Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.22 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 6926 122782 122575 2026-10-01T01:51:53Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122782 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in West Africa}} {{About|charu chamu Afilika|ntchito zinyake|Liberia (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates|date=March 2022}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Liberia | common_name = Liberia | image_flag = Flag of Liberia.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Liberia.svg | symbol_type = Coat of arms | image_map = Liberia (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green}} | image_map2 = | national_motto = "The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here" | national_anthem = "[[All Hail, Liberia, Hail!]]"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Liberia National Anthem.ogg]]}} | official_languages = [[Liberian English|English]] | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 20.3% [[Kpelle people|Kpelle]] | 13.4% [[Bassa people (Liberia)|Bassa]] | 10% [[Grebo people|Grebo]] | 8% [[Dan people|Dan]] | 7.9% [[Mano people|Mano]] | 6% [[Kru people|Kru]] | 5.1% [[Loma people|Lorma]] | 4.8% [[Kissi people|Kissi]] | 4.4% [[Gola people|Gola]] | 4% [[Krahn]] | 4% [[Vai people|Vai]] | 3.2% [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] | 3% [[Gbandi]] | 1.3% [[Mende people|Mende]] | 1.2% [[Sapo people|Sapo]] | 0.8% [[Belle people|Belle]] | 0.3% [[Dey people|Dey]] | 0.6% other Liberian | 1.4% other African | 0.1% non-African }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2008<ref name=CIA>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/liberia/ |title=Liberia |work=The Central Intelligence Agency side for Liberia |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |year=2021 |access-date=June 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319020318/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/liberia |archive-date=March 19, 2021}}</ref> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; | 86.2% [[Christianity in Liberia|Christianity]] | 11.7% [[Islam in Liberia|Islam]] | 1.4% [[Irreligion|No religion]] | 0.7% Other }} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/liberia#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016|title=Religions in Liberia &#124; PEW-GRF|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org}}</ref> | demonym = Liberian | capital = [[Monrovia]] | coordinates = {{Coord|6|19|N|10|48|W|type:city}} | largest_city = Monrovia | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic|constitutional republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Liberia|President]] | leader_name1 = [[George Weah]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Liberia|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Jewel Taylor]] | leader_title3 = [[List of speakers of the House of Representatives of Liberia|House Speaker]] | leader_name3 = [[Bhofal Chambers]] | leader_title4 = [[Chief Justice of Liberia|Chief Justice]] | leader_name4 = [[Sie-A-Nyene Yuoh]] | legislature = {{nowrap|[[Legislature of Liberia]]}} | upper_house = [[Senate of Liberia|Senate]] | lower_house = [[House of Representatives of Liberia|House of Representatives]] | area_rank = 102nd <!-- Area rank should match List of countries and dependencies by area --> | area_sq_mi = 43,000.<ref name=CIA/> | percent_water = 13.514 | population_estimate = 5,358,483<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Liberia|access-date=24 September 2022|year=2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 121st | population_density_sq_mi = 92.0 | population_density_rank = 180th | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$8.84 billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 167th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$1,667<ref name="imf2"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 184th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$3.90 billion<ref name="imf2"/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 171st | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase }}$735<ref name="imf2"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 180th | sovereignty_type = [[History of Liberia|Formation]] and [[Independence]] from [[American Colonization Society]]<!--Note: Liberia was never colonized or claimed by the United States government. It was founded by the ACS (American Colonization Society), a private organization. Please do not change this field to include "from the United States" without first discussing it on the talk page--> | established_event1 = [[American Colonization Society]] settlement | established_date1 = January 7, 1822 | established_event2 = [[Liberian Declaration of Independence|Independence declared]]<!--Note: As stated above, Liberia was never colonized or claimed by the United States government. It was founded by the ACS (American Colonization Society), a private organization. Please do not change this field to include "from the United States" without first discussing it on the talk page--> | established_date2 = July 26, 1847 | established_event3 = [[Republic of Maryland]] annexed | established_date3 = March 18, 1857 | established_event4 = Recognition by the United States | established_date4 = February 5, 1862 | established_event5 = [[United Nations]] membership | established_date5 = November 2, 1945 | established_event6 = [[Constitution of Liberia|Current constitution]] | established_date6 = January 6, 1986 | Gini_year = 2016 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = 35.3 <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = <ref name=gini-index>{{cite web|title=GINI index|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=LR&name_desc=false|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.481 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date= 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-9211264425|pages=343–346|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/hdr2020pdf.pdf|access-date=January 23, 2023}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 178th | currency = [[Liberian dollar]] (LRD) | currency_code = | utc_offset = {{sp}} | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | date_format = mm/dd/yyyy | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+231]] | cctld = [[.lr]] | official_website = {{URL|https://www.emansion.gov.lr/}} Executive mansion <!-- https://eliberia.gov.lr/ is insecure as of July 29, 2022, restore when site is safely available --> | today = }} '''Liberia''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Liberia.ogg|l|aɪ|ˈ|b|ɪ|ɹ|i|ə}}), mwalamulo '''''Ripabuliki ya Laibeliya''''', ni chalo icho chili mumphepete mwa Africa. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[Sierra Leone]] kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Guinea]] kumpoto, [[Ivory Coast]] kumafumiro gha dazi, na [[Atlantic Ocean]] kumwera na kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi. Chigaŵa ichi chili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 5 miliyoni ndipo chili na malo ghakukwana 111,369 km2. Nangauli chiyowoyero chikuru mu charu ichi ni [[ChiZungu|Chingelezi]], kweni ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakujumpha 20. Msumba ukuru wa charu ichi ni [[Monrovia]]. Liberia yikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo wupu wa [[American Colonization Society (ACS)]] ukagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵazamusanga wanangwa na vinthu vinandi mu Africa kuluska ku [[United States]].<ref name="AFP" />Pakati pa 1822 na 1861 apo Nkhondo ya ku America yikambanga, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Africa awo ŵakababika ŵanangwa ŵakakwana 15,000. Pachoko na pachoko, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kumanyikwa kuti mba ku [[America]] na Liberia. Pa Julayi 26, 1847, charu cha Liberia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha, ndipo boma la United States likamanya yayi kuti ni charu ichi m'paka pa Febuluwale 5, 1862.<ref>Cooper, Helene, ''The House at Sugar Beach: In Search of a Lost African Childhood'' (United States: Simon and Schuster, 2008), p. 6</ref><ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107718.html Liberia: History, Geography, Government, and Culture], Infoplease.com</ref> Liberia yikaŵa charu chakwambilira ku Africa kuŵa na wanangwa ndipo ndiyo yikaŵa charu chakwambilira na chakale chomene mu Africa. Pamoza na [[Ethiopia]], ni yimoza mwa vyaru viŵiri vya mu Africa ivyo vikalutilira kuŵa na mazaza pa caru ca Africa. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, charu cha Liberia chikakhozgera nkhondo ya ku United States na [[Germany]], ndipo chikapokera ndalama zinandi za ku America izo zikawovwira kuti charu ichi chiŵe na vinthu vinandi. Pulezidenti [[William Tubman]] wakawovwira kuti vinthu visinthe pa nkhani ya vyachuma na ndyali. Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Americo-Liberia]] awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakakolerananga yayi na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kru na [[Grebo]] ŵakamba kuwukira malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Americo-Liberia]] ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene ndipo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa ndyali. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakaŵavya wanangwa wakuŵa ŵenekaya m'paka mu 1904.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/liberiacountryst00nels|title=Liberia, a country study|first1=Harold D.|last1=Nelson|first2=D. C. ) Foreign Area Studies|last2=American University (Washington|date=January 24, 1984|publisher=Washington, D.C. : The Studies : For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O.|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref name="Constitutional History">{{cite news |title=Constitutional history of Liberia |url=http://constitutionnet.org/country/liberia |access-date=July 1, 2020 |website=Constitutionnet.org}}</ref> Mu 1980, apo boma la William R. Pa nyengo iyi, [[boma la Americo-Liberia]] likamalizga kulamulira charu ichi. Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya ku Liberia yikati yacitika, pakaŵa boma la ŵasilikari la [[People's Redemption Council]]. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu 250,000 ŵafwe (pafupifupi 8 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose) ndipo ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵakachimbira mu vikaya vyawo. Mu 2003, pakaŵa phangano la mtende ilo likawovwira kuti paŵe maungano gha demokilase mu 2005.<ref name="veconomist" >{{cite news|title=Praise for the woman who put Liberia back on its feet|url=https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21730015-ellen-johnson-sirleaf-has-not-been-perfect-president-she-has-been-good-enough-praise|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=October 5, 2017}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{main|Mbili ya Liberia}} === Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira === [[Michael Omolewa]] ndiyo wakasimikizgira kuti ku [[West Africa]] kukaŵa vinthu vya ku [[Oldowan]] ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakale ŵakaŵako.<ref name="Omolewa">{{cite book |last1=Michael |first1=Omolewa |date=1986 |title=Certificate history of Nigeria |url=https://www.africabib.org/s/rec.php?RID=406720584 |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0582585188 |access-date=July 26, 2020 |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414143441/https://www.africabib.org/s/rec.php?RID=406720584 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Vinthu vya ku Acheulean (ESA) ivyo vikulongora nyengo iyo vikaŵirako vili kulembeka makora mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba pa nyengo ya Middle Stone Age (MSA) vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyamabuchi mu nyengo ya Chibanian (~780-126 000 years ago) mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa Sahelian. Ivi vikupangiska kuti ŵaŵe ŵacinyamata comene mu Africa. Kweni pali mphambano yikuru pa nkhani ya umo vyakumera vya mu nkhorongo vikuŵira. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya malibwe ŵakalongora kuti vinthu vikasintha chomene pa nkhani ya tekinoloje.<ref name="Scerri">{{cite journal |last1=Eleanor |first1=Scerri |date=1986 |title=T Certificate history of Nigeria |url=https://www.africabib.org/s/rec.php?RID=406720584 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137 |access-date=July 26, 2020 |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414143441/https://www.africabib.org/s/rec.php?RID=406720584 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ivyo vili kulembeka vikulongora kuti vinthu vya ku West Africa ivyo vikapangika mu nyengo ya Stone Age (LSA) vikukolerana, ndipo vikulongora kuti mafakitale ghakupambanapambana ghakupanga vinthu ivi kufuma mumphepete mwa nyanja m'paka kumpoto. Vinthu ivi vingaŵa vyakukolerana na umo vinthu viliri pa charu panji umo ŵanthu ŵakutemwera kusangwa na vinthu vinyake. Mu nyengo ya pakati pa nyengo ya Holocene, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupangira vyakurya. Pakati pa vyaka pafupifupi 4.5 na 3.5 C.E., ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kupanga vyakurya, panyake chifukwa cha kukumana na ŵaliska na ŵalimi ŵa kumpoto. Ndipouli, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa ŵakalutilira kukhala mu nkhorongo m'paka nyengo yikati yajumphapo.<ref name="Scerri" />[[File:Negroland and Guinea with the European Settlements, 1736.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|A European map of West Africa and the [[Grain Coast]], 1736. It has the archaic mapping designation of [[Negroland]].]] === Kukura kwa mtundu wa '''ŵanthu ŵa''' Mande === Mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakakhalanga m'ma 1200. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero ca Mande ŵakamba kufumako kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi, ndipo mitundu yinandi yichoko yikachimbilira kumwera ku nyanja ya Atlantic. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Dei, Bassa, Kru, Gola, na Kissi ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwambilira kulembeka mu malo agha.<ref name=introprof>{{cite journal |last1=Dunn-Marcos |first1=Robin |last2=Kollehlon |first2=Konia T. |last3=Ngovo |first3=Bernard |last4=Russ |first4=Emily |editor-last=Ranar |editor-first=Donald A. |date=April 2005 |title=Liberians: An Introduction to their History and Culture |journal=Culture Profile |issue=19 |publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics |access-date=July 23, 2011|url=http://www.cal.org/co/liberians/liberian_050406_1.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625062344/http://www.cal.org/co/liberians/liberian_050406_1.pdf|archive-date=June 25, 2008|pages=5–6}}</ref> Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhwaskika chomene na kuchepa kwa Ufumu wa Mali mu 1375 na Ufumu wa Songhai mu 1591. Apo vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu vikazgoka mapopa, ŵanthu ŵakasamukira ku vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. <ref name="introprof" />Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakiza na maluso ghanyake nga nkhunjilira katoni, kupanga salu, kusungunura visulo, kulima mpunga na sorghum, kweniso vinthu vinyake vya ndyali ivyo vikafuma ku maufumu gha Mali na Songhai. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mane ŵakapoka chigaŵa ichi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Vai awo ŵakaŵa mu ufumu wakale wa Mali ŵakasamukira mu chigaŵa cha Grand Cape Mount County. Ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Kru ŵakasuskanga ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Vai, ndipo ŵakachita phangano na ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Mane kuti ŵaleke kwizaso.<ref name="introprof" /> Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ŵakazenganga maboti ndipo ŵakaguliskanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku West Africa kufuma ku Cape Verde m'paka ku Gold Coast. === Chikoloni chakuchelezga chakwamba === Kwambira mu 1461 m'paka kuumaliro wa m'ma 1600, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Portugal, Netherlands, na Britain ŵakendanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵamalonda ŵakaguliskanga vinthu na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Ku United States, pakaŵa gulu ilo likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakababika ŵanangwa na awo kale ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵakhalenge mu Africa. Ŵakaŵasuskanga chifukwa cha mtundu wawo, ŵakaŵakananga wanangwa wawo wa ndyali, kweniso ŵakaŵakananga wanangwa wa kusopa. Wupu wa American Colonization Society (ACS), uwo ukaŵako mu 1816, ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵa Quaker kweniso awo ŵakaŵa na ŵazga. ŴaQuaker ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵangaŵa na mwaŵi ukuru wa kufwatuka mu Africa kuluska mu U.S.<ref name=AFP>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070214051143/http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75 "Background on conflict in Liberia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214051143/http://www.fcnl.org/issues/item.php?item_id=731&issue_id=75 |date=February 14, 2007 }}, Friends Committee on National Legislation, July 30, 2003</ref><ref name="Sale">Maggie Montesinos Sale (1997). ''The Slumbering Volcano: American Slave Ship Revolts and the Production of Rebellious Masculinity'', Duke University Press, 1997, p. 264. {{ISBN|0822319926}}</ref> Nangauli awo ŵakaŵa na ŵazga ŵakasuskanga ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga, kweni ŵanyake ŵakawonanga kuti para ŵazga ŵaŵafumiska mu charu chawo, mbwenu ŵazga ŵaleke kugaluka. Mu 1822, wupu wa American Colonization Society ukamba kutuma ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ku Pepper Coast kuti ŵakakhazikiske malo agha. Pa ŵanthu 4,571 awo ŵakiza ku Liberia pakati pa 1820 na 1843, 1,819 pera ndiwo ŵakapona. Kuzakafika mu 1867, wupu wa ACS (na wupu unyake) ukawovwira ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku United States na ku Caribbean kuti ŵalute ku Liberia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa ŵanangwa aŵa na ŵana ŵawo ŵakatorana mu cikaya cawo ndipo ŵakacemekanga kuti Americo-Liberians. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ndipo ŵakasambira ku America. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa na mitheto iyo yikakolerananga na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku America ŵakagomezganga pa nkhani ya ndyali na Chikhristu.<ref>{{cite thesis|last = Wegmann|first = Andrew N. |date = May 5, 2010|title = Christian Community and the Development of an Americo-Liberian Identity, 1824–1878 |type=MA thesis |publisher = Louisiana State University |url = https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_theses/525/ |doi=10.31390/gradschool_theses.525 |df = mdy-all}}</ref>[[File:Mitchell Map Liberia colony 1839.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Mapu gha Liberia Colony mu ma 1830, agho ghakalembeka na ACS, kweniso ghakulongora Mississippi Colony na ma colony ghanyake agho ghakaŵa na boma.]] Wupu wa ACS, uwo ukawovwirika na ŵandyali ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku America nga ni Abraham Lincoln, Henry Clay, na James Monroe, ukagomezganga kuti "kuwelera kwawo" nkhuwemi kuluska kuti ŵazga ŵakhale mu United States. Wupu wakuyana waka uwo ukaŵa na boma ukambiska vyaru vinyake ku Mississippi mu Africa, Kentucky mu Africa, na Republic of Maryland, ivyo pamanyuma Liberia yikavitora. Ndipouli, mu 1862 Lincoln wakati Liberia "nkhukondwa waka", ndipo wakapeleka ulongozgi wakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵalute ku Chiriquí, ku Panama. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Americo-Liberia awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakakolerananga yayi na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, chomenechomene awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo ghakutali. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kru na Grebo ndiwo ŵakawukira malo agha. Kanandi para munthu wasangana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa mu thengere, wakacitanga nkhaza. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Americo-Liberia ŵakagomezganga kuti mbakupambana na ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi, kweniso kuti ŵali na maluso ghanandi kuluska ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi. Pakukhumba kuyezga charu cha South America, ŵanthu ŵa ku Americo-Liberia ŵakamba kuvwara malaya nga ni masiketi na malaya gha ku msana. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakaŵavya wanangwa wa kuŵa ŵenekaya ŵa charu chawo m'paka mu 1904. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Americo-Liberia ŵakaciska mawupu gha cisopa kuti ghaŵike maofesi na masukulu kuti ghaŵasambizge ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici.<ref name="Smithsonian">{{cite journal|last1=MacDougall|first1=Clair|title=These Abandoned Buildings Are the Last Remnants of Liberia's Founding History|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/liberia-created-former-slaves-fading-into-history-180959503/|journal=[[Smithsonian Magazine]]|date=July–August 2016|access-date=June 23, 2021}}</ref> === Gulu la ndale === [[File:T. WILLIAMS (c1850) Residence of Joseph Roberts, President of the Republic of Liberia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Malo ghakukhalamo Joseph Jenkins Roberts, pulezidenti wakwamba wa Liberia, pakati pa 1848 na 1852.]] Pa Julayi 26, 1847, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalemba chikalata chakujiyimira paŵekha ndipo ŵakalemba dango la boma. Likakhazikiska charu chakujiyimira paŵekha cha Liberia. Pa Ogasiti 24, charu cha Liberia chikapeleka ndembera yake ya vigaŵa 11. Boma la United Kingdom ndilo likaŵa lakwamba kuzomerezga kuti Liberia njambura mazaza. Boma la United States likamanya yayi kuti Liberia ni charu cha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana m'paka mu 1862.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Revolutionary Summer of 1862 |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2017/winter/summer-of-1862 |website=National Archives |access-date=September 20, 2020 |language=en |date=April 20, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Frontline/World – Liberia – No More War – Liberia's Historic Ties to America PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/liberia/history.html |website=www.pbs.org |access-date=September 20, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Independent Lens – Iron Ladies of Liberia – Liberian History PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/ironladies/history.html |website=www.pbs.org |access-date=September 20, 2020 |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414114425/https://www.pbs.org/independentlens/ironladies/history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Americo-Liberia ndiwo ŵakalongozganga charu chiphya ichi. Pakwamba, ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nkhani za ndyali na vyachuma mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mu 1865, ŵakalemba dango lakuti ŵaleke kwenda na ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake.<ref name="volume"> {{cite book |last1=Johnston |first1=Harry Hamilton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XTYbAAAAYAAJ |title=Liberia, Volume I |last2=Stapf |first2=Otto |publisher=Hutchinson & Co |year=1906 |isbn=1143315057}}</ref> <!--How? --> [[File:(1896) Departure of colored emigrants for Liberia - The Illustrated American, March 21, 1896.jpg|thumb|left|Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakaluta ku Liberia, 1896. Mu 1904, gulu la ACS likatuma ŵanthu ŵaumaliro ku Liberia.]] Kuzakafika mu 1877, True Whig Party yikaŵa chipani champhamvu comene mu caru ici. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Americo-Liberia, ndipo ŵakalutilira kuŵa na mazaza pa vinthu vya ndyali, vyachuma, na vya ndyali m'paka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakasankhiranga maudindo mu chipani, ndipo para munthu wasankhika na chipani, vinthu vikendanga makora. Boma la United Kingdom, ilo likaŵa na mazaza pa Sierra Leone kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi, na la France, na ivyo likakhumbanga kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi, vikachitiska kuti charu cha Liberia chileke kuŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa vinandi. Sierra Leone na Ivory Coast, vyaru ivyo vikaŵa ku chigaŵa ichi vikaŵa vyawo. Ku Liberia kukaŵa kwakusuzga kukopa ŵanthu kuti ŵagwiliskirenge nchito vinthu vyawo vyapasi na kuŵa na cuma cikuru. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinthu vikamba kunangika ku Liberia, ndipo boma likaŵa na masuzgo gha ndalama. Pa Julayi 16, 1892, Martha Ann Erskine Ricks wakakumana na Fumukazi Victoria ku Windsor Castle ndipo wakayipa bulangete lakupangika na mawoko. Ricks wakati: "Nkhapulika kanandi waka kufuma apo nkhaŵa mwana kuti Fumukazi yikaŵa yiwemi comene ku ŵanthu ŵakwithu.<ref name="Ricks">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-40500884 "How a former slave gave a quilt to Queen Victoria"]. BBC. July 11, 2017</ref> === Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1900 === [[File:LiberiaKing.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Charles D. B. Kuŵa na umoyo uwemi. Themba, pulezidenti wa 17 wa Liberia (1920-1930), pamoza na ŵanthu ŵake pa makwelero gha Nyumba ya Mtende, ku The Hague (Netherlands), 1927.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku America na vyaru vinyake ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵasange vinthu vyakukhumbikwa pa charu chose. Mu 1914, caru ca Germany cikaguliskanga vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vinayi vya malonda gha ku Liberia. Ici cikapangiska kuti boma la Britain ku Sierra Leone na la France ku French Guinea na Ivory Coast ŵambe kwenjerwa cifukwa cakuti vinthu vikalutilira kuhenipa ku Germany.<ref name="Tucker">{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer |title=World War I: Encyclopedia |date=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1851094202 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PA689 |access-date=August 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028225958/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2YqjfHLyyj8C&pg=PA689 |archive-date=October 28, 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==== Nkhondo za caru cose na nyengo ya pakati pa nkhondo ==== {{main|Liberia in World War I}}{{see also|Liberia in World War II}} Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, caru ca Liberia cikaŵa cambura kunjilirapo pa ndyali mpaka pa Ogasiti 4, 1917, apo cikapharazga nkhondo ku Germany. Pamanyuma, Liberia yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru 32 ivyo vikachitako ungano wa Versailles Peace Conference mu 1919, uwo ukamazga nkhondo na kukhazikiska League of Nations.<ref name=":1" /> Mu 1927, pa mavoti gha mu caru ici pakawonekaso kuti True Whig Party yikaŵa na mazaza, ndipo mavoti agha ghakaŵa ghakupambana comene na ghanyake.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Akwei |first=Ismail |date=2017-10-08 |title=Elections history in Africa's oldest democratic republic: Liberia |url=https://www.africanews.com/2017/10/08/elections-history-in-africa-s-oldest-democratic-republic-liberia |access-date=2023-03-22 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref> (Uyo wakatondeka wakapokera mavoti pafupifupi 60 peresenti.)<ref name=":1" /> Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuyowoya kuti ku Liberia kuli wuzga wa mazuŵa ghano. Ŵakasanga kuti maboma ghakugwirako ntchito zachiwawa. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakagwiliskirika ntchito mu charu ichi. Pa cifukwa ca lipoti ili, Pulezidenti Charles D. B. Kuŵa na umoyo uwemi. Themba na Wupu Wakulongozga Allen N. Yancy wakaleka nchito.<ref name=":1" /> Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, charu cha Liberia chikamba kusinthasintha na wovwiri wa ku America. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, boma la United States likanozga vinthu vinandi kuti likhozge nkhondo ya ku Africa na Europe. Wakapanga Freeport of Monrovia na Roberts International Airport mu ndondomeko ya Lend-Lease pambere wandanjire Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose. Nkhondo yikati yamara, pulezidenti William Tubman wakachiska ŵanthu kuti ŵasange ndalama mu vyaru vinyake, ndipo mu ma 1950, Liberia yikaŵa na chuma chakujumpha vyaru vinyake vyose pa charu. Mu vyaru vinyake, wupu uwu ukaŵa yumoza wa awo ŵakambiska wupu wa United Nations, ndipo ukasuskanga chomene muwuso wa apartheid wa ku South Africa. Liberia nayo wakawovwirapo pakupeleka ndalama ku wupu wa African Unity Organization.<ref> {{cite journal|last1 = Adogamh|first1 = Paul G.|date = July 2008|title = Pan-Africanism Revisited: Vision and Reality of African Unity and Development|journal = African Review of Integration|volume = 2|issue = 2|url = http://www.africa-union.org/root/ua/Newsletter/EA/Vol2%20No2/Adogamhe.pdf|access-date = July 20, 2011|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110925055350/http://www.africa-union.org/root/ua/Newsletter/EA/Vol2%20No2/Adogamhe.pdf|archive-date = September 25, 2011|df = mdy-all}}</ref>[[File:Technical Liberia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Wakaŵa mulembi wa munthavi mu msumba wa Monrovia mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru cose ya ku Liberia.]] === Kusintha kwa ndyali m'ma 1900 === Pa Epulero 12, 1980, ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mubali Samuel Doe ŵakathereska pulezidenti William R. Tolbert Jr. Pamanyuma pake, Doe na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakolerana nayo ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu nduna ya Tolbert na ŵantchito ŵanyake ŵa boma la Americo-Liberia kweniso ŵa True Whig Party.<ref name=global> {{cite web |author=Anjali Mitter Duva|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/liberia/essays/uspolicy/ |title=Liberia and the United States: A Complex Relationship|publisher=PBS |year=2002 |access-date=July 20, 2011}}</ref> Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵakambiska wupu wakuchemeka People's Redemption Council (PRC) kuti uwuse caru. Wupu uwu ukaŵa wakukolerana na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakuzizima. Ku Liberia kukaŵa dango liphya mu 1985, ndipo pamanyuma pake, Doe wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti. Pa Novembala 12, 1985, Thomas Quiwonkpa wakawuskapo boma, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakanjira mu siteshoni ya wayilesi.<ref name=notes> {{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1050633,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100915040235/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1050633,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 15, 2010|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Liberia Comrades Turned Enemies|magazine=Time|date=November 25, 1985 |access-date=July 22, 2011}}</ref> Boma likalutilira kukaka ŵanthu, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Doe ŵakaŵakoma ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Gio na Mano mu chigaŵa cha Nimba. Gulu lakugaluka la National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), ilo likulongozgeka na Charles Taylor, likambiska chigaluka mu Disembala 1989 kwimikana na boma la Doe na wovwiri wa vyaru vyapafupi nga ni Burkina Faso na Ivory Coast. Ivi ndivyo vikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo yakwamba ya ku Liberia. Kuzakafika mu Seputembala 1990, ŵasilikari ŵa Doe ŵakaŵa na malo ghacoko waka kuwaro kwa msumba ukuru, ndipo mu mwezi wenewura ŵakamukora na kumukoma. Mwaluŵiro ŵakugaluka aŵa ŵakagaŵikana mu magulu ghakupambanapambana. Wupu wa Economic Community Monitoring Group wa Economic Community of West African States, ukanozga gulu la ŵasilikari kuti liŵawovwire pa suzgo ili. Kufuma mu 1989 mpaka mu 1997, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 60,000 m'paka 80,000 ŵa ku Liberia ŵakafwa, ndipo mu 1996, ŵanthu ŵanyake pafupifupi 700,000 ŵakachimbizgika mu misasa ya ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo mu vyaru vyapafupi. Mu 1995, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ŵakakolerana kuti paŵe mtende. Mu muwuso wa Taylor, Liberia yikamanyikwa pa caru cose nga ni boma lakuyuyulika cifukwa ca kugwiliskira nchito malibwe gha ndopa na makuni ghambura kuzomerezgeka kuti yivikilire gulu la Revolutionary United Front mu Nkhondo ya ku Sierra Leone. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Liberia yikamba mu 1999 apo gulu la ŵakugaluka lakucemeka Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy, ilo lili kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici, likambiska kuwukira Taylor.<ref name=cbc> {{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/liberia/ |title=Indepth: Liberia, Land of the free |newspaper=CBC News |date=July 23, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908174543/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/liberia/ |archive-date=September 8, 2013 }}</ref> ===Vyaka vyamuma 2000=== Mu Malichi 2003, gulu laciŵiri la ŵakugaluka, la Movement for Democracy in Liberia, likamba kuwukira Taylor kufuma kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu Juni wa chaka chenechicho, ku Accra kukamba kudumbiskana vya mtende pakati pa magulu agha, ndipo mu mwezi wenewuwu, khoti lapadera la Sierra Leone likamupa mulandu Taylor chifukwa cha kuswa malango gha boma.<ref name="warrant"> {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2961390.stm|title=Arrest warrant for Liberian leader|work=BBC News|date=June 4, 2003|access-date=July 20, 2011}}</ref> Mu Julayi 2003, ŵakugaluka ŵakamba kuwukira msumba wa Monrovia. Mu boma la Malawi, boma la Malawi likapeleka ndalama zinandi chomene ku boma la Malawi. Paumaliro wa mwezi wenewura, ŵakacita phangano la mtende. Wupu wa United Nations ku Liberia ukamba kwiza mu Seputembala 2003 kuti uŵape civikiliro na kulaŵilira umoza wa mtende..<ref> {{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/oct/14/westafrica |title=Bryant takes power in Liberia |newspaper=The Guardian |date=October 14, 2003 |access-date=July 23, 2011}}</ref>Pa caru cose, ŵanthu ŵakawona kuti maungano agho ghakacitika mu 2005, ndigho ghakaŵa ghakufwatuka comene na ghakugomezgeka comene mu mbiri ya Liberia. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, nkhwantha ya vyachuma iyo wakasambira ku America, uyo wakaŵa nduna ya vya ndalama ndipo pamasinda wakapokera chawanangwa cha Nobel cha mtende, wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wakwamba mwanakazi mu Africa. Pakunjira pa udindo wake, Sirleaf wakapempha kuti Taylor wafumiskike ku Nigeria na kumutumizga ku SCSL kuti wakeruzgike ku The Hague. Mu 2006, boma likakhazikiska komiti yakuwona vya unenesko na kuwezgerapo mphindano kuti yiwonenge ivyo vikambiska nkhondo iyi. Mu 2011, pulezidenti Ellen Johnson Sirleaf wakapharazga kuti pa Julayi 26 paŵenge Zuŵa la Wanangwa wa Charu. Mu Okutobala 2011, Leymah Gbowee, uyo wakaŵa wakulimbikira mtende, wakapokera chawanangwa cha Nobel cha mtende chifukwa cha mulimo wake wa kulongozga gulu la ŵanakazi awo ŵakakhumbanga mtende. Mu Novembala 2011, pulezidenti Ellen Johnson Sirleaf wakasankhikaso kuti wazakalamulire vyaka 6. Pamanyuma pa chisankho cha 2017 ku Liberia, George Weah, uyo wakachitanga maseŵero gha mpira, yumoza wa woseŵero ŵakumanyikwa chomene ŵa ku Africa, wakapika mazaza pa 22 Janyuwale 2018. Pa nyengo iyi, charu cha Liberia chikaŵa na demokilase mu vyaka 74. Weah wakayowoya kuti kulimbana na vimbundi, kunozga chuma, kulimbana na kuleka kusambira na kulemba, na kusintha umoyo wa ŵanthu ni vilato vikuru vya muwuso wake.<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news|title=George Weah sworn in as Liberia's president|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42773165|agency=BBC|date=March 22, 2018}}</ref>{{clearleft}} ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{main|Geography of Liberia}} [[File:Topographic map of Liberia-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of Liberia]] Charu cha Liberia chili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Charu ichi chili pakati pa latitude 4° na 9°N, na longitude 7° na 12°W. Malo agha ghali na mapiri ghatali chomene, ndipo kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kuli vyakumera vya mangrove.<ref name="eowg">{{cite book |last=Bateman |first=Graham |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |author2=Victoria Egan |author3=Fiona Gold |author4=Philip Gardner |publisher=Barnes & Noble Books |year=2000 |isbn=1566192919 |location=New York |page=161}}</ref> Makuni ghakututuka ghakutandazga mapiri, ndipo vyakumera vikuru vikupambana na vyakumera vinyake.<ref name="eowg"/> Mu charu cha Liberia, maji ghakwenda kufuma kumwera m'paka kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ku Cape Mount, kufupi na mphaka na Sierra Leone, ndiko kukulokwa vula zinandi chomene.<ref name="eowg" /> Malire gha kumpoto kwa charu cha Liberia ghali na Mlonga wa Mano, ndipo kumwera kwa charu ichi kuli Mlonga wa Cavalla. Mlonga ukuru comene wa ku Liberia ni St. Paulosi wakufuma pafupi na msumba wa Monrovia, mu mlonga wa St. John pa Buchanan, na Mlonga wa Cestos, wose awo ŵakuthira mu nyanja ya Atlantic. Mlonga utali comene mu caru ici ni Cavalla, uwo uli na mtunda wa makilomita 510.<ref name="eowg" /> Malo ghapacanya comene mu Liberia ni Phiri la Wuteve ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 1,440 kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Liberia. Kweni Phiri la Nimba ilo lili pafupi na Yekepa, lili pachanya pa mamita 1,440 kweni lili mu charu cha Liberia yayi. Phiri ili lili pafupi na charu cha Guinea na Ivory Coast.<ref>Financial Time's World Desk Reference (2004) Dorling Kindersley Publishing, p. 368.</ref> === Climate === {{See also|Climate change in Liberia}} [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map LBR present.svg|thumb|Liberia map of Köppen climate classification.]] Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, kuli chithukivu chaka chose, ndipo kukulokwa chomene kufuma mu Meyi m'paka Okutobala. Mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, kwamba Novembala m'paka Malichi, mphepo za kuuma na za fuvu izo zikufuma ku vyakumera vyakuchemeka harmattan, zikuwuska masuzgo ghanandi ku ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu malo agha.<ref name="eowg"/> Kusintha kwa nyengo ku Liberia kukupangiska masuzgo ghanandi chifukwa charu ichi chikusuzgika na kusintha kwa nyengo. Nga ni vyaru vinyake vinandi mu Africa, Liberia nayo wali na masuzgo ghakukhwaskana na cilengiwa kweniso masuzgo ghanyake. Chifukwa chakuti chili ku Africa, chikuŵa pangozi chifukwa cha vinthu vyakofya ivyo vikuchitika pa nyengo iyi. Ŵanthu ŵakukhazga kuti kusintha kwa nyengo kuzamukhwaska chomene chuma cha Liberia, chomenechomene ulimi, somba, na makuni. Dziko la Liberia lakhala likugwira ntchito mwakhama pa kusintha kwa ndondomeko za pa caru cose na za pa malo.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Blackmore|first=R.D.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1084383140|title=Lorna Doone|publisher=Ryerson Press|isbn=0665265034|oclc=1084383140}}</ref> ===Biodiversity and conservation=== {{Main|Wildlife of Liberia}} {{Further|Environmental issues in Liberia}} [[File:Liberia tropical forest.jpg|thumb|A Liberian tropical forest]] Nkhorongo za mumphepete mwa nyanja zikuzura na makuni gha mangrove agho ghakumera mchere. Nyengo yake ni ya ku equator, ndipo mu mwezi wa Meyi na Okutobala kukulokwa vula zinandi. Charu cha Liberia chili na nkhorongo pafupifupi 40 peresenti ya nkhorongo ya ku Upper Guinea. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, msumba uwu ndiwo ukapanganga mphira. Ku Liberia kuli vyaru vinayi: Nkhorongo ya ku Guinea, nkhorongo ya ku Western Guinea, nkhorongo ya ku Guinea, na mangrove. Charu ichi chili na chiŵelengero cha 4.79/10, ndipo chili pa malo 116 pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[File:U.S.DOC(1965) Liberia. Money Trees.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Loggers and logging truck, early 1960s]] Ku Liberia kuli vyamoyo vinandi chomene pa charu chose.<ref name="mmg">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29321143|title=Liberia in 'trees for cash' deal|first=Matt|last=McGrath|work=BBC News|date=September 23, 2014}}</ref> [[File:Choeropsis.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Nkhumba zigwiti gwiti mphepete mwa nyanja vya mtundu wa Pygmy ni vinyake mwa vyamoyo ivyo vikuphyoka ku Liberia. Wupu wa World Conservation Union ukuti mu caru muli viyuni vyambura kukwana 3,000 vya tuyuni utu.<ref name="Redlist">{{cite iucn |author=Ransom, C. |author2=Robinson, P.T. |author3=Collen, B. |date=2015 |title=''Choeropsis liberiensis'' |volume=2015 |page=e.T10032A18567171 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T10032A18567171.en |access-date=November 11, 2021}} Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of endangered.</ref>]] Vinyama ivyo vili pa ngozi ya kutayika vikuŵawukwa kuti ŵanthu ŵarye. Vinyama vinyake ivyo vikupenja cakurya ku Liberia ni njovu, mphoyo, mphoyo, na vinyama vinyake. Kanandi nyama za ku nkhorongo zikuguliskika ku vyaru vya Sierra Leone na Ivory Coast, nangauli boma likukanizga kuguliska nyama za ku nkhorongo. Mu Liberia ŵanthu ŵakurya chomene nyama za mu nkhorongo. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2004, wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Monrovia ŵakutemwa chomene nyama. Mu nyumba izo ŵakalyeranga nyama za mu thengere, ŵanthu 80 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakuphika nyama za mu thengere "kanyengo kanyake". Kafukufuku uyu wakacitika mu nyengo ya nkhondo yaciŵiri ya caru cose, ndipo sono ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵakurya comene nyama za mu nkhorongo.<ref name="Wynfred Russell">Wynfred Russell, [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191753/http://www.frontpageafricaonline.com/index.php/op-ed/commentaries-features/380-extinction-is-forever-a-crisis-that-is-liberia-s-endangered-wildlife "Extinction is forever: A crisis that is Liberia's endangered wildlife"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191753/http://www.frontpageafricaonline.com/index.php/op-ed/commentaries-features/380-extinction-is-forever-a-crisis-that-is-liberia-s-endangered-wildlife|date=March 3, 2016}}, [[Front Page Africa]], January 15, 2014.</ref> Nyama iyi yikusangika mu viŵeto vinyake, nga ni viŵeto vyamunyumba na vyamuthondo. Ici cikupangiska nthenda ya nagana. Ku viŵeto vya ng'ombe kuno na ku Ivory Coast, ivyo vikusazgapo Tbg gulu 1. Tbg na Glossina palpalis gambiense ni vyakumera ivyo vikusangika nyengo zose mu nkhorongo za kuno. Mu ma 1970, Mehlitz na Gibson ŵakachita kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na Tbg. Ntcheŵe yakucemeka paria nayo yikutolera TBG. Pa malo agha pakusangika kanandi waka mberere za mu mapopa. Mu chigaŵa ichi, ciŵiya cinyake ico cikucemeka Nycteris hispida cikulwara maleriya. Vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita ni kulima na kotcha makuni gha ku Liberia. Lipoti linyake la wupu wa UN ilo likalembeka mu 2004, likati ŵanthu 99% ku Liberia ŵakotcha makara na nkhuni kuti ŵaphikire na kotcha, ndipo ichi chikupangiska kuti makuni ghamare. Kufuma waka apo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Caru yaŵirako mu 2003, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Liberia ŵakukoma makuni kwambura kuzomerezgeka. Mu 2012, Pulezidenti Sirleaf wakazomerezga makampani kudumura makuni 58 pa 100 gha mu Liberia. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵakamba kususka, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaŵaleka yayi. Mu Seputembala 2014, Liberia na Norway ŵakakolerana kuti ŵaleke kudumura makuni ghose mu charu ichi. Ku Monrovia, suzgo likuru ndakuti ŵanthu ŵakunanga vinthu. Kwambira mu 2006, wupu wa vyachuma wa pa caru cose ukupeleka ndalama zakwendeskera kusonkha na kumazga viswaswa vyose mu msumba wa Monrovia kwizira mu Banki ya Caru Cose.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/IDA/0,,contentMDK:22301640~menuPK:4754051~pagePK:51236175~piPK:437394~theSitePK:73154,00.html|title=IDA – Liberia: Digging Out Monrovia from the Waste of War|website=web.worldbank.org}}</ref> === Kugawikana kwa boma === {{main|Administrative divisions of Liberia}} {{Counties of Liberia Image Map}} [[File:Bomi lake.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Kuwona nyanja mu chigaŵa cha Bomi]] Charu cha Liberia chili na vigaŵa 15, ndipo vigaŵa ivi navyo vili na vigaŵa 90. Vigaŵa vyakale chomene ni Grand Bassa na Montserrado, ivyo vyose vikapangika mu 1839 pambere Liberia yindaŵe na wanangwa. Gbarpolu ni chigaŵa chiphya chomene, icho chikapangika mu 2001.<ref name="census2008" /> Nimba ndiyo yikuru chomene pa vigaŵa vyose ivi pa ukuru wake 11,551 km2 (4,460 sq mi), apo Montserrado ndiyo njichoko chomene pa vigaŵa vyose ivi pa ukuru wake 737,069 sq mi (1,909.00 km2).<ref name="census2008"/> Montserrado ni chigaŵa icho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene, ndipo chikaŵa na ŵanthu 1,144,806. Vigaŵa vyose 15 vikulongozgeka na ŵalongozgi awo ŵakusoleka na pulezidenti. Ndondomeko ya boma yikukhumba kuti ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa na ŵa vigaŵa ŵasankhike, kweni maungano agha ghaleka kuchitika kwambira mu 1985 cifukwa ca nkhondo na suzgo la ndalama.<ref name=polls>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7187906.stm |title=Liberia cannot afford local polls |newspaper=BBC News |date=January 14, 2008}}</ref> Kuyana na vigaŵa vya boma, mu charu ichi muli vigaŵa vya mizi na matawuni. Pasono mu Liberia mulije dango la malango panji malango ghakwendera fundo za boma. Maboma ghose agho ghalipo sono nga ni misumba, matawuni, na maboma gha vigaŵa, ghakaŵako cifukwa ca malango gha boma la Liberia. {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Map no. ! boma ! Msmba ukulu ! Population<br />(2008 Census)<ref name="census2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/census_2008provisionalresults.pdf|title=2008 National Population and Housing Census: Preliminary Results|year=2008|publisher=Government of the Republic of Liberia|access-date=October 14, 2008|archive-date=February 13, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213110308/http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/census_2008provisionalresults.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ! Malo<br />(mi²)<ref name="census2008"/> ! ! Year<br />created |- |align="center"| 1 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Bomi County.svg}} [[Bomi County|Bomi]] |align="center"|[[Tubmanburg]] |align="center"|82,036 |align="center"|{{convert|749|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|4 |align="center"|1984 |- |align="center"| 2 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Bong County.svg}} [[Bong County|Bong]] |align="center"|[[Gbarnga]] |align="center"|328,919 |align="center"|{{convert|3386|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|12 |align="center"|1964 |- |align="center"| 3 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Gbarpolu County.svg}} [[Gbarpolu County|Gbarpolu]] |align="center"|[[Bopolu]] |align="center"|83,758 |align="center"|{{convert|3740|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|6 |align="center"|2001 |- |align="center"| 4 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Grand Bassa County.svg}} [[Grand Bassa County|Grand Bassa]] |align="center"|[[Buchanan, Liberia|Buchanan]] |align="center"|224,839 |align="center"|{{convert|3064|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|8 |align="center"|1839 |- |align="center"| 5 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag_of_Grand_Cape_Mount_County.jpg}} [[Grand Cape Mount County|Grand Cape Mount]] |align="center"|[[Robertsport]] |align="center"|129,055 |align="center"|{{convert|1993|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|5 |align="center"|1844 |- |align="center"| 6 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Grand Gedeh County.svg}} [[Grand Gedeh County|Grand Gedeh]] |align="center"|[[Zwedru]] |align="center"|126,146 |align="center"|{{convert|4047|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|3 |align="center"|1964 |- |align="center"| 7 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Grand Kru County.svg}} [[Grand Kru County|Grand Kru]] |align="center"|[[Barclayville]] |align="center"|57,106 |align="center"|{{convert|1503|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|18 |align="center"|1984 |- |align="center"| 8 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Lofa County.svg}} [[Lofa County|Lofa]] |align="center"|[[Voinjama]] |align="center"|270,114 |align="center"|{{convert|3854|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|6 |align="center"|1964 |- |align="center"| 9 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Margibi County.svg}} [[Margibi County|Margibi]] |align="center"|[[Kakata]] |align="center"|199,689 |align="center"|{{convert|1010|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|4 |align="center"|1985 |- |align="center"|10 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Maryland County.svg}} [[Maryland County|Maryland]] |align="center"|[[Harper, Liberia|Harper]] |align="center"|136,404 |align="center"|{{convert|886|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|2 |align="center"|1857 |- |align="center"|11 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Montserrado County.svg}} [[Montserrado County|Montserrado]] |align="center"|[[Bensonville]] |align="center"|1,144,806 |align="center"|{{convert|737|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|4 |align="center"|1839 |- |align="center"|12 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Nimba County.svg}} [[Nimba County|Nimba]] |align="center"|[[Sanniquellie]] |align="center"|468,088 |align="center"|{{convert|4459|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|6 |align="center"|1964 |- |align="center"|13 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Rivercess County.svg}} [[Rivercess County|Rivercess]] |align="center"|[[River Cess|Rivercess]] |align="center"|65,862 |align="center"|{{convert|2159|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|6 |align="center"|1985 |- |align="center"|14 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of River Gee County.svg}} [[River Gee County|River Gee]] |align="center"|[[Fish Town]] |align="center"|67,318 |align="center"|{{convert|1974|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|6 |align="center"|2000 |- |align="center"|15 |align="left"| {{flagicon image|Flag of Sinoe County.svg}} [[Sinoe County|Sinoe]] |align="center"|[[Greenville, Liberia|Greenville]] |align="center"|104,932 |align="center"|{{convert|3913|mi2|abbr=on}} |align="center"|17 |align="center"|1843 |} == Boma na ndale == {{main|Politics of Liberia}} [[File:Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf3.jpg|thumb|Wapampando wakale [[Ellen Johnson Sirleaf]]]] Boma la Liberia lili nga ni boma la United States. Boma lili na maofesi ghatatu: wupu wakulongozga, uwo ukulongozgeka na pulezidenti; wupu wakwimika malango, uwo uli na makhoti ghaŵiri; na wupu wakweruzga, uwo uli na Khoti Likuru Chomene na makhoti ghachoko waka.<ref name="CIA"/> Mulongozgi wa charu ni mulongozgi wa boma, kweniso ni mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Liberia. Ntchito zinyake za pulezidenti ni kusaina panji kukana malango, kugowokera ŵanthu, na kwimika ŵanthu ŵa mu nduna, ŵeruzgi, na ŵantchito ŵanyake. Pamoza na wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, pulezidenti wakusankhika kwa vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza mwa mavoti ghanandi mu ndondomeko ya vigaŵa viŵiri ndipo wangateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri.<ref name="CIA"/> Nyumba ya Malango yikupanga Nyumba ya Malango. Nyumba ya Malango, yakuwusika na mulongozgi, yili na mamembara 73, agho ghali kugaŵika pakati pa vigaŵa 15 mwakuyana na kalembera wa caru cose, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chili na mamembara ghaŵiri. Munthu waliyose wakuyimira chigaŵa chakusankhira mu chigaŵa icho chikusankhika na National Elections Commission ndipo wakusankhika na ŵanthu ŵanandi mu chigaŵa chawo kwa vyaka 6. Nyumba ya mafumu yili na ŵanthu ŵaŵiri kufuma mu chigaŵa chilichose, ndipo wose pamoza ŵalipo 30. Ŵabali ŵa mu wupu uwu ŵakuŵa na vyaka 9 ndipo ŵakusankhika na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakuteŵetera nga ni pulezidenti wa Senate, ndipo pakuŵavya pulezidenti wakuteŵetera. Khoti Likuru Chomene mu Liberia lili na ŵeruzgi ŵankhondi. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa khoti ili ŵakusoleka na pulezidenti ndipo ŵakukhozgeka na Senate, ndipo ŵakuteŵetera m'paka ŵaŵe na vyaka 70. Ŵeruzgi ŵali kugaŵika mu makhoti gha dera na ghapadera, makhoti gha ŵeruzgi na ŵeruzgi ŵa mtende. Boma ili likukolerana na malango gha ŵanthu wose. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi mu charu ichi, mu vigaŵa ivi muchali makhoti ghakupambanapambana. Kufuma mu 1877 m'paka 1980, boma likalongozgekanga na True Whig Party. Mazuŵa ghano, pali vipani vya ndyali vyakujumpha 20 mu charu ichi. Maphwando ghanandi ghakusuzgika cifukwa ca kuleka kwendera ndondomeko. Mu 2005, aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti chipani cha pulezidenti chileke kusanga vithuzithuzi vinandi mu wupu wakulongozga.<ref name="freedom">{{cite web |date=July 7, 2011 |title=Freedom in the World 2011 – Liberia |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4e16b8f91a.html |access-date=January 23, 2023 |work=[[Freedom House]] |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]]}}</ref> === Ŵankhondo === {{Main|Armed Forces of Liberia}} Gulu la ŵasilikari la Liberia (AFL) ni gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa charu ichi. Gulu la ŵasilikari ili likamba kumanyikwa kuti Liberian Frontier Force mu 1908. Pa nyengo yose iyo gulu ili likaŵirako, boma la United States likapelekanga vinthu vinandi na wovwiri. Mu nyengo ya 1941-89, ŵabali ŵa ku United States ndiwo ŵakasambizganga ŵanyawo, ndipo nawo ŵakasambiranga nkhondo ya pa caru cose. Pamanyuma pa fundo ya UN Security Council 1509 mu Seputembala 2003, United Nations Mission ku Liberia yikafika kuti yilute na ŵasilikari ŵakufuma ku Ghana, Nigeria, Pakistan, na China kuti ŵakawovwire boma liphya la Liberia.<ref>Moumouni, Guillaume. (April 2014). "China and Liberia: Engagement in a Post-Conflict Country 2003–2013". Global Powers and Africa Programme. [http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/879851924?page=frame&url=http://www.saiia.org.za/doc_download/509-china-and-liberia-engagement-in-a-post-conflict-country-2003-2013&checksum=3b487fd41f9e71ad94de512cb76b15f4&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail= Occasional Paper No. 182]{{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Johannesburg, South Africa: The South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA). p. 8.</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== [[File:Secretary Kerry Listens as Liberian President Sirleaf Addresses the Post-2015 Development Panel Discussion in New York City (21582539498).jpg|left|thumb|Pulezidenti Sirleaf pamoza na Secretary of State wa United States John Kerry, Pulezidenti wa Colombia Juan Manuel Santos, na Prime Minister wa Britain David Cameron mu September 2015]] {{Further|Foreign relations of Liberia}} Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya ku Liberia yikati yayamba, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora mu charu ichi. Nga ni vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, caru ca China nchakuzirwa comene pa mulimo wa kuzengaso caru. Kumanyuma uku, vyaru viŵiri ivyo vili pafupi na Liberia, Guinea na Sierra Leone, vikanenanga Liberia kuti vikovwira ŵakugaluka mu vyaru vyawo.<ref name="hrw">[https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/08/22/liberia-police-corruption-harms-rights-progress "Liberia: Police Corruption Harms Rights, Progress"], Human Rights Watch, August 22, 2013.</ref> ===Law enforcement and crime=== {{further|Crime in Liberia}} Ŵapolisi ŵa ku Liberia ndiwo ŵakuvikilira charu. Mu Okutobala 2007, boma ili likaŵa na ŵasilikari 844 mu maofesi 33 mu chigaŵa cha Montserrado, icho chili na msumba wa Monrovia.<ref name="cdaMontserrado">{{cite news|url=http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/MontserradoCDA.pdf|title=Montserrado County Development Agenda|date=2008|publisher=Republic of Liberia|access-date=October 14, 2008}}</ref> Sukulu Yakusambizgira Ŵapolisi yili mu msumba wa Paynesville. Para ŵapolisi ŵakuchita vimbundi, ŵanthu ŵakuŵagomezga yayi. Vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuŵa na mtende mu charu ni kuswa malango. Ku Liberia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukoleka na kuyuzgika. Mu charu cha Liberia ndimo muli ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene awo ŵakuchitira nkhaza ŵanakazi. Kucicizga ŵanthu kuti ŵacite uleŵi ni mulandu uwo ukuyowoyeka kanandi comene. Ŵasungwana ndiwo kanandi ŵakusuzgika, ndipo pafupifupi 40 peresenti ya awo ŵakuŵachitira nkhaza mbanalume ŵakukhwima awo ŵakuŵamanya makora. Ku Liberia, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana ŵekhaŵekha mbambura kuzomerezgeka.<ref>{{cite web|title=State Sponsored Homophobia 2016: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition|url=http://ilga.org/downloads/02_ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2016_ENG_WEB_150516.pdf|work=[[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association]]|date=May 17, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Daniel |last=Avery |title=71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal |url=https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974 |work=Newsweek |date=April 4, 2019}}</ref>Pa Julayi 20, 2012, ŵalara ŵa boma ku Liberia ŵakazomerezga kuti ŵalekeske nthengwa za ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.liberianobserver.com/index.php/news/item/1976-senate-passes-%E2%80%98no-same-sex-marriage%E2%80%99-bill|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805070510/http://www.liberianobserver.com/index.php/news/item/1976-senate-passes-%E2%80%98no-same-sex-marriage%E2%80%99-bill|url-status=dead|title="Senate Passes 'No Same Sex Marriage' Bill ", ''Daily Observer'', 21 July 2012|archive-date=August 5, 2012|access-date=September 1, 2019}}</ref> ===Corruption=== {{Further|Corruption in Liberia}} Vimbundi vili palipose mu boma la Liberia. Apo Pulezidenti Sirleaf wakamba kuwusa mu 2006, wakayowoya kuti vimbundi ni "mulwani mukuru wa ŵanthu". Mu 2014, kazembe wa United States ku Liberia wakayowoya kuti vimbundi vikupweteka ŵanthu chifukwa cha "kupeleka ndalama zambura kwenelera pa vinthu na mauteŵeti agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Liberia ŵakutondeka kugura".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201402211033.html|title= "Liberia: Corruption Is Liberia's Problem, US Ambassador to Liberia Alarms", Al-Varney Rogers, allAfrica, 21 February 2014.|work=allAfrica.com|access-date=October 17, 2014}}</ref> Mu 2010, charu cha Liberia chikaŵa na vimanyikwiro vya vimbundi ivyo vikwendera pa chiŵerengero chakufuma pa 10 (chakutowa chomene) m'paka pa 0 (chakunanga chomene). Ichi chikapangiska kuti charu ichi chiŵe pa malo gha nambara 87 pa vyaru 178 pa charu chose, kweniso pa malo gha nambara 11 pa vyaru 47 mu Africa. Ivi vikulongora kuti vinthu vyasintha chomene kwambira mu 2007, apo charu ichi chikaŵa pa nambara 2.1 ndipo chikaŵa pa nambara 150 pa vyaru 180. Para ŵakuyowoya na ŵalara ŵa boma, ŵanthu 89 pa 100 ŵaliwose mu Liberia ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵali kupokerapo vimbundi.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/gcb/2010/results |title=Global Corruption Barometer 2010 |work=Transparency International |date=December 9, 2010 |access-date=July 22, 2011 }}</ref> {{clearleft}} ==Chuma== {{main|Economy of Liberia}} [[File:Liberia Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Kuŵikapo mtima kuti vinthu vyendenge makora ku Liberia. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti ku Liberia kuli maboti 3,500 agho ghakukwera ndembera ya charu chose.<ref name="Schoenurl">{{cite web |first=John W.|last=Schoenurl|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3072983|title=Liberian shipping draws scrutiny|work=NBC News|date=August 11, 2003}}</ref><ref name="About the Liberian Registry">{{cite web |url=http://www.liscr.com/liscr/AboutUs/AboutLiberianRegistry/tabid/206/Default.aspx |title=About the Liberian Registry |publisher=Liberian Registry |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110180209/http://www.liscr.com/liscr/AboutUs/AboutLiberianRegistry/tabid/206/Default.aspx |archive-date=November 10, 2014 }}</ref>]] [[File:Liberia, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Liberia, trends in the [[Human Development Index]] 1970–2010.]] [[File:GDP per capita development of Liberia.png|thumb|Real GDP per capita development, since 1950]] Banki Yikuru ya ku Liberia ndiyo yikupanga na kusunga ndalama za ku Liberia, ndalama yikuru ya ku Liberia (ndalama za ku United States nazo ni ndalama za boma mu Liberia).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Currency |url=https://cbl.org.lr/general/currency |website=Central Bank of Liberia |access-date=January 15, 2023}}</ref> Liberia ni yimoza mwa vyaru vikavu comene pa caru cose, ndipo ŵanthu 15 pa 100 ŵali na nchito. GDP pa munthu yumoza yikafika pa US$496 mu 1980, apo yikaŵa yakuyana na ya ku Eguputo. Mu 2011, GDP ya charu ichi yikaŵa US$1.154 billion, apo GDP ya munthu yumoza yikaŵa US$297, iyo yikaŵa yachitatu pasi pa yose. Mbiri yikulongora kuti chuma cha ku Liberia chikuthemba chomene pa wovwiri wakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ndalama zakwendeskeka na vyaru vinyake, na katundu uyo wakusangika ku vyaru vinyake nga ni visulo, ghamusi, na makuni.<ref name="eowg"/> === Economic history === Mu 1979, chuma cha ku Liberia chikakura chomene ndipo pamanyuma pa boma kuwukira mu 1980, chikachepa chomene. Kuchepa uku kukakoleskeka comene na nkhondo ya pa cikaya iyo yikacitika mu 1989; GDP yikakhira na 90 peresenti pakati pa 1989 na 1995. Nkhondo yikati yamara mu 2003, ciŵelengero ca GDP cikakwera comene, ndipo cikafika pa 9.4% mu 2007. Mu 2009, suzgo la vya ndalama pa caru cose likapangiska kuti GDP yichepe kufika pa 4.6%, kweni viŵeto vya vyakurya vikakura comene cifukwa ca katundu uyo wakuguliskika ku vyaru vinyake.<ref name=":0" /> Vinthu ivyo vikutondeska kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora ni msika uchoko wa mu caru, vinthu vyambura kukwana, ndalama zinandi zakwendeskera vinthu, malonda ghambura kwenda makora na vyaru vyapafupi, kweniso ndalama zinandi izo zikufuma mu ndalama za caru. Liberia yikagwiliskiranga nchito dola ya United States kufuma mu 1943 mpaka mu 1982 ndipo yikulutilira kugwiliskira nchito dola ya U.S. pamoza na dola ya Liberia.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:rjgZxrEkytAJ:www.countrycompass.com/_docs/assessments/Liberia_Economic_Recovery_Assessment.pdf+Liberian+dollar+1982&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgB5jM-McEY_lEOfi7dtjUAbUY3FHNMS-1b7c1mewxokLnC7PucnxlcZgbC4H60-44s9Kyw4SlVD0s8pI0lznK8MH_FSOPkOAEW8OgbhuDeI2kiEZ81wf4E0kNLQHndpFSE3jFO|title=Liberia Economic Recovery Assessment|work=USAID|date=July 2008}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kukhira kwa unandi wa ndalama mu 2003, unandi wa ndalama ukakwera comene mu 2008 cifukwa ca suzgo la vyakurya na magesi pa caru cose. Mu 2006, ngongoli ya ku Liberia yikaŵa pafupifupi madola 4.5 biliyoni, panji kuti 800% ya GDP. Chifukwa cha kuchepeskako ngongoli ya vyaru viŵiri, vinandi, na ya malonda kufuma mu 2007 m'paka mu 2010, ngongoli ya charu ichi yikakhira kufika pa $222.9 miliyoni mu 2011. Apo vyakurya vinandi vikafumanga mu vyaru vinyake mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachimbira ku nkhondo ya pawenenawene, chuma cha ku Liberia chikamba kunangika chifukwa cha kusanga vyakununkhira. Charu ichi chikaguliskanga chomene malibwe gha daimondi gha ku Sierra Leone, ndipo mu 1999 chikaguliskanga malibwe gha daimondi ghakujumpha madola 300 miliyoni. Ivi vikapangiska kuti wupu wa United Nations ukanizge vyakunjizga dayamondi ku Liberia mu 2001, ndipo mu 2007 likamazga dango ili. Mu 2003, wupu wa United Nations ukaŵikaso vyeruzgo vinyake pa katundu wa makuni wa ku Liberia, uyo ukakwera kufuma pa madola 5 miliyoni mu 1997 kufika pa madola 100 miliyoni mu 2002. Vyakukanizgika ivi vikawuskikapo mu 2006. Chifukwa cha wovwiri wa vyaru vinyake na ndalama izo zikafuma ku vyaru vinyake pamanyuma pa nkhondo, ku Liberia kuli suzgo likuru la ndalama, ilo likafika pa 60 peresenti mu 2008. Mu 2010, charu cha Liberia chikaŵa na wupu wakuwona vya malonda pa charu chose (WTO). Ku Liberia ndiko kuli ndalama zinandi chomene za vyaru vinyake kufuma ku ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Pamanyuma pakuti Sirleaf wavumbukwa mu 2006, charu cha Liberia chikachita mapangano gha ndalama mabiliyoni ghanandi mu vyalo vya mafuta na mafuta gha makuni na mabungwe ghanandi, kusazgapo ArcelorMittal, BHP na Sime Darby. Makampani gha mafuta gha makuni gha maolive nga ni Sime Darby (Malaysia) na Golden Veroleum (U.S.A.) ghakususkika kuti ghakuparanya ŵanthu na kufumiska ŵanthu mu vikaya vyawo. Kwambira mu 1926, Firestone ndiyo wakaŵa na munda ukuru chomene wa mphira pa charu chose. Mu 2015, likagwiranga nchito ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 8,000, comenecomene ŵa ku Liberia.<ref>Fred van der Kraaij, ''From the love of liberty to paradise lost'', p. 144, Leiden, African Studies Centre 2015, [https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/33835 pdf]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firestonenaturalrubber.com/company_history.htm|title=Firestone and Liberia – Company History|work=Firestone Natural Rubber Company|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612171553/http://www.firestonenaturalrubber.com/company_history.htm|archive-date=June 12, 2011}}</ref> === Chizindikiro cha sitima === Cifukwa ca kuŵa na ndembera yiwemi, Liberia ni caru caciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vili na ndembera yikuru comene pa caru cose. Lili na ngaraŵa 3,500 izo zikuyegha ndembera yake, izo ni 11% ya ngaraŵa zose za pa caru cose.<ref name="Schoenurl"/><ref name="About the Liberian Registry"/> === Major industries === ==== Agriculture ==== {{Excerpt|Agriculture in Liberia}} ==== Mining ==== {{Excerpt|Mining industry of Liberia}} ==== Telecommunications ==== {{Main|Communications in Liberia}} Ku Liberia kuli manyuzipepara ghakuru 6, ndipo ŵanthu 65% ŵali na foni. Vinthu vinandi vya ku Liberia vikabwanganduka panji kupokeka mu nyengo ya nkhondo ziŵiri za pa cikaya (1989-1996 na 1999-2003). Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya yayi kuŵazga na kulemba kweniso ŵakavu mbanandi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira nchito yayi TV na manyuzipepara.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140307051722/http://www.audiencescapes.org/country-profiles-liberia-country-overview-quantitative-survey-qualitative-analysis-research "Introduction to Communication and Development in Liberia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307051722/http://www.audiencescapes.org/country-profiles-liberia-country-overview-quantitative-survey-qualitative-analysis-research |date=March 7, 2014 }}, AudienceScapes. Retrieved February 8, 2014.</ref> ====Transportation==== {{Main|Transport in Liberia}} [[File:Downtown Monrovia 3348917715 67a2002529.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Misewu ya ku Monrovia, Malichi 2009]]{{Excerpt|Transportation in Liberia}} ====Magesi==== {{Further|Energy in Liberia}} Boma la Liberia Electricity Corporation ndilo likupeleka waka magesi ku ŵanthu wose, ndipo likwendeska waka magesi mu chigaŵa cha Greater Monrovia.<ref name="Options">{{cite web |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTAFRREGTOPENERGY/Resources/717305-1266613906108/Liberia_Energy_ESW_11-4-11web.pdf |title=Options for the Development of Liberia's Energy Sector|work=International Bank for Reconstruction and Development|publisher=World Bank Group|date=2011}}</ref> Ntchito zinandi za magesi zikupelekeka na maboma ghacoko. Mu charu cha Liberia, mtengo wa magesi pa kWh yimoza ngukuru comene pa caru cose. Mu 2013, nchito ya kuzenga yikaŵa na nkhongono ya 20 MW, ndipo yikakhira comene pakuyaniska na 191 MW mu 1989. Mulimo wa kunozga na kusazgirako mapulaneti gha maji gha Mount Coffee, agho ghali na nkhongono ya 80 MW, ukamara mu 2018. Kuzenga magesi ghatatu gha mafuta gha mafuta ghakuthukira kukwenera kusazgirako nkhongono ya magesi na 38 MW. Mu 2013, charu cha Liberia chikamba kugura magesi kufuma ku vyaru vinyake nga ni Ivory Coast na Guinea. Ku Liberia ŵamba kupenja mafuta gha mu nyanja. Boma likagaŵa maji gha mumphepete mwa nyanja mu vigaŵa 17 ndipo likamba kuguliska pa lupiya vya vyalo ivi mu 2004, kweniso mu 2007 na 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20040202005192/en/NOCAL-2004-Liberia-Offshore-Bid-Announcement|title=NOCAL 2004 Liberia Offshore Bid Round Announcement|work=Business Wire|date=February 2, 2004}}</ref><ref name=bidding>{{cite web |first=Natalie Obiko|last=Pearson|url=http://www.rigzone.com/news/article.asp?a_id=53828 |title=Liberia Opens Bidding for 10 Offshore Oil Blocks |work=RigZone |date=December 10, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psg.deloitte.com/NewsLicensingRounds_LR_0909.asp|title=Third Liberian Offshore Petroleum Licensing Round 2009|work=Deloitte Petroleum Services|publisher=Deloitte|date=August 27, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104072748/https://www.psg.deloitte.com/NewsLicensingRounds_LR_0909.asp|archive-date=November 4, 2013}}</ref> Mu 2011, ŵakajura malo ghanyake 13 agho ghali kutali chomene na nyanja. Makampani ghanyake agho ghakapokera malaisensi ni Repsol YPF, Chevron Corporation, na Woodside Petroleum.<ref>{{cite web |first=Ansu |last=Konneh |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-08-30/chevron-liberia-sign-deepwater-offshore-exploration-agreement.html |title=Chevron, Liberia Sign Deepwater Offshore Exploration Agreement |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=August 30, 2010}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == [[File:Liberia-demography.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Liberia's population from 1961 to 2013, in millions.<ref name="Data of FAO, year 2005">Data of [[FAO]], year 2005</ref> Liberia's population tripled in 40 years.<ref name="Data of FAO, year 2005"/>]] [[File:Pyramide Liberia.PNG|thumb|upright=1.35|Liberia's [[population pyramid]], 2005. 43.5% of Liberians were below the age of 15 in 2010.<ref name="WPP 2010">{{Cite web|url=https://population.un.org/wpp/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150816232627/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm|url-status=dead|title=World Population Prospects – Population Division – United Nations|archive-date=August 16, 2015|website=population.un.org|access-date=September 1, 2019}}</ref>]] {{main|Demographics of Liberia}} {{See also|Liberian nationality law}} Ku Liberia, ŵanthu 4,694,608 ndiwo ŵakakhalanga. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, 1,118,241 ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Montserrado, icho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu charu ichi. Chigaŵa cha Greater Monrovia chili na ŵanthu 970,824.<ref name="census2008final">{{cite web |url=http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/Population_by_County.pdf |title=2008 National Population and Housing Census Final Results: Population by County |author=Liberia Institute of Statistics and Geo-Information Services |date=May 2009 |work=2008 Population and Housing Census |publisher=Republic of Liberia |access-date=June 10, 2009 |archive-date=September 11, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911055748/http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/Population_by_County.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Chigaŵa cha Nimba ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene, ndipo chili na ŵanthu 462,026. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2008, ŵanthu ŵa ku Monrovia mbanandi chomene kuluska ŵa mu vigaŵa vyose. Pambere Census ya 2008 yindachitike, Census yaumaliro yikacitika mu 1984 ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵakaŵa 2,101,628. Mu 1962, mu Liberia mukaŵa ŵanthu 1,016,443 ndipo mu 1974 ŵakakwana 1,503,368. Kufika mu 2006, caru ca Liberia cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene pa caru cose. Mu 2010, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Liberia awo ŵakaŵa na vyaka vya pasi pa 15 cikaŵa 43.5%.<ref name="WPP 2010"/> === Mtundu wa ŵanthu === {{bar box |title=Ethnic Groups in Liberia |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Ethnic Groups |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Kpelle|darkgreen|20.3}} {{bar percent|Bassa|purple|13.4}} {{bar percent|Grebo|red|10}} {{bar percent|Gio|black|8}} {{bar percent|Mano|orange|7.9}} {{bar percent|Kru|darkblue|6}} {{bar percent|Lorma|lightgrey|5.1}} {{bar percent|Kissi|maroon|4.8}} {{bar percent|Gola|darkgray|4.4}} {{bar percent|Krahn|gray|4}} {{bar percent|Vai|tan|4}} {{bar percent|Mandinka|lime|3.2}} {{bar percent|Gbandi|Violet|3}} {{bar percent|Mende|darkgreen|1.3}} {{bar percent|Sapo|purple|1.2}} {{bar percent|Belle|red|0.8}} {{bar percent|Dey|black|0.3}} {{bar percent|Other Liberian|orange|0.6}} {{bar percent|Other African|darkblue|1.4}}{{bar percent|Non African|white|0.1}} }} Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu tawuni iyi mbanandi comene. Pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi, 95 ŵalipo Mbakaboni ŵa Yehova. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu 16 awo ŵakumanyikwa ni Kpelle, Bassa, Mano, Gio panji Dan, Kru, Grebo, Krahn, Vai, Gola, Mandingo panji Mandinka, Mende, Kissi, Gbandi, Loma, Dei panji Dewoin, Belleh, na Americo-Liberians panji ŵanthu ŵa ku Congo (ŵakuchemeka nthena chifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakafuma ku vyaru vinyake, kusazgapo awo ŵakafwatuka ku ngalaŵa za ŵazga, ŵakafuma ku malo agho kukaŵa mlonga wa Congo). Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kpelle ŵakukwana 20% ya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Liberia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Americo-Liberia, awo mbana ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na West Indies, ndipo ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala ku Barbados (Bajan), ŵalipo 2.5%. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Congo, awo mbana ŵa ŵazga ŵa ku Congo na ŵa ku Afro-Caribbean awo ŵakiza mu 1825, ŵalipo 2.5%. Magulu ghaŵiri ghaumaliro agha ghakaŵa na mazaza pa ndyali mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ndipo ghakaŵa na mazaza mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Dango la Liberia likuyowoya kuti munthu uyo wali na wanangwa wa kuŵa mwenekaya wa charu ichi ni "munthu wa mtundu unyake". Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵiza nga ni ŵamalonda ndipo ŵakugwira ntchito mu vyamalonda. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakutorana chomene pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Liberia na ŵa ku Lebanon. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Liberia awo mbazungu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵali kufuma ku Europe ndiwo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi.<ref name="CIA"/> ===Viyowoyelo=== {{Further|Languages of Liberia}} Chiyowoyero cha ku Liberia ni Chingelezi. Kufika mu 2022, ŵanthu ŵa ku Liberia ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero 27. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Liberia ŵakuyowoyaso viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana vya Cileberia.<ref name="pulitzer">{{cite web |last=Moore |first=Jina |date=October 19, 2009 |title=Liberia: Ma Ellen talk plenty plenty Liberian English |url=http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/untold-stories/liberia-ma-ellen-talk-plenty-plenty-liberian-english |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005210518/http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/untold-stories/liberia-ma-ellen-talk-plenty-plenty-liberian-english |archive-date=October 5, 2011 |access-date=July 22, 2011 |work=Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting}}</ref> ===Misumba ikulu=== {{Largest cities of Liberia|class=info}} ===Chisopo=== {{main|Religion in Liberia}} {{bar box |float=right |titlebar=#ddd |title=[[Religion in Liberia]] (2010)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/liberia#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2015|title=Religions in Liberia – PEW-GRF|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org|access-date=October 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106235755/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/liberia#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2015|archive-date=November 6, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> |left1=Religion |right1=percent |bars= {{bar percent|[[Protestantism]]|lightBlue|76.3}} {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|12.2}} {{bar percent|[[Roman Catholicism]]|red|7.2}} {{bar percent|Other [[Christians|Christian]]|blue|1.6}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]]|Lavender|1.4}} {{bar percent|Other faith|grey|1.3}} }} Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2008, ŵanthu 85.6% ŵakasopanga Chikhristu, apo Ŵasilamu ŵakaŵa ŵachoko waka pa ŵanthu 12.2%. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa matchalitchi gha Chiprotesitanti nga ni Lutheran, Baptist, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Pentecostal, United Methodist, African Methodist Episcopal (AME) na African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AME Zion) ndiwo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa chikuru cha Chikhristu. Ŵanandi ŵa visopa ivi ŵakafuma ku America ndipo ŵakaluta ku Liberia. Pakwambilira, chisopa cha Chiprotesitanti chikakolerananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵakakhalanga ku America na awo ŵakafuma ku America na Liberia. Nangauli Mbakhristu, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Liberia ŵakuchitako magulu ghachisisi gha chisopa, nga ni Poro na Sande. Ŵanakazi wose ŵa mu mpingo wa Sande ndiwo ŵakuchita ukotoli. Mu 2008, ŵanthu 12.2% ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu. Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Liberia ŵali kugaŵikana pakati pa Ŵasuni, Ŵachihiya, Ŵaahmadiyya, Ŵasufi, na Ŵasilamu ŵambura kusopa. Mu 2008, ŵanthu 0.5% ŵakatenge ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo, ndipo 1.5% ŵakatenge ŵalije chisopa. Ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵakaŵa Ŵabahai, Ŵahindu, Ŵasikh, panji Ŵabudha. Dango la ku Liberia likupeleka wanangwa wa kusopa, ndipo boma likuchindika wanangwa uwu. Nangauli Dango likukanizga kuti tchalitchi na boma vipatukane, kweni ku Liberia kuli Ŵakhristu. Ŵana ŵakusambirako Baibolo mu masukulu gha boma, kweni ŵapapi ŵangakana. Dango likukanizga kuguliska vinthu pa zuŵa la Sabata na pa maholide ghakuru gha Ŵakhristu. Boma likuchichizga yayi ŵamalonda panji masukulu kuti ŵaleke kusopa pa Chinkhondi.<ref name="irfr">{{cite web |date=November 17, 2010 |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Liberia |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148698.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123105613/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148698.htm |archive-date=November 23, 2010 |access-date=July 22, 2011 |work=United States Department of State}}</ref>{{clear}} ===Masambilo=== {{main|Education in Liberia}} [[File:Liberian students.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵasambiri ŵakusambira na nyali mu chigaŵa cha Bong]] Mu 2010, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba mu Liberia chikaŵa 60.8% (64.8% ku ŵanalume na 56.8% ku ŵanakazi). Mu vigaŵa vinyake, sukulu za pulayimare na sekondare ni zaulere ndipo munthu wakwenera kusambira kwambura kulipira para wakwaniska vyaka 6 m'paka 16. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵana ŵakwenera kulipira ndalama kuti ŵasambire. Pa avereji, ŵana ŵakusambira vyaka 10. Masukulu na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukhumbikwa mu charu ichi ni viŵi yayi, kweniso palije ŵasambizgi ŵakwenelera. Masambiro ghapacanya ghakupika na maunivesite gha boma na ghapadera. Yunivesite ya Liberia ndiyo yikuru comene na yakale comene mu caru ici. Yunivesite iyi yikaŵa mu msumba wa Monrovia, ndipo yikajulika mu 1862. Mazuŵa ghano, lili na makoleji 6, kusazgapo sukulu ya vyadokotala na sukulu ya malango ya Louis Arthur Grimes. Mu 2009, Yunivesite ya Tubman ku Harper, Maryland County yikakhazikiskika kuŵa yunivesite yachiŵiri ya boma mu Liberia. Kwambira mu 2006, boma la Japan lajuliraso masukulu ghapachanya ku Buchanan, Sanniquellie, na Voinjama.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/20101023President_Remarks_GBCC_Launch_Ground_Breaking.pdf |title=Remarks by H.E. President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf At Official Launch and Fundraising Program Of the Grand Bassa Community College |publisher=The Executive Mansion |date=October 21, 2010 |access-date=July 22, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004060217/http://www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/20101023President_Remarks_GBCC_Launch_Ground_Breaking.pdf |archive-date=October 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Peter A. |last=Fahn |url=http://www.micat.gov.lr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=156:government-moves-ahead-with-education-decentralization-plans&catid=47:new-liberia&Itemid=91 |title=Government Moves Ahead With Education Decentralization Plans |date=July 7, 2011 |access-date=August 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004060405/http://www.emansion.gov.lr/press.php?news_id=1951 |url=http://www.emansion.gov.lr/press.php?news_id=1951 |title=July 26 Celebrations Kick Off in Lofa As President Sirleaf Arrives |work=The Executive Mansion |date=July 25, 2011 |archive-date=October 4, 2011 |access-date=August 29, 2013}}</ref> Chifukwa cha kususka kwa ŵana ŵa sukulu mu Okutobala 2018, pulezidenti muphya George M. Weah wakawuskapo malipiro gha masambiro gha ku yunivesite ya boma ku Liberia.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2018-10-25-liberias-weah-announces-free-tuition-for-undergrads|title=Liberia's Weah announces free tuition for undergrads|date=October 25, 2018|work=Mail & Guardian|access-date=March 20, 2018|agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> ====Private universities==== * Yunivesite ya Cuttington yikakhazikiskika na Episcopal Church of the USA mu 1889 ku Suakoko, Bong County, nga ni cigaŵa ca mulimo wake wa umishonale wa kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Iyi ni yunivesite yakale comene mu caru ici. * Stella Maris Polytechnic, ni sukulu yapachanya ya ŵanthu ŵambura nchito. Sukulu iyi yikambika mu 1988, ndipo yikwendeskeka na Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Monrovia. Sukulu iyi yili pa Capitol Hill ndipo yili na ŵana ŵa sukulu pafupifupi 2,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://smp.edu.lr/index.html|title=Stella Maris Polytechnic|date=2013|website=smp>edu|access-date=March 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330223158/http://smp.edu.lr/index.html|archive-date=March 30, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Adventist University of West Africa, malo gha masambiro gha ku sekondare agho ghali mu chigaŵa cha Margibi County, pa Roberts International Airport.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://auwa.edu.lr/#|title=Adventist University of West Africa|website=auwa,edu|access-date=March 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327170818/http://auwa.edu.lr/|archive-date=March 27, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Yunivesite ya United Methodist, yunivesite ya Chikhristu iyo yili ku Liberia, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, yikumanyikwa na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha kuti UMU. Mu 2016, sukulu iyi yikaŵa na ŵana ŵa sukulu pafupifupi 9,118. Wupu uwu ukaŵako mu 1998..<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://umu.edu.lr/|title=United Methodist University|date=2019|website=umu'edu|access-date=March 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320191456/http://umu.edu.lr/|archive-date=March 20, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> * African Methodist Episcopal University, yunivesite ya sukulu yapachanya iyo yikapangika mu 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ame.edu.lr/|title=African Methodist Episcopal University|website=ame.edu|access-date=March 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322030248/http://ame.edu.lr/|archive-date=March 22, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Yunivesite ya Starz, ni yunivesite ya vya masambiro ghapachanya iyo yikakhazikiskika ku United States mu chaka cha 2007, ndipo yikalembeka mu boma la Monrovia, mu chaka cha 2009; na chilato cha kumazga suzgo la Information Technology (IT) ku Liberia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Starz University – Aim For Global Success |url=https://starzit.com/ |access-date=2022-08-12 |language=en-US}}</ref> * St. Clements University College (Liberia), sukulu yapachanya ya ŵanthu ŵekhaŵekha iyo yikambika mu 2008.<ref>{{cite web |title=St Clements University College – Liberia |url=http://www.stclements.edu/liberia/ |website=stclements.edu |access-date=November 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414114150/http://www.stclements.edu/liberia/ |archive-date=April 14, 2021}}</ref> === Umoyo === {{Further|Health in Liberia}} [[File:Life expectancy in Liberia.svg|thumb|Umoyo wa ŵanthu]] Mu vipatala vya ku Liberia muli chipatala cha John F. Kennedy Medical Center mu Monrovia na ghanyake ghanandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Liberia ŵakulindilira kukhala vyaka 64,4 mu 2020. Mu 2010, pa ŵanakazi 100,000 ŵakababikanga 990 ndipo mu 2017, pa ŵanakazi 100,000 ŵakababikanga 1,072.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/resources/docs/country_info/profile/en_Liberia_SoWMy_Profile.pdf |title=The State of the World's Midwifery 2011: Liberia |work=United Nations Population Fund |access-date=August 2, 2011 |archive-date=December 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206210251/http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/resources/docs/country_info/profile/en_Liberia_SoWMy_Profile.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Maternal health gets a new boost in Liberia |url=https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2017/7/feature-maternal-health-gets-a-new-boost-in-liberia |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=UN Women – Headquarters |language=en}}</ref>Matenda ghanyake ghakwambukira ghakuthandazgika chomene, nga ni chikhoso cha TB, nthenda ya kusulura na maleriya. Mu 2007, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na HIV chikaŵa 2% pa ŵanthu ŵa vyaka 15-49, apo chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na TB chikaŵa 420 pa ŵanthu 100,000 mu 2008. Pafupifupi ŵanakazi 58.2% na 66% ŵali kupokera nthenda iyi. Charu cha Liberia chikugura mpunga wakukwana 90 peresenti. Mu 2007, ŵana 20.4% ŵa vyaka vinkhondi kukhilira pasi ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa chakurya. Mu 2008, ŵanthu 17% pera ndiwo ŵakaŵa na malo ghawemi ghakusoperapo. Pafupifupi 95 peresenti ya maofesi gha munthavi gha mu charu ichi ghakabwanganduka apo nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikamalira mu 2003. Mu 2009, ndalama izo boma likagwiliskiranga ntchito pa vyaumoyo zikaŵa madola 22 gha ku United States, panji kuti 10.6% ya GDP. Mu 2008, ku Liberia kukaŵa dokotala yumoza na manesi 27 pa ŵanthu 100,000. Mu 2014, nthenda ya Ebola yikathandazgikira ku Liberia kufuma ku Guinea. Pa Novembala 17, 2014, ŵanthu 2,812 ŵakafwa na nthenda iyi. Mu Ogasiti 2014, charu cha Guinea chikajara mphaka na charu cha Liberia kuti chileke kuthandazga nthenda iyi. Pa Meyi 9, 2015, charu cha Liberia chikapharazgika kuti chilije Ebola, pamanyuma pa masabata 6 kwambura nthenda yiphya. Kuyana na lipoti la Overseas Development Institute, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa vyakupwelelera umoyo ni 64.1% ya ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa vyakupwelelera umoyo.<ref>Marc DuBois and Caitlin Wake, with Scarlett Sturridge and Christina Bennett (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20200928074929/https://www.odi.org/publications/9956-ebola-response-west-africa-exposing-politics-culture-international-aid The Ebola response in West Africa: Exposing the politics and culture of international aid] London: Overseas Development Institute</ref> ==Mwambo== {{main|Culture of Liberia}} [[File:Brooklyn Museum 1998.80.2 Helmet Mask for Sande Society.jpg|thumb|Vyakurya vya Bassa. Chisoti cha Sande Society (Ndoli Jowei), Liberia, m'ma 1900. Muziamu wa Brooklyn.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Americo-Liberia ŵakakhalanga ku South America pambere nkhondo yindambe. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakavwaranga chisoti chakutowa na mizati ndipo ŵakachitanga nga mbazga ŵa ku South. Ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵa ku Liberia ŵakaŵa ŵa mu gulu la Masonic Order of Liberia, ilo likachitanga ndyali. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Liberia ŵakaŵa na luso lwa kusona na kupangaso salu. Mu 1857 na 1858, ku Liberia kukaŵaso viphikiro vya viŵeto. Yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene awo ŵakapanganga kofi ku Liberia wakaŵa Martha Ann Ricks, uyo wakapeleka cikozgo ca khuni la khofi ku Fumukazi Victoria mu 1892. Apo pulezidenti Ellen Johnson Sirleaf wakasamukiranga ku Executive Mansion, wakapanga chibenekelero mu ofesi yake. Ku Liberia kwajumpha vyaka 100 kufuma apo mabuku ghakambira kulembeka. Edward Wilmot Blyden, Bai T. Moore, Roland T. Dempster na Wilton G. S. Sankawulo wali pakati pa ŵalembi ŵakumanyikwa chomene mu Liberia. Buku la Moore lakuti Murder in the Cassava Patch ndilo ndakumanyikwa comene mu Liberia.<ref>{{cite web |first=J. Kpanneh |last=Doe |url=http://www.theperspective.org/bookreview.html |title=Baa Salaka: Sacrificial Lamb – A Book Review & Commentary |work=The Perspective |date=October 31, 2000 |access-date=July 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909064724/http://www.theperspective.org/bookreview.html |archive-date=September 9, 2013}}</ref> === Kutora mitala === {{Further|Polygamy in Liberia}} Pa ŵanakazi ŵakutora ŵa ku Liberia, ciŵelengero ca awo ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49 ni ŵanakazi ŵatatu pa ŵatatu. Dango la cikaya likuzomerezga mwanalume kutora ŵanakazi ŵanayi.<ref>Olukoju, Ayodeji. "Gender Roles, Marriage and Family", ''Culture and Customs of Liberia''. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2006, p. 97.</ref> === Kuphika === {{main|Liberian cuisine}} [[File:Beachside Barbeque (6831739276).jpg|thumb|Ku Sinkor, Monrovia, Liberia, ŵanthu ŵakuphika nyama mumphepete mwa nyanja]] Mu vyakurya vinandi vya ku Liberia, muli mpunga. Vyakurya vinyake ni maniyu, somba, nthochi, vipasi, vipasi, kokosoni, okra, na mbatata. Vyakurya vyakunowa ivyo vili na vipasi vya habanero na scotch bonnet chili vikumanyikwa chomene. Kweniso ku Liberia kuli mitheto yinyake ya kuphika vyakurya yakufuma ku United States iyo njakupambana na mitundu yinyake ya ku West Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gwydion.weebly.com/liberian-baking.html |title=The Baking Recipes of Liberia |work=Africa Aid |access-date=July 23, 2011}}</ref> === Maseŵera === Maseŵera ghakumanyikwa chomene mu Liberia ni bola, ndipo George Weah (woseŵera wakale wa bola ndipo sono ni purezidenti wa Liberia) ndiyo wakumanyikwa chomene mu charu ichi. Mpaka pano ndi yekha wa ku Africa uyo wapika udindo wa FIFA World Player of the Year.<ref name="FIFA">[https://web.archive.org/web/20131020073045/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/players/player=2187/ "Iconic Weah a true great"]. FIFA.com. Retrieved November 17, 2013</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=George Weah: Ex-AC Milan, Chelsea & Man City striker elected Liberia president |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/41607141 |publisher=BBC |date=June 22, 2018}}</ref> Gulu la mpira la ku Liberia lafika ku Africa Cup of Nations kaŵiri, mu 1996 na 2002. Maseŵero ghaciŵiri agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene mu Liberia ni basketball. Gulu la basketball la ku Liberia lafika ku AfroBasket kaŵiri, mu 1983 na 2007. Ku Liberia, malo ghakucemeka Samuel Kanyon Doe Sports Complex ni sitediyamu. Likunozga maseŵero gha FIFA World Cup qualifying match kusazgapo ma concert gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana na vyakuchitika vya ndyali vya ku chalo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Liberia:Chaos Mars Grand Bassa and Nimba Clash |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201401211272.html|access-date=October 9, 2016|newspaper=All Africa|date=January 21, 2012}}</ref> ===Measurement system=== Charu cha Liberia chindambe kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko ya International System of Units. Mu 1988 Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act yikati metric system ni "ndondomeko ya vyakuyegha na vyakuyegha vyakuyegha vya United States trade and commerce", kweni mu practice system iyi yikugwiliskika nchito mwakupambanapambana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa ma unit na mafakitale agho ghakukolerana na malango gha boma. Boma la Liberia laleka kugwiliskira ntchito mayuniti gha United States na kwamba kugwiliskira ntchito ma metric. Ndipouli, kusintha uku kukachitika pachokopachoko, ndipo boma likagwiliskiranga ntchito mayuniti gha United States. Mu chaka cha 2018, nduna ya vya malonda na mafakitale ya ku Liberia yikati boma la charu ichi lajipeleka kuti likolerane na ndondomeko ya metric.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liberianobserver.com/business/govt-pledges-commitment-to-adopt-metric-system/|title=Gov't Pledges Commitment to Adopt Metric System|first=Robin|last=Dopoe|date=May 25, 2018|access-date=September 1, 2019|archive-date=November 9, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109004653/https://www.liberianobserver.com/business/govt-pledges-commitment-to-adopt-metric-system/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref> {{cite web| url = http://www.emansion.gov.lr/content.php?sub=County%20Development%20Agendas&related=CDAs| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100114003713/http://www.emansion.gov.lr/content.php?sub=County%20Development%20Agendas&related=CDAs| archive-date = January 14, 2010| url-status = dead| title = County Development Agendas| author = Government of Liberia| year = 2008| publisher = Government of the Republic of Liberia| access-date = May 1, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.molme.gov.lr/doc/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Annual%20Report%20Jan%201%20-%20Dec%2031%202009.pdf|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110410125217/http://www.molme.gov.lr/doc/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Annual%20Report%20Jan%201%20-%20Dec%2031%202009.pdf|url-status = dead|archive-date = April 10, 2011|title = Annual report|author = Shannon, Eugene H.|date = December 31, 2009|publisher = Liberian Ministry of Lands, Mines and Energy|access-date = May 1, 2010}}</ref><ref name="ut"> {{cite web|url = http://trend.ag.utk.edu/international/ReformingCocoaCoffeeMarketingLiberia.pdf|title = Reforming Cocoa and Coffee Marketing in Liberia|author = Wilcox, Michael D., Jr. Department of Agricultural Economics University of Tennessee|year = 2008|work = Presentation and Policy Brief|publisher = University of Tennessee|access-date = April 25, 2010|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100624032539/http://trend.ag.utk.edu/international/ReformingCocoaCoffeeMarketingLiberia.pdf|archive-date = June 24, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/appendix/appendix-g.html| title = CIA The World Factbook| year = 2010| work = Appendix G: Weights and Measures| publisher = US Central Intelligence Agency| access-date = April 24, 2010| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100424163417/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/appendix/appendix-g.html| archive-date = April 24, 2010}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Liberia|Africa|Countries}} * [[Outline of Liberia]] * [[Gender inequality in Liberia]] ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * Cooper, Helene, ''House at Sugar Beach: In Search of a Lost African Childhood'' (Simon & Schuster, 2008, {{ISBN|0743266242}}) * {{cite book | title=Africa in World History, From Prehistory to the Present | url=https://archive.org/details/africainworldhis0000reyn | date=October 2003 | publisher=Prentice Hall | isbn = 978-0130929075| edition=Paperback | author1=Gilbert, Erik |author2=Reynolds, Jonathan T }} * {{cite book | title=Too Late to Turn Back | year=1991 | publisher=Penguin | isbn=0140095942 | author=Greene, Barbara | url=https://archive.org/details/toolatetoturnbac00gree }} * {{cite book | title=Journey Without Maps | publisher=Vintage | year=1936 | isbn = 978-0099282235| author=Greene, Graham |title-link=Journey Without Maps }} * {{cite book | title=Long Story Bit By Bit: Liberia Retold | publisher=New York: Umbrage | year=2009 | isbn = 978-1884167737| author=Hetherington, Tim }} * {{cite book | title=Mississippi in Africa: The Saga of the Slaves of Prospect Hill Plantation and Their Legacy in Liberia Today| publisher=Gotham Books | year=2004 | isbn=978-1592400447 | author=Huffman, Alan |url=https://archive.org/details/mississippiinafr00huff }} * {{cite book | url = https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/33835| title=Liberia : From the Love of Liberty to Paradise Lost| publisher=African Studies Centre, Leiden | year= 2015 | isbn = 978-9054481447| author= Kraaij, Fred | author2=van der}} * Lang, Victoria, ''To Liberia: Destiny's Timing'' (Publish America, Baltimore, 2004, {{ISBN|1413718299}}). Novel of the journey of a young Black couple fleeing America to settle in the African motherland of Liberia. * Maksik, Alexander, ''A Marker to Measure Drift'' (John Murray 2013; Paperback 2014; {{ISBN|978-1848548077}}). A novel about a young woman's experience of and escape from the Liberian civil war. * {{cite book | title=Merriam Webster's Geographical Dictionary: third Edition | publisher=Merriam Webster Inc. | location =Springfield | year=1997 | isbn=0877795460 | edition=Paperback | url=https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersg1998merr }} * [[Godfrey Mwakikagile|Mwakikagile, Godfrey]], ''Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties'', Chapter Eight: Liberia: 'The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here,' pp.&nbsp;85–110, [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]], Huntington, New York, 2001; Godfrey Mwakikagile, ''The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation'', Chapter One: The Collapse of A Modern African State: Death and Rebirth of Liberia, pp.&nbsp;1–18, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2001. * {{cite book | title=Liberia: Portrait of a Failed State | date= 2001 | publisher=Reed Press | isbn=1594290121 | author=Pham, John-Peter | url=https://archive.org/details/liberiaportraito00pham }} * Sankawulo, Wilton, ''Great Tales of Liberia''. Dr. Sankawulo is the compiler of these tales from Liberia and about Liberian culture. Editura Universității "Lucian Blaga", Sibiu, Romania, 2004. {{ISBN|978-9736518386}}. * Sankawulo, Wilton, ''Sundown at Dawn: A Liberian Odyssey''. Recommended by the Cultural Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics for its content concerning Liberian culture. {{ISBN|0976356503}} * Shaw, Elma, ''Redemption Road: The Quest for Peace and Justice in Liberia'' (a novel), with a foreword by President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (Cotton Tree Press, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0980077407}}) * {{cite book | title=Liberia: The Heart of Darkness | date=2006 | publisher=Trafford Publishing | isbn = 1553692942 | author=Williams, Gabriel I. H. }} {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Commons category}} {{Wikivoyage}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20201017024954/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/LI.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017024954/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/LI.html |date=October 17, 2020 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210319020318/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/liberia Liberia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085129/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/liberia.htm Liberia] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Liberia}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13729504 Liberia profile] from the [[BBC News]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160306022235/http://countryportal.ascleiden.nl/liberia Liberia profile] from the [[Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden|African Studies Centre Leiden]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160306023751/http://countryportal.ascleiden.nl/ Country portal]. * [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/liberia.html "Liberia Maps"], Perry–Castañeda Library, University of Texas at Austin. * {{wikiatlas|Liberia}} {{Liberia topics}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Navboxes |title = International membership |list = {{African Union}} }} {{Navboxes |title = Languages |list = {{English official language clickable map}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|6|30|N|9|30|W|display=title}} [[Category:Liberia| ]]<!--Please do not move this article from its correct and standard position at the head of its own category.--> [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1847]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:West African countries]] [[Category:1847 establishments in Liberia| ]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:American colonization movement]] pialc2kuhsj9ncg45juy70r1j0keej6 0 6964 122786 122742 2026-10-01T04:12:27Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country in Southern Africa}} {{redirect|ZWE|other uses|Zimbabwe (disambiguation)|and|ZWE (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Zimbabwe | common_name = Zimbabwe | native_name = {{collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:84%; | title = 15 other official names<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe 2013, as amended to 2017 |url=https://constitutions.unwomen.org/en/countries/africa/zimbabwe?provisioncategory=1567c632948f4e7fbda031acfcb07d6d |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=constitutions.unwomen.org}}</ref> | {{Infobox|subbox=yes|bodystyle=font-size:77%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Shona language|Shona]]: | data1 = {{lang|sn|Nyika yeZimbabwe}} | rowclass2 = mergedrow | label2 = [[Northern Ndebele language|Ndebele]]: | data2 = {{lang|nd|Ilizwe leZimbabwe}} | rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3 = [[Chewa language|Chewa]]: | data3 = {{lang|ny|Dziko la Zimbabwe}} | rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = [[Chibarwe]]: | data4 = {{lang|bwg|Nyika ye Zimbabwe}} | rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]]: | data5 = {{lang|kck|Hango yeZimbabwe}} | rowclass6 = mergedrow | label6 = [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]]: | data6 = {{lang|st|Zimbabwe Nù}} | rowclass7 = mergedrow | label7 = [[Nambya language|Nambya]]: | data7 = {{lang|nmq|Inyika yeZimbabwe}} | rowclass8 = mergedrow | label8 = [[Ndau dialect|Ndau]]: | data8 = {{lang|ndc|Nyika yeZimbabwe}} | rowclass9 = mergedrow | label9 = [[Tsonga language|Shangani]]: | data9 = {{lang|ts|Tiko ra Zimbabwe}} | rowclass10 = mergedrow| label10 = [[Sesotho language|Sesotho]]: | data10 = {{lang|st|Naha ya Zimbabwe}} | rowclass11 = mergedrow| label11 = [[Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)|Tonga]]: | data11 = {{lang|st|Cisi ca Zimbabwe}} | rowclass12 = mergedrow| label12 = [[Venda language|Venda]]: | data12 = {{lang|ve|Shango ḽa Zimbabwe}} | rowclass13 = mergedrow| label13 = [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]: | data13 = {{lang|xh|Ilizwe lase-Zimbabwe}} }} }} | image_flag = Flag of Zimbabwe.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Zimbabwe.svg | coa_size = 105 | national_motto = "Unity, Freedom, Work"<ref name="BEAVERCT">{{cite journal |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=AFwtAAAAIBAJ&pg=3340,2548451&dq=zimbabwe+unity-freedom-work&hl=en |title=Zimbabwe |journal= The Beaver County Times |date= 13 September 1981 |access-date= 2 November 2011}}</ref> | national_anthem = "[[National Anthem of Zimbabwe|Blessed be the land of Zimbabwe]]"<ref name="CIA-WF">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zimbabwe/ |title=The World Factbook – Zimbabwe |date=2 December 2021 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zimbabwe/ |archive-date=26 January 2021}}</ref><div style= "padding-top:0.5em;">{{center| }}</div> | image_map = Zimbabwe (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green}} | capital = [[Harare]] | coordinates = {{Coord|17|49|45|S|31|03|08|E|type:city_region:ZW}} | largest_city = Harare | official_languages = [[Languages of Zimbabwe|16 languages]]:<ref name="language">{{cite web |publisher=Government of Zimbabwe |via=Kubatana.net |url= http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |title=Constitution of Zimbabwe (final draft) |date=January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131002110534/http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2013}}</ref> {{hlist |[[Shona language|Shona]] | [[Northern Ndebele language|Ndebele]] | [[Chibarwe]] | [[Zimbabwean English|English]] | [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]] |"[[Khoisan languages|Koisan]]" (presumably [[Tsoa language|Tsoa]]) | [[Nambya language|Nambya]] | [[Ndau language|Ndau]] | [[Shangani language|Shangani]] |"[[Zimbabwean sign languages|sign language]]" |[[Sotho language|Sotho]] | [[Tonga language (Zambia)|Tonga]] | [[Tswana language|Tswana]] | [[Venda language|Venda]] | [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] | [[Chewa language|Chewa]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 99.38% [[Black African]] (mainly [[Shona people|Shona]] and [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]]) | {{nowrap|0.22% [[White people in Zimbabwe|White African]]}} | 0.18% [[Coloured]] | 0.08% [[Asian people|Asian]] | 0.02% Other | 0.01% Not stated }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2012 Census<ref name="zimstat.co.zw" /> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |84.1% [[Christianity in Zimbabwe|Christianity]] |—69.2% [[Protestantism]] |—14.9% Other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] |10.2% [[Irreligion|No religion]] |4.5% [[African traditional religion|Traditional faiths]] |1.2% Others }} | religion_year = 2017 | religion_ref = <ref name="2017survey">{{cite web |url=https://zimbabwe.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Inter%20Censal%20Demography%20Survey%202017%20Report.pdf |title=Inter Censal Demography Survey 2017 Report |publisher=Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency |date=2017}}</ref> | demonym = Zimbabwean<br />Zimbo<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VzXJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 |title= Developments in English | work =International Association of University Professors of English Conference|date= 31 October 2014 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |via= Google Books|isbn= 9781107038509 }}</ref> (colloquial) | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Zimbabwe|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Zimbabwe|Vice-President]] | leader_name2 = [[Constantino Chiwenga]] | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | legislature = [[Parliament of Zimbabwe|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Senate of Zimbabwe|Senate]] | lower_house = [[House of Assembly (Zimbabwe)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] {{nobold |from the [[United Kingdom]]}} | established_event1 = [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Declared]] | established_date1 = 11 November 1965 | established_event2 = [[Rhodesia|Republic]] | established_date2 = 2 March 1970 | established_event3 = [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] | established_date3 = 1 June 1979 | established_event4 = [[Lancaster House Agreement|Independence recognised]] | established_date4 = 18 April 1980 | established_event5 = [[Constitution of Zimbabwe|Current constitution]] | established_date5 = 15 May 2013 | area_km2 = 390,757 | area_rank = 60th | area_sq_mi = 150,871 | percent_water = 1 | population_estimate = 15,418,674<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Zimbabwe|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_census = 15,178,979<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 Population and Housing Census - Preliminary Report - Zimbabwe Data Portal |url=https://zimbabwe.opendataforafrica.org/anjlptc/2022-population-and-housing-census-preliminary-report |access-date=2022-07-27 |website=zimbabwe.opendataforafrica.org}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 73rd | population_census_year = 2022 | population_density_km2 = 39 | population_density_sq_mi = 57 | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $42.4 billion<ref name="imf.org">{{cite web|url= https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=698,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,PPPEX,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,TMG_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2021&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023|date=April 2023|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= April 24, 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 131st | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $2,627<ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 175th | GDP_nominal = {{decrease}} $29.9 billion<ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 110th | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $1,851<ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 154th | Gini = 50.3 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2019 | Gini_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title= GINI Index |url= http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?page=3 |publisher= World Bank |access-date= 16 June 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111009161918/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?page=3 |archive-date= 9 October 2011}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.593 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 146th | currency = [[Zimbabwean_dollar (2019–present)|Zimbabwean dollar]]<br />[[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] ($) ([[ISO 4217|USD]])<ref name=Reuters.currency>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/zimbabwe-adopts-new-inflation-rate-based-us-dollar-local-currency-2023-03-03/ |title=Zimbabwe adopts new inflation rate based on U.S. dollar, local currency |date=3 March 2023 |access-date=25 March 2023 |work=Reuters |location=Harare}}</ref><br />[[South African rand]];<ref name=Reuters.currency /> Other currencies{{notetag|After the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended indefinitely from 12 April 2009, [[Euro]], [[United States dollar]], [[Pound sterling]], [[South African rand]], [[Botswana pula]], [[Australian dollar]], [[Renminbi|Chinese yuan]], [[Indian rupee]] and [[Japanese yen]] are used as legal tender.}} | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]<ref name= TimeZone>{{cite web |url= http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/zimbabwe/time/ |title= Zimbabwe Time |website= Greenwich Mean Time |publisher= Greenwich 2000|access-date= 17 November 2017|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110719182003/http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/zimbabwe/time/ |archive-date= 19 July 2011 |df= dmy-all}}</ref> | utc_offset = +2 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = left | calling_code = [[+263]] | cctld = [[.zw]] | today = }} '''Zimbabwe''' ntcharu icho chili pakati pa [[milonga ya Zambezi]] na [[Limpopo]], kumwera na [[South Africa]], kumwera na [[Botswana]], kumpoto na [[Zambia]]. Msumba ukuru chomene wa [[Harare]], ndipo waciŵiri ni [[Bulawayo, Zimbabwe|Bulawayo]]. Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 15 miliyoni<ref name=macro>{{cite web |url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/ZWE/zimbabwe/population |title=Zimbabwe Population 1950-2021 |website=macrotrends.net |access-date=29 June 2021 }}</ref>. Mtundu ukuru chomene mu Zimbabwe ni wa Shona, uwo uli na ŵanthu 82% pa charu chose. Ku Zimbabwe kuli viyowoyero 16, ndipo viyowoyero vikuru ni [[Cingelezi]], [[Cishona]], na [[Ndebele]].<ref name="language" /> Kwamba mu ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu (awo ŵakaŵa mtundu wa Shona) ndiwo ŵakazenga msumba wa [[Great Zimbabwe]].<ref name=":3" /> Mu ma 1000 C.E., msumba uwu ukaŵa umoza mwa misumba yikuru ya ku Africa iyo yikaguliskanga vinthu. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, msumba uwu ukaŵa kuti walekeka.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Who built Great Zimbabwe? And why? - Breeanna Elliott |url=https://ed.ted.com/lessons/who-built-great-zimbabwe-and-why-breeanna-elliott |access-date=2022-03-13 |website=TED-Ed |language=en}}</ref>Kufuma apo, ufumu wa Zimbabwe ukapangika, ndipo pamanyuma pake ufumu wa Rozvi na Mutapa.<ref name=":3" /> [[Kampani ya British South Africa|British South Africa Company]] ya [[Cecil Rhodes]] yikamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha [[Rhodesia]] mu 1890 apo ŵakathereska Mashonaland ndipo pamanyuma mu 1893 ŵakathereska Matabeleland pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Matabele ŵakakana. Mu 1923, boma la [[South Rhodesia]] likamba kulamulirika na boma la Britain. Mu 1965, boma la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa likapharazga kuti ni Rhodesia. Boma ili likaŵa kutali na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ndipo likaŵa na nkhondo ya ŵasilikari ya vyaka 15 na ŵasilikari ŵa mitundu yinyake. Kufuma apo, charu cha Zimbabwe chikaŵa mu wupu wa [[Commonwealth of Nations]], ndipo chikafumamo mu 2002 chifukwa cha kuswa malango gha vyaru vinyake. Mugabe wakazgoka nduna yikuru ya Zimbabwe mu 1980, apo chipani chake cha ZANU-PF chikaluska pa chisankho chikuru pamanyuma pa umaliro wa muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. Wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya Zimbabwe kufuma mu 1987 mpaka apo wakafumako mu 2017. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Mugabe, wupu wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose ndipo ndiwo ukachitanga viheni vinandi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=252745|title=Zimbabwe 2015 Human Rights Report|year=2015|access-date=6 May 2016|publisher=[[United States Department of State]] [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]]}}</ref> Kufuma mu 2000 mpaka mu 2009, chuma chikamba kunangika na kukhuŵara chomene pambere chindawelere nyuma apo ndalama zinyake padera pa dola ya ku Zimbabwe zikazomerezgekanga. Pa 15 Novembala 2017, pamanyuma pa chaka chimoza cha viwawa vyakususkana na boma lake kweniso chuma cha Zimbabwe icho chikukhilira pasi, Mugabe wakajalirika mu nyumba na ŵasilikari ŵa charu ichi mu boma, ndipo Mugabe wakafumapo pati pajumpha mazuŵa 6. Emmerson Mnangagwa ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wa Zimbabwe. Charu cha Zimbabwe chili mu wupu wa United Nations, Southern African Development Community, African Union, na Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. == Kwiza kwa zina == {{further|Rhodesia (name)}} Zina lakuti "Zimbabwe" likufuma ku lizgu la ChiShona ilo likung'anamura Great Zimbabwe, msumba wa ku Middle Ages (Masvingo) uwo uli kumwera kwa charu ichi. Pali vigomezgo viŵiri vyakukhwaskana na umo lizgu ili likambira. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti lizgu lakuti "Zimbabwe" lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti dzimba-dza-mabwe, ilo lili kung'anamulika kufuma ku lizgu la Chishona la Karanga kuti "nyumba za malibwe"..<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.somalipress.com/zimbabwe-overview/zimbabwe-big-house-stone-1145.html|title= Zimbabwe – big house of stone|publisher= Somali Press|access-date= 14 December 2008|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110503184153/http://www.somalipress.com/zimbabwe-overview/zimbabwe-big-house-stone-1145.html|archive-date= 3 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Shona Class 5 revisited: a case against *ri as Class 5 nominal prefix|journal= Zambezia|year= 1994|volume= 21|pages= 51–80|author= Lafon, Michel|url= http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol21n1/juz021001005.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Mediated monuments and national identity|author= Vale, Lawrence J.|doi= 10.1080/136023699373774|journal= Journal of Architecture|volume= 4|year= 1999|pages= 391–408|issue= 4}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Karanga ŵakakhalanga kufupi na Great Zimbabwe, mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Masvingo. Munthu munyake uyo wakusanda vinthu vyakale, zina lake Peter Garlake, wakati lizgu lakuti "Zimbabwe" likung'anamura lizgu lakuti dzimba-hwe.<ref>{{cite book|last= Garlake|first= Peter|author-link= Peter Garlake|title= Great Zimbabwe: New Aspects of Archaeology|url= https://archive.org/details/greatzimbabwe0000garl|url-access= limited|year= 1973|publisher= Thames & Hudson|location= London, UK|isbn= 978-0-8128-1599-3|page= [https://archive.org/details/greatzimbabwe0000garl/page/13 13]}}</ref> Kale, charu cha Zimbabwe chikachemekanga [[Southern Rhodesia]] (1898), [[Rhodesia]] (1965), na [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] (1979). Mu 1960 munthu munyake wakuchemeka Michael Mawema ndiyo wakambiska zina lakuti "Zimbabwe".<ref name=ndlovugatsheni113114/>Lizgu lakuti "Rhodesia", ilo lili kufuma ku zina la [[Cecil Rhodes]], uyo wakambiska kuti ku Britain kukhalenge ŵanthu ŵa ku Rhodesia m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakaliwonanga kuti ndakwenelera yayi.<ref name=fontein119120>{{cite book|title= The Silence of Great Zimbabwe: Contested Landscapes and the Power of Heritage|url= https://archive.org/details/silenceofgreatzi0000font|last= Fontein|first= Joost|location= London|publisher= [[University College London|University College London Press]]|date= September 2006|edition= First|isbn= 978-1844721238|pages= [https://archive.org/details/silenceofgreatzi0000font/page/119 119]–20}}</ref> Mawema wakati mu 1960, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakachita ungano kuti ŵasankhe zina linyake la charu ichi. Ŵalongozgi ŵa charu cha Matabeleland ŵakayowoyaso kuti "Matopos", kung'anamura mapiri gha Matopos kumwera kwa Bulawayo.<ref name=ndlovugatsheni113114>{{cite book|title= Do "Zimbabweans" Exist? Trajectories of Nationalism, National Identity Formation and Crisis in a Postcolonial State|last= Ndlovu-Gatsheni|first= Sabelo J.|location= Bern|publisher= [[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang AG]]|year= 2009|edition= First|isbn= 978-3-03911-941-7|pages= 113–14}}</ref> It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used—a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to "Zimbabweland"<ref name="ndlovugatsheni113114" /> — but "Zimbabwe" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement.<ref name=fontein119120/>Mu 2001, Eddison Zvobgo, uyo wakaŵa wakuwona vya charu, wakayowoya kuti Mawema wakazunura zina ili pa ungano wa ndyali. Gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito zina ili pa nyengo ya kampeni yaciŵiri ya Chimurenga yakwimikana na boma la Rhodesia mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Rhodesia ya 1964-1979. Gulu likuru mu kampu iyi likaŵa la Zimbabwe African National Union (lakuwusika na Robert Mugabe kwambira mu 1975), na Zimbabwe African People's Union (lakuwusika na Joshua Nkomo kwambira apo likakhazikiskikira mu 1960s). Nga ni vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa ivyo vikajiyimira mu nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima]], charu cha Zimbabwe nacho chilije mtundu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ChiShona, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵalipo pa chiŵerengero ichi ŵalipo 80 peresenti. Dango ili likuzomerezga viyowoyero 16, kweni viŵiri pera ndivyo vikuyowoyeka pa charu chose, chiShona na Chingelezi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusambira Chishona mu masukulu. Kweniso mu charu cha Zimbabwe mulije mulongozgi uyo ni Mushona yayi.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Mlambo|first=Alois S.|date=2013|title=Becoming Zimbabwe or Becoming Zimbabwean: Identity, Nationalism and State-building|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43941319|journal=Africa Spectrum|volume=48|issue=1|pages=49–70|doi=10.1177/000203971304800103|jstor=43941319|s2cid=127302759|issn=0002-0397}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-29 |title=From a kingdom to a nation: A Shona awakening |url=https://tradmag.ca/season-1/government/from-a-kingdom-to-a-nation-a-shona-awakening-2/ |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=Trad Magazine |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518174617/https://tradmag.ca/season-1/government/from-a-kingdom-to-a-nation-a-shona-awakening-2/ |archive-date=18 May 2024}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Zimbabwe}} === Nyengo ya pambere charu chindambe kulamulira === {{further|Bantu expansion}} [[File:Tower, Great Zimbabwe1.jpg|thumb|upright|Towers of [[Great Zimbabwe]]]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakumanya kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu charu cha Zimbabwe vyaka 500,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San, awo ŵakasunga mivi na vithuzithuzi vya mu mphanji. Pafupifupi vyaka 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵalimi ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakafika mu charu ichi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|title=Pre-colonial history of SA|website=South African History Online|access-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702192857/http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|archive-date=2 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|title=Zimbabwe|website=South African History Online|access-date=19 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107164147/http://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|archive-date=7 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku Shona ŵakamba kuŵako mu chigaŵa chapakati cha mlonga wa Limpopo mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E. pambere ŵandalute ku malo gha mapiri gha ku Zimbabwe. Charu cha Zimbabwe chikaŵa pakatikati pa vyaru vinyake vya Shona, kwamba mu ma 1000 C.E. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1000, ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda na ŵamalonda ŵa ku India, ndipo ŵakamba kwenda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Mapungubwe. Ichi chikaŵa chakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵambe kukhala mu chigaŵa ichi kufuma mu 13 m'paka mu 15 C.E. Vinthu ivi vikuwoneka mu malo agho ghakaŵa ku Great Zimbabwe, kufupi na Masvingo, kweniso mu malo ghanyake ghachoko. Pa malo agha pakaŵa nyumba zakuzengeka na malibwe ghakukhoma. Ufumu wa Mapungubwe ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba mu vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaguliskana vinthu mu Zimbabwe apo ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa ku Europe ŵakafikanga kufuma ku Portugal. Vyaru ivi vikaguliskanga golide, njovu, na mkuŵa na kugura salu na gilasi.<ref name="autogenerated241">{{cite book|title= Historical Archaeology |url= https://archive.org/details/historicalarchae0000unse_l8k7 |last= Hall|first= Martin|author2= Stephen W. Silliman|year= 2005|publisher= Wiley Blackwell|isbn= 978-1-4051-0751-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historicalarchae0000unse_l8k7/page/241 241]–44}}</ref> Kuzakafika mu 1220, ufumu wa Zimbabwe ukaŵa kuti wajumpha wa Mapungubwe. Boma la Shona likasazgirako na kusazgirako maofesi gha malibwe gha ku Mapungubwe, agho ghachalipo m'paka sono pa malo agho ghakaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu wa Great Zimbabwe. Kufuma mu 1450 m'paka mu 1760, Ufumu wa Mutapa ukawusa chigaŵa chikuru cha Zimbabwe, kweniso vigaŵa vinyake vya Mozambiki. Charu ichi chikachemekangaso Ufumu wa Mutapa, panji Mwene Mutapa panji Monomotapa kweniso "Munhumutapa". Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza pa ufumu uwu ndipo ŵakambiska nkhondo zinandi izo zikapangiska kuti ufumu wawo uparanyike kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1700.<ref name="autogenerated241" /> Pakuzgora ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu ichi, boma liphya la Ŵashona likawuka. Pakuthemba pa umo ŵasilikari, ŵandyali, na chisopa ŵakendera kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Rozwi (kung'anamura "ŵakuparanya") ŵakachimbizga Ŵapwitikizi mu charu cha Zimbabwe mu 1683. Mu 1821, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa mtundu wa Khumalo, zina lake Mzilikazi, wakawukira Themba Shaka na kukhazikiska mtundu wake wa Ndebele. Ŵanthu ŵa Ndebele ŵakaluta kumpoto ku Transvaal, ndipo ŵakasakaza vinthu vinandi chomene. Mu 1836, ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands awo ŵakendanga mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal ŵakaŵachimbizga kumpoto chomene na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Tswana Barolong na ŵa Griqua. Kuzakafika mu 1838, Ŵandebele ŵakathereska Ufumu wa Rozwi pamoza na vyaru vinyake vichoko vya Shona.<ref name="zimstudy">{{cite book|last= Nelson|first= Harold|title= Zimbabwe: A Country Study |pages= 1–317|publisher= The Studies | year= 1983}}</ref> [[File:Harris - Ndebelekraal.png|thumb|A Matabele [[kraal]], as depicted by [[William Cornwallis Harris]], 1836]] Mu 1840, Mzilikazi na fuko lake ŵakati ŵafumako ku vyaru vyawo ku South Africa, ŵakakhazikika kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu icho sono chikuchemeka Zimbabwe. Pamanyuma, Mzilikazi wakambiska gulu la ŵasilikari lakuyana na la Shaka. Mubali Mzilikazi wakafwa mu 1868; pamanyuma pa kulimbana na mwana wake Lobengula. === Nyengo ya Chikoloni na Rhodesia (1888~1964) === {{Main|Company rule in Rhodesia|Southern Rhodesia|Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland}} [[File:Hoisting the flag at Fort Salisbury.png|thumb|The [[Union Jack]] was raised over [[Harare|Fort Salisbury]] on 13 September 1890.]] Mu ma 1880, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakiza na kampani ya Cecil Rhodes yakuchemeka British South Africa Company (iyo yikalembeka mu 1889). Mu 1888, Themba Lobengula la ŵanthu ŵa Ndebele, likapeleka wanangwa wa kunozga migodi ku charu cha Rhodes. Iyo wakapeleka mwaŵi uwu kuti wakhuŵilizge boma la Britain kuti lipeleke wanangwa wa kuwusa Matabeleland na vyaru vinyake nga ni Mashonaland. Rhodes wakagwiliskira ntchito chikalata ichi mu 1890 kuti walongosore makora chifukwa icho wakatumira gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakavikilirikanga na ŵapolisi ŵa ku Britain (British South Africa Police - BSAP) awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero vinandi. Mu 1893 na 1894, ŵasilikari ŵa BSAP ŵakathereska Ŵandebele mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Matabele. Rhodes wakapemphaso kuti waŵape wanangwa wakuchita vinthu nga umo ŵakachitiranga ku Limpopo na Nyanja ya Tanganyika. Kuyana na fundo izo zikaŵa mu mapangano agha, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi, ndipo Ŵanung'una ŵakalutilira kulamulira ŵantchito, visulo vyakuzirwa, na vinthu vinyake.<ref name="bsac">Bryce, James (2008). ''Impressions of South Africa''. p. 170; {{ISBN|055430032X}}.</ref> [[File:Battle of the Shangani.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Battle of the Shangani]] on 25 October 1893]] Mu 1895, BSAC yikapeleka zina lakuti "Rhodesia" ku malo agha. Mu 1898, "Southern Rhodesia" likazgoka zina la chigaŵa icho chili kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Zambezi. Chigaŵa cha kumpoto, icho chikaŵa na boma lapadera, pamanyuma chikachemeka Northern Rhodesia (sono ni Zambia). Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo ŵabali ŵa ku Rhodes ŵakachitira nkhondo ya Jameson (Disembala 1895 m'paka Janyuwale 1896) pa charu cha South Africa, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ŵakagalukira ŵalongozgi ŵatuŵa. Nkhondo yachiŵiri ya Matabele ya 1896-1897 yikamara mu Matabeleland mpaka mu 1896, apo Mlimo wakakomeka na Frederick Russell Burnham. Mu 1896 na 1897, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵakagalukira boma la boma la Shona. Pamanyuma pa kugaluka uku, boma la Rhodes likathereska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu ya Ndebele na Shona ndipo likanozga vyaru kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakhalengepo. Pa Seputembala 12, 1923, Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukakolerana na charu cha Southern Rhodesia.<ref>Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 which provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia."</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645 – Authority for date of annexation having been 12 September 1923, being the date the Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council came into effect</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">''Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations Action in the Question of Southern Rhodesia'' by Vera Gowlland-Debbas</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645</ref>Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo charu ichi chikapokelereka, pa Okutobala 1, 1923, dango lakwamba la Southern Rhodesia likamba kugwira ntchito. Kuyana na dango liphya ili, charu cha Southern Rhodesia chikaŵa na wanangwa wa kwendera malango gha Britain. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵa ku Rhodesia ŵakateŵeteranga ku United Kingdom pa Nkhondo za Caru Cose ziŵiri izo zikacitika kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 1900. Kuyana na unandi wa ŵazungu, caru ca Southern Rhodesia cikapeleka ndalama zinandi comene pa munthu yumoza pa Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose kuluska cigaŵa cilicose ca ufumu uwu, kusazgapo Britain. Mu 1930, dango la kugaŵa malo likakanizga ŵanthu ŵafipa kuŵa na malo mu vigaŵa vinyake vya charu ichi. Ndondomeko iyi yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuyana, ntheura nyengo zinandi ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga vya kusintha kwa malo. Mu 1953, cifukwa ca kugaluka kwa vyaru vya ku Africa, Britain wakakolerana na vyaru viŵiri vya Rhodesia pamoza na Nyasaland (Malawi) mu Central African Federation. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵakamba kutinkhana chomene, chomenechomene ku Nyasaland. Apo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakamba kulamulira ku Northern Rhodesia na Nyasaland, ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern Rhodesia awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Europe ŵakalutilira kulamulira. Pamanyuma pa wanangwa wa Zambia (kufumila mu Okutobala 1964), boma la Rhodesian Front la Ian Smith mu Salisbury likathereska zina lakuti "Southern" mu 1964 (para Northern Rhodesia yikasintha zina lake kuŵa Zambia, lizgu lakuti Southern pambere zina la Rhodesia lindambe kuzunulika likamba kuŵa lakukhumbikwa yayi ndipo charu chikamba kumanyikwa kuti Rhodesia pamanyuma). Smith wakakana fundo ya Britain yakuti "kuŵa na wanangwa yayi pambere ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵandambe kulamulira". Uwu ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba uwo ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Britain ŵakacita kufuma waka mu 1776.<ref name="moorcraft"> {{cite journal |url= http://www.historytoday.com/paul-moorcraft/rhodesias-war-independence |title= Rhodesia's War of Independence|date= 31 August 1990 |journal= History Today|volume= 40 | issue= 9 |first= Paul|last= Moorcraft |quote= [P]er head of (white) population Rhodesia had contributed more in both world wars than any other part of the empire, including the United Kingdom. ... There is little doubt now that after a few resignations here and there, the army, the Royal Navy and even the Royal Air Force (supposedly the most disaffected service) would have carried out any orders to subdue the first national treason against the Crown since the American War of Independence.