha na ''lateral meniscus'' vikusunkha pachanya pa fupa la munkhoza pa nyengo ya kuzungusika, apo fupa la chigha likuzuzumira na kusunkha pa ma meniscus ghaŵiri pa nyengo ya kupinda na kunyoloka.<ref name="platzer"/> Kunyoloka kukuzomerezgeka pakati pa madigiri 5 na 10, apo kupinda kukuzomerezgeka pakati pa madigiri 120 na 150.<ref name="thieme"/> Pakunyoloka kwakumaliro, khongono likuzungusika pang'ono mkati (madigiri 5), nchito iyo yikuchemeka "obligatory terminal rotation". Apo khongono lanyoloka, ma ligament gha ''collateral'' ghakukhora, apo ma ''cruciate ligament'' ghakukhora comene apo khongono lapindika.<ref name="platzer"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== [[File:918 Knee Injury.jpg|thumb|220px|Kupwetekeka kwa khongono kufuma ku nkhongono ya mumphepete kungadumura MCL, ACL, na medial meniscus]] Kupweteka kwa khongono kukufuma ku kupwetekeka, kusinthika kwa muwoneskero, kuvunda, na masuzgo agho ghakupangiska arthritis.<ref name="afra"/> Suzgo lakuzomerezgeka comene ni ''patellofemoral syndrome'', ilo likupangika na kupatana kwa fupa la khongono na fupa la chigha, panji na kudumuka na kusonkhezgeka kwa khongono.<ref name="afra"/> ''Prepatellar bursitis'', iyo yikuchemekaso "khongono la muteŵeti wa nyumba" (''housemaid's knee''), ni kuvimba na kupweteka kwa bursa ya kunthazi kwa fupa la khongono, kwakufuma comenecomene ku nchito zakukhalapo pa mawondo nyengo yitali. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugegha ŵakusanga kupweteka kwa khongono kufuma ku osteoarthritis. Kupepuka kwa minofu iyo yikuzingilira khongono kungawonjezgaso suzgo ili.<ref name="pill"/> Kunenepa nakoso nkhwakovwira kuwonjezga kupweteka, chifukwa nkhongono iyo yikuŵikika pa khongono pakwenda yikuwonjezgeka comene para thupi lanenepa.<ref name="andrish"/> ===Kudumuka kwa ligament na cartilage=== Cigaŵa cakuzomerezgeka comene kudumuka ni ''anterior cruciate ligament'' (ACL), comenecomene mu masewera agho ghakukhumba kuzungusika kwa khongono mwakukalipa. Para ACL yadumuka, kanandi munthu wakupulika mvwerere, ndipo lundi lingambiskira kukoma kwambura mazgu.<ref name="acl"/> Kudumuka kwakucoko kungacira kwambura opaleshoni, kweni kudumuka kukuru kukukhumbikwa opaleshoni. ''Meniscus'' nayo yingadumuka pa nyengo ya masewera, comenecomene khongono likazungusika. Kudumuka kucoko kungalozgeka kwambura opaleshoni, kweni kudumuka kukuru kanandi kukukhumbikwa opaleshoni.<ref name="tandeter"/> Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la khongono nkhwakusoŵeka, kweni kungachitika comenecomene pa ngozi za magalimoto.<ref name="segond"/> Ma tendon gha ''quadriceps'' na ''patellar'' nagho ghangadumuka para khongono lakakamizgika mwankhongono; usange tendon yadumuka yose, kupinda panji kunyoloka lundi kukusuzga. ===Kupinduka kwa khongono (varus na valgus)=== [[File:Hip-knee-ankle angle.png|thumb|150px|Ngodya ya chiuno-khongono-kalundi]] ''Genu valgum'' ni apo fupa la munkhoza likupinduka kuwaro kuyana na fupa la chigha, kupangiska malundi kukhwaskana. ''Genu varum'' ni apo fupa la munkhoza likupinduka mkati, kupangiska malundi kupatukana, muwoneskero uwo ukuchemeka "kupendeka kwa malundi".<ref name="dahl"/> ===Kunozga na kutaŵiska=== [[File:Prothese-genou-IMG 0033.jpg|thumb|220px|Cizinganya cakulongora vigaŵa vya khongono lakupangika (opaleshoni ya kusintha khongono)]] Ŵalwari ŵanandi ŵawo ACL yikadumuka ŵakachitikirwa opaleshoni na kupumulira myezi yinandi, kweni sono, kwizira mu ''arthroscopy'', ŵanthu ŵangenda kwambura ma crutches mu majuma ghaŵiri, ndipo ŵangawelera ku masewera mu myezi yicoko.<ref name="uw"/> Para khongono lanangika comene, opaleshoni ya kusintha khongono (''knee replacement'') yingachitika, kuŵikapo vigaŵa vyakupangika kuti vitolere malo gha vigaŵa vyakununkha. ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Mwa munthu, "khongono" likung'anamura mphambano pakati pa fupa la chigha, fupa la munkhoza, na fupa la khongono. Mwa vinyama ivyo vikwenda na malundi ghanayi (nga ni mbwa, hachi, na mbeba), mphambano yakuyana yikuchemeka ''stifle joint''. Mu tuyuni, "khongono" ni mphambano pakati pa fupa la chigha na fupa lakuchemeka ''tibiotarsus''.<ref name="birds"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Munkhoza]] *[[Kalundi]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="chhajer">{{Cite book|last=Chhajer|first=Bimal|chapter=Anatomy of Knee|title=Knee Pain|publisher=Fusion Books|year=2006|pages=10–11|isbn=978-81-8419-181-3}}</ref> <ref name="kulowski">{{Cite journal|last1=Kulowski|first1=Jacob|title=Flexion contracture of the knee|journal=The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery|volume=14|issue=3|pages=618–663|year=1932}}</ref> <ref name="rytter">{{Cite journal|last1=Rytter|first1=Søren|last2=Egund|first2=Niels|last3=Jensen|first3=Lilli|last4=Bonde|first4=Jens|title=Occupational kneeling and radiographic tibiofemoral and patellofemoral osteoarthritis|journal=Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology|volume=4|pages=19|year=2009|doi=10.1186/1745-6673-4-19|pmid=19594940}}</ref> <ref name="burgener">{{Cite book|last1=Burgener|first1=Francis A.|last2=Meyers|first2=Steven P.|last3=Tan|first3=Raymond K.|last4=Zaunbauer|first4=Wolfgang|title=Differential Diagnosis in Magnetic Resonance Imaging|publisher=Thieme|year=2002|page=390|isbn=978-1588900852}}</ref> <ref name="lecturio">{{Cite web|title=Knee Joint|publisher=The Lecturio Medical Concept Library|access-date=2021-06-22}}</ref> <ref name="howstuffworks">{{Cite web|title=Do babies have kneecaps?|publisher=HowStuffWorks.com|date=2009-02-19}}</ref> <ref name="platzer">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|pages=26, 192–252|isbn=978-1588901590}}</ref> <ref name="ryan">{{Cite book|last1=Ryan|first1=Stephanie|title=Anatomy for diagnostic imaging|edition=3rd|publisher=Elsevier Ltd|year=2011|pages=289, 292|isbn=978-0702029714}}</ref> <ref name="tran">{{Cite journal|last1=Tran|first1=J.|last2=Peng|first2=P.W.|last3=Lam|first3=K.|last4=Baig|first4=E.|last5=Agur|first5=A.M.|last6=Gofeld|first6=M.|title=Anatomical Study of the Innervation of Anterior Knee Joint Capsule|journal=Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine|volume=43|issue=4|pages=407–414|year=2018|pmid=29557887}}</ref> <ref name="fonk">{{Cite journal|last1=Fonkoué|first1=L.|last2=Behets|first2=C.|last3=Kouassi|first3=J.K.|last4=Coyette|first4=M.|last5=Detrembleur|first5=C.|last6=Thienpont|first6=E.|last7=Cornu|first7=O.|title=Distribution of sensory nerves supplying the knee joint capsule and implications for genicular blockade and radiofrequency ablation|journal=Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy|volume=41|issue=12|pages=1461–1471|year=2019|pmid=31338537}}</ref> <ref name="britannica">{{Cite web|title=Cartilage|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> <ref name="goldman">{{Citation|last1=Goldman|first1=Lee|last2=Schafer|first2=Andrew I.|title=Goldman's Cecil Medicine|publisher=Elsevier|year=2012}}</ref> <ref name="kam">{{Cite journal|last1=Kam|first1=C.K.|last2=Chee|first2=D.W.|last3=Peh|first3=W.C.|title=Magnetic resonance imaging of cruciate ligament injuries of the knee|journal=Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal|volume=61|issue=2|pages=80–89|year=2010|pmid=20110155}}</ref> <ref name="medterms">{{Cite web|title=Definition of patellar tendon|publisher=MedicineNet.com|access-date=2008-12-11}}</ref> <ref name="gosling">{{Cite book|title=Human Anatomy: Color Atlas and Text|last1=Gosling|first1=J.A.|publisher=Mosby Elsevier|year=2008}}</ref> <ref name="shim">{{Cite journal|last1=Shim|first1=S.S.|last2=Leung|first2=G.|title=Blood supply of the knee joint. A microangiographic study in children and adults|journal=Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research|issue=208|pages=119–125|year=1986|pmid=3522019}}</ref> <ref name="thieme">{{Cite book|title=Thieme Atlas of Anatomy: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System|publisher=Thieme|location=New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1588904195}}</ref> <ref name="afra">{{Cite journal|last1=Afra|first1=R.|last2=Schepsis|first2=A.|title=Addressing patellofemoral pathology: Biomechanics and classification|journal=The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine|date=2008-05-28}}</ref> <ref name="pill">{{Cite journal|last1=Pill|first1=S.G.|last2=Khoury|first2=L.D.|last3=Chin|first3=G.C.|title=MRI for evaluating knee pain in older patients: How useful is it?|journal=The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine|volume=25|issue=11|date=2008-10-29}}</ref> <ref name="andrish">{{Cite journal|last1=Andrish|first1=J.T.|title=Sports injuries in weekend warriors: 20 Clinical pearls|journal=The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine|volume=26|issue=5|date=2009-05-08}}</ref> <ref name="acl">{{Cite web|title=ACL injury - Symptoms and causes|publisher=Mayo Clinic|access-date=2022-12-30}}</ref> <ref name="tandeter">{{Cite journal|last1=Tandeter|first1=H.B.|last2=Shvartzman|first2=P.|last3=Stevens|first3=M.A.|title=Acute knee injuries: use of decision rules for selective radiograph ordering|journal=American Family Physician|volume=60|issue=9|pages=2599–2608|date=1999-12-01|pmid=10605994}}</ref> <ref name="segond">{{Cite web|title=Segond fracture|publisher=Radiopaedia|access-date=2026-05-01}}</ref> <ref name="dahl">{{Cite journal|last1=W-Dahl|first1=Annette|last2=Toksvig-Larsen|first2=Sören|last3=Roos|first3=Ewa M.|title=Association between knee alignment and knee pain in patients surgically treated for medial knee osteoarthritis by high tibial osteotomy|journal=BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders|volume=10|issue=1|pages=154|year=2009|pmid=19995425}}</ref> <ref name="uw">{{Cite web|title=Active After ACL Surgery|publisher=UW Orthopaedic Surgery and Sports Medicine|access-date=2026-08-27}}</ref> <ref name="birds">{{Cite web|title=Bird feet and legs|access-date=2021-06-22}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 30yjpqzduiejcac4fh191aejqztf4up 0 49746 122315 2026-09-24T17:17:32Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Ankle', kusazgapo vithuzi. 122315 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Malo agho lundi na khongono vikukolerana}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Kalundi |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Ankle.jpg|220px|Kalundi la munthu]]<br/><small>Kalundi la munthu</small> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Ankle en.svg|220px|Kalundi la munthu, kulaŵiska kuwaro]]<br/><small>Kalundi la munthu, kulaŵiska kuwaro</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''tarsus'' |} '''Kalundi''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''talocrural region'') ni malo agho lundi na khongono vikukolerana.<ref name="moore"/> Kalundi lili na mphambano zitatu: mphambano yakwenelera ya kalundi (''talocrural joint''), ''subtalar joint'', na ''inferior tibiofibular joint''.<ref name="milner"/> Nchito zakuchitikira pa mphambano iyi ni kupinda kwa lundi kuya kuchanya (''dorsiflexion'') na kuya pasi (''plantarflexion''). Mu kuyowoya kwa zuŵa na zuŵa, "kalundi" likung'anamura malo ghose gha apa, kweni mu uganga, lizgu ili lingang'anamura malo ghose panji mphambano ya ''talocrural'' payekha.<ref name="moore"/> Mafupa ghakuru gha kalundi ni ''talus'' (mu lundi), fupa la munkhoza, na ''fibula'' (mu lundi lapasi). Mphambano ya ''talocrural'' ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo ya mtundu wa synovial, iyo yikukolezga maumaliro ghapasi gha fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' na umaliro wakuchanya wa ''talus''. Kukolerana pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''talus'' nkhwakutola nkhongono yikuru kuluska kukolerana pakati pa ''fibula'' yicoko na ''talus''. ==Muundo== ===Cigaŵa=== Cigaŵa ca kalundi cili pa nkhomano ya lundi na phazi. Cikufuma mumusinjiro wa lundi lapasi kuya pasi, ndipo cikusazgamo vigaŵa vya phazi ivyo vili pafupi na thupi (kufuma ku cidende na khungu la pachanya pa phazi).