}} </ref> === Kupharazga wanangwa na nkhondo ya mukati (1965-1980) === {{Main|Rhodesia|Rhodesian Bush War|Zimbabwe Rhodesia|Lancaster House Agreement}} [[File:Udi2-rho.jpg|thumb|[[Ian Smith]] signing the [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience]] Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukawona kuti dango la Rhodesia likaŵa la kugaluka, kweni ukathereska yayi boma ili. Boma la Britain likapempha wupu wa United Nations kuti uŵike vyeruzgo pa caru ca Rhodesia cifukwa ca kudumbiskana na boma la Smith mu 1966 na 1968. Mu Disembala 1966, wupu uwu ukachita ivyo ukayowoya, ndipo ukakanizga boma la Georgia kuti licitenge malonda.<ref name="eafp">Hastedt, Glenn P. (2004) ''Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy'', Infobase Publishing, p. 537; {{ISBN|143810989X}}.</ref> Mu 1968, ŵakawovwiraso pa nkhani iyi. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikamba apo gulu la Joshua Nkomo la Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) na la Robert Mugabe la Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), ilo likakhozgeka na ŵamazaza ŵa Chikomyunizimu na vyaru vya mu Africa, likamba nkhondo ya kuwukira boma la Rhodesia ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. ZAPU yikakhozgeka na Soviet Union, Warsaw Pact na vyaru vinyake nga ni Cuba, ndipo yikamba kulondezga fundo za Marxist-Leninist. Mu 1970, Smith wakapharazga kuti Rhodesia ni charu cha ŵanthu wose, kweni charu chose chikamukana. Nyengo yeneyiyo, nkhondo ya mukati mu Rhodesia yikakura comene, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakeneranga kudumbiskana na ŵasilikari ŵa cikomyunizimu.[[File:Lancaster-House-Agreement.png|thumb|right|Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]] signs the Lancaster House Agreement seated next to [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]].]] Mu Malichi 1978, Smith wakakolerana na ŵalongozgi ŵatatu ŵa mu Africa, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Bishop Abel Muzorewa, awo ŵakapeleka mwaŵi wakuti ŵazungu ŵakhalenge makora mu malo agha. Paumaliro wa ndondomeko iyi, mu Epulero 1979, pakaŵa mavoti ndipo United African National Council (UANC) ndiyo yikaŵa na vithuzithuzi vinandi mu nyumba ya malango. Pa 1 Juni 1979, Muzorewa, mulongozgi wa UANC, wakaŵa nduna yikuru ndipo zina la chalo likasinthika kuŵa Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Pa ndondomeko iyi, Ŵazungu ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia, ŵantchito ŵa boma, makhoti, na pa vigaŵa vitatu vya nyumba za malango. Pa Juni 12, wupu wa United States Senate ukazomerezga kuti caru ca Rhodesia cileke kusuzgika na vinthu vya cuma. Pamanyuma pa ungano wa vigaŵa vya Commonwealth uwo ukacitikira ku Lusaka, Zambia, kwambira pa Ogasiti 1 m'paka 7, 1979, boma la Britain likacemera Muzorewa, Mugabe, na Nkomo kuti ŵize ku ungano wa malango ku Lancaster House. Chilato cha ungano uwu chikaŵa chakuti ŵadumbiskane na kukolerana pa fundo zakukhwaskana na dango la boma lakujiyimira pawekha, kweniso kuti paŵe maungano gha boma agho ghazamuwoneseskeka na Britain. Pa ungano uwu pakaŵa Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs wa ku United Kingdom. Pa Disembala 21, 1979, ŵimiliri ŵa vyaru vyose ŵakakolerana pa phangano la Lancaster House, ndipo nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikamara.<ref name="lancaster">Preston, Matthew (2004). ''Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective.'' p. 25; {{ISBN|1850435790}}.</ref><ref>Lord Soames, "From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe." ''International Affairs'' 56#3 (1980): 405–419. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2617389 online]</ref> Pa Disembala 11, 1979, Nyumba ya Maungano ya Rhodesia yikavota na mavoti 90 kuti yilute ku malo gha Britain (Ian Smith nayo wakazomera). Kufuma apo, boma likapokelera fundo iyi. Christopher Soames, uyo wakaŵa kazembe muphya, wakati wiza pa Disembala 12, 1979, Britain yikamba kulamulira charu cha Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Britain wakawuskapo vyeruzgo pa Disembala 12 ndipo United Nations pa Disembala 16. Pa viwoneskero vya mu Febuluwale 1980, Mugabe na chipani cha ZANU ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵanandi. Themba Charles, ilo likaŵa mwimiliri wa Britain, likapeleka wanangwa ku caru ciphya ca Zimbabwe pa ciphikiro ico cikacitikira mu Harare mu Epulero 1980.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Ian |date=2008 |title=Bitter Harvest |url=https://archive.org/details/bitterharvestzim0000smit |location=London |publisher=John Blake Publishing Ltd |page=[https://archive.org/details/bitterharvestzim0000smit/page/367 367] |isbn=978-1-85782-604-3 |author-link=Ian Smith }}</ref> === Nyengo ya kujithemba (1980-paka sono) === [[File:Zimbabwe, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Trends in Zimbabwe's [[Multidimensional Poverty Index]], {{Nowrap|1970–2010}}]] Pulezidenti wakwamba wa Zimbabwe wati wapokera wanangwa wakaŵa [[Canaan Banan]]<nowiki/>a, uyo pakwamba wakaŵa mutu wa boma. Mugabe wakaŵa nduna yikuru na mulara wa boma. Mu 1980, Samora Machel wakaphalira Mugabe kuti Zimbabwe ni "Jewel of Africa" kweni wakasazgirapo kuti: "Mungayifipiskanga yayi!".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/15/robert-mugabe-tarnished-jewel-zimbabwe-now-chance-shine/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/15/robert-mugabe-tarnished-jewel-zimbabwe-now-chance-shine/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Robert Mugabe tarnished the jewel that is Zimbabwe. Now is its chance to shine again|first=Boris|last=Johnson|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=15 November 2017|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2003/04/10/the-jewel-of-africa/|title=The Jewel of Africa|first=Doris|last=Lessing|date=10 April 2003|magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-economy-battered-over-the-years/2724325.html|title=What Happened to Zimbabwe, Once Known as The Jewel of Africa?|first=Irwin|last=Chifera}}</ref> Nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Matabeleland ŵakamba kulimbana na ivyo Ŵashona ŵakawonanga kuti ni kuwukira boma. Nkhondo ya ku Matabele yikapangiska kuti paŵe suzgo ilo likuchemeka Gukurahundi (Shona:'mvula yakwamba iyo yikugeziska duru pambere vula ya mu chihanya yindize'). Gulu la Cinkhondi, gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakasambizgika na North Korea ndipo ŵakaphalirika na Mugabe, ŵakanjira mu Matabeleland na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakovwira "ŵakupambana maghanoghano". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa pa nkhondo ya Gukurahundi iyo yikatora vyaka vinkhondi ŵakaŵa pakati pa 3,750 na 80,000. Ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika mu misasa ya ŵasilikari. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu 1987 pamanyuma pakuti Nkomo na Mugabe ŵafika pa phangano la umoza ilo likasazga vipani vyawo na kupanga Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU-PF).<ref name="meredith6273">{{cite book |last=Meredith |first=Martin |url=https://archive.org/details/mugabepowerplund00mere/page/62 |title=Mugabe: Power, Plunder and the Struggle for Zimbabwe |date=September 2007 |publisher=[[Perseus Books Group|PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1-58648-558-0 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mugabepowerplund00mere/page/62 62–73] |author-link=Martin Meredith |orig-year=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081123124818/http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html|archive-date=23 November 2008 | title= Chronology of Zimbabwe |publisher=badley.info|access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1831470.stm|title=Timeline: Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|access-date=9 December 2008 |date=15 October 2009}}</ref> Pa mavoti gha mu Malichi 1990, Mugabe na chipani chake cha ZANU-PF ŵakathereskaso ŵanyawo, ndipo ŵakatora vithuzithuzi 117.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|title=Zimbabwe: 1990 General Elections|access-date=9 December 2008 |publisher=EISA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205015007/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|archive-date=5 December 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090902092508/http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html|archive-date=2 September 2009 |title=Voting for Democracy: A Study of Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe|last=Moyo |first=Jonathon N. |publisher=University of Zimbabwe |access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵamalonda, na ŵantchito ŵanyake kanandi ŵakalongoranga kuti ŵakukondwa yayi na ivyo Mugabe na ZANU-PF ŵakachitanga. Mu 1996, ŵantchito ŵa boma, ŵasilikari, na ŵadokotala ŵakaleka ntchito cifukwa ca suzgo la malipiro. Kweniso umoyo wa ŵanthu ukamba kunangika comene. Mu 1997, ŵanthu pafupifupi 25% ŵakaŵa na HIV. Mu 1997, boma la ZANU-PF likambaso kudandawura chomene pa nkhani ya kugaŵa malo. Nangauli pakaŵa pulogiramu ya kunozga malo kufuma mu ma 1980, kweni ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakaŵa ŵazungu ŵakakhalanga pa malo ghakukwana 0.6 peresenti. Mu 2000, boma likalutilira na ndondomeko yake ya kusintha malo mwaluŵiro. Ndondomeko iyi yikasazgapo kutora malo mwakucicizgika kuti ŵanthu ŵazakagaŵireso malo ku ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Kuwombokwa kwa malo gha vyakurya, chilangalanga, na kuchepa kwa ndalama zakufuma ku vyaru vinyake na wovwiri unyake, vikapangiska kuti vyakurya vyakunjilira ku vyaru vinyake vichepe chomene. Kufuma nyengo yira, ŵalimi ŵa fuko la ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵakujumpha 58,000 ŵamba kunozgaso vyakurya vinyake ivyo vikumara.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/21/world/africa/in-zimbabwe-land-takeover-a-golden-lining.html?pagewanted=all|title=In Zimbabwe Land Takeover, a Golden Lining|work=The New York Times|date=20 July 2012|access-date=21 July 2012|author=Polgreen, Lydia}}</ref> Pulezidenti Mugabe na ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani cha ZANU-PF ŵakasangana na masuzgo ghakupambanapambana. Mu 2002, caru ici cikafumiskika mu wupu wa Commonwealth cifukwa ca kupoka minda mwambura kucenjera ndiposo kunanga mavoti. Chaka chakulondezgapo, ŵalara ŵa boma la Zimbabwe ŵakaleka kujipeleka ku Commonwealth. Mu 2001, boma la United States likakhazikiska dango lakuti Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZDERA). Phangano ili likamba kugwira ntchito mu 2002 ndipo likakanizga boma la Zimbabwe kupeleka ngongoli. Bill Frist ndiyo wakalemba dango ili, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako ni Hillary Clinton, Joe Biden, Russ Feingold, na Jesse Helms. Kwizira mu cipaturo 4C ca ZDERA ("Multilateral Financing Restriction"), Secretary of the Treasury wakulangulika kuti walongozge U.S. Ŵalaŵiliri ŵa mabungwe gha vya ndalama gha pa caru cose agho ghali kulembeka mu cipaturo 3 "ŵakususka na kuvota kwimikana na-- (1) kunjizga ngongoli yiliyose, ngongoli, panji cisimikizgo ku boma la Zimbabwe; panji (2) kulekeska panji kucepeskako ngongoli iyo boma la Zimbabwe lili nayo ku United States panji ku mabungwe ghanyake gha vya ndalama". Kuzakafika mu 2003, chuma cha charu ichi chikaŵa kuti chathika. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 25 pa ŵanthu 11 miliyoni ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakachimbira. Ŵanthu ŵatatu pa ŵanayi ŵa mu Zimbabwe ŵakakhalanga na ndalama zakukwana dola limoza pera pa zuŵa. Pamanyuma pa mavoti mu 2005, boma likambiska "Operation Murambatsvina", mulimo wa kukanizga misika yambura kuzomerezgeka na mizi iyo yikaŵa mu misumba.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4188702.stm|title=Zimbabwe destruction: One man's story|date=30 August 2005 |publisher=BBC|access-date=19 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/driving-out-the-filth-in-zimbabwe/|title=Driving out the filth in Zimbabwe|date=31 January 2007}}</ref> Boma la Zimbabwe likuyowoya kuti mulimo uwu ni nthowa yakupelekera nyumba ziwemi ku ŵanthu, nangauli ŵanthu awo ŵakususka nga ni Amnesty International ŵakuti ŵamazaza ŵandalongosorepo ivyo ŵakugomezga.<ref name="muram">{{cite web|url=http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010190256/http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006|archive-date=10 October 2006 |title=Zimbabwe: Housing policy built on foundation of failures and lies – Amnesty International|date=9 August 2006 |access-date=30 December 2013}}</ref>[[File:Food insecurity in Zimbabwe.svg|thumb|Map showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008]] Pa Malichi 29, 2008, Zimbabwe yikachita chisankho cha pulezidenti pamoza na chisankho cha pa nyumba ya malango. Pa mavoti gha mavoti agha ŵakasungapo kwa masabata ghaŵiri, pamanyuma pake ŵanthu ŵakamanya kuti Movement for Democratic Change (MDC-T) ndiyo yili na mpando umoza mu nyumba ya malango.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Kenneth Ingham |author2=Clyde William Sanger |author3=Kenneth Bradley |title=Zimbabwe - 2008 elections and aftermath &#124; Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/2008-elections-and-aftermath |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=January 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116000541/https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/2008-elections-and-aftermath |archive-date=January 15, 2023}}</ref> Pa Julayi 10, 2008, Russia na China ŵakakanira ivyo United Nations yikachita ku Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/11/unitednations.zimbabwe|title=China and Russia veto Zimbabwe sanctions|last=Nasaw|first=Daniel|date=11 July 2008|work=The Guardian|access-date=9 June 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Boma la United States ndilo likalemba chikalata ichi, icho mphanyi chikaŵa chakukanizga boma la Mugabe kugura vilwero. Ndipouli, vyaru 9 pa vyaru 15 ivyo vili mu wupu wa UN Security Council vikasuska, kusazgapo Vietnam, South Africa, na Libya, ivyo vikati Zimbabwe ni 'ciyezgo yayi ku mtende na civikiliro ca caru cose.' Kuumaliro wa chaka cha 2008, masuzgo gha ku Zimbabwe ghakafika paheni chomene pa nkhani ya umoyo, umoyo wa ŵanthu (pakawuka nthenda ya kolera mu Disembala) na vinthu vinyake. Mu nyengo iyi, mawupu ghambura vya boma ghakatora malo gha boma pakupeleka vyakurya ku Zimbabwe. Mu Seputembala 2008, pakaŵa phangano la kugaŵikana mazaza pakati pa Tsvangirai na Pulezidenti Mugabe, ilo likazomerezga Mugabe kuŵa nduna yikuru. Chifukwa cha mphindano pakati pa ŵaliska ŵa vipani vyawo, phangano ili likafiskika yayi m'paka pa Febuluwale 13, 2009. Kufika mu Disembala 2010, Mugabe wakawofyanga kuti wazamupoka makampani ghose agho ghakhalako mu Zimbabwe kwambura kuti "malango gha ku Western" ghalekeskeka.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2010/12/18/Mugabe-wants-sanctions-removed/UPI-84591292686762|title=Mugabe wants sanctions removed|work=United Press International|date=18 December 2010|access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>[[File:Mugabe - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] attended the Independence Day celebrations in South Sudan in July 2011.]] Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2011 na wupu wa Freedom House, wakalongora kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu ukwenda makora chomene kufuma apo ŵakakolerana kuti ŵagaŵane mazaza. Ofesi ya Wupu wa United Nations yakuwona vya wovwiri wa ŵanthu (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) yikati: "Vinthu vikwenda makora chomene mu Zimbabwe kufuma mu 2009, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachali mu suzgo". Pa 17 January 2013, Mubali John Nkomo wakafwa na kansa ku St Anne's Hospital, Harare, wali na vyaka 78. Dango liphya ilo likapokelereka mu 2013 ku Zimbabwe likuchepeska mazaza gha pulezidenti.<ref>{{cite news|title=Zimbabweans start voting to adopt new constitution|url=https://www.reuters.com-archive-classified.eu/article/2013/03/16/us-zimbabwe-referendum-idUSBRE92F03G20130316|work=Reuters|access-date=16 March 2013|author=Dzirutwe, MacDonald |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> Mugabe wakasankhikaso kuŵa purezidenti mu mavoti gha mu Julayi 2013 mu Zimbabwe agho The Economist yikati "ghakaŵa ghakupusika" ndipo Daily Telegraph yikati "ghakaŵa ghakubisika". Gulu la Movement for Democratic Change likati kuli upusikizgi ukuru ndipo likayezga kupempha wovwiri ku khoti. Mu nyengo yakuzizika pa ungano wa ZANU-PF mu Disembala 2014, President Robert Mugabe mwangozi wakaleka kuti opposition ndiyo yikaluska pa kafukufuku wa 2008 na 73%. Boma la Mugabe la ZANU-PF likati lathereska pa chisankho, likambaso kulamulira na chipani chimoza, likasazgirako maofesi gha boma, ndipo kuyana na magazini ya The Economist, likamba "kuchita vinthu viheni chomene". Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2017 na Institute for Security Studies (ISS) wakati chifukwa cha kunangika kwa boma na vyachuma, "boma likukhozga vimbundi kuti liwezge suzgo la kutondeka kupeleka ndalama ku maboma ghake". Pa 22 Okutobala 2015, pulezidenti Robert Mugabe wakapokera chawanangwa cha Confucius Peace Prize, icho chili nga ni chawanangwa cha Nobel Peace Prize ku China chifukwa cha kujipeleka kwake pa ndyali na vyachuma. Mu Julayi 2016, ŵanthu ŵakamba kususka ivyo vikachitikanga mu charu chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma.<ref name="Economist072016">{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21701779-imf-ready-throw-mugabe-regime-lifeline-bad-idea-bailing-out|title=Bailing out bandits|date=9 July 2016|newspaper=The Economist|issue=8997|volume=420|pages=43–44|issn=0013-0613|access-date=8 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="BBC2016">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-36724874 |title=Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse |access-date=7 July 2016 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/world/mugabe-at-war-with-militias-that-keep-him-in-power-kbldr7v8l|title=Mugabe at war with militias that keep him in power|last1=Raath|first1=Jan|last2=Graham|first2=Stuart|date=25 July 2016|newspaper=The Times|access-date=25 July 2016|url-access=subscription }}</ref>Mu Novembala 2017, ŵasilikari ŵakalongozga chipani cha coup d'état pamanyuma pa kufumiska mulara wa boma Emmerson Mnangagwa, ndipo ŵakaŵika Mugabe mu jele. Gulu la ŵasilikari likakana kuti ivyo ŵakacita vikaŵa vya kuwukira boma.<ref name="cnn_turmoil">{{cite news |url= http://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/14/africa/zimbabwe-military-chief-treasonable-conduct/ |title= Zimbabwe in turmoil after apparent coup |first1=David |last1=McKenzie |first2=Brent |last2=Swails |first3=Angela |last3=Dewan |work=CNN |access-date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="guardian_confined">{{cite news |date=15 November 2017|url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/nov/15/zimbabwe-army-control-harare-coup-robert-mugabe-live |title= Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe confined to home as army takes control |work=The Guardian |access-date= 15 November 2017}}</ref>Pa Novembala 19, 2017, ZANU-PF yikachimbizga Robert Mugabe pakuŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ndipo yikimika muwusi mulara Emmerson Mnangagwa mu malo ghake. Pa Novembala 21, 2017, Mugabe wakapeleka chipika chake pambere ndondomeko yakususka yindamalizgike. Nangauli mu malango gha Zimbabwe Mugabe wakwenera kulondezgeka na Vice-president Phelekezela Mphoko, uyo wakukolerana na Grace Mugabe, kweni mulara wa ZANU-PF, Lovemore Matuke wakaphalira wupu wa Reuters kuti Mnangagwa ndiyo wazamwimikika kuŵa president. Pa 30 Julayi 2018 Zimbabwe yikachita mavoti, ndipo chipani cha ZANU-PF icho chikulongozgeka na Mnangagwa ndicho chikaluska. Nelson Chamisa uyo wakalongozganga chipani chikuru chakususkana na boma cha MDC Alliance wakasuska ivyo vikachitika pa mavoti chifukwa cha upusikizgi, ndipo pamasinda wakapeleka mulandu ku khoti la Constitution Court of Zimbabwe. Khoti likakhozga kuti Mnangagwa watonda, ndipo ndiyo waŵenge pulezidenti muphya pamanyuma pa Mugabe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/zim-concourt-dismisses-mdcs-challenge-confirms-mnangagwa-winner/|title=Zim ConCourt dismisses MDC's challenge, confirms Mnangagwa winner – SABC News – Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader.|website=www.sabcnews.com|date=24 August 2018 |access-date=17 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-election-court-idUSKCN1L90W2|title=Top Zimbabwe court confirms Mnangagwa's presidential election victory|date=25 August 2018|work=Reuters|access-date=17 January 2019|language=en}}</ref> Mu Disembala 2017 webusayiti ya Zimbabwe News, pakupenda mtengo wa nyengo ya Mugabe pakugwiliskira nchito maukaboni ghakupambanapambana, yikati pa nyengo iyo charu chikapokera wanangwa mu 1980, caru cikakuranga pa ciŵelengero ca pafupifupi 5 peresenti pa caka. Usange vinthu vyendenge makora mu charu ichi kwa vyaka 37, mu 2016 Zimbabwe yizamuŵa na GDP ya madola 52 biliyoni. M'malo mwake yikaŵa na GDP ya US$14 biliyoni pera, ndipo yikakhumba ndalama zakukwana US$38 biliyoni. Mu 1980, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu cikakura comene mu Africa, pafupifupi 3.5 peresenti pa caka, ndipo cikasazgikiranga kaŵiri pa vilimika 21. Ŵanandi aŵa ŵaŵenge kuti ŵakalutilira kukura, mphanyi ŵakaŵa 31 miliyoni. Kweni mu 2018, ŵalipo pafupifupi 13 miliyoni. Ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga kuti pali mphambano chifukwa cha njara na matenda, kweniso chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa ŵana. Kufuma mu 1980, ŵanthu ŵakufwa na nkhaza izo zikuchitika chifukwa cha ndyali ŵakujumpha 200,000. Boma la Mugabe ndilo lapangiska kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 miliyoni ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵafwe mu vilimika 37. Wupu wa World Food Programme ukuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵali pafupi kufwa na njara cifukwa ca chilangalanga ico cacitika mu caru ici. Mu chaka cha 2018, President Mnangagwa wakapharazga kuti boma lake lizamukhumba kuwelera ku Commonwealth, ndipo kufuma mu chaka cha 2023, lizamupanga upharazgi wakumanya unenesko pambere wandapemphe Secretary General kuti wapeleke ulongozgi. Pa 6 September 2019, pulezidenti wakale Robert Mugabe wakafwa ku Singapore, wali na vyaka 95.<ref>{{cite news |title=Former Zimbabwean leader Robert Mugabe dies – DW – 09/06/2019 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/zimbabwe-ex-president-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95/a-50321834 |work=dw.com |language=en}}</ref> ==Makhalilo== {{main|Geography of Zimbabwe}} [[File:ZmbziRvr.jpg|thumb|The [[Zambezi River]] in the [[Mana Pools National Park]]]] [[File:Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification]] Charu cha Zimbabwe chili kumwera kwa Africa, ndipo chili pakati pa latitude 15° na 23°S, kweniso longitude 25° na 34°E. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa South Africa, kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera kwa charu cha Botswana, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zambia, kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto kwa Mozambique. Malo agha ghali pa mtunda wa mamita 150 kufuma ku Namibia. Chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili pachanya chomene, ndipo chili na malo ghatali chomene (high veld) agho ghakutambazga kufuma kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kuya kumpoto. Chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi chili na mapiri, ndipo chili na mapiri ghanandi chomene. Malo agha ghakumanyikwa na malo ghakutowa nga ni Nyanga, Troutbeck, Chimanimani, Vumba na Chirinda Forest pa Phiri la Selinda. Pafupifupi vigaŵa 20 pa vigaŵa 20 vya charu ichi vili pasi pa mamita 900. Victoria Falls, yimoza mwa majigha ghakuru comene pa caru, yili kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici ndipo yili mu mlonga wa Zambezi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide|year=2018|editor-last=Helicon|via=Credo Reference}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://victoriafallstourism.org/|title=Victoria Falls|date=2019|website=Victoria Falls Tourism|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> === Geology === {{main|Geology of Zimbabwe}} Mu nyengo ya geological, Zimbabwe yikaŵa na vigaŵa viŵiri vikuruvikuru vya kuswa kwa charu cha Gondwana (ivyo vikumanyikwa kuti Africa na Africa), kweniso chigaŵa chinyake cha Plio-Pleistocene.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moore|first=A E |display-authors=etal|date=2009|title=Landscape evolution in Zimbabwe from the Permian to present, with implications for kimberlite prospecting|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Moore2009_2.pdf|journal=Geological Society of South Africa|volume=112|issue=1 |page=65 |doi=10.2113/gssajg.112.1.65 |bibcode=2009SAJG..112...65M }}</ref> ===Nyengo=== Charu cha Zimbabwe chili na mphepo ya subtropical iyo yikupambana chomene. Ku vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa charu ichi kukufipa chomene, ndipo ku chigaŵa chinyake cha pakati pa charu ichi kukuzizima. Dambo la Zambezi likumanyikwa na kuthukira comene, ndipo ku Eastern Highlands kanandi kukuzizima comene ndipo kukulokwa comene. Nyengo ya vula mu charu ichi yikwamba kuumaliro wa Okutobala m'paka Malichi. Mu charu cha Zimbabwe mukusuzgika na chilangalanga. Mu 2019, njovu zakukwana 55 zikafwa cifukwa ca chilangalanga. Vivula vikuru vikuchitika viŵi yayi.<ref name="Baughan, M. 2005">Baughan, M. (2005). Continent in the Balance: Zimbabwe-Juvenile literature. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest Publishers; {{ISBN|1590848101}}.</ref> === Vinthu vyakupambanapambana === {{main|Wildlife of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Curled trunk.jpg|thumb|An elephant at a water hole in [[Hwange National Park]]]] Zimbabwe yili na vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri: Kalahari acacia ̇baikiaea, South Africa bushveld, Southern miombo, Zambezian Baikiaea, Zambezian na mopane, Zambezian halophytics, na Eastern Zimbabwe.<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287}}</ref> Charu ichi chili na makuni ghanandi, kweni mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya kumafumiro gha dazi muli nkhorongo na makuni ghanandi. Makuni ghanyake agho ghakusangika ku Eastern Highlands ni teak, mahogany, khuni likuru la mkama, nkhorongo ya Newtonia, makuni ghakurughakuru, makuni ghamsinjiro ghatuŵa, chirinda, knobthorn, na ghanyake ghanandi. Mu vigaŵa vya pasi vya caru ici muli makuni ghanandi gha five, mopane, combretum, na baobab. Chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili na makuni gha miombo. Pa maluŵa na makuni ghanyake agho ghalipo, pali hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotis, cassia, tree wisteria, na dombeya. Ku Zimbabwe kuli vyamoyo vyakukwana mitundu yakujumpha 350. Paliso njoka na vyakumera vinandi, viyuni vyakujumpha 500, na somba 131. ===Environmental issues=== Nyengo yinyake, vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Zimbabwe vikaŵa na makuni ghanandi. Pakuti makuni ghakumalira mu malo ghakupambanapambana kweniso ŵanthu ŵakukoma vinyama, vikoko vya mu nkhorongo vyachepa. Vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti makuni ghasakazikenge na kupasuka chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu, kusazgikira kwa mizi, na kugwiliskira ntchito mafuta, ni vyakuti vikupangiska kuti makuni ghasakazikenge. Ŵalimi ŵa ku malo agha ŵakususkika cifukwa ca kotcha vyakumera kuti ŵasunge ndudu. Charu ichi chili na chiŵerengero cha 6.31/10 pa charu chose pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G }}</ref> == Boma == {{Main|Politics of Zimbabwe|Elections in Zimbabwe|Foreign relations of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Harare parlament 24032005.jpg|thumb|[[Parliament of Zimbabwe]] in Harare]] Charu cha Zimbabwe chili na boma la pulezidenti. Ndondomeko iyi yikamara mu 2013 apo boma likapeleka malango ghaphya. Mu 2005, boma likasintha malango gha boma la Georgia, ndipo likambaso kuŵa na nyumba yikuru yakucemeka Senate. Nyumba ya Malamulo ndiyo ni nyumba yaciŵiri ya boma. Mu 1987, Mugabe wakasintha malango gha boma, wakawuskapo mazaza gha pulezidenti na gha nduna yikuru kuti paŵe boma la pulezidenti. Chipani chake cha ZANU-PF chakhala chikupambana pa mavoti ghose kwambira apo charu chikapokera wanangwa. Mu 1990, chipani cha ZUM cha Edgar Tekere, icho chikaŵa pa malo ghachiŵiri, chikapokera mavoti 20%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzimbabwe.com/pages/review27.15680.html|title=Tekere says Mugabe 'insecure' in new book|access-date=6 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227185709/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/pages/review27.15680.html|archive-date=27 December 2007}}</ref><ref>Mugabe, Robert. (2007). ''Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite'', Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.<!--ISSN/ISBN needed, page(s) needed--></ref> === Ndale === Pa nyengo ya maungano gha pa caru cose gha mu 1995, vyaru vinandi ivyo vikususkana na boma, kusazgapo chipani ca ZUM, vikakana maungano agha.<ref name="Frankel">{{Cite web|last=Frankel |first=Matthew |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-may-26-la-oe-frankel-burma-20100526-story.html |title=Myanmar boycott is misguided |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223213933/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-may-26-la-oe-frankel-burma-20100526-story.html |archive-date=23 February 2021 |url-status=live |work=Los Angeles Times |date=26 May 2010}}</ref> Apo ŵakususka ŵakaweleraso ku mavoti mu 2000, ŵakatora vithuzithuzi 57, ndipo vikaŵa vichoko na vithuzithuzi 5 pera pakuyaniska na vya ZANU-PF. Mu 2002, ŵakaŵaso na mavoti gha pulezidenti pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoya kuti pa mavoti pakaŵa mavoti ghambura kwenelera. Chisankho cha Nyumba ya Malamulo ku Zimbabwe mu 2005 chikachitika pa 31 March, ndipo maboma gha Movement for Democratic Change na Jonathan Moyo ghakaphalira ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵakachitanga ukhuluku, upusikizgi, kweniso kuti ŵakopa ŵanthu. Moyo wakachitako mavoti nangauli ŵakamupa mulandu ndipo wakapokera mpando wa mphala ya malango.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Makgetlaneng |first=Sehlare |title=ZIMBABWE'S 2005 PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS: Lessons for the Movement for Democratic Change |url=https://www.eisa.org/pdf/JAE4.2Makgetlaneng.pdf |journal=Africa Institute of South Africa |pages=124}}</ref> [[File:Election campaign March 2005.jpg|thumb|Supporters of the [[Movement for Democratic Change (prior to 2005)|Movement for Democratic Change]] in 2005]]Mu 2005, chipani cha MDC chikagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: Movement for Democratic Change Mutambara (MDC-M), chakulongozgeka na Arthur Mutambara icho chikapangana pa viphikiro vya Senate, na Movement for Democratic Change Tsvangirai (MDC-T) chakulongozgeka na Morgan Tsvangirai icho chikakana kupangana pa viphikiro ivi. Makampu ghaŵiri gha MDC ghakaŵa na ungano wawo mu 2006 ndipo Tsvangirai wakasankhika kulongozga MDC-T, iyo yikaŵa yakutchuka chomene kuluska gulu linyake. Mu 2008, pa mavoti gha boma, pakaŵa chigaŵa cha Mugabe na Tsvangirai. Chipani cha MDC-T chikakanizga mavoti agha, pakughanaghana kuti boma la Mugabe likachitiska upusikizgi. Pa June 27, 2008, ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵapeleke ndalama zakuwuskira ŵanyawo. Pa 22 Juni, chifukwa cha kuleka urunji kwa ndondomeko iyi na kukana kunjilirapo pa "ntchito ya nkhaza, yautesi", Tsvangirai wakafumapo pa chigamulo cha pulezidenti, komiti ya vyakusankha yikachitiska chigamulo ichi, ndipo pulezidenti Mugabe wakapokera wanandi chomene. Chipani cha MDC-T chikapokapo yayi mavoti gha Senate, apo chipani cha MDC-M chikapokera mavoti ghankhondi mu Senate. Chipani cha MDC-M chikadodoliskika na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakaleka kuwungana. Pa 28 Epulero 2008, Tsvangirai na Mutambara ŵakapharazga pa ungano wa ŵapharazgi mu Johannesburg kuti magulu ghaŵiri gha MDC ghakolerananga, ndipo MDC yikaŵa na wanandi mu nyumba ya malango.<ref name="SABCre">{{cite web|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/africa/southern_africa/0,2172,168544,00.html |title=Zimbabwe's MDC factions reunite |access-date=13 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502155226/http://www.sabcnews.com/africa/southern_africa/0%2C2172%2C168544%2C00.html |archive-date= 2 May 2008 }}, SABC News, 28 April 2008.</ref><ref name="Reunites">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7371823.stm|title=Opposition reunites in Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|date=28 April 2008|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref> Tsvangirai wakayowoya kuti Mugabe wangalutilira yayi kuŵa pulezidenti usange palije wanandi wa ŵanthu mu nyumba ya malango. Pakati pa Seputembala 2008, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana kwa nyengo yitali na ŵalongozgi ŵa South Africa na Mozambique, Mugabe na Tsvangirai ŵakasayina phangano la kugaŵikana mazaza umo Mugabe wakasungiliranga mazaza pa ŵasilikari. Vyaru ivyo vyapeleka ndalama vikulindilira dankha, ndipo vikukhumba kuwona kuti vinthu vyasintha nadi pambere vindaŵikeko ndalama zakovwilira kuzenga, izo vikwenera kuti vyatora vilimika vinkhondi. Pa 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai wakapika udindo wa nduna yikuru na Mugabe.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Services|first=Msnbc com News|date=2009-02-11|title=Tsvangirai sworn in as Zimbabwe's PM|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/29134750/ns/world_news-africa/t/tsvangirai-sworn-zimbabwes-pm/|access-date=2020-07-10|website=msnbc.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Tsvangirai sworn in as Zimbabwe PM - CNN.com|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/02/11/zimbabwe/|access-date=2020-07-10|website=www.cnn.com}}</ref> Mu Novembala 2008, boma la Zimbabwe likagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakukwana madola 7.3 miliyoni gha ku United States izo zikafuma ku The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. Wimiliri wa wupu uwu wakakana kuyowoya umo ndalama zikagwilira nchito, kweni wakalemba kuti zikaŵa zawakawaka yayi, ndipo boma likatondeka kupulikira ivyo likapempha. Mu February 2013, mulongozgi wa vyakusankha wa Zimbabwe, Simpson Mtambanengwe, wakaleka ntchito chifukwa cha ulwari. Iyo wakaleka mulimo uwu pambere pacali myezi yichoko waka kuti paŵe maungano gha malango na maungano gha boma. Boma la Zimbabwe likususkika na boma la Zimbabwe ilo likapoka mazaza mu Novembala 2017. Emmerson Mnangagwa wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti pamanyuma pa chipani ichi ndipo wakasankhika na 50.8% ya mavoti mu 2018 Zimbabwean general election. Boma likupokera mazgu ghambura kwenelera kufuma ku ŵanthu chifukwa chakuti nyengo zose likujara Intaneti pa nyengo ya viwawa nga ni ivyo vikunozgekera pa Julayi 31. 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shiangala|first=Mike|date=2020-07-31|title=Zimbabwe to allegedly shutdown the Internet on 31st July|url=https://smattgeeksmedia.com/news/zimbabwe-to-allegedly-shutdown-the-internet-on-31st-july/|access-date=2020-07-31|website=Smatt Geeks Media|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810180309/https://smattgeeksmedia.com/news/zimbabwe-to-allegedly-shutdown-the-internet-on-31st-july/|archive-date=10 August 2020}}</ref> === Wankhondo === {{Main|Zimbabwe Defence Forces}} [[File:Flag of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces.svg|thumb|The flag of the [[Zimbabwe Defence Forces]]]] Gulu la Zimbabwe Defence Forces likakhazikiskika pakukolerana magulu ghatatu gha chigaluka - Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), na Rhodesian Security Forces (RSF) - pamanyuma pa Chimurenga wachiŵiri na wanangwa wa Zimbabwe mu 1980. Mu nyengo ya umoza, gulu la nkhondo la Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) na Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ) likapangika nga ni maboma ghakupambanapambana agho ghakalongozgekanga na Jenerale Solomon Mujuru na Air Marshal Norman Walsh, uyo wakafumapo mu ntchito mu 1982 ndipo wakasinthika na Air Marshal Azim Daudpota uyo wakapeleka mazaza kwa Air Chief Marshal Josiah Tungamirai mu 1985. Mu 2003, Jenerale Constantine Chiwenga, wakakwezgeka na kusankhika Mulara wa mawumba gha Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Mulara Mukuru P. V. Sibanda ndiyo wakanjira mu malo ghake pakuŵa Mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari. Gulu la ZNA lili na ŵasilikari 30,000. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵakuŵapo 5,139.<ref name="Airforce of Zimbabwe">{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwedefence.com/AFZ0.html|title=Zimbabwe Defence Forces News|publisher=ZDF News|access-date=17 April 2009}}</ref> Wapolisi wa Republic of Zimbabwe (wakusazgapo Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) ndi chigaŵa cha Zimbabwe Defence Forces ndipo wali na ŵanthu 25,000. Pakwamba kwa 1980, ŵaliska ŵa ku Britain ndiwo ŵakalongozganga gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia. Mu cilimika cakwamba, ŵakalondezganga ndondomeko yakuti uyo wacitenge makora comene ndiyo waŵe mulongozgi wa gulu. Usange wakaŵa wa ZANLA, munthu uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa iyo ndiyo wakaŵa na maluso ghapachanya pa ZIPRA. Ivi vikawovwira kuti paŵe mtende pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri agha. Pakwamba, ZNA yikaŵa na magulu ghanayi gha ŵasilikari. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakovwira ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵaluso ŵa mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia, apo ŵasilikari ŵa mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia ŵakaŵikika mu gulu la ŵasilikari 1, 3 na 4. Brigade ya Cinkhondi yikapangika mu 1981 ndipo yikamara mu 1988 pamanyuma pakulongosora za nkhaza na kukoma ŵanthu pa nyengo iyo brigade iyi yikawusanga Matabeleland mu malo agho ghakachemekanga Gukurahundi. Gulu ili likapangikaso mu 2006, ndipo mulara wake, Brigadier General John Mupande wakalumba "mbiri yake".<ref name="Herald Reporter">{{cite news|url=http://www.zimbabwedefence.com/News_5th_Gets_Comm.html|publisher=Zimbabwe Defence Forces News|title=5th Brigade gets new commander|date=22 February 2006|access-date=18 April 2009}}</ref> ===Ufulu wamunthu=== {{Main|Human rights in Zimbabwe}} {{See also|Child marriage in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Demonstration against Mugabe.JPG|thumb|right|A demonstration in [[London]] against [[Robert Mugabe]]. Protests are discouraged by Zimbabwean police in Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/12/03/2437229.htm|title=Police baton charge Harare protesters|date=3 December 2008|work=ABC News|access-date=15 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206011656/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/12/03/2437229.htm|archive-date=6 December 2008}}</ref>]] Pali malipoti ghanandi ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu Zimbabwe mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Mugabe na chipani cha ZANU-PF. Kuyana na mawupu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu nga ni Amnesty International na Human Rights Watch, boma la Zimbabwe likuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa kukhala, kurya, kwenda na kukhala mwakufwatuka, kuwungana mwakufwatuka, na kuvikilirika na dango. Mu 2009, Gregory Stanton, pulezidenti wa International Association of Genocide Scholars, wakayowoya kuti pakaŵa "ukaboni wakuti boma la Mugabe likaŵa na mulandu wa kuswa malango gha ŵanthu ndipo pakaŵa ukaboni wakukwana wa kuswa malango gha ŵanthu kuti Mugabe weruzgike panthazi pa khoti la International Criminal Court". Ku Zimbabwe, ŵanalume awo ŵakugonana ŵanalume ŵekhaŵekha mbambura kuzomerezgeka. Kwambira mu 1995, boma likulimbana na ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo. Pulezidenti Mugabe wakususka ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha chifukwa cha masuzgo ghanandi agho Zimbabwe yili nagho ndipo wakuwona kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ni ŵanthu "ŵambura kuzomerezgeka ku Africa" ndiposo kuti mbambura nkharo. Nyengo zinandi ŵapolisi ŵakuwukira awo ŵakuwukira boma, nga umo ŵakacitira pa ungano wa MDC uwo ukacitika pa Malichi 11, 2007, kweniso pa ungano unyake uwo ukacitika pa nyengo ya ungano wa 2008. Secretary General wa UN Ban Ki-moon, European Union, na United States ŵakususka comene ivyo ŵapolisi ŵakucita. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakudandawura chifukwa cha wanangwa wa Fox Southwest. Boma la Zimbabwe likususkika kuti likukanizga wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Gulu ili likuyuyulika kanandi waka kuti likugwiliskira nchito wupu wa Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation. Manyuzipepara agho ghakatenge ghakususka boma, nga ni Daily News, ghakajalika pamanyuma pakuti mabomba ghaphulika mu maofesi ghawo ndipo boma likakana kuwezgerapo layisensi yawo. BBC News, Sky News, na CNN ŵakakanizgika kujambura panji kulemba nkhani kufuma ku Zimbabwe. Mu 2009, boma likawuskapo dango lakuti BBC na CNN vileke kulemba nkhani. Sky News yikulutilira kulemba ivyo vikucitika mu Zimbabwe kufuma ku vyaru vyapafupi nga ni South Africa.<ref name="networks">{{cite news|author=Nkosi, Milton|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/newswatch/ukfs/hi/newsid_4400000/newsid_4401700/4401767.stm|title=Why did Zimbabwe ban the BBC?|work=BBC News|date=1 April 2005|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwemetro.com/2008/06/22/al-jazeera-kicked-out-of-zimbabwe |archive-url=https://archive.today/20080623173259/http://zimbabwemetro.com/2008/06/22/al-jazeera-kicked-out-of-zimbabwe |archive-date=23 June 2008 |title=Al Jazeera kicked out of Zimbabwe |url-status=dead |access-date=1 June 2016 }}, zimbabwemetro.com, 22 June 2008.</ref> Pa 24 Julayi 2020, ofesi ya United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) yikayowoya kuti yikudandawura na ivyo boma la Zimbabwe likuyowoya kuti likagwiliskira ntchito suzgo la COVID-19 kuti likanizge wanangwa wa kuyowoya na kuwungana mu msewu. Liz Throssell, muyowoyeri wa OHCHR, wakati ŵanthu ŵali na wanangwa wa kususka vimbundi. Ŵalara ŵa boma ku Zimbabwe ŵakagwiliskira nchito nkongono kuti ŵaparanye na kukora ŵasilikari na ŵantchito ŵa munkhwala, awo ŵakasuskanga mwamtende kuti ŵapike malipiro ghawemi ndiposo kuti ŵagwirenge makora nchito. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa chipani cakususkana na nyuzipepara ŵakakakika na kukakika cifukwa ca kucitako viyezgelero. Pa 5 August 2020, kampeni ya #ZimbabweanLivesMatter pa Twitter yikawovwira ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa pa charu chose na ŵandyali kuti ŵamanye umo wanangwa wa ŵanthu ukusinthira mu charu ichi, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti boma la Emmerson Mnangagwa liŵe na suzgo. Kampeni iyi yikacitika cifukwa ca kukakika, kukomeka na kutambuzgika kwa ŵanthu awo ŵakasuzganga ŵandyali, kweniso kukakika kwa mupharazgi Hopewell Chin'ono na mulembi wa buku la Booker Prize, Tsitsi Dangarembga.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/aug/05/zimbabweanlivesmatter-celebrities-join-campaign-against-human-rights-abuses|title=#ZimbabweanLivesMatter: celebrities join campaign against human rights abuses|access-date=5 August 2020|website=The Guardian|date=5 August 2020}}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Provinces of Zimbabwe|Districts of Zimbabwe|Wards of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Administrative Divisions of Zimbabwe.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|right|[[Provinces of Zimbabwe|Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe]]]] Charu cha Zimbabwe chili na boma lakugaŵikana ndipo chili na vigaŵa 8 na misumba yiŵiri. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na msumba ukuru uwo boma likuwusamo.<ref name="CIA-WF"/> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! Province !! Capital |- | [[Bulawayo]] || [[Bulawayo]] |- | [[Harare]] || [[Harare]] |- | [[Manicaland]] || [[Mutare]] |- | [[Mashonaland Central]] || [[Bindura]] |- | [[Mashonaland East]] || [[Marondera]] |- | [[Mashonaland West]] || [[Chinhoyi]] |- | [[Masvingo Province|Masvingo]] || [[Masvingo|Masvingo city]] |- | [[Matabeleland North]] || [[Lupane District]] |- | [[Matabeleland South]] || [[Gwanda]] |- | [[Midlands Province|Midlands]] || [[Gweru]] |} Mazina gha vigaŵa vinandi ghakafuma ku chigaŵa cha Mashonaland na Matabeleland pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi: Mashonaland yikaŵa chigaŵa icho chikakoleka na British South Africa Company Pioneer Column, ndipo Matabeleland yikaŵa chigaŵa icho chikapokeka pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Matabele. Ichi chikukolerana na chigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona na Matabele ŵakakhalanga pambere charu chindambe kuwusa. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na kazembe uyo wakuchemeka na pulezidenti. Boma la cigaŵa likulongozgeka na mulaŵiliri wa cigaŵa, uyo wakusankhika na Commission of Public Service. Maofesi ghanyake gha boma gha vigaŵa vyawo ghakuchita milimo yinyake. Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika vigaŵa 59 na vigaŵa 1,200 (ivyo nyengo zinyake vikuchemeka maboma). Chigaŵa chilichose chikulongozgeka na mulongozgi wa chigaŵa, uyo wakusankhika na Public Service Commission. Paliso wupu wa Rural District Council, uwo ukusora mulara wa boma. Wupu wa Rural District Council ukupangika na ŵanthu ŵakusoleka, mulaŵiliri wa chigaŵa, na mwimiliri wa ŵalongozgi (ŵalongozgi awo ŵakwimikika mwakuyana na dango la cikaya) mu chigaŵa. Maofesi ghanyake gha boma gha mu vigaŵa ghakuchita milimo iyi. Pa chigaŵa ichi pali Komiti Yakupanga Vipinda, iyo yikusazgapo mulongozgi wa chigaŵa uyo wakusankhika, ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa (ŵalongozgi awo ŵakulongozgeka na ŵalongozgi) na ŵimiliri ŵa Komiti Yakupanga Vipinda. Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika mu mizi, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chili na komiti ya chitukuko ya mizi na mulongozgi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/TRADITIONAL_LEADERS_ACT_29_17.pdf|title=Traditional Leaders Act (Chapter 29:17)|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|access-date=19 December 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904033010/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/TRADITIONAL_LEADERS_ACT_29_17.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref> == Sanctions == Kwambira mu 2000, charu cha Zimbabwe chili pasi pa vyeruzgo vyakufuma ku United States na European Union ivyo vyakhwaska ndyali ya mu charu ichi kweniso ubwezi wa charu ichi na vyaru vya ku Western. Mu 2002, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa maungano gha chigaŵa, ndipo pambere maungano agha ghandambe, wupu wa EU ukatuma ŵanthu kuti ŵakawonelere. Mu Febuluwale 2002, EU yikaŵika malango ghakukanizga Zimbabwe. Ŵalara ŵa boma pafupifupi 20 ŵakakanizgika kunjira mu Europe, ndipo ndalama za EU zikamara. Pambere mavoti ghandambe, boma la Zimbabwe likapeleka ndalama zakukwana madola 128 miliyoni kufuma mu 2002 m'paka mu 2007, kweni ŵakazikanizga. Ndipouli, EU yikathera waka kupeleka ndalama ku boma, kweni yikalutilira kutuma ndalama kwizira mu mawupu gha wovwiri na mawupu gha boma yayi. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vicoko waka, ŵa EU na Zimbabwe ŵakamazga mphindano zawo ndipo vyeruzgo vinandi vya EU vikafumiskika. Mubali Mugabe na muwoli wake ndiwo ŵakakhalapo pa ndondomeko iyi, apo ŵamazaza ŵanyake ŵa boma ŵakafumiskikapo. Ndipouli, EU yikatondeka kupeleka ndalama ku Zimbabwe. Ntheura, boma likupeleka ndalama kwizira mu mawupu ghambura vya boma nga ni umo vikaŵira na chimphepo cha Idai icho chikachitika pa Malichi 4, 2019. Boma la United States nalo likakanizga Zimbabwe. Pali mitundu yiŵiri ya vyeruzgo vya United States pa Zimbabwe. Cakwamba ni Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZIDERA) ndipo caciŵiri ni Targeted Sanctions Program. ZIDERA wakapempha vinthu vinandi. Cakwamba nchakuti Zimbabwe yikwenera kuchindika wanangwa wa ŵanthu, caciŵiri Zimbabwe yikwenera kuleka kunjilirapo pa vinthu vya mu Democratic Republic of Congo, cacitatu Zimbabwe yikwenera kuleka kupoka minda ya ŵazungu. Usange palije cimoza mwa vinthu ivi ico cikupulikikwa, boma la United States lizamukanizga IMF na World Bank kupeleka ndalama ku Zimbabwe. ZIDERA yiphya yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2018 na fundo yakuti, Welerani ku Demokalase panji kuzamuŵavya ubwezi, pakwenera kuŵa mavoti ghakufwatuka, wayilesi yakufwatuka na wanangwa wa ŵanthu, Zimbabwe yikwenera kufiska ivyo khoti la SADC likadumura. Ndondomeko ya Malango ya ku Zimbabwe yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2003, ndipo yikulongosora makampani gha ku Zimbabwe na ŵanthu awo ŵakukanizgika kuchita malonda na makampani gha ku America. Malango gha pa Zimbabwe ghalipo kwa virimika vyakujumpha 20. Mu Malichi 2021 boma la US likakhazikiskaso malango ghakwendeskera Zimbabwe.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Zimbabwe |url=https://www.europeansanctions.com/region/zimbabwe/ |access-date=2021-11-14 |website=EU Sanctions |language=en-GB}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Zimbabwe}}[[File:GDP per capita development in Southern Africa.svg|thumb|Historical GDP per capita development in southern African countries, since 1950]] [[File:Zimbabwe Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Zimbabwe exports, 2019]] Vinthu vikuru ivyo Zimbabwe yikuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ni visulo, golide, na ulimi. Charu cha Zimbabwe ndico nchigaŵa cikuru comene ico South Africa yikuguliskirana vinthu. Malipiro gha msonkho na msonkho ni ghapacanya comene ku makampani gha ŵeneco, apo mabungwe gha boma ghakovwira comene. Malamulo gha boma ghakuŵa ghakudura comene ku makampani; kwamba panji kujara bizinesi kukucitika mwakucedwa ndiposo kwakudura. Ulendo nawo ukuwovwira comene pa vya cuma, kweni mu vyaka vyasonosono apa ukuchepa. Wupu wa Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force ukalemba lipoti mu Juni 2007, ndipo ukati vyamoyo vinandi vya ku Zimbabwe vyafwa kufuma mu 2000 chifukwa cha kupenja vinyama mwakubisilizga. Lipoti ili likucenjezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufwa cifukwa ca kuthereska makuni. Vinthu vya sayansi na vyakupharazga vikukura comene. Lipoti la kampani ya Opera mu 2011 likati charu cha Zimbabwe ndicho chikukura luŵiro chomene mu Africa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20191225071548/https://www.biztechafrica.com/article/zimbabwe-ranked-fastest-growing-internet-market/1007/ Zimbabwe Ranked Fastest growing Internet Market]. Biztechafrica.com (10 August 2011); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200116235301/https://www.biztechafrica.com/article/why-ict-critical-illiterate-africa/4841/ Why ICT is critical in 'illiterate' Africa|BiztechAfrica Business, Telecom, Technology & IT News Africa]. Biztechafrica.com (3 December 2012); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref>[[File:2010 market Harare Zimbabwe 5866074969.jpg|thumb|A market in [[Mbare, Harare]]]] Kwambira mu Janyuwale 2002, boma la Zimbabwe lalekeska ngongoli izo likapeleka ku mabungwe gha vya ndalama gha pa caru cose, kwizira mu dango la ku United States lakucemeka Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA). Chigaŵa cha 4C chikuphalira Secretary of the Treasury kuti waphalire mabungwe gha vya ndalama gha pa caru cose kuti ghatondeke kupeleka ngongoli ku boma la Zimbabwe. Kuyana na umo boma la United States likuyowoyera, vyeruzgo ivi vikukhwaska waka mabizinesi ghankhondi na ghaŵiri agho ghali mu mawoko gha ŵalara ŵa boma panji agho ghakwendeskeka na iwo. GDP pa munthu yumoza (uno), pakuyaniska na vyaru vyapafupi (pacharu chose = 100) Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, Zimbabwe yikalutilira kukura (5% pa chaka) kweniso mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 (4,3% pa chaka). Kufumira mu 2000, ciŵelengero ca ndalama cikakhira na 5 peresenti mu 2000, 8 peresenti mu 2001, 12 peresenti mu 2002 na 18 peresenti mu 2003. Pakuti charu cha Zimbabwe chikachitako nkhondo mu charu cha Democratic Republic of the Congo kufuma mu 1998 m'paka mu 2002, ndalama zinandi zikamara. Kwamba mu 1999 m'paka mu 2009, Zimbabwe yikaŵa na chuma chambura kukura chomene, ndipo chaka chilichose GDP yikakhiranga na 6.1%. Vinthu vikasintha chomene chifukwa cha vimbundi na vimbundi ivyo vikachitika mu boma kweniso chifukwa chakuti ŵakachimbizga ŵalimi ŵatuŵa ŵakujumpha 4,000 mu 2000.<ref name="CNN-2000-04-18">{{cite web|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/04/18/zimbabwe.land.03 |title=Zimbabwe President Mugabe labels white farmers 'enemies' |access-date=20 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629014621/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/04/18/zimbabwe.land.03 |archive-date=29 June 2006 |website=CNN.com |date=18 April 2000 |location=Harare, Zimbabwe}}</ref><ref name="Time-2002-02-18">Robinson, Simon (18 February 2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20191018164842/http://content.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,203620,00.html "A Tale of Two Countries"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref><ref name="USAToday-2002-06-24">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/06/25/zimbabwe.htm|title=Zimbabwe forbids white farmers to harvest|work=USA Today|date=24 June 2002|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="BBC-2002-08-15">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2192947.stm|title=White farmers under siege in Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|date=15 August 2002|access-date=6 June 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106120323/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2192947.stm |archive-date=6 January 2012}}</ref> Boma la Zimbabwe na ŵanthu awo ŵakukolerana nalo ŵakukhozgera kuti ndyali za ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ndizo zikananga chuma cha charu ichi. Kuzakafika mu 2005, nkhongono zakugulira za ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe zikaŵa kuti zachepa chomene. Mu 2005, boma, ilo likalongozgekanga na Gideon Gono, uyo wakaŵa kazembe wa banki yikuru, likamba kupempha kuti ŵalimi ŵazgoke. Mu caru ici mukaŵa viŵeto vya viŵeto 400 mpaka 500, kweni malo ghanandi agho ghakapokeka ghakaŵa ghambura vyakurya. Kuzakafika mu 2016, pa minda 4,500 iyo yikaŵa mu charu ichi, yikaŵa na minda pafupifupi 300 iyo yikaŵa ya ŵanichi. Mafamu agho ghakafumako ghakaŵa ghakutali comene, panji ŵeneco ŵakalipira kuti ŵaŵavikilire, panji ŵakakolerana na boma. Mu Janyuwale 2007, boma likapeleka ndalama zakugulira munda kwa nyengo yitali ku ŵalimi ŵanyake ŵazungu. Kweni nyengo yeneyiyo, boma likalutilira kukhumba kuti ŵalimi wose ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa kuti ŵapokera kale ulongozgi wakuti ŵafumemo mu malo ghawo, ŵafumemo mu malo ghawo. Mugabe wakalongosora za maboma gha vyaru vinyake na kuyowoya kuti "kuswa malango" ndiko kukapangiska kuti chuma cha Zimbabwe chikhale pasi, kweniso kuti ŵanthu 80 pa 100 ŵalije nchito. Kuyana na lipoti la Central Statistical Office, unandi wa ndalama ukakwera kufuma pa 32% mu 1998 kufika pa 11,200,000% mu Ogasiti 2008. Ici cikaŵa cilongolero ca suzgo la kukhuŵara kwa ndalama, ndipo banki yikapeleka ndalama ziphya zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 100. Mu Janyuwale 2009, pakuyezgayezga kuti ŵaleke kunjira ndyali, Patrick Chinamasa, uyo wakaŵa nduna ya vya ndalama, wakapharazga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵazomerezgekenge kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama zinyake zakukhora pakuchita bizinesi. Mu April 2009, ndalama ya ku Zimbabwe yikamara kugwira ntchito mu mwezi umoza. Mu 2016, charu cha Zimbabwe chikapeleka ndalama za United States dollar na ndalama zinyake nga ni rand (South Africa), pula (Botswana), euro, na pound sterling (UK). Mu Febuluwale 2019, Governor wa Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe John Mangudya wakambiska ndalama yiphya ya Real Time Gross Settlement dollar, mu chilato cha kumazga masuzgo gha vyachuma na ndalama mu Zimbabwe. Mu 2009, boma la Zimbabwe likati lakhazikiska boma la umoza na kwamba kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama zinandi m'malo mwa dola ya Zimbabwe, chuma cha charu ichi chikambaso kwenda makora. Pakati pa 2009 na 2012, GDP yikakura na 8-9% pa caka. Mu Novembala 2010, wupu wakuwona vya ndalama pa charu chose (IMF) ukati chuma cha charu cha Zimbabwe "chikukura chomene chaka chachiŵiri".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE6A70C320101108|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111042949/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE6A70C320101108|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 November 2010|title=Zimbabwe economy buoyant, more reform needed: IMF|date=8 November 2010|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.talkzimbabwe.com/zimbabwe-economy-growing-imf-cms-884|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112194941/http://www.talkzimbabwe.com/zimbabwe-economy-growing-imf-cms-884|archive-date=12 November 2010|publisher=talkzimbabwe.co|title=Zimbabwe economy growing: IMF|date=9 November 2010}}</ref> Mu Febuluwale 2011, wupu wa pan-African investment bank IMARA ukalemba lipoti lakukondweska pa nkhani ya ndalama izo Zimbabwe yikuguliska. Mu Janyuwale 2013, unduna wa vya ndalama ukati ŵali na ndalama zakukwana madola 217 pera. Kufika mu 2014, Zimbabwe yikaweleraso ku mlingo uwo ukaŵa mu ma 1990, kweni pakati pa 2012 na 2016, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora yayi. Kukwera kwa ndalama kunali 42% mu 2018; mu June 2019, chiwerengero cha kukwera kwa ndalama chinafika 175%, zomwe zinayambitsa chisokonezo chachikulu m'dziko lonselo.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Marima |first1=Tendai |date=19 August 2019 |title=In Zimbabwe, An Economic Crisis With 175% Inflation Drives Discontent |language=en |website=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/08/19/752329758/in-zimbabwe-an-economic-crisis-with-175-inflation-drives-discontent |access-date=20 August 2019}}</ref> === Malibwe ghakudula === Vinthu vikwenda makora mu migodi iyi, ndipo mabungwe gha Anglo American plc, Zimplats, na Impala Platinum, ndigho ghakusanga platinamu unandi chomene pa charu chose. Zimplats, kampani yikuru chomene ya platinamu mu charu ichi, yaluta panthazi na ndalama zakukwana madola 500 miliyoni, ndipo yikulutilira na pulojekiti yinyake ya madola mabiliyoni ghaŵiri, nangauli Mugabe wakakhumbanga kuti kampani iyi yiŵe ya boma. Malibwe agha ŵakaghasanga mu 2006, ndipo ghakumanyikwa kuti ndigho ghakaŵa ghakuru comene mu vyaka vyakujumpha 100. Vinthu ivi vingawovwira kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu charu, kweni pafupifupi ndalama zose izo zikufuma mu vyaru ivi zili kutayika mu mathumba gha ŵasilikari na ŵandyali ŵa ZANU-PF. Kuyana na unandi wa dayamondi izo zilipo, malo gha Marange ni ghanyake mwa malo ghakurughakuru chomene pa charu. Mu Okutobala 2014, kampani ya Metallon Corporation ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru chomene ku Zimbabwe.<ref name="Metallon">Marawanyika, Godfrey, [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-10-17/biggest-zimbabwe-gold-miner-to-decide-on-london-listing-by-march Biggest Zimbabwe Gold Miner to Rule on London Trade by March], Bloomberg News, 17 October 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2016.</ref> {{Further|topic=tin from the|Kamativi mine}} ===Ulimi=== Mulimo wa kulima mu caru ca Zimbabwe ndiwo ukupeleka ndalama zinandi ku vyaru vinyake ndipo ukupeleka nchito 400,000. Ndipouli, ndondomeko ya boma ya kunozga malo yikananga comene nchito iyi, ndipo Zimbabwe yikazgoka caru ico cikuguliska vyakurya vinandi. Mwaciyelezgero, pakati pa 2000 na 2016, vyakurya ivyo vikupambika tirigu vikakhira kufuma pa matani 250,000 kufika pa matani 60,000, ndipo tirigu wakakhira kufuma pa matani 200,000 kufika pa matani 500,000. Mu 2000, ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵakakora panji kupoka minda yawo ya khofi, ndipo pamasinda ŵakayima. Vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, wupu wa International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, wawovwira ŵalimi ŵa ku Zimbabwe kuti ŵambe kulima makora. Para ŵalimi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito fundo zitatu izi: kusuzga chomene dongo, kulima vyakumera vyakudinya, na kulima vyakumera vyakututuŵa, mbwenu dongo likwenda makora, kunangika yayi, na kunangika.<ref>{{Cite web|title={{!}}{{!}} ICRISAT {{!}}{{!}} Impact|url=http://www.icrisat.org/impacts/impact-stories/Icrisat-impacts-27.htm|access-date=2022-02-23|website=www.icrisat.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223030349/http://www.icrisat.org/impacts/impact-stories/Icrisat-impacts-27.htm|archive-date=23 February 2022}}</ref> Pakati pa 2005 na 2011, chiŵelengero cha ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko awo ŵakulima mu charu cha Zimbabwe chikakwera kufuma pa 5,000 kufika pa 150,000. Vipambi vya vyamuminda vikakwera pakati pa 15 na 100 peresentPakati pa 2005 na 2011, chiŵelengero cha ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko awo ŵakulima mu charu cha Zimbabwe chikakwera kufuma pa 5,000 kufika pa 150,000. Vipambi vya vyamuminda vikakwera pakati pa 15 na 100 peresenti mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu 2012, boma likati mbuto ya mbuto iyi njakukhumbikwa chomene. Mvurwi, cigaŵa ca ku Mashonaland Central Province, nyengo yinyake cikaŵa mu "cigaŵa ca vyakurya vinandi" mu Zimbabwe, na dongo liwemi. Ndipouli, mu vyaka 30 ivyo vyajumpha, malo agha ndigho ghakhwaskika comene na ndondomeko ya kunozga malo. ===Tourism=== {{Main|Tourism in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Victoria Falls aerial view September 2003.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Victoria Falls]], the end of the upper [[Zambezi]] and the beginning of the middle Zambezi]] Kufuma waka apo ŵakaŵikirapo ndondomeko ya kunozga malo mu 2000, vyalo vya ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda mu Zimbabwe vikamba kuchepa. Mu 2018, chiŵelengero cha ŵalendo chikafika pa 2.6 miliyoni. Mu chaka cha 2016, ndalama zose izo ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ku Zimbabwe zikaŵanga $1.1 billion (USD), panji pafupifupi 8.1% ya GDP ya Zimbabwe. Ntchito za mu vyaru vya maulendo na vyakusanguluska, pamoza na vyaru ivyo vikovwira na maulendo na vyakusanguluska, vikaŵa 5.2% ya nchito za mu vyaru vyose. Pakati pa 2000 na 2007, ndege zinandi zikafumamo mu Zimbabwe. Kampani ya Qantas ya ku Australia, Lufthansa ya ku Germany, na Austrian Airlines ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba kufumamo ndipo mu 2007 British Airways yikayimiska maulendo ghose ghakuluta ku Harare. Ndege ya ku Zimbabwe, iyo yikendanga mu vyaru vya ku Africa na vyaru vinyake ku Europe na Asia, yikamara kugwira ntchito mu Febuluwale 2012. Mu 2017, ndege zinandi zikuruzikuru zikambaso kwendera charu cha Zimbabwe. Ku Zimbabwe kuli malo ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta. Maji gha Victoria Falls, agho ghali pa mlonga wa Zambezi, ghali kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zimbabwe. Pambere vinthu vindasinthe, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalutanga ku malo agha kufuma ku Zimbabwe, kweni sono Zambia ndiyo yikusangirapo chandulo chomene. Victoria Falls National Park nayo yili mu cigaŵa ici ndipo njimoza mwa malo ghankhondi na ghatatu agho ghali mu Zimbabwe. Malo gha ku Eastern Highlands ni mapiri agho ghali pafupi na mphaka na Mozambique. Phiri la Nyangani ilo lili pachanya chomene ku Zimbabwe lili pa mtunda wa mamita 2,593 (8,507 ft). Malo agha ndigho ghali pa mapiri agha, ndipo kufuma pa mapiri agha, munthu wangawona malo ghakutali chomene. Charu cha Zimbabwe ntchakuzizwiska chomene mu Africa chifukwa chili na misumba yinandi yakale na yakale iyo yikazengeka na malibwe ghakukhoma. Vinyake mwa malo agha ni malo ghakupatulika gha Great Zimbabwe agho ghali ku Masvingo. Vinyake ivyo vilipo ni Khami, Dhlo-Dhlo na Naletale. Mapiri gha Matobo ni malo gha granite kopjes na makuni agho ghakwamba makilomita 35 kumwera kwa Bulawayo kumwera kwa Zimbabwe. Mapiri agha ghakaŵako vyaka vyakujumpha mabiliyoni ghaŵiri ivyo vyajumpha apo malibwe gha granite ghakafumanga pa malo agha. Mzilikazi, uyo wakambiska mtundu wa Ndebele, ndiyo wakapeleka zina ili ku malo agha. Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakwiza ku malo agha cifukwa ca umo malo agha ghakaŵirako kale comene kweniso vyamoyo vya mu malo agha. Cecil Rhodes na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha nga ni Leander Starr Jameson ŵali kusungika mu mapiri agha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwe.safari.co.za/spirit-of-zimbabwe.html|title=Zimbabwe: The Spirit of Matobo|work=zimbabwe.safari.co.za|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101100547/http://zimbabwe.safari.co.za/spirit-of-zimbabwe.html |archive-date=1 November 2013}}</ref> === Kupeleka maji na maji ghakumwa === {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe}} Mu Zimbabwe muli vigaŵa vichoko waka ivyo vili na maji na vyakutoweskera ŵanthu. Wupu wa vyaumoyo pa charu chose (World Health Organization) ukati mu chaka cha 2012, 80% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakaŵa na maji ghawemi ghakumwa, ndipo 40% pera ndiwo ŵakaŵa na maji ghakumwa. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu ŵakutondeka kusanga maji ghawemi na malo ghakutowa. Pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangiska kuti maji gha mu Zimbabwe ghaŵe ghakwenelera mu nyengo zakunthazi. Vinthu vikuruvikuru vitatu ni suzgo la ndalama mu charu ichi.<ref name="wsp1">{{cite web |year=2011 |title=Water Supply and Sanitation in Zimbabwe, Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and beyond |url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-Zimbabwe.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130142528/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-Zimbabwe.pdf |archive-date=30 January 2020 |access-date=4 May 2016 |website=wsp.org |publisher=[[AMCOW]] (collaboratively published report)}}</ref><ref name="hrw2">{{cite book|url=http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/zimbabwe1113_forUpload_1.pdf |title=Troubled Water: Burst Pipes, Contaminated Wells, and Open Defecation in Zimbabwe's Capital |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |website=hrw.org |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-62313-0800 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830213700/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/zimbabwe1113_forUpload_1.