<ref name="moore2"/> ===Mphambano ya kalundi=== Mphambano ya ''talocrural'' ndiyo mphambano yekha ya mu thupi la munthu ya mtundu wakuchemeka "mortise and tenon", zina ilo likufuma ku ntchito ya uzimba.<ref name="standring"/> Muundo wa mafupa gha kalundi uli na mafupa ghatatu: fupa la munkhoza, ''fibula'', na ''talus''. Cigaŵa ca fupa la munkhoza ico cikukolerana na ''talus'' cikuchemekaso ''plafond'' (Chifalansa kung'anamura "chikuta cakuchanya"). ''Medial malleolus'' ni cigaŵa ca fupa cakufumapo pa fupa la munkhoza mumphepete wa mkati; cigaŵa cakupasi comene ca ''fibula'' chikuchemeka ''lateral malleolus''. Malleoli ghaŵiri agha, pamoza na ma ligament ghawo, ndigho ghakukhozgera ''talus'' pasi pa fupa la munkhoza.<ref name="moore"/> Chifukwa mphambano ya ''subtalar'' yikovwira comene pakunozga muwoneskero wa phazi, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyichemeka mphambano ya kalundi ya pasi, na kuchemeka mphambano ya ''talocrural'' mphambano ya kalundi ya kuchanya.<ref name="muscolino"/> Kupinda kuya kuchanya na kuya pasi (dorsiflexion na plantarflexion) ndivyo vikuchitikira pa mphambano ya kalundi. Apo phazi lapindika kuya pasi, mphambano ya kalundi yikuzomerezgaso kuzuzumira mumphepete, kuzungusika, na kusonkhezgeka pacoko.<ref name="earthslab"/> Muwoneskero wa mafupa uwo ukupangika na ''plafond'' ya munkhoza na ma malleoli ghaŵiri ukuchemeka "mortise" ya kalundi. Malo agha ni cizingo ca makona ghanayi.<ref name="moore"/> Mphepete za viŵalo vyose vya kalundi vikuvundikirika na cartilage. ===Ligament=== [[File:919 Ankle Feet Joints.jpg|thumb|220px|Ma ligament gha kalundi na phazi]] Mphambano ya kalundi yikukhozgeka na ''deltoid ligament'' iyo njakukhora, na ma ligament ghatatu gha kuwaro: ''anterior talofibular ligament'', ''posterior talofibular ligament'', na ''calcaneofibular ligament''. *''Deltoid ligament'' yikukhozgera mumphepete wa mkati wa mphambano; yikufuma ku ''medial malleolus'' ya fupa la munkhoza ndipo yikukolerana pa malo ghanayi gha ''calcaneus'' na ''talus''. *''Anterior'' na ''posterior talofibular ligaments'' zikukhozgera mumphepete wakuwaro wa mphambano, kufuma ku ''lateral malleolus'' ya ''fibula'' kuluta ku ''talus''. *''Calcaneofibular ligament'' yikufuma ku ''lateral malleolus'' na kuluta ku ''calcaneus''. Nangauli njambura kujintha pa mphambano ya kalundi payekha, ''syndesmotic ligament'' njakuzirwa comene pakukhozgera kalundi. Kupwetekeka kwa ligament iyi kwekha kukuchemeka "high ankle sprain". Muundo wa mafupa gha kalundi ukukhora comene apo phazi lili mu ''dorsiflexion''.<ref name="gatt"/> Ntheura, kupendeka kwa kalundi (''sprained ankle'') kukuzomerezgeka comene apo phazi lapindika kuya pasi, chifukwa nyengo iyo ligament zikukhumbikwa comene pakukhozgera mphambano. Kupendeka kwakuzomerezgeka comene kukukolerana na ''anterior talofibular ligament'' (ATFL). ===Retinacula, tendon na thumba lazo, misambizi, na mizirwe=== Ma tendon ghanandi ghakujumphira mu cigaŵa ca kalundi. Mathako gha ''connective tissue'' ghakuchemeka ''retinacula'' ghakuzomerezga ma tendon kupeleka nkhongono kuluta mu ngodya pakati pa lundi na phazi kwambura kufuma pa ngodya iyo.<ref name="muscolino"/> ''Superior extensor retinaculum'' yikwendera pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' pafupi na maumaliro ghawo ghapasi; mkati mwake muli msambizi wa ''anterior tibial artery'', mzirwe wake, na tendon ya ''tibialis anterior''. ''Inferior extensor retinaculum'' njakuwoneka nga cilembo "Y". ''Flexor retinaculum'' yikwendera kufuma ku ''medial malleolus'' kuluta ku ''calcaneus'', ndipo mkati mwake muli tendon ya ''tibialis posterior'', tendon ya ''flexor digitorum longus'', msambizi wa ''posterior tibial artery'', mzirwe wake, ''tibial nerve'', na tendon ya ''flexor hallucis longus''. Ma ''fibular retinacula'' ghakukhozgera ma tendon gha ''fibularis longus'' na ''fibularis brevis'' mumphepete wakuwaro wa kalundi.<ref name="standring"/> ===Mizirwe yakumanya muwoneskero (mechanoreceptors)=== Mizirwe yakumanya muwoneskero (''mechanoreceptors'') ya kalundi yikutuma uthenga wa muwoneskero wa thupi (''proprioception'') kuluta ku ubongo.<ref name="michelson"/> Kafukufuku wasangapo kuti kalundi likukolerana comene na nkhongono ya kwimilira makola (balance).<ref name="goble"/> ==Ntchito== Kwenda kwa vyaka vinandi, nchito ya kalundi pakwenda yikaghanaghanikwa na Aristotle na Leonardo da Vinci. Nkhongono ya kalundi pa nyengo ya kutulukira mtwendo (''ankle push-off'') ni yakuzirwa comene mu kwenda kwa munthu.<ref name="zelik"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== ===Kupwetekeka kwa nyengo yeneyiyo=== Pa mphambano zose zikuru za thupi, kalundi ndilo lakuzomerezgeka comene kupwetekeka. Usange khungu lakuwaro la phazi lapendeka mumusinjiro wa lundi apo munthu wimilira, ''lateral ligament'', comenecomene cigaŵa ca ''anterior talofibular'', chingapendeka (''sprain''), chifukwa nchakupepuka kuluska ligament ya mkati.<ref name="moore2"/> ====Kutimbanyika kwa fupa==== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la kalundi kungachitika, comenecomene chifukwa cha ngozi. ===Kujura vithuzi=== Kusanda kwakwamba kwa suzgo la kalundi kukucitika kwizira mu X-ray. Kupinduka kwa kalundi (varus panji valgus) kungapimika na ngodya ya ''tibiotalar surface''.<ref name="nosewicz"/> ===Kuipa kwa muwoneskero=== [[Clubfoot]] (''talipes equinovarus''), iyo yikusangika mwa mwana m'yumoza panji ŵaŵiri mwa ŵana 1,000 ŵakubabika, njakusazgapo kuipa kwa phazi kwakupambanapambana.<ref name="gore"/> ''Equinus'' likung'anamura kupendeka kwa kalundi kuya pasi, ndipo zina lake likufuma ku kwenda pa vyala nga umo hachi yikwendera.<ref name="kallen"/> ''Ankle joint equinus'', mwa ŵanthu ŵakuru, likukolerana na kucepa kwa muwendero wa mphambano ya kalundi. Masuzo gha kutandalika minofu ya khongono ghakovwira kuwonjezga ''dorsiflexion'' ya kalundi. Nyengo zinyake, kalundi la munthu lingaŵa na mphambano ya mtundu wa "ball-and-socket" na kukolerana kwa ''talo-navicular joint''.<ref name="ono"/> ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Kwaghanaghanikwa kuti nkhongono ya kulongozga vyala mwaluso yatayika mu vinyama vinandi, m'malo mwake vikakura nkhongono yikuru comene ya kulongozga mphambano ya kalundi.<ref name="brouwer"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Khongono]] *[[Munkhoza]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="moore">{{Cite book|last1=Moore|first1=Keith L.|last2=Dalley|first2=Arthur F.|last3=Agur|first3=A.M.R.|chapter=Lower Limb|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|edition=7th|pages=508–669|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4511-1945-9}}</ref> <ref name="milner">{{Cite book|last=Milner|first=Brent K.|chapter=Musculoskeletal Imaging|title=Radiology Recall|pages=258–383|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=1999|isbn=978-0-683-30663-7}}</ref> <ref name="moore2">{{Cite book|last=Moore|first=Keith|title=Clinically oriented anatomy|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=Philadelphia|year=2018|page=825|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="standring">{{Cite book|last=Standring|first=Susan|title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2015|pages=1418–1419|isbn=978-0-7020-6851-5}}</ref> <ref name="muscolino">{{Cite book|last=Muscolino|first=Joseph E.|title=Kinesiology: The Skeletal System and Muscle Function|pages=284–292|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2016|isbn=978-0-323-39935-7}}</ref> <ref name="earthslab">{{Cite web|last=Volker|first=Joseph H.|title=Ankle Joint|publisher=Earth's Lab|date=2018-08-08}}</ref> <ref name="gatt">{{Cite journal|last1=Gatt|first1=Alfred|last2=Chockalingam|first2=Nachiappan|title=Clinical Assessment of Ankle Joint Dorsiflexion|journal=Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association|volume=101|issue=1|pages=59–69|year=2011|doi=10.7547/1010059|pmid=21242472}}</ref> <ref name="michelson">{{Cite journal|last1=Michelson|first1=J.D.|last2=Hutchins|first2=C.|title=Mechanoreceptors in human ankle ligaments|journal=The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British Volume|volume=77|issue=2|pages=219–224|year=1995|pmid=7706334}}</ref> <ref name="goble">{{Cite journal|last1=Goble|first1=D.J.|last2=Coxon|first2=J.P.|last3=Van Impe|first3=A.|last4=Geurts|first4=M.|last5=Doumas|first5=M.|last6=Wenderoth|first6=N.|last7=Swinnen|first7=S.P.|title=Brain Activity during Ankle Proprioceptive Stimulation Predicts Balance Performance in Young and Older Adults|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=45|pages=16344–16352|year=2011|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4159-11.2011|pmid=22072686}}</ref> <ref name="zelik">{{Cite journal|last1=Zelik|first1=Karl E.|last2=Adamczyk|first2=Peter G.|title=A unified perspective on ankle push-off in human walking|journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=219|issue=23|pages=3676–3683|year=2016|doi=10.1242/jeb.140376|pmid=27903626}}</ref> <ref name="nosewicz">{{Cite journal|last1=Nosewicz|first1=Tomasz L.|last2=Knupp|first2=Markus|last3=Bolliger|first3=Lilianna|last4=Hintermann|first4=Beat|title=The reliability and validity of radiographic measurements for determining the three-dimensional position of the talus in varus and valgus osteoarthritic ankles|journal=Skeletal Radiology|volume=41|issue=12|pages=1567–1573|year=2012|doi=10.1007/s00256-012-1421-6|pmid=22609967}}</ref> <ref name="gore">{{Cite journal|last1=Gore|first1=A.I.|last2=Spencer|first2=J.P.|title=The newborn foot|journal=American Family Physician|volume=69|issue=4|pages=865–872|year=2004|pmid=14989573}}</ref> <ref name="kallen">{{Cite book|last=Källén|first=Bengt|chapter=Pes Equinovarus|title=Epidemiology of Human Congenital Malformations|pages=111–113|year=2014|isbn=978-3-319-01471-5}}</ref> <ref name="ono">{{Cite journal|last1=Ono|first1=K.|last2=Nakamura|first2=M.|last3=Kurata|first3=Y.|last4=Hiroshima|first4=K.|title=Ball-and-socket ankle joint: Anatomical and kinematic analysis of the hindfoot|journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics|volume=4|issue=5|pages=564–568|year=1984|pmid=6490876}}</ref> <ref name="brouwer">{{Cite journal|last1=Brouwer|first1=B.|last2=Ashby|first2=P.|title=Corticospinal projections to lower limb motoneurons in man|journal=Experimental Brain Research|volume=89|issue=3|pages=649–654|year=1992|pmid=1644127}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 5hwtvwx7hlfztj6z8rkrjno5cqz080c 0 49747 122316 2026-09-24T17:22:24Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Foot', kusazgapo cithuzi. 122316 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca umaliro wa lundi icho chikutolera uzito wa thupi na kwendeska munthu}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Phazi |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Foot on white background.jpg|220px|Phazi la munthu]]<br/><small>Phazi la munthu</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''pes'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Msambizi | class="infobox-data" |''Dorsalis pedis'', ''medial plantar'', ''lateral plantar'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Mzirwe | class="infobox-data" |''Medial plantar'', ''lateral plantar'', ''deep fibular'', ''superficial fibular'' |} '''Phazi''' (mawuza: ''maphazi'') ni cigaŵa ca thupi icho chikusangika mwa vinyama vinandi ivyo vili na muwongo. Ni cigaŵa ca umaliro wa lundi ico chikutolera uzito wa thupi na kuzomerezga kwenda. Mwa vinyama vinandi ivyo vili na maphazi, phazi ni cigaŵa ca umaliro wa lundi ico chili na fupa limoza panji ghanandi, kanandi kusazgapo nswawi na/panji misomali. ==Mazgu ghakwamba== Lizgu "phazi" mu Chingelezi (''foot'') likufuma ku Old English ''fot'', kufuma ku Proto-Germanic *''fot''.<ref name="etymonline"/> ==Muundo== Phazi la munthu ni cigaŵa cakukhora na cakusazgika comene, chili na mafupa 26, mphambano 33 (20 mwa izi zikusuzumira), na minofu, tendon, na ligament vinandi vyakujumphapo 100.