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2014}}</ref> === Sayansi na vyakupangapanga === {{Main|Science and technology in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Life sciences and geosciences dominate, Cumulative totals by field, 2008–2014.svg|thumb|Scientific research output in terms of publications in Southern Africa, cumulative totals by field, 2008–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), figure 20.6.]] Boma la Zimbabwe lili na vinthu vinandi vyakukhumbikwa pa caru cose ndipo likulimbikira comene pa nkhani ya kafukufuku..<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002288/228806e.pdf|title=Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Zimbabwe|editor-last=Lemarchand|editor-first=Guillermo A.|editor-last2=Schneegans|editor-first2=Susan|publisher=UNESCO|year=2014|isbn=978-92-3-100034-8|location=Paris|pages=Volume 2. GO–SPIN Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|pages=535–555}}</ref> Charu ichi chili na masambiro ghakupulikikwa makora, ndipo munthu yumoza pa ŵanthu 11 waliyose wali na digiri ya sekondare. Pakuti charu ichi chili na vinjeru vinandi kweniso vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi, charu cha Zimbabwe chili na mwaŵi ukuru wa kukura.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Charu cha Zimbabwe chili pa nambala 113 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, kufuma pa nambala 122 mu 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2022-03-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kuti Zimbabwe yikure makora, yikwenera kumazga masuzgo ghanyake. Mwaciyelezgero, caru ici cikusoŵerwa ŵasayansi awo ŵakukhumbikwa kuti ŵacite vinthu viphya. Nangauli pali vinthu vyakukhumbikwa kuti kafukufuku na vyakupangapanga viwovwire kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu charu cha Zimbabwe, kweni masukulu ghapachanya na mabungwe gha kafukufuku ghalije ndalama na ŵanthu ŵakukwana kuti ŵachite kafukufuku. Masuzgo gha vyachuma ghapangiska kuti ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa pa yunivesite na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵafumemo mu vigaŵa vikuruvikuru (vyakuzenga, vyakupangira vinthu, na vinyake) ndipo ichi chikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukondwa na ntchito yawo. Mu 2012, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakujumpha 22% ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakamalizga masambiro ghawo ku vyaru vinyake. Mu 2012, pakaŵa ŵasayansi 200 mu boma, ndipo pa ŵanthu aŵa, 25 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi. Chiŵelengero ichi ntchakukwana kaŵiri kuluska cha pa charu chose (91 mu 2013) kweni ni hafu ya chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku mu South Africa (818 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni). Boma la Zimbabwe lazenga webusayiti ya Zimbabwe Human Capital kuti lipelekenge mauthenga ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe pa nkhani ya ntchito na ndalama.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> [[File:Scientific publication trends in SADC countries, 2005-2014.svg|thumb|Scientific publication trends in the most productive SADC countries, 2005–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded.]] Nangauli ŵanthu ndiwo ŵakulongozga pa kafukufuku na vyakupanga vinthu vinyake, kweni mu ndondomeko ya nyengo yapakati ya 2011 na 2015, pakaŵavya ndondomeko yakukhwaskana na kusambizga masambiro gha ku yunivesite. Kuchepa kwa madokotala gha sayansi na injiniya kufuma ku yunivesite ya Zimbabwe mu 2013 kukulongora kuti ŵakutondeka.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Kweniso ndondomeko ya vyakuzenga ya 2018, iyo yikucemeka kuti Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Economic Transformation, njambura vilato vyakukhwaskana na kusazgirako unandi wa ŵasayansi na mainjiniya, panji ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa mulimo wa kupanga vinthu. Kweniso, cifukwa ca kuleka kwenderana na kukolerana pakati pa mawupu gha boma, vyakuzirwa vya kafukufuku vikusazgikira comene ndipo ndondomeko izo zilipo sono zikufiskika makora yayi.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Ndondomeko Yachiŵiri ya vya Sayansi na Maluso ya mu charu ichi yikamba mu Juni 2012, pamanyuma pakuti yapangika na wovwiri wa UNESCO. Likutora malo gha ndondomeko yakale iyo yikaŵako mu 2002. Ndondomeko ya mu 2012 yikulaŵiska comene pa sayansi ya vyamoyo, sayansi ya vya mlengalenga, sayansi ya vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, sayansi ya vinthu vya mu mlengalenga (nanotechnology), masisitemu gha ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, vyamahara ivyo vicali kunthazi, na nthowa za sayansi zakumazgira masuzgo gha mu malo agho tikukhala. Ndondomeko Yachiŵiri ya Sayansi na Maluso gha Miphanyi yikukhozgera kuti boma lipelekenge ndalama zakukwana 1% ya GDP pa kafukufuku na vyakupangiska, ndipo 60% ya masambiro gha pa yunivesite ghaŵikenge pa kusambizga ŵanthu vya sayansi na vyakupangiska.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Mu 2014, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa mabuku 21 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni mu manyuzipepara gha pa charu chose. Ivi vikapangiska kuti charu cha Zimbabwe chiŵe pa nambara 6 pa vyaru 15 vya SADC, pamanyuma pa Namibia (59), Mauritius (71), Botswana (103) na South Africa (175) na Seychelles (364). Pa ŵanthu 100 miliyoni mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara, ŵanthu 20 ŵakalemba mabuku ghakulongosora vya sayansi.<ref name=":1" /> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Zimbabwe}} === Mtundu wa ŵanthu === [[File:Tonga wall baskets producer from Zimbabwe.JPG|alt=Tonga Woman|thumb|upright|A Tonga woman pleating a basket]] Kuyana na lipoti la ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka mu 2012, ŵanthu 99.7% ŵa mu charu ichi mba ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ni Ŵashona ndipo ŵalipo 82 peresenti. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ŵali kufuma ku mafuko ghanyake agho ghakasama na kutorana na Ŵazulu. Mu vyaka vinkhondi ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ŵali kufumamo mu charu ichi ndipo ŵanandi ŵaluta ku South Africa. Mtundu unyake ni Venda, Tonga, Tsonga, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau, Nambya, Tswana, Xhosa na Lozi. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ni ŵazungu ŵa ku Zimbabwe. Ŵazungu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵanandi ŵali kufuma ku Britain, kweni paliso ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika, Greece, Portugal, France, na Netherlands. Mu 1975, ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵakakwana 278,000, panji kuti 4.3% ya ŵanthu wose. Pa kalembera wa mu 2012, ŵanthu wose ŵazungu ŵakaŵa 28,782 (pafupifupi 0.22% ya ŵanthu wose), chiŵelengero icho chikaŵa pachanya chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku United Kingdom (pakati pa 200,000 na 500,000 ŵa ku Britain ŵali kufuma ku Rhodesia panji Zimbabwe), South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique, Canada, Australia na New Zealand. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵalipo 0.5% ndipo mitundu yinyake ya ku Asia, chomenechomene ya ku India na China, ŵalipo 0.5%.<ref>Quarterly Digest of Statistics, 1998, Zimbabwe Printing and Stationery Office.<!--ISSN/ISBN needed--></ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Zimbabwe's white farmers start anew in Mozambique |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/10/zimbabwe-white-farmers-start-anew-mozambique-151027095006428.html |work=Al-Jazeera |date=28 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Business Zimbabwe's land reform: Zambia's gain, a cautionary tale for South Africa? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/zimbabwes-land-reform-zambias-gain-a-cautionary-tale-for-south-africa/a-47095154 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=16 January 2019}}</ref> ===Misumba ikulu ikulu=== {{Largest cities | country = Zimbabwe | stat_ref = According to the 2012 Census<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citypopulation.de/Zimbabwe-Cities.html |title=Zimbabwe |website=citypopulation.de |access-date=28 February 2022}}</ref> | div_name = Province | city_1 = Harare | div_1 = Harare<!-- Independent City --> | pop_1 = 1,485,231 | img_1 = Harare from the Kopje.jpg | city_2 = Bulawayo | div_2 = Bulawayo<!-- Independent City --> | pop_2 = 653,337 | img_2 = Bulawayo CBD.jpg | city_3 = Chitungwiza | div_3 = Harare | pop_3 = 356,840 | img_3 = | city_4 = Mutare | div_4 = Manicaland Province{{!}}Manicaland | pop_4 = 186,208 | img_4 = Mutare aerial.jpg | city_5 = Epworth, Zimbabwe{{!}}Epworth | div_5 = Harare | pop_5 = 167,462 | city_6 = Gweru | div_6 = Midlands Province{{!}}Midlands | pop_6 = 154,825 | city_7 = Kwekwe | div_7 = Midlands Province{{!}}Midlands | pop_7 = 100,900 | city_8 = Kadoma, Zimbabwe{{!}}Kadoma | div_8 = Mashonaland West Province{{!}}Mashonaland West | pop_8 = 91,633 | city_9 = Masvingo | div_9 = Masvingo Province{{!}}Masvingo | pop_9 = 87,886 | city_10 = Chinhoyi | div_10 = Mashonaland West Province{{!}}Mashonaland West | pop_10 = 68,273 }} ===Viyowoyelo=== {{main|Languages of Zimbabwe}} Mu charu cha Zimbabwe muli viyowoyero 16 ndipo mu dango la charu ichi, pali dango lakuti viyowoyero vinyake ndivyo viŵenge vyakuzomerezgeka. Cingelezi ndico cikuyowoyeka comene pa masukulu na mu makhoti. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakuchemeka Shona na Ndebele. 78% ya ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Cishona, ndipo 20% ŵakuyowoya Cindebele. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ni Venda, Tsonga, Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau na Nambya. Ŵanthu ŵacoko comene awo ŵakuyowoya Cingelezi ni 2.5%, comenecomene awo mbazungu ndiposo awo mbakufuma ku mitundu yinyake. ChiShona chili na maluso ghanandi agho ghakalembeka mu buku lakwamba la ChiShona, la Feso ilo likalembeka na Solomon Mutswairo, ilo likafuma mu 1956. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi mu matawuni kweni ku mizi ŵakuyowoya viŵi yayi. Nkhani za pa wayilesi na pa wayilesi zikupharazgika mu Chishona, Chisindebele na Chingelezi. Mu Zimbabwe muli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuyowoya Ciphwitikizi, comenecomene mu vigaŵa ivyo vili kufupi na mphaka na Mozambique kweniso mu misumba yikuruyikuru. Kwamba mu 2017, kusambizga Chiphwitikizi kwaŵikika mu masambiro gha sekondare mu Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário no Zimbabué|url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-no-ensino-secundario-no-zimbabue|access-date=2020-07-21|website=SAPO 24|language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Zimbabwe: Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário do país - África - Angola Press - ANGOP|url=http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html|access-date=2020-07-21|website=www.angop.ao|language=PT-PT|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806105712/http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Chisopa=== {{Main|Religion in Zimbabwe}} [[File:2013_Harare_Zimbabwe_8638132278.jpg|thumb|left|[[Catholic]] church in [[Harare]]]] Kuyana na kafukufuku wa 2017 Inter Censal Demography Survey wakuchitika na Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency, 84% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe Mbakhristu, 10% ŵalije chisopa, ndipo 0.7% Mba Chisilamu.<ref name="2017survey" /><ref name="pewzimb">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf |title=Table: Religious Composition by Country |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310101254/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2016 |url-status=dead |website=pewforum.org |publisher=Pew Research Center |location=Washington, D.C. |year=2012}}</ref><ref name="US_state">{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe – International Religious Freedom Report 2005 |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51503.htm |access-date=3 December 2007 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |quote=An estimated 1% of the total population is Muslim.}}</ref> Ŵanthu 62 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakuluta ku matchalitchi nyengo zose. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 69% ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵali mu chisopa cha Protestant, ndipo 8% ŵali mu chisopa cha Roman Catholic. Makhaliro gha Cikristu gha Pentekoste, comenecomene, ghakura comene mu vilimika vyasonosono apa ndipo ghakuŵa na ncito yikuru comene mu umoyo wa ŵantu, wa ŵanthu na wa ndyali. Matchalitchi ghakurughakuru gha Cikhristu ni Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist, na Methodist. Nga ni umo viliri mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, Cikristu cingaŵa cakusazgikana na vigomezgo vyacikaya. Chisopa cha ŵanthu ŵakwambilira, icho chikaŵako kale pambere charu cha Zimbabwe chindaŵeko na ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga visopa vyawo, chikulutilira kuŵa chakuzirwa mu chisopa cha ku Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shoko |first=Tabona |title=Karanga Indigenous Religion in Zimbabwe: Health and Well-Being |url=https://archive.org/details/karangaindigenou0000shok |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-754-65881-8 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moyo |first=Method |title=Traditional Religion and Its Impact on the Practices of Apostolic and Zionist Churches in Zimbabwe |publisher=GRIN Verlag |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-346-21835-3}}</ref> Kusopa ŵasekuru ni cisopa ico cikupambana na Cikhristu, ico cikusazgapo kuŵeyelera kwauzimu. Mu viphikiro vinandi, mbira dzavadzimu, kung'anamura "tumazgu twa ŵasekuru", ni ciŵiya ico cikukolerana na ma lamelophone ghanandi agho ghali palipose mu Africa. ===Umoyo=== {{See also|Health in Zimbabwe|HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwean cholera outbreak}} [[File:Life expectancy in select African countries, 1950–2019.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Life expectancy in select Southern African countries, 1950–2019. [[HIV/AIDS]] has caused a fall in life expectancy.]] [[File:MOP 50.jpg|thumb|Mother of Peace AIDS orphanage, [[Mutoko]] (2005)]] Pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana ŵakamba kujiyimira ŵekha, ŵakamba kulwara matenda agho ghakaŵapo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu vyaka vinkhondi vyakwambilira pamanyuma pa kujiwombora, vinthu vikenda makora chomene pa nkhani ya katemera, wovwiri wa munkhwala, na munkhwala wakukanizga nthumbo. Ntheura, pa caru cose, caru ca Zimbabwe cikuwoneka kuti cikucita makora comene pa nkhani ya umoyo. Nyengo zinyake ku Zimbabwe kukaŵanga matenda ghakofya. Vinthu ivyo vikaŵa makora pa umoyo wa ŵanthu vikasuzgika cifukwa ca kusintha kwa vinthu mu vyaru mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, nthenda ya HIV/AIDS, na suzgo la vyachuma kufuma mu 2000. Mu 2006, Zimbabwe yikaŵa na umoyo wambura kukhumbikwa chomene pa charu chose, kuyana na umo UN yikulongolera kuti ŵanalume ŵakhalanga vyaka 44, ndipo ŵanakazi ŵakakhalanga vyaka 43.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42013720|title=Zimbabwe in 10 numbers|date=18 November 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=18 November 2017|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/socind/health.htm|title=United Nations Statistics Division|access-date=7 December 2008}}</ref> Cakucitika cikuru comene ico cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kusuzgika comene ni nthenda ya HIV na AIDS. Ŵana awo ŵakafwanga na nthenda iyi ŵakakwera kufuma pa 6% m'ma 1990 kufika pa 12.3% mu 2004. Pa vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵana awo ŵakababikanga ŵakaŵa 3.6 (2002), 3.8 (2006) na 3.8 (2012). Mu 2014, pa ŵana 100,000 awo ŵakababika, 614 ndiwo ŵakafwanga pa nthumbo. Ŵana awo ŵakafwanga na ŵana ŵambura kukwaniska vyaka vinkhondi pa ŵana 1,000 ŵakafwanga na ŵana 75 mu 2014 (94 mu 2009). Mu 2016, pakaŵavya ŵabwezi 1,000 awo ŵakababika ŵamoyo, ndipo pa ŵanakazi ŵakutora, pa ŵanakazi 42 ŵaliwose, yumoza wakafwanga. Mu 2006, wupu wa ŵadokotala ku Zimbabwe ukachiska Mugabe kuti wawovwire ŵadokotala awo ŵakusuzgika. Mu 2009, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵali na HIV ku Zimbabwe chikaŵa 14 peresenti pa ŵanthu ŵa vyaka 15-49. Wupu wa UNESCO ukayowoya kuti ŵanakazi awo ŵali na nthumbo ŵali na HIV, ndipo ŵakakhira kufuma pa 26% mu 2002 kufika pa 21% mu 2004. Kuzakafika mu 2016, chiŵelengero cha HIV/AIDS chikakhira kufika pa 13.5% pakuyaniska na 40% mu 1998. Kuumaliro wa Novembala 2008, maofesi ghanyake gha vipatala vikuruvikuru vitatu vya ku Zimbabwe ghakaleka kugwira ntchito, pamoza na sukulu ya vya munkhwala ya Zimbabwe Medical School. Vipatala ivyo vikaŵa kuti vichali kugwira ntchito vikatondeka kusanga munkhwala. Vinthu vikasintha comene pamanyuma pa boma la umoza na kukhazikiska ndalama zinandi mu mwezi wa Febuluwale mu 2009, nangauli suzgo la ndyali na la vya cuma nalo likapangiska kuti ŵadokotala na ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vya munkhwala ŵafumeko mu vyaru vinyake.<ref name="Zimbabwe cholera deaths near 500">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7760088.stm|title=Zimbabwe cholera deaths near 500|date=2 December 2008|publisher=BBC|access-date=2 December 2008}}</ref>[[File:2008 Zimbabwe Cholera Outbreak Combined.svg|thumb|Map showing the spread of [[cholera]] in and around Zimbabwe put together from several sources]] Mu Ogasiti 2008, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa nthenda ya kolera. Kuzakafika mu Disembala 2008, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 10,000 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakoleka na nthenda iyi mu vigaŵa vyose vya Zimbabwe kupaturako cimoza.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7768740.stm |title=PM urges Zimbabwe cholera action |work=BBC News |date=6 December 2008 |access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Milliband">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110510012829/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article5294534.ece "Miliband backs African calls for end of Mugabe"], ''[[The Times]]'', 5 December 2008.</ref>Pa Disembala 4, 2008, boma la Zimbabwe likati nthenda iyi njakofya chomene pa charu chose ndipo likapempha wovwiri ku vyaru vinyake. Pa Malichi 9, 2009, wupu wa vyaumoyo pa caru cose ukati ŵanthu 4,011 ŵali kufwa na nthenda iyi kufuma apo yikambira. Ku Harare, ŵalara ŵa tawuni ŵakapeleka malaro ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakoleka na kolera.<ref name="rain">{{cite news|url=http://africa.reuters.com/top/news/usnJOE4AT06A.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206151846/http://africa.reuters.com/top/news/usnJOE4AT06A.html|archive-date=6 December 2008|title=Zimbabwe says cholera epidemic may spread with rain|date=30 November 2008|work=Reuters|url-status=dead|access-date=3 December 2008}}</ref> ===Msambilo=== {{Main|Education in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Saint-Georges-College.jpg|thumb|[[St. George's College, Harare]] was established in 1896 by a French [[Jesuit]].]] Ku Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba. Mu 2013, chiŵelengero ichi chikafika pa 90.70%. Chiŵelengero ichi ntchichoko chomene pakuyaniska na 92 peresenti iyo yikalembeka mu 2010 na United Nations Development Programme na 97.0 peresenti iyo yikalembeka mu 2002 apo palembeka 80.4 peresenti mu 1992.<ref>{{cite report|title=Poverty Income Consumption and Expenditure Survey 2011/12 Report|publisher=Zimstat|year=2013|url=http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref><ref name="IRINAfrica">{{Cite web|url=http://ww.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89947 |title=Zimbabwe: Unlicensed and outdoors or no school at all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094256/http://ww.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89947 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=dead |website=irinnews.org |publisher=[[OCHA]] |date=23 July 2010 |location=Epworth, Zimbabwe}}</ref><ref name="AllAfrica">{{Cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201007150032.html |title=Zimbabwe: Country Leads in Africa Literacy Race |website=AllAfrica.com |date=14 July 2010 |last=Nyathi |first=Kitsepile}}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵali na ndalama zinandi ŵakupeleka ŵana ŵawo ku masukulu ghakujiyimira paŵekha. Mu 1980, masukulu ghakazgoka ghawanangwa, kweni kwambira mu 1988, boma likusazgirako ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakulipira pa sukulu. Dipatimenti ya vya masambiro mu Zimbabwe ndiyo yikwendeska masukulu gha boma, kweni ndalama izo masukulu ghakujiyimira ghakupokera zikufuma ku boma. Dipatimenti ya vya masambiro yikati ŵasambizgi 20,000 ŵali kufumamo mu Zimbabwe kwambira mu 2007 ndipo hafu ya ŵana ŵa mu Zimbabwe ŵandafike pa sukulu. Kusambira kukasuzgika comene cifukwa ca suzgo la cuma ilo likaŵako mu 2000, ndipo ŵasambizgi ŵakamba kugwentha cifukwa ca malipiro ghacoko, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakatondekanga kuŵika maghanoghano ghawo pa ivyo ŵakasambiranga cifukwa ca njara, kweniso mtengo wa yunifomu ukakwera comene. Ŵasambizgi nawo ŵakaŵa cimoza mwa vilato vikuru vya kuyuzgika kwa Mugabe cifukwa wakaghanaghananga kuti mbakugomezgeka yayi.<ref>{{cite news |date=19 April 2007 |title=BBC report on 40 years in Zimbabwe's schools |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6566919.stm |access-date=3 November 2007}}</ref> Mu charu ichi, masambiro ghakwamba ghakwenda vyaka viŵiri, vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri vya masambiro ghakwamba na vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri vya masambiro gha sekondare. Chaka cha masambiro ku Zimbabwe chikufuma mu Janyuwale mpaka Disembala, ndipo pali masambiro ghatatu agho ghakupambana mwezi umoza. Masambiro gha cigaŵa ghacitikanga mu Novembala mu nyengo ya cigaŵa cacitatu. Ku Zimbabwe kuli maunivesite 7 gha boma kweniso maunivesite ghanayi agho ghakukolerana na matchalitchi. Yunivesite ya Zimbabwe, iyo yikaŵa yakwamba kweniso yikuru chomene, yikazengeka mu 1952 ndipo yikaŵa mu tawuni ya Mount Pleasant ku Harare. Ŵanyake awo ŵakasambirako ku yunivesite ya Zimbabwe ni Welshman Ncube, Peter Moyo, Tendai Biti, Chenjerai Hove na Arthur Mutambara. Ŵandyali ŵanandi mu boma la Zimbabwe ŵali kusambira masambiro gha ku yunivesite ya ku United States panji ku vyaru vinyake. National University of Science and Technology ni yunivesite yaciŵiri yikuru comene ya ku Zimbabwe iyo yili ku Bulawayo. Wakapangika mu 1991. Yunivesite ya National University of Science and Technology yikuyezgayezga kuti yiŵe yunivesite yakumanyikwa mu Zimbabwe na kumwera kwa Africa. Africa University ni yunivesite ya United Methodist ku Manicaland iyo yikukopa ŵana ŵa sukulu kufuma ku vyaru vya ku Africa 36. === Kuyana kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi === {{Further|Child marriage in Zimbabwe|Polygamy in Zimbabwe|Human trafficking in Zimbabwe|Abortion in Zimbabwe}} Ŵanakazi ku Zimbabwe ŵakutondeka pa vigaŵa vinandi nga ni vya vyachuma, ndyali, na vya umoyo wa ŵanthu.<ref name=":22">{{cite web|url=http://www.zw.one.un.org/togetherwedeliver/zundaf/gender-equality|title=Gender Equality {{!}} UN in Zimbabwe|website=www.zw.one.un.org|language=en|access-date=2 October 2018|archive-date=14 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814054632/http://www.zw.one.un.org/togetherwedeliver/zundaf/gender-equality|url-status=dead}}</ref> Lipoti la wupu wa UN ilo likafuma mu 2014, likati ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakusuzgika chomene chifukwa cha mitheto yawo, nkharo yawo, na chisopa chawo. Ŵanakazi ŵakuwona vinthu mwambura kwenelera, ndipo ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita vikuŵakhuŵazga kuti ŵagwirenge ntchito za ndalama. Dango la Zimbabwe lili na fundo izo zikovwira kuti ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵaŵe ŵakuyana waka, kweni maukaboni ghakulongora kuti dango ili likugwiriskika makora yayi ndipo likugwira ntchito mwakuchedwa. Mu Disembala 2016, wupu wa International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies ukachita kafukufuku kuti umanye umo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito makora fundo zakovwira pa nkhani ya nkhaza za ŵanalume na ŵanakazi. Ŵakasanga kuti nkhaza izo zikucitikira ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana zikusazgikira mu vigaŵa ivyo vyaŵa na masoka (vivula, chilangalanga, na matenda) kweni palije uyo wangamanya unandi wake. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikutondeska ŵanthu kumazga nkhaza izi ni masuzgo gha vyachuma agho ghakutondeska ŵanthu kuzomerezga nkhaza za kugonana. Kweniso, maboma agho ghakovwira ŵanthu kumanya makora nkhani izi kweniso kupeleka wovwiri ku ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika na vigeŵenga, ghalije ndalama zakukwana ndipo ghakutondeka kufiska milimo yawo. Wupu wa United Nations nawo ukaŵakhozga kuti ŵaleke kuchita vinthu ivi. Kanandi ŵanakazi ŵakuwoneka nga mbambura kuzirwa, ŵakuŵawona nga ni vinthu vyambura kuzirwa, ndipo ŵakuŵawona kuti mbakuzirwa yayi mu mbiri na vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakugomezga kuti ŵana ŵanalume ndiwo ŵakuzirwa chomene kuluska ŵana ŵanakazi. Mazgu agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya mu khoti ghakuti "vakadzi ngavanyarare", ghakung'anamura kuti "ŵanakazi ŵakwenera kukhala chete". Kuyuzgika kwa ŵanakazi mu Zimbabwe, ndiposo maluso gha cikaya agho ghakuŵakanizga kuŵa ŵantchito, kwapangiska kuti ŵanakazi ŵafwe na kujipeleka kuti ŵalute panthazi pa nchito mwakuti ŵafiske mulimo wawo wa kuŵa ŵawoli, ŵamama, na ŵantchito..<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Chabaya|first1=O.|last2=Rembe|first2=S.|last3=Wadesango|first3=N.|date=1 January 2009|title=The persistence of gender inequality in Zimbabwe: factors that impede the advancement of women into leadership positions in primary schools|url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/saje/article/view/44152|journal=South African Journal of Education|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=235–251|doi=10.15700/saje.v29n2a259|issn=2076-3433|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Manyonganise|first=Molly|date=2015|title=Oppressive and liberative: A Zimbabwean woman's reflections on ubuntu|journal=Verbum et Ecclesia|volume=36|issue=2|pages=1–7|doi=10.4102/VE.V36I2.1438|issn=2074-7705|doi-access=free}}</ref>Ŵanakazi ŵakusambizgika kuti ŵaleke kukana para ŵafumu ŵawo ŵakukhumba kugonana nawo, nangauli ŵakumanya kuti ŵali na HIV cifukwa ca kuleka kugomezgeka. Cifukwa ca kucita nthena, ŵanakazi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49 ŵali na nthenda ya HIV pa ciŵelengero ca 16.1% ndipo ŵalipo 62% pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵali na nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/zimbabwe |access-date=4 December 2018 |website=www.unaids.org |language=en}}</ref> Ŵanakazi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakukumana na masuzgo pa umoyo wawo wa nchito, ndipo ivi vikukhwaska masambiro ghawo, luso lawo, na umo ŵakukulira. Mu 2009, magazini ya South African Journal of Education yikati nangauli ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵa masukulu gha pulayimale ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera kupika maudindo, kweni palije uyo wakapempha ntchito. Ŵanakazi aŵa ŵakajiwonanga kuti mbakuyana yayi na ŵanalume ndipo ŵakagomezganga kuti mulimo wawo wa kuŵa muwoli na mama ngwakuzirwa chomene kuluska milimo yinyake yose. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakafumbika pa kafukufuku uyu ŵakaŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera, agho ghangaŵa ghakukolerana na maudindo ghawo mu gulu kweniso maghanoghano gha ŵanakazi. Mu 2016, wupu wa FAO ukasanga kuti ŵanakazi 60 pera ndiwo ŵakagwiranga ntchito za mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito zinandi za ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na masambiro ghacoko, nga ni 70% ya ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vyaru vya viŵeto, kweni ŵakagwiranga nchito pa 16.7% na 21% pera mu maboma gha mu vigaŵa vyawo na mu vyaru vyawo. Mu vigaŵa vya boma, ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakukwana 14% mu Nyumba ya Malango ya Zimbabwe na 33% mu Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Zimbabwe, nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵanalume chikaŵa 0.95 pa mwanakazi yumoza. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo la kusankhana kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi, wupu wa UN ukuwovwira kuti ŵanakazi ŵalutilire kuŵa na maudindo ghapachanya, nga ni ŵalongozgi ŵa masukulu. Kwizira mu ndondomeko izi, caru ca Zimbabwe caŵa na mwaŵi wa kumazga mphambano ya ŵanalume na ŵanakazi pa nkhani ya sukulu: Ŵanalume 50.5% ŵakuŵazga masukulu gha sekondare pakuyaniska na ŵanakazi 49.5%. Ku Zimbabwe ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusuzgika na nkhaza za pa nyumba na za kugonana. <ref name=":6">{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/zimbabwe-women-domestic-violence-election-gender-equality-rights-rape-mugabe-emmerson-a8539616.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/zimbabwe-women-domestic-violence-election-gender-equality-rights-rape-mugabe-emmerson-a8539616.html|archive-date=7 May 2022|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|title=Why the world must pay attention to violence against women and girls in Zimbabwe|work=The Independent|access-date=26 November 2018|language=en-GB}}{{cbignore}}</ref>Pakuti ŵanthu wose yayi awo ŵakukoleka ŵakuyowoyeka, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakukoleka cikuŵa cikuru comene. Pa nyengo ya 2010 m'paka 2016, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakachichizgikanga kuti ŵatoleke chikakwera na 42%. Pa nkhaza zose izo zikucitikira ŵasungwana na ŵanakazi mu Zimbabwe, 78 peresenti zikucitikira ŵafumu ŵawo, ŵadada ŵawo, panji ŵanyawo ŵa mu nthengwa. <ref name=":6" />Malipoti gha UNICEF ghakulongora kuti msungwana yumoza pa ŵasungwana ŵatatu waliyose uyo wakukura mu Zimbabwe wakusuzgika pambere wandakwaniske vyaka 18. <ref name=":6" />Ŵasungwana kanandi ŵakucimbira na ŵanalume ŵalara msinkhu para mwaŵi wawo wakusambira ulije. Ŵapolisi ŵakutemwa yayi kupenja ŵanalume awo ŵakuchita nkhaza pa nyumba panji ŵasungwana awo ŵakuchimbira na ŵanalume ŵalara msinkhu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti nkhaza ni nthowa yakulongolera nkhongono na citemwa. Wupu wa Zimbabwe Women's Lawyers Association ni wupu uwo ukovwira kuti malango gha boma gha 2013 ghalondezgeke. Wupu uwu ukupeleka mapulogiramu agho ghakovwira ŵanakazi kumanya makora wanangwa wawo na kuŵapa mwaŵi wa kulimbana na nkhaza za pa nyumba na za kugonana.<ref name=":6" /> ==Mwambo== {{Main|Culture of Zimbabwe}} Mu charu cha Zimbabwe muli mitheto yakupambanapambana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵakugomezga chomene vinthu ivi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵali na vikozgo vinandi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/soulofmbiramusic00berl|url-access=registration|quote=zimbabwe shona.|title=The Soul of Mbira: Music and Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe|last=Berliner|first=Paul|date=June 1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226043791|language=en}}</ref> Pa 18 Epulero, 1980, charu cha Zimbabwe chikamba kujithemba.<ref name="indepday">{{cite book|last=Owomoyela|first=Oyekan|year=2002|title=Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00owom/page/77 77]|isbn=978-0-313-31583-1|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn.|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00owom/page/77}}</ref>Maholide agha ghakuchitikira ku National Sports Stadium panji Rufaro Stadium ku Harare. Ungano wakwamba wa kujithemba ukacitika mu 1980 pa Zimbabwe Grounds. Pa viphikiro ivi, ŵakufumiska nkhunda kuti ŵalongore mtende. Moto wa wanangwa ukuŵala na pulezidenti pamanyuma pa viphikiro vya mbumba ya pulezidenti na ŵasilikari ŵa Zimbabwe. Kweniso pulezidenti wakuyowoya nkhani ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe iyo yikuŵa pa TV ku awo ŵangakwaniska yayi kwiza ku sitediyamu. Mu charu cha Zimbabwe mukuŵaso chiphikiro cha kutowa cha Miss Heritage Zimbabwe icho chikuchitika chaka chilichose kwambira mu 2012. ===Maluso=== {{Main|Zimbabwean art}} {{see also|Music of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Reconciliation Amos Supuni Woerden.jpg|thumb|upright|"Reconciliation", a [[stone sculpture]] by [[Amos Supuni]]]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakutemwa kupanga vinthu nga ni viŵiya, matumba, vyakuvwara, majuda, na vyakuŵaja. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikumanyikwa chomene ni makapu na vitanda ivyo vikuŵa mu khuni limoza. Vikozgo vya Ŵashona, ivyo vili na mbiri yitali, vikamba kusintha mu nyengo yasono pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 ndipo vikamba kutchuka pa charu chose. Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuvwara vikuŵa vya viyuni na ŵanthu. Vinthu ivi ŵakuvivwara na malibwe nga ni soapstone, kweniso malibwe ghanyake nga ni serpentine na verdite. Vinthu vya ku Zimbabwe vingasangika mu vyaru nga ni Singapore, China na Canada. Cikozgo ca Dominic Benhura mu Singapore Botanic Gardens. Vinthu vyakuŵaja vya Ŵashona vilipo m'paka sono, ndipo ivyo ŵakuŵaja mazuŵa ghano vikukolerana na mitheto ya ku Africa na ku Europe. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanyikwa chomene ku Zimbabwe ni Nicholas, Nesbert na Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi na Locardia Ndandarika. Pa caru cose, ŵanthu ŵakuŵaja vyakuvwara ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakhwaska ŵanthu ŵaphya, comenecomene ŵa ku America ŵa mitundu yakufipa. Ŵalembi ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa mu Zimbabwe na kunyake. Charles Mungoshi wakumanyikwa chomene mu Zimbabwe chifukwa cha kulemba nkhani za mu Chingelezi na Chishona, ndipo mabuku ghake ghakuguliskika chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose. Catherine Buckle wali kuzomerezgeka pa caru cose na mabuku ghake ghaŵiri African Tears na Beyond Tears agho ghakulongosora masuzgo agho wakakumana nagho cifukwa ca kusintha kwa malo mu 2000. Mulara wa boma wakwamba wa Rhodesia, Ian Smith, wakalemba mabuku ghaŵiri, The Great Betrayal na Bitter Harvest. Buku la The House of Hunger la Dambudzo Marechera likapokera chawanangwa ku UK mu 1979 ndipo buku lakwamba la Doris Lessing la The Grass Is Singing, mabuku ghanayi ghakwambilira gha Children of Violence, kweniso buku la nkhani zicoko waka la African Stories ghakalembeka ku Rhodesia. Mu 2013, buku la NoViolet Bulawayo lakuti We Need New Names likaŵa pa chigaŵa cha mphotho ya Booker. Buku ili likulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikiranga na kusama chifukwa cha nkhaza izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakachitiranga ŵanthu pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya Gukurahundi. Ŵalendo ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ni Henry Mudzengerere na Nicolas Mukomberanwa. Nkhani yinyake iyo yikuyowoyeka kanandi waka mu luso lwa ku Zimbabwe njakuti ŵanthu ŵakusintha na kuŵa vinyama. Ŵakwimba ŵa ku Zimbabwe nga ni Thomas Mapfumo, Oliver Mtukudzi, Bhundu Boys; Stella Chiweshe, Alick Macheso na Audius Mtawarira ŵamanyikwa pa caru cose. Ŵazungu awo mbacoko ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero agha, ndipo pali magulu ghanandi agho ghakucita maseŵero agha.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/African-theatre-art/Southern-and-South-Africa|title=African theatre – Southern and South Africa {{!}} art|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=19 January 2018|language=en}}</ref> ===Vyakuphika=== [[File:Goat Offal.JPG|thumb|A meal of ''sadza'' ''(right)'', greens, and goat [[offal]]. The goat's small intestines are wrapped around small pieces of large intestines before cooking.]] Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Zimbabwe ŵakurya vyakurya vichoko waka. "Mealie meal", iyo yikumanyikwaso na zina lakuti cornmeal, yikugwiliskirika nchito pakunozga sadza panji isitshwala, kweniso porridge yakucemeka bota panji ilambazi. Sadza wakupangika mwa kusanganiska tirigu na maji kuti wapangike. Para wakuphika kwa maminiti ghacoko waka, wakusazgako tirigu munyake kuti wakukore. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakurya nyama iyi pa nyengo ya chakurya cha muhanya panji chakurya cha mise. Sadza wakulyeka pamoza na mkaka wakukaŵa, uwo ukumanyikwa na zina lakuti "lacto" (mukaka wakakora), panji sardine wakomira wa ku Tanganyika. Bota ni chiŵiya chichoko chomene, icho chikuphika kwambura kusazgako tirigu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zambuko.com/mbirapage/resource_guide/pages/culture/sadza_text.html | publisher=Zambuko.com |title=Sadza ne Nyama: A Shona Staple Dish |access-date=3 November 2007}}</ref> Kanandi munthu wakurya Bota pa cakurya ca mulenji. Para ŵanthu ŵakumalizga masambiro ghawo, para ŵakutora panji kutengwa, kweniso pa viphikiro vinyake vya mbumba, kanandi ŵakukoma mbuzi panji ng'ombe. Viyuni vyambura kupangika Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika mbachoko chomene (10%) mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa vyakurya vya ku Afrika. Cakurya ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene ni nyama yakuŵaŵa.<ref>{{cite web|author=Stephanie Hanes|title=Biltong: much more than just a snack|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=20 September 2006|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0920/p13s01-lifo.html|access-date=3 October 2006}}</ref> Ŵakupeleka chakurya cha Boerewors pamoza na sadza. Ni soseji yitali, iyo kanandi yikuŵa na vyakununkhira vinandi. Pakuti charu cha Zimbabwe chikaŵa pasi pa Britain, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulondezga mitheto ya ku England. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakurya chiŵiya mulenji, kweniso ŵakumwa tiyi pa 10 koloko. Ŵakulya cakurya ca mise, ndipo kanandi ŵakurya vyakurya ivyo vyakhalapo pa zuŵa lakulondezgapo. Para ŵamara kurya, kanandi pa 4 koloko ŵakuŵa na tiyi. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakumwa tiyi para ŵamara kurya. Mu vyakurya vya ku Zimbabwe muli mpunga, makaroni, na mbatata. Chakurya icho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene mu chigaŵa ichi ni mpunga uwo ŵakuphika na batala wa mapayipi. Para munthu wakuphika mbuto iyi wakuŵa na mphangwe, mbuto yakuchemeka nzungu, mbuto yakuchemeka ng'ombe yakubiliŵira, mbuto yakuchemeka nyemba, na mbuto yakuchemeka nyimo. Mutakura nayo wangaŵa viŵiya ivyo vili pachanya apa. === Maseŵera === {{Main|Sport in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Canada wins Zimbabwe in Rio Olympics 07.jpg|thumb|[[Zimbabwe women's national football team]] at the [[Football at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament|2016 Olympic Games]]]] Mpira (uno ukuchemekaso kuti soccer) ndiwo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa ku Zimbabwe. Gulu la Warriors lafika ku Africa Cup of Nations kankhondi (2004, 2006, 2017, 2019, 2021), ndipo lapambana mpikisano wa South Africa kankhondi (2000, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2017, 2018) na East Africa cup kamoza (1985). Gulu ili lili pa malo 68 mu 2022. Mpira wa rugby ni maseŵero ghakuzirwa comene mu Zimbabwe. Gulu la chalo likayimilira chalo mu viphalizgano viŵiri vya Rugby World Cup mu 1987 na 1991. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakutemwa maseŵero gha cricket mbazungu. Ni yimoza mwa vyaru 12 ivyo vikuseŵera maseŵero gha Test cricket ndipo ni chiŵaro cha ICC. Ŵaseŵera ŵa cricket ŵakufuma ku Zimbabwe ni Andy Flower, Heath Streak na Brendan Taylor. Zimbabwe yikasanga mendulo 8 pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki, yimoza pa maseŵero gha hockey na timu ya ŵanakazi pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 1980 ku Moscow, na 7 ya Kirsty Coventry, zitatu pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 2004 na zinayi pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 2008. Dziko la Zimbabwe lachita bwino pa maseŵera a Commonwealth Games ndi All-Africa Games pa kusambira ndipo Coventry watenga mendulo 11 za golide mu maseŵera ghakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/olympics/2004/schedules/117BySport.html |title=2004 Olympic Games swimming results |access-date=22 July 2007 |publisher=CNN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060509051921/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/olympics/2004/schedules/117BySport.html |archive-date=9 May 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Montreal_2005/results/sw.php |title=Montreal 2005 Results|access-date=9 June 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070128064425/http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Montreal_2005/results/sw.php |archive-date = 28 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Melbourne_2007/results/swimming.php|title=12th FINA World Championships|access-date=9 June 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070606111744/http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Melbourne_2007/results/swimming.php |archive-date = 6 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/commonwealthgames2002/bsp/statistics/results.stm |title=BBC Sport Commonwealth Games 2002 Statistics|access-date=29 August 2007 |work=BBC News}}</ref> Zimbabwe yikwimila pa Wimbledon na Davis Cup mu tennis, chomenechomene na banja la Black, ilo lili na Wayne Black, Byron Black na Cara Black. Nick Price wa ku Zimbabwe wakaŵa na malo gha nambara yimoza pa maseŵero gha gofu pa caru cose kwa nyengo yitali kuluska woseŵero waliyose wa ku Africa. Maseŵero ghanyake agho ghakuchitika mu Zimbabwe ni basketball, volleyball, netball, na water polo, kweniso squash, motorsport, martial arts, chess, cycling, polocrosse, kayaking na kuphalizgana pa mahachi. Ndipouli, mitundu yinandi ya maseŵero agha yikuŵa na ŵimiliri pa caru cose yayi, kweni yikuŵa pa caru cose. Ŵaseŵero ŵa mpira wa rugby ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakuseŵera ku vyaru vinyake ni Masimbaashe Motongo na Judah Mazive.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/hull-fc-masimbaashe-matongo-s-dream-journey-just/story-28185324-detail/story.html|title=From Zimbabwe to Hull FC: Masimbaashe Matongo's 'dream' journey is just beginning|date=17 November 2015|newspaper=Hull Daily Mail|access-date=18 February 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225200610/http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/Hull-FC-Masimbaashe-Matongo-s-dream-journey-just/story-28185324-detail/story.html|archive-date=25 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://zimbabwe-today.com/2016/10/sports/zimbabwe-teenager-judah-mazive-signs-contract-play-rugby-england/|title=Zimbabwe teenager Judah Mazive signs contract to play rugby in England|newspaper=Zimbabwe Today|access-date=18 February 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113154539/http://zimbabwe-today.com/2016/10/sports/zimbabwe-teenager-judah-mazive-signs-contract-play-rugby-england/|archive-date=13 January 2017}}</ref> Ŵasepuka ŵakale bakusazgapo sono CEO wa SANZAAR Andy Marinos uyo wakawonekera ku South Africa pa Super League World Nines ndipo wakawonekeranga ku Sydney Bulldogs kweniso uyo wakababika ku Zimbabwe uyo wakababika ku Scotland Scott Gray, uyo wakachitako ku Brisbane Broncos. Charu cha Zimbabwe chawina mu karate apo Samson Muripo wa ku Zimbabwe wakaba chiphalizgano cha Kyokushin world champion ku Osaka, Japan mu 2009. Muripo ni nkhwantha ya Kyokushi Karate pa charu chose ndipo wakaŵa munthu wakuda wakwamba wa ku Africa kuŵa nkhwantha ya Kyokushin Karate pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The making of Samson Muripo {{!}} The Standard|date=22 October 2017|url=https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2017/10/22/making-samson-muripo/|access-date=2021-07-21|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Media=== Ŵapharazgi ŵa ku Zimbabwe sono ŵali na ŵanthu ŵakupambanapambana, chifukwa boma likaŵakanizga chomene kupharazga pakati pa 2002 na 2008. Dango la Zimbabwe likulayizga wanangwa wa vyakupharazga. Kufuma waka apo ŵakaŵikirapo nduna yiphya ya vya mdauko mu 2013, ŵapharazgi ŵakusuzgika viŵi yayi na ndyali ndipo khoti likuru chomene la charu ichi lazomerezga kuti malango ghanyake ghakukhwaskana na vya mdauko ghakususkana na dango. Mu Julayi 2009, BBC na CNN ŵakambaso kwendeska mauthenga mu Zimbabwe. Unduna wa vya Mtima, Uthenga na Kupharazga wa ku Zimbabwe ukati, "boma la Zimbabwe likakanizgapo yayi kuti BBC yichitenge vinthu ivyo vikukolerana na dango mu Zimbabwe". BBC yikakondwa chomene na ivyo vikachitika, yikati: "Tili ŵakukondwa kuti tikwaniskaso kugwira ntchito mu Zimbabwe". Mu 2010, boma la Zimbabwe Media Commission likakhazikiskika. Mu Meyi 2010, wupu uwu ukazomerezga nyuzipepara zitatu za ŵanthu ŵekha, kusazgapo nyuzipepara yakuchemeka Daily News. Wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukati fundo izi ni "vinthu vikuru comene". Mu Juni 2010, NewsDay yikaŵa nyuzipepara yakwamba yakujiyimira payekha mu Zimbabwe mu vyaka 7. Mu 2012, ZBC yikamazga wanangwa wake wa kupharazga na kupeleka malayisensi ku mawayilesi ghaŵiri. Kufuma waka apo dango la 2002 la Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act likakhazikiskikira, boma likajara manyuzipepara ghanandi, kusazgapo Daily News.<ref name="rwb" /><ref name="cgmg">Ruzengwe, Blessing (17 March 2005) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060301060504/http://cgmg.jour.city.ac.uk/news.php?story=249 "The nine lives of Wilf Mbanga"], ''The London Globe'' via ''[[Metrovox]]''.</ref>Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵali ku wuzga ŵali kwambiska mawupu gha nyuzipepara mu vyaru vya ŵazengezgani na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Chifukwa chakuti Intaneti njambura kukanizgika, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakuzomerezgeka kusanga nkhani pa Intaneti izo ŵalembi ŵa nyuzipepara awo ŵali ku wuzga ŵakulemba. Wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukati mu Zimbabwe ŵanthu ŵakwendera chomene nkhani za mu manyuzipepara. Manyuzipepara agho ghakusindikizgika comene ni The Herald na The Chronicle agho ghakusindikizgika mu Harare na Bulawayo. Kwamba mu 2009, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa yayi kuyowoya vya nkhani mu manyuzipepara. Mu lipoti lake la mu 2021, wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukalemba vyalo vya Zimbabwe pa 130 pa vyalo 180, ndipo ukalemba kuti "mauthenga ghafika pa malo ghakwenelera ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujikora yayi, kweni ŵapharazgi ŵachali kukomeka".<ref name="rwb">{{cite web|url=https://rsf.org/en/zimbabwe |title=Reporters without Borders Press Freedom Index |publisher=Reports Without Borders |access-date=24 February 2022}}</ref>Boma la Zimbabwe likukanizgaso mawayilesi ghanandi ghakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, nga ni CBC, Sky News, Channel 4, American Broadcasting Company, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, na Fox News. Mabungwe gha nkhani na manyuzipepara ghakufuma ku vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi na ku South Africa nagho ghakanizgika kunjira mu caru ici. ===National symbols=== [[File:Zimbabwe Bird.svg|thumb|upright|Traditional Zimbabwe Bird design]] Mbalame ya ku Zimbabwe yikuwoneka pa ndembera za charu cha Zimbabwe na Rhodesia, kweniso pa ndalama za ku Rhodesia. Panyake ni nombo panji nombo ya ku Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-arts_1985-05_18_3/page/68|journal=African Arts|year=1985|volume=18|pages=68–73, 99–100|author=Huffman, Thomas N.|jstor=3336358|issue=3|doi=10.2307/3336358}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Review: The Soapstone Birds of Great Zimbabwe Symbols of a Nation by Edward Matenga|journal=The South African Archaeological Bulletin|year=2001|volume=56|pages=105–106|author=Sinclair, Paul |jstor=3889033|issue=173/174|doi=10.2307/3889033}}</ref> Mu msumba wakale wa Great Zimbabwe mukaŵa vithuzithuzi vya viyuni vyakutowa chomene.<ref>{{cite web|title=Great Zimbabwe|url=http://usp.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/art/greatzim/gz1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809145423/http://usp.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/art/greatzim/gz1.html|archive-date=9 August 2007|author=Landow, George P.|publisher=Brown University}}</ref> Malibwe agho ghakukolerana ni malo agho ghakusangika mu charu chose cha Zimbabwe. Malibwe agha ghakukolerana makora kwambura kukhozgeka na vinthu vinyake. Vinthu ivi vikupangika para miyala yakukhoma iyo yili pafupi na malo agha yikusongonoka. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuŵalongosora ndipo ŵali kuŵalongosora pa ndalama za ku Zimbabwe na za ku Rhodesia. Malibwe agha ghakusangika pa ndalama za ku Zimbabwe, ndipo ghakumanyikwa kuti Banknote Rocks. Malibwe agha ghakupangika mu nthowa zakupambanapambana, ndipo ghakukolerana na malibwe ghatatu panji kujumpha apa. Vinthu ivi vikusangika kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, kufuma kumpoto kwa South Africa m'paka ku Sudan. Vinthu vyakuzizwiska chomene mu charu cha Zimbabwe vili ku Matobo National Park ku Matabeleland. Nyimbo ya fuko la Zimbabwe ni "Blessed be the Land of Zimbabwe" (Shona: Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe; Template:Lang-nd). Sumu iyi yikamba kwimbika mu Malichi 1994 pamanyuma pa chiphambano cha pa charu chose kuti yisinthe Ishe Komborera Africa kuŵa sumu ya ku Zimbabwe. Sumu iyo yikaluska yikaŵa sumu yakulembeka na Pulofesa Solomon Mutswairo ndipo yikapangika na Fred Changundega. Baibolo ili lang'anamulika mu viyowoyero vitatu vikuruvikuru vya ku Zimbabwe.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web |title=Zimbabwe {{!}} History, Map, Flag, Population, Capital, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe |access-date=29 May 2020 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> == Wonaniso == * [[Index of Zimbabwe-related articles]] * [[Outline of Zimbabwe]] == Ukaboni == ===Vinyake vyakuona=== {{reflist|group=note}} === Mazgo === {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} === Vinyake === {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=Parsons |last=Parsons |first=Neil |year=1993 |title=A New History of Southern Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofsout0000pars |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |location=London, England |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-84195319-2 }} * {{Free-content attribution | title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 | author = | publisher = UNESCO | page numbers = | source = | documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf | license statement URL = | license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO }} {{refend}} == Wonani vinadi == * {{cite news |title='Hungry kids collapse as looters take millions': life in today's Zimbabwe |first=Jason |last=Burke |date=10 August 2019 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/10/zimbabwe-emmerson-mnangagwa-battle-to-survive}} * {{Citation |last=Barclay |first=Philip |title=Zimbabwe: Years of Hope and Despair |year=2010}}. * Bourne, Richard. ''Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?'' (2011); 302 pages. * {{Citation |editor1-first=JoAnn |editor1-last=McGregor |editor2-first=Ranka |editor2-last=Primorac |title=Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival |publisher= [[Berghahn Books]] |year=2010}}, 286 pages. Scholarly essays on displacement as a result of Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in Britain and South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of Rhodesian discourse. * [[Martin Meredith|Meredith, Martin]]. ''Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B003STCO04/ excerpt and text search]. * {{Citation |first1=Peter |last1=Orner |author1-link=Peter Orner |first2=Annie |last2=Holmes |title=Hope Deferred: Narratives of Zimbabwean Lives |year=2011 |publisher=Voice of witness |url= http://www.voiceofwitness.org/hope-deferred/}}. * Smith, Ian Douglas. ''Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of its Independence'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1857826043/ excerpt and text search]. * David Coltart. The struggle continues: 50 Years of Tyranny in Zimbabwe. Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd: South Africa, 2016. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Zimbabwe}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171223174502/http://www.zim.gov.zw/ Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223174502/http://www.zim.gov.zw/ |date=23 December 2017 }} * [https://www.parlzim.gov.zw/ Parliament of Zimbabwe] * {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/Zimbabwe}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14113249 Zimbabwe profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Zimbabwe}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zimbabwe/ Zimbabwe]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081024133532/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/zimbabwe.htm Zimbabwe] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ZW Key Development Forecasts for Zimbabwe] from [[International Futures]] * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ZWE/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Zimbabwe] {{Zimbabwean topics}} {{Navboxes |list= {{Geography of Zimbabwe}} {{Languages of Zimbabwe}} {{Africa}} {{G15}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Territories of the British Empire}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|19|S|30|E|type:country_region:ZW|display=title}} [[Category:Zimbabwe| ]] [[Category:1980 establishments in Zimbabwe]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Southeast African countries]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1980]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] 1yyuebzsi0glwj8h4u8j3qtp80z2nri 0 6980 122785 122697 2026-10-01T03:29:14Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122785 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Suriname | common_name = Suriname | native_name = {{native name|nl|Republiek Suriname}} | image_flag = Flag of Suriname.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Suriname.svg | national_motto = {{native phrase|la|[[Justitia]] – [[Pietas]] – [[Faith|Fides]]}}<br />{{native phrase|nl|Gerechtigheid – Vroomheid – Vertrouwen}}<br />"Justice – Piety – Trust" | national_anthem = {{native name|nl|[[God zij met ons Suriname]]|nolink=on}}<br />"God be with our Suriname"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Surinamese national anthem, performed by the U.S. Navy Band.ogg]]}} | image_map = SUR orthographic.svg | map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=dark green |region=South America |region_color= grey }} | image_map2 = | capital = [[Paramaribo]] | coordinates = {{Coord|5|50|N|55|10|W|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Paramaribo]] | official_languages = [[Surinamese Dutch|Dutch]] | regional_languages = {{collapsible list | titlestyle=background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal | title=8 [[Indigenous languages of South America|indigenous languages]] |{{hlist | [[Akurio language|Akurio]] | [[Arawak language|Arawak-Lokono]] | [[Carib language|Carib-Kari'nja]] | [[Sikiana language|Sikiana-Kashuyana]] | [[Tiriyó language|Tiro-Tiriyó]] | [[Waiwai language|Waiwai]] | [[Warao language|Warao]] | [[Wayana language|Wayana]]}} }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 27.4% [[Indo-Surinamese|Indian]] | 21.7% [[Surinamese Maroons|Maroon-Bushinengue]] | 15.7% [[Creole people|Creole]] | 13.7% [[Javanese Surinamese|Javanese]] | {{nowrap|13.4% [[Multiracial people|Multiracial]]}} | 3.8% [[Indigenous peoples in Suriname|Indigenous]] | 0.3% [[White Surinamese|European]] | 1.9% [[Ethnic groups in Suriname|Others]] }} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{citation |url=http://history.rutgers.edu/honors-papers-2015/1302-sode-honors-thesis-2015/file|title=Suriname: An Asian Immigrant and the Organic Creation of the Caribbean's Most Unique Fusion Culture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170220092458/http://history.rutgers.edu/honors-papers-2015/1302-sode-honors-thesis-2015/file |archive-date=20 February 2017 |access-date=19 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/2010_PHC/Suriname/SUR-Census2012-vol1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629112522/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/2010_PHC/Suriname/SUR-Census2012-vol1.pdf |url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-06-29 |title=Censusstatistieken 2012 |work=Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek in Suriname (General Statistics Bureau of Suriname) |page=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/suriname/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|date=29 September 2021|access-date=11 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260118155641/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/suriname/|archive-date=18 January 2026}}</ref><ref name="Census"/><ref name="statistics-suriname1">{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics-suriname.org/index.php/statistieken/downloads/category/30-censusstatistieken-2012 |title=Census statistieken 2012 |publisher=Statistics-suriname.org |access-date=13 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113143359/http://www.statistics-suriname.org/index.php/statistieken/downloads/category/30-censusstatistieken-2012 |archive-date=13 November 2014 |url-status=dead|df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Definitieve Resultaten (Vol I) Etniciteit |journal= Presentatie Evaluatie Rapport CENSUS 8 |page= 42 }}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2012 | religion_ref = <ref name="Census"/><ref name="statistics-suriname1"/> | religion = {{unbulleted list |52.3% [[Christianity]]|18.8% [[Hinduism in Suriname|Hinduism]]|14.3% [[Islam in Suriname|Islam]]|6.2% [[Irreligion|No religion]]|5.6% [[Folk religion]]s|2.8% [[Religion in Suriname|Others]]}} | demonym = [[Surinamese people|Surinamese]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[assembly-independent republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Suriname|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Chan Santokhi]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Suriname|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Ronnie Brunswijk]] | leader_title3 = [[List of chairmen of the National Assembly of Suriname|National Assembly Chairman]] | leader_name3 = [[Marinus Bee]] | leader_title4 = [[High Court of Justice of Suriname|High Court of Justice President]] | leader_name4 = Iwan Rasoelbaks ''(acting)'' | legislature = [[National Assembly (Suriname)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | established_event1 = [[Suriname (Kingdom of the Netherlands)|Constituent country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] | established_date1 = 15 December 1954 | established_event2 = [[Independence of Suriname|Independence]] from the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] | established_date2 = 25 November 1975 | area_km2 = 163,821 | area_rank = 90th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]--> | area_sq_mi = 63,251 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 1.1 | population_estimate = 632,638<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Suriname|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 170th | population_density_km2 = 3.9 | population_density_sq_mi = 10.0 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = 231st | GDP_PPP = $10.707&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=366,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=Suriname|access-date=30 October 2022|date=10 October 2022 |publisher=International Monetary Fund }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $17,350<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | GDP_nominal = $3.011&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,880<ref name=imf2/> | Gini = <!-- number only --> | Gini_year = | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name=gini-index>{{cite web|title=GINI index|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=SR|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=5 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205203230/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=SR|archive-date=5 December 2017}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.730 <!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=September 8, 2022|access-date=September 8, 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 99th | currency = [[Surinamese dollar]] | currency_code = SRD | time_zone = SRT | utc_offset = -3 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | date_format = {{nowrap|dd-mm-yyyy}} | drives_on = left | calling_code = [[+597]] | cctld = [[.sr]] | languages2_type = Other languages | languages2 = {{collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; | title = 13 languages |{{hlist | [[Sarnami Hindustani]] | [[Ndyuka language|Ndyuka]] | [[Saramaccan language|Saramaccan]] | [[Matawai language|Matawai]] | [[Aluku language|Aluku]] | [[Paramaccan people#Language|Paramaccan]] | [[Kwinti language|Kwinti]] | [[Javanese language|Javanese]] | [[Chinese language|Chinese]] | [[English language|English]] | [[French language|French]] | [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] | [[Spanish language|Spanish]]}} }} | languages_type = [[Lingua franca]] | languages = Dutch and [[Sranan Tongo]] | today = }} '''Suriname''' ntchalo icho chili ku mpoto kwa mafumilo gha dazi gha musi mwa nyanja ya atlantic chigawa cha Amerika wa kummwera. {{Countries of South America}} [[Category:Amelika wa Kummwela]] 65boic4ospl70x60b5se5e4m9lqqg7b 0 6999 122779 122506 2026-10-01T00:26:11Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Ripabuliki ya Cuba| Ripabuliki yakwamba iyo yikaŵako pakati pa 1902 mpaka 1906 na 1909 mpaka 1959|Ripabuliki ya Cuba (1902-1959)|other uses|Cuba (disambiguation)}}{{coord|22|00|N|80|00|W|display=title}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Ripabuliki ya Cuba | common_name = Cuba | native_name = {{native name|es|República de Cuba}} | image_flag = Flag of Cuba.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Cuba.svg | alt_coat = A shield in front of a Fasces crowned by the Phrygian Cap, all supported by an oak branch and a laurel wreath | symbol_type = Coat of arms | national_motto = {{lang|es|[[¡Patria o Muerte, Venceremos!]]}}<br />("Homeland or Death, We Shall Overcome!"){{lower|0.2em|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bc.gob.cu/english/cuban_bills.asp |title=Cuban Peso Bills |publisher=Central Bank of Cuba |date=2015 |access-date=14 February 2017 |archive-date=26 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926193856/http://www.bc.gob.cu/English/cuban_bills.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref><!--end lower:-->}} | national_anthem = {{lang|es|[[La Bayamesa]]}}<br />{{raise|0.2em|("The Bayamo Song"){{lower|0.2em|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mipais.cuba.cu/cat_en.php?idcat=91&idpadre=83&nivel=2 |title=National symbols |publisher=Government of Cuba |access-date=7 September 2009}}</ref><!--end lower:-->}}<!--end raise:-->}}<br />{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Cuban national anthem (abridged version), performed by the U.S. Navy Band.oga]]}} | image_map = CUB orthographic.svg | image_map2 = | alt_map = | map_caption = Cuba shown in dark green | capital = [[Havana]] | coordinates = {{coord|23|8|N|82|23|W|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[Cuban Spanish|Spanish]] | languages2 = [[Haitian Creole]]<br />[[English language|English]] | languages2_type = Other spoken languages | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 64.1% [[Cubans#White or European, Criollo|White]] | 26.6% [[Multiracial people|mixed]] | 9.3% [[Afro-Cubans|Black]] }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2012 | ethnic_groups_ref = {{efn|Data represents racial self-identification from Cuba's 2012 national census}}<ref name=CIA>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/ |title=Central America :: Cuba — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812170744/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/ |archive-date=12 August 2021}}</ref> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |58.9% [[Christianity in Cuba|Christianity]] |23.2% [[Irreligion in Latin America|no religion]] |17.6% [[folk religion]]s |0.3% other}} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/|title=Cuba - The World Factbook|website=www.cia.gov|date=6 October 2021|access-date=22 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812170744/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/|archive-date=12 August 2021}}</ref> | demonym = [[Cubans|Cuban]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Communist state|Marxist–Leninist]] [[One-party state|one-party]] [[Socialist state|socialist]] [[republic]]<ref name=constitution>{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the Republic of Cuba, 1976 (as Amended to 2002) |url=http://www.constitutionnet.org/files/Cuba%20Constitution.pdf |publisher=National Assembly of People's Power |access-date=18 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013359/http://www.constitutionnet.org/files/Cuba%20Constitution.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2013}}<br />For discussion of the 1992 amendments, see {{Harvnb|Domínguez|2003}}.</ref> | leader_title1 = [[President of Cuba|President]] and [[First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba|First Secretary]]{{efn|Cuba is a [[One-party state|one party]] [[Marxist–Leninist]] [[communist state]]. The most powerful political position is [[First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba]], not [[President of Cuba|President]]. The first secretary controls the [[Politburo of the Communist Party of Cuba|Politburo]] and the [[Secretariat of the Communist Party of Cuba|Secretariat]], Cuba's top decision-making bodies, making the officeholder ''de facto'' leader of Cuba.