<ref name="podiatry"/> Mphambano za phazi ni kalundi, ''subtalar joint'', na mphambano za pakati pa vinjiri vya vyala (''interphalangeal joints''). Phazi lingagaŵikika mu vigaŵa vitatu: cigaŵa ca kunyuma (''hindfoot''), cigaŵa capakati (''midfoot''), na cigaŵa cakunthazi (''forefoot''). Cigaŵa ca kunyuma cili na fupa la ''talus'' (fupa la kalundi) na ''calcaneus'' (fupa la cidende). Mafupa ghatali ghaŵiri gha lundi lapasi, fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'', ghakukolerana pachanya pa ''talus'' kupanga kalundi. ''Calcaneus'', ilo ndifupa likuru comene la phazi, likukolerana na ''talus'' pa ''subtalar joint'', ndipo pasi pake pali thako la mafuta lakuzingilira.<ref name="podiatry"/> Mafupa ghasanu ghambura kuyana muwoneskero gha cigaŵa capakati — ''cuboid'', ''navicular'', na mafupa ghatatu gha ''cuneiform'' — ndigho ghakupanga kupindika kwa phazi (''arches of the foot''), ico chikovwira nga chakuzikizga apo phazi likuzuzumira. Cigaŵa capakati chikukolerana na vigaŵa vya kunyuma na kunthazi kwizira mu minofu na ''plantar fascia''.<ref name="podiatry"/> Cigaŵa cakunthazi cili na vyala vinkhonde na mafupa ghatali ghakuyana ghankhonde ghakupanga ''metatarsus''. Nga umo viliri mu vyala vya woko, mafupa gha vyala gha phazi ghakuchemeka ''phalanges''; chala cikuru chili na ''phalanges'' ziŵiri, apo vyala vinyake vinayi vili na ''phalanges'' zitatu cilicose. Mphambano za pakati pa ''phalanges'' zikuchemeka ''interphalangeal'', apo izo zili pakati pa ''metatarsus'' na ''phalanges'' zikuchemeka ''metatarsophalangeal'' (MTP).<ref name="podiatry"/> Cigaŵa capakati na cakunthazi pamoza vikupanga ''dorsum'' (cigaŵa cakulaŵiska kuchanya munthu wimilira) na cigaŵa cakulaŵiska pasi. ===Mafupa=== * Fupa la munkhoza, ''fibula'' * ''Tarsus'' (7): ''talus'', ''calcaneus'', ''cuneiformes'' (zitatu), ''cuboid'', na ''navicular'' * ''Metatarsus'' (5): fupa lakwamba, lachiŵiri, lacitatu, lacinayi, na lacinkhonde * ''Phalanges'' (14) Muli soso mafupa ghachoko ghakuchemeka ''sesamoid bones'' pafupi na mphambano za ''metatarsophalangeal'', comenecomene pa cigaŵa cakupasi ca ''metatarsal'' yakwamba.<ref name="platzer"/> ===Kupindika kwa phazi=== {{Main|Arches of the foot}} Phazi la munthu lili na kupindika kuŵiri kwakutandalika na kupindika kamoza kakwezga, ivyo vikukhozgeka na muwoneskero wa mafupa, ligament zakukhora, na minofu iyo yikukoka pa nyengo ya kwenda. Kupendezgeka kucoko kwa kupindika uku, apo uzito wa thupi ukusazgika na kuwuskika pa phazi, kukupangiska kwenda na kucimbira kuŵa kwakupepuka comene mu mphamvu.<ref name="marieb"/> Kupendekera na kuzunura kwa kupindika uku kungapangiska "flat feet" (maphazi ghakuzingoka).<ref name="marieb"/> ===Minofu=== Minofu izo zikukolerapo pa phazi zingapatulika mu izo zikufuma ku lundi lapasi (''extrinsic'') na izo zikufuma ku phazi lekha (''intrinsic'').<ref name="platzer2"/> Mnofu wa ''tibialis anterior'' ukufuma ku fupa la munkhoza ndipo ukukolerana pafupi na mphambano ya cigaŵa cakwamba ca ''metatarsus''; ukukolerapo pakuti phazi lipinde kuya kuchanya (''dorsiflexion'') na kukweza mumphepete wa mkati. Mnofu wa ''extensor digitorum longus'' ukukolerapo pa vyala vyachiŵiri mpaka vyacinkhonde, apo ''extensor hallucis longus'' ukukolerapo pa chala cikuru. Minofu ya ''peroneus longus'' na ''peroneus brevis'' yikwenda kunyuma kwa ''lateral malleolus'' na kukovwira pakukhozgera kupindika kwa mumphepete wa phazi.<ref name="platzer3"/> Kunyuma, ''triceps surae'' (yikupangika na ''soleus'' na ''gastrocnemius'') na ''plantaris'' ndizo zikukolerana pa ''calcaneus'' kwizira mu tendon ya ''Achilles''; ndimo minofu yikuru ya kupinda phazi kuya pasi (''plantar flexion''), iyo yikuwoneka comene pa masewera gha ballet.<ref name="platzer4"/> Mu thako lakuya mkati, ''tibialis posterior'' na ''flexor hallucis longus'' vikovwiraso kupinda phazi na kukhozgera kupindika kwake.<ref name="platzer5"/> Pasi pa phazi (''sole''), muli minofu yicoko yinandi iyo yikovwira kunyoloka na kupinda vyala, kukhozgera kupindika kwa phazi, na kupatura panji kukolezga vyala.<ref name="platzer6"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Chifukwa cha malo na nchito yake, maphazi ghakuŵa pacoko pa masuzgo ghanandi, kusazgapo ''athlete's foot'', ''bunions'', misomali yakunjilira mu nyama (''ingrown toenails''), ''Morton's neuroma'', ''plantar fasciitis'', na kutimbanyika kwa fupa kwakufuma ku nkhongono yakuwerezgeka (''stress fractures''). Muliso masuzgo ghanyake ghakupokerana ghangakhwaska muwoneskero na nchito ya phazi, kusazgapo ''clubfoot'' na "flat feet". Kuvwara vilyato ivyo vikukanizga phazi kunyoloka makola vingakhwaska muwoneskero wa kalundi na phazi. Kutimbanyika kwa phazi kukusazgapo: ''Lisfranc injury'' (apo mafupa gha ''metatarsus'' ghakusonkhezgeka kufuma ku ''tarsus''), ''Jones fracture'' (kutimbanyika kwa ''metatarsal'' yacinkhonde), ''March fracture'' (kutimbanyika chifukwa cha nkhongono yakuwerezgeka), kutimbanyika kwa ''calcaneus'', na kutimbanyika kwa chala (''broken toe'').<ref name="lisfranc"/> ==Kuzungusika kwa phazi pakwenda== {{Main|Pronation of the foot}} Pa nyengo ya kwenda, phazi likuzungusika mu vinjila vitatu: kuzungusika kwakwenelera (''neutral pronation''), kucoko-kuzungusika (''underpronation''/''supination''), na kuzungusika kukuru comene (''overpronation''). Kuzungusika kwakwenelera ndiko kukukhumbikwa comene kuti thupi lipulikizge cifukwa ca msambazi para lundi lapindika pasi.<ref name="runnersworld"/> Kuzungusika kukuru comene panji kucoko-kuzungusika kungapangiska kupwetekeka kwa phazi, kalundi, panji khongono kwa nyengo yitali.<ref name="runnersworld2"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Ŵanthu ŵakuvwara vilyato kuti vireke kuŵavikilira ku ngozi apo ŵakwenda kuwaro. Mu vikhalidwe vinandi, nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi kunjira mu nyumba panji malo ghakupatulika (nga ni ''marae'' za Māori) na vilyato; munthu wakukhumbikwa kufumiska vilyato pakunjira. Kukondwa na phazi (''foot fetishism'') ndiko kukuzomerezgeka comene pa vigaŵa vya thupi ivyo mbambura kuŵa vya kukolerana kwa thupi.<ref name="abc"/> ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Phazi lakupepuka lakuŵa na nswawi mwa vinyama nga ni chimbwe panji galu likuchemeka ''paw''. Phazi lakukhora likuchemeka ''hoof'' (nga umo ili mwa hachi na ng'ombe). Kuyana na muwendero, vinyama vingapambanikizgika kuŵa vyakwenda na pasi pa phazi lose (''plantigrade''), vyakwenda na vyala pera (''digitigrade''), panji vyakwenda na misomali pera (''unguligrade'').<ref name="france"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Kalundi]] *[[Munkhoza]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="etymonline">{{Cite web|title=Foot|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/foot|access-date=2017-05-20}}</ref> <ref name="podiatry">{{Cite web|title=Anatomy of the foot and ankle|publisher=Podiatry Channel|access-date=2009-08-21}}</ref> <ref name="platzer">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|page=220|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="marieb">{{Cite book|last1=Marieb|first1=Elaine Nicpon|last2=Hoehn|first2=Katja|title=Human anatomy & physiology|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2007|pages=244–245|isbn=978-0-321-37294-9}}</ref> <ref name="platzer2">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|page=256|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="platzer3">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|pages=258–260|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="platzer4">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|page=262|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="platzer5">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|page=264|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="platzer6">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|pages=268–274|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="lisfranc">{{Cite web|title=Lisfranc's fracture|publisher=Mosby's Medical Dictionary|edition=8th|year=2009}}</ref> <ref name="runnersworld">{{Cite web|title=Overpronation, Explained|publisher=Runner's World|date=2001-09-21}}</ref> <ref name="runnersworld2">{{Cite web|title=Supination, Explained|publisher=Runner's World|date=2001-09-21}}</ref> <ref name="abc">{{Cite web|title=Rex Ryan's Apparent Foot Fetish Not Necessarily Unhealthy|publisher=ABC News|date=2010-12-23}}</ref> <ref name="france">{{Cite book|last=France|first=Diane L.|title=Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification: A Color Atlas|publisher=CRC Press|year=2008|page=537|isbn=978-1-4200-6286-1}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] reu65t1xwpwph7y2phx71mgafy8v55e 0 49748 122317 2026-09-24T17:32:24Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Male', kusazgapo vithuzi. 122317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mtundu wa munthu panji cinyama uwo ukupanga mbeŵu za mwanalume}} [[File:Male symbol (bold, color).svg|thumb|150px|Chimanyikwiro ca lezi la Mars, ilo likugwiliskikira ntchito kulongora mwanarume mu sayansi ya umoyo.]] [[File:Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png|thumb|220px|Muwoneskero wa mwanarume mzimu, uwo wakuyaniswa na mwanakazi.]] '''Mwanarume''' (chimanyikwiro: ♂) ni mtundu wa cakuzoŵa umo icho chikupanga, panji chanozgeka kupanga, mbeŵu iyo yikuchemeka ''sperm'', iyo yikukolerana na mbeŵu yikuru comene ya mwanakazi (zira) pa nyengo ya kubabira.<ref name="lehtonen"/> Mwanarume wangababa yayi kwambura zira kufuma ku mwanakazi, kweni vinyama vinyake vingababa vyose viŵiri, kubabira kwakukolerana na kwakujipanga pera.<ref name="curtis"/> Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu mwanarume, vili na ''Y chromosome'', iyo yikupangiska kupangika kwa testosterone yinandi kuti viŵalo vya kubabira vya mwanarume vikure.<ref name="ychrom"/> Mwa ŵanthu, lizgu "mwanarume" lingagwiliskikiraso kung'anamura muwoneskero wa munthu mu chikhalidwe (''gender''), nga umo mwanalume wakujiwona panji ŵanyake ŵakumuwona.<ref name="palazzani"/> ==Kuwoneka pakati pa viwumba== Kuŵako kwa mwanarume na mwanakazi vyakupambana kwakwiza pa nyengo zakupambana pakati pa mitundu yakupambana ya viwumba, nchito iyo yikuchemeka ''convergent evolution''.<ref name="berrill"/> Kunozgeka uku kukwamba na viwumba ivyo mbeŵu zawo zilije kupambana (''isogamy''), kuluta ku ivyo mbeŵu za mwanarume na za mwanakazi zapambana pang'ono (''anisogamy''), kufika ku ivyo mbeŵu ya mwanakazi njikuru comene na njambura kwenda payekha (''oogamy'').<ref name="dusenbery"/> Muvinyama vinyake, mwanarume wangababa payekha, mwaciyelezgero kwizira mu ''androgenesis''.<ref name="hedtke"/> Ntheura, kupambana kwa jinsi mu viwumba kukumanyikwa na mtundu wa mbeŵu iyo chiwumba chikupanga (sperm panji zira), ndipo kupambana pakati pa mwanarume na mwanakazi mu mtundu umoza kukhwaskana yayi comene na kupambana uku mu mtundu unyake.<ref name="klymkowsky"/> ==Kukura kwa jinsi== Kunozgeka kwa ''anisogamy'' ndiko kukapangiska kukura kwa nchito za mwanarume na za mwanakazi.<ref name="bachtrog"/> Pambere ''anisogamy'' yindanozgeke, mbeŵu za viwumba zikaŵa zambura kupambana comene mu ukuru na kwenda (''isogamy''). Mu ''anisogamy'', mbeŵu ya mwanarume njichoko kuluska ya mwanakazi, ndipo njakwenda comene.<ref name="kumar"/> Sayansi yikuchali kusuzgika kumanya bwino umo ''anisogamy'' yikanozgekera, chifukwa mbiri yake mu mafupa ghakale nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi. Maghanoghano ghanandi ghakuti mbeŵu zikuru za mwanakazi njakuzomerezgeka comene kukhalilira umoyo, apo mbeŵu zichoko za mwanarume njakwenda comene kufuma ndipo zingasangika mbeŵu zinyake luŵiro.<ref name="togashi"/> ==Chimanyikwiro na kayowoyero== Chimanyikwiro cakuzomerezgeka kulongora mwanarume ni ♂, cizungu na muvi wakulongozga cikwatikwati (northeast). Chimanyikwiro ici nchiyana na cimanyikwiro ca planeti ya Mars, ndipo chikagwiliskikira ntchito pakwamba na Carl Linnaeus mu 1751.<ref name="stearn"/> Lizgu "male" mu Chingelezi likufuma ku Old French ''masle'', kufuma ku Chilatini ''masculus'' ("wamwanarume, wakwenelera mwanalume").<ref name="etymonline"/> ==Kumanyikwa kwa jinsi== Jinsi ya cakuzoŵa cimoza yingamanyikwa na vinthu vinandi — vyakupokerana panji vya vyakuzingilira, panji vingasintha pa nyengo ya umoyo wa cakuzoŵa. Nangauli mitundu yinandi yili na jinsi ziŵiri pera (mwanarume panji mwanakazi),<ref name="berrill"/> vibawo vinyake nga ni njoka za mu mtunda (''worms'') vili na viŵalo vyakubabira vya mwanarume na vya mwanakazi pamoza (''hermaphrodite'').<ref name="britannica_herm"/> ===Kumanyikwa na mahara=== Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu, jinsi yawo yikumanyikwa na mahara kwizira mu mtundu wakuchemeka ''XY sex-determination system'', apo mwanarume wali na ''X chromosome'' yimoza na ''Y chromosome'' yimoza (apo mwanakazi wali na ''X chromosome'' ziŵiri).<ref name="xy"/> Pa nyengo ya kubabira, mwanarume wangapeleka mbeŵu ya ''X'' panji ya ''Y'', apo mwanakazi wangapeleka zira la ''X'' pera. Mbeŵu ya ''Y'' na zira la ''X'' vikupanga mwana mwanarume; mbeŵu ya ''X'' na zira la ''X'' vikupanga mwana mwanakazi.<ref name="determination"/> Cigaŵa ca ''Y chromosome'' ico chikwenderezga umwanarume chikuchemeka ''SRY''.<ref name="sry"/> Mu tuyuni na vibawo vinyake, jinsi yikumanyikwa na mtundu wakuchemeka ''ZW sex-determination system'', apo mwanarume wali na ''ZZ chromosomes''.<ref name="bachtrog"/> ===Kumanyikwa na vyakuzingilira=== Mu vibawo vinyake, nga ni ma alligator, jinsi yikumanyikwa na mzuzu uwo zira likukhozgeka. Vinyama vinyake, nga ni nkhona zinyake (''snails''), vikusintha jinsi: vikwamba kuŵa vyanarume, ndipo pambere vikusintha kuŵa vyanakazi.<ref name="cahill"/> ==Vimanyikwiro vyachiŵiri== Viwumba vya mwanarume vikanozgeka kugwiliskira vimanyikwiro vyachiŵiri kuti vilongore kuti ni vyakukhwima na kwenelera pakubabira. Kusankha kwa mbeŵu za mwanakazi (''sexual selection'') nkhwakughanaghanikwa kuŵa ndikho kukovwira comene pakukura kwa vimanyikwiro ivi.<ref name="campbell"/> Mwa vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu, ŵanarume kanandi ŵakuŵa ŵakuru kuluska ŵanakazi, ndipo mwa munthu comenecomene, ŵanarume ŵali na tsitsi linandi na minofu yinandi kuluska ŵanakazi.<ref name="ellis"/> Mu tuyuni, ŵanarume ŵanandi ŵali na masiskha ghakuwoneka comene (''plumage'') agho ghakukwezga ŵanakazi.<ref name="switze"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Mwanakazi]] *[[Viŵalo vyakubabira]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="lehtonen">{{Cite journal|last1=Lehtonen|first1=Jussi|last2=Parker|first2=Geoff A.|title=Gamete competition, gamete limitation, and the evolution of the two sexes|journal=Molecular Human Reproduction|volume=20|issue=12|pages=1161–1168|year=2014|doi=10.1093/molehr/gau068|pmid=25323972}}</ref> <ref name="curtis">{{Cite journal|last=Lively|first=Curtis M.|title=A Review of Red Queen Models for the Persistence of Obligate Sexual Reproduction|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=101|issue=suppl_1|pages=S13–S20|year=2010|doi=10.1093/jhered/esq010|pmid=20421322}}</ref> <ref name="ychrom">{{Cite web|title=Y chromosome|publisher=Genetics Home Reference, MedlinePlus|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="palazzani">{{Cite book|last1=Palazzani|first1=Laura|last2=Bailes|first2=Victoria|last3=Fella|first3=Marina|title=Gender in Philosophy and Law|publisher=Springer|year=2012|isbn=978-94-007-4991-7}}</ref> <ref name="berrill">{{Cite web|last=Berrill|first=N.J.|title=Sex|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="dusenbery">{{Cite book|last=Dusenbery|first=David B.|title=Living at Micro Scale|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-674-03116-6}}</ref> <ref name="hedtke">{{Cite journal|last1=Hedtke|first1=Shannon M.|last2=Stanger-Hall|first2=Kathrin|last3=Baker|first3=Robert J.|last4=Hillis|first4=David M.|title=All-Male Asexuality: Origin and Maintenance of Androgenesis in the Asian Clam Corbicula|journal=Evolution|volume=62|issue=5|pages=1119–1136|year=2008|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00344.x|pmid=18266987}}</ref> <ref name="klymkowsky">{{Cite web|last1=Klymkowsky|first1=Michael W.|last2=Cooper|first2=Melanie M.|title=Sexual dimorphism|publisher=Biology LibreTexts|date=2016-06-04}}</ref> <ref name="bachtrog">{{Cite journal|last1=Bachtrog|first1=D.|last2=Mank|first2=J.E.|last3=Peichel|first3=C.L.|last4=Kirkpatrick|first4=M.|last5=Otto|first5=S.P.|title=Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=12|issue=7|pages=e1001899|year=2014|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899|pmid=24983465}}</ref> <ref name="kumar">{{Cite encyclopedia|last1=Kumar|first1=R.|last2=Meena|first2=M.|last3=Swapnil|first3=P.|title=Anisogamy|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior|publisher=Springer International|year=2019}}</ref> <ref name="togashi">{{Cite book|last1=Togashi|first1=Tatsuya|last2=Cox|first2=Paul Alan|title=The Evolution of Anisogamy: A Fundamental Phenomenon Underlying Sexual Selection|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-50082-1}}</ref> <ref name="stearn">{{Cite journal|last=Stearn|first=William T.|title=The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology|journal=Taxon|volume=11|issue=4|pages=109–113|year=1962|doi=10.2307/1217734}}</ref> <ref name="etymonline">{{Cite web|title=male|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=2023-07-23}}</ref> <ref name="britannica_herm">{{Cite web|title=hermaphroditism|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="xy">{{Cite web|title=43.1C: Sex Determination|publisher=Biology LibreTexts|date=2018-07-17}}</ref> <ref name="determination">{{Cite web|title=43.1C: Sex Determination|publisher=Biology LibreTexts|date=2018-07-17}}</ref> <ref name="sry">{{Cite web|title=SRY gene|publisher=Genetics Home Reference, MedlinePlus|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="cahill">{{Cite journal|last1=Cahill|first1=Abigail E.|last2=Juman|first2=Alia Rehana|last3=Pellman-Isaacs|first3=Aaron|last4=Bruno|first4=William T.|title=Physical and Chemical Interactions with Conspecifics Mediate Sex Change in a Protandrous Gastropod Crepidula fornicata|journal=The Biological Bulletin|volume=229|issue=3|pages=276–281|year=2015|doi=10.1086/bblv229n3p276|pmid=26695826}}</ref> <ref name="campbell">{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=B.|title=Human Evolution: An Introduction to Man's Adaptations|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|pages=392–393|isbn=978-1-351-51441-5}}</ref> <ref name="ellis">{{Cite book|last1=Ellis|first1=Lee|last2=Hershberger|first2=Scott|last3=Field|first3=Evelyn|title=Sex Differences: Summarizing More than a Century of Scientific Research|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-87493-2}}</ref> <ref name="switze">{{Cite book|title=The Differences Between the Sexes|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-521-44878-9}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] bwsjqg62ur5pgdxxmbflrw8gbiy82gr 0 49749 122318 2026-09-24T17:34:49Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Female', kusazgapo vithuzi. 122318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mtundu wa munthu panji cinyama uwo ukupanga zira}} [[File:Female symbol (bold, color).svg|thumb|150px|Chimanyikwiro ca lezi la Venus, ilo likugwiliskikira ntchito kulongora mwanakazi mu sayansi ya umoyo.]] [[File:Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png|thumb|220px|Muwoneskero wa mwanakazi mzimu, uwo wakuyaniswa na mwanarume.]] Jinsi ya cakuzoŵa yikuchemeka '''mwanakazi''' (chimanyikwiro: ♀) usange chikupanga zira (''ovum''), mtundu wa mbeŵu iyo yikukolerana na mbeŵu ya mwanarume (sperm) pa nyengo ya kubabira.<ref name="grzimek"/> Mwanakazi wali na mbeŵu yikuru kuluska ya mwanarume. Mwanarume na mwanakazi ni vyakufuma mu nchito yakuchemeka ''anisogamy'', apo mbeŵu za jinsi ziŵiri zili na ukuru wakupambana (kupambana na ''isogamy'', apo mbeŵu zose zili na ukuru wakuyana). Mu viwumba ivyo vili na mwanarume na mwanakazi, kumanyikwa kwa jinsi kungatolera pa ''chromosomes'' panji pa vyakuzingilira. Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu mwanakazi, vili na ''X chromosomes'' ziŵiri. Vimanyikwiro vya viwumba ivyo vili mwanakazi vikupambana pa mtundu na mtundu, ndipo vinyake vili na vimanyikwiro vyachiŵiri ivyo vikukolerana na kubabira, nga ni mabere mu vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana. Mwa ŵanthu, lizgu "mwanakazi" lingagwiliskikiraso kung'anamura muwoneskero wa munthu mu chikhalidwe (''gender'').<ref name="palazzani"/> ==Vimanyikwiro vyakumanyikwira== Ŵanakazi ŵakupanga mazira, mbeŵu izo nyengo zinandi njikuru kuluska sperm, mu mtundu wa kubabira uwo ukuchemeka ''heterogamous''.<ref name="martin2015"/> Kanandi mwanakazi wangababa yayi kwambura mbeŵu za mwanarume, kweni vinyama vinyake vingababa payekha, kwizira mu ''parthenogenesis''.<ref name="engelmann"/> ==Ŵanakazi mu mitundu yakupambana== Mitundu iyo yili na mwanarume na mwanakazi yikuchemeka ''gonochoric'' mu vinyama, ''dioecious'' mu vimera ivyo vikupanga mbeŵu (''seed plants''), na ''dioicous'' mu ''cryptogams''.<ref name="fusco"/> Mu vinyama vinyake, mwanakazi wangakhalirana na ''hermaphrodite'' (''gynodioecy''), panji na mwanarume na ''hermaphrodite'' pamoza (''trioecy'').<ref name="bachtrog"/> ===Ŵanakazi mwa vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana=== Vimanyikwiro vyakupambaniska mtundu wa ''Mammalia'' ni ''mammary glands'', izo zili viwuni vyakuti vyasinthapo, ivyo vikupanga mkaka wakulereska mwana pamanyuma pa kubabika kwake. Ni vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana pera ivyo vikupanga mkaka.<ref name="swaminathan"/> Mwa munthu, mabere ghakuwoneka comene chifukwa thupi la mwanakazi likusungirira mafuta ghanandi pafupi na ndomo. Ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵa vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana ŵali na ''X chromosomes'' ziŵiri, apo ŵanarume ŵali na ''X chromosome'' yimoza na ''Y chromosome'' yimoza; vinyama vinyake, nga ni platypus, vili na muwoneskero wakupambana.<ref name="sumner"/> Ŵanakazi ŵa vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana ŵakubaba ŵana ŵamoyo, kupatula ŵanakazi ŵa ''monotremes'', awo ŵakutumbuka mazira.<ref name="vaughan"/> ==Kumanyikwa kwa jinsi== Jinsi ya cakuzoŵa yingamanyikwa na mahara panji na vyakuzingilira, panji yingasintha pa nyengo ya umoyo wa cakuzoŵa.<ref name="bachtrog"/> ===Kumanyikwa na mahara=== Jinsi ya vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu, yikumanyikwa na mahara kwizira mu mtundu wakuchemeka ''XY sex-determination system'', apo mwanakazi wali na ''X chromosomes'' ziŵiri (apo mwanarume wali na ''X'' yimoza na ''Y'' yimoza). Pa nyengo ya kubabira, mwanarume wangapeleka mbeŵu ya ''X'' panji ya ''Y'', apo mwanakazi wangapeleka zira la ''X'' pera. Mtundu wakuchemeka ''ZW sex-determination system'', apo mwanakazi wali na ''Z'' na ''W'', ukusangika mu tuyuni, vibawo, na tuyuni tunyake.<ref name="bachtrog"/> ===Kumanyikwa na vyakuzingilira=== Ŵana ŵa vibawo vinyake, nga ni ma alligator, ŵakusintha kuŵa ŵanarume panji ŵanakazi kuyana na mzuzu uwo zira likukhozgeka. Somba zinyake, nga ni ''goby'', zingasintha jinsi zili zikuru, kuyana na masuzgo gha kubabira.<ref name="gemmell"/> ==Kukura kwa jinsi== Fumbo la umo ŵanakazi ŵakanozgekera nkhwakukolerana comene na fumbo la umo ŵanarume ŵakanozgekera. Viwumba vyakwamba vikaŵabanga payekha, kanandi kwizira mu ''binary fission'', apo ''cell'' yimoza yikujigaŵa kuŵa ziŵiri. Mtundu uwo uli hafu mwanarume na hafu mwanakazi ungapanga waka hafu ya ŵana awo mtundu wambura mwanarume ungapanga, chifukwa mbeŵu za mwanakazi pera ndizo zikupanga ŵana.<ref name="togashi"/> Nkhongono za ''anisogamy'' ndizo zikung'anamulika na kukura kwa nchito za mwanarume na za mwanakazi.<ref name="bachtrog"/> Viŵalo vya mwanakazi vyakubabira (''female genitalia'') vili na kupambana kukuru comene pakati pa mitundu, ndipo pakuchali kusuzgika kuvimanya makora kuluska viŵalo vya mwanarume.<ref name="sloan"/> ==Chimanyikwiro== Chimanyikwiro ♀ chikugwiliskikira ntchito kulongora mwanakazi. Maghanoghano gha sono ghakuti chimanyikwiro ici na cimanyikwiro ca mwanarume vikafuma mu vilembo vya Chigiriki ivyo vikwimira mazina gha planeti Mars (Thouros) na Venus (Phosphoros).