}} | leader_name1 = [[Miguel Díaz-Canel]] | leader_title2 = {{nowrap|[[Vice President of Cuba|Vice President]]}} | leader_name2 = [[Salvador Valdés Mesa]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Cuba|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = {{nowrap|[[Manuel Marrero Cruz]]}} | leader_title4 = [[List of presidents of the National Assembly of People's Power (Cuba)|National Assembly President]] | leader_name4 = {{nowrap|[[Esteban Lazo Hernández]]}} | legislature = [[National Assembly of People's Power]] | sovereignty_type = Independence | sovereignty_note = from [[Spain]] and the [[United States]] | established_event1 = [[Aponte Conspiracy|Slaves rebellion]]<hr/>[[Ten Years' War|Declaration of Independence]] | established_date1 = 11 March 1812<hr/>10 October 1868 | established_event2 = [[Cuban War of Independence|War of Independence]] | established_date2 = 24 February 1895 | established_event3 = [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Recognized]] (Handed over to the United States from Spain) | established_date3 = 10 December 1898 | established_event4 = [[Republic of Cuba (1902-1959)|Republic]] declared (Independence from United States) | established_date4 = 20 May 1902 | established_event5 = [[Cuban Revolution]] | established_date5 = 26 July 1953 – 1 January 1959 | established_event6 = [[Constitution of Cuba#2019 Constitution|Current constitution]] | established_date6 = 10 April 2019 | area_km2 = 109,884<!-- Land area should match [[Geography of Cuba]] --> | area_rank = 104th <!-- Area rank should match [[Geography of Cuba]] --> | area_sq_mi = 42,427 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]--> | percent_water = 0 <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | population_estimate ={{DecreaseNeutral}} 11,008,112<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Cuba|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 84th | population_census = 11,113,215<ref>{{cite web |title=Indicadores Demográficos por provincias y municipios 2021 |url=http://www.onei.gob.cu/node/13815 |publisher=Oficina Nacional de Estadística e Information República de Cuba |access-date=29 June 2022 |language=es}}</ref> | population_census_year = 2021 | population_census_rank = 83rd | population_density_km2 = 101.8 | population_density_sq_mi = 263.6 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]--> | population_density_rank = 80th | GDP_PPP = $254.865 billion<ref name="auto">{{cite web|title=World Bank GDP PPP 2015, 28 April 2017 PDF|url=https://archive.org/details/GDPPPP1|access-date=18 January 2018}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2015 | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $22,237<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite web|title=World Bank total population of Cuba in 2015 (GDP PPP divided by Population data)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=2015&locations=CU&start=1960|access-date=18 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111235251/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=2015&locations=CU&start=1960|archive-date=11 November 2020}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $107.352 billion<ref name=C>{{cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/Basic |title=Basic Data Selection |publisher=United Nations |access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2020 | GDP_nominal_rank = 60th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $9,478<ref name=C/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 84th | Gini = 38.0 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2000 | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite news |title=Cuba grapples with growing inequality |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cuba-reform-inequality-idUSN1033501920080410 |access-date=21 July 2013 |publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.764 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021 <!--Please use the year to which the HDI data refers, not the year of publication--> | HDI_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web |title=Human Development Report 2021/2022 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |date=8 September 2022 |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 83rd<!--Please see talk page before adding a reference here again--> | currency = [[Cuban peso]] | currency_code = CUP | time_zone = [[UTC−05:00|CST]] | utc_offset = −5 | utc_offset_DST = −4 | time_zone_DST = [[UTC−04:00|CDT]] | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Cuba|+53]] | cctld = [[.cu]] }} '''Cuba''' (/ˈkjuːbə/ KEW-bə, [[Chiyowoyelo cha Spanish]]: [ˈkuβa], mwakuchemeka ''Ripabukili ya Cuba'' ('''Chiyowoyelo cha Spanish''': [[República de Cuba]] [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa] ntchalo chakuzingilizgika na manji icho china [[Nkhaska ya Cuba]],na [[Isla de la Juventud]] kweneso na [[tunkhunkha]] tuchoko tunandi uto tuli musi ,wake.Cuba wali ku mpoto kwa nyanja ikulu ya Caribbean, [[Gulf ya Mexico]], na nyanja ikulu ya [[Atlantic]] apo vikukumana. Cuba walikukhala za kumafumilo gha dazi gha [[Yucatán Peninsula]] ([[Mexico]]), kummwela kwa Nthavwa ya United States ya [[Florida]] na [[Bahamas]], ku manjililo gha dazi gha Hispaniola ([[Haiti]]/[[Dominican Republic]]), na kumpoto kwa [[Jamaica]] na [[Cayman Islands]]. [[Havana]] ndiwo musumba ukulu kweneso msumba wa boma;kusazgapo misumba inyake nga ni Santiago de Cuba na [[Camagüey]]. Malo chaiwo gha charu cha Cuba ni 109,884 km² (42,426 sq mi) (kwambula malo ghanyake gha maji). Nkhaska ikulu ya charu cha Cuba kweneso mu [[Caribbean]] ni Nthaska ya Cuba, iyo ina usani wa 104,556 km² (40,369 sq mi).Cuba ntchalo chachiŵili chakumanyikwa mu Caribbean pafuma Haiti,na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 11 miliyoni.<ref name="BBC profile">{{cite news |title=Cuba profile: Facts |date=13 September 2012 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-19583446 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date= 22 Malichi 2023}}</ref> Chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Cuba chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa Chiboney kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 4 B.C.E. na ŵanthu ŵa [[Guanahatabey]] na [[Taino]]. <ref>Allaire, p. 678</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, charu ichi chikaŵa mu ufumu wa Spain, ndipo mu 1886, ukapolo ukafumiskika. Charu ichi chikakhala mu ufumu wa Spain m'paka apo nkhondo ya Spain na America yikambira mu 1898. Mu 1940, charu cha Cuba chikapanga dango liphya la boma la charu ichi, kweni masuzgo gha ndyali ghakafika pachanya mu 1952 apo boma la Cuba likawukira boma la Fulgencio Batista.<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date=6 October 1960 |title=Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Democratic Dinner, Cincinnati, Ohio |url=https://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Research-Aids/JFK-Speeches/Cincinnati-OH_19601006-Democratic-Dinner.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504161136/https://www.jfklibrary.org/archives/other-resources/john-f-kennedy-speeches/cincinnati-oh-19601006-democratic-dinner |archive-date=May 4, 2020 |access-date=14 February 2017 |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum}}</ref> Chipani ichi chikathereskeka mu Janyuwale 1959 na gulu la [[26th July Movement]] pa nyengo ya [[Cuban Revolution]], ilo pamanyuma likakhazikiska boma la chikomyunizimu pasi pa [[Fidel Castro]].<ref name="britannica-castro">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fidel-Castro|title=Fidel Castro|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=26 June 2017|quote=Castro created a one-party government to exercise dictatorial control over all aspects of Cuba's political, economic, and cultural life. All political dissent and opposition were ruthlessly suppressed}}</ref><ref name="gonzalo-castro">{{cite book |last=Fernández |first=Gonzalo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5fbhSQKuMj0C |title=Cuba's Primer – Castro's Earring Economy |year=2009 |isbn=9780557065738 |quote=The number of individuals who have been jailed or deprived of their freedom in labor camps over the 50 years of Castro's dictatorship is estimated at around 200,000}}</ref><ref name="dw-castro">{{cite web |last=Sand |first=Sonila |date=26 November 2016 |title=Cuba's hero and dictator, dead at 90 |url=http://www.dw.com/en/fidel-castro-cubas-hero-and-dictator/a-36532751 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816232904/https://www.dw.com/en/fidel-castro-cubas-hero-and-dictator/a-36532751 |archive-date=Aug 16, 2022 |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]}}</ref> Charu ichi chikaŵa chakususkana chomene pa nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Charu cha [[Soviet Union]] na [[United States]], ndipo nkhondo ya nyukiliya yikakhala pachoko kuti yambike pa nyengo ya [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] mu 1962.<ref>{{cite book |title=Parameters: Journal of the US Army War College |date=1977 |publisher=U.S. Army War College |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMdLAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA13}}</ref> Panyuma pa kupasuka kwa Soviet Union, Cuba wakasangana na suzgo likuru la vya cuma mu ma 1990, ilo likamanyikwa kuti nyengo yapadera. Mu chaka cha 2008, Fidel Castro wakafumapo pa udindo wake pamanyuma pa vyaka 49 vya kuwusa charu cha Cuba ndipo wakasintha na munung'una wake [[Raúl Castro]]. Panyuma pa kupasuka kwa Soviet Union, Cuba wakasangana na suzgo likuru la vya cuma mu ma 1990, ilo likamanyikwa kuti nyengo yapadera. Mu chaka cha 2008, Fidel Castro wakafumapo pa udindo wake pamanyuma pa vyaka 49 vya kuwusa charu cha Cuba ndipo wakasintha na munung'una wake Raúl Castro. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Levitsky |first1=Steven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NZDI05p1PDgC&pg=PA361 |title=Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War |last2=Way |first2=Lucan A. |date=2010-08-16 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49148-8 |pages=361–363}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lachapelle|first1=Jean|last2=Levitsky|first2=Steven|last3=Way|first3=Lucan A.|last4=Casey|first4=Adam E.|date=2020|title=Social Revolution and Authoritarian Durability|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/social-revolution-and-authoritarian-durability/B62A931E63978E8B8466225EC123D2A9|journal=World Politics|volume=72|issue=4|pages=557–600|doi=10.1017/S0043887120000106|s2cid=225096277|issn=0043-8871}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hawkins|first=Darren|date=2001|title=Democratization Theory and Nontransitions: Insights from Cuba|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/422443|journal=Comparative Politics|volume=33|issue=4|pages=441–461|doi=10.2307/422443|jstor=422443|issn=0010-4159}}</ref> Censorship ya nkhani (kuphatikizapo malire pa intaneti) njakusazgikira, <ref>{{Cite web|last=Stein|first=Elizabeth Ann|date=2016|title=Information and Civil Unrest in Dictatorships|url=https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-35|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.35|isbn=978-0-19-022863-7}}</ref><ref name="HRW-Cuba-III-1999">{{Cite book|date=June 1999|title=Impediments to Human rights in Cuban Law (Part III)|url=https://archive.org/details/cubasrepressivem00huma|url-access=registration|access-date=7 August 2012|work=Cuba's Repressive Machinery: Human Rights Forty Years After the Revolution|publisher=Human Rights Watch|isbn=1-56432-234-3}}</ref><ref name="Michael C. Moynihan">{{Cite web |last=Moynihan |first=Michael C. |date=22 February 2008 |title=Still Stuck on Castro - How the press handled a tyrant's farewell |url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/125095.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120920/http://www.reason.com/news/show/125095.html |archive-date=20 September 2012 |access-date=25 March 2009 |website=Reason.com}}</ref> Ndipo nyuzipepara yakujiyimira payekha yikuyuzgika mu Cuba; <ref>{{Cite web|date=3 October 2006|title=62nd General Assembly Reports: Cuba|url=http://www.sipiapa.com/v4/det_informe.php?asamblea=3&infoid=62&idioma=us|access-date=6 August 2012|publisher=Inter American Press Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127232427/http://www.sipiapa.com/v4/det_informe.php?asamblea=3&infoid=62&idioma=us|archive-date=27 January 2023}}</ref> Wupu wa [[Reporters Without Borders]] ukuti charu cha Cuba nchimoza mwa vyaru viheni comene pa caru cose pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa mdauko. <ref name="Press Freedom Index 2015">[https://web.archive.org/web/20150212093137if_/http://index.rsf.org/#!/ "Press Freedom Index 2015"], Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 12 November 2015</ref><ref>{{cite web|year=2008|title=Press Freedom Index 2008|url=http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/cl_en_2008.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303221403/http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/cl_en_2008.pdf|archive-date=2009-03-03|publisher=Reporters Without Borders}}</ref> == Kwiza kwa zina == ''wonaniso'' : ''[[Ripabuliki ya Cuba (1902-1959)]]'' Ŵalembi mbili ŵanandi ŵanachigomezgo kuti zina lakuti ''Cuba'' lilikufumila mu [[chiyowoyelo cha Taino]] nangauli vikumanyikwa chala kuti ghakatoleka ku mazgo ghakuti uli gha mu chiyowoyelo chenechicho.Ching'anamulo cha Cuba chikumanyikwa makola chala,nangauli mang'anamulilo ghanyake ghangaŵa ghakuti: "apo pali nthaka inandi" ''([[cubao]]),'' panji "malo ghawemi"''([[coabana]])''.Ŵalembi ŵanandi awo wakugomezga kuti [[Christopher Columbus]] wakaŵa mu Portuguese ŵakuyowoya zakuti Cuba wakathyeka na Columbus kuthya msumba wa Cuba mu boma la Beja ku [[Portugal]]. === Nyengo yakwamba ya Columbia === [[File:Hatuey monument, Baracoa, Cuba.JPG|left|thumb|Chithuzi cha [[Hatuey]], fumu yakale ya [[Taíno]] ya Cuba]] Mu malo gha [[Caribbean]],agho ni malo ghaumalilo ghakupona gha nyengo ya chiyamwaka iyo kukaŵa vinyama vikulu vikulu,vikakhalanga mu Cuba chomene pambele 2660 [[BCE]] ([[Pambele Fumu Yesu Indababike]]).Pambele ma Spanish ghandize,Cuba wakaŵa na mitundu iŵili ya ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa mtundu wachi [[America|Amelika]] : ŵanthu ŵa Taíno (kusazgapo [[ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ciboney]]), na [[Guanahatabey|mtundu ŵanthu wa Guanahatabey]]. Ŵapapi ŵa mtundu wa ŵanthu wa [[Taino]] wakafuma ku malo ghakulu gha Amelika Wakumpoto,kale chomene mu nyengo ya 5,000 BP(Siku lambula kukhazikiskika makola).Ŵa Taino ŵakiza kufuma ku [[Hispaniola]] mu nyengo inyake mu chikwi chachitatu A.D.(Fumu Yesu Yati Yafwa).Columbus wati wakafika wakasanga chiŵelengelo cha ŵanthu aŵa chakukwana 150,000 mu Cuba. Vikumanyikwa chala za mizilo ya mtundu wa ŵanthu wa [[Guanahatabey]] mu Cuba kweneso kuti ka pakwamba ŵakaŵa na chiyowoyelo na mwambo mbu kuuskako wa Taino.Pali ganizo lakuti ŵagogo ŵa ŵagogo ŵawo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵachi Taino ŵwakwamba ŵa [[Antilles Mukulu]]. ŴaTaíno ŵakaŵa ŵalimi,wokola somba kweneso ŵakusola vipaso na kusaka nyama. === Ulamulilo wa Spanish (1492–1898) === Wati wiza pa nkhaska yakuchemeka [[Guanahani]], [[Bahamas]],pa 12 Okutobala mu chaka cha 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] wakalamulila sitima zake zitatu : ''[[La Pinta,]]'' ''[[La Niña]]'' na ''[[Santa María]]'',kusanga Cuba pa 27 Okutobala 11492,nakufika ku mpoto kwa mafumilo gha dazi mumphepete mwa nyanja pa 28 Okutobala.(Apa pakaŵa pafupi na Bariay, Chigaŵa cha Holguín.) Columbus wakatola nkhaska(Island) ya Ufumu Uphya wa Spain na kuuthya ''Isla Juana'' kutola zina la John, Fumu ya Asturias. [[File:DiegoVelazquezCuellar.jpg|thumb|[[Diego Velázquez]] de Cuéllar, conquistador wa Cuba|267x267px]] Mu 1511, chikhaze chakwamba cha Spanish chikasangika na [[Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar]] pa Baracoa.Vyakuzengeka vinyake vikayambapo kupangika,kusazgapo [[San Cristobal de la Haban|San Cristobal de la Habana]],kusangika mu 1515, paumalilo ukaŵs msumba wa charu.Ŵanthu ŵa Taino ŵakachichizgika mwambula kukhumba kugwila ntchito yakuzenga malo,iyo ni nthowa yakukozgana na iyo ikachitikanga ku [[Yulaya]]. Pati pajumpha vyaka 100,mtundu wa ŵanthu vakuchita kuŵasanga ukamala wose na vifukwa vingapo chomene matenda ghakuchita kwiza na ŵazungu,na kugwiliskana ntchito mwa ukapolo. Mu 1529, nthenda ya [[measles]] mu Cuba iyo ikakoma ŵanthu awo ŵwakaŵa kuti ŵapona kale ku vinandi nga ni nthenda ya [[smallpox]]. Pa 18 Meyi 1539, conquistador [[Hernando de Soto]] wakauka ulendo kufuma ku Havana na ŵalondezgi 600 kuya ku Amelika wa Kummwela kwa Mafumilo gha Dazi,kwambila [[Florida]],kupeja malibwe gha golide,nkhongono na kumanyika,kweneso na vakuzilwa vinyake.treasure. Pa 1 Sekutembala 1548, [[Dr. Gonzalo Perez de Angulo]] wakasankhika kuŵa mlala wa boma(governor) la Cuba.Wakafika mu Santiago, Cuba, pa 4 Novembala 1549, nakwamba kukhazikiska umoza wa ŵanthu wose. Wakaŵa waboma wakwamba (governor ) kukhala ku Havanamumalo mwakukhala ku [[Santiago]],ndipo wakazenga [[Tchalitchi lakwamba la Havana]] lakupangika na [[masonry]]. === Mlimo wakukhumba kujilamulila === [[File:Carlos Manuel de Cespedes.jpg|thumb|311x311px|<small>[[Carlos Manuel de Céspedes]] kumanyikwaso kuti ''[[Dada wa Chikaya cha Cuba]]'' uyo wakatchaila nkhondo charu cha Cuba kuti chiyambe kujilamulila pachekha mu chaka cha 1868 kufuma mu ulamulilo wa charu cha Spain.</small>]] [[File:Calixto García and William Ludlow in Cuba, 1898.jpg|thumb|213x213px|[[Calixto García]], mlala wa Cuban separatist rebels kumalyelo) na [[U.S.]] Brigadier General [[William Ludlow]] (Cuba, 1898)]] Kujilamulila kukulu kufuma mu nkhongono ya charu cha [[Spain]] chikaŵa chakulinga icho ŵanandi ŵakachitola ngati nkhudelela mu 1868 uko kukadangililika na mpandi Carlos Manuel de Céspedes. De Céspedes,mpandi zinde,wakafwatula ŵakapolo ŵake wose kuti ŵakamuvwile ku nkhondo kuthaska Cuba mu ulamulilo wa Spain.Pa 27 Disembala 1868,wakalemba chikalakala (kalata) chakuyowoya kuti waliyose uyo wana mukaplo wakuti wamuvwila ku nkhani ya nkhondo waŵe wakumasuka mu mayendelo,nangauli wachali kapolo.Vyakulondezga vya mu 1868 kukapangiska kuti kuŵe chongo chikulu kweneso chakumala nyengo itali chakuchemeka pa chingelezi '[[Ten Years’ War]]'. Chiŵelengelo chinandi cha ŵanthu ŵakukhumba kusintha wakufumila mu charu cha Dominican Republic na vyaru vinyakhe kweneso na ma Chinese ghakatolapo luwande pakujoina pa vyakuchitika.Charu cha United States chikakana kuzomelezga za kupangika kwa boma liphya la Cuba kusazgapo vyaru vinyake vya chilwa cha Yulaya na Latini Amelika (navoso vikakana).Mu 1878,[[Pact of Zanjón]] ukamazga vyongo ivi ,ndipo charu cha Spain chikalonjeza ntchindi na ubwezi na Cuba. Mu 1879–1880 ,mutchaila ufulu chalo [[Calixto García]] wakayezgaso kuyambiska nkhond inyake iyo pa chingelezi ikachemeka kuti [[Little War]] kwene wakatondeka kupokela wovwili unandi wakufuma ku ŵanthu na magulu ghanyake.'''[[Ukapolo]] mu charu cha Cuba ukamala mu chaka cha 1875''' nangauli kumala kwenecho kukaŵa mu 1886.Munthu wakudikizgika mu charu chake uyo wakizaso, zina lake [[Osé Martí|José Martí]] wakayambiska chipani chakuchemeka [[Cuban Revolutionary Party]] mu [[New York]] mu 1892.Chilato cha chipani ichi kukaŵa kujitchaila nkhondo kuti charu cha Cuba chiukemo mu ulamulilo wa charu cha Spain.Mu Janyuwale,Martí wakaluta ku [[Monte Cristi]] na [[Santo Domingo]] mu charu cha [[Dominican Republic]] kukajoina vyakuchitika vya [[Máximo Gómez]]. Martí wakalemba maganizo ghake gha vya ndale mu ''[[Manifesto of Montecristi]]''.Kutchaya nkhondo na ŵasilikali ŵa Spain kukayamba pa 24 Febuluwale 1895,nangauli Marti wakatondeka kufika ku Cuba ndipo wakafika mu 11 Epulelo 1895.Marti wakakomeka mu nkhondo iyo pachizungu ikuchemeka [[Battle of Dos Rios]] pa 19 Meyi 1895.Nyifwa yake ikakhala mbili ya chikanga ya charu cha Cuba. === Mitundu ya Ŵanthu (Ethnoracial groups) === ''Wonaniso'' : [[ChiSpanish]] {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="5" |Chiŵelengelo cha mitundu ya ŵanthu mu 2012 (2012 Cuban census data) |- | colspan="2" |'''MTUNDU''' | | colspan="2" |'''CHIŴELENGELO''' |- | colspan="2" |Ŵazungu (White) |  | colspan="2" |64.1% |- | colspan="2" |Ŵosazgikana (Mulatto) |  | colspan="2" |26.6% |- | colspan="2" |Ŵafipa (Black) |  | colspan="2" |9.3% |} == Wonaniso == * [[Ripabuliki ya Cuba (1902-1959)]] * [[Chidindo cha Cuba]] * [[Malo na vyachilengiwa vya Cuba]] ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Cuba| ]] jb9wdlwtolsba5np1pelgsabodrm17p 0 20477 122784 122643 2026-10-01T02:51:22Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement <!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--> <!-- Basic info ---------------->| official_name = Mzuzu | other_name = | native_name = <!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --> | nickname = | settlement_type = Msumba | motto = <!-- images and maps -----------> | image_skyline = MzuzuMalawi.JPG | imagesize = 300px | image_caption = Mzuzu | image_flag = | flag_size = | image_seal = | seal_size = | image_shield = | shield_size = | image_blank_emblem = | blank_emblem_type = | blank_emblem_size = | image_map = | mapsize = | map_caption = | image_map1 = | mapsize1 = | map_caption1 = | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = | dot_y = | pushpin_map = Malawi#Northern Region#Mzimba | pushpin_mapsize = 240 | pushpin_label_position = bottom | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Malawi <!-- Location ------------------>| subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|Malawi}} | subdivision_type1 = [[Regions of Malawi|Region]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Northern Region, Malawi|Northern Region]] | subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of Malawi|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Mzimba]] | subdivision_type3 = [[Chigaŵa chavisankho]] | subdivision_name3 = [[Chigaŵa chavisankho cha Mzuzu Msumba|Mzuzu Msumba]] | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = <!-- Politics -----------------> | government_footnotes = | government_type = | leader_title = | leader_name = | leader_title1 = <!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --> | leader_name1 = | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | established_title = <!-- Settled --> | established_date = | established_title2 = <!-- Incorporated (town) --> | established_date2 = | established_title3 = <!-- Incorporated (city) --> | established_date3 = <!-- Area ---------------------> | area_magnitude = | unit_pref = Imperial <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired-->| area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = <!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--> | area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--> | area_water_km2 = | area_total_sq_mi = | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_urban_km2 = | area_urban_sq_mi = | area_metro_km2 = | area_metro_sq_mi = | area_blank1_title = | area_blank1_km2 = | area_blank1_sq_mi = <!-- Population -----------------------> | population_as_of = 2018 Census<ref>[https://malawi.unfpa.org/sites/...pdf/2018%20Census%20Preliminary%20Report.pdf] {{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | population_footnotes = | population_note = | population_total = 221,272 | population_density_km2 = | population_density_sq_mi = | population_metro = | population_density_metro_km2 = | population_density_metro_sq_mi = | population_urban = | population_density_urban_km2 = | population_density_urban_sq_mi = | population_blank1_title = Ethnicities | population_blank1 = | population_blank2_title = Religions | population_blank2 = | population_density_blank1_km2 = | population_density_blank1_sq_mi = <!-- General information ---------------> | timezone = +2 | utc_offset = | timezone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | coordinates = {{coord|11.45807|S|34.015131|E|region:MW|display=inline,title}} | elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use <ref> </ref> tags--> | elevation_m = | elevation_ft = | blank1_name_sec2 = [[Köppen climate classification|Climate]] | blank1_info_sec2 = [[Oceanic climate#Subtropical highland variety (Cwb)|Cwb]] <!-- Area/postal codes & others -------->| postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> | postal_code = | area_code = | blank_name = | blank_info = | blank1_name = | blank1_info = | website = | footnotes = }} '''Msumba wa Mzuzu''' ndiwo uli likuru la [[Chigaŵa cha Kumpoto|chigaŵa cha kumpoto]] kwa [[Malaŵi|Malawi]]. Msumba uwu uli na ŵanthu 221,272 na ŵanthu 20,000 (ŵasambiri ŵa Yunivesite ya Mzuzu) ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 1.7 miliyoni ŵakukhala mu msumba uwu.<ref name="commonwealth-of-nations.org">{{Cite web |title=Municipal in Malawi, Malawi Municipal, Mzuzu City Assembly welcome, Commonwealth |url=http://www.commonwealth-of-nations.org/Malawi/Municipal/Mzuzu_City_Assembly/welcome |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724031431/http://www.commonwealth-of-nations.org/Malawi/Municipal/Mzuzu_City_Assembly/welcome |archive-date=24 July 2011 |access-date=9 June 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Ili mu chigaŵa cha [[Mzimba (msumba)|Mzimba]]. Muzi wa Mzuzu uli mu mapiri gha Viphya, ndipo chigaŵa icho chili kufupi na msumba uwu chikupambika tiyi, ghamayi, na khofi. Ku vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa msumba uwu kuli nkhorongo yikuru chomene iyo ŵanthu ŵali kupanga mu Africa.<ref name="TA">{{cite journal|date=August 2001|title=Malawi: Fragile Forests|journal=Travel Africa Magazine|issue=17|url=http://www.travelafricamag.com/content/view/149/56/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822032058/http://www.travelafricamag.com/content/view/149/56/|archive-date=22 August 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Malo ghanyake agho ghakumanyikwa chomene mu msumba uwu ni Chibavi, Luwinga, Area 1B, Chibanja, Katoto, Zolozolo, Masasa, Mchenga-utuba, Chimaliro, Kaning'ina na Katawa. == Ŵanthu == {{historical populations|11=1977|12=16,108|13=1987|14=51,904|15=1998|16=86,980|17=2008|18=133,968|19=2018|20=221,272|percentages=pagr|footnote=source:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.citypopulation.de/en/malawi/cities/|title=Malawi: Regions, Major Cities, Towns & Urban Localities - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information|website=Citypopulation.de|access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref>|align=right}} === Mitundu ya Ŵanthu === {{bar box|title=Mitundu mu Msumba wa Mzuzu (2018 Census)<ref name="Census2018" />|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Ethnic Groups|right1=percent|float=right|bars={{bar percent|Tumbuka|darkgreen|51.71}} {{bar percent|Chewa|purple|13.51}} {{bar percent|Ngoni|red|8.09}} {{bar percent|Tonga|black|7.36}} {{bar percent|Nkhonde|orange|4.08}} {{bar percent|Lambya|darkblue|3.75}}{{bar percent|Yao|green|3.59}} {{bar percent|Lomwe|maroon|3.54}} {{bar percent|Sukwa|darkgray|1.07}} {{bar percent|Sena|gray|0.66}} {{bar percent|Mang'anja|tan|0.38}} {{bar percent|Nyanja|lime|0.28}} {{bar percent|Other|Violet|2}}}}Kuyana na kalembera wa 2018, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tumbuka ndiwo ni mtundu ukuru chomene mu msumba uwu. Chigaŵa chikuru cha ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ni ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chewa. Mitundu yinyake yichoko ni Ngoni na 8.09% ya ŵanthu, Tonga na 7.36%, Nkhonde na 4.08%, Lambya na 3.75%, Yao na 3.59%, Lomwe na 3.54%, Sukwa na 1.07%, Sena na 0.66%, Mang'anja na 0.38%, Nyanja na 0.28%, na mitundu yinyake na 2% ya ŵanthu.<ref name="Census2018">{{cite web |title=2018 Population and Housing Census Main Report |url=http://www.nsomalawi.mw/images/stories/data_on_line/demography/census_2018/2018%20Malawi%20Population%20and%20Housing%20Census%20Main%20Report.pdf |access-date=25 December 2019 |publisher=Malawi National Statistical Office |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608191931/http://www.nsomalawi.mw/images/stories/data_on_line/demography/census_2018/2018%20Malawi%20Population%20and%20Housing%20Census%20Main%20Report.pdf |archive-date=8 June 2020}}</ref> === Chisopa === {{Pie chart|thumb=right|caption='''Religions in Mzuzu City (2018 Census)<ref name="Census2018" />'''|label1=Church of Central Africa Presbyterian|value1=28.01|color2=#36A|label2=Catholic|value2=17.28|color1=#6A5|label3=Seventh-day Adventist/Baptist/Apostolic|value3=16.27|color3=#FF33AC|label4=Pentecostal|value4=6.62|color4=#1A9|label5=Anglican|value5=1.58|color5=#E17720|label6=Other Christian|value6=22.21|color6=#F0FF00|label7=Muslim|value7=4.06|color7=#64ECDF|label8=Traditional|value8=0.1|color8=#36A|label9=Other|value9=3.59|color9=#6A5|label10=No Religion|value10=0.28|color10=#FF33AC}}Chisopa chikuru chomene mu Mzuzu ni cha Church of Central Africa Presbyterian icho chili na 28.01%. Chisopa cikuru chomene pa visopa vyose ni Chatoliki, ndipo ŵanthu 17.28% ŵali mu cisopa ichi. Visopa vinyake vikuruvikuru ni vya Chi Adventist, Baptist, na Apostolic na 16.27% pamoza, Pentecostal na 6.62%, Anglican na 1.58%, visopa vinyake vya Chikhristu na 22.21%, Islam na 4.06%, Traditional na 0.1%, visopa vinyake na 3.59%, na vyakusopa yayi na 0.28% ya msumba.<ref name="Census2018" /> Msumba uwu ukazengeka mu 1947 kuzingilizga munda wa mafuta wa Tung wa Commonwealth Development Corporation ndipo ukasangika mu 1985. Zina lakuti Vizuzu lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti 'Vizuzu' ilo likayowoyeka mwakubudika na ŵazungu. Vizuzu ni vyakumera ivyo vikukura mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Lunyangwa. Vipambi ivi ŵakaviwona kufupi na sukulu ya Mzuzu Government Secondary School iyo yikuchemekaso kuti Area 1A. == Mwambo == Ŵanthu ŵa mu msumba iyi ŵali na mitheto yakupambanapambana. ChiTumbuka chikuyowoyeka chomene mu chiyowoyero cha Mzuzu kweni viyowoyero vinyake nga ni Chichewa, ChiTonga, Chiswahili, na ChiNgonde navyo vikuyowoyeka. Mu msumba iyi muli nyumba yakusungiramo vinthu vyakale (iyo yikajulika mu 1986) umo muli vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikulongora mitheto ya kumpoto.<ref name="Lusaka">{{cite journal|last1=Lusaka|first1=Mwayi|date=4 Jan 2023|title=Curating the nation: Collections, ethnographic representations and heritage production at Museum of Malawi|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/23311983.2022.2160577|journal=Cogent Arts & Humanities|volume=10|doi=10.1080/23311983.2022.2160577|s2cid=255631526|access-date=26 January 2023}}</ref> Vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa ni sima (vyakufuma ku chimanga, panji ku maniyu, panji ku sima ya mayagho), mpunga, na somba ya batala (mormyrid, Mormyrus longirostris). Batala wakufuma ku Nyanja ya Malawi iyo yili kufupi na Nkhata Bay. Vyakurya vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kurya ni: chimanga, nthochi, vibama, koko, maniyu, na mbatata. == Umoyo == Mu msumba ya Mzuzu muli chipatala cha Mzuzu Central, chimoza mwa vipatala vinayi ivi. Msumba uwu uli na Mapale Health Center iyo yili mu msumba uwu pafupi na Shoprite. Paliso vipatala vinandi vya CHAM nga ni St. John, St. John of God Mental Hospital, Nkhorongo SDA Clinic. Msumba uwu uli na ma clinic gha ŵanthu nga ni: Katoto MASM MEDI Clinic, Mumbwe, Kandindindi Evergreen. Kampani ya Kentam Products Limited iyo yikupanga munkhwala yili ku Mzuzu. == Nyengo == {{Weather box|location=Mzuzu (1961–1990)|metric first=Yes|single line=Yes|Jan high C=25.5|Feb high C=25.6|Mar high C=24.8|Apr high C=23.5|May high C=22.1|Jun high C=20.4|Jul high C=20.3|Aug high C=21.9|Sep high C=25.1|Oct high C=27.2|Nov high C=27.2|Dec high C=26.1|year high C=24.1|Jan mean C=19.9|Feb mean C=20.0|Mar mean C=19.5|Apr mean C=18.7|May mean C=16.4|Jun mean C=13.9|Jul mean C=13.1|Aug mean C=14.0|Sep mean C=16.7|Oct mean C=19.4|Nov mean C=20.5|Dec mean C=20.1|year mean C=17.7|Jan low C=16.1|Feb low C=16.5|Mar low C=16.0|Apr low C=14.9|May low C=11.6|Jun low C=7.9|Jul low C=6.5|Aug low C=6.6|Sep low C=8.7|Oct low C=11.7|Nov low C=14.2|Dec low C=15.9|year low C=12.2|precipitation colour=green|Jan precipitation mm=203.3|Feb precipitation mm=179.5|Mar precipitation mm=224.1|Apr precipitation mm=213.0|May precipitation mm=58.8|Jun precipitation mm=29.5|Jul precipitation mm=30.1|Aug precipitation mm=11.8|Sep precipitation mm=10.4|Oct precipitation mm=35.4|Nov precipitation mm=95.7|Dec precipitation mm=197.0|year precipitation mm=1288.6|Jan humidity=82|Feb humidity=82|Mar humidity=85|Apr humidity=86|May humidity=85|Jun humidity=84|Jul humidity=83|Aug humidity=77|Sep humidity=67|Oct humidity=62|Nov humidity=70|Dec humidity=80|year humidity=79|unit precipitation days=0.3 mm|Jan precipitation days=20|Feb precipitation days=18|Mar precipitation days=20|Apr precipitation days=19|May precipitation days=9|Jun precipitation days=6|Jul precipitation days=6|Aug precipitation days=3|Sep precipitation days=2|Oct precipitation days=3|Nov precipitation days=9|Dec precipitation days=18|year precipitation days=133|Jan sun=145.7|Feb sun=137.2|Mar sun=164.3|Apr sun=171.0|May sun=217.0|Jun sun=219.0|Jul sun=238.7|Aug sun=275.9|Sep sun=288.0|Oct sun=300.7|Nov sun=252.0|Dec sun=176.7|year sun=2586.2|Jand sun=4.7|Febd sun=4.9|Mard sun=5.3|Aprd sun=5.7|Mayd sun=7.0|Jund sun=7.3|Juld sun=7.7|Augd sun=8.9|Sepd sun=9.6|Octd sun=9.7|Novd sun=8.4|Decd sun=5.7|yeard sun=|source 1=NOAA<ref name= NOAA>{{cite web | url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/MW/67489.TXT | title = Mzuzu Climate Normals 1961–1990 | publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] | access-date = 10 August 2016}}</ref>}} == Chuma na vinthu vinyake == Malo agha ndigho ghakupangika khofi, makuni, vipambi, mkaka na uchi. Vinthu ivi ni munkhwala, vyakutoweskera, na makuni. Chifukwa cha Yunivesite ya Mzuzu, msumba uwu uli na ŵanthu ŵaluso chomene. Muziwu uli na malo ghawemi ghakulondezgako vyakurya, kweni wachali kupanga magesi. Ndalama zikwenda makora cifukwa ca mabanki ghaphya.<ref name="commonwealth-of-nations.org" />Kweniso ku malo agha kuli mabizinesi ghachoko na ghapakati agho ghakupeleka mauthenga gha pa foni, mawebusayiti, na mashopu. Vinthu vyakupambanapambana nga ni Chipiku, Peoples Trading, na A.C. Opticals vilipo. Msumba uwu ndiwo uli na makampani gha Mzuzu Coffee, Kentam Products Limited, Mzupaso Paints Limited na magazini ya Northern Life. Mzuzu wali na misika yikuru yiŵiri, kusazgapo Msika wa Taifa uwo ukuguliska vipasi, vyakuvwara, mafoni, skapato na vinthu vinyake. == Masambiro == Mu msumba iyi ndimo muli Yunivesite ya Mzuzu, iyo yikambika mu 1999. Yunivesite iyi yili na masukulu ghankhondi: Tourism and Hospitality Management, Education, Health Sciences, Environmental Sciences and Information and Library Science. Sukulu ya Mzuzu Technical College, iyo yikaŵako mu 1958 na Ŵadada Ŵatuŵa, yili ku Mzuzu. Muli masukulu ghakuru gha ku mpoto, kusazgapo Marymount Secondary School, Wukani private Secondary School, Katoto Government Secondary School, Zolozolo Community Day Secondary School Viphya Schools na Mzuzu Academy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Homepage |url=http://www.mzuzuacademy.org |publisher=mzuzuacademy.org}}</ref> The city also has several primary schools such as Wukani, Trust Academy, Wongani private primary school [run by MIC Catholic Sisters], Beehive and Hilltop schools. == Umoyo == Msumba wa Mzuzu uli na makuni ghanandi kweniso mapiri. Mu msumba uwu muli makuni ghanandi gha miombo. Kumpoto na kumwera kwa msumba uwu kuli mapiri gha Viphya agho ghali na utheka na makuni. Ŵanyake ŵakuti Viphya Plantation iyo yili mu mapiri kumwera kwa msumba uwu ndiyo nkhorongo yikuru chomene mu Africa. Mu nyengo yakuzizima, mu Mzuzu mukuzizima chomene. === Ulimi === Mu msumba uwu muli vyakurya vinandi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuliska tiyi, gombi, na khofi. == Ulendo == Ku malo agha kuli nyanja ya Malawi iyo yili na mchenga, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kusambira mu maji. Nyika National Park, ni paki yikuru chomene ya ku Malawi, ndipo yikusambizga ŵanthu kwenda mu mapiri, kukwera njinga, kwenda pa mahaci, na kwenda pa galimoto. Malo gha vyakusanguluska gha mu hotelo ya Mzuzu na O Seasons agho kale ghakachemekanga Key Lounge ghakukopa ŵantchito ŵa ku charu chose na vyaru vinyake. Malo ghanyake ghakusanguluskira ni Mzuzu Golf Clib, Villa Kagwentha (iyo yikumanyikwa na disko mise yiliyose ya Chisulo) na Squirrels park. Paliso malo ghakupambanapambana ghakupumulirapo nga ni Lake View Lodge na Mzuzu Sanctuary. Mzuzu Botanic Gardens ili ku Zolozolo. Mungenda mu mapiri gha Kaning'ina. Damu la Gulliver, ilo likupeleka maji ku msumba wa Mzuzu na vigaŵa vyakuzingilizga, likupeleka na malo ghakwenda Gulu lakwamba la Scout (UK) lazenga msasa wa Scout uwo uli na vinthu vinandi kuwaro kwa Mzuzu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kavuzicampsite |url=http://www.campingmalawi.com/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706065004/http://www.campingmalawi.com/ |archive-date=6 July 2017 |access-date=19 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=1st Poulner Scout Group - Kavuzi Campsite |url=http://www.1stpoulnerscouts.org.uk/malawi/kavuzi-campsite/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703092919/http://1stpoulnerscouts.org.uk/malawi/kavuzi-campsite/ |archive-date=3 July 2016 |access-date=19 June 2017 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Mayendelo == Ku Mzuzu City kuli ndege ya Mzuzu Airport. Mu 2017, boma likamba kuzenga chiŵanja cha ndege chiphya na chikuru mu chigaŵa cha Dunduzu.<ref name="commonwealth-of-nations.org" /> Msumba wa Mzuzu uli mumphepete mwa msewu ukuru wa M1, uwo ukufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera. Ni malo gha kumpoto kwa msewu wa M5, uwo ukujumpha kumafumiro gha dazi mu mapiri gha Viphya kuya ku Nkhata Bay, ndipo kufuma apo kumwera kufupi na nyanja ya Malawi. == Maseŵera == Mu Mzuzu, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa maseŵero gha bola. Magulu ghaŵiri, Moyale Barracks FC na Mzuni ghakwimira msumba iyi mu ligi ya Malawi. Sitediyamu ya Mzuzu (ya ŵanthu 15,000) ndiyo njimoza pera mu msumba uwu iyo yikazengeka mu 1970. Mu msumba iyi muli magulu ghaŵiri gha basketball, [[Nkhulande]] na [[Pistons]]. == Ŵanthu Ŵakumanyikwa == [[:en:Shepherd_Bushiri|Shepherd Bushiri]], founder of the Enlightened Christian Gathering, is from Mzuzu. Bushiri is also the founder of PSB Network<ref>{{Cite web |title=PSB Network &#124; The Mobile Network That Cares |url=http://www.mypsb.co.za/ |website=Mypsb.co.za |accessdate=22 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122191845/http://www.mypsb.co.za/ |archive-date=22 November 2021}}</ref> and the Prophetic Channel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prophet Shepherd Bushiri - YouTube |url=https://www.youtube.com/user/propheticchannelTv |access-date=22 November 2021 |publisher=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> == Chuma == [[File:Mzuzu Market 10.jpg|thumb|Wasenga Brothers|left]] Mzuzu wali na msika wa Wasenga Brothers, uwo ukuchemekaso Msika wa Mzuzu == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == {{commons category-inline}}{{Authority control}} [[Category:Msumba mu Boma la Mzimba]] dox49lw086eeil7hu3925uxyka6vv3y 0 24456 122780 122546 2026-10-01T01:21:00Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox dot-com company | name = Hollywoodbets | logo = | logo_size = | type = [[Privately Held Company|Private]] | genre = | fate = | predecessor = | successor = | foundation = 2000 | founder = | defunct = | location_city = [[uMhlanga, KwaZulu-Natal|uMhlanga]] | location_country = South Africa | location = | locations = | area_served = [[South Africa]], [[Mozambique]], [[Ireland]], [[United Kingdom]] | key_people = | industry = [[Kutchova njuga pa Intaneti]] | products = | services = Intaneti & Kugwira Ntchito Kuchita maseŵera | revenue = | operating_income = | net_income = | aum = | assets = | equity = | owner = | num_employees = 5500+ {{cn}} | parent = | divisions = | subsid = | footnotes = | intl = | website = {{url|www.hollywoodbets.net}} | alexa = }} '''Hollywoodbets''' ni kampani yakuchitiska maseŵero ya ku [[South Africa]]. Kweniso yikucemekaso kuti Hollywood Sportsbook. Pasono likugwira ntchito mu vyaru vya South Africa, Mozambique, Ireland na United Kingdom. Kampani iyi yikupanga ma bets pa webusayiti yake, mobisite, call center, na USSD. Lili na maofesi gha ku South Africa na Mozambique. Hollywoodbets yikupeleka maubet pa maseŵero gha mahachi, bola, cricket, rugby, tenisi, maseŵero gha magalimoto na vinyake. Hollywoodbets yikupereka ma lucky numbers ghakujumpha 1775 pa sabata kuti munthu waguliskepo ndalama. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵakuguliska ni Betgames Africa, Ezugi, Evolution, Live Instant Win, Jika Sports, Golden Race, na Spina Zonke. Hollywoodbets yikaŵa na malo gha nambara 8 pa chigaŵa cha Top 50 Gaming Sites Worldwide icho chikalembeka na iGaming Business Magazine mu Malichi 2019. <ref>{{cite web |title=Top 50 Gaming Sites Worldwide |url=https://magazine.igamingbusiness.com/2019/03/19/top-50-gaming-sites-worldwide-4/content.html |website=iGaming Business |access-date=19 March 2019 |date=19 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311162402/https://magazine.igamingbusiness.com/2019/03/19/top-50-gaming-sites-worldwide-4/content.html |archive-date=11 March 2022}}</ref> ==Viyowoyero== Zina lakuti Hollywoodbets likafuma ku [[Hollywood Park Racetrack]] ku [[Los Angeles]], [[USA]]. <ref>{{cite web|title=BetConstruct to power online sportsbook for South African bookmaker|url=http://www.gamingintelligence.com/business/39277-betconstruct-to-power-online-sportsbook-for-south-african-bookmaker|website=Gaming Intelligence|access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref> ==Mbiri== Hollywoodbets yikamba mu 1986 nga ni kampani ya ku South Africa yakuchemeka Winning Form iyo yikagwiranga ntchito ya kusindikiza na kugaŵira makadi gha mpikisano wa mahachi ku South Africa. Winning Form yikufumiska makadi gha masitima ghose gha ku South Africa. Hollywoodbets yikanjira mu vyakusungirako mabuku apo yikajura ofesi yake yakwamba ku Argyle Road, Durban mu 2000. Pamasinda, ofesi yikuru ya munthavi ya Hollywood Park yikajulika mu [[Springfield Park]], [[Durban]]. ==Charu== Pasono Hollywoodbets yikugwira nchito mu vyaru vinayi. Ku South Africa, Mozambique, Ireland, na United Kingdom. Hollywoodbets yikugwira ntchito mu malo gha 96 mu South Africa pasi pa malaisensi gha maseŵero agho ghapelekeka na boma la Gauteng, Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Free State, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, na KwaZulu-Natal. Pasono pali maofesi ghaŵiri gha Hollywoodbets ku Maputo, Mozambique; kweniso malo gha pa foni agho munthu wangabetapo. Mu Novembala 2018, Hollywoodbets yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito webusayiti yake ku Ireland. Mu Malichi 2019, kampani iyi yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito webusayiti yake ku United Kingdom. Ŵakaŵa na layisensi yakuchitira njuga iyo yikafuma ku UK Gambling. ==Kupeleka vyawanangwa== Kampani iyi ndiyo yikupwelelera timu ya [[Hollywoodbets Dolphins]]. Ŵakamba kuŵa ŵabwana ŵa timu iyi mu nyengo ya 2015/16, <ref>{{cite web|title=Sunfoil Dolphins sign associate sponsor|url=https://www.ecr.co.za/news/sport/sunfoil-dolphins-sign-associate-sponsor/|website=East Coast Radio|publisher=GamePlan Media|access-date=16 September 2015}}</ref> Pambere ŵandaŵe ŵalaŵiliri mu nyengo ya 2016/17. <ref>{{cite web|title=Dolphins and Hollywoodbets strike sponsorship deal|url=http://cricket.co.za/news/14364/Dolphins-and-Hollywoodbets-strike-sponsorship-deal|website=cricket.co.za|publisher=Cricket South Africa|access-date=11 August 2019}}</ref> Hollywoodbets yikagwiriska nchito ya kuzenga timu za KwaZulu-Natal Coastal na KwaZulu-Natal Inland ku Africa T20 Cup 2017. Hollywoodbets KZN Inland yikalutizga kuwina chiphalizgano ichi, pamanyuma pakuthereska boma la Free State mu chiphalizgano chaumaliro.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hollywoodbets KZN Inland win Africa T20 Cup final in style|url=https://northglennews.co.za/117560/hollywoodbets-kzn-inland-win-africa-t20-cup-final-style/|website=Northglen News|publisher=Gameplan Media|access-date=26 September 2017}}</ref> Pakwamba kwa nyengo ya cricket ya 2018/19, Hollywoodbets yikajipeleka kuti yikovwire timu ya KwaZulu-Natal Coastal na KwaZulu-Natal Inland senior provincial teams pa nyengo yose ya nyengo iyi. <ref>{{cite web |title=Hollywoodbets backing KZN’s senior provincial teams |url=https://dolphinscricket.co.za/hollywoodbets-backing-kzns-senior-provincial-teams/ |website=Hollywoodbets Dolphins |access-date=12 September 2018}}</ref> Hollywoodbets yikaŵa na udindo wakupeleka ndalama za [[Murray Cup mu 2018]]. <ref>{{cite web|title=KZN Rugby presents the Hollywoodbets Murray Cup|url=http://sharksrugby.co.za/kzn-rugby-presents-the-hollywoodbets-murray-cup/|website=Sharks Rugby|access-date=31 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817124906/http://sharksrugby.co.za/kzn-rugby-presents-the-hollywoodbets-murray-cup/|archive-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> Ichi ni chiphalizgano cha rugby icho chikusazgapo mabungwe gha ku KwaZulu-Natal Rugby Union. Hollywoodbets adakhala othandizira mutu wa Phaka rugby show pa SuperSport (South African TV channel) mu February 2019. Ubwezi uphya wa Hollywoodbets na seŵero ili uzamutovwira kovwira magulu gha rugby agho ghakukhumbikwira wovwiri na vinthu vinyake kuti ghasambizge makora ŵaseŵero ŵawo. <ref>{{cite web |title=Hollywoodbets new sponsor of SuperSport’s Phaka show |url=https://www.sport24.co.za/Rugby/hollywoodbets-new-sponsor-of-supersports-phaka-show-20190208 |website=Sport24 |access-date=8 February 2019}}</ref> Hollywoodbets ndiyo yikapweleleranga chiphalizgano cha 2019 COSAFA Cup, icho chikachitikira ku Durban kwambira pa 25 May mpaka 8 June 2019. <ref>{{cite web |title=Hollywoodbets to sponsor 2019 COSAFA Cup! |url=https://www.cosafa.com/hollywoodbets-to-sponsor-2019-cosafa-cup/ |website=COSAFA |access-date=7 May 2019}}</ref> Pa Chinkhondi, Juni 27, 2019, Hollywoodbets yikapharazgika kuti ndiyo yikwimira wanangwa wa kupika mazina gha malo gha Greyville Racecourse na Scottsville Racecourse mu phangano la vyaka vitatu. Malo agha sono ghazamumanyikwa kuti Hollywoodbets Greyville Racecourse na Hollywoodbets Scottsville Racecourse. <ref>{{cite web |title=KZN Racecourses - Groundbreaking Partnership Announced |url=https://www.sportingpost.co.za/2019/06/hollywoodbets-sponsor-kzn-racecourses/ |website=Sporting Post |access-date=27 June 2019 |language=en-ZA |date=27 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020004213/https://www.sportingpost.co.za/2019/06/hollywoodbets-sponsor-kzn-racecourses/ |archive-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pa Mande, Okutobala 7, 2019, Hollywoodbets yikapharazgika kuti ndiyo yikwimira wanangwa wa zina la Kingsmead Cricket Ground mu chiphangano cha vyaka 5, icho chizamumara mu Ogasiti 2024. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pressreader.com/south-africa/the-mercury-south-africa/20191008/281633896986604|title=Hollywoodbets takes on stadium naming rights|last=Mercury Reporter|date=October 8, 2019|work=The Mercury|publisher=IOL}}</ref> Mu February 2020, Hollywoodbets wakazgoka mubwezi wa LaLiga ku South Africa. Mgwirizano uwu ukakhwaska chitukuko cha mpira na ntchito za mu chalo mu vigaŵa vyakutalulira vya South Africa, na cilato ca kukhwaska maseŵero agha. <ref>{{cite web |title=WATCH: LaLiga partners with Hollywoodbets to help football development in SA |url=https://citizen.co.za/phakaaathi/world-soccer/2235005/watch-laliga-partners-with-hollywoodbets-to-help-football-development-in-sa/ |website=The Citizen |language=en |date=29 January 2020}}</ref> Pa Sabata, 16 Meyi 2021, Hollywoodbets yikapharazgika nga ni mutu wa chipani cha South African Football Association (SAFA) cha SAFA Women's League (National Women's Soccer League), ndipo chiphalizgano ichi chikasinthika zina kuŵa Hollywoodbets Super League. <ref>{{cite web |title=SAFA Announce New Sponsor For National Women's Soccer League |url=https://www.soccerladuma.co.za/news/articles/local/categories/south-africa/safa-announce-new-sponsor-for-national-women-s-soccer-league/699292 |website=Soccer Laduma |access-date=16 May 2021 |date=16 May 2021}}</ref> Chizindikiro cha Hollywoodbets chiwonekerenso kutsogolo kwa ma jerseys a magulu onse a nyengo ya 2021/22. Pa Chisulo, 16 Julayi 2021, Hollywoodbets yikapharazgika nga ni munyamata wakudanga wa Brentford F.C. Kampani ya mpira ya Brentford. Chizindikiro cha Hollywoodbets chidzawonetsedwa kutsogolo kwa nyumba ya kilabu, kuchoka ndi malaya achitatu pa nyengo yonse ya Premier League. Phangano lakwamba likaŵa la vilimika viŵiri. <ref>{{cite web|date=16 July 2021|title=Brentford announce Hollywoodbets as new principal partner|url=https://www.brentfordfc.com/news/2021/july/brentford-announce-hollywoodbets-as-new-principal-partner/|url-status=live|access-date=16 July 2021|website=www.brentfordfc.com|language=en-gb|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716162004/https://www.brentfordfc.com/news/2021/july/brentford-announce-hollywoodbets-as-new-principal-partner/|archive-date=16 July 2021}}</ref> Mu February 2022, Hollywoodbets yikatora udindo kufuma ku Vodacom pakuŵa mutu wa chiphalizgano cha Durban July Handicap, ndipo yikaŵa chiphalizgano chachitatu mu vyaka 59 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵakapeleka ndalama zinandi chomene ku ŵanthu awo ŵakachitanga maseŵera agha. Hollywoodbets Durban July yizamuchitika pa Chisulo 2 Julayi 2022. <ref>{{cite web |title=Durban July - New Sponsor & Increased Stake! |url=https://www.sportingpost.co.za/horse-racing/hollywoodbets-durban-july/durban-july-new-sponsor-increased-stake/ |website=Sporting Post |language=en-ZA |date=24 February 2022 |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327010455/https://www.sportingpost.co.za/horse-racing/hollywoodbets-durban-july/durban-july-new-sponsor-increased-stake/ |archive-date=27 March 2023}}</ref> Mu Juni 2022, wupu wa Council of Southern Africa Football Associations (COSAFA) ukalembeska chiphangano cha chaka chimoza na Hollywoodbets cha COSAFA Cup, COSAFA Women's Championship, COSAFA Women's Champions League na COSAFA Beach Soccer Championship. <ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-15 |title=COSAFA kicks off new season with Hollywoodbets as Title sponsor |url=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/cosafa-kicks-off-new-season-hollywoodbets-title-sponsor- |access-date= |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> ==Udindo wa Umoyo== Nthambi yiliyose ya Hollywoodbets mu South Africa yikovwira wupu wakovwira ŵanthu, kweniso timu ya maseŵero, nga ni cigaŵa ca pulogiramu yawo ya Social Responsibility Programme, iyo yikumanyikwa kuti Hollywoodbets MyCommunity Programme. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni nyumba za ŵana. <ref>{{cite web|title=Hollywoodbets supports Children’s Care Centre|url=https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Local/PE-Express/hollywoodbets-supports-childrens-care-centre-20170807|website=News24|publisher=Port Elizabeth Express|access-date=7 August 2017}}</ref> Vipinda vya ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika, nyumba za ŵacekuru na masukulu. Pa magulu gha maseŵero gha pa muzi, pali magulu gha bola, <ref>{{cite news|last1=Pienaar|first1=David|title=Hollywood Bets sponsors soccer kids|url=https://albertonrecord.co.za/142505/hollywood-bets-sponsors-soccer-kids/|access-date=1 May 2017|publisher=Alberton Record|date=1 May 2017}}</ref> magulu gha cricket,<ref>{{cite web|title=Interesting Facts around Hollywoodbets Dolphins|url=https://northglennews.co.za/103149/interesting-facts-around-hollywoodbets-dolphins/|website=Northglen News|publisher=Caxton Central|access-date=15 February 2017}}</ref> rugby, <ref>{{cite web |title=UHollywoodbets noNtunja bafunqula umbhoxo |url=https://www.isolezwelesixhosa.co.za/ezemidlalo/uhollywoodbets-nontunja-bafunqula-umbhoxo-2-19179615 |website=I'Solezwe lesiXhosa |access-date=7 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213123930/https://www.isolezwelesixhosa.co.za/ezemidlalo/uhollywoodbets-nontunja-bafunqula-umbhoxo-2-19179615 |archive-date=13 February 2019}}</ref> na maseŵero ghanyake. Mu Seputembala 2021, a Hollywoodbets adalengeza zakukhazikitsidwa kwa Hollywood Foundation. Wupu wa Hollywood Foundation uzamucita milimo yake nga ni wupu wambura phindu uwo ukucitako milimo yake". Wupu uwu ukugwira nchito pa milimo yakukhwaskana na umoyo wa ŵanthu, masambiro, maseŵero, maluso na mitheto, kweniso ukuŵika ndalama mu makampani ghacoko na ghapakati. <ref>{{cite web |title=Hollywoodbets announces the launch of the Hollywood Foundation |url=https://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/849/220508.html |website=Bizcommunity |language=en}}</ref> ==Chakurya== Maofesi gha Hollywood Bunny Bar, agho ghali pasi pa Hollywoodbets, sono ghali na maofesi 8 agho ghali mu vigaŵa vya South Africa nga ni Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape na Western Cape. Maofesi agha ghakumanyikwa na vyakurya vyawo vya Durban, ndipo ghakapokera chawanangwa cha Bunny Chow Best mu 2014 pamanyuma pakutonda Bunny Chow Barometer Challenge 2014. <ref>{{cite web|last1=Moodley|first1=Camara|title=Hollywood Bets crowned the Bunny Chow kings|url=https://risingsunoverport.co.za/11995/hollywood-bets-crowned-bunny-chow-kings/|website=Rising Sun Overport|publisher=Rising Sun Overport|access-date=19 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921144133/http://risingsunoverport.co.za/11995/hollywood-bets-crowned-bunny-chow-kings/|archive-date=21 September 2014}}</ref> ==Ŵamishonale== Mu chaka cha 2016, Jerry Sikhosana uyo wakachitanga maseŵera gha mpira wa Orlando Pirates na Bafana Bafana wakasankhika kuŵa thenga la Hollywoodbets. <ref>{{cite web|last1=Tseke|first1=Malebo|title=Company welcomes new brand ambassador|url=https://tembisan.co.za/45067/company-welcomes-new-brand-ambassador/|website=The Tembisan|publisher=The Tembisan|access-date=21 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422162943/http://tembisan.co.za/45067/company-welcomes-new-brand-ambassador/|archive-date=22 April 2016}}</ref> Mu 2017, Kaizer Chiefs F.C., Mamelodi Sundowns F.C. Mamelodi Sundowns na Brian Baloyi uyo ni msilikari wa Bafana Bafana nawo ŵakanjira mu gulu la Hollywoodbets. <ref>{{cite web|title=Brian Baloyi - New Hollywoodbets Brand Ambassador|url=http://blog.hollywoodbets.net/2017/09/brian-baloyi-brand-ambassador.html|website=Hollywoodbets Sports Blog|access-date=8 September 2017}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2019, ŵana ŵaŵiri ŵa mpira wa rugby Akona Ndungane na Odwa Ndungane ŵakanjira mu gulu la Hollywoodbets nga mbamishonale ŵa Brand. Awiriwo akugwira nawo ntchito yogwirizana ndi Hollywood ndi pulogalamu ya mpira wa Phaka pa SuperSport (South African TV channel) SuperSport, komanso zoyeserera kudzera ku Ndungane Foundation. <ref>{{cite web |title=Former Springbok twins Akhona and Odwa Ndungane place their bets on young talent |url=https://www.iol.co.za/capeargus/sport/former-springbok-twins-akhona-and-odwa-ndungane-place-their-bets-on-young-talent-46096249 |website=www.iol.co.za |language=en}}</ref> Mu mwezi wa Malichi 2020, Anthony Delpech, uyo wakachitanga maseŵero ghakukhozga njuga ku South Africa, wakaŵa thenga la Hollywoodbets. Ntchito yake yikuru njakuti wawovwire pakulongozga Hollywood Syndicate, gulu la Hollywoodbets ilo likwendeska maseŵera gha mahachi. <ref>{{cite web |title=Delpech joins Hollywoodbets {{!}} Turf Talk |url=https://www.turftalk.co.za/delpech-joins-hollywoodbets/ |website=Turf Talk |access-date=13 March 2020}}</ref> Mu mwezi wa Epulero 2020, Mike Procter uyo wakachitanga maseŵera gha cricket wa ku South Africa, wakajibatika ku Hollywoodbets. <ref>{{cite web |title=Mike Procter signs on as Hollywoodbets Brand Ambassador |url=https://blog.hollywoodbets.net/2020/04/mike-procter-hollywoodbets-brand-ambassador.html |website=Hollywoodbets Blog |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref> Ntchito iyi yikachitika pamoza na wupu wa Mike Procter Foundation, kweniso sukulu ya Ottawa Primary School mu Durban, uko Procter wakwendeska pulogiramu ya kusambizga thupi. Mu chaka cha 2020, msungwana waku South Africa uyo wakuchemeka Nomzamo Mbatha, wakanjira gulu la Hollywoodbets nga ni nthumi ya brand. Hollywoodbets yikugwira nchito pamoza na actress uyu na Lighthouse Foundation yake mu milimo yakupambanapambana ya chitukuko cha chalo na vya ndalama. <ref>{{cite web |title=Hollywoodbets, Lighthouse Foundation pledge R1m towards bursary project |url=https://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/627/211668.html |website=www.bizcommunity.com |language=en}}</ref> Mu Disembala 2021, Robert Marawa uyo wakwendeska nkhani za maseŵero gha pa wayilesi wakamanyikwa kuti ni thenga la Hollywoodbets. <ref>{{cite web |title=Hollywoodbets Signs Robert Marawa as Ambassador |url=https://sportindustryawards.co.za/hollywoodbets-signs-robert-marawa-as-ambassador/ |website=Sport Industry News |access-date=1 December 2021 |date=1 December 2021}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=Flames and a marching band: Touch of Hollywood as Marawa named brand ambassador |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/sport/soccer/2021-12-01-watch--flames-and-a-marching-band-touch-of-hollywood-as-marawa-named-brand-ambassador/ |website=TimesLIVE |publisher=Times Live |access-date=1 December 2021 |language=en-ZA}}</ref> Mu February wa 2022, Carol Tshabalala, uyo wakumanyikwa kuti "First Lady of Sport" wa South Africa, wakalemba chikalata kuŵa Brand Ambassador wa Hollywoodbets. <ref>{{cite web |title=First Lady Of Sport Joins Hollywoodbets |url=https://www.sportingpost.co.za/horse-racing/horse-racing-news/first-lady-of-sport-joins-hollywoodbets/ |website=Sporting Post |access-date=10 February 2022 |language=en-ZA |date=10 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327010453/https://www.sportingpost.co.za/horse-racing/horse-racing-news/first-lady-of-sport-joins-hollywoodbets/ |archive-date=27 March 2023}}</ref> ==Mphotho== Mu chaka cha 2018 pa mphotho ya Gambling Industry Awards iyo yikachitika ku South Africa, Hollywoodbets yikapokera mphotho ya Best Corporate Social Investment (CSI), Best Sports Betting Campaign for 2018, Best Employer of the Year and Best CEO of the Year (Suren Rampersadh). <ref>{{cite web |title=GI AWARDS 2018 WINNERS |url=http://giawards.co.za/nominees/ |website=Gambling Industry Awards |access-date=2023-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416113342/http://giawards.co.za/nominees/ |archive-date=2019-04-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=SA’s Leading Bookmaker Shows The Way |url=https://www.sportingpost.co.za/2018/09/sas-leading-bookmaker-shows-the-way/ |website=Sporting Post |access-date=6 September 2018 |language=en-ZA |date=6 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416113341/https://www.sportingpost.co.za/2018/09/sas-leading-bookmaker-shows-the-way/ |archive-date=16 April 2019}}</ref> Mu 2021, Hollywoodbets yikasoleka kuŵa Brand ya KwaZulu-Natal ya Chaka pa Standard Bank KZN Top Business Awards. <ref>{{cite web |title=STANDARD BANK KZN TOP BUSINESS AWARDS Supplement-Mercury - eBook 2021 |url=https://online.flipbuilder.com/uczf/pqsh/ |website=online.flipbuilder.com |language=en}}</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Bola]] lhkicj451dmjikssaa72wscwjxd3yg5 0 30878 122778 118842 2026-10-01T00:09:49Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|National Historic Site of Tanzania}} {{Infobox ancient site|name=Chinkhwawu cha Olduvai|image=Olduvai Gorge or Oldupai Gorge.jpg|caption=Kuwona Olduvai Gorge na mapiri gha Naibor Soit.|map_type=Tanzania|map_alt=Location in Tanzania|map_caption=Site Location in Tanzania|map_size=250px|relief=yes|coordinates={{coord|2.993613|S|35.35115|E|type:landmark|format=dms|display=inline,title}}|location=[[Ngorongoro District]],<br/>[[Arusha Region]],<br/>{{flag|Tanzania}}|region=Eastern Africa|type=Archaelogical|part_of=|length=48km|width=|area=|height=|builder=|material=|built=|abandoned=|epochs=|cultures=|occupants=|event=|excavations=1913, 1935, 1941, <br/> 1953, 1955, 1958 & 1960|archaeologists=[[Wilhelm Kattwinkel]], [[Louis Leakey]],<br/> [[Mary Leakey]], [[Percy Edward Kent]] & Jonathan Leakey|condition=Excavated|ownership=Tanzanian Government|management=Antiquities Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism<ref>{{Cite web|title=Antiquities Division|url=https://www.maliasili.go.tz/sectors/category/antiquities|url-status=live|access-date=21 Jul 2022}}</ref>|public_access=Yes|website=|notes=|designation1=NHST|designation1_offname=Oldupai Gorge|designation1_type=Pre-historic}} '''Chigodobo cha Olduvai''' panji Oldupai ku [[Tanzania]], ntchimoza mwa malo ghakuzirwa chomene pa charu. Chigwa cha Great Rift, icho chili pa mtunda wa makilomita pafupifupi 48 kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Serengeti Plains, chili mu chigaŵa cha Ngorongoro Conservation Area mu chigaŵa cha Olbalbal mu chigaŵa cha Ngorongoro mu chigaŵa cha [[Arusha]]. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Britain na Kenya, a Mary na a Louis Leakey, ŵakafukura vinthu vinyake mu Olduvai Gorge. Malo agha ghali pa mbiri ya charu cha Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Antiquities Sites |url=https://www.maliasili.go.tz/uploads/ANTIQUITIES_SITES_LOCATION_AND_ACCESSBILITY.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=21 Jul 2022}}</ref> Zina la dambo ili lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti oldupai, ilo likung'anamura "malo gha sidara" chifukwa sidara ya ku East Africa (Sansevieria ehrenbergii) yikukura chomene mu dambo ili. Mumphepete mwa [[Nyanja ya Ndutu]] na Nyanja ya Masek, mtunda wa makilomita 25 kufuma ku Nyanja ya Ndutu, mu dambo ili muli vyakumera vya mu Pleistocene. Mphepete mwa phiri la Lemagrut, pali chigwa china chomwe chimagwirizana ndi chigwa chachikulu pamtunda wa makilomita 8 kuchokera pakamwa. Mumphepete mwa dambo ili muli nyanja iyo yili na visomba vinandi. Para phiri la Olmoti na la Kerimasi likufuma vyoto, vikovwira kuti visomba ivi vileke kubwanganduka.<ref name="Mary">{{cite book|last1=Leakey|first1=Mary|title=Olduvai Gorge|date=1979|publisher=Book Club Associates|location=London|pages=11–17, 40}}</ref> Malo agha ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakamba kuchita vinthu mwakupambanapambana, chomenechomene pakupanga na kugwiliskira ntchito malibwe. Pambere viŵiya vindaŵeko, pakaŵa ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu viŵaya na kupenja nyama. Kuwunjika vinthu na viwangwa vya nyama mu malo ghakupambanapambana mbukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakuŵa paubwezi. Vinthu vyose ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakumanya vinandi para ŵakwamba kukhala na ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako ni Homo habilis, ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu Olduvai Gorge vyaka pafupifupi 1.9 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuzunulika kuti ni ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens, ŵakaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 300,000 ivyo vyajumpha. == Mbiri == === Kusanga na Kupenjerezga === [[File:Olduvai_ast.jpg|thumb|Olduvai Gorge from space]] [[File:OlduvaiGorge-1.gif|thumb|Mapu gha Olduvai Gorge]] Mu 1911, Wilhelm Kattwinkel, dokotala wa ku Germany, wakaluta ku Olduvai Gorge, uko wakasanga viwangwa vinandi vya hachi ilo likaŵa na minwe yitatu. Munthu munyake wa ku Germany, zina lake Hans Reck, wakaluta ku Olduvai mu 1913. Ku malo agha, wakasanga visomba vya ŵanthu ivyo pamasinda vikalembeka na radiocarbon kuti vikaŵa vya m'ma 17,000 B.C.E. Ŵakapangana kuti ŵalute maulendo ghanyake ghanayi, kweni Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikaŵatondeska. Nkhondo yikati yamara, apo charu cha Tanganyika chikaŵa pasi pa Britain, Louis Leakey wakaluta ku Reck ku Berlin kuti wakawone viswaswa vya Olduvai. Louis Leakey wakagomezga kuti mu Olduvai Gorge mukaŵa visulo vya malibwe, ndipo wakaghanaghananga kuti malo agha ghakaŵa ghakale chomene nga umo vikaŵira ku Kariandusi ku Kenya. Mu 1931, Reck na Donald McInnes ŵakaluta na Louis Leakey pa ulendo wake. Mary Leakey wakaluta ku malo agha mu 1935, pamoza na Louis na Percy Edward Kent. Ŵa Leakey ŵakalutaso mu 1941, 1953, 1955, na 1957. Louis na Mary Leakey ndiwo ŵakafukura na kusanga visomba vinandi vya ŵanthu mu Olduvai Gorge. Mu Julayi 1959, pa malo agha, Mary Leakey wakasanga chiwangwa cha mtundu wa Zinjanthropus panji Australopithecus boisei. Padera pa viswaswa vinandi, mbumba ya Leakey yikasangaso visulo vya malibwe ivyo Mary wakavilemba kuti ni vya Oldowan. Mu Meyi 1960, pa malo ghakuchemeka FLK North-North, mwana wa banja la Leakey, zina lake Jonathan, wakasanga chiwangwa icho chikaŵa mtundu wa Homo habilis.<ref name="Mary" />{{rp|17–18,54,56–57,73–77,87}} == Kufukura vinthu vyakale == === Hans Reck and Richard Hay === Nangauli Hans Reck ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kumanya umo mphanji iyi yiliri, kweni sono tikumanya umo mphanji iyi yiliri chifukwa cha ivyo Richard Hay wakachita. Hay wakakhala vyaka 12 wakusambira vya malo gha Olduvai, ndipo wakagwira ntchito na Mary Leakey. Buku la Hay lakuti The Geology of the Olduvai Gorge likafuma mu 1976.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Geology of the Olduvai Gorge : a study of sedimentation in a semiarid basin|last=Hay, Richard L. (Richard LeRoy), 1926-|date=1976|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-02963-1|location=Berkeley|oclc=2391581}}</ref> Reck wakamanya kuti mu dambo ili mukaŵa visulo vikuruvikuru vinkhondi, ndipo vikachemekanga kuti viŵaro vyakwamba kufuma pa I m'paka pa V. Hay na ŵasayansi ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu dambo ili kufuma mu nyengo ya Reck, ŵakagwiliskira ntchito ivyo Reck wakalemba, ndipo ŵakasazgirapo fundo zakupulikikwa makora. Mu nyengo ya Reck, malo ghakugona gha viŵaro vinayi ghakaŵa gha viŵaro vinayi na vya viŵaro vinayi vya Masek, apo malo gha viŵaro vinayi gha viŵaro vinayi ghakaŵa gha viŵaro vinayi.<ref name=":0" /> === Kalemba ka Vipata === Chigaŵa cha stratigraphic icho chili mu chigodobu ichi chili na usani wa mamita 90, ndipo chili na tuff yakuchemeka Naabi ignimbrite. Malo agha ghakutowa comene cifukwa ca maji agho ghakukhira kufuma ku Olmoti na kunyake kumwera. Pa malo agha pali viswaswa vyakale chomene ivyo vikulongora kuti vikaŵako vyaka 1.89 mya, apo vinthu vyakuzengera malibwe vikaŵako vyaka 1.7 mya. Kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito sayansi ya fission track na paleomagnetism kuti ŵamanye nyengo iyo viŵaro vikaŵirako. Vinthu vyakukumbukika vya ŵanthu na vyakuŵikapo malibwe vikusangika nyengo zose mu dambo ili. Ŵakapanga chipalamba chakuchemeka Olbalbal Depression kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ngorongoro.<ref name="Mary" />{{rp|41–43}} [[File:Oldupai_Gorge_monolith.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|247x247px|Chithuzithuzi cha monolith yakuchita na vyakumera vyakututuka kufuma ku bedi III]] ==== Bed I ==== Malibwe ghakukhalako agho ghali pa Naabi ignimbrite, ghakukwana mamita 2046 ndipo ghali na viswaswa vya Olmoti tuff. Malo ghanayi agho ŵanthu ŵakukhalako ghakusungika makora ghali mu malo gha bedi I, FLK na FLK North-North, kweniso DK na FLK North. Malo gha DK (kwamba kwa zina la Donald McInnes kusazgako k kwa korongo) ghali na ivyo Leakey wakuwona kuti ni libwe, kweniso vinthu vinandi na viwangwa ivyo vili na vyaka vya pakati pa 1.75 mya na 1.9 mya.<ref name="Mary" />{{rp|45,50–58}} ==== Bed II ==== Chiziŵa cha Olduvai chili na dongo na malibwe gha mchenga ghakukwana mamita 21 mpaka 35. Ku malo agha kuli malo ghanandi ghakusungirako visomba, kusazgapo malo ghanyake agho kuli visomba vyakuchemeka chert nodule. Ŵakasanga nkhwantha za mawoko pa malo gha EF-HR (Evelyn Fuchs-Hans Reck) na TK (Thiongo Korongo). Pa malo agha pakaŵa Australopithecus boisei (mphumphu) na nyama yinyake yakuchemeka canine.<ref name="Mary" />{{rp|58–63}} {{multiple image|image1=Olduvai Gorge from the air looking south, including view of museum.jpg|image2=Olduvai Gorge from the air looking south.jpg|footer=Olduvai Gorge kufuma muchanya kulazga kumwera, chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi na kuwona nyumba yakusungiramo vinthu vyakale (kumazere), na chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi (kumalyero)|total_width=440}} ==== Bedi lachitatu ==== Malo ghakubinkha ghatuŵa chomene gha III ghali na dongo, malibwe gha mchenga, na vibumira vya mamita 6 na 10. Pali viswaswa vichoko waka ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaŵako. ==== Bedi IV ==== Malo gha IV ghakupambana chomene na malo gha II agho ghali kumafumiro gha dazi kwa dambo ili. Pa malo agha, maji agha ghali na usani wa mamita 5 na mamita 8. Pa malo agha pakaŵa visulo vya visulo vinayi vyakupambanapambana, ndipo pa malo agha pakaŵa visulo vya mawoko 500 (HK (Hopwood's Korongo), apo pa malo agha pakaŵa visulo vya mawoko vya phonolite na chiwangwa cha njovu (Heberer's Gully). Pa malo gha WK (Wayland's Korongo) pakaŵa chiwangwa na chiwangwa cha chiŵegha cha Homo erectus. ==== Mabedi gha masek ==== Makona gha Masek ghakupangika na vyoto viŵiri vyakufuma ku Kerimasi. Mu malo agha, ŵakasanga minjilira yinandi ya ma quartzite. Vinthu ivyo vikusangika mu ndimba za ndimba za Oldonyo Lengai ndivyo vikupangiska kuti ndimba za ndimba za ndimba za ndimba za Ndutu ziŵe zakukhora chomene. Makuni ghakale gha Lenonyogai nagho ghakupanga Naisiusiu Beds. ==== Mitundu ya visomba ==== Viwangwa vichoko waka vya Australopithecus boisei, ivyo vikusazgapo chiwangwa, chiwangwa cha chigha, na mino ghanandi, vikasangika mu viwangwa I na II, ivyo vikulongora kuti vikaŵako pakati pa 1.1 na 2 mya. Viwangwa vya Homo habilis ivyo vikusangika kanandi chomene vikasangika mu chiŵaya I na chigaŵa cha pasi pa chiŵaya II, ndipo vikukolerana na Australopithecus boisei. Viwangwa vya Homo erectus vikasangika mu vigaŵa vya pachanya vya bedi lachiŵiri, ndipo vikaŵa nga vya Australopithecus boisei, kweni vya Homo habilis yayi. <ref name="Mary" />{{rp|74}} == Vyakovwira vya malibwe na awo ŵakuvipanga == {{Human timeline}}Mu 1951, Louis Leakey wakalongosora za makuni gha malibwe gha Oldowan. Ŵa Leakey ŵakasanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo vya malibwe mu dambo ili, ndipo ŵakasanga malo 11 gha Oldowan mu dambo ili, 9 mu Bed I, na 2 mu Bed II. Kweniso ŵakamanya kuti chiŵiya cha Oldowan icho ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito chikaŵa chakupambanapambana ndipo chikaŵa mu viŵaya viŵiri, vitatu, na vinayi. Vinthu ivi ni viŵiya vyakuchemeka spheroids na sub-spheroids. Padera pa malo agho ŵakasoperangamo malibwe agha, mbumba ya Leakey yikasangaso malo ghanyake agho ŵakafumiskangamo malibwe agho ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakupanga visulo ivi. Vinthu ivi vikafuma ku Naibor Soit Inselberg, kumpoto kwa madambo. Phonolite iyi yikafuma ku phiri la Engelosen ilo lili pa mtunda wa makilomita 5 kumpoto. Gneiss wakafuma ku Kelogi inselborg 9 km kumwera kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi.:83 ¢86 Mtundu wakwamba uwo ŵanthu ŵa ku Leakey ŵakasanga, zina lake ni Zinjanthropus boisei panji Australopithecus boisei (uyo ŵakamuthya zina lakuti Paranthropus boisei ndipo uchali kudumbiskana), ukaŵa na msana wa sagittal na mino ghakuru. Vinthu ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalyanga vyakumera vyakukhora nga ni vipasi, mphonje, na njere, kweniso panji vyakumera vinandi. Kweni ivyo ŵakasanga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 vikaŵa vyakupambana. Chiwangwa ichi chikaŵavya chiwangwa cha sagittal, ndipo wongo ukaŵa wakuzingilizgika, kulongora kuti ukaŵa wa australopithecine yayi. Chiŵiya chikuru ichi chikulongora kuti wongo wake ukaŵa ukuru chomene kuluska wa Australopithecus boisei. Vinthu ivi vikalongora kuti pakaŵa mtundu unyake wa vinyama. Maghanoghano ghake ghakaŵa ghakuru chomene ndipo mino ghake ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene. Vinthu vyakale comene ivyo vikusangika ku Olduvai, vikaŵa vya majeremusi agho ghakaŵa pasi chomene. Pa malo agha, ndipo pamasinda pa malo agha, pakaŵa vyakumera vyakuchemeka Chellean na Acheulean. Pa malo agha pakaŵa vinthu vya Levallois, ndipo paumaliro pakaŵa vinthu vya Stillbay. Vyakovwira vya Oldowan vikuchemeka kuti "vyakovwira vya malibwe" chifukwa malibwe agho munthu wakughakora ghakaŵa nga ni malibwe agho ghafuma kale. Mary Leakey wakalemba viŵiya vya Oldowan kuyana na umo vikagwiliriranga ntchito; wakapangiska viŵiya vya Oldowan A, B, na C, ndipo wakaviyaniska na viŵiya vya Modes 1, 2, na 3. Mulimo wake ukuŵa wakovwira chomene pakusanda umo vinthu vikasinthira mu nyengo ya Pleistocene. Tikumanya makora yayi kuti ni mtundu wuli wa ŵanthu awo ndiwo ŵakamba kupanga vinthu vya Oldowan. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako pambere ŵanthu ŵandaŵeko, ndipo vikayananga na mtundu wa Australopithecus garhi. Vyaka 1.7 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Homo erectus ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vya ku Oldowan na kupanga vinthu vya ku Acheulean. Vyakovwira vya Oldowan vili mu vigaŵa vya I ̇IV pa Olduvai Gorge. Chiŵaya I, icho chili na vyaka vyapakati pa 1.85 mya na 1.7 mya, chili na viŵiya vya Oldowan na viswaswa vya Paranthropus boisei na Homo habilis, kweniso chiŵaya II, icho chili na vyaka vyapakati pa 1.7 mya na 1.2 mya. H. habilis wakasinthika na Homo erectus pafupifupi vyaka 1.6 ivyo vyajumpha, kweni P. boisei wakalutilira. Viŵiya vya Oldowan vikulutilira kufika pa bedi lacinayi pa msinkhu wa pakati pa 800,000 na 600,000 (BP). Kusintha kukuru kukacitika pakati pa viŵaya I na II pafupifupi 1.5 mya. Utali wawo ukakuranga, mphonje za visko viŵiri (m'malo mwa mphonje za chisko chimoza) zikaŵanga zinandi, ndipo vimanyikwiro vya kutikitira pa vinthu vinyake vikakuranga. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito chomene vinthu ivi, ndipo ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito chomene vinthu ivi.<ref name="Kimura, Yuki. C 2002">{{cite journal|author=Kimura, Yuki. C|title=Examining time trends in the Oldowan technology at Beds I and II, Olduvai Gorge|date=2002|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=43|issue=3|pages=291–321|doi=10.1006/jhev.2002.0576|pmid=12234546}}</ref> == Hunters or scavengers? == [[File:Neolithic,_Lithic_implement_-_worked_flake_-_tertiary_debitage_(FindID_539218-412104).jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Worked lithic flake]] Nangauli pa Olduvai Gorge pakaŵa ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi pakati pa vyaka 1.9 na 1.7 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaryanga nyama yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti nyama iyo ŵakaryanga yikaŵa yinandi chomene kuluska iyo ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaryanga. Pa vyakurya vyose ivyo vikurya chimpanzee, viŵisi 5 pera ndivyo vikurya nyama. Ndipo nyama zinandi zikusangika yayi mu vyakurya vya ŵanthu awo ŵakuŵawukira na kuwunjika nyama. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti vyakurya vinandi ivyo magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakarya vikafuma ku vyakumera. Ntheura, tingati ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaŵa na vyakurya vyakuyana waka. (Wonani fundo ya pakati panji kuti bridging arguments. Vinthu vinandi vyakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵakwambilira vikufuma ku vinthu vyakugwilira ntchito na viswaswa ivyo vili kufuma ku malo nga ni FLK-Zinjanthropus mu Olduvai Gorge. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakasankhanga malibwe ghanyake agho ghakasunkhunyikanga para ŵagwirapo ntchito, ndipo ŵakayeghanga malibwe agha kufuma ku malo ghakutali chomene. Ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale nga ni Fiona Marshall, ŵakakhozga kuti malibwe ghaŵikikane pamoza nga ni pulogiramu. Mu nkhani yake ya mutu wakuti "Life in Olduvai Gorge", iyo wakalemba, wakati ŵanthu ŵakwambilira "ŵakamanya umo ŵangaswera pa malibwe kuti ŵapangenge vizwazwa vyakuthwa". Wakayowoya kuti ŵakasoranga vizwazwa kuti ŵadumulirepo nyama, ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vizwazwa kuti ŵadumulirepo minofu ya viŵeto. Pa malo agha ŵakasangapo vizwazwa vya viyuni, somba, vyamoyo vya mu nyanja na mu nyanja, na vyamoyo vikuruvikuru. Vinthu ivi vikapangika na ŵanthu awo ŵakaphyoranga viwangwa kuti ŵasange muvi, panji ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vinthu vinyake kuti ŵajure nyama. Pakuti pali vimanyikwiro vyakupambanapambana, ŵasayansi ŵanyake, kusazgapo Lewis Binford, ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaryanga nyama panji msana uwo ukakhalapo para ŵakoma nyama. Ŵanyake nga ni Henry Bunn ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakakomeranga vinyama ivi, ndipo pamasinda vinyama vinyake vikalyanga viwangwa. Nangauli nkhani iyi yichali kudumbiskana na ŵanthu mazuŵa ghano, kweni Pat Shipman, uyo wakusanda vinthu vyakale, wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kupenja viswaswa. Shipman wakasangaso kuti viwangwa vinandi vya nyama izi vikusangika na viwangwa vya ŵanalume na vya ŵanalume. Ichi chikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalondezganga nyama izi. Fumbo lakuti, kasi kupenja nyama ku Olduvai Gorge likaŵa lakuzirwa comene ni ilo licalipo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ungar|first=Peter|title=Evolution of the Human Diet|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofhuman0000unse_y2i4|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0195183467|editor=Peter Ungar}}</ref> == Viwangwa vya ŵanthu ivyo vikusangika ku Olduvai Gorge == [[File:Panoramic_view_of_Olduvai_Gorge.jpg|alt=|thumb|543x543px|Kuwona vinthu vyose]] * [[OH 5|Olduvai Hominid 5]] * [[Olduvai Hominid 7]] * [[Olduvai Hominid 8]] * [[Olduvai Hominid 9]] * [[OH 24|Olduvai Hominid 24]] * [[Homo habilis#OH 62|Olduvai Hominid 62]] == Chipilala cha Olduvai Gorge == Mu Julayi 2019, chikumbusko cha Olduvai Gorge chikimikika pa chipata cha Olduvai Gorge kufuma pa msewu uwo ukubatana na Ngorongoro Conservation Area na Serengeti National Park (msewu uwo ŵanthu ŵakwenda pa safari). Mung'anga Joshua Mwankunda wakambiska fundo ya kuzenga cikumbusko ca malo ghakuzirwa agha, ndipo pa nyengo yeneyiyo wakacitanga mulimo wa kucenjezga na kukopa ŵalendo ku Olduvai Gorge na ku nyumba yakusungiramo vinthu vyakale; ŵasayansi ŵa paleoanthropologists Nicholas Toth, Kathy Schick, na Jackson Njau ŵakanozga na kupeleka viswaswa vya viswaswa vya ŵanthu pa pempho la boma la Tanzania. Chipilala ichi chili na viwangwa viŵiri vikuruvikuru ivyo vili pa chikhwangwani chikuru. Viwangwa ivi ni vya Paranthropus boisei na Homo habilis, vyamoyo viŵiri ivyo vikaŵako panyengo yimoza ivyo vikasangika ku Olduvai Gorge. Viwoneskero vikuruvikuru ivyo Kijo wali kupanga vili na msinkhu wa mamita 6 na uzito wa mapaundi 5,000. Ntchito iyi yikagwiranga lumoza na wupu wa Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA).<ref>{{{Cite web |title=Zinj Tower launch: Jubilant PM sees all humans as Tanzanians |url=https://www.ippmedia.com/en/habari/zinj-tower-launch-jubilant-pm-sees-all-humans-tanzanians |access-date=2020-01-23 |website=www.ippmedia.com |language=en}}</ref> Olduvai Gorge Museum, iyo yili pa mtunda wa makilomita 5 kufuma pa cikumbusko ici, yili mumphepete mwa canyon pa malo agho canyon yikuru na canyon yinyake yikukumana. Malo agha ndigho ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale chomene vya ku Africa. == Malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyapasi gha IUGS == Pakuyowoya za malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhalako kale agho ghakulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakakhalira na ivyo ŵakachitanga, wupu wa International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) ukalembapo malo agha mu buku lake la "100 geological heritage sites" pa charu chose. Wupu uwu ukuti malo agho ghali ku chigaŵa cha chiharo cha charu (IUGS Geological Heritage Site) ni "malo agho ghali na vigaŵa vya charu (geological elements) na/panji ndondomeko za sayansi za pa caru cose, agho ghakugwiliskirika nchito nga ni malo ghakuyelezgera, ndiposo/panji agho ghali kovwirapo comene pakusambizga sayansi ya vya charu".<ref>{{cite web |title=The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites |url=https://iugs-geoheritage.org/videos-pdfs/iugs_first_100_book_v2.pdf |access-date=13 November 2022 |website=IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage |publisher=IUGS |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027114156/https://iugs-geoheritage.org/videos-pdfs/iugs_first_100_book_v2.pdf |archive-date=27 October 2022}}</ref> == Vithuzi == <gallery class="center" widths="175px"> File:Olduvai_stone_chopping_tool.jpg|alt=The oldest human-made object in the British Museum|Cinthu cakale comene ico ŵanthu ŵali kupanga mu British Museum<ref>{{cite web |title=A History of the World in 100 Objects |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/a_history_of_the_world/objects.aspx#2 |access-date=18 May 2016 |website=The British Museum}}</ref> File:Plaque_marking_the_discovery_of_Australopithecus_in_Tanzania.jpg|Malo agho ŵakasanga P. boisei wakwamba ku Tanzania File:Olduwan_Industry_Chopper_2.jpeg|Chiŵiya chakuponyera malibwe cha Oldowan File:Olduvai_Chopper.JPG|Vyaka pafupifupi 1.8 miliyoni </gallery> == Wonaniso == * [[Olorgesailie]] * [[Arusha Region]] * [[Geography of Tanzania]] * [[List of human evolution fossils]] * [[List of fossil sites]] * [[Raymond Dart]] * [[Robert Broom]] == Ukaboni ==<!-- Geobios15:505. --> {{Reflist|30em}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == * Cole, Sonia (1975). ''Leakey's Luck''. Harcourt Brace Jovanvich, New York. * Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn Archaeology Essentials (2007). ''Archaeology Essentials.'' 2nd Edition. Thames & Hudson Ltd, London. * {{cite journal|last1=Deocampo|first1=Daniel M|year=2004|title=Authigenic clays in East Africa: Regional trends and paleolimnology at the [[Plio-Pleistocene]] boundary, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania|journal=Journal of Paleolimnology|volume=31|issue=1|pages=1–9|doi=10.1023/b:jopl.0000013353.86120.9b|bibcode=2004JPall..31....1D|s2cid=128956824}} * {{cite journal|last1=Deocampo|first1=Daniel M.|last2=Blumenschine|first2=R.J.|last3=Ashley|first3=G.M.|year=2002|title=Freshwater wetland diagenesis and traces of early hominids in the lowermost Bed II (~1.8 myr) playa lake-margin at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania|journal=Quaternary Research|volume=57|pages=271–281|doi=10.1006/qres.2001.2317|s2cid=129174931}} * Hay, Richard L. (1976). "Geology of the Olduvai Gorge." University of California Press, 203 pp. * Gengo, Michael F. (2009). Evidence of Human Evolution, Interpreting. ''Encyclopedia of Time: Science, Philosophy, Theology, & Culture.''SAGE Publications. 5 Dec. 2011. * Young, Lisa (2 October 2011). Hominin Migrations Out of Africa. ''Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology.'' University of Michigan. * Tactikos, Joanne Christine (2006). ''A landscape perspective on the Oldowan from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania''. {{ISBN|0-542-15698-9}}. * Leakey, L.S.B. (1974). ''By the evidence: Memoirs 1932-1951''. Harcourt Brace Jovanavich, New York, {{ISBN|0-15-149454-1}}. * Leakey, M.D. (1971). ''Olduvai Gorge: Excavations in beds I & II 1960–1963''. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. * Leakey, M.D. (1984). ''Disclosing the past''. Doubleday & Co., New York, {{ISBN|0-385-18961-3}}. * Marshall, Fiona. (1999). Life in OLDUVAI GORGE. ''Calliope'' Sept. 1999: 16. General OneFile. Web. 4 Dec. 2011. * Young, Lisa (25 September 2011). The First Stone Tool Makers. ''Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology.'' University of Michigan. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Commons category|Olduvai Gorge}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111008235927/http://www.museum.or.tz/natural.asp Natural History museum in Arusha] * [http://www.ntz.info/gen/n00467.html Northern Tanzania - Oldupai] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061009095919/http://www.basecamptanzania.com/NP_OldupaiGorge.htm Oldupai Gorge – History & Information] {{National Historic Sites of Tanzania}} {{History of Tanzania}} {{Authority control}} {{Arusha}} [[Category:Landforms of Tanzania]] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Tanzania]] [[Category:Paleoanthropological sites]] [[Category:Pleistocene paleontological sites of Africa]] [[Category:Prehistoric Tanzania]] [[Category:Geology of Tanzania]] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Arusha Region]] [[Category:Canyons and gorges of Africa]] [[Category:Archaeology of Eastern Africa]] [[Category:First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites]] i48jmmphyef90e02pbshbbjgxpro7jz 0 36797 122783 122603 2026-10-01T02:23:55Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}} {{Nkhaniiwemi}} {{History of Italy}} {{Culture of Italy}} Ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu caru ca [[Italy]] ico cili ku [[Europe]] kwa vilimika pafupifupi 850,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Kwambira kale chomene, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Kale, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cikaya ca Ŵaroma ndiposo msumba ukuru wa vigaŵa vya Ufumu wa [[Rome|Roma]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/hannibalswarmili00laze | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/hannibalswarmili00laze/page/29 29] |quote=Italy homeland of the Romans. | title=Hannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic War| publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | isbn=9780806130040| last1=Lazenby| first1=John Francis| year=1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ItsTDAAAQBAJ&q=italy+metropole+roman+empire&pg=PA45 |title=Contours of the World Economy 1-2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History |isbn=9780199227211 |last1=Maddison |first1=Angus |date=20 September 2007}}</ref> Ufumu wa Romu ukaŵako mu 753 B.C.E. ndipo ukazgoka charu cha Romu mu 509 B.C.E., apo ufumu wa Romu ukathereskeka. Kufuma apo, boma la Romu likasazga Italy na ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria, Celt, na Greece awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵaroma ŵakalongozganga Socii, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chiitaliki, ndipo pamasinda, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kulamulira ku Western Europe, North Africa, na Near East. Ufumu wa Roma ukamara apo Julius Caesar wakakomeka. Ufumu wa Roma ndiwo ukalongozga vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe na Mediterranean kwa vyaka vinandi, ndipo ukawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵasambire vinjeru, sayansi, na luso. Pamanyuma pakuti Roma wabwangandulika mu 476 C.E., Italy yikagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinandi, m'paka mu 1871 apo charu chikaŵa pamoza. Vyaru vya ku nyanja, comenecomene Venice na Genoa, vikaŵa na cuma cikuru comene cifukwa ca ulendo wa pa nyanja, malonda, na mabanki.<ref>{{cite web|last= Sée|first= Henri|title= Modern Capitalism Its Origin and Evolution|url= http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|work= University of Rennes|publisher= Batoche Books|access-date= 29 August 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131007010542/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|archive-date= 2013-10-07|url-status= dead | quote = The origin and development of capitalism in Italy are illustrated by the economic life of the great city of Florence.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Sée|first=Henri|title=Modern Capitalism Its Origin and Evolution|url=http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|work=University of Rennes|publisher=Batoche Books|access-date=29 August 2013|archive-date=7 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007010542/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Chigaŵa chapakati cha Italy chikalutilira kulamulirika na Ŵapapa, apo chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Italy chikalutilira kulamulirika na ŵasilikari ŵa Byzantine, Arab, Norman, Spanish, na Bourbon.<ref name=macSmith70>{{cite book|authorlink=Denis Mack Smith|last=Smith |first=D. Mack |title=Storia della Sicilia medioevale e moderna|year=1970 |publisher=Laterza |location=Bari |language=it|pages=27, 39, 45, 50–51, 98–108, 190–201}}</ref><ref name="natgeo">{{cite book|last1=Jepson|first1=Tim|title=National Geographic Traveler: Italy|date=2012|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=9781426208614|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2jihJ0bq4EC&q=trade+routes+italy+new+world&pg=PA28}}</ref> Nyengo ya kuwelera ku Italy yikathandazgikira mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa chomene vya ŵanthu, sayansi, kusanda vinthu, na luso. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Italy (mwakuyana na Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus, na Amerigo Vespucci) ŵakasanga nthowa ziphya zakulutira ku Far East na ku New World, ndipo ŵakambiska nyengo ya Discovery. Mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha, caru ca Italy cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene nga ni Dante Alighieri, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Niccolò Machiavelli, Galileo Galilei na Raphael. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Giuseppe Garibaldi wakawovwira kuti Italy wakolerane na ufumu wa Sardinia. Ufumu uphya wa Italy, uwo ukakhazikiskika mu 1861, ukasintha vinthu mwaluŵiro na kuzenga ufumu wa vyaru vinyake. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, kumwera kwa Italy kukaŵa ku mizi ndipo kukaŵa ukavu. Mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, Italy wakamalizga kuwungana mwa kupoka Trento na Trieste, ndipo wakapokera mpando wakukhalilira mu wupu wa League of Nations. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakawonanga kuti Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose njawakawaka cifukwa cakuti caru ca Italy cikaŵa na vigaŵa vyose yayi ivyo vikalayizgika na phangano la ku London (1915). Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yacitika pamoza na Nazi Germany na Ufumu wa Japan, ŵasilikari ŵakathereskeka, Mussolini wakakakika na kucimbira, ndipo nkhondo ya mukati mu Italy yikamba. Pamanyuma pakuti Italy wafwatuka, Social Republic wawa, ndipo Benito Mussolini wakomeka na gulu la Resistance, mu 1946 ŵanthu ŵakakanizga boma la Italy kuti liŵe lacifumu, ndipo likazgoka republiki. Chikulutilira kuŵa na nkhongono pa nkhani ya vya cuma, mitheto, nkhondo, na ndyali mu vilimika vya m'ma 2000.<ref>{{cite book|title=Canada Among Nations, 2004: Setting Priorities Straight|date=17 January 2005|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-2836-9|page=85|url={{Google books|nTKBdY5HBeUC|page=|keywords=Canada%20Among%20Nations%2C%202004%3A%20Setting%20Priorities Straight|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=13 June 2016|quote=The United States is the sole world's superpower. France, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are great powers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sterio|first1=Milena|title=The Right to Self-Determination Under International Law: "Selfistans", Secession, and the Rule of the Great Powers|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=978-0-415-66818-7|page=xii (preface)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-QuI6n_OVMYC&q=The%20Right%20to%20Self-determination%20Under%20International%20Law%3A%20%22selfistans%22%2C%20Secession%20and%20the%20Rule%20of%20the%20Great%20Powers|access-date=13 June 2016|quote=The great powers are super-sovereign states: an exclusive club of the most powerful states economically, militarily, politically and strategically. These states include veto-wielding members of the United Nations Security Council (United States, United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia), as well as economic powerhouses such as Germany, Italy and Japan.}}</ref> ==Mbili yakwambilila== {{Main|Prehistoric Italy}} [[File:Antropomorfi detti astronauti (a) - R 1 - Area di Zurla - Nadro (ph Luca Giarelli).jpg|thumb|Petroglyph ku Valcamonica, Lombardy, ni malo ghakurughakuru chomene pa charu chapasi agho pali ma petroglyph ghakale chomene (cha m'ma 1000 B.C.E.).]] Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakafika ku Monte Poggiolo vyaka 850,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Neanderthal ŵali kusangika ku malo agho ghakusangika kufupi na Roma na Verona vyaka pafupifupi 50,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Paleolithiki ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako vyaka 48,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu Novembala 2011, ku Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit ku England, ŵakachita kafukufuku pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ni mino gha mwana wa munthu wa ku Neanderthal. Vinthu ivyo vikakhalapo mu nyengo ya ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale vikusangika mu Lombardy (malibwe agho ghakaŵa mu msumba wa Valcamonica) na mu Sardinia (nuraghe). Cinyake ico cikumanyikwa comene ni ca Ötzi the Iceman, cikozgo ca munthu uyo wakacimbiranga nyama mu mapiri ico cikasangika mu Similaun glacier ku South Tyrol, ca m'ma c. 3400-3100 B.C.E.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03/science/fossil-teeth-put-humans-in-europe-earlier-than-thought.html |work=The New York Times |title=Fossil Teeth Put Humans in Europe Earlier Than Thought |date=2 November 2011}}</ref> [[File:Matera from Piazzetta Pascoli-2930.jpg|thumb|left|Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti nyumba za mu mphanji za ku Sassi ku Matera ndizo zikaŵa zakwamba mu Italy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amusingplanet.com/2016/04/sassi-di-matera-oldest-continuously.html?m=1 |title=Sassi di Matera |publisher=AmusingPlanet}}</ref>]] [[File:Dolmenmontebubbonia.jpg|left|thumb|Dolmen of Monte Bubbonia, Sicily]] Mu nyengo ya mkuwa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Indo-Europe ŵakaluta ku Italy. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakwiza mu vigaŵa pafupifupi vinayi kufuma kumpoto m'paka ku Alps. Ŵanthu ŵakwamba kufuma ku Indo-Europe ŵakaluta ku malo ghanyake m'ma 2000 B.C.E., kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakizanga na vinthu vya mkuwa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Remedello ndiwo ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Po. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku malo agha mu nyengo ya Bronze, kwamba m'ma 2000 C.E. m'paka m'ma 2000 C.E. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Padan Plain, Tuscany, na mumphepete mwa nyanja za Sardinia na Sicily. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E., kukaŵa chimphepo chachitatu icho chikamba kwiza, icho chikakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Apennine na ŵanthu ŵa ku Terramare. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Terramare ŵakachitanga pakuyaniska na ivyo ŵakachitanga mu nyengo ya Neolithic vingawoneka kuti vikaŵa vyaunenesko. Ŵakaŵa ŵachali ŵalovi, kweni ŵakaŵa na viŵeto vyakukhora. Ŵakaŵa ŵaluso comene pakupanga visulo, ŵakapanganga mkuŵa mu malibwe na dongo. Kweniso ŵakaŵa ŵalimi, ŵakaliskanga mphoza, mpheska, tirigu, na linoni.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Terramara|volume=26|pages=658–659|first=John Malcolm|last=Mitchell}}</ref>[[File:Otzi-Quinson.jpg|thumbnail|''[[Ötzi]]'', a natural mummy discovered in the southern Alps (region of [[Trentino-Alto Adige]]) dating from the 4th millennium BC.]] Mu nyengo ya Bronze, kufuma kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 m'paka kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo mu Italy. Chikhalidwe cha Proto-Villanova chinali mbali ya chikhalidwe cha Urnfield cha ku Ulaya. Vinthu ivi vikuyana waka na vigaŵa vya Bavaria-Upper Austria na Middle-Danube. Kweni ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti chikafuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Terramare awo ŵakakhalanga mu Dambo la Po. Ŵanthu ŵanyake nga ni Marija Gimbutas, ŵakayaniska mitheto iyi na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakafikira mu caru ici. Ku Sicily, ŵasanga tumalundi tunyake twa m'ma 2000 B.C.E., uto tukuyana waka na uto tikusanga ku Spain, Balearic Islands, Sardinia, na Apulia. Munthu uyo wakabowozga cikaya ici (uyo wakacicema mu Sicily kuti "Dolmens Culture") wakayaniska cikaya ici na nyengo iyo cikaya ici cikizira ku Sicily.<ref>Salvatore Piccolo, ''cit.'', pp.30-31</ref> ===Nuragic civilization=== {{Main|Nuragic civilization|Torrean civilization}} [[File:Nuraghe Su Nuraxi - Barumini - Sardinia - Italy - 01.jpg|thumb|''[[Su Nuraxi]]'' [[nuraghe]], [[Sardinia]], [[Italy]], 2nd millennium BC.]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nuraghe ŵakababikira ku Sardinia na kumwera kwa Corsica. Zina lawo likufuma ku vigongwe vya Nuragic, ivyo vikapangika kufuma ku vikumba vya megalithic ivyo vikazengeka kale. Mazuŵa ghano, ku Sardinia kuli nyumba zakuzengeka na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 7,000. Palije maukaboni agho ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵako kale, padera pa maukaboni ghachoko waka agho ghakalembeka mu nyengo ya Nuragic. Nkhani izo zili kulembeka zikufuma ku mabuku gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma, ndipo zikuwoneka nga ni nthano. Chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga ku Sardinia mu nyengo ya Bronze chikumanyikwa yayi chifukwa palije malemba gha nyengo iyi, nangauli kafukufuku uyo wachitika sonosono apa wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nuragic ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito alifabeti yakuyana na iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ku Euboea. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer wakati chiyowoyero cha Paleo-Sardinian chikaŵa chakuyana waka na chiyowoyero cha Proto-Basque na Chiiberiya chakale. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti mu Nuragic Sardinia mukaŵa vigaŵa viŵiri panji kujumpha apa.<ref name="Ugas_2005">{{cite book |last=Ugas |first=Giovanni |title=L'Alba dei Nuraghi |publisher=Fabula editrice |year=2005 |isbn=978-88-89661-00-0 |location=Cagliari}}</ref>{{rp|241–254}}{{Gallery|align=center |width=160 |lines=5 |File:Monte D'Accoddi 03.JPG|[[Monte d'Accoddi]], 4th millennium BCE. |File:Età nuragica, giganti di monte prama, xiii-ix secolo ac ca., da cabras, guerriero 05, 01.jpg|[[Giants of Mont'e Prama]] |File:Nuragic Bronze statuette.jpg|Bronze sculpture of a Nuragic chief from [[Uta, Sardinia|Uta]]. }} ==Iron Age== {{Main|Iron Age Italy}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Chifenike. ===Etruscan civilization=== {{Main|Etruscan civilization}} [[File:Etruscan civilization map.png|thumb|left|Map of Etruscan civilisation.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ŵakamba kukhala mu chigaŵa chapakati cha Italy mu 800 B.C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakamba kumanyikwa mu nyengo yakale. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku Villanova. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na DNA ya mitochondrial uyo wakachitika mu 2013, wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ndiwo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero chinyake. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vili kulembeka mu ciyowoyero ici vyazunulika pa cirwa ca Lemnos mu nyanja ya Aegean. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakagonanga ŵekha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakaŵa na boma ilo likaŵa na visambizgo vya ŵalongozgi ŵa mafuko. Chisopa cha Etruscan chikaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasopanga ŵachiuta ŵatesi, ndipo vinthu vyose ivyo vikuwoneka ŵakaviwonanga kuti ni nkhongono za Chiuta.[[File:Etruscan Painting 1.jpg|thumbnail|[[Etruscan art|Etruscan fresco]] in the [[Tomb of the Leopards]], [[Monterozzi necropolis]], 5th century BC.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ŵakamba kuthandazgika chomene mu mapiri gha Apenine. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., matawuni ghanyake ghachoko waka ghakazimwa. Ndipouli, palije kukayika kuti ndyali za ku Etruscan zikayananga na za ku Magna Graecia kumwera. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakasambazga comene cifukwa ca kunozga na kuguliska visulo, comenecomene mkuŵa na cisulo. Pa nyengo iyi, Ŵagiriki ŵakasuzgikanga chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece, comenecomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Phocean ku Italy ŵakakhazikiskanga vikaya mumphepete mwa nyanja za France, Catalonia, na Corsica. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵa Etruscans ŵanjire mu mtende na ŵa Carthage, awo ŵakasuskananga na Ŵagiriki.<ref name="historyone">{{cite book|first=Larissa|last=Bonfante|title=Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QaXZky58FIC&pg=PA58|year=1986|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=0-8143-1813-4|page=58}}</ref><ref name="historytwo">{{cite book|first=John|last=Franklin Hall|title=Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bUhT7i7XhOAC&pg=PA198|year=1996|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-8425-2334-0|page=198}}</ref> Mu 540 B.C.E., Nkhondo ya ku Alalia yikapangiska kuti mazaza gha ŵanthu ghagaŵikane mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Nangauli nkhondo iyi yikaŵavya uyo wakathereskeka, kweni Carthage wakalutilira kuthandazga ufumu wake pa Ŵagiriki. Kwambira mu hafu yakwamba ya 5 C.E., vinthu vikasintha pa charu chose. Mu 480 B.C.E., Carthage uyo wakaŵa mubwezi wa Etruria, wakathereskeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Magna Graecia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Syracuse. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vichoko waka, mu 474 B.C.E., Hiero, fumu yankhongono ya ku Syracuse, yikatonda Ŵaetruska pa Nkhondo ya Cumae. Nkhongono ya Etruria pa misumba ya Latium na Campania yikamba kucepa, ndipo yikaŵa mu mawoko gha Ŵaroma na ŵa Samnites. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Gallic ŵakiza ku Etruria kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mu dambo la Po na mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Adriatic. Pa nyengo iyi, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kupoka misumba ya ku Etruria. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵaleke kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto. Mu 500 B.C.E., charu cha Etruria chikapokeka na Ŵaroma.<ref name="historyone" /><ref name="historytwo" />{{Gallery|align=center |width=160 |lines=5 |File:Tomba dei Rilievi (Banditaccia).jpg|Necropolis of Banditaccia located in [[Cerveteri]] in [[Lazio]] |File:Chimera d'arezzo, fi, 03.JPG|[[Chimera of Arezzo]] |File:Perugia, Museo archeologico Nazionale dell'Umbria, cippo di Perugia.jpg|[[Cippus Perusinus]] }} === Italic peoples === {{Main|Italic peoples}} [[File:Samnite theater of Pietrabbondante.JPG|thumb|[[Samnites|Samnite]] sanctuary complex at [[Pietrabbondante]].]] [[File:Femmes peucètes dansant, fresque.jpg|thumb|Fresco of dancing [[Peucetians|Peucetian]] women in the [[Tomb of the Dancers]] in [[Ruvo di Puglia]], 4th–5th century BC]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chiitaliki ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chiitaliki ŵakaŵa Osci, Veneti, Samnites, Latins, na Umbri. Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Tiber (Latium Vetus), ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin ŵakamba kukhala ku Latial, ndipo kumpoto kwa chigaŵa ichi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Veneti ŵakamba kukhala ku Este. Mu nyengo yeneyiyi, kufuma ku chigaŵa chawo chapakati ku Italy (mu chigaŵa cha Umbria na Sabina mazuŵa ghano), ŵanthu ŵa ku Osco-Umbria ŵakamba kusama mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, kwizira mu ndondomeko ya Ver sacrum, kusazgirako vyaru vinyake, kumwera kwa Latium, Molise na hafu yose ya kumwera kwa chirwa ichi. Ivi vikukolerana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Terni ŵakaŵirako, awo ŵakaŵa ŵakuyana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Hallstatt na La Tène. Malo ghakusungirako ŵakufwa gha ku Umbria ku Terni, agho ghakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ghakaŵa ghakuyana waka na malo ghakusungirako ŵakufwa gha ku Golasecca. Pambere Ŵagiriki na Ŵafoinike ŵandafike, ŵanthu ŵa ku Sicily ŵakakhalanga kale pa chirwa ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sicily ndiwo ŵakambiska zina lakuti Sicily. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa Italy mu nyengo ya chisulo ŵakaŵa ŵa Ligure. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti cha m'ma 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa chikuru cha Italy, kusazgapo chigaŵa chikuru cha kumpoto cha Italy na chigaŵa chose cha Tuscany (chigaŵa icho chili kumpoto kwa mlonga wa Arno). Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu aŵa chikafuma mu nyengo ya Indo-Europe, kanandi ŵakuchiwona kuti ntcha ku malo yayi. Kuzakafika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Roma ŵakamba kuŵa na nkhongono. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin ŵakati ŵajiwombora ku wuzga wa Etruscan, ŵakamba kulamulira mafuko gha ku Italy. Kufuma apo, pakaŵaso nkhondo pakati pa mafuko gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Nkhondo izo zikalembeka makora comene ni izo zikacitika pakati pa Ŵalatini na Ŵasameni.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Catherine Mason |first=Carl Waldman |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |publisher=Infobase Publishing |pages=452–459}}</ref> Paumaliro, ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin ŵakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasambiranga Chilatini yayi ŵakamba kusambira Chilatini ndipo ŵakazgoka Ŵaroma. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., mafuko ghanandi gha ku Italy, chomenechomene Marsi na Samnites, ghakagalukira Ŵaroma. Nkhondo iyi yikumanyikwa kuti Nkhondo ya pa Caru. Ŵaroma ŵakati ŵathereska Ŵaroma, ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Italy ŵakapika wanangwa wa kuŵa ŵenekaya ŵa caru ca Roma, kupaturako Ŵacelt ŵa mu Dambo la Po. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵa mu mafuko gha Chilatini ŵakamba kuyowoya Chilatini.<ref name=":0"/> ===Magna Graecia=== {{Main|Magna Graecia}} [[File:Magna Graecia ancient colonies and dialects-en.svg|thumb|left|Ancient Greek colonies and their [[:w:Ancient Greek dialects|dialect]] groupings in Southern Italy.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Roger D. |last=Woodard |chapter=Greek dialects |title=The Ancient Languages of Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/51 51] |isbn=978-0-521-68495-8 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/51}}</ref> {{legend|#cea980|NW Greek}} {{legend|#b5ad96|Achaean}} {{legend|#eacd85|Doric}} {{legend|#bebada|Ionian}}]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 na 700 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece ŵakamba kukhala ku Southern Italy chifukwa cha masuzgo gha ŵanthu (njara, unandi wa ŵanthu, na vinyake). 14–18). Kweniso mu nyengo iyi, Ŵagiriki ŵakakhazikiskanga vikaya vyawo ku malo agho ghakaŵa kutali chomene nga ni kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja Yiswesi, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Libya, na Massalia (Marseille) ku Gaul. Ŵakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sicily na kumwera kwa Italy. Ŵaroma ŵakacemanga cigaŵa ca Sicily na Italy kuti Magna Graecia (Cilatini, "Greece Mukuru"), cifukwa cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Greece. Ŵanthu awo ŵakasanda malo ŵakale ŵakakolerananga yayi pa nkhani yakuti lizgu ili likung'anamura Sicily panji Apulia, Campania na Calabria. Cifukwa ca ukoloni uwu, cikaya ca Cigiriki cikatolekera ku Italy, mu viyowoyero vya Cigiriki, maluso gha cisopa, na mitheto ya boma lakujiyimira. Nyengo yichoko waka, ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece ŵakamba kukhala ku malo agha. Chiyowoyero chakuzirwa chomene chikaŵa cha Chigiriki cha Chalcidean/Cumaean, icho chikalembeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan.[[File:Selinunte - Templi Orientali (Temple E) 18.JPG|thumb|Greek temple of [[Hera]], [[Selinunte]], Sicily.]] Misumba yinandi ya ku Greece yikaŵa yisambazi kweniso yankhongono, nga ni Neapolis (Νεάπολις, Naples, "Msumba Uphya"), Syracuse, Acragas, na Sybaris (Σύβαρις). Matawuni ghanyake gha ku Magna Graecia ghakaŵa Tarentum (Τάρας), Epizephyrian Locri (Λοκροί) Rhegium, Croton, Thurii, Elea, Nola, Ancona, Syessa, Bari, na ghanyake. Pyrrhus wa ku Epirus wakati watondeka kulekeska ufumu wa Ŵaroma mu 282 B.C.E., kumwera kwa charu ichi kukaŵa pasi pa Ŵaroma ndipo ŵakalutilira kuwukira Ŵaroma. Ufumu wa Byzantium ndiwo ukawusanga pamanyuma pakuti Romu wawira kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo nanga ni ŵa Lombard ŵakatondeka kuwukhozga, nangauli msumba wa kumwera ukaŵa wawo kufuma apo Zotto wakawusanga mu cigaŵa caumaliro ca vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E.. ==Roman period== {{Main|Ancient Rome}} ===Roman Kingdom=== {{Main|Founding of Rome|Roman Kingdom}} [[File:Capitoline she-wolf Musei Capitolini MC1181.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[Capitoline Wolf]]'' sculpture in the [[Capitoline Museums]]. According to legend, [[founding of Rome|Rome was founded]] in 753 BC by [[Romulus and Remus]], who were raised by a [[She-wolf (Roman mythology)|she-wolf]].]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na Ufumu wa Roma, chifukwa palije mabuku agho ghakalembeka pa nyengo iyo. Ndipouli, mdauko wa Ufumu wa Roma ukamba na kukhazikiskika kwa msumba uwu, uwo ukambira mu 753 B.C.E. ndipo ukaŵa na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga pa Phiri la Palatine mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Tiber ku Italy. Pa malo agha pakaŵa msewu unyake uwo ŵanthu ŵakambukiranga Mlonga wa Tiber. Phiri la Palatine na tumapiri tunyake uto tukazingilizga phiri ili, vikaŵa vyambura kusuzga kuvikilira. Vinthu vyose ivi vikawovwira kuti msumba uwu ukure makora. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., mu ufumu wa Romu mukaŵa mafumu 7. Ŵakaŵa na vyaka 243 pa nyengo iyo ŵakalamuliranga, ndipo kufuma waka apo Barthold Georg Niebuhr wakalemberanga Baibolo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵamanya yayi.[[File:Veduta degli scavi coi fori neolitici di capanne sul palatino, 02.jpg|thumbnail|Iron Age hut foundations on the [[Palatine Hill]] considered to be the ''[[Casa Romuli]]'', the reputed dwelling-place of [[Romulus]].]] Ŵagali ŵakaparanya vinthu vinandi ivyo vikalembeka mu mbiri ya Roma apo ŵakapoka msumba uwu mu 390 B.C.E. (Varronian, kuyana na Polybius nkhondo iyi yikachitika mu 387/6) ndipo ivyo vikakhalako vikamara mu nyengo panji kwiba. Pakuti palije ukaboni wakuti ufumu uwu ukaŵako mu nyengo yira, tikwenera kusanda mwakupwelelera nkhani zose za mafumu agha. Kuyana na nthano ya Roma, msumba uwu ukazengeka pa Epulero 21, 753 B.C.E. na ŵabali ŵaŵiri, Romulus na Remus, awo ŵakaŵa ŵazukuru ŵa Aeneas, fumu ya ku Troya.<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 3.</ref> ===Roman Republic=== {{Main|Roman Republic}} {{Further|Roman conquest of Italy}} [[File:Roman Republic Empire map.gif|thumb|left|Animation showing the growth and division of [[Ancient Rome]], years CE]] Kuyana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulemba nga ni Livy ŵakalemba, charu cha Romu chikamba kuwusa mu 509 B.C.E., apo themba laumaliro pa mathemba 7 gha Romu, Tarquin the Proud, likathereskeka na Lucius Junius Brutus. Ndondomeko ya malango yikalongozganga kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora, kweniso kuti mazaza gha ŵanthu ghapatukane. Ŵeruzgi ŵakuzirwa comene ŵakaŵa ŵalara ŵa boma ŵaŵiri, awo pamoza ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakulongozga ŵasilikari. Ŵalongozgi aŵa ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na ŵalara ŵa boma, awo pakwamba ŵakaŵa ŵalara ŵa boma, kweni ŵakakura chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., Ŵagalileya ŵakamba kuwukira charu cha Romu. Ŵaroma ŵakakora vilwero na kucimbizga Ŵagali, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Camillus. Pachoko na pachoko, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kuwusa ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Italy, kusazgapo Ŵaeturu. Cinthu caumaliro ico cikapangiska kuti Ŵaroma ŵambe kulamulira caru ca Italy cikaŵa apo Tarentum, msumba ukuru wa ku Greece, wakacema Pyrrhus wa ku Epirus kuti wamovwire mu 281 B.C.E., kweni vyose ivi vikacitika yayi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E., Ŵaroma ŵakakumana na mulwani wakofya chomene. Mu Nkhondo zitatu za ku Punic, msumba wa Carthage ukaparanyika ndipo Ŵaroma ŵakamba kuwusa Hispania, Sicily, na North Africa. Ŵaroma ŵakati ŵathereska ufumu wa Makedoniya na wa Seleucid mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Cifukwa ca kuthereska maufumu gha Ŵagiriki, Ŵaroma na Ŵagiriki ŵakasazgikana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Romu ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya mizi. Pa nyengo iyi, ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa wankhongono comene ndipo ukaŵa na ŵalwani ŵanandi yayi.[[File:Retrato de Julio César (26724093101) (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Tusculum portrait]], possibly the only surviving sculpture of [[Julius Caesar]] made during his lifetime. Archaeological Museum, [[Turin]], [[Italy]].]] Malo ghamoza agho ghakaŵa na nthenda iyi ni Spain. Ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ŵakanjira mu Spain kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E., kweni ŵakasuzgika chomene m'paka apo Augusto wakaŵira themba. Msumba wa Numantia uwo ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Celtiberian ndiwo ukaŵa pakwamba apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakasuskanga Ŵaroma mu vyaka vya m'ma 140 na 130 B.C.E. Numantia wakawa na kubwangandulika mu 133 B.C.E. Mu 105 B.C.E., Ŵaceltiberi ŵakalutilira kuŵa ŵankhongono na ŵakofya mwakuti ŵakachimbizga Cimbri na Teutones kumpoto kwa Spain, nangauli Ŵaroma ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵaroma ku Gaul kumwera, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵaroma awo ŵakaŵasuskanga ŵakafwa 80,000. Kupoka Hispania kukamara mu 19 B.C.E., kweni pakaŵa masuzgo ghanandi.<ref>{{cite book |title=Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate |year=1993 |url=https://archive.org/details/betweenrepublice0000unse_f2l2 |publisher=University of California Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/betweenrepublice0000unse_f2l2/page/400 400]}}</ref> [[File:Tavares.Forum.Romanum.redux.jpg|thumb|The [[Roman Forum]], the commercial, cultural, and political centre of the city and the Republic which housed the various offices and meeting places of the government.]] Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E., mafuko ghanandi gha Cijeremani ghakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo Cimbri na Teuton ndiwo ŵakalongozganga. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko agha ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakumananga nawo, ndipo ŵakatimbanizganga comene caru ca Italy. Pa Nkhondo ya ku Aquae Sextiae na Vercellae, Ŵajeremani wose ŵakakomeka. Mu nkhondo ziŵiri izi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Teuton na Ambrones ŵakataya ŵanalume 290,000 (ŵanalume 200,000 ŵakakomeka ndipo 90,000 ŵakakoleka); ndipo ŵa mtundu wa Cimbri ŵakataya ŵanalume 220,000 (ŵanalume 160,000 ŵakakomeka ndipo 60,000 ŵakakoleka).<ref>Livy Ep. 68</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., charu ichi chikaŵa mu nyengo ya masuzgo gha ndyali. Mu nyengo iyi, Julius Caesar ndiyo wakaŵa wakuzirwa comene. Caesar wakakolerana na ŵanalume ŵaŵiri awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza comene mu Roma: Marcus Licinius Crassus, uyo wakaŵa movwiri wake, na Pompey, uyo wakaŵa mulwani wa Crassus. Crassus, mwanalume musambazi comene mu Romu, wakaŵa musambazi comene; Pompey wakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi mu wupu wa Senate; ndipo Kesare wakaŵa kazembe na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari mu Gaul.<ref name=Scullard2>Scullard 1982, chapters VI-VII</ref> Mu 53 B.C.E., ufumu wa Crassus ukamara. Crassus wakaŵa muphemaniski pakati pa Caesar na Pompey, ndipo kwambura iyo, ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakamba kulimbana kuti ŵatore mazaza. Caesar wakati watonda Nkhondo za ku Gallia, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵakamulumba na kumuchindika, Pompey wakawona kuti ni munthu muwemi yayi. Kuti ivi vileke kucitika, Kesare wakambuka Mlonga wa Rubicon na kuwukira Roma mu 49 B.C.E., ndipo mwaluŵiro wakatonda Pompey. Cifukwa cakuti Kesare ndiyo wakaŵa na mazaza pa ufumu wa Roma, wakayamba kuŵa na mauteŵeti ghanandi, ndipo pamasinda wakazgoka muwusi wankhongono. Wakakomeka mu 44 B.C.E., pa nyengo ya Ides of March, na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kumufwatura. Pakuti Kesare wakakomeka, pakaŵa masuzgo gha ndyali na gha ŵanthu mu Romu. Octavian (mwana wakulera wa Kesare), pamoza na Mark Antony na Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, mubwezi wa Kesare, ŵakambiska ufumu waciŵiri. Mu 36 B.C.E., Lepidus wakafumapo pa udindo wake wati wapusika Octavian ku Sicily. Antony wakakhalanga ku Eguputo na wakutemweka wake, Cleopatra VII. Ŵanthu ŵakawonanga kuti Mark Antony na Cleopatra ŵakaŵa ŵakwendera mphiska cifukwa cakuti wakaŵa fumukazi ya caru cinyake ndipo Antony wakaŵa na umoyo wakukondweska comene. Pamanyuma pakuti Antony wapeleka vyawanangwa ku Alekizandiriya, Cleopatra wakapika zina lakuti "Fumukazi ya Mathemba", ndipo ŵana ŵawo ŵakapika mazina gha ufumu ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi ivyo vikaŵa kuti vyatoleka waka. Octavian wakaparanya ŵasilikari ŵa Eguputo mu Nkhondo ya Actium mu 31 B.C.E. Marko Antony na Cleopatra ŵakajikoma, ndipo Octavian ndiyo wakaŵa yekha mulongozgi wa caru. Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya ku Actium, nyengo ya nkhondo zikuruzikuru za pa nyanja yikamara ndipo Ŵaroma ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja mu Nyanja ya North Sea, Atlantic, Mediterranean, Red Sea, na Black Sea mpaka apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku North Sea ŵakamba kutinkhana na Ŵafrank na Ŵasaxon, kweniso ŵa Borani, Herules na Goths mu Nyanja ya Black Sea.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#ref57] Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Antony'', LXXI, 3–5.</ref> ===Roman Empire=== {{Further|Roman Empire|Roman Italy}} [[File:Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Augustus of Prima Porta]], 1st century AD, depicting [[Augustus]], the first [[Roman emperor]]]] Mu 27 B.C.E., Octavian ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi yekha wa Ŵaroma. Pakuŵa mulongozgi wa Ŵaroma, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora chomene mu ufumu wa Ŵaroma, uwo ukatora vyaka 40. Mu caka ici, wakamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti Augusto. Ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuwona kuti nyengo iyi ndiyo Ufumu wa Roma ukambira. Nangauli boma likaŵa la boma la Republican, kweni Augusto ndiyo wakaŵa na mazaza ghose. Wupu wa Senate ukamupa udindo wapadera wa Proconsular imperium, uwo ukamupa mazaza pa ŵalongozgi wose ŵa ŵasilikari. Vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na mphaka, uko ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakaŵa, vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Augusto. Vigaŵa ivi vikachemekanga vigaŵa vya ufumu. Vigaŵa vyamtende ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa ŵalara ŵa boma vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵalara ŵa boma. Ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene (ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 50) cifukwa ca nkhondo za mukati mwa caru. Apo vigaŵa vikapangikanga mu Meditereniyani yose, ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa na mazaza ghakupambanapambana, ndipo ukaŵa na mazaza ghakulongozga vigaŵa ("Domina Provinciarum", kung'anamura kuti "muwusi wa vigaŵa", kung'anamura vigaŵa vyose ivyo vikaŵa kuwaro kwa Italy), kweniso mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 C.E., ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose chapasi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb6OAQAAQBAJ&dq=Rectrix+mundi+omnium+terrarum+parens&pg=PA97|title= Altri nomi e appellativi relazionati allo status dell'Italia in epoca romana|date= 20 November 2013|publisher= Bloomsbury|isbn= 9781472519801|access-date=20 November 2021|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abebooks.it/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=22910180903&searchurl=sortby%3D20%26tn%3Ditalia%2Bomnium%2Bterrarum%2Bparens&cm_sp=snippet-_-srp1-_-title1|title=Antico appellativo dell'Italia romana: ''Italia Omnium Terrarum Parens''|access-date=20 November 2021|language=it}}</ref> Chifukwa cha udindo uwu, mu nyengo ya mtende, ŵalara ŵa boma la Roma ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazaza gha ŵapolisi (Imperium domi) m'malo mwa ŵasilikari (Imperium militiae). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kusopa kweniso ndalama.[[File:Colosseo 2020.jpg|thumb|The [[Colosseum]] in [[Rome]], built in the 1st century]] Mu muwuso wa Augusto, mabuku gha Ŵaroma ghakakura chomene. Ŵanthu nga ni Vergil, Horace, Ovid, na Rufus ŵakalemba mabuku ghanandi, ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa Augusto. Pamoza na Maecenas, wakawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na mtima wa kutemwa caru, nga ni buku la Virgil lakuti Aeneid, kweniso wakawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na mtima wa kutemwa caru. Mabuku agho ghakalembeka mu nyengo iyi ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya Ŵaroma, ndipo ghakaŵa ghakale chomene. Augustus nayo wakalutilira kusintha kalendara iyo Kesare wakakhumbanga, ndipo mwezi wa Ogasiti ukuchemeka na zina lake. Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukaŵa pa mtende kwa vyaka 200, ndipo vinthu vikendanga makora.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/447447/Pax-Romana |title=Pax Romana |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia}}</ref> [[File:Roman Empire Trajan 117AD.png|thumb|{{legend|#b23938|The [[Roman Empire]] at its greatest extent under [[Trajan]] in AD 117}}]] Nangauli ufumu uwu ukaŵa wankhongono, kweni ukalimbikira yayi kuti usanuzge ufumu wake. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 na 200, ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ŵakalwanga nkhondo na mafuko gha Chijeremani agho ghakaŵa kumpoto na Ufumu wa Parthiya uwo ukaŵa kumafumiro gha dazi. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵanthu ŵakugaluka (nga ni Ŵahebere ku Yudeya) (70) na nkhondo za paŵekha (nga ni mu 68 C.E., mu chaka cha mathemba ghanayi) ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵasilikari ŵaŵawovwire. Nkhondo za vilimika 70 za Ŵayuda na Ŵaroma izo zikacitika mu hafu yaciŵiri ya vilimika vya mu handiredi lakwamba na hafu yakwamba ya vilimika vya mu handiredi laciŵiri, zikaŵa zakusuzga comene. Ŵayuda 1,356,460 ŵakakomeka pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Ŵayuda. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Ŵayuda (115-117), yikakoma Ŵayuda ŵakujumpha 200,000. Ndipo Nkhondo Yachitatu ya Ŵayuda (132-136), yikakoma Ŵayuda ŵakujumpha 580,000. Ŵayuda ŵakaweleramo yayi ku suzgo lawo m'paka apo boma la Israyeli likapangikira mu 1948. Themba Theodosius I likati lafwa (395 C.E.), Ufumu wa Roma ukagaŵikana. Ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kukaŵa masuzgo gha vyachuma na ndyali, kweniso ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵabarabiya ŵakizanga kanandi waka, ntheura msumba wa Mediolanum ukasamukira ku Ravenna. Mu 476, Odoacer wakathereska Romulus Augustulus, themba laumaliro la ku Western. Kwa vyaka vichoko waka, Italy yikalutilira kulamulirika na Odoacer. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka kufuma apo Ŵalombardi ŵakanjilira mu caru ici, ndipo pati pajumpha vilimika 1,300, caru ca Italy cikaŵa pasi pa muwusi yumoza.<ref>{{cite book |title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict [3 volumes] |date=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=113}}</ref> ==Middle Ages== {{Main|Italy in the Middle Ages|Italian city-states}} [[File:Iron Crown.JPG|thumb|The [[Iron Crown of Lombardy]], for centuries a symbol of the [[King of Italy|Kings of Italy]]]] Muwuso wa Odoacer ukamara apo Ŵagoth ŵakugalukira caru ca Italy. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, ŵasilikari ŵa Justinian ŵakanjira mu Italy kuti ŵambeso kulamulira Ŵaroma. Ivi vikawovwira kuti fuko linyake la Cijeremani, la Lombard, liŵe na mazaza pa vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Italy. Mu 751 Ŵalombardi ŵakathereska Ravenna, na kumazga muwuso wa Byzantine kumpoto kwa Italy. Pakuwona kuti ŵa Lombard ŵambaso kuwukira, Papa wakapempha wovwiri ku ŵa Frank.<ref>Cristina La Rocca, ed. ''Italy in the Early Middle Ages: 476-1000'' (2002).</ref> [[File:BattagliaLegnano.jpg|thumbnail|left|The defense of the [[Carroccio]] during the [[battle of Legnano]] (by [[Amos Cassioli]], 1860).]] Mu 756 ŵasilikari ŵa Frank ŵakathereska Ŵalombardi ndipo ŵakazomerezga kuti Ŵapapa ndiwo ŵalongozgenge chigaŵa chikuru cha Italy. Mu 800, Papa wakaphakazga Charlemagne kuŵa fumu ya Ufumu wa Roma mu tchalitchi la St. Peter. Charlemagne wakati wafwa (814), ufumu uphya ukaparanyika. Ici cikapangiska kuti mu Italy muŵe suzgo la mazaza. Ivi vikachitika pamoza na kuwuka kwa cisopa ca Ciisilamu mu caru ca Arabia, kumpoto kwa Africa, na ku Middle East. Kumwera, ufumu wa Umayyad na wa Abbasid ndiwo ukambukira. Ku mpoto, boma likamba kuŵa na nkhongono. Mu 852 C.E., Ŵasarayeni ŵakatora msumba wa Bari na kuzenga ufumu. Mu 902 C.E., Ŵasilamu ŵakamba kulamulira Sicily, ndipo ŵakalutilira kulamulira chilumba ichi kufuma mu 965 m'paka mu 1061. Mu vyaka ivi, boma la Italy likamba kujilongozga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., malonda ghakamba kuweleramo. Ŵapapa ŵakaŵaso na mazaza ndipo ŵakamba kulimbana na Ufumu wa Ŵaroma. Mphindano iyi yikamara mu 1122 apo ŵakalemba chikalata chakuchemeka Concordat of Worms, nangauli mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe masuzgo ghakaŵako m'paka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Ku mpoto, ŵa Lombard ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵaŵe ŵakujiyimira paŵekha kufuma ku Ufumu wa Ŵaroma. Kumwera, Ŵanormani ŵakatora vigaŵa vya Ŵalombardi na Ŵabyzantine, ndipo ŵakawuskapo maboma ghaŵiri agha pa chirwa ichi.<ref>Holger Berwinkel, "Legnano, Battle of (1176)." in Gordon Martel ed ''The Encyclopedia of War'' (2011) ch 27.</ref>[[File:Tranquillo da cremona, Marco Polo alla Corte del Gran Khan, 1863.PNG|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Marco Polo]] at the court of [[Kublai Khan]] (painting by [[Tranquillo Cremona]], 1863).]] Kweniso misumba yinyake iyo yikaŵa yakujiyimira yekha yikathereskeka. Mu nyengo yeneyiyi, Ŵanormani nawo ŵakamazga muwuso wa Ŵasilamu mu Sicily. Mu 1130, Roger II wa ku Sicily wakamba kuwusa Ufumu wa Sicily. Roger II ndiyo wakaŵa fumu yakwamba ya Sicily ndipo wakawovwira kuti vinthu vyose ivyo vikathereskeka na Ŵanormani mu Southern Italy viŵe ufumu umoza. Mu 1155, Fumu Manuel Komnenos yikayezga kuwukira kumwera kwa Italy, kweni yikathera yayi. Ufumu wa Sicily uwo ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Normandy ukakhala m'paka mu 1194 apo ufumu wa Hohenstaufen ukamba kulamulira Sicily. Ufumu wa Sicily ukaŵa pasi pa mafumu ghakupambanapambana m'paka mu ma 1800. [[File:Le Repubbliche Marinare.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Map and coats of arms of the [[Maritime republics]]]] Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1300, charu cha Italy chikaŵa na ndyali zapadera chomene. Pakuti mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe mukaŵavya maboma agho ghakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu, boma likamba kulamulira mu misumba. Pakuti tchalitchi likaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu wose kweniso ufumu ukaŵa kutali chomene, misumba yinandi iyo yikaŵa yakujiyimira payekha yikamba kwenda makora chifukwa cha malonda. Vikawonekanga nga kuti misumba ya ku Italy yikasintha na kwamba kuchita malonda. Nanga ni misumba na vyaru vya kumpoto vikaŵa na ŵamalonda ŵanandi, comenecomene ŵa ku Venice. Pakuyaniska na maufumu gha ŵamazaza, maboma gha ku Italy ghakaŵa na wanangwa wa ndyali, ndipo ivi vikawovwira kuti sayansi na luso visinthe. Mu nyengo iyi, misumba yinandi ya ku Italy yikaŵa na maboma nga ni Florence, Lucca, Genoa, Venice, na Siena. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 na 1400, misumba iyi yikazgoka malo ghakurughakuru gha vyamalonda na gha ndalama mu Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=de Sismondi|first=Simonde|title=Storia delle Repubbliche Italiane nel Medioevo.|publisher=Avanzini e Torraca Editori|year=1968|language=it}}</ref>[[File:Castello di reggio calabria, esterno 01.jpg|thumb|[[Aragonese Castle (Reggio Calabria)|Aragonese Castle]] in [[Reggio Calabria]]]] Chifukwa chakuti misumba ya ku Italy nga ni Venice yikaŵa pakati pa vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, yikazgoka malo ghakwendeskera malonda gha pa caru cose na gha banki. Milan, Florence, na Venice, pamoza na misumba yinyake yinandi ya ku Italy, yikawovwira comene pa nkhani ya ndalama. Mu nyengo yeneyiyo pera, mu Italy mukaŵa vyaru vya ku nyanja nga ni Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Amalfi, Ragusa, Ancona, Gaeta na Noli. Kwambira mu 10 m'paka mu 13 C.E., misumba iyi yikazenga ngalaŵa zinandi kuti zijivikilire kweniso kuti zikagwiliskirenge ntchito malonda mu Meditereniyani. Vyaru vya ku nyanja, chomenechomene vya Venice na Genoa, vikazgoka vipata vikuru vya ku Europe vyakwendera malonda na vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu vyaka vyapakati, chigaŵa cha Savoy chikakura na kunjilira mu chigaŵa ichi, ndipo Florence wakazgoka msumba wa malonda na ndalama..<ref>Armando Lodolini ''Le repubbliche del mare'', Roma, Biblioteca di storia patria, 1967.</ref>{{Gallery|align=center |width=160 |lines=5 |File:Italy Lothar II.svg|Italian [[Kingdom of the Lombards|Lombard kingdom]] (781–1014). |File:Aghlabids Dynasty 800 - 909 (AD).svg|[[Emirate of Sicily]] (831–1072). |File:Republik Venedig Handelswege01.png|Trade routes and colonies of the [[Genoese colonies|Genoese]] <small>(red)</small> and [[Stato da Màr|Venetian]] <small>(green)</small> empires }} == Kuwukaso == {{Main|Italian Renaissance}} [[File:'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU005.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Michelangelo's David]], one of the symbols of Italian Renaissance.]] Ku Italy ndiko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya Renaissance. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., chigaŵa chapakati na kumwera kwa Italy, icho kale chikaŵa pakati pa Ufumu wa Roma na Magna Graecia, chikaŵa chikavu chomene kuluska kumpoto. Msumba wa Romu ukaŵa wakubwanganduka, ndipo boma la Papal States likaŵa na malango ghacoko. Cifukwa cimoza nchakuti Papa wakasamira ku Avignon, France. Naples, Sicily, na Sardinia vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵeneco kwa nyengo yitali. Njira za malonda za ku Italy izo zikendanga pa nyanja ya Meditereniyani na kunyake, zikaŵa zikuru comene pakwendeska vinthu. Mu nyengo iyi, misumba iyo yikaŵa mu Italy yikakura chomene ndipo yikaŵa na mazaza ghanandi mwakuti yikaŵa yakujiyimira pawekha. Mu 1348, ku Italy kukaŵa nthenda ya Black Death iyo yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi pa ŵanthu ŵatatu. Kuwelera kwa ŵanthu na suzgo la vyachuma kukapangiska kuti misumba, malonda, na vyachuma viwelerepo, ndipo ivi vikakhozga chomene nyengo ya Humanism na Renaissance (Vyaka vya m'ma 15-16 C.E.) apo Italy yikaŵaso likuru la ŵanthu ŵa ku Western.