<ref name="stearn"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Mwanarume]] *[[Viŵalo vyakubabira]] *[[Bere]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="grzimek">{{Cite book|last=Grzimek|first=Bernhard|title=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia|volume=1|publisher=Gale|year=2003|pages=16–17|isbn=978-0-7876-5362-0}}</ref> <ref name="palazzani">{{Cite book|last1=Palazzani|first1=Laura|last2=Bailes|first2=Victoria|last3=Fella|first3=Marina|title=Gender in Philosophy and Law|publisher=Springer|year=2012|isbn=978-94-007-4991-7}}</ref> <ref name="martin2015">{{Cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Hine|first2=Robert|title=A Dictionary of Biology|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|page=222|isbn=978-0-19-871437-8}}</ref> <ref name="engelmann">{{Cite book|last=Engelmann|first=Franz|last2=Kerkut|first2=G.A.|title=The Physiology of Insect Reproduction|publisher=Elsevier|year=2015|page=29}}</ref> <ref name="fusco">{{Cite book|last1=Fusco|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Minelli|first2=Alessandro|title=The Biology of Reproduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2019|pages=115–116|isbn=978-1-108-49985-9}}</ref> <ref name="bachtrog">{{Cite journal|last1=Bachtrog|first1=D.|last2=Mank|first2=J.E.|last3=Peichel|first3=C.L.|title=Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=12|issue=7|pages=e1001899|year=2014|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899|pmid=24983465}}</ref> <ref name="swaminathan">{{Cite web|last=Swaminathan|first=Nikhil|title=Strange but True: Males Can Lactate|publisher=Scientific American|access-date=2017-10-06}}</ref> <ref name="sumner">{{Cite book|last=Sumner|first=Adrian T.|title=Chromosomes: Organization and Function|year=2008|pages=97–98}}</ref> <ref name="vaughan">{{Cite book|last1=Vaughan|first1=Terry|last2=Ryan|first2=James|last3=Czaplewski|first3=Nicholas|title=Mammalogy|year=2011|pages=391, 412}}</ref> <ref name="gemmell">{{Cite journal|last1=Gemmell|first1=Neil J.|last2=Muncaster|first2=Simon|last3=Liu|first3=Hui|last4=Todd|first4=Erica V.|title=Bending Genders: The Biology of Natural Sex Change in Fish|journal=Sexual Development|volume=10|issue=5–6|pages=223–241|year=2016|doi=10.1159/000449297|pmid=27820936}}</ref> <ref name="togashi">{{Cite book|last1=Togashi|first1=Tatsuya|last2=Cox|first2=Paul Alan|title=The Evolution of Anisogamy: A Fundamental Phenomenon Underlying Sexual Selection|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-50082-1}}</ref> <ref name="sloan">{{Cite journal|last1=Sloan|first1=Nadia S.|last2=Simmons|first2=Leigh W.|title=The evolution of female genitalia|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology|volume=32|issue=9|pages=882–899|year=2019|doi=10.1111/jeb.13503|pmid=31267594}}</ref> <ref name="stearn">{{Cite journal|last=Stearn|first=William T.|title=The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology|journal=Taxon|volume=11|issue=4|pages=109–113|year=1962|doi=10.2307/1217734}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] mra8vwh1bsc5xs73a4yjfqetwqi0p0r 0 49750 122321 2026-09-24T18:55:18Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Nape', kusazgapo vithuzi. 122321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Msana wa singo}} [[File:Geisha-kyoto-2004-11-21.jpg|thumb|Nkhonyoro wakuwoneka wa msungwana wa ki-Japan (''maiko'')]] [[File:Cat carrying kitten (cropped).jpg|thumb|Phaka likunyamula mwana wake pa nkhonyoro, malo agho mu Chingelezi ghakuchemeka ''scruff'']] '''Nkhonyoro''' ni msana wa [[singo]]. Mu mazgu ghakupwelelera gha uganga, nkhonyoro likuchemekaso ''nucha'' (kufuma mu Chiarabu icho chikung'anamura "msuma wa nkhongono").<ref name="etim"/> Lizgu lakukolerana nalo ni ''nuchal'', umo mukusangika mu mazgu nga ''nuchal rigidity'' ghakung'anamura kukhora kwa singo. Mu vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, nkhonyoro uli na khungu lakusinyilira ilo lindambura kupimika comene, ilo likuchemeka ''scruff''. Nyina wa nyama wangatola mwana wake pa khungu ili na meno kuti wamunyamule kwambura kumupweteka. Mu kutandana kwa mabvuci, mwanarume wangakoleka nkhonyoro wa mwanakazi na meno kuti wamukolerezge pa nyengo ya kutandana.<ref name="morris"/> ==Mu miko na chikhalidwe== Mu chikhalidwe cha ku Japan chakale, nkhonyoro ukachemeka ''unaji'', ndipo ukaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa vichoko vya thupi ivyo vikaleka kuvundikika na malaya gha ŵanakazi (kupatula chisko na mawoko). Nkhonyoro wa mwanakazi ukakolelezganga comene ŵanarume ŵanandi ŵa ku Japan.<ref name="cherry"/> Mu chikhalidwe cha ku Egypt na ku Lebanon, kutimba nkhonyoro wa munthu chikuwoneka nga nchito ya soni yikuru.<ref name="khalifa"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Singo]] *[[Msana]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="etim">Lizgu ili likufuma mu Chilatini cha Middle Ages, ico chikang'anamulika kufuma mu Chiarabu نُخَاع, icho chikung'anamura "msuma wa nkhongono" (spinal marrow).</ref> <ref name="morris">{{Cite book |title=Illustrated Catwatching |first=Desmond |last=Morris |publisher=Crescent Books |year=1994 |isbn=0-517-12065-8 |pages=94, 108}}</ref> <ref name="cherry">{{Cite book |title=Womansword: What Japanese Words Say about Women |first=Kittredge |last=Cherry |publisher=Kodansha |year=1987 |isbn=4-7700-1655-7 |page=21}}</ref> <ref name="khalifa">{{Cite book|title=Terminal Rage|last=Khalifa|first=A. M.|date=2014-04-28|publisher=Mavenhill|isbn=9781940387000}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] f4s39kl67w3r41i1ls1l7pte9un68rq 0 49751 122322 2026-09-24T18:57:33Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Human back', kusazgapo cithuzi. 122322 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Msana | Latin = dorsum | Image = Posterior view of human female and male backs (cropped).jpg | Caption = Msana wa mwanakazi (kumaso) na wa mwanarume (kuwaro) }} '''Msana''' ni cigaŵa cikuru ca thupi la munthu ico chili kunyuma, kwamba ku tako mpaka ku singo.<ref name="dorland"/> Ni cigaŵa ca kunyuma icho chikung'anamulika na chifuwa na nthumbo ivyo vili kunthazi. Viwangwa vya msana (''vertebral column'') vikwenda mu utali wose wa msana ndipo vikupanga malo ghakukondeka pakati. Uzito wa msana ukupangika na chiŵegha kuchanya na mbombo pasi. Kupweteka kwa msana (''back pain'') ni nthenda yakusanga comene, ndipo mu vinandi yikuŵa yambura suzgo likuru. ==Muundo== Cigaŵa cikuru ca msana ni viwangwa vya msana, comenecomene kufuma kuchanya kwa viwangwa vya chifuwa (''thoracic vertebrae'') mpaka pasi kwa viwangwa vya luwunda (''lumbar vertebrae''), ivyo vikukwaska mzirwe waukuru (''spinal cord'') mu nthowa yake. Mafupa gha nthumbo ghakufuma ku msana kuchanya, ghakwenda mafupa ghanandi kuya pasi, ndikusiya malo ghambura kunga chomene pakati pa nthumbo na mbombo. Utali wa msana kuchanya ukumanyikwa na scapula, mafupa ghakuzarabuka gha chiŵegha. ===Minofu=== Minofu ya msana yingagaŵikika mu magulu ghatatu: gulu lakuchanya (lakukolerana na kusinthasintha kwa woko na chiŵegha), gulu lapakati (lakukolerana na kupumira), na gulu lakunsi (ilo ndakukolerana comene na viwangwa, ndipo likukhozgera msana na kupinda kwake). ===Viŵalo vyakufupi na msana=== Mapapu ghalinjira mu nthumbo ya chifuwa ndipo ghakufika ku cigaŵa ca kunyuma ca nthumbo ya chifuwa, ndikuchitiska kuti mungapulika ntchito yawo pakuvwalira msana. Mafinso ghali pasi pa minofu mu cigaŵa capasi pa nthumbo ya chifuwa. Kutimba comene msana wapasi kungapweteka mafinso. ===Khungu la msana=== Khungu la msana ndakukhora comene, ndipo lili na mizirwe yicoko kuluska khungu la vigaŵa vinyake vya thupi. Malo gha pakati na kuchanya kwa msana ni ghamoza waka gha thupi agho munthu wanjipulika kwambura kufika nawo mwenecara. ===Kusinthasintha=== Msana ukovwira kunyamula mutu na thupi lose, ukupeleka nkhongono kweniso kusinthasintha. Msana wakuchanya uli na chikhozgo chikuru, apo msana wapasi (luwunda) ukuzomerezga kupinda kunyuma na kunthazi, kweni ukukanizga kuzungusika. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kupweteka kwa msana ni nthenda yaciŵiri yakusanga comene mwa ŵanthu ŵakukura (kulondezga waka kupweteka kwa mutu). Chifukwa chakusanga comene ni kupwetekeka kwa minofu, ico chikupola pa majuma ghaŵiri, kwenekweni kupweteka kwake kungaŵa nkhongono. Vyakuzirwa vinyake vikusazgamo masuzgo gha disc, kutimbanyika kwa fupa, panji osteoarthritis. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Msana wa mwanakazi ni nkhani yakuzoŵa mu vithuzi vyakupendekera, chifukwa vikhalidwe vinandi vikuzomerezga kulongora msana kwambura nguwo. Nguwo zinyake, nga ni malaya ghakuvundikira waka msana wakuchanya, ghakupangika kuti ghalongore msana. Msana ndiwo malo ghakuru ghakuluska pa thupi agho ŵanthu ŵakujurira thupi (''tattoo''). Mazgu ghanandi mu Chingelezi ghakuyowoya vya msana kulongora malo gha kupwetekeka, nga umo munthu wakwenera "kuwoneseska msana wake" panji "kukoleka msana ku khoma". Mu mbiri, kutimba munthu pa msana na simbo chikaŵa nthowa yakupeleka chilango ku ŵanangwa panji kukakamizga ŵazga kuti ŵagwire ntchito. ==Wonaniso== *[[Singo]] *[[Nkhonyoro]] *[[Chiŵegha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="dorland">{{Cite book |title=Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary |date=2012 |publisher=Saunders/Elsevier |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8 |page=191 |edition=32nd}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] pp7mtfeww0ehvw33zu5bnc50adfkmh4 0 49752 122323 2026-09-24T18:59:43Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Shoulder', kusazgapo vithuzi. 122323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi capakati pa woko na msana}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Chiŵegha | Latin = articulatio humeri | Image = Left shoulder.jpg | Caption = Chiŵegha ca munthu | Image2 = Gray327.png | Caption2 = Thumba la mphambano ya chiŵegha, kulaŵiska kunthazi }} '''Chiŵegha''' ca munthu chikupangika na mafupa ghatatu: fupa la nkhungu (''clavicle''), scapula (fupa la chiŵegha ilo lili nga bawo), na fupa la woko lyapachanya (''humerus''), pamoza na minofu, ligament, na misambizi ya minofu iyo yikuvikolerezga. Mphambano wa chiŵegha, uwo ukuchemekaso ''glenohumeral joint'', ndiwo mphambano ukuru wa chiŵegha, ndipo ni mphambano wa mpira na thumba uwo ukuzomerezga woko kuzungusika mu nthowa yakuzingilira panji kufumiska kutali na thupi. ==Muundo== Chiŵegha chikupangika na mphambano wa mpira na thumba wapakati pa fupa la woko na scapula, wakukolelezgeka na ligament, minofu, na misambizi. Cartilage yituŵa (''hyaline cartilage'') pa maumaliro gha mafupa yikuzomerezga mafupa kusinthasintha, ndipo malo gha mphambano ghakuzingilirika na khungu lakupwelelera (''synovial membrane''). Vithuŵa viŵiri vyakuchemeka ''bursae'' vikuzomerezga kusinthasintha kwambura kukolerana pakati pa fupa, minofu, na msambizi, ndikuvikilira minofu ya chiŵegha ku fupa la scapula. Cartilage yinyake, ''glenoid labrum'', yikuzingilira thumba la scapula ndikulikuzgirapo utali. ===Minofu ya kuzingilira chiŵegha (rotator cuff)=== Minofu yinayi — ''supraspinatus'', ''infraspinatus'', ''teres minor'', na ''subscapularis'' — yikuzingilira chiŵegha ndikukhozga mutu wa fupa la woko kuti ukhalirenge mu thumba la scapula pakusinthasintha. Misambizi yawo yikukolerana pamoza kupanga msambizi wa ''rotator cuff''. ===Minofu yinyake=== Kuwonjezgapo minofu ya rotator cuff, minofu ya ''deltoid'' na ''teres major'' yikufuma mu chiŵegha chene. ''Deltoid'' yikuvundikira chiŵegha mbali zitatu ndipo yikovwira mu kupinda, kufumiska, na kunyoloka kwa woko. Minofu yinyake yakufuma ku chifuwa (''serratus anterior'', ''subclavius'', ''pectoralis minor'') na ku msana (''trapezius'', ''rhomboid major na minor'', ''latissimus dorsi'', ''levator scapulae'') yikovwiraso kukhazikika na kusinthasintha kwa scapula. ===Nkhwapa=== {{main|Nkhwapa}} Nkhwapa yikupangika na malo pakati pa minofu ya chiŵegha. Mizirwe na misambizi ya woko vikwendamo, ndipo muli ma lymph node ghanandi. ===Mizirwe na ndopa=== Khungu la kuzingilira chiŵegha likupokera visinthiro kufuma ku mizirwe C2 mpaka T2. Mtolo wa mizirwe wakuchemeka ''brachial plexus'' ukufuma ku viwangwa vya C5 mpaka T1 ndikupeleka visinthiro ku minofu yinandi ya chiŵegha. Ndopa yikwiza kwizira mu msambizi wa ''subclavian'', uwo ukusintha zina kuŵa ''axillary artery''. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Chifukwa thumba la scapula ndakusaninkha kweniso ntchafu za chiŵegha kuŵa zakumasuka, chiŵegha ndico mphambano icho chikufumira comene pa thupi la munthu kuluska mphambano zinyake. ==Wonaniso== *[[Woko]] *[[Msana]] *[[Nkhwapa]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="freedict">{{Cite journal|title=shoulder|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/shoulder|journal=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> <ref name="bogart">{{Cite book|title=Elsevier's Integrated Anatomy and Embryology|last=Bogart|first=Bruce|publisher=Elsevier|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4160-3165-9|pages=246–260}}</ref> <ref name="wexler">{{cite book |last1=Wexler |first1=Barbara |title=Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health Vol. 1 |date=2006 |publisher=Gale |location=Farmington Hills, MI |isbn=978-1-4144-0374-8 |pages=414–416 |edition=2nd}}</ref> <ref name="favard">{{cite journal|last1=Favard|first1=Luc|last2=Bacle|first2=Guillaume|last3=Berhouet|first3=Julien|year=2007|title=Rotator cuff repair|journal=Joint Bone Spine|volume=74|issue=6|pages=551–7|doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2007.08.003|pmid=17993287}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] l4x0vp2mq0eypwnjhls8uc3q914e6dt 122324 122323 2026-09-24T19:01:35Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kukhozga: kusazgapo <ref> mu mtundo, kuti maupambazi ghaleke kuwoneka nga cite error. 122324 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi capakati pa woko na msana}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Chiŵegha | Latin = articulatio humeri | Image = Left shoulder.jpg | Caption = Chiŵegha ca munthu | Image2 = Gray327.png | Caption2 = Thumba la mphambano ya chiŵegha, kulaŵiska kunthazi }} '''Chiŵegha''' ca munthu chikupangika na mafupa ghatatu: fupa la nkhungu (''clavicle''), scapula (fupa la chiŵegha ilo lili nga bawo), na fupa la woko lyapachanya (''humerus''), pamoza na minofu, ligament, na misambizi ya minofu iyo yikuvikolerezga.<ref name="freedict"/> Mphambano wa chiŵegha, uwo ukuchemekaso ''glenohumeral joint'', ndiwo mphambano ukuru wa chiŵegha, ndipo ni mphambano wa mpira na thumba uwo ukuzomerezga woko kuzungusika mu nthowa yakuzingilira panji kufumiska kutali na thupi.<ref name="oxford"/> ==Muundo== Chiŵegha chikupangika na mphambano wa mpira na thumba wapakati pa fupa la woko na scapula, wakukolelezgeka na ligament, minofu, na misambizi.<ref name="freedict"/> Cartilage yituŵa (''hyaline cartilage'') pa maumaliro gha mafupa yikuzomerezga mafupa kusinthasintha, ndipo malo gha mphambano ghakuzingilirika na khungu lakupwelelera (''synovial membrane''). Vithuŵa viŵiri vyakuchemeka ''bursae'' vikuzomerezga kusinthasintha kwambura kukolerana pakati pa fupa, minofu, na msambizi, ndikuvikilira minofu ya chiŵegha ku fupa la scapula.<ref name="wexler"/> Cartilage yinyake, ''glenoid labrum'', yikuzingilira thumba la scapula ndikulikuzgirapo utali. ===Minofu ya kuzingilira chiŵegha (rotator cuff)=== Minofu yinayi — ''supraspinatus'', ''infraspinatus'', ''teres minor'', na ''subscapularis'' — yikuzingilira chiŵegha ndikukhozga mutu wa fupa la woko kuti ukhalirenge mu thumba la scapula pakusinthasintha.<ref name="bogart"/> Misambizi yawo yikukolerana pamoza kupanga msambizi wa ''rotator cuff''.<ref name="favard"/> ===Minofu yinyake=== Kuwonjezgapo minofu ya rotator cuff, minofu ya ''deltoid'' na ''teres major'' yikufuma mu chiŵegha chene. ''Deltoid'' yikuvundikira chiŵegha mbali zitatu ndipo yikovwira mu kupinda, kufumiska, na kunyoloka kwa woko. Minofu yinyake yakufuma ku chifuwa (''serratus anterior'', ''subclavius'', ''pectoralis minor'') na ku msana (''trapezius'', ''rhomboid major na minor'', ''latissimus dorsi'', ''levator scapulae'') yikovwiraso kukhazikika na kusinthasintha kwa scapula.<ref name="bogart"/> ===Nkhwapa=== {{main|Nkhwapa}} Nkhwapa yikupangika na malo pakati pa minofu ya chiŵegha. Mizirwe na misambizi ya woko vikwendamo, ndipo muli ma lymph node ghanandi.<ref name="bogart"/> ===Mizirwe na ndopa=== Khungu la kuzingilira chiŵegha likupokera visinthiro kufuma ku mizirwe C2 mpaka T2. Mtolo wa mizirwe wakuchemeka ''brachial plexus'' ukufuma ku viwangwa vya C5 mpaka T1 ndikupeleka visinthiro ku minofu yinandi ya chiŵegha.<ref name="bogart"/> Ndopa yikwiza kwizira mu msambizi wa ''subclavian'', uwo ukusintha zina kuŵa ''axillary artery''. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Chifukwa thumba la scapula ndakusaninkha kweniso ntchafu za chiŵegha kuŵa zakumasuka, chiŵegha ndico mphambano icho chikufumira comene pa thupi la munthu kuluska mphambano zinyake. ==Wonaniso== *[[Woko]] *[[Msana]] *[[Nkhwapa]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="freedict">{{Cite journal|title=shoulder|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/shoulder|journal=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> <ref name="oxford">{{Cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/shoulder|title=shoulder - definition of shoulder in English|website=Oxford Dictionaries}}</ref> <ref name="bogart">{{Cite book|title=Elsevier's Integrated Anatomy and Embryology|last=Bogart|first=Bruce|publisher=Elsevier|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4160-3165-9|pages=246–260}}</ref> <ref name="wexler">{{cite book |last1=Wexler |first1=Barbara |title=Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health Vol. 1 |date=2006 |publisher=Gale |location=Farmington Hills, MI |isbn=978-1-4144-0374-8 |pages=414–416 |edition=2nd}}</ref> <ref name="favard">{{cite journal|last1=Favard|first1=Luc|last2=Bacle|first2=Guillaume|last3=Berhouet|first3=Julien|year=2007|title=Rotator cuff repair|journal=Joint Bone Spine|volume=74|issue=6|pages=551–7|doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2007.08.003|pmid=17993287}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 4dpxjl3ezrzbweilwuc68rbzl73svxr 0 49753 122325 2026-09-24T19:03:49Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Axilla', kusazgapo cithuzi. 122325 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Malo pasi pa mphambano ya chiŵegha na woko}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Nkhwapa | Latin = axilla | Image2 = ArmpitHair2.jpg | Caption2 = Nkhwapa ya munthu | Artery = Msambizi wa axillary | Vein = Mtsinje wa ndopa wa axillary | Nerve = Mzirwe wa axillary | Lymph = Ma lymph node gha axillary }} '''Nkhwapa''' (mu Chilatini ''axilla''; mu Chingelezi likuchemekaso ''armpit'' panji ''underarm'') ni malo agho pa thupi la munthu ghali pasi pa mphambano ya chiŵegha. Nkhwapa yili pakati pa woko na nthumbo ya chifuwa, ndipo yikuzingilirika kuchanya na fupa la ntanda, nkhungu, na scapula; mumphepete na minofu ya ''serratus anterior''; kunthazi na minofu ya chifuwa (''pectoral muscles''); na kunyuma na minofu ya ''subscapularis'', ''teres major'', na ''latissimus dorsi''.<ref name="anaesthesiauk"/> Khungu la nkhwapa lili na sisi zinandi na tiwiwuni twakutuluska thukuta. Kunyilira kwa thupi (''body odor'') kukusangika comene mu nkhwapa,<ref name="turkington"/> ndipo vinthu ivyo vikupanga kunyilira uku vyakuwoneka kuti vingaŵa vyakukolerana na kupanga kutemwa (''pheromone''), nangauli mfundo iyi njakususkika mwa asayansi.<ref name="drea"/> ==Muundo== Mkati mwa nkhwapa muli msambizi wa ndopa wa axillary na mtsinje wake, cigaŵa ca mtolo wa mizirwe wakuchemeka ''brachial plexus'', mizirwe ya ''thoracic'' na ''intercostobrachial'', magulu ghankhondi gha ma lymph node, na mafuta ghakuzingilira ivi vyose.<ref name="anaesthesiauk"/> Cigaŵa ca pasi ca kunyuma cha nkhwapa chikuchemeka ''posterior axillary fold'', apo cigaŵa ca kunthazi chikuchemeka ''anterior axillary fold''.<ref name="norman"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe== Nkhwapa ni malo ghakukwenya comene chifukwa cha mizirwe yinandi iyo yili mwenemumo. Sisi za nkhwapa zikumela kwa ŵanakazi na ŵanarume kwamba mu unyamata. Mu vikhalidwe vinyake vyamakono, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakugweta sisi za nkhwapa, kwizira mu maghanoghano gha kutowa panji gha thanzi, kweni mu vikhalidwe vinyake ŵanakazi ŵakusunga sisi izi.<ref name="lanzalaco"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Nga umo viliri mu malo ghanyake agho ghakupinda pakati pa viŵalo vikuru (nga ni ntangararo panji kasukusuku), nkhwapa ni malo agho misambizi na mizirwe vikwendamo pafupi na khungu, ndipo vikuŵa vyakuzirwa comene pakuwona ma lymph node pakuchekura nthenda. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiŵegha]] *[[Woko]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="anaesthesiauk">{{cite web|url=http://www.anaesthesiauk.com/article.aspx?articleid=100359|title=Applied anatomy for upper limb blocks|access-date=2007-12-23}}</ref> <ref name="turkington">{{cite book|last1=Turkington|first1=Carol|last2=Dover|first2=Jeffrey S.|title=The encyclopedia of skin and skin disorders|year=2007|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8160-6403-8|page=363|edition=3rd}}</ref> <ref name="drea">{{Cite journal|last=Drea|first=Christine M.|date=February 2015|title=D'scent of man|journal=Hormones and Behavior|volume=68|pages=117–133|doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.08.001|pmid=25118943}}</ref> <ref name="norman">Norman Anatomy, lesson 3: axilla.</ref> <ref name="lanzalaco">{{cite journal|last1=Lanzalaco|first1=Anthony|display-authors=1|title=A comparative clinical study of different hair removal procedures and their impact on axillary odor reduction in men|journal=Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology|year=2016|volume=5|issue=1|pages=58–65|doi=10.1111/jocd.12197|pmid=26663394}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 20v0u7a759ck04ch32gxrikclobasau 10 49754 122326 2026-09-24T19:08:57Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Kupanga template yiphya ya Infobox anatomy, kuti vipapiro ivyo vikuyigwiliskira ntchito vilongore kabokosi ka umuli, m'malo mwa kulongora waka mazgu. 122326 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly>{| class="infobox" {{#if:{{{Name|}}}|! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |{{{Name|}}} }}{{#if:{{{Image|}}}| |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center" |[[File:{{{Image|}}}|220px|{{{Caption|}}}]]{{#if:{{{Caption|}}}|<br/><small>{{{Caption|}}}</small>}} }}{{#if:{{{Image2|}}}| |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center" |[[File:{{{Image2|}}}|220px|{{{Caption2|}}}]]{{#if:{{{Caption2|}}}|<br/><small>{{{Caption2|}}}</small>}} }}{{#if:{{{Latin|}}}{{{Greek|}}}{{{System|}}}{{{Precursor|}}}{{{Artery|}}}{{{Vein|}}}{{{Nerve|}}}{{{Lymph|}}}| ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro }}{{#if:{{{Latin|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''{{{Latin|}}}'' }}{{#if:{{{Greek|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Chigiriki]] | class="infobox-data" |''{{{Greek|}}}'' }}{{#if:{{{System|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Muwiro | class="infobox-data" |{{{System|}}} }}{{#if:{{{Precursor|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Chakwamba | class="infobox-data" |{{{Precursor|}}} }}{{#if:{{{Artery|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Msambizi]] | class="infobox-data" |{{{Artery|}}} }}{{#if:{{{Vein|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Mtsinje wa ndopa | class="infobox-data" |{{{Vein|}}} }}{{#if:{{{Nerve|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Mzirwe]] | class="infobox-data" |{{{Nerve|}}} }}{{#if:{{{Lymph|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Lymph | class="infobox-data" |{{{Lymph|}}} }}{{#if:{{{MeSH|}}}{{{TA98|}}}{{{TA2|}}}{{{TH|}}}{{{FMA|}}}| ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vyakuzomanikizga }}{{#if:{{{MeSH|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |{{{MeSH|}}} }}{{#if:{{{TA98|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |{{{TA98|}}} }}{{#if:{{{TA2|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |{{{TA2|}}} }}{{#if:{{{TH|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TH | class="infobox-data" |{{{TH|}}} }}{{#if:{{{FMA|}}}| |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |{{{FMA|}}} }} |}</includeonly><noinclude> Kabokosi kicoko (''infobox'') ka kulongora chidziwiro ca vigaŵa vya thupi (anatomy). Kagwiliskikira ntchito nga umo mukusangika mu vyipapiro vya [[Khongono]], [[Kalundi]], na vinyake. '''Ntchito:''' <pre> {{Infobox anatomy | Name = ... | Latin = ... | Image = ... | Caption = ... | Image2 = ... | Caption2 = ... | System = ... | Artery = ... | Vein = ... | Nerve = ... | Lymph = ... | MeSH = ... | TA98 = ... | TA2 = ... | FMA = ... }} </pre> [[Mtundu:Vithimbiri vya anatomy]] </noinclude> tn1muhckm0gqz0ft6ww9ka8a7wshmfu 0 49755 122327 2026-09-24T19:11:31Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Elbow', kusazgapo vithuzi. 122327 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mphambano pakati pa woko lyapachanya na woko la pasi}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Kasukusuku | Latin = articulatio cubiti | Image = Elbow on gray background.jpg | Caption = Kasukusuku ka munthu | Image2 = En-elbow joint.svg | Caption2 = Mphambano wa kasukusuku }} '''Kasukusuku''' ni cigaŵa capakati pa woko lyapachanya na woko la pasi, icho chikuzingilira mphambano wa kasukusuku.<ref name="mesh1"/> Kasukusuku kuli vimanyikwiro vyakumanyikwira comene, kusazgamo olecranon, cubital fossa (yikuchemekaso "malo ghakukhotoka gha kasukusuku"), na epicondyle ziŵiri za fupa la woko lyapachanya. Mphambano wa kasukusuku ni mphambano wakugonana (''hinge joint'') pakati pa woko lyapachanya na woko la pasi, comenecomene pakati pa fupa la woko lyapachanya na mafupa gha radius na ulna mu woko la pasi, agho ghakuzomerezga woko la pasi na woko kusinthasintha kuya na kufuma ku thupi.<ref name="mesh2"/> ==Muundo== ===Mphambano=== Mphambano wa kasukusuku uli na vigaŵa vitatu ivyo vili mkati mwa thumba limoza la mphambano: mphambano wa ''humeroulnar'' (wakugonana waka, ukuzomerezga kupinda na kunyoloka), mphambano wa ''humeroradial'' (mphambano wa mpira na thumba), na mphambano wapachanya wa ''radioulnar'' (uwo ukuzomerezga radius kuzungusika, ico chikupangiska kuzungusika kwa woko la pasi na woko, ''pronation'' na ''supination'').<ref name="kapandji"/> Epicondyle ziŵiri za fupa la woko lyapachanya (yimoza yili kufupi na thupi, yinyake kutali) na olecranon ya fupa la ulna vikupanga vimanyikwiro vitatu ivyo, apo kasukusuku kapindika, vikupanga cimango cakuyaniskika na trianguli.<ref name="ross"/> ===Thumba la mphambano na khungu lakupwelelera=== Thumba la mphambano likukhozgeka na ligament ku mphepete zake, kweni ni lakusinyilira comene kunthazi na kunyuma. Khungu lakupwelelera la mphambano (''synovial membrane'') likufwatuka comene, likufika ku olecranon fossa kunyuma na ku radial na coronoid fossae kunthazi.<ref name="palastanga"/> ===Ligament=== Kasukusuku kali na ligament mumphepete zake ziŵiri, izo zikukanizga kufumiska na kwandamana kwa mtundu wakukalipa, na kuzungusika kwake. ''Ulnar collateral ligament'' yikufuma pa epicondyle ya mkati mpaka ku ulna, apo ''radial collateral ligament'' yikufuma pa epicondyle ya kuwaro mpaka ku radius.<ref name="palastanga"/> ===Minofu=== Minofu yitatu yikupinda kasukusuku: ''brachialis'' (iyo ntchito yake njakupinda kasukusuku pera), ''brachioradialis'' (iyo yikovwiraso kuzungusika kwa woko la pasi), na ''biceps brachii'' (iyo njakukolerananga na chiŵegha kweniso).<ref name="kapandji2"/> Kunyoloka kwa kasukusuku kukucitika comene na ''triceps brachii''. ==Wonaniso== *[[Woko la pasi]] *[[Woko]] *[[Chiŵegha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="mesh1">{{cite web |title=MeSH Browser |url=https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004550 |website=meshb.nlm.nih.gov |access-date=8 January 2022}}</ref> <ref name="mesh2">{{cite web |title=MeSH Browser |url=https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?name=ELBOW%20JOINT |website=meshb.nlm.nih.gov |access-date=8 January 2022}}</ref> <ref name="kapandji">Kapandji (1982), pp. 74–7.</ref> <ref name="ross">Ross & Lamperti (2006), p. 240.</ref> <ref name="palastanga">Palastanga & Soames (2012), pp. 127–32.</ref> <ref name="kapandji2">Kapandji (1982), pp. 88–91.</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 9yqigww2nt9w99kr06jg7y3cc97m8e2 0 49756 122328 2026-09-24T19:29:18Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Nkhani yiphya, yakung'anamulika kufuma ku Wikipedia ya Chingelezi 'Wrist', kusazgapo vithuzi. 122328 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi capakati pa nkhongono ya woko na woko}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Nkhumano ya woko | Latin = articulatio radiocarpalis | Image = Nadgarstek (ubt).jpeg | Caption = Munthu wakulongora nkhumano ya woko pakati | Image2 = 3D Medical Animation Human Wrist.jpg | Caption2 = Mafupa gha ''carpus'', ghanyake ghakusazgikamo mu ng'anamuro la nkhumano ya woko }} Mu sayansi ya thupi la munthu, '''nkhumano ya woko''' (mu Chingelezi: ''wrist'') yikung'anamulika mu nthowa zitatu: (1) ''carpus'' panji mafupa gha ''carpus'', mafupa ghankonde ghaŵiri agho ghakupanga cigaŵa cakwamba ca [[woko]];<ref name="behnke"/><ref name="moore"/> (2) '''mphambano wa nkhumano''' panji ''radiocarpal joint'', mphambano uwo uli pakati pa [[radius]] na ''carpus'';<ref name="moore"/> na (3) cigaŵa cose ca thupi cakuzingilira ''carpus'', kusazgamo vigaŵa vyakutali vya mafupa gha nkhongono ya woko na vigaŵa vyakwamba vya mafupa gha ''metacarpal'', pamoza na mphambano zose izo zikusangika mwenemura. Cigaŵa ici cikusazgangamo [[carpal tunnel|chitowo ca ''carpus'']], ''anatomical snuff box'' (thumba lakusonda tumbaku, ling'anamuro la Chingelezi), na ma ''retinacula'' ghakukhorera minofu.<ref name="behnke2"/><ref name="baratz"/> Chifukwa ca kupambana uku mu ng'anamuro, kutimbanyika kwa mafupa gha ''carpus'' kukuchemeka ''carpal fracture'', apo kutimbanyika nga ni [[distal radius fracture]] kukuwonekanga kutimbanyika kwa nkhumano. ==Muundo== ===Mphambano wa radioulnar wakutali=== Mphambano wa radioulnar wakutali (''DRUJ'') ni mphambano wakuzungusika (''pivot joint'') uwo uli pakati pa vigaŵa vyakutali vya [[radius]] na [[ulna]], mafupa agho ghakupanga nkhongono ya woko. Ukupangika na mutu wa ''ulna'' (khoswe la fupa ilo likuwoneka kunyuma kwa nkhumano) na ''ulnar notch'' ya radius, ndipo mphambano uwu ukupatukana na mphambano wa ''radiocarpal'' na cibvunda cakuzingilira (''articular disk'') ico chili pakati pa radius na ''styloid process'' ya ulna. Thumba la mphambano ndakuzingilira, ndipo likufika ku ''sacciform recess''. Mphambano uwu ukugwira ntchito pamoza na mphambano wakufupi wa radioulnar (uwo uli pa [[kasukusuku]]) pa nchito ya ''pronation'' na ''supination''.<ref name="platzer1"/> ===Mphambano wa radiocarpal=== Mphambano wa ''radiocarpal'' ni mphambano wa ''ellipsoid'' uwo ukupangika na radius na cibvunda cakuzingilira kuchanya, na mzere wakwamba wa mafupa gha ''carpus'' kusi. Mafupa gha ''carpus'' ku mphepete la ''ulna'' ghakukhwaskana waka pang'ono na cigaŵa cakuchanya, ndipo fupa la ''triquetrum'' likukhwaskana pekha pa nyengo ya kwandamana kwa ''ulna''. Thumba la mphambano likukhozgeka na ma ''ligament'' ghanandi, kusazgamo ''ligament'' za ''palmar'' na ''dorsal radiocarpal'', na ''ligament'' za ''ulnar'' na ''radial collateral''.<ref name="platzer2"/> Vigaŵa ivyo vikupanga mphambano wa ''radiocarpal'' ni mphepete lakusi la radius na cigaŵa cakusi ca cibvunda cakuzingilira kuchanya; na mafupa gha ''scaphoid'', ''lunate'', na ''triquetrum'' kusi. Vigaŵa vyakuchanya vya mafupa aya vikupanga pamoza cifukira cakuzingilira (''condyle'') ico chikwiliskikira mu thumba lakuzingilira la radius.<ref name="lecturio"/> ===Mafupa gha ''carpus''=== Mu woko wenecho, mafupa 13 ghakupanga cigaŵa ca nkhumano: mafupa ghankonde gha ''carpus'' — ''scaphoid'', ''lunate'', ''triquetrum'', ''pisiform'', ''trapezium'', ''trapezoid'', ''capitate'', na ''hamate'' — na mafupa nkonde gha ''metacarpal'', ndiko kuti lyakwamba, laciŵiri, lacitatu, lacinayi, na lacinkhondi.<ref name="platzer3"/> Mafupa ghakwamba kutandaŵaŵuka (''ossify'') ni ''capitate'' na ''hamate'', mu myezi yitatu na cikwenimoza ya umoyo wa mwana.<ref name="alkhater"/> ====Mphambano zakukolerana==== Mphambano za ''radiocarpal'', ''intercarpal'', ''midcarpal'', ''carpometacarpal'', na ''intermetacarpal'' nyengo zinandi zikukolerana kwizira mu thumba limoza la ''synovial''.<ref name="isenberg"/> ==Ntchito== ===Kusinthasintha=== Minofu yikuru ya woko yili mu nkhongono ya woko, apo vinofu vyake vikupanga uzito wa nkhongono. Nyengo zinandi, ''tendon'' za minofu izi zikukhorereka kuti zileke kunyamuka nga singo za uta pakuzingilira nkhumano, kwizira mu ''flexor retinaculum'' ku mphepete la mkono, na ''extensor retinaculum'' ku mphepete la kunyuma. Ku mphepete la mkono, mafupa gha ''carpus'' ghakupanga [[carpal tunnel|chitowo ca ''carpus'']],<ref name="rea"/> umo ''tendon'' zinyake za ''flexor'' zikwendera mu vibvunda ivyo vikuzomerezga kuti zisunthe pambere na kunyuma mu chitowo cicoko (wonani ''carpal tunnel syndrome'').<ref name="saladin"/> Kufuma pa malo ghakati-kati gha woko, kusinthasintha uko kukuzomerezgeka pa nkhumano wenecho ni: kufumiska na kwandamana kwa mphepete (kwandamana kwa ''radial'' na kwandamana kwa ''ulnar''), kupinda na kunyoloka (''flexion'' na ''extension''), na kusinthasintha kwakukwana. Kupinda ku mphepete la mkono (''palmar flexion'') nkhukukuru comene mwa masinthasintha ghose, chifukwa minofu yakupinda njankhongono comene kuluska minofu yakunyoloka.<ref name="platzer4"/> Kweniso, kusinthasintha pa nkhumano nkhukwambura kwenelera kulongosoreka kwambura kusazgamo kusinthasintha pa mphambano wa radioulnar wakutali, umo kukucitika ''pronation'' na ''supination'' — lekani mphambano uwu ukuwonekaso nga cigaŵa ca nkhumano.<ref name="kingston"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kupweteka kwa nkhumano kungiza chifukwa cha vinthu vinandi, kusazgamo nthenda ya ''carpal tunnel'',<ref name="rea2"/> ''ganglion cyst'',<ref name="stretanski"/> ''tendinitis'',<ref name="waldman"/> na [[osteoarthritis]]. Kuyezga nga ni ''Phalen's test'' kukusazgamo kupinda kwa mkono pa nkhumano. Woko ungasintha maluŵiro pa nkhumano mu nthenda zinyake, nga ni [[rheumatoid arthritis]]. Kutandaŵaŵuka (''ossification'') kwa mafupa ghakuzingilira nkhumano ni cimanyikwiro cimoza ico chikugwiliskikira ntchito pakumanya vyaka vya mafupa (''bone age''). Kutimbanyika kwa nkhumano kanandi kukung'anamura [[distal radius fracture]]. Nkhukusangika comene mwa ŵanakazi ŵambura kuŵa Hispanic, ndipo nkhukolerana na vinthu nga ni kumwa vyakukolerwa, kusuta fodya, kuŵa na ''phosphate'' yinandi mu ndopa, [[osteoporosis]], na kunenepa comene.<ref name="ye"/> ==Umoza wa zgu== Zgu la Chingelezi "''wrist''" likufuma ku zgu lakale la Proto-Germanic ''wristiz'', ilo ndiwo lyafumiramo mazgu ghamakono gha Chijeremani ''Rist'' na Chisweden ''vrist'' (ghaŵiri ghakung'anamura "kasukusuku ka phazi" panji "nkhumano"). Ukuwoneka kuti muzu wa zgu ili, ''writh-'', ukukolerana na kuzungazunga panji kupilinganya.<ref name="eatonhand"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Woko]] *[[Kasukusuku]] *[[Chiŵegha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="behnke">{{Cite book|last=Behnke|first=Robert S.|title=Kinetic Anatomy|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2006|isbn=0-7360-5909-1|page=76}}</ref> <ref name="moore">{{Cite book|last1=Moore|first1=K. L.|last2=Agur|first2=A. M.|title=Essential Clinical Anatomy|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2006|isbn=0-7817-6274-X|page=485}}</ref> <ref name="behnke2">{{Cite book|last=Behnke|first=Robert S.|title=Kinetic Anatomy|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2006|isbn=0-7360-5909-1|page=77}}</ref> <ref name="baratz">{{Cite book|last1=Baratz|first1=M.|last2=Watson|first2=A. D.|last3=Imbriglia|first3=J. E.|title=Orthopaedic Surgery: The Essentials|publisher=Thieme|year=1999|isbn=0-86577-779-9|page=391}}</ref> <ref name="platzer1">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|publisher=Thieme|isbn=3-13-533305-1|year=2004|edition=5th|page=122}}</ref> <ref name="platzer2">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|publisher=Thieme|isbn=3-13-533305-1|year=2004|edition=5th|page=130}}</ref> <ref name="lecturio">{{Cite web|url=https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/wrist-joint/|title=Wrist Joint|website=The Lecturio Medical Concept Library|access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> <ref name="platzer3">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|publisher=Thieme|isbn=3-13-533305-1|year=2004|edition=5th|pages=126–129}}</ref> <ref name="alkhater">{{Cite journal|last1=Al-Khater|first1=K. M.|display-authors=etal|title=Time of appearance of ossification centers in carpal bones|journal=Saudi Medical Journal|volume=41|issue=9|pages=938–946|year=2020|pmid=32893275}}</ref> <ref name="isenberg">{{Cite book|last1=Isenberg|first1=D. A.|last2=Maddison|first2=P.|last3=Woo|first3=P.|title=Oxford Textbook of Rheumatology|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-850948-0|page=87}}</ref> <ref name="rea">{{Cite book|last=Rea|first=P.|title=Essential Clinically Applied Anatomy of the Peripheral Nervous System in the Head and Neck|publisher=Academic Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-12-803633-4}}</ref> <ref name="saladin">{{Cite book|last=Saladin|first=K. S.|title=Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function|publisher=McGraw-Hill|edition=3rd|year=2003|pages=361, 365}}</ref> <ref name="platzer4">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|publisher=Thieme|isbn=3-13-533305-1|year=2004|edition=5th|page=132}}</ref> <ref name="kingston">{{Cite book|last=Kingston|first=B.|title=Understanding Joints: A Practical Guide to Their Structure and Function|publisher=Nelson Thornes|year=2000|isbn=0-7487-5399-0|pages=126–127}}</ref> <ref name="rea2">{{Cite book|last1=Lalani|first1=I.|last2=Argoff|first2=C. E.|title=Raj's Practical Management of Pain|edition=4th|publisher=Mosby|year=2008|isbn=978-0-323-04184-3}}</ref> <ref name="stretanski">{{Cite book|last=Stretanski|first=M. F.|title=Essentials of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation|edition=4th|publisher=Content Repository Only|year=2020|isbn=978-0-323-54947-9}}</ref> <ref name="waldman">{{Cite book|last=Waldman|first=S. D.|title=Atlas of Uncommon Pain Syndromes|edition=3rd|publisher=W.B. Saunders|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4557-0999-1}}</ref> <ref name="ye">{{Cite journal|last1=Ye|first1=Juncai|last2=Li|first2=Qiao|last3=Nie|first3=Jing|title=Prevalence, Characteristics, and Associated Risk Factors of Wrist Fractures in Americans Above 50: The Cross-Sectional NHANES Study|journal=Frontiers in Endocrinology|volume=13|year=2022|doi=10.3389/fendo.2022.800129|pmid=35547001}}</ref> <ref name="eatonhand">{{Cite web|title=Hand Etymology|url=http://www.eatonhand.com/clf/clf522.htm|publisher=American Society for Surgery of the Hand}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] dkmgs6a57m8o1lq9o2s5fvdwlt1u6y5 0 49757 122375 2026-09-25T08:42:47Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Creating previous draft article from my notes app 122375 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Alibaba Cloud''' (阿里云) ni kampani yakupanga makompyuta ya pa charu chose ndipo ni chigaŵa cha [[Alibaba Group]], ilo likuru lake lili ku Hangzhou. Alibaba Cloud yikupereka mndandanda wa ntchito za kompyuta za mtambo, kusazgapo kompyuta yakukhora, kusunga vinthu, ma database ghakukhwaskana, kusanda kwa data yikuru, na vinjeru vyakupangika mu vigaŵa 8 vya pa charu chose. Alibaba Cloud wakakhazikiskika mu Seputembala 2009, ndipo wakamba kugwira ntchito nga ni mtambo wa paŵekha kuti wateŵetere vyakukhumbikwa vya mukati vya malonda gha pa Intaneti gha Alibaba—Taobao, Tmall, na Alipay. ==Mbiri== ==Ukaboni== [[Category:Makampani gha ku China]] [[Category:Tekinoloje ya uthenga]] 1rnmqlrmuegaafpm6ooenjl0qwu7jpr 0 49758 122376 2026-09-25T08:42:49Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Creating previous draft article from my notes app 122376 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dawkins-Memes.jpg|thumb|upright|Richard Dawkins]] '''Meme '''ni fundo, nkharo, panji sitayelo iyo yikuthandazgika kufuma ku munthu kuya ku munyake mu chikhalidwe. Meme yikugwira ntchito nga ni chigaŵa icho chikunyamura maghanoghano gha chikhalidwe, vimanyikwiro, panji mikhaliro. Likufuma mu maghanoghano gha munthu munyake kuluta ku munyake kwizira mu vinthu nga ni kulemba, kuyowoya, kulongora mawoko, mitheto, na kutolerapo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhozgera fundo iyi ŵakuwona kuti ma meme ghakuyana waka na majini, ndipo ŵakuwona kuti ghakukopera, kusazgako, na kuzgora ku viyezgo vyakusankha. Lizgu ili ni lizgu ilo likapangika na [[Richard Dawkins]] mu 1976. Kuyana na fundo iyi, ma meme ni vinthu ivyo vikupangika na mavairasi ndipo vikusintha kwizira mu kusankha kwa chilengiwa, nga umo vikuŵira na kusintha kwa vyamoyo. Ma meme ghakusinthasintha, ghakusintha, ghakuchita mpikisano, ndipo ghakuhara—nthowa iyo yiliyose yikupangiska kuti meme yiŵe yakupambana. Ma meme ghakuthandazgika kwizira mu nkharo ya ŵanthu awo ŵakughanyamura. Ma meme agho ghakuchita makora yayi ghangafwa, apo ghanyake ghangapona, kuthandazgika, panji kusintha (kwali ni ghakovwira panji ghakunanga). Ma meme agho ghakukopera makora ghakukwaniska chomene, ndipo ghanyake ghakulutilira kuthandazgika makora nangauli ghangaŵa ghakupweteka awo ŵakuŵapokelera. ==Ukaboni== [[Category:Intaneti 8r717zqmw0riv2a3r6guyh5mza49xwz 122377 122376 2026-09-25T08:43:41Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Error 122377 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dawkins-Memes.jpg|thumb|upright|Richard Dawkins]] '''Meme '''ni fundo, nkharo, panji sitayelo iyo yikuthandazgika kufuma ku munthu kuya ku munyake mu chikhalidwe. Meme yikugwira ntchito nga ni chigaŵa icho chikunyamura maghanoghano gha chikhalidwe, vimanyikwiro, panji mikhaliro. Likufuma mu maghanoghano gha munthu munyake kuluta ku munyake kwizira mu vinthu nga ni kulemba, kuyowoya, kulongora mawoko, mitheto, na kutolerapo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhozgera fundo iyi ŵakuwona kuti ma meme ghakuyana waka na majini, ndipo ŵakuwona kuti ghakukopera, kusazgako, na kuzgora ku viyezgo vyakusankha. Lizgu ili ni lizgu ilo likapangika na [[Richard Dawkins]] mu 1976. Kuyana na fundo iyi, ma meme ni vinthu ivyo vikupangika na mavairasi ndipo vikusintha kwizira mu kusankha kwa chilengiwa, nga umo vikuŵira na kusintha kwa vyamoyo. Ma meme ghakusinthasintha, ghakusintha, ghakuchita mpikisano, ndipo ghakuhara—nthowa iyo yiliyose yikupangiska kuti meme yiŵe yakupambana. Ma meme ghakuthandazgika kwizira mu nkharo ya ŵanthu awo ŵakughanyamura. Ma meme agho ghakuchita makora yayi ghangafwa, apo ghanyake ghangapona, kuthandazgika, panji kusintha (kwali ni ghakovwira panji ghakunanga). Ma meme agho ghakukopera makora ghakukwaniska chomene, ndipo ghanyake ghakulutilira kuthandazgika makora nangauli ghangaŵa ghakupweteka awo ŵakuŵapokelera. ==Ukaboni== [[Category:Intaneti]] ofbjjgo0kxzezumtaosuswqlmqtv7vn 0 49759 122378 2026-09-25T09:20:41Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Databox}} {{PAGENAME}} ni kalata ya malembo gha ChiCyrillic.<ref>http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0400.pdf</ref> ==Makhodi gha pa kompyuta== {{charmap |04B6|name1=Cyrillic Capital Letter<br />Che with Descender |04B7|name2=Cyrillic Small Letter<br />Che with Descender }} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}}" 122378 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{PAGENAME}} ni kalata ya malembo gha ChiCyrillic.<ref>http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0400.pdf</ref> ==Makhodi gha pa kompyuta== {{charmap |04B6|name1=Cyrillic Capital Letter<br />Che with Descender |04B7|name2=Cyrillic Small Letter<br />Che with Descender }} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} dbebqzao3vjcp9183aantscedlsopae 122379 122378 2026-09-25T09:21:20Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 122379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni kalata ya malembo gha ChiCyrillic.<ref>http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0400.pdf</ref> ==Makhodi gha pa kompyuta== {{charmap |04B6|name1=Cyrillic Capital Letter<br />Che with Descender |04B7|name2=Cyrillic Small Letter<br />Che with Descender }} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} mmq3teku1pdnnff3d0lldbs6pe03kx3 122380 122379 2026-09-25T09:21:47Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 122380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni kalata ya malembo gha Cyrillic.<ref>http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0400.pdf</ref> ==Makhodi gha pa kompyuta== {{charmap |04B6|name1=Cyrillic Capital Letter<br />Che with Descender |04B7|name2=Cyrillic Small Letter<br />Che with Descender }} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Makalata gha Cyrillic]] n6bro1cmv6foa7mmb6mdmbiuag0agd8 0 49760 122381 2026-09-25T09:23:28Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni kalata ya malembo gha Cyrillic.<ref>https://drukarnia.com.ua/articles/litera-zh-ce-zobrazhennya-zhuka-CSysx</ref> ==Makhodi gha pa kompyuta== {{charmap |0416|name1=Cyrillic Capital Letter Zhe |0436|name2=Cyrillic Small Letter Zhe |map1=[[KOI8-R]] and [[KOI8-U]] |map1char1=F6 |map1char2=D6 |map2=Code page 855 |map2char1=EA |map2char2=E9 |map3=[[Code page 866]] |map3char1=86 |map3char2=A6 |map4=[[Windows-1251]] |map4char1=C6 |map4char2=E6..." 122381 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni kalata ya malembo gha Cyrillic.<ref>https://drukarnia.com.ua/articles/litera-zh-ce-zobrazhennya-zhuka-CSysx</ref> ==Makhodi gha pa kompyuta== {{charmap |0416|name1=Cyrillic Capital Letter Zhe |0436|name2=Cyrillic Small Letter Zhe |map1=[[KOI8-R]] and [[KOI8-U]] |map1char1=F6 |map1char2=D6 |map2=Code page 855 |map2char1=EA |map2char2=E9 |map3=[[Code page 866]] |map3char1=86 |map3char2=A6 |map4=[[Windows-1251]] |map4char1=C6 |map4char2=E6 |map5=[[ISO-8859-5]] |map5char1=B6 |map5char2=D6 |map6=[[Macintosh Cyrillic encoding|Macintosh Cyrillic]] |map6char1=86 |map6char2=E6 }} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Makalata gha Cyrillic]] b1dez4vos6rkx2ndil8x5rr6pbqfiy2 14 49761 122382 2026-09-25T09:25:16Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Commons cat|Cyrillic letters}} [[Category:Makalata na malembo]]" 122382 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Commons cat|Cyrillic letters}} [[Category:Makalata na malembo]] 3w0mvwfwn5hayghlqcirdxcd2uc0zos 0 49762 122383 2026-09-25T09:27:38Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni kalata ya malembo gha Cyrillic.<ref>https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2022/22262-cyrillic-caucasian-langs.pdf</ref> ==Makhodi gha pa kompyuta== {{charmap | name1 = Cyrillic Capital Letter Tse|0426 | name2 = Cyrillic Small Letter Tse|0446 | map1 = [[KOI8-R]] and [[KOI8-U]] | map1char1 = E3 | map1char2 = C3 | map2 = Code page 855 | map2char1 = A5 | map2char2 = A4 | map3..." 122383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni kalata ya malembo gha Cyrillic.<ref>https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2022/22262-cyrillic-caucasian-langs.pdf</ref> ==Makhodi gha pa kompyuta== {{charmap | name1 = Cyrillic Capital Letter Tse|0426 | name2 = Cyrillic Small Letter Tse|0446 | map1 = [[KOI8-R]] and [[KOI8-U]] | map1char1 = E3 | map1char2 = C3 | map2 = Code page 855 | map2char1 = A5 | map2char2 = A4 | map3 = [[Code page 866]] | map3char1 = 96 | map3char2 = E6 | map4 = [[Windows-1251]] | map4char1 = D6 | map4char2 = F6 | map5 = [[ISO-8859-5]] | map5char1 = C6 | map5char2 = E6 | map6 = [[Macintosh Cyrillic encoding|Macintosh Cyrillic]] | map6char1 = 96 | map6char2 = F6 }} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Makalata gha Cyrillic]] 3c79sfb2yq3u39u3zmozgnagwqlkhw1