[[File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|thumb|''The [[Vitruvian man]]'' by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], representing the ideal human proportions as described by Roman architect [[Vitruvius]], is a quintessential masterpiece of the Renaissance.]] [[File:Florence Duomo from Michelangelo hill.jpg|thumb|The [[Santa Maria del Fiore]] cathedral in [[Florence]], which has the biggest brick dome in the world,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tripleman.com/index.php?showimage=737 |title=The Duomo of Florence &#124; Tripleman |publisher=tripleman.com |access-date=25 March 2010 |archive-date=6 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091206202243/http://www.tripleman.com/index.php?showimage=737 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brunelleschisdome.com/ |title=Brunelleschi's Dome |publisher=Brunelleschi's Dome.com |access-date=25 March 2010}}</ref> and is considered a masterpiece of Italian architecture and world architecture.]] [[File:La nascita di Venere (Botticelli).jpg|thumb|Botticelli's [[The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)|''The Birth of Venus'']], ca. 1482–85.]] Nyengo iyi yikumanyikwa kuti Renaissance cifukwa cakuti yikaŵa nyengo ya "kuweleramo" mu vinthu vya cuma na vya ku misumba, kweniso ya luso na sayansi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti vinthu vikasintha chomene chifukwa cha mabuku ghakale agho ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakaluwa kwa vyaka vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamira ku Italy kufuma ku Ufumu wa Roma. Nyengo ya kuwelera ku Italy yikamba ku Tuscany, mu msumba wa Florence. Kufuma apo, ukafika kumwera, ndipo ukakhwaska chomene msumba wa Romu, uwo ukazengekaso na ŵapositole. Mutaliyana wakamba kuwuka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga mu nyengo ya Renaissance vikafuma ku Florence na kuluta ku vyaru vyapafupi nga ni Siena na Lucca. Mulimo wa kuzenga na kupenta wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Tuscany ukaŵa wakovwira chomene ku misumba yose ya kumpoto na pakati pa Italy. Nyengo ya kuwelera ku Italy yikaŵa yakukondweska comene pa nkhani ya vya cuma. Venice na Genoa ndiwo ŵakamba kuchita malonda agha, pakwamba ŵakaŵa vyaru vya ku nyanja ndipo pamanyuma ŵakamba kuchita malonda agha mu vigaŵa vinyake. Vifukwa vinyake ivyo vikapangiska kuti vinthu ivi viŵeko ni umo nyanja za ku Venice zikaŵira zakukhora pa nkhondo, unandi wa ŵanthu, na umo mabungwe ghakapangikira. Republic of Venice ndiyo yikaŵa msumba wakwamba wa vya ndalama pa caru cose, uwo ukayamba kuzengeka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 900 na 1400. Mabondi ghakusinthika ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya ku Italy (nga ni Venice na Genoa) mu nyengo ya kuumaliro wa vyaka vyapakati na kuuyambiro wa nyengo ya Renaissance.<ref name=Coispeau2016>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yor4DAAAQBAJ |title=Finance Masters: A Brief History of International Financial Centers in the Last Millennium|last=Coispeau|first=Olivier|date=2016-08-10|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=9789813108844|language=en}}</ref> ===Literature, philosophy, and science=== Nkhani za mabuku gha mu nyengo ya Renaissance zikwamba na Petrarch (uyo wakumanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha soneti ya Il Canzoniere kweniso chifukwa cha buku ilo wakalemba) kweniso mubwezi wake Giovanni Boccaccio (uyo wakalemba buku la The Decameron). Ŵaluso ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyikwa comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵakaŵa Luigi Pulci (Morgante), Matteo Maria Boiardo (Orlando Innamorato), na Ludovico Ariosto (Orlando Furioso). Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasambira vya nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Yesu, nga ni Niccolò de' Niccoli na Poggio Bracciolini, ŵakapenja mabuku gha ŵanthu awo ŵakalemba mabuku nga ni Plato, Cicero, na Vitruvius. Mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, mabuku gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵagiriki (nga ni Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, na Ptolemy) kweniso gha ŵasayansi Ŵachihelamu ghakasangika mu vyaru vya Cikhristu. Ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵa Chigiriki ŵa mu nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa ŵasembe ŵaŵiri ŵa ku Seminara ku Calabria. Ŵakaŵa Barlaam wa ku Seminara na msambiri wake Leonzio Pilato wa ku Seminara. Barlaam wakamanyanga comene Cigiriki ndipo ndiyo wakasambizganga Petrarch na Giovanni Boccaccio. Leonzio Pilato wakang'anamulira Giovanni Boccaccio mabuku gha Homer mu Cilatini. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Baldassare Castiglione wakalemba buku lakuti The Book of the Courtier, ilo likulongosora umo munthu wakuwonekera, apo Niccolò Machiavelli wakalemba buku lakuti The Prince. Kweniso likakolerananga yayi na visambizgo vya Chikatolika na visambizgo vya ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga vya ndyali.<ref name=counter>{{Harvcoltxt|Bireley|1990}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Although he makes many references to classical sources, these references do not include the customary deference to [[Aristotle]] which was to some extent approved by the church in his time. {{Harvcoltxt|Strauss|1958|p=222}} says that "Machiavelli indicates his fundamental disagreement with Aristotle's doctrine of the whole by substituting "[[Chance (Ancient Greek concept)|chance]]" (''caso'') for "[[Nature (philosophy)|nature]]" in the only context in which he speaks of "the beginning of the world." Strauss gives evidence that Machiavelli was knowingly influenced by [[Democritus]], whose philosophy of nature was, like that of [[modern science]], [[materialism|materialist]]."|group=nb}} ===Architecture, sculpture, and painting=== Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na ŵanthu nga ni Giotto di Bondone, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, na Titian. Ndimo viliriso na vyakuzenga, nga ni Brunelleschi, Leone Alberti, Andrea Palladio, na Bramante. Ŵakalemba vya tchalitchi la Florence Cathedral, St. Ku Rome kuli Tchalitchi la Petrosi, ndipo ku Rimini kuli Tempio Malatestiano. Paumaliro, kampani ya Aldine Press, iyo yikapangika na Aldo Manuzio, iyo yikachitanga ntchito yake ku Venice, yikamba kulemba mabuku mu Chigiriki chakale. Kweni nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgikanga na vinthu vya ku malo agha, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuwona kuti nyengo iyi yikaŵa yakwamba kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu Italy (chifukwa cha kujura nthowa zakwendakwenda za ku Atlantic na kuwukira vyaru vinyake) kweniso kuti pakaŵavya vinandi ivyo vikachitika pa nkhani ya sayansi. ===Age of Discovery=== [[File:Italian explorers.jpg|thumb|Italian explorers and navigators from the dominant maritime republics played a key role in ushering the [[Age of Discovery]] and the [[European colonization of the Americas]]. Clockwise from top left: [[Christopher Columbus]], [[John Cabot]], [[Amerigo Vespucci]], and [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]]]] Kuwa kwa msumba wa Constantinople kukapangiska kuti ŵasayansi na mabuku gha Cigiriki ghasamire ku Italy, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa Cigiriki na Ciroma ŵambeso kusopa. Ŵalongozgi awo ŵakalongozganga ŵanthu nga ni Federico da Montefeltro na Papa Pius II, ŵakakhumbanga kukhazikiska misumba yiwemi iyo munthu ndiyo wakweruzgira vinthu vyose. Pico della Mirandola wakalemba buku lakuti Oration on the Dignity of Man, ilo likuwoneka kuti ndilo likawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na wanangwa wakusankha. Leonardo Bruni wakaŵa wakwamba kugaŵa mdauko wa ŵanthu mu vigaŵa vitatu: Kale, mu vyaka vyapakati na mazuŵa ghano. Cinthu caciŵiri ico cikacitika cifukwa ca kuwa kwa msumba wa Constantinople cikaŵa kwamba kwa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakamanyanga vinandi. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Italy ŵakakhumbanga kusanga nthowa yinyake yakuyira ku India kuti ŵajumphe Ufumu wa Ottoman. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene ŵakaŵa: Christopher Columbus (Cristoforo Colombo), uyo wakambiska vyaru vinyake mu Spain, ndipo wakamanya kuti charu cha New World chilipo ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuchisanga. John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto), uyo wakaluta ku England, ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kukendera charu cha North America mu 1497. Amerigo Vespucci, uyo wakaluta ku Portugal, wakalongora mu 1501 kuti charu chiphya (mwakudumura Brazil) chikaŵa cha ku Asia yayi nga umo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghaniranga pakwamba.<ref>{{Cite book |url={{Google books|1qsuAAAAYAAJ |page=PA13 |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |title=The Life and Voyages of Verrazzano |last=Greene |first=George Washington |publisher=Folsom, Wells, and Thurston |year=1837 |location=Cambridge University |page=13 |author-link=George Washington Greene |access-date=18 August 2017 |via=Google Books}}</ref> ===Incessant warfare=== [[File:Italy in 1499.png|thumb|left|The Italian Peninsula in 1499.]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, kumpoto kwa Italy na kumpoto kwa Italy vikagaŵikana mu misumba yinandi iyo yikaŵa pa nkhondo, yikuru chomene yikaŵa Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua, Verona, na Venice. Mu nyengo ya ŵapositole, kumpoto kwa Italy kukagaŵikana cifukwa ca kulimbana kwa nyengo yitali pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Papa na ŵa Ufumu wa Roma. Msumba uliwose ukaŵa ku chigaŵa chimoza panji chinyake, kweni ukagaŵikana pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri, ŵa Guelph na Ghibellines. Nkhondo pakati pa vyaru vikaŵa vyacilendo yayi, ndipo ŵalwani ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakalutanga waka ku caru ca Italy. Ndyali za mu nyengo ya Renaissance zikamba kufuma mu nyengo iyi. Kwambira mu ma 1300, ŵasilikari awo ŵakateŵeteranga ŵasilikari ŵakuguliskika ŵakaŵanga ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, misumba iyo yikaŵa na mazaza chomene yikamba kulamulira misumba yinyake iyo yikaŵa pafupi nayo. Florence wakathereska Pisa mu 1406, Venice wakathereska Padua na Verona, ndipo Duchy of Milan yikathereska vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vikaŵa kufupi, kusazgapo Pavia na Parma.<ref>Jensen 1992, p. 64.</ref>[[File:Uccello Battle of San Romano Uffizi.jpg|thumb|''[[The Battle of San Romano]]'' by [[Paolo Uccello]] (ca. 1438–40).]] Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya muwuso wa Renaissance, ŵanthu ŵakarwanga nkhondo pa mtunda na pa nyanja. Pa caru capasi, nkhondo izi zikacitikanga na ŵasilikari ŵakucemeka condottieri, ŵasilikari awo ŵakafuma mu vyaru vya ku Europe, comenecomene ku Germany na Switzerland. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuŵika umoyo wawo pangozi, ntheura nkhondo yikamba kuŵa yakuzingilizga, ndipo ŵakachitanga waka vinthu vinyake. Kweniso ŵasilikari awo ŵakagwiranga nchito pa vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ŵakakhumbanga kuti nkhondo yileke kumara. Kweniso ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga nchito na ŵasilikari ŵakaŵasuzganga comene. Para vyawoneka kuti boma ndakuthemba comene pa ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakayezgekanga comene kuti ŵacitenge ŵekha vinthu. Ku nyanja, misumba ya ku Italy yikatumanga ŵasilikari ŵanandi ku nkhondo. Ŵalwani ŵakwamba ŵakaŵa Pisa, Genoa, na Venice, kweni ŵati ŵambana kwa nyengo yitali, Ŵagenuwa ŵakamazga nkhondo iyi. Venesia wakaŵa mulwani wankhongono comene, ndipo apo ufumu wa Genoese ukakhiranga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, msumba uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja. Pakuzgora ku kofya kufuma ku vigaŵa vyakutali, kwamba kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Venice wakamba kukhumba chomene kuwusa malo agha apo nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Ŵ Venetian yikambanga. Pa caru capasi, Florence, Milan, na Venice ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene pa nkhondo izo zikacitika kwa vyaka vinandi, ndipo maufumu ghatatu agha ghakaleka mphindano zawo na kuzomerezga Mtende wa Lodi mu 1454. Mtende uwu ukatora vilimika 40, ndipo cifukwa cakuti Venice ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja, mu vilimika vyose vya m'ma 1500, kukaŵa mtende. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda nga ni Niccolò Da Conti (1395-1469) ŵakaluta ku vyaru vya kumwera kwa Asia na kuwerako. ===Italian Wars=== [[File:Habsburg Map 1547.jpg|thumbnail|Italy and the [[Habsburg Empire]] in 1547.]] Nkhondo za ku Italy zikamba mu 1494 apo charu cha France chikapoka charu cha Italy. Nkhondo iyi yikamba chifukwa cha mphindano pakati pa ufumu wa Milan na Ufumu wa Naples. Themba la Ufumu wa Roma, Charles V, likathereska Ŵaciroma pa Nkhondo ya ku Pavia (1525) kweniso pa Nkhondo ya Cognac (1526-30). Paumaliro, pamasinda pa nkhondo zinandi izo zikaŵa zambura umaliro, mu 1559, ku Cateau-Cambrésis, France likapangana kuti lileke kukolerana na ivyo likayowoyanga. Mu 1499, Ŵaturuki ŵakaparanya chigaŵa chikuru cha Venice (kweni msumba wura yayi), ndipo mu 1509 ŵa League of Cambrai ŵakambaso kuwukira na kupoka vinthu. Mu 1528, misumba yinandi ya Apulia na Abbruzzi yikaŵa kuti yapokeka. Cinthu ciheni comene ico cikacitika pa Meyi 6, 1527, apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany ŵakacimbizga msumba wa Roma. Nyengo yitali iyo Florence yikazingilizgika (1529-1530) yikapangiska kuti mizi iyo yikaŵa kufupi na msumba uwu yiparanyike, malonda ghake ghakutumizga vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake ghatimbanizgike, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakayora chuma chawo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni gha ku Italy ŵakakhira na hafu. Makampani agho ghakapanganga weya na silika mu Lombardy ghakawa apo ŵasilikari ŵaheni ŵakaparanya vyakulimira vyawo. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakwiya comene cifukwa cakuti ŵakawotcha caru.<ref>John Julius Norwich, ''The Italians: History, Art and the Genius of a People'' (1983) p 165-66.</ref> == Kufuma ku Nkhondo ya ku Kananizgako Chikhristu Mpaka ku Nkhondo ya Napoleon == {{Main|History of Italy (1559–1814)}} [[File:Doktorschnabel 430px.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|[[Plague doctor]] attire for protection from the Black death, Rome, 1656.]] Mdauko wa Italy pamanyuma pa mtende wa Cateau-Cambrésis ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kumpoto kukaŵa ufumu wa Austrian Habsburgs, ndipo kumwera kukaŵa ufumu wa Spain. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo za ku Europe za m'ma 1700, kumwera kukaŵa kwa ŵa Bourbon ŵa ku Spain ndipo kumpoto kukaŵa kwa nyumba ya Habsburg-Lorraine. Mu nyengo ya Napoleon, caru ca Italy cikapokeka na caru ca France ndipo cikagaŵikana mu vyaru vinandi. Pa ungano wa ku Vienna (1814), vinthu vikaŵa nga umo vikaŵira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, kweni vikasinthika mwaluŵiro chifukwa cha umoza wa Italy. Chuma cha ku Italy chikamba kunangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1700. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 1600, vinthu vikamba kunangika mu Italy. Mu 1600, cigaŵa ca kumpoto na ca pakati pa Italy cikaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa vya ku Europe ivyo vikaŵa na mafakitale ghanandi. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga makora chomene. Kuzakafika mu 1870, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cakulopwa comene pa nkhani ya vya cuma. Nkhondo, kugaŵikana kwa ndyali, unandi wa ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito, na kusintha kwa malonda gha caru cose kuya ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe na America, vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene.<ref>Carlo M. Cipolla, “The Decline of Italy: The Case of a Fully Matured Economy.” abFZxxxx ''Economic History Review'' 5#2 1952, pp. 178–187. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2591055 online]</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781107507180 |date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781107507180/page/45 45]|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref> ===17th century=== [[File:Piazza Mercatello durante la peste del 1656 - Spadaro.jpg|thumb|230px|left|Contemporary engraving of Naples during the [[Naples Plague]] in 1656]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, vinthu vikasintha comene mu Italy. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa nga ni nkhongono za Papa izo zikasazgikira mu caru ici ndiposo umo Tchalitchi la Katolika likacitira pa nyengo iyo pakaŵa kusintha kwa visopa. Nangauli ku Italy kukaŵa vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya vya sayansi na luso, nga ni ivyo Galileo wakabowozga pa nkhani ya sayansi ya vya mu mlengalenga na sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi. Nangauli ku Italy kukafuma ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasanda malo nga ni Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, na Giovanni da Verrazzano, kweni ŵanthu ŵakasanga malo ghanyake ghapachanya chomene mu charu ichi. Kweniso, cifukwa cakuti Spain yikacitako Nkhondo ya Vyaka Makumi Ghatatu (1618-48), iyo yikagwiliskirika nchito na misonkho iyo yikaŵa pa malo ghake gha ku Italy, yikapangiska kuti malonda na vyakurya vya ku Italy vileke kwenda makora. Nthenda iyi yikathandazgaso mu Italy. Nthenda ya muliri iyo yikawira kumpoto kwa Italy mu 1630, chomenechomene ku Milan na Venice, yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni. Nthenda ya muliri ya mu 1656 yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 43 peresenti mu Ufumu wa Naples. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakugomezga kuti kuchepa kwa unandi wa ŵanthu mu misumba ya ku Italy ndiko kukachitiska kuti caru ici cileke kuŵa malo ghakurughakuru gha malonda na ndyali. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira, mu 1500 GDP ya Italy yikaŵa 106% ya GDP ya France, kweni mu 1700 yikaŵa 75% pera.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Maddison|first1=Angus|title=Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History|url=https://archive.org/details/contoursworldeco00madd|url-access=limited|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-922720-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/contoursworldeco00madd/page/n393 379], table A.4|edition=1st}}</ref> ===18th century=== [[File:Battle of Bitonto by Giovanni Luigi Rocco.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Bitonto]] by Giovanni Luigi Rocco]] Nkhondo ya ku Spain (1701-1714) yikamba cifukwa ca nyifwa ya fumu yaumaliro ya ku Spain, Charles II, uyo wakapeleka chiharo chose ku fumu ya ku Spain, Philip, Duke of Anjou. Pakuwona kuti caru ca France cili na mazaza pa vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe, ku The Hague kukalembeka phangano la Grand Alliance pakati pa Austria, England, Republic of the Netherlands, na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa na mazaza ghacoko. Wupu uwu ukathereska "Party of the Two Crowns" ya ku France na Spain, ndipo pa phangano la Utrecht na Rastatt, caru ca Italy (Milan, Naples na Sardinia) cikapelekeka ku Austria kufuma ku Spain. Ndipouli, Spain wakayezgaso kutora malo mu Italy na kupoka ufumu wa France mu Nkhondo ya Quadruple Alliance (1718-1720), kweni wakathereskeka. Chifukwa cha phangano la Hague, Spain wakazomera kuleka ivyo Italy yikakhumbanga, apo Duke Victor Amadeus II wa ku Savoy wakazomera kusinthiska Sicily na Austria, na kutorako cirwa ca Sardinia, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakacemeka Themba la Sardinia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain ŵakapoka Naples na Sicily pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Bitonto mu 1738. ===Age of Napoleon=== [[File:Italia 1796-en.svg|thumb|left|Italy before the Napoleonic invasion (1796).]] {{Further|Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars}} At the end of the 18th century, Italy was almost in the same political conditions as in the 16th century; the main differences were that [[Austria]] had replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power after the [[War of Spanish Succession]] (though the [[War of the Polish Succession]] resulted in the re-installment of the Spanish in the south, as the [[House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]]), and that the dukes of [[Savoy]] (a mountainous region between Italy and France) had become kings of [[Sardinia]] by increasing their Italian possessions, which now included Sardinia and the north-western region of [[Piedmont]]. This situation was shaken in 1796, when the French [[Army of Italy (France)|Army of Italy]] under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] invaded Italy, with the aims of forcing the [[First Coalition]] to abandon [[Sardinia]] (still in the hands of the Coalition [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Kingdom of Sardinia]]) and forcing Austria to withdraw from Italy. The first battles came on 9 April, between the French and the Piedmontese, and within only two weeks [[Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia]] was forced to sign an armistice. On 15 May the French general then entered Milan, where he was welcomed as a liberator. Subsequently, beating off Austrian counterattacks and continuing to advance, he arrived in the [[Veneto]] in 1797. Here occurred the [[Veronese Easters]], an act of rebellion against French oppression, that tied down Napoleon for about a week. [[File:Manin's abdication.jpg|thumb|A portrait painting the [[fall of the Republic of Venice]] (1797): the abdication of the last [[Doge of Venice|Doge]], [[Ludovico Manin]]]] Napoleon wakathereska vigaŵa vinandi vya Italy mu zina la French Revolution mu 1797-99. Wakasazgirako maboma ghakale na kugaŵira maboma gha Austria. Wakambiska vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa na malango ghaphya na kuwuskapo wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ufumu wa Cisalpine wa Napoleon ukaŵa ku Milan. Msumba wa Genoa ukazgoka charu cha Jamhuri, ndipo chigaŵa chake chikazgoka charu cha Liguria. Boma la Romu likapangika kufuma pa vinthu ivyo vikaŵa vya papa apo papa wakatumika ku France. Boma la Naples likaŵa pafupi na Naples, kweni likakhalako myezi yinkhondi pera pambere ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵandaliwukire. Mu 1805, wakambiska ufumu wa Italy, ndipo iyo wakaŵa fumu ndipo mwana wake waciŵiri wakaŵa mwimiliri. Kweniso, caru ca France cikapangiska kuti caru ca Netherlands ciŵe ca Batavian Republic, ndipo ca Switzerland cikazgoka ca Helvetic Republic. Vyaru vyose ivi vikaŵa vyakulongozgeka na France, ndipo vikeneranga kupeleka ndalama zinandi ku Paris, kweniso kovwira nkhondo za Napoleon. Ndyali na maboma gha mu vyaru ivi ghakaŵa ghaphya, ndipo ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya metric. Ŵayuda ŵakaleka kukhala mu misasa ya ŵanthu awo ŵakasopanga ŵangoza. Belgium na Piedmont vikazgoka vigaŵa vya France.<ref>Alexander Grab, ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe'' (2003) pp 62–65, 78–79, 88–96, 115–17, 154–59</ref> [[File:Italy c 1810.png|thumb|left|Political map of Italy in the years around 1810]] Mu 1805, pamanyuma pakuti France yawina nkhondo ya Third Coalition na kukolerana na boma la Pressburg, Napoléon wakapoka malo gha Veneto na Dalmatia, ndipo wakaghaŵika mu ufumu wa Italy. Mu chaka chenechicho, boma laciŵiri, la Ligurian Republic (ilo likaŵa laciŵiri kwa Republic of Genoa), likakanizgika kuti lijibatane na France. Mu 1806, wakathereska ufumu wa Naples na kuwupeleka kwa munung'una wake ndipo kufuma apo (kufuma mu 1808) kwa Joachim Murat, pamoza na kutolera ŵadumbu ŵake Elisa na Paolina ku ŵakaronga ŵa Massa-Carrara na Guastalla. Mu 1808, wakasazgirako Marche na Tuscany ku Ufumu wa Italy. Mu 1809, Bonaparte wakawukira Rome, cifukwa ca mphindano na papa, uyo wakamufumiska mu mpingo, ndiposo kuti wasungilire boma lake, wakathemba Papa wakwamba ku Savona ndipo pamanyuma ku France. Pamanyuma pa Russia, vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe vikakolerana na kuthereska Napoleon pa Nkhondo ya ku Leipzig, ndipo pamanyuma pake vyaru vya Italy ivyo vikaŵa ŵabwezi ŵake, pamoza na Murat, vikamuleka kuti waŵe mubwezi wa Austria. Pakuti wakathereskeka pa nkhondo ya ku Paris pa Epulero 6, 1814, Napoléon wakaleka ufumu wake ndipo wakatumika ku Elba. Pa ungano wa ku Vienna (1814), vinthu vikaŵa nga umo vikaŵira mu 1795, ndipo Italy yikagaŵikana pakati pa Austria (ku mpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi na Lombardy), Ufumu wa Sardinia, Ufumu wa Sicily (ku mpoto na Sicily), na Tuscany, Papal States na vyaru vinyake vichoko. Ndipouli, maufumu ghakale nga ni Venice na Genoa ghakaŵavya, Venice ghakaŵa gha Austria, ndipo Genoa ghakaŵa gha Ufumu wa Sardinia.[[File:Flag of Repubblica Cispadana1.jpg|thumb|upright|Flag of the [[Cispadane Republic]], which was the first [[Flag of Italy|Italian tricolour]] adopted by a sovereign Italian state (1797)]] Apo Napoléon wakacimbira na kuwelera ku France (mazuŵa 100), wakapokaso wovwiri wa Murat, kweni Murat wakatondeka kukhorweska Ŵataliyani kuti ŵarwe na Napoléon. Ntheura maufumu gha ku Italy ghakawa, ndipo nyengo ya kuwuskako ufumu wa Italy yikamba. Piedmont, Genoa, na Nice vikaŵa pamoza, nga ni Sardinia (iyo yikapangiska Savoy), apo Lombardy, Veneto, Istria, na Dalmatia vikaŵaso ku Austria. Ŵaduki ŵa ku Parma na Modena ŵakambaso kuwusa, ndipo Ufumu wa Papal na wa Naples ukawelera ku ufumu wa Bourbon. Vinthu vya ndyali na vyakuthupi ivyo vikacitika mu nyengo ya kuwuskako ufumu wa Italy (1815-1835) vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambuke mu caru cose ca Italy. Vyose ivi vikapangiska kuti Ufumu uphya wa Italy uŵeko. Frederick Artz wakadidimizgapo uwemi uwo Ŵaitaliya ŵakasanga cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku France: :Kwa vilimika pafupifupi makumi ghaŵiri, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakaŵa na malango ghawemi comene, msonkho wakwenelera, vinthu vikaŵayenderanga makora pa vya cuma, kweniso ŵakaŵa ŵakupulikira comene pa nkhani za cisopa na vinjeru.... Ku vigaŵa vyose, mphindano zauzimu, za cuma, na zauzimu zikaŵa kuti zalekeka ndipo Ŵacitaliya ŵakamanya kuti ŵali na caru cimoza..<ref>Frederick B. Artz, ''Reaction and Revolution: 1814–1832 '' (1934) pp 142–43</ref> Mu nyengo ya Napoleon, mu 1797, boma la Italy la Cispadane, ilo likaŵa na mazaza pa caru cose, likamba kutolera ndembera ya ku Italy. Zuŵa ili likucemeka kuti Zuŵa la Tricolour. Mu 1789, ŵakalembapo maluŵa gha ku Italy agho ghakaŵa na mitundu yitatu.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tarozzi|first1=Fiorenza|last2=Vecchio|first2=Giorgio |title=Gli italiani e il tricolore|year=1999|publisher=Il Mulino|language=it|isbn=88-15-07163-6|pages=67–68}}</ref> ==Unification (1814–1861)== {{Main|Italian unification}} [[File:Italian-unification.gif|thumb|Animated map of the Italian unification from 1829 to 1871]] The ''[[Risorgimento]]'' was the political and social process that unified different states of the [[Italian peninsula]] into the single nation of Italy. It is difficult to pin down exact dates for the beginning and end of Italian reunification, but most scholars agree that it began with the end of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic]] rule and the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815, and approximately ended with the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1871, though the last [[irredentism|"città irredente"]] did not join the [[Kingdom of Italy]] until the Italian victory in [[World War I]]. As Napoleon's reign began to fail, other national monarchs he had installed tried to keep their thrones by feeding those nationalistic sentiments, setting the stage for the revolutions to come. Among these monarchs was the viceroy of Italy, [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], who tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the Kingdom of Italy, and [[Joachim Murat]], who called for Italian patriots' help for the unification of Italy under his rule.<ref>{{cite web |year=1815 |title=Proclamation of Rimini |url=http://www.regione.piemonte.it/cultura/risorgimento/immagine/00402.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126164906/http://www.regione.piemonte.it/cultura/risorgimento/immagine/00402.htm |archive-date=26 January 2008 |access-date=21 February 2008}}</ref> Following the defeat of Napoleonic France, the [[Congress of Vienna]] (1815) was convened to redraw the European continent. In Italy, the Congress restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, either directly ruled or strongly influenced by the prevailing European powers, particularly Austria. [[File:Garibaldi (1866).jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times<ref name="scholar and patriot">{{cite web |url={{Google books|iWK7AAAAIAAJ |page=PA133 |keywords=Garibaldi+one+of+the+greatest+generals+of+modern+time |text= |plainurl=yes}}|title=Scholar and Patriot|publisher=Manchester University Press|via=Google Books}}</ref> and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds",<ref name="Garibaldi on Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi |title=Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary) |access-date=6 March 2014 | url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226091529/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi |archive-date=26 February 2014 }}</ref> who commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led to Italian unification.]] [[File:Giuseppe Mazzini.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Giuseppe Mazzini]], highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement.]] Mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakagaluka cifukwa ca kususkana na boma lawo. Pakulongozgeka na ŵa Spain (awo mu 1812, ŵakapanga dango lawo), gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Sicily ŵaŵiri, ilo likalongozgekanga na Guglielmo Pepe, Carbonaro (munthu wa mu gulu lakubisika la Republican), likagaluka, ndipo likathereska chigaŵa cha Sicily. Themba Ferdinand I likazomera kuti paŵe dango liphya. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakakolerana nawo yayi ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Austria ŵakathereskeka. Ferdinand wakawuskapo dango la boma ndipo wakamba kutambuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakugaluka. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerana na kusintha kwa vinthu ku Sicily, kusazgapo msambiri Michele Amari, ŵakacimbizgika. Mulongozgi wa gulu la ku Piedmont ilo likawukira boma la Italy mu 1821, wakaŵa Santorre di Santarosa, uyo wakakhumbanga kuwuskapo Ŵaciotiriya na kuwunganya Italy pasi pa nyumba ya Savoy. Nkhondo ya ku Piedmont yikambira ku Alessandria, uko ŵasilikari ŵakamba kuvwara vikhuni vyakututuŵa, vyambura kufipirwa, na vyakututuŵa. Themba Charles Albert, ilo likaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari, likakhazikiska dango liphya kuti likondweske ŵasilikari. Kweni themba likati lawerako, likakana dango ili ndipo likapempha wovwiri ku wupu wa Holy Alliance. Ŵasilikari ŵa Di Santarosa ŵakathereskeka, ndipo munthu uyo wakakhumbanga kuzgoka wasinthusi wakacimbilira ku Paris. Pa nyengo iyo, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti nkhondo ya kuwunganya caru ca Italy yikaŵa yakwimikana comene na Ufumu wa Austria na mbumba ya Habsburgs, cifukwa ŵakalongozganga kumpoto kwa Italy uko ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakayowoyanga Citaliyana. Ufumu wa Austria ukakanizga mtima wa kutemwera caru uwo ukakuranga mu caru ca Italy, kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake vya ufumu wa Habsburg. Franz Metternich, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma la Austria, ndipo wakaŵa na mazaza pa ungano wa ku Vienna, wakayowoya kuti zina lakuti Italy ni "mazgu ghakung'anamura malo". Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na mtundu wawo, ndipo panji ntchito yakumanyikwa chomene iyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene mtundu wawo ni I Promessi Sposi ya Alessandro Manzoni. Ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti buku ili likususka waka muwuso wa Austria. Buku ili likalembeka mu 1827, ndipo mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo likasintha chomene. Mu Baibolo la 1840 la I Promessi Sposi, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito chiyowoyero cha Tuscan, icho chikaŵa chiyowoyero icho mulembi wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵasambire. Awo ŵakakolerana na umoza uwu ŵakasuskika na Tchalitchi la Katolika, chomenechomene ŵakati ŵayezgayezga kuti ŵaŵe mu wupu wa Papal States. Pa nyengo iyo, papa Pius IX wakafipanga mtima kuti para waleka mazaza ghake mu cigaŵa ici, Ŵakatolika ŵa ku Italy ŵazamutambuzgika. Nanga ni awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti caru cose ciŵe cimoza, ŵakakolerana yayi umo boma ili licitirenge. Vincenzo Gioberti, wasembe wa ku Piedmont, wakakhumbanga kuti caru cose ca Italy ciŵe pasi pa muwuso wa Papa. Buku lake lakuti, Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians, likafuma mu 1843. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵakakhumbanga kuti mu Italy muŵe boma la ŵanthu wose, kweni paumaliro, themba na nduna yikuru ndiyo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakukolerana na ŵamazaza ŵa mu Italy.[[File:Image-Inno di Mameli 2.jpg|thumb|[[Holograph]]ic copy of 1847 of ''[[Il Canto degli Italiani]]'', the Italian [[national anthem]] since 1946]] Gulu linyake la ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kusintha vinthu likaŵa la Carbonari (awo ŵakawotchanga makala), gulu lakubisika ilo likapangika kumwera kwa Italy kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1800. Gulu ili likafuma mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakufuma mu magulu gha pakati na ŵavinjeru. Pamanyuma pakuti ungano wa ku Vienna wagaŵa chigaŵa cha Italy pakati pa maufumu gha ku Europe, gulu la Carbonari likasazgikira mu caru ca Papal States, Ufumu wa Sardinia, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Duchy of Modena, na Ufumu wa Lombardy-Venetia. Ŵalwani aŵa ŵakaŵawopanga comene mwakuti ŵamazaza ŵakapeleka dango lakuti waliyose uyo wakwiza ku maungano gha Carbonari wakomeke. Ndipouli, wupu uwu ukalutilira kuŵako ndipo ndiwo ukambiska masuzgo ghanandi gha ndyali mu Italy kwambira mu 1820 m'paka apo caru cikaŵa pamoza. Gulu la Carbonari likadumura kuti Napoleon III wakomeke cifukwa ca kutondeka kukolerana na Italy, ndipo likakhala pacoko kuti limukome mu 1858. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa gulu ili ŵakaŵa mu gulu ili. (Manyani kuti: Apo wakaŵa muwukirano, Napoleon III wakarwanga ku chigaŵa cha 'Carbonari.') Pa nyengo iyi, mu 1847, sumu ya Il Canto degli Italiani, iyo yikaŵa sumu ya fuko la Italy kwambira mu 1946, yikamba kwimbika pa wumba. Il Canto degli Italiani, yakulembeka na Goffredo Mameli na kwimbika na Michele Novaro, yikumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Inno di Mameli, kufuma pa mazgu gha uyo wakalemba sumu iyi, panji Fratelli d'Italia, kufuma pa mazgu ghakwamba.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Maiorino |first1=Tarquinio|last2=Marchetti Tricamo|first2=Giuseppe |last3=Zagami |first3=Andrea |title=Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera|year=2002 |publisher=Arnoldo Mondadori Editore|language=it|isbn=978-88-04-50946-2|page=18}}</ref>[[File:Statuto fondamentale del regno.pdf|page=27|thumb|left|[[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] assumes the title of [[king of Italy]] with the [[Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy|law n. 4671 of 17 March 1861 of the Kingdom of Sardinia]], that sanctioned the birth of the unified [[Kingdom of Italy]]]] Ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakumanyikwa comene awo ŵakacitanga vinthu mwakutalulira mu gulu ili ŵakaŵa Giuseppe Mazzini na Giuseppe Garibaldi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga fundo za boma lakwamba ŵakaŵa Count of Cavour na Victor Emmanuel II, uyo pamasinda wakaŵa fumu yakwamba ya Italy. Mazzini wakajalirika mu jele chifukwa cha ivyo wakacitanga. Apo wakaŵa mu jere, wakawona kuti caru ca Italy cingaŵa cakukolerana ndipo wakalemba pulogiramu yake ya kukhazikiska caru cakufwatuka, cakukolerana na boma la Roma. Mazzini wakati wafuma mu jele mu 1831, wakaluta ku Marseille, uko wakambiska gulu liphya la ndyali lakucemeka La Giovine Italia. Gulu liphya ili likaŵa na mazgu ghakuti "Chiuta na Ŵanthu", ndipo likakhumbanga kuti Italy wakoleranenge. Ufumu wa Italy ukaŵako cifukwa ca kuyezgayezga kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakolerananga na nyumba ya Savoy. Ufumu wa Sardinia ukaŵa wa vyamalonda kwambira mu 1830. Dango lakwamba, la Statuto Albertino, likapelekeka mu 1848, mu chaka icho kukaŵa viwawa. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵasilikari ŵa Austria nawo ŵakamba nkhondo yakwamba ya ku Italy. Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, vinthu vikasintha ndipo ufumu wa Sardinia ukathera. Garibaldi, uyo wakababikira mu msumba wa Nice (uyo panyengo iyo ukaŵa ku Ufumu wa Sardinia), wakacitako chigaluka mu Piedmont mu 1834, ndipo wakeruzgika kuti wakomeke. Wakakhalako vyaka 14, ndipo wakachitako nkhondo zinandi. Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo za 1848, mulongozgi wa gulu ilo likakhumbanga kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cimoza wakaŵa Giuseppe Garibaldi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakamutemwanga comene. Garibaldi ndiyo wakalongozganga gulu la ku Italy ilo likakhumbanga kuti caru cose ciŵe cimoza, kweni ufumu wa kumpoto kwa Italy wa nyumba ya Savoy mu ufumu wa Piedmont-Sardinia uwo ukalongozgekanga na Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, nawo ŵakakhumbanga kukhazikiska boma la Italy. Nangauli ufumu uwu ukaŵa kuti ulije kukolerana na ufumu wa Roma (uwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Italy), kweni ukalimbana na Austria mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Italy. Kuyana na phangano la Plombières, ufumu wa Sardinia ukapeleka Savoy na Nice ku France, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Niçard ŵafumemo mu caru cawo. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mabungwe ghakuzirwa agho ghakawovwira kuti Italy wambe kukolerana, nga ni Britain na France mu Nkhondo ya ku Crimea. Mu 1871, Giuseppe Garibaldi wakasankhika kuŵa mulara wa boma ku Nice, uko wakayezga kukhozgera kuti msumba wake uŵe chigaŵa cha Italy, kweni ŵakamukanira kuyowoya. Cifukwa ca kukana, pakati pa 1871 na 1872 kukaŵa vivulupi mu msumba wa Nice, ivyo vikaciskika na Garibaldini ndipo vikacemekanga "Niçard Vespers", ivyo vikakhumbanga kuti msumba uwu na vigaŵa vyake viŵikike mu Italy. Ŵanthu 15 ŵa ku Nice awo ŵakacitako cigaluka ici ŵakeruzgika.<ref>Giuseppe André, ''Nizza negli ultimi quattro anni'', Nice, Editore Gilletta, 1875, pp. 334-335 (In Italian).</ref> ===Southern question and Italian diaspora=== {{See also|Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861|Italian diaspora}} [[File:Carmine Crocco1.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Carmine Crocco]]]] Kumwera kwa charu ichi (Mezzogiorno) vinthu vikenda makora yayi. Mulimo wa kuwunganya na kusinthiska vinthu ukapangiska kuti kumpoto na kumwera kwa Italy kuŵe kugaŵikana. Ŵanthu ŵakasuskanga vyaru vya kumwera kuti ni "vyakukhalira kumanyuma" ndiposo vyautesi, kweni nadi, pakuyaniska na vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Italy, "uko kukaŵa kukhalira kumanyuma, nyengo zose kukaŵanga vinthu vinyake ivyo vikawovwiranga". Mbunenesko kuti pakeneranga kuŵa vifukwa vyakupulikikwa vyakupatulira kumwera nga umo vikaŵira na Italy. Chigaŵa chose cha kumwera kwa Naples chikaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi gha vyachuma na gha ŵanthu. Ndipouli, masuzgo ghanandi gha ndyali gha ku South na lumbiri lwake lwa kuŵa "wakukhazikika" panji wauleŵi (kuyana na ndyali) ghakaŵako cifukwa ca boma liphya (ilo likababika cifukwa ca kukhumba kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cakukhora) ilo likapatuska ŵanthu ŵa ku South na kuŵakanizga kuyowoyapo pa nkhani zakuzirwa. Ndipouli, vinthu vikaŵa vyakusuzga, dongo likaŵa lambura vipambi vinandi, nkhorongo yikakhalanga makora yayi, makampani ghanandi ghakakhalanga waka pa malo ghake chifukwa cha msonkho ukuru, malo ghakuru ghakaŵa ghambura kulongozgeka makora, ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakaŵa na malo ghacoko comene, kweniso kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambura nchito kweniso ucigeŵenga.<ref name="Roland Sarti 2004 pp 567">Roland Sarti, ''Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present'' (2004) pp 567–568</ref> [[File:Map of the Italian Diaspora in the World.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Map of the [[Italian diaspora]] in the world]] [[File:Émigration italienne par régions 1876-1915.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Emigration of Italians from 1876 to 1915]] Cavour wakaghanaghana kuti suzgo likuru likaŵa boma liheni, ndipo wakagomezganga kuti lingamazgikaso para malango gha ku Piedmont ghangalondezga. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kunanga vinthu, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo iyo yikatora vilimika pafupifupi 10. Nkhondo iyi yikafika paheni comene comene ku Basilicata na kumpoto kwa Apulia, ndipo yikalongozgekanga na Carmine Crocco na Michele Caruso. Nkhondo ya ku South America yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakaluta ku United States na South America. Ŵanyake ŵakasamira ku misumba ya kumpoto ya vyamalonda nga ni Genoa, Milan, na Turin, ndipo ŵakatumizga ndalama kukwawo. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakasamira ku vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kuzingilizga charu cha Italy mu 1880, vyaka 20 pamanyuma pakuti charu ichi chazakaŵa pamoza. Ukavu ukaŵa cifukwa cikuru ico ŵanthu ŵakasamukiranga ku vyaru vinyake, comenecomene cifukwa ca kusoŵerwa kwa malo. Mu chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Italy vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi. M'paka m'ma 1860 m'paka m'ma 1950, chigaŵa chikuru cha Italy chikaŵa ku mizi ndipo chikaŵa na matawuni ghachoko waka. Cinthu cinyake ico cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakhalenge mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Italy, nchakuti vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pa umoyo wa ŵanthu. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kusama ndipo cikapangiska kuti miwiro yiphya yisame mu vyaru vinandi kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, comenecomene ku America. Kusama kwa ndalama kukapangiska kuti pa caru cose paŵe nchito zinandi za ŵanthu ŵambura maluso ndipo kukacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵasamire mu vyaru vinyake kuti ŵagure "ganyu na cingwa".<ref>{{cite book| last1=Pozzetta|first1=George E.|title=Pane e Lavoro: The Italian American Working Class|date=1980| publisher=Multicultural History Society of Ontorio|location=Toronto}}</ref>[[File:2016 - Vittoriano (Rome) 07.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the two braziers that burn perpetually on the sides of the [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)|tomb of the Italian Unknown Soldier]] at [[Altare della Patria]] in [[Rome]]. At their base there is a plaque bearing the inscription ''Gli italiani all'estero alla Madre Patria'' ("Italians abroad to the Motherland")''.'']] Mu nyengo ya ku Italy, charu ichi chikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca kupasuka kwa muwuso wa ŵasilikari na kugaŵa malo, ŵalimi ŵacokoŵacoko ŵa kumwera ŵakeneranga yayi kuŵa na malo ghawo panji malo agho ŵangagwirako nchito na kusangapo candulo. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵavya malo, ndipo malo ghakaŵa ghacoko na ghacoko, ndipo ghakaŵa ghambura kupambika makora, cifukwa caru cikagaŵikanga pakati pa ŵahaliri. Pakati pa 1860 na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ŵanthu 9 miliyoni ŵa ku Italy ŵakafumapo pa ŵanthu 16 miliyoni awo ŵakaluta ku caru cinyake, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku North panji South America. Kafukufuku munyake wakulongora kuti kufuma mu 1876 m'paka 1914, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakwana 14 miliyoni. Pa ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakafumanga mu caru cawo mu 1876 m'paka 1900, ŵanthu pafupifupi 220,000 ŵakafumanga mu caru ici. Pambere chaka cha 1900 chindafike, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakafumanga kumpoto na pakati pa Italy. Pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakafuma mu Italy pakati pa 1870 na 1914, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu ŵakaŵa ŵanalume awo ŵakaŵa na maluso ghakupambanapambana. Ŵalimi ndiwo ŵakaŵa hafu ya ŵanthu wose awo ŵakafumanga mu vyaru vinyake pambere chaka cha 1896 chindafike. Ŵalendo ŵakalutilira kukhozga ubwezi wawo na caru cawo nanga ni para ŵafuma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakafuma mu vyaru vinyake ŵakapeleka vyawanangwa kuti ŵakazenge Altare della Patria (1885~1935), chigaŵa cha chikumbusko cha Themba Victor Emmanuel II la ku Italy. Ng'anamuro la ntharika ya moto uwo ukubuka kwamuyirayira likukolerana na vimanyikwiro vya moto uwu. Moto uwo ukubuka kwamuyirayira ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakukumbuka sembe ya msilikari wambura kumanyikwa na kukolerana na caru cawo.<ref name="fiamma">{{cite web |title=Il mito della "lampada perenne" |url=http://www.toscanaoggi.it/Cultura-Societa/Il-mito-della-lampada-perenne |access-date=12 February 2018 |language=it}}</ref> ==Liberal period (1861–1922)== {{Main|Kingdom of Italy}} {{multiple image | align = left | image1 = VictorEmmanuel2.jpg | width1 = 139 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Tuminello, Lodovico (1824-1907) - Cavour cropped.jpg | width2 = 158 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] and [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour]], leading figures in the Italian unification, became respectively the [[King of Italy|1st king]] and [[Prime Minister of Italy|1st Prime Minister]] of unified Italy }} Pa 17 Malichi, 1861, caru ca Italy cikazgoka boma la ŵanthu, apo vyaru vinandi vya pa cigaŵa ici vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa fumu Victor Emmanuel II wa nyumba ya Savoy, uyo wakalamuliranga Piedmont. Ŵanthu awo ŵakambiska kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cimoza ŵakaŵa Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, nduna yikuru ya boma la Victor Emmanuel, na Giuseppe Garibaldi, mulara wa ŵasilikari na munthu wakuzirwa comene. Mu 1866, Otto von Bismarck, nduna yikuru ya ku Prussia, wakaphalira Victor Emmanuel II kuti waŵe mubwezi wa Ufumu wa Prussia. Pakuwezgera, Prussia wakazomerezga Italy kuti wapoke Venice. Themba Emmanuel likazomera ndipo Nkhondo Yachitatu ya ku Italy yikamba. Cifukwa ca kutonda ku Austria, caru ca Italy cikapoka Venice. Cinthu cimoza ico cikapangiska kuti caru ca Italy cileke kukolerana cikaŵa Roma. Mu 1870, caru ca France cikamba nkhondo ya ku France na Prussia ndipo cikawezga ŵasilikari ŵake ku Rome, uko ŵakaleka kuti papa waŵe na mazaza. Italy wakawukira boma la Papa. Ŵakazomerezga kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cimoza, ndipo msumba ukuru wa caru ici ukafumako ku Florence kuya ku Roma. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa vyakuti vinganjira mu ufumu wa Italy (terre irredente), nga ni Trentino-Alto Adige na Julian March, vikaŵamo yayi mu ufumu uwu m'paka mu 1918 apo Italy yikathereska Austria-Hungary mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Pa cifukwa ici, nyengo zinyake awo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuyowoya kuti nyengo ya kuwungana yikamara mu 1871, kusazgapo ivyo vikacitika kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose (1915-1918), ndipo yikamara na phangano la nkhondo la Villa Giusti pa Novembala 4, 1918. Fundo iyi yikulongosoreka makora chomene pa nyengo ya kuwungana kwa Roma.<ref>Arnaldi, Girolamo. ''Italy and Its Invaders.'' Harvard University Press, 2005. p. 194. {{ISBN|0-674-01870-2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.risorgimento.it/index.php?section=museo|title=Museo Centrale del Risorgimento di Roma|website=Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano|access-date=6 July 2018|language=it}}</ref>[[File:Marco Minghetti.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Marco Minghetti]]]] Ku Northern Italy, mulimo wa kupanga vinthu na kuzgora vinthu vinyake kuŵa viphya ukamba kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga ku mizi ya kumwera, ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakachimbilira ku vyaru vinyake kukapenja umoyo uwemi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni ŵa ku Italy ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe nga ni France, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, na Luxembourg, kweniso ku America. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, boma laparamendi likakura comene. Dango la ku Sardinia ilo likalembeka mu 1848, likapelekaso wanangwa ku ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Ufumu wa Italy mu 1861. Ndyali za ku Italy zikagaŵikana pakati pa magulu ghakupambanapambana gha kumalyero na kumalyero, ivyo vikapangiska kuti maboma ghaŵe mu suzgo. Mu 1876, Minghetti wakataya mazaza ndipo wakasinthika na Agostino Depretis, uyo wakamba kulamulira mu 1880s, kweni wakalutilira kuyezga kukhozga ŵakususka kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza. ===Depretis=== [[File:Agostino Depretis.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Agostino Depretis]].]] Depretis wakamba uteŵeti wake pakuŵa nduna yikuru mwa kwamba kughanaghana vya ndyali, zina lake Trasformismo. Fundo ya Trasformismo yikaŵa yakuti boma likwenera kusankha ŵandyali ŵakuzika na ŵakwenelera kufuma mu vigaŵa vyambura kupindikana. Depretis wakapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vyake ŵamuvotere usange ŵakukhumba kuti Depretis waŵawovwire. Mu 1876, pakaŵa ŵimiliri ŵanayi pera awo ŵakasankhika kufuma ku chigaŵa chakumanjiliro. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Depretis wakathereskeka cifukwa ca nkharo yake ya nkhaza. Depretis wakathereska ŵanthu ŵankhaza, nga nkhukanizga maungano gha pa wumba, kupeleka ŵanthu "ŵakofya" ku vigaŵa vyakutali mu Italy, na kwendera ndyali. Depretis wakapangiska malango agho ghakaŵa na mphindano pa nyengo iyo, nga nkhulekeska kukakika chifukwa cha ngongoli, kuŵika sukulu ya pulayimale kuti yiŵe yaulere kweniso yakukhumbikwa. Boma lakwamba la Depretis likamara mu 1877 apo wakafumiskanga nduna yake ya mukati. Boma laciŵiri la Depretis likamba mu 1881. Mu 1882, Depretis wakakhumbanga kusazgirako wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy wa kusankha, kusazgirako misonkho iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakeneranga kupeleka. Mu 1887, Depretis wakafumiskika pa udindo wake pamanyuma pa vilimika vinandi vya kutondeka kwa ndyali. ===Crispi=== [[File:Francesco Crispi crop.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Francesco Crispi]]]] [[Francesco Crispi]] (1818–1901) was Prime Minister for a total of six years, from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896. Historian R.J.B. Bosworth says of his foreign policy that Crispi:<blockquote>Pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with his suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa, ... In what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life (he was perhaps a trigamist) and personal finances...were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement.<ref>{{cite book|first=R.J.B.|last=Bosworth|title=Italy and the Wider World: 1860–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VL1vjYQRR-0C&pg=PA29|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=29|isbn=978-1-134-78088-4}}</ref></blockquote> [[File:Poster FIAT by Giovanni Carpanetto.png|thumb|140px|1899 [[Fiat|FIAT]] advertisement]] Crispi wakaŵa mu nduna ya Depretis ndipo nyengo yinyake wakaŵa wa Garibaldi. Mu 1887 m'paka 1891, Crispi wakafipiranga mtima chomene kuvikilira Italy ku Austria-Hungary. Crispi wakalimbikiranga ntchito ya kuzenga Italy kuŵa ufumu wankhongono wa pa caru cose kwizira mu kunjizga ndarama za nkhondo, kukhozgera kutandazgika kwa caru, na kuyezga kuti Germany yikondwe nayo nangauli wakajibatika ku Triple Alliance iyo yikaŵa na Germany na Austria-Hungary mu 1882. Apo wakawovwiranga Italy kuti waŵe wakukhora, wakalutilira kusintha vinthu ndipo wakaŵa na mazaza, nyengo yinyake wakakhumbanga kuti boma liŵike dango lakukanizga vyaru vinyake. Nangauli Crispi wakaŵa wankhongono, kweni wakasintha vinthu vinyake nga ni Dango la vya Umoyo wa Ŵanthu la mu 1888 na kukhazikiska makhoti kuti boma liwezge masuzgo. Ŵanthu ŵa viŵeto awo ŵakakhumbikwiranga wovwiri ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca kuŵika mtima comene pa ndyali. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ndyali na ŵa visopa vinyake ŵakakhumbanga kuti boma lisande umo lingawovwilira vyakurya mu Italy. Kafukufuku uyo wakamba mu 1877 ndipo wakafumiskika pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri, wakalongora kuti vyakurya vikendanga makora yayi, kuti ŵeneco ŵa malo ŵakarya ndalama izo ŵakasanganga pa malo ghawo ndipo ŵakovwira comene yayi kuti malo ghawo ghamere makora. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya pasi ŵakakwiya comene cifukwa ca kugaŵikana kwa malo agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu wose. Ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu minda iyi ŵakaŵa ŵalimi yayi, kweni ŵantchito ŵacoko waka awo ŵakagwiranga nchito kwa cilimika cimoza. Ŵalimi ŵambura ndalama ŵakakhalanga na vyakurya vichoko waka, matenda ghakathandazgikanga mwaluŵiro, ndipo kukaŵa nthenda zakwambukira, kusazgapo nthenda yikuru ya kolera iyo yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 55,000. Boma la Italy likatondeka kumazga makora suzgo ili cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi izo boma la Depretis likagwiliskiranga nchito. Charu cha Italy nacho chikasuzgika comene cifukwa cakuti mu ma 1870 na ma 1880, ŵakapanganga mpheska zinandi comene. Pa nyengo iyi, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cakuluska comene pa vyakurya vyose mu Europe, kweni cifukwa ca kuwelera kwa vyakurya ku France mu 1888, kumwera kwa Italy kukaŵa na vyakurya vinandi comene.{{sfn|Smith|1997|page=139}}[[File:Giovanni Giolitti 2.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Giovanni Giolitti]].]] [[File:Vittoriano Altare della Patria 2013-09-16.jpg|thumb|The [[Victor Emmanuel II Monument]] in Rome, a national symbol of Italy celebrating the first king of the unified country, and resting place of the [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)|Italian Unknown Soldier]] since the end of World War I. It was inaugurated in 1911, on the occasion of the 50th [[anniversary of the unification of Italy]]]] ===Giolitti=== Kufuma mu 1901 m'paka 1914, Giovanni Giolitti ndiyo wakalamuliranga ndyali na mbiri ya Italy. Pakwamba, wakasangana na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo Crispi wakacita. Ndipo pa nyengo yakwamba iyi apo ŵakuru na ŵasungwana ŵakakumananga, Giolitti wakawovwira kuti vinthu viŵe viphya mu ndyali pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na 1900. Kulekerathu kukanizga ŵanthu, kweni kuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵacite viyezgo, ndiposo kuti ŵaleke kugwira nchito, kweni kuti ŵaleke kuŵa ŵankhaza panji ŵa ndyali. Ivyo Giolitti wakacita vikakhwaska comene umoyo wa ŵanthu na nchito, ŵanalume wose ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kusankha, njanji na makampani gha inshuwalansi vikaŵa vya caru cose, ngongoli ya boma yikakhira, vinthu vyapasi vikamba kwenda makora, ndipo makampani ghakamba kupanga vinthu. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakamba kufumako ku Germany na Austria na Hungary na kwamba kukolerana na France, Great Britain, na Russia. Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 C.E., caru ca Italy cikaŵa na ufumu wake. Likatora ufumu wa Somalia. Boma la Ethiopia likathera yayi pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia mu 1895-1896. Mu 1911, boma la Giolitti likatuma ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵakakome Libya. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, charu cha Italy chikapoka charu cha Libya (chenechicho chikaŵa ku Tripolitania na Cyrenaica) na virwa vya Dodecanese. Ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ŵakakhumbanga kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe na mazaza pa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani mwa kutora caru ca Greece na dera la Dalmatia ilo lili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Adriatic, kweni ŵakaŵikapo mtima yayi. Mu Juni 1914, boma likakanaso ŵanthu ŵakumanjilira kumalyero ŵati ŵakoma ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakasuskanga ŵasilikari. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanjiliro ŵakasuska ndipo chipani cha Italian Socialist Party chikapharazga kuti ŵanthu wose mu Italy ŵali mu viwawa. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kusuzgika chomene na vinthu vyambura urunji ivyo vikachitikanga mu misumba yikuruyikuru na mizi yichoko. Ndipouli, pati pajumpha mazuŵa ghaŵiri pera, ungano uwu ukaleka, nangauli nkhondo yikalutilira.{{sfn|Bosworth|2005|page=49}} === World War I and failure of the liberal state=== {{See also|Italian entry into World War I|Italian Front (World War I)|Military history of Italy during World War I|Italian Campaign (World War I)}} [[File:Trento 3 novembre 1918.jpg|thumb|left|Italian cavalry in [[Trento]] on 3 November 1918, after the victorious [[Battle of Vittorio Veneto]]. The Italian victory in this battle<ref name="victory">{{cite book |last=Burgwyn |first=H. James |title=Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940 |url=https://archive.org/details/italianforeignpo0000burg |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1997 |page=[https://archive.org/details/italianforeignpo0000burg/page/8 4] |isbn=0-275-94877-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schindler |first=John R. |title=Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War |url=https://archive.org/details/isonzoforgottens0000schi |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isonzoforgottens0000schi/page/303 303] |isbn=0-275-97204-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mack Smith |first=Denis |title=Mussolini |publisher=Knopf |year=1982 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack/page/31 31] |isbn=0-394-50694-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack/page/31 }}</ref> marked the [[Armistice of Villa Giusti|end of the war on the Italian Front]], secured the dissolution of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] and contributed to the [[Armistice with Germany|end of the World War I]] just one week later.<ref name=Luden>{{cite book |quote=...&nbsp;[[Erich Ludendorff|Ludendorff]] wrote: ''In Vittorio Veneto, Austria did not lose a battle, but lose the war and itself, dragging Germany in its fall. Without the destructive battle of Vittorio Veneto, we would have been able, in a military union with the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, to continue the desperate resistance through the whole winter, in order to obtain a less harsh peace, because the Allies were very fatigued. |last=Paoletti |first=Ciro |title=A Military History of Italy |url=https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo0000paol |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo0000paol/page/150 150] |isbn=978-0-275-98505-9}}</ref>]] Italy yikanjira mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose mu 1915 na cilato ca kumalizga umoza wa chalo: pa cifukwa ici, kunjilirapo kwa Italy mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose kukuwonekaso nga ni Nkhondo Yacinayi ya ku Italiya ya Kujiyimira paŵekha, mu kawonekero ka historiographical ako kakulongora kuti nkondo iyi yikaŵa umaliro wa kuwungana kwa Italy, uko kukacitika nkhondo ya nkhondo iyo yikayamba mu 1848 na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italiya. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose (1914-1918) yikaŵa cakucitika cambura kunozgekera ico cikapangiska kuti ŵambe kusopa pamoza na Germany na Austria. Kwa myezi yinkhondi na umoza, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cambura kuvikilira, cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Triple Alliance ŵakaŵanga na mulimo wa kuvikilira caru. Mu 1915, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakanjira mu nkhondo iyi nangauli ŵakakhumbanga yayi kunjilirapo. Charu cha Italy chikaŵa chikuru kweniso chikaŵa mukavu. Wupu wa Triple Alliance ukaŵa wakuzirwa viŵi yayi ku Italy panji ku Austria. Ŵanalume ŵaŵiri, nduna yikuru Antonio Salandra na nduna ya vyaru vinyake Sidney Sonnino ndiwo ŵakasankhanga vinthu vyose, nga ni umo vikaŵira mu ndyali za ku Italy. Ŵakacitanga vinthu mwakubisilizga, ndipo pamasinda ŵakalembeska themba, kweni ŵasilikari na ŵalongozgi ŵa ndyali ŵakamanyanga yayi. Ŵakapangana na vigaŵa vyose viŵiri kuti ŵasangane ndalama zinandi, ndipo ŵakasanga ndalama kufuma ku ŵasilikari ŵa Entente, awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵalayizga vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Ufumu wa Austria-Hungary, kusazgapo Tyrol na Trieste, kweniso kuti Albania waŵe chigaŵa chakutetezgeka. Russia wakakana kupeleka Dalmatia ku Italy. Britain yikaŵa yakunozgeka kupeleka wovwiri na ngongoli kuti yikope ŵanthu 36 miliyoni ŵa ku Italy kuŵa ŵabwezi ŵaphya awo ŵakasuzganga Austria kumwera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lowe |first1=C.J. |year=1969 |title=Britain and Italian Intervention 1914–1915 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1969_12_3/page/533 |journal=Historical Journal |volume=12 |issue=3|pages=533–548 |doi=10.1017/s0018246x00007275|s2cid=162738142 }}</ref>[[File:Liberazione di Trieste.jpg|thumb|Italian troops landing in [[Trieste]], 3 November 1918]] Mu Meyi 1915, pakapharazgika phangano la ku London. Salandra wakafumapo pa udindo wake, kweni pakaŵavya munthu uyo wakawovwira kuti paŵe ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanandi ŵa ndyali, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy, ŵakasuskanga nkhondo, kusazgapo Ŵakatolika ŵanandi. Malipoti agho ghakafuma ku Italy ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakawopanga nkhondo, ndipo ŵakakondwanga yayi na malo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakawonanga nkhondo kuŵa soka, nga ni chilangalanga, njara, panji nthenda yakofya. Ŵamalonda ŵanandi ŵakasuskanga, cifukwa ŵakawopanga kuti boma lingaŵakanizga kuguliska vinthu na misonkho yinandi, kweniso kuti ŵangaluza malonda ghawo. Vikaŵa nga vingachitika yayi kuti ŵasintheso ivyo ŵakadumura, cifukwa ŵasilikari ŵa Triple Alliance ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuti Italy wawelere, ndipo ufumu wa themba ukaŵa pangozi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerana na nkhondo ŵakafuma mu misewu, ŵakachemerezganga kuti: "Tiyeni, tiyeni, tiyeni!" Benito Mussolini, uyo wakaŵa mulembi wa Socialist Party, wakaŵa mulongozgi, kweni ŵakamucimbizga mu chipani ndipo ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ndiwo ŵakamulondezga. Padera pa caru ca Russia, ici cikaŵa cipani cimoza pera ku Europe ico cikasuskanga nkhondo. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yankhaza comene cifukwa ca ndyali, kutondeka, kukhuŵara, na ucindere wa ŵamazaza.<ref>Martin Clark, ''Modern Italy: 1871–1995'' (1996) pp 180–85</ref><ref>Denis Mack Smith, ''Italy: A Modern History'' (1969) pp 292–305.</ref> [[File:Sacrario militare di Redipuglia agosto 2014.JPG|thumb|The [[Redipuglia War Memorial]] of [[Fogliano Redipuglia|Redipuglia]], with the tomb of [[Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta (1869–1931)|Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta]] in the foreground, nicknamed the ''Undefeated Duke'' for having reported numerous victories in the [[First World War]] without ever being defeated on the battlefield.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/savoia-aosta-emanuele-filiberto-di-duca-d-aosta_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/|title=SAVOIA AOSTA, Emanuele Filiberto di, duca d'Aosta|access-date=23 November 2021|language=it}}</ref> This War Memorial is the resting place of 100,187 Italian soldiers killed between 1915 and 1917 in the [[Battles of the Isonzo|eleven battles]] fought on the Karst and [[Isonzo front]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.turismofvg.it/Monumenti-e-Siti-Storici/Sacrario-Militare-di-Redipuglia|title=Il più grande Sacrario Militare Italiano}}</ref>]] Italy wakanjira mu nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵakukwana 875,000, kweni ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵambura kulongozgeka makora ndipo ŵakaŵavya vilwero vikuru vya nkhondo. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakatondeka kumazga nkhondo iyi, cifukwa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Austria ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nkhondo iyi. Mu 1916, caru ca Italy cikapharazga nkhondo ku Germany, ndipo ici cikapeleka wovwiri ukuru ku Ŵaustria. Ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakukwana 650,000 ŵakafwa ndipo 950,000 ŵakapwetekeka, apo chuma chikakhumbikwiranga wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake kuti chileke kunangika. Pambere nkhondo yindambe, boma likaŵikako mahara yayi ku nkhani za ŵantchito, kweni sono likakhumbikwiranga kunjilirapo kuti liŵawovwire. Pakuti chipani chikuru cha Socialist chikakhumbanga yayi kovwira nkhondo, ŵanthu ŵakachitanga viwawa kanandi waka ndipo ŵakakolerananga viŵi yayi, comenecomene mu vigaŵa vya Piedmont na Lombardy. Boma likakhazikiska malipiro ghapachanya, ndipo likaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵantchito ŵagwirenge lumoza ntchito. Makampani ghakurughakuru ghakakura comene. Ŵantchito ŵa Ansaldo ŵakakwera kufuma pa 6,000 kufika pa 110,000, ndipo ŵakapanga vilwero 10,900, ndege za nkhondo 3,800, ngaraŵa za nkhondo 95, na mabomba 10 miliyoni. Pa kampani ya Fiat, ŵantchito ŵakakwera kufuma pa 4,000 kufika pa 40,000. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa ndalama, ndalama zikakwera chomene. Malipiro gha ŵantchito ghakakwera, kweni gha ŵalimi ghakakwera yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo vikachitikanga ku mizi, cifukwa cakuti ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵakagwiranga nchito, nchito mu mafakitale zikaŵavya, malipiro ghakakweranga pacoko, ndipo kusinthasintha kwa vinthu kukaŵa kuheni comene. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yakumalizga nkhondo ya ku Italy, yikapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Austria na Hungary uparanyike, ndipo yikawovwira kuti Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yimare pakati pajumpha masabata ghaŵiri. Ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 651,000 ŵa ku Italy ŵakafwa pa nkhondo ya pa caru cose. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakafwa cifukwa ca kusoŵa cakurya ŵakakwana 589,000. Nkhondo yikati yamara, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, nduna yikuru ya Italy, wakakumana na David Lloyd George, nduna yikuru ya Britain, Georges Clemenceau, nduna yikuru ya France, na Woodrow Wilson, nduna yikuru ya United States, ku Versailles, kuti ŵadumbiskane umo mphaka za ku Europe zikwenera kuŵikikira mwakuti nkhondo ya ku Europe yileke kucitika.[[File:Promised Borders of the Tready of London.png|thumb|right|Territories promised to Italy by the [[Treaty of London (1915)]], i.e. [[Trentino-Alto Adige]], [[Julian March]] and [[Dalmatia]] (tan), and the [[Snežnik (plateau)|Snežnik Plateau]] area (green)]] Pa nyengo iyi, Wilson wakalayizga kuti mitundu yose ya ku Europe yizamuŵa na wanangwa wa kupanga vyaru vyawo. Pa cifukwa ici, phangano la Versailles likapeleka yayi Dalmatia na Albania ku Italy nga umo phangano la London likayowoyera. Kweniso, Britain na France ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵagaŵane vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Germany. Charu cha Italy chikapokako yayi malo kufuma apo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukaparanyikira, nangauli boma la United Kingdom na France likapeleka ulongozgi ku Italy pa nyengo ya nkhondo, kweni vyaru ivi vikagaŵikana pakati pawo. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni Orlando wakazomera kusaina phangano la Versailles, ilo likakwiyiska boma lake. Phangano la Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) na la Rapallo (1920) likapeleka mwaŵi wakuti Trentino Alto-Adige, Julian March, Istria, Kvarner kweniso msumba wa Zara mu Dalmatia, viŵikike mu ufumu wa Italy. [[File:The celebration of the birthday of the Italian King Vittorio Emanuele III on November 11, 1918.jpg|thumb|Residents of [[Fiume]] cheering D'Annunzio and his ''Legionari'' in September 1919, when Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitants]] Cifukwa ca kukwiya comene na mtende uwu, Gabriele D'Annunzio, mulembi wa sumu wa ku Italy, wakalongozga ŵasilikari ŵambura kukondwa na nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru cawo kuti ŵapange boma la Fiume mu Seputembala 1919. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakamutemwanga comene, ŵakamuthya kuti Il Duce ("Mulongozgi"), ndipo wakagwiliskira nchito ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na malaya ghamdima apo wakawukiranga Fiume. Muwuso wa Duce na yunifomu ya ŵasilikari ŵa malaya ghaswesi vikapokelereka pamanyuma na gulu la Fascist la Benito Mussolini. Ivyo boma la Italy likakhumbanga vikafika ku vigaŵa vyose vya ndyali, kusazgapo Ŵafarisi ŵa Mussolini. Ivyo D'Annunzio wakayowoyanga vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Croatia ŵambe kumutemwa. Pamasinda, phangano la Rome (1924) likapangiska kuti msumba wa Fiume uŵe wa Italy. Charu cha Italy chikapokera yayi vigaŵa vinyake ivyo chikalayizgika na phangano la ku London (1915), nga ni Dalmatia, ntheura ŵanthu ŵakatenge chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa chakupwetekeka. Benito Mussolini ndiyo wakambiska chisopa cha Chiitaliya icho chikachemekanga Fascism. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵakuwona kuti kutonda uku ni "nthoto ya ndyali", iyo yikugwiliskirika nchito na ŵasilikari ŵa Fashisti kuti ŵakhozge ufumu wa Italy na kubisa ivyo boma la Italy likacita pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Italy nayo wakaŵa na malo ghakukhazikika mu wupu wa League of Nations.<ref>G.Sabbatucci, ''La vittoria mutilata'', in AA.VV., ''Miti e storia dell'Italia unita'', Il Mulino, Bologna 1999, pp.101-106</ref> ==Fascist regime, World War II, and Civil War (1922–1946)== ===Rise of Fascism into power=== {{Main|Italian Fascism}} [[File:Mussolini mezzobusto.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Benito Mussolini]], who titled himself [[Duce]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|ruled the country from 1922 to 1943]]]] Mu 1914, Benito Mussolini wakacimbizgika mu chipani ca Italian Socialist Party cifukwa cakuti wakacema Italy kuti wanjire mu nkhondo na Austria-Hungary. Pambere Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yindambe, Mussolini wakasuskanga kujilemba usilikari, wakasuskanga umo Italy wakawuskiranga Libya, ndipo wakaŵa mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya Socialist Party, Avanti!, kweni pamanyuma pake wakacemerezga kuti paŵe kusintha kwambura kuzunura nkhondo ya magulu. Mu 1914, Mussolini wakasanga ndalama ku Ansaldo (kampani yakupanga vilwero) na makampani ghanyake kuti wapange nyuzipepara yake, Il Popolo d'Italia. Ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakakhumbanga kuti Italy wanjire mu nkhondo. Pamanyuma, nkhondo yikati yamara, buku ili likazgoka nyuzipepara yakuzomerezgeka na boma. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo, Mussolini wakateŵetera mu ŵasilikari ndipo wakapwetekeka kamoza. Nkhondo yikati yamara na phangano la Versailles mu 1919, Mussolini wakambiska wupu wakuchemeka Combat League. Pakwamba, ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga fundo za chipani cha Socialist Party ŵakasuskanga fundo za chipani ichi. Mu nyengo yakwambilira, gulu ili likaŵa na pulogiramu yakutemwera kumazere, ilo likayowoyerathu kuti kuzamuŵa kusintha kwa ndyali, ŵanakazi ŵazamunjira mu maungano, kuzamuŵa wanangwa wa kusankha (kanyengo kanyake mu 1925) kweniso kuti katundu wa ŵanthu wose wazamupambana. Ŵakapambanaso na Ŵasilikari ŵaciŵiri aŵa cifukwa ŵakasuskanga boma lakuyuzga ŵanthu. Mussolini wakati "tikutemwa wanangwa wa waliyose, nanga ni wa ŵalwani ŵithu". Pa 15 Epulero, 1919, Ŵafarisi ŵakamba nkhaza za ndyali apo gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la Fasci di Combattimento likapoka ofesi ya Avanti!.[[File:Kingdom of Italy 1924 map.svg|thumbnail|The Kingdom of Italy in 1924.]] Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, nyengo iyo yikamanyikwanga kuti Biennio Rosso (vyaka viŵiri vyakuthwa) yikacitika mu vilimika viŵiri vyati vyalondezga Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose mu nyengo ya suzgo la vya cuma, kusoŵa nchito kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi, na kuleka kukhazikika kwa ndyali. Mu 1919-1920, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵamalonda, ŵantchito ŵakachitanga viyezgelero, kweniso ŵakachitanga viyezgo kuti ŵajikorenge. Ku Turin na Milan, mabungwe gha ŵantchito ghakaŵako ndipo ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵakagwira nchito mu mafakitale. Kuwukira uku kukasazgikira ku vigaŵa vya minda ya mu Padan ndipo kukaŵa na viwawa vya ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi, viwawa vya ku mizi, na nkhondo za ŵasilikari pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa ku mphepo na ŵa ku mphepo. Kufuma nyengo yira, gulu la Fasci di Combattimento la Benito Mussolini likagwiliskira nchito makora fundo za ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy na kukhumba kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu caru. Mu 1920, nduna yikuru Giolitti yikasankhikaso kuti yiwovwirepo pa suzgo ilo likaŵa mu Italy, kweni nduna yake yikaŵa yambura nkhongono ndipo yikaŵa pangozi chifukwa cha ŵakususka ŵa chipani cha Socialist. Giolitti wakagomezganga kuti Ŵachifasita ŵangakanizgika ndipo ŵangaŵawovwira kuvikilira ufumu ku ŵasilikari. Mu 1921, Ŵafarisi ŵakatonda yayi, kweni boma la Giolitti likathera yayi kuwunganya ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵalongozge. Ŵasilikari ŵa Fascist ŵakakana ivyo Giolitti wakaŵaphalira ndipo ŵakakolerana na ŵasilikari ŵanyake kuti ŵathereske boma lake.{{sfn|Bosworth|2005|page=112}}[[File:March on Rome.jpg|thumb|left|[[Benito Mussolini]] during the [[March on Rome]] in 1922.]] Mu Okutobala 1922, Mussolini wakapharazga kuti boma la Italy lipelekenge mazaza ku chipani cha Fascist. Nangauli pakaŵavya uyo wakazomera, kweni gulu la ŵanthu 30,000 ŵakamba ulendo utali kujumpha mu Italy kuluta ku Roma (March on Rome). Ŵafarisi ŵakakhumbanga kuti Luigi Facta, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru wa boma ili, wafumeko pa udindo wake. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakaŵa na vilwero viwemi comene kuluska ŵasilikari ŵa Fascist, kweni boma la Italy na Themba Victor Emmanuel III ŵakaŵa mu suzgo yikuru. Themba likakhumbikwiranga kusankhapo gulu limoza pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri agho ghakaŵa pa mphindano mu Italy ilo likate lilongozgenge boma. Wakasankha Ŵafasisi.[[File:Giacomo Matteotti crop.jpg|thumb|150px|Socialist leader [[Giacomo Matteotti]] was murdered a few days after he openly denounced Fascist violence during the 1924 elections.]] Wakati waŵa na mazaza, Mussolini wakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru na ŵakutemwa vya wanangwa. Mu 1923, muwuso wa Mussolini ukazomerezga dango la Acerbo, ilo likapeleka vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya mipando ku chipani icho chikapokera mavoti 25. Chipani cha Fascist chikagwiliskira ntchito nkhaza na kofya ŵanthu kuti chiŵe na mazaza pa maungano gha mu 1924. Mubali Giacomo Matteotti, uyo wakaŵa mu chipani cha Socialist, wakakomeka wati wapempha kuti mavoti ghaleke kuchitika cifukwa ca vinthu vyambura kwenelera. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ichi ŵakakolerana na ivyo vikachitika. Mu vilimika vinayi vyakulondezgapo, Mussolini wakawuskapo vinthu vyose ivyo vikakanizganga mazaza ghake. Pa Disembala 24, 1925, wakalemba dango ilo likati ndiyo yekha wakeneranga kulongozga mu nyumba ya ufumu. Maboma gha vigaŵa ghakalekeka, ndipo ŵalara ŵa boma (awo ŵakachemekanga kuti "Podestà") ŵakamba kulamulira m'malo mwa ŵeneco. Mu 1928, magulu ghose gha ndyali ghakakanizgika, ndipo maungano gha boma ghakasintha na maungano gha ŵanthu wose. Christopher Duggan, wakugwiliskira nchito mabuku ghake na makalata, kweniso maofesi gha ŵapolisi, ndipo wakuti Mussolini wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamovwira. Mussolini wakawuska ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamususka mu Italy, ndipo wakalutilira kutchuka nangauli ŵasilikari ŵakamususka mu 1940. Duggan wakati muwuso wake ukagwiliskira ntchito makora mazaza gha Mussolini ndipo ukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na nkharo yiwemi.<ref>Christopher Duggan, ''Fascist Voices: An Intimate History of Mussolini's Italy'' (2012) [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Fascist-Voices-Intimate-History-Mussolinis/dp/1847921035/ excerpt]</ref> In summary, historian [[Stanley G. Payne]] says that Fascism in Italy was: :A primarily political dictatorship. The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy. ... The Fascist militia was placed under military control. The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders, nor was a major new police elite created. There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience. Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed. The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stanley G.|last=Payne|title=A History of Fascism, 1914–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_MeR06xqXAC&pg=PA122|year=1996|publisher=U of Wisconsin Press|page=122|isbn=978-0-299-14873-7}}</ref> ===End of the Roman question=== [[File:Group of Vatican and Italian government notables posing at the Lateran Palace before the signing of the treaty.jpg|thumb|Vatican and Italian delegations prior to signing the [[Lateran Treaty]]]] Wakati waŵa na mazaza, Mussolini wakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru na ŵakutemwa vya wanangwa. Mu 1923, muwuso wa Mussolini ukazomerezga dango la Acerbo, ilo likapeleka vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya mipando ku chipani icho chikapokera mavoti 25. Chipani cha Fascist chikagwiliskira ntchito nkhaza na kofya ŵanthu kuti chiŵe na mazaza pa maungano gha mu 1924. Mubali Giacomo Matteotti, uyo wakaŵa mu chipani cha Socialist, wakakomeka wati wapempha kuti mavoti ghaleke kuchitika cifukwa ca vinthu vyambura kwenelera. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ichi ŵakakolerana na ivyo vikachitika. Mu vilimika vinayi vyakulondezgapo, Mussolini wakawuskapo vinthu vyose ivyo vikakanizganga mazaza ghake. Pa Disembala 24, 1925, wakalemba dango ilo likati ndiyo yekha wakeneranga kulongozga mu nyumba ya ufumu. Maboma gha vigaŵa ghakalekeka, ndipo ŵalara ŵa boma (awo ŵakachemekanga kuti "Podestà") ŵakamba kulamulira m'malo mwa ŵeneco. Mu 1928, magulu ghose gha ndyali ghakakanizgika, ndipo maungano gha boma ghakasintha na maungano gha ŵanthu wose. Christopher Duggan, wakugwiliskira nchito mabuku ghake na makalata, kweniso maofesi gha ŵapolisi, ndipo wakuti Mussolini wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamovwira. Mussolini wakawuska ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamususka mu Italy, ndipo wakalutilira kutchuka nangauli ŵasilikari ŵakamususka mu 1940. Duggan wakati muwuso wake ukagwiliskira ntchito makora mazaza gha Mussolini ndipo ukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na nkharo yiwemi.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Western Society|year=2010|url=https://archive.org/details/sourcesofwestern0000unse|url-access=registration|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|page=900|edition=Tenth}}</ref> ===Foreign politics=== {{Further|Italian Empire|Italian irredentism}} [[File:RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg|thumb|left|Italian ethnic regions claimed by the [[Italian irredentism]] in the 1930s: * Green: [[Italian irredentism in Nice|Nice]], [[Italian irredentism in Switzerland|Ticino]] and [[Italian irredentism in Dalmatia|Dalmatia]] * Red: [[Italian irredentism in Malta|Malta]] * Violet: [[Italian irredentism in Corsica|Corsica]] * [[Italian irredentism in Savoy|Savoy]] and [[Corfiot Italians#Corfiot Italians and the Risorgimento|Corfu]] were later claimed]] Lee wakalongosora fundo zikuruzikuru zitatu za Mussolini. Cakwamba cikaŵa kulondezga fundo za ndyali za boma la Liberal. Ku Italy kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu vyaru vya Balkan na kumpoto kwa Africa. Kufuma waka apo ŵakathereskekera ku Ethiopia mu 1896, ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵatore charu ichi. Caciŵiri nchakuti ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca nyifwa ya ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Vyaru vinyake, comenecomene Poland na Yugoslavia, vikapokera vinandi comene, ndipo Italy yikajiwona kuti yacita upusikizgi. Cacitatu, Mussolini wakalayizga kuti wawezgerengepo ufumu wakale wa Roma. Chisopa cha ku Italy icho chikuchemeka Fascism chikukolerana na chisopa cha ku Italy ndipo chikukhumba kumalizga mulimo wa Risorgimento. Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Italy, Ŵafarisi ŵakatenge Dalmatia ni charu cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy, kusazgapo awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku South Slavic, ŵakachimbizgika mu Dalmatia na kuluta ku wuzga ku Italy. Mussolini wakamanya kuti Dalmatia wakaŵa na mitheto ya ku Italy kwa vyaka vinandi, nga umo vikaŵira na Istria, kwizira mu Ufumu wa Roma na Republic of Venice. Kumwera kwa Italy, Ŵasilikari ŵa Fashisti ŵakatenge caru ca Malta, ico cikaŵa ca Britain, na Corfu, ico cikaŵa ca Greece, kumpoto ŵakatenge ni Switzerland, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakatenge ni Corsica, Nice na Savoy, ivyo vikaŵa vya France. Boma la Fascist likalemba mabuku ghakulongosora vya caru ca Corsica. Boma la Nazi likalemba mabuku ghakulongosora vya msumba wa Nice, agho ghakalongosoranga kuti msumba uwu ukaŵa wa ku Italy cifukwa ca mbiri yake, mtundu wake, na ciyowoyero cake.<ref name="Davide Rodogno 2006. P. 88">Davide Rodogno. ''Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation during the Second World War''. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. P. 88.</ref>[[File:Italy aims Europe 1936.png|thumb|Ambitions of fascist Italy in Europe in 1936.<br/>Legend:{{Legend|#073A09|Metropolitan Italy and dependent territories;}}{{Legend|#0F7612|[[Client state]]s;}}{{Legend|#083A39|Claimed territories to be annexed;}}{{Legend|#107776|Territories to be transformed into client states.}} [[Albania]], which was a client state, was considered a territory to be annexed.]] Mussolini wakalayizga kuti wazamuwezgerapo ufumu wa Italy kuŵa wankhongono comene mu Europe, kuzengaso "Ufumu wa Ŵaroma" na kuwusa pa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Pakupharazga, Ŵafarisi ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito mazgu gha Ŵaroma ghakuti "Mare Nostrum" (Cilatini, "Nyanja Yithu") pakulongosora nyanja ya Mediterranean. Pa cifukwa ici, muwuso wa Ŵafasisi ukacitanga ndyali za ku Europe. Mu 1923, caru ca Greece ca Corfu cikapokeka na Italy pamanyuma pakuti Tellini wakomeka. Mu 1925, Albania wakakhwaskika comene na caru ca Italy cifukwa ca phangano la Tirana. Kweni vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi ku France. Boma la Nazi likakhumbanga kuwina vigaŵa vya France ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Apo muwuso wa Nazi ukakuranga, boma la Italy likamba kufipa mtima comene na umo boma la Germany lingakhwaskira caru ici. Cifukwa ca kwenjerwa cifukwa ca kupanikizgika kwa caru ca Germany, caru ca Italy cikakolerana na France na United Kingdom mu Stresa Front, iyo yikaŵako mu 1935 m'paka 1936. Boma la Nazi likalutilira kukhumba Dalmatia, ntheura likalutilira kutinkha Yugoslavia. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Caru na Caru ya ku Spain, iyo yikacitika pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa chipani ca Socialist Republicans na Nationalists awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Francisco Franco, caru ca Italy cikatuma vilwero na ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 60,000 kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari ŵa chipani ici. Ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵanjire mu virwa vya ku Spain. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy likaponyapo sitima za nkhondo na vyakuponyera maji 91. Kweniso, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain ŵakatimba ngalaŵa za Republican 48 na 44 za ŵamalonda ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake.<ref>Clodfelter 2017: 338</ref> During all the 1930s, Italy strongly pursued a policy of naval rearmament; by 1940, the [[Regia Marina]] was the fourth largest navy in the world. [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R69173, Münchener Abkommen, Staatschefs.jpg|thumb|left|alt=[[Neville Chamberlain|Chamberlain]], [[Édouard Daladier|Daladier]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], Mussolini, and Italian Foreign Minister Count Ciano, as they prepared to sign the Munich Agreement|From left to right, Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini and Italian Foreign Minister [[Count Ciano]] at the signing of [[Munich Agreement]].]] Mussolini na Adolf Hitler ŵakakumana kakwamba mu Juni 1934, apo nkhani ya kujiyimira paŵekha ya Austria yikaŵa mu suzgo. Mussolini wakakhumbanga kuti Nazi Germany yileke kuŵa na mazaza pa caru ca Europe. Kuti ivi vichitike, wakalimbana na ivyo boma la Germany likakhumbanga kuchita kuti likore charu cha Austria pamanyuma pa kukoma Engelbert Dollfuss. Nyengo zose ŵanthu ŵakalongoranga kuti Mussolini na Hitler ŵakaŵa paubwezi wakukhora, kweniso kuti visopa vyautesi vya ku Italy vikaŵa vyakuyana na vya ku Germany. Nangauli visambizgo vyose viŵiri vikaŵa vyakuyana, kweni wose ŵakakanizgana, ndipo ŵalongozgi wose ŵaŵiri ŵakakwesananga kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa caru cose. Mu 1935, Mussolini wakakhumbanga kuwukira Ethiopia; Ŵaitaliya 2,313 na Ŵaetiyopiya 275,000 ŵakafwa. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikapangiska kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cambura kukolerana na vyaru vinyake, cifukwa cakuti France na Britain vikathera luŵiro kwa Mussolini. Boma la Nazi likaŵa ilo likawovwira Italy. Pamasinda pakuti wupu wa League of Nations wamususka, Italy wakafumamo mu wupu uwu pa Disembala 11, 1937, ndipo Mussolini wakati wupu uwu ni "malo ghakusoperapo". Pa nyengo iyi, Mussolini wakaŵa na mwaŵi yayi wa kwendera lumoza na Hitler pa nkhani za ndyali, ntheura wakaleka kukhozgera boma la Austria. Mu 1938, Hitler wakambiska nkhondo yakucemeka Anschluss. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Mussolini wakakhozgera fundo za ku Germany pa nkhani ya Sudetenland, cigaŵa ca Czechoslovakia ico cikakhalanga ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Germany. Mu 1938, Mussolini wakawovwira kuti mu Italy ŵaŵike malango ghakususkana na Ŵayuda. Mu Malichi 1939, Germany yikati yapoka Czechoslovakia, Mussolini wakawukira Albania cifukwa cakuti wakawopanga kuti ŵanthu ŵamuwonenge nga ni muwuso waciŵiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Axis. Pa Epulero 7, 1939, Italy yikawukira Albania na kuzgora charu ichi kuŵa chigaŵa cha Italy.[[File:Hitler and Mussolini June 1940.jpg|thumb|Mussolini and Hitler in June 1940.]] As war approached in 1939, the Fascist regime stepped up an aggressive press campaign against France claiming that Italian people were suffering in France. This was important to the alliance as both regimes mutually had claims on France, Germany on German-populated Alsace-Lorraine and Italy on the mixed Italian and French populated Nice and Corsica. In May 1939, a formal alliance with Germany was signed, known as the Pact of Steel. Mussolini felt obliged to sign the pact in spite of his own concerns that Italy could not fight a war in the near future. This obligation grew from his promises to Italians that he would build an empire for them and from his personal desire to not allow Hitler to become the dominant leader in Europe. Mussolini was repulsed by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreement where Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to partition the Second Polish Republic into German and Soviet zones for an impending invasion. The Fascist government saw this as a betrayal of the Anti-Comintern Pact, but decided to remain officially silent.{{sfn|Smith|1997|page=401}} ===World War II and fall of Fascism=== {{Main|Military history of Italy during World War II|Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy}} [[File:ProgettoImperoItaliano.jpg|thumb|left|Map of ''Great Italy'' according to the 1940 fascist project in case Italy had won the [[Second World War]] (the orange line delimits metropolitan Italy, the green line the borders of the enlarged [[Italian Empire]])]] Apo boma la Germany likapoka Poland pa Seputembala 1, 1939, ndipo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikamba, Mussolini wakasankha kuleka kurwa nkhondo, nangauli wakayowoya kuti wakovwira Hitler. Pakunozga vyakuti ŵarwe nkhondo, Mussolini na boma la Fascist ŵakaghanaghana kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Africa na Middle East kuti viŵe mu ufumu wawo. Themba na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari, Pietro Badoglio, ŵakalutilira kukayikira, ndipo ŵakachenjezga Mussolini kuti caru ca Italy cilije magaleta ghakurughakuru, vilwero vya nkhondo, na ndege zakukwana nkhondo yitali. Mussolini na boma la Nazi ŵakalondezga ulongozgi uwu, ndipo ŵakalindilira mpaka apo Germany yikawukira France mu Juni 1940 (Nkhondo ya ku France) pambere ŵandambe kunjilirapo. Cifukwa cakuti kutondeka kwa caru ca France kukaŵa kwakuwonekerathu, Italy wakanjira mu nkhondo pa Juni 10, 1940, kufiska ivyo wakalayizga ku Wupu wa Steel. Mussolini wakaghanaghana kuti wapoke luŵiro Savoy, Nice, Corsica, na vyaru vya ku Africa nga ni Tunisia na Algeria ku Ŵafulentshi, kweni Germany wakalembapo phangano la kuleka nkhondo (22 June: Second Armistice at Compiègne) na Marshal Philippe Pétain. Ici cikakwiyiska boma la Nazi. Mu cihanya ca 1940, Mussolini wakalangura kuti ŵaponye mabomba pa caru ca Palestina na kupoka caru ca British Somaliland. Mu Seputembala, wakalangura kuti ŵanjire mu Eguputo; nangauli pakwamba vinthu vikenda makora, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakachimbizgika na Ŵanandi (wonani Operation Compass). Hitler wakeneranga kunjilirapo na kutuma ŵasilikari ŵa Afrika Corps ŵa Jenerale Erwin Rommel, awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nkhondo ya ku North Africa. Pa Okutobala 28, Mussolini wakawukira Greece kwambura kufumba Hitler, uyo wakapulika vya nkhondo ya ku Greece na Italy cifukwa ca kuŵazga mu nyuzipepara ya mulenji. Mussolini wakayezga kukhozga mubwezi wake mwa kuyowoya kuti waŵenge ku Athens mu masabata ghaŵiri kufuma apo Greece yikaparanyikira. Ndipouli, ŵasilikari ŵa Royal Air Force ŵakakanizga ŵasilikari ŵa Italy kuti ŵanjire mu Albania.[[File:Impero_italiano.svg|thumb|The [[Italian Empire]] (red) before World War II. Pink areas were annexed/occupied for various periods between 1940 and 1943 (the [[Italian Concession of Tientsin|Tientsin concession]] in China is not shown).]] Hitler wakawovwira Mussolini apo wakawukira Ŵagiriki kufuma ku Balkan. Nkhondo ya ku Balkans iyo yikapangiska kuti Yugoslavia yidumulike na kuthereskeka kwa Greece. Pa nyengo iyi, Italy wakapoka vyaru vya kumwera kwa Slovenia, Dalmatia, Montenegro, na kukhazikiska vyaru vya Croatia na Greece. Kuzakafika mu 1942, caru ici cikaŵa pa ngozi cifukwa cakuti cuma cake cikaleka kusintha cifukwa ca nkhondo, ndipo misumba ya ku Italy yikaponyekanga mabomba na ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari awo ŵakakolerananga nawo. Kweniso, nangauli Rommel wakacitanga vinthu vinandi, kweni nkhondo ya ku North Africa yikamba kutondeka kuumaliro wa 1942. Ŵakati ŵathereskeka pa nkhondo ya El Alamein, caru cikamara. Kuzakafika mu 1943, caru ca Italy cikaŵa kuti cikutondeka pa vigaŵa vyose. Mu Janyuwale wa chaka chenechicho, hafu ya ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakarwanga nkhondo mu Soviet Union ŵakakomeka, nkhondo ya ku Africa yikatondeka, caru ca Balkan cikalutilira kuŵa cambura kukhazikika, ndipo Ŵataliyana ŵakakhumbanga kuti nkhondo yimare. Mu Julayi 1943, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakanjira mu Sicily kuti ŵathereske Italy ku nkhondo. Pa Julayi 25, Mussolini wakathereskeka na wupu wa Great Council of Fascism ndipo wakakakika na themba Victor Emmanuel III, uyo wakasora Jenerale Pietro Badoglio kuŵa nduna yikuru. Badoglio wakawuskapo vigaŵa vyaumaliro vya muwuso wa Fascist mwa kukanizga chipani cha National Fascist Party, ndipo wakalemba phangano la kuleka nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari.{{sfn|Smith|1997|pages=412–413}}[[File:El Alamein Italian prisoners 1942.jpg|thumb|left|Italian prisoners in El Alamein, November 1942.]] Donald Detwiler notes that "Italy's entrance into the war showed very early that her military strength was only a hollow shell. Italy's military failures against France, Greece, Yugoslavia and in the African Theatres of war shook Italy's new prestige mightily."<ref>{{cite book|first1=Donald S.|last1=Detwiler|first2=Charles B.|last2=Burdick|first3=Jürgen|last3=Rohwer|title=World War II German Military Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XfzAAAAMAAJ|year=1979|page=96|isbn=978-0-8240-4313-1}}</ref> Historians have long debated why Italy's military and its Fascist regime were so remarkably ineffective at an activity – war – that was central to their identity. MacGregor Knox says the explanation, "was first and foremost a failure of Italy's military culture and military institutions."<ref>{{cite book|first=MacGregor|last=Knox|title=Hitler's Italian Allies: Royal Armed Forces, Fascist Regime, and the War of 1940–1943|url=https://archive.org/details/hitlersitalianal00knox|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge UP|page=[https://archive.org/details/hitlersitalianal00knox/page/10 10]|isbn=978-1-139-43203-0}}</ref> Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen argue that "the Regia Aeronautica failed to perform effectively in modern conflict. Although the Italian Air Force had been in action in the conquest of Ethiopia and the Spanish Civil War, it was totally unprepared for combat...in June 1940. At the time Italy had about 2,500 military aircraft in service. Only 11,000 more were produced during the next three years, far fewer than any of the other major belligerents."<ref>{{cite book|first1=Norman|last1=Polmar|first2=Thomas B.|last2=Allen|title=World War II: the Encyclopedia of the War Years, 1941–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=30gRAGjXrIIC&pg=PA421|year=2012|page=421|isbn=978-0-486-47962-0}}</ref> James Sadkovich gives the most charitable interpretation of Italian failures, blaming inferior equipment, overextension, and inter-service rivalries. Its forces had "more than their share of handicaps."<ref>James J. Sadkovich, "Understanding Defeat: Reappraising Italy's Role in World War II," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (1989) 24#1 pp. 27–61 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/260699 online].</ref> [[File:Croatia-41-45.gif|thumb|upright=1.3|Division of Yugoslavia after its invasion by the [[Axis powers]]. {{legend|#339966|Areas annexed by Italy: the area constituting the [[province of Ljubljana]], the area merged with the [[province of Fiume]] and the areas making up the [[Governorate of Dalmatia]]}} {{legend|#ff0000|[[Independent State of Croatia]]}} {{legend|#0000ff|Area occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]}} {{legend|#996666|Areas occupied by [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920-1946)|Kingdom of Hungary]]}}]] About Italian troops in El Alamein, Italian Defence ministry chief of staff [[Luigi Binelli Mantelli]] said: "The spirit of service and cohesion are fundamental elements for the operational capacity of the armed forces ... The ([[185th Paratroopers Division Folgore|Folgore]]) Paratroopers have always shown this. El Alamein was a battle that was lost with great honour, facing up to overwhelmingly superior firepower with poor weapons but with great spirit and capacity to resist and to hold up high the honour of Italy".<ref name="Alamein">{{cite web|url=http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2014/10/31/el-alamein-lost-with-great-honour_a6aedfe0-da47-45c6-b8c9-07bd0d1c6203.html |website= ANSA.it|title=El Alamein 'lost with great honour'|date= 31 October 2014}}</ref> British historian John Bierman said that the Italian tank regiment "fought with great audacity, just as the [[Ariete]] artillery regiment did". According to American historian John W. Gordon, the British special forces were so impressed by the methods and tactics of the Italian desert corps "that they actually copied them".<ref name="Alamein"/> German General [[Erwin Rommel]] praised the Italians on several occasions, describing their as "extraordinary, courageous, disciplined, but badly commanded and equipped."<ref>Arrigo Petacco, ''[[iarchive:larmataneldesert0000peta|L'armata nel deserto. Il segreto di El Alamein]]'', Mondadori, 2002, {{ISBN|88-04-50824-8}}</ref> Writing about the fighting at the First Battle of El Alamein, he stated: "The Italians were willing, unselfish and good comrades in the frontline. There can be no disputing that the achievement of all the Italian units, especially the motorised elements, far outstripped any action of the Italian Army for 100 years. Many Italian generals and officers earned our respect as men as well as soldiers".<ref>Rommel & Pimlott (1994), p. 128</ref> During the Second Battle of El Alamein the 7th Bersaglieri Regiment exhibited a strong regimental spirit in the fight for Hill 28 that impressed Rommel to comment positively.<ref>Jon E. Lewis (1999), The Mammoth Book of True War Stories, p. 318</ref> On a plaque dedicated to the Bersaglieri that fought at Mersa Matruh and Alamein, Rommel wrote: "The German soldier has impressed the world; the Italian [[Bersagliere]] has impressed the German soldier."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ardito2000.it/ELALAMEIN2.html|title=El Alamein 2|publisher=Ardito2000 website|language=it|access-date=19 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722023911/http://www.ardito2000.it/ELALAMEIN2.html|archive-date=22 July 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ===Civil War, Allied advance, and Liberation=== {{Further|Italian Civil War|Liberation of Italy}} [[File:Quattrogiornate.jpg|thumb|left|Insurgents celebrating the liberation of Naples after the [[Four days of Naples]] (27–30 September 1943).]] Although other European countries such as [[Norway]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[France]] also had partisan movements and [[Wartime collaborationism|collaborationist]] governments with [[Nazi Germany]], armed confrontation between compatriots was most intense in Italy, making the Italian case unique.<ref>{{cite book|first=Renzo|last=De Felice|title=Rosso e Nero |url=https://archive.org/details/rossoenero0000defe|trans-title=Red and Black |year=1995|publisher=Baldini & Castoldi|isbn=88-85987-95-8|language=it|page=[https://archive.org/details/rossoenero0000defe/page/22 22]}}</ref> In 1965, the definition of "civil war" was used for the first time by fascist politician and historian [[Giorgio Pisanò]] in his books,<ref>[http://www.istitutobiggini.it/storia_pisano.pdf Storia della guerra civile in Italia]</ref><ref>See the books from Italian historian [[Giorgio Pisanò]] ''Storia della guerra civile in Italia'', 1943–1945, 3 voll., Milano, FPE, 1965 and the book ''L'Italia della guerra civile'' ("Italy of civil war"), published in 1983 by the Italian writer and journalist [[Indro Montanelli]] as the fifteen volume of the ''Storia d'Italia'' ("History of Italy") by the same author.</ref> while [[Claudio Pavone]]'s book ''Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza'' (''A Civil War. Historical Essay On the Morality Of the Resistance''), published in 1991, led to the term "[[Italian Civil War]]" being used more frequently by Italian{{#tag:ref|See as examples [[Renzo De Felice]] and [[Gianni Oliva]].|group=nb}} and international<ref>See as examples the [http://www.societasalutediritti.com/rassegnastampa/20052507MILZAPIERRE.htm interview] to French historian [[Pierre Milza]] on the ''Corriere della Sera'' of 14 July 2005 (in Italian) and the [https://archive.today/20120904173354/http://www.ifz-muenchen.de/index.php?id=280&type=1&L=3class=l lessons] of historian [[Thomas Schlemmer]] at the University of Munchen (in German).</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |title=Civil War in Europe, 1905-1949 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2011|isbn=9781139499644 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zP4ikZ_o3V8C|page=202}}</ref> historiography. [[File:01 partigiani a milano1.jpg|thumb|[[Italian resistance movement|Italian anti-fascist partisans]] in Milan during the [[Italian Civil War]], April 1945]] Soon after being ousted, Mussolini was rescued by a German commando in [[Gran Sasso raid|Operation Eiche]] ("Oak"). The Germans brought Mussolini to northern Italy where he set up a Fascist puppet state, the [[Italian Social Republic]] (RSI). Meanwhile, the Allies advanced in southern Italy. In September 1943, [[Four days of Naples|Naples]] rose against the occupying German forces. The Allies organized some royalist Italian troops into the [[Italian Co-Belligerent Army]], while other troops continued to fight alongside Nazi Germany in the ''Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano'', the [[National Republican Army]]. In addition, a large [[Italian resistance movement]] started a long [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] against the German and Fascist forces. As a consequence, the country descended into [[Italian Civil War|civil war]], with the Italian Co-belligerent Army and the resistance movement, supported by the Allies, contended the Social Republic's forces and its German allies. The Germans, often helped by Fascists, committed several [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht|atrocities]] against Italian civilians in occupied zones, such as the [[Ardeatine massacre]] and the [[Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre]]. The Kingdom of Italy declared war on Nazi Germany on 13 October 1943;<ref name=italyswitchesstayinwar>{{cite news|url=https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/13/oct-13-1943-italy-switches-sides-in-world-war-ii/|title=Oct. 13, 1943 {{!}} Italy Switches Sides in World War II|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=13 October 2011|access-date=29 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/italy-declares-war-on-germany|title=Italy declares war on Germany|publisher=History.com|access-date=30 August 2021}}</ref> tensions between the Axis Powers and the Italian military were rising following the failure to defend Sicily, with New York Times correspondent Milton Bracker noting that "Italian hatred of the Germans unquestionably grew as the fighting spirit waned, and episodes between German and Italian soldiers and civilians before and after the armistice have shown pretty clearly a complete and incontrovertible end of all sympathy between the former Axis partners."<ref name=italyswitchesstayinwar /> On 16 October, the Rastenburg Protocol was signed with Nazi Germany. In accordance with this protocol, the RSI was allowed to raise [[Division (military)|division]]-sized military formations. This allowed Graziani to raise four RSI divisions totalling 52,000 men. In July 1944, the first of these divisions completed training and was sent to the front. Recruiting military forces was difficult for the RSI, as most of the Italian army had been interned by German forces in 1943, many Italians had been [[Italian military internees|conscripted into forced labour in Germany]] and few wanted to fight on Nazi Germany's side after 8 September 1943. The RSI became so desperate for soldiers that it granted convicts freedom if they would join the army and the sentence of death was imposed on anyone who opposed being conscripted.{{sfn|Smith|1983|p=308}} Autonomous military forces in the RSI also fought against the Allies including the notorious ''[[Decima Flottiglia MAS]]'' under command of Prince [[Junio Valerio Borghese]]. Borghese held no allegiance to Mussolini and even suggested that he would take him prisoner if he could.{{sfn|Smith|1983|p=308}} On 4 June 1944, the German occupation of Rome came to an end as the Allies advanced. As the Allies advanced north, they encountered increasingly difficult terrain, as mountains offered excellent defensive positions to Axis forces. The final Allied victory over the Axis in Italy did not come until the spring offensive of 1945, after Allied troops had breached the [[Gothic Line]], leading to the surrender of German and Fascist forces in Italy on 2 May shortly before Germany finally surrendered ending World War II in Europe on 8 May. It is estimated that between September 1943 and April 1945, some 60,000 Allied and 50,000 German soldiers died in Italy.{{#tag:ref|In ''Alexander's Generals'' Blaxland quotes 59,151 Allied deaths between 3 September 1943 and 2 May 1945 as recorded at AFHQ and gives the breakdown between 20 nationalities: United States 20,442; United Kingdom, 18,737; France, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Senegal and Belgium 5,241; Canada, 4,798; India, Pakistan, Nepal 4,078; Poland 2,028; New Zealand 1,688; Italy (excluding irregulars) 917; South Africa 800; Brazil 275; Greece 115; [[Jewish Brigade|Jewish volunteers]] from the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate in Palestine]] 32. In addition, 35 soldiers were killed by enemy action while serving with pioneer units from Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Seychelles, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Lebanon, Cyprus and the West Indies<ref name="Blax11">Blaxland (1979), p. 11</ref>|group=nb}} [[File:Litorale 1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Changes to the Italian eastern border from 1920 to 1975. {{legend|#ffff00|The [[Austrian Littoral]], later renamed [[Julian March]], which was assigned to Italy in 1920 with the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1920)|Treaty of Rapallo]] (with adjustments of its border in 1924 after the [[Treaty of Rome (1924)|Treaty of Rome]]) and which was then ceded to Yugoslavia in 1947 with the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Treaty of Paris]]}} {{legend|#10FF20|Areas annexed to Italy in 1920 and remained Italian even after 1947}} {{legend|#00fa9a|Areas annexed to Italy in 1920, passed to the [[Free Territory of Trieste]] in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Italy in 1975 with the [[Treaty of Osimo]]}} {{legend|#eee8aa|Areas annexed to Italy in 1920, passed to the Free Territory of Trieste in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Yugoslavia in 1975 with the Osimo treaty}}]] During World War II, [[Italian war crimes]] included [[extrajudicial killing]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]<ref name="JamesBurgwyn_2004">James H. Burgwyn (2004). [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rmis/2004/00000009/00000003/art00005 General Roatta's war against the partisans in Yugoslavia: 1942] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054155/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rmis/2004/00000009/00000003/art00005 |date=21 September 2013}}, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Volume 9, Number 3, pp. 314–329(16)</ref> by the deportation of about 25,000 people, mainly Jews, Croats, and Slovenians, to the [[List of Italian concentration camps|Italian concentration camps]], such as [[Rab concentration camp|Rab]], [[Gonars concentration camp|Gonars]], [[Monigo]], [[Renicci di Anghiari]] and elsewhere. [[Yugoslav Partisans]] perpetrated their own crimes against the local ethnic Italian population ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]) during and after the war, including the [[foibe massacres]]. In Italy and Yugoslavia, unlike in Germany, few war crimes were prosecuted.<ref name="RoryCarroll_2001">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130716012326/http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2001/jun/25/artsandhumanities.highereducation Italy's bloody secret] (archived by [[WebCite]]), written by [[Rory Carroll]], Education, [[The Guardian]], June 2001</ref><ref name="Pedaliu_JContHistory">[[Effie Pedaliu]] (2004) {{JSTOR|4141408?}} Britain and the 'Hand-over' of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48. Journal of Contemporary History. Vol. 39, No. 4, Special Issue: Collective Memory, pp. 503–529</ref><ref name="oliva06">[[Gianni Oliva|Oliva, Gianni]] (2006) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720023109/http://www.libreriauniversitaria.it/si-ammazza-troppo-poco-crimini/libro/9788804551294 ''«Si ammazza troppo poco». I crimini di guerra italiani. 1940–43''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720023109/http://www.libreriauniversitaria.it/si-ammazza-troppo-poco-crimini/libro/9788804551294|date=20 July 2011}}, Mondadori, {{ISBN|88-04-55129-1}}</ref><ref name="blpp2004">Baldissara, Luca & Pezzino, Paolo (2004). ''Crimini e memorie di guerra: violenze contro le popolazioni e politiche del ricordo'', L'Ancora del Mediterraneo. {{ISBN|978-88-8325-135-1}}</ref> On 25 April 1945 the [[National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy]] proclaimed a general insurrection in all the territories still occupied by the Nazi-fascists, indicating to all the partisan forces active in Northern Italy that were part of the Volunteer Corps of Freedom to attack the fascist and German garrisons by imposing the surrender, days before the arrival of the Allied troops; at the same time, the National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy personally issued legislative decrees,<ref>There are three fundamental decrees that seal the legislative work, already active since 1944: ''All powers to CLNAI''; ''Decree for the administration of justice''; ''Of socialization''.</ref> assuming power "in the name of the Italian people and as a delegate of the Italian Government", establishing among other things the death sentence for all fascist hierarchs,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.associazioni.milano.it/isec/ita/cronologia/crono25apr.htm|title=Fondazione ISEC - cronologia dell'insurrezione a Milano - 25 aprile|access-date=14 February 2022|language=it|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527200809/http://www.associazioni.milano.it/isec/ita/cronologia/crono25apr.htm|archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> "Surrender or die!" was the rallying call of the partisans that day and those immediately following. Today the event is commemorated in [[Italy]] every 25 April by the [[Liberation Day (Italy)|Liberation Day]], [[National Day]] introduced on 22 April 1946, which celebrates the liberation of the country from [[fascism]].<ref>{{cite web |url =http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=1946-04-24&atto.codiceRedazionale=046U0185&elenco30giorni=false |title =DECRETO LEGISLATIVO LUOGOTENENZIALE 22 aprile 1946, n. 185|access-date =28 April 2015| language=Italian}}</ref> Mussolini was captured on 27 April 1945, by [[Partito Comunista Italiano|communist]] [[Italian partisans]] near the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] border as he tried to escape Italy. On the next day, he was executed for high treason, as sentenced in absentia by a tribunal of the [[National Liberation Committee|CLN]]. Afterwards, the bodies of Mussolini, his mistress, and about fifteen other Fascists were taken to [[Milan]] where they were displayed to the public. Days later on 2 May 1945, the German forces in Italy surrendered. The government of Badoglio had remained in being for some nine months. On 9 June 1944, he was replaced as Prime Minister by the 70-year-old anti-fascist leader [[Ivanoe Bonomi]]. In June 1945 Bonomi was in turn replaced by [[Ferruccio Parri]], who in turn gave way to [[Alcide de Gasperi]] on 4 December 1945. Finally, De Gasperi supervised the transition to a Republic following the abdication of Vittorio Emanuele III on 9 May 1946, the one-month-long reign of his son [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]] ("King of May") and the [[Italian constitutional referendum, 1946|Constitutional Referendum]] that abolished the monarchy; De Gasperi briefly became acting Head of State as well as Prime Minister on 18 June 1946, but ceded the former role to Provisional President [[Enrico de Nicola]] ten days later. ===Anti-fascism against Mussolini's regime=== {{see also|Anti-fascism}} [[File:Flag of the Arditi del Popolo Battalion.svg|thumb|left|Flag of ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', an axe cutting a ''[[fasces]]''. ''Arditi del Popolo'' was a militant [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] group founded in 1921]] In Italy, Mussolini's [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] regime used the term ''[[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]]'' to describe its opponents. Mussolini's [[secret police]] was officially known as the [[Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism]]. During the 1920s in the [[Kingdom of Italy]], anti-fascists, many of them from the [[labor movement]], fought against the violent [[Blackshirts]] and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the [[Italian Socialist Party]] (PSI) signed a [[Pact of Pacification|pacification pact]] with Mussolini and his [[Fasci Italiani di Combattimento|Fasces of Combat]] on 3 August 1921,<ref>Charles F. Delzell, edit., ''Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945'', New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26</ref> and trade unions adopted a legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf |title=Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919-22 |access-date=23 September 2021 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319044401/https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Italian General Confederation of Labour]] (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the [[Communist Party of Italy]] (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor.<ref>[https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919-22] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319044401/https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf|date=19 March 2022}}, Antonio Sonnessa, in the ''[[European History Quarterly]]'', Vol. 33, No. 2, 183-218 (2003)</ref> The Italian anarchist [[Severino Di Giovanni]], who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 [[March on Rome]], organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://anarchist_century.tripod.com/timeline.html |title=Anarchist Century |publisher=Anarchist_century.tripod.com |access-date=7 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203013634/http://anarchist_century.tripod.com/timeline.html |archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref> The Italian liberal anti-fascist [[Benedetto Croce]] wrote his ''[[Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals]]'', which was published in 1925.<ref>David Ward ''Antifascisms: Cultural Politics in Italy, 1943–1946''</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were [[Piero Gobetti]] and [[Carlo Rosselli]].<ref>James Martin, 'Piero Gobetti's Agonistic Liberalism', ''History of European Ideas'', '''32''', (2006), pp. 205–222.</ref> [[File:Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg|thumb|1931 badge of a member of [[Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana]]]] [[Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana]] ({{lang-en|Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration}}), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in [[Nérac]], France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled ''La Libertà''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pugliese |first1=Stanislao G. |last2=Pugliese |first2=Stanislao |title=Fascism, Anti-fascism, and the Resistance in Italy: 1919 to the Present |date=2004 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-3123-9 |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDyqHO2LVosC&pg=PA10 |access-date=11 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tollardo |first1=Elisabetta |title=Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922-1935 |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-95028-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6JlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA152 |page=152 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Scala |first1=Spencer M. Di |title=Renewing Italian Socialism: Nenni to Craxi |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-536396-8 |pages=6–8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8gGaCQDLUsC&pg=PA6 |access-date=11 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Flag of Giustizia e Liberta.svg|thumb|Flag of [[Giustizia e Libertà]], anti-fascist movement active from 1929 to 1945]] [[Giustizia e Libertà]] ({{lang-en|Justice and Freedom}}) was an Italian [[anti-fascist]] [[resistance movement]], active from 1929 to 1945.<ref name=jam>James D. Wilkinson (1981). ''The Intellectual Resistance Movement in Europe''. Harvard University Press. p. 224.</ref> The movement was cofounded by [[Carlo Rosselli]],<ref name=jam/> [[Ferruccio Parri]], who later became [[Prime Minister of Italy]], and [[Sandro Pertini]], who became [[President of Italy]], were among the movement's leaders.<ref>Stanislao G. Pugliese (1999). ''Carlo Rosselli: socialist heretic and antifascist exile''. Harvard University Press. p. 51.</ref> The movement's members held various political beliefs but shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties. ''Giustizia e Libertà'' also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work of [[Gaetano Salvemini]]. Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the [[Spanish Civil War]] with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s dictatorship against Mussolini's regime; hence their motto: "Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collettiva.it/rubriche/buona-memoria/2023/05/07/news/_oggi_in_spagna_domani_in_italia_-2984121/|title="Oggi in Spagna, domani in Italia"|access-date=12 May 2023|language=it}}</ref> Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the [[Slovenes]] and [[Croats]] in the territories annexed to Italy after [[World War I]], known as the [[Julian March]].<ref>[[Milica Kacin Wohinz]], [[Jože Pirjevec]], ''Storia degli sloveni in Italia : 1866–1998'' (Venice: Marsilio, 1998)</ref><ref>Milica Kacin Wohinz, ''Narodnoobrambno gibanje primorskih Slovencev : 1921–1928'' (Trieste: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1977)</ref> The most influential was the militant insurgent organization [[TIGR]], which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military.<ref>[[Milica Kacin Wohinz]], ''Prvi antifašizem v Evropi'' (Koper: Lipa, 1990)</ref><ref>Mira Cenčič, ''TIGR : Slovenci pod Italijo in TIGR na okopih v boju za narodni obstoj'' (Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1997)</ref> Most of the underground structure of the organization was discovered and dismantled by the [[Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism]] (OVRA) in 1940 and 1941,<ref>Vid Vremec, Pinko Tomažič in drugi tržaški proces 1941 (Trieste: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1989)</ref> and after June 1941 most of its former activists joined the [[Slovene Partisans]]. During [[World War II]], many members of the [[Italian resistance]] left their homes and went to live in the mountains, fighting against Italian fascists and [[Nazi Germany|German Nazi]] soldiers during the [[Italian Civil War]]. Many cities in Italy, including [[Turin]], [[Naples]] and [[Milan]], were freed by anti-fascist uprisings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darbysrangers.tripod.com/id102.htm |title=Intelligence and Operational Support for the Anti-Nazi Resistance |publisher=Darbysrangers.tripod.com |access-date=10 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251219190304/https://darbysrangers.tripod.com/id102.htm |archive-date=19 December 2025}}</ref> ==Republican era (1946–present)== {{Main|History of the Italian Republic}} ===Birth of the Republic=== {{Main|1946 Italian institutional referendum}} [[File:Umberto II, 1944.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Umberto II]], the last [[King of Italy]], was exiled to Portugal.]] Much like [[Japan]] and [[Germany]], the aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society, and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement.<ref>{{Citation|year=1970|title=Italia|encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano|volume=VI|page=456|publisher=[[Treccani]]|language=it}}</ref> Following Victor Emmanuel III's abdication, his son, the new king [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]], was pressured by the threat of another civil war to call a [[Italian constitutional referendum, 1946|Constitutional Referendum]] to decide whether Italy should remain a monarchy or become a republic. On 2 June 1946, the republican side won 54% of the vote and Italy officially became a republic. All male members of the [[House of Savoy]] were barred from entering Italy, a ban which was only repealed in 2002. Under the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947]], [[Istria]], [[Kvarner Gulf|Kvarner]], most of the [[Julian March]] as well as the [[Dalmatia]]n city of [[Zadar|Zara]] was annexed by [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] causing the [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]], which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 local ethnic [[Italians]] ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic [[Istro-Romanians]], choosing to maintain Italian citizenship.<ref>{{cite web |first=Benedetta |last=Tobagi |url=http://www.treccani.it/scuola/lezioni/storia/la_repubblica_italiana.html |title=La Repubblica italiana &#124; Treccani, il portale del sapere |publisher=Treccani.it |access-date=28 January 2015}}</ref> [[File:Alcide de Gasperi 2.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[List of Prime Ministers of Italy|first]] republican [[Prime Minister of Italy]] and one of the [[Founding fathers of the European Union|Founding Fathers of the European Union]]]] Later, the [[Free Territory of Trieste]] was divided between the two states. Italy also lost all of its colonial possessions, formally ending the [[Italian Empire]]. In 1950, [[Italian Somaliland]] was made a [[Trust Territory of Somaliland|United Nations Trust Territory]] under Italian administration until 1 July 1960. The Italian border that applies today has existed since 1975, when [[Trieste]] was formally re-annexed to Italy. The [[Italian general election, 1946|General Elections of 1946]], held at the same time as the Constitutional Referendum, elected 556 members of a [[Constituent Assembly of Italy|Constituent Assembly]], of which 207 were [[Democrazia Cristiana|Christian Democrats]], 115 [[Partito Socialista Italiano|Socialists]] and 104 [[Partito Comunista Italiano|Communists]]. A [[Italian Constitution|new constitution]] was approved, setting up a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] democracy. In 1947, under American pressure, the communists were expelled from the government. The [[Italian general election, 1948]] saw a landslide victory for Christian Democrats, that dominated the system for the following forty years. ====Marshall Plan aid from the United States==== [[File:Римський договір.jpg|thumb|left|The signing ceremony of the [[Treaty of Rome]] on 25 March 1957, creating the [[European Economic Community|EEC]], forerunner of the present-day [[European Union|EU]].]] Italy joined the [[Marshall Plan]] (ERP) and [[NATO]]. By 1950, the economy had largely stabilized and started booming.<ref>Christopher Duggan, '' Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'' (2008) ch 27</ref> In 1957, Italy was a founding member of the [[European Economic Community]], which later transformed into the European Union (EU). The Marshall Plan's long-term legacy was to help modernize Italy's economy. How Italian society built mechanisms to adapt, translate, resist, and domesticate this challenge had a lasting effect on the nation's development over the subsequent decades.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ellwood | first1 = David W. | year = 2003 | title = The Propaganda of the Marshall Plan in Italy in a Cold War Context | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_intelligence-national-security_summer-2003_18_2/page/225 | journal = Intelligence and National Security | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 225–236 | doi = 10.1080/02684520412331306820 | s2cid = 153463824}}</ref> After Fascism's failure, the United States offered a vision of modernization that was unprecedented in its power, internationalism, and invitation to emulation. However Stalinism was a powerful political force. The ERP was one of the main ways that this modernization was operationalized. The old prevailing vision of the country's industrial prospects had been rooted in traditional ideas of craftsmanship, frugality and thrift, which stood in contrast to the dynamism seen in automobiles and fashion, anxious to leave behind the protectionism of the Fascist era and take advantage of the opportunities offered by rapidly expanding world trade. By 1953, industrial production had doubled compared with 1938 and the annual rate of productivity increase was 6.4%, twice the British rate. At [[Fiat Automobiles|Fiat]], automobile production per employee quadrupled between 1948 and 1955, the fruit of an intense, Marshall Plan-aided application of American technology (as well as much more intense discipline on the factory-floor). Vittorio Valletta, Fiat's general manager, helped by trade barriers that blocked French and German cars, focused on technological innovations as well as an aggressive export strategy. He successfully bet on serving the more dynamic foreign markets from modern plants built with the help of Marshall Plan funds. From this export base he later sold into a growing domestic market, where Fiat was without serious competition. Fiat managed to remain at the cutting edge of car manufacturing technology, enabling it to expand production, foreign sales, and profits.<ref>Francesca Fauri, "The Role of Fiat in the Development of the Italian Car Industry in the 1950s" ''Business History Review'' 1996 70(2): 167–206. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3116880 in Jstor]</ref> ===Economic miracle=== [[File:Roma 1998 08 14 Fiat 600.jpg|thumb|left|[[Fiat 600]], iconic middle-class dream car and status symbol of the 1950-60s.]] {{Main|Italian economic miracle}} In the 1950s and 1960s the country enjoyed prolonged economic boom, which was accompanied by a dramatic rise in the standard of living of ordinary Italians.<ref>Modern Italy 1871–1995 by Martin Clark</ref> The so-called [[Italian economic miracle]] lasted almost uninterruptedly until the "[[Hot Autumn]]'s" massive strikes and social unrest of 1969–70, that combined with the later [[1973 oil crisis]], gradually cooled the economy, that has never returned to its heady post-war growth rates. It has been calculated that the Italian economy experienced an average rate of growth of GDP of 5.8% per year between 1951 and 1963, and 5.0% per year between 1964 and 1973.<ref>{{Cite book| first1=Nicholas |last1=Crafts |first2=Gianni |last2=Toniolo | title = Economic growth in Europe since 1945| url=https://archive.org/details/economicgrowtheu1945craf_729| url-access=limited| publisher=Cambridge University Press| year= 1996| page = [https://archive.org/details/economicgrowtheu1945craf_729/page/n452 428]| isbn = 0-521-49627-6}}</ref> Italian rates of growth were second only, but very close, to the [[West Germany|German]] rates, in Europe, and among the [[OEEC]] countries only Japan had been doing better.<ref>{{Cite book| first=Ennio |last=Di Nolfo| title = Power in Europe? II: Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, and the Origins of the EEC 1952–57| publisher=de Gruyter| year= 1992| location = Berlin| page = 198| isbn = 3-11-012158-1}}</ref> Between 1955 and 1971, around 9 million people are estimated to have been involved in inter-regional migrations in Italy, uprooting entire communities.<ref>{{Cite book| first=Paul| last=Ginsborg| title = A history of contemporary Italy| url=https://archive.org/details/historyofcontemp0000gins| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan| year= 2003| location = New York| page = [https://archive.org/details/historyofcontemp0000gins/page/219 219]| isbn = 1-4039-6153-0}}</ref> Emigration was especially directed to the factories of the so-called "industrial triangle", a region encompassed between the major manufacturing centres of [[Milan]] and [[Turin]] and the seaport of [[Genoa]]. The needs of a modernizing economy demanded new transport and energy infrastructures. Thousands of kilometres of railways and highways were completed in record times to connect the main urban areas, while dams and power plants were built all over Italy, often without regard for geological and environmental conditions. Strong urban growth led to uncontrolled urban sprawl. The natural environment was constantly under threat by wild industrial expansion, leading to ecological disasters like the [[Vajont Dam]] inundation and the [[Seveso disaster|Seveso]] chemical accident. The boom had also a huge impact on Italian society and culture. The pervasive [[influence of mass media]] and [[consumerism]] on society has often been fiercely criticized by intellectuals like [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] and film directors like [[Dino Risi]], [[Vittorio De Sica]] and [[Ettore Scola]], that stigmatized selfishness and immorality that characterized miracle's years. ===Years of Lead=== {{Main|Years of lead (Italy)}} [[File:Stragedibologna-2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bologna massacre|Attack]] of the far-right terrorist group [[Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari|NAR]] at the [[Bologna]] railway station on 2 August 1980, which caused the death of 85 people.]] During the 1970s, Italy saw an unexpected escalation of political violence. From 1969 to 1980, repeated neofascist outrages were launched such as the [[Piazza Fontana bombing]] in 1969. Red Brigades and many other groups decided on armed attacks as a revolutionary strategy. They carried out urban riots, as in Rome and Bologna in 1977. Known as the [[History of Italy (1970s-1980s)|Years of Lead]], this period was characterised by widespread social conflicts and terrorist acts carried out by extra-parliamentary movements. The assassination of the leader of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] (DC), [[Aldo Moro]], led to the end of a "[[historic compromise]]" between the DC and the [[Italian Communist Party|Communist Party]] (PCI). In the 1980s, for the first time, two governments were managed by a Republican ([[Giovanni Spadolini]] 1981–82) and a Socialist ([[Bettino Craxi]] 1983–87) rather than by a Christian Democrat.<ref>Alessandra Diazzi and Alvise Sforza Tarabochia, ''The Years of Alienation in Italy: Factory and Asylum Between the Economic Miracle and the Years of Lead'' (2019), pp 1-40.</ref><ref>Richard Drake, "Italy in the 1960s: A Legacy of Terrorism and Liberation." ''South central review'' 16 (1999): 62-76. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3190077 online]</ref> At the end of the Lead years, the PCI gradually increased their votes thanks to [[Enrico Berlinguer]]. The [[Italian Socialist Party|Socialist Party]] (PSI), led by [[Bettino Craxi]], became more and more critical of the Communists and of the [[Soviet Union]]; Craxi himself pushed in favour of US President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s positioning of [[Pershing II]] missiles in Italy. ===Second Republic (1992–present)=== Italy faced several terror attacks between 1992 and 1993, perpetrated by the [[Sicilian Mafia]] as a consequence of several life sentences pronounced during the "[[Maxi Trial]]", and of the new anti-mafia measures launched by the government. In 1992, two major dynamite attacks killed the judges [[Giovanni Falcone]] (23 May in the [[Capaci bombing]]) and [[Paolo Borsellino]] (19 July in the [[Via D'Amelio bombing]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.corriere.it/International/english/articoli/2012/03/08/borsellino.shtml |title=New Arrests for Via D'Amelio Bomb Attack |publisher=corriere.it |date=8 March 2012}}</ref> One year later (May–July 1993), tourist spots were attacked, such as the [[Via dei Georgofili bombing|Via dei Georgofili]] in Florence, [[Via Palestro massacre|Via Palestro]] in Milan, and the Piazza [[San Giovanni in Laterano]] and Via San Teodoro in Rome, leaving 10 dead and 93 injured and causing severe damage to cultural heritage such as the [[Uffizi Gallery]]. The Catholic Church openly condemned the Mafia, and two churches were bombed and an anti-Mafia priest shot dead in Rome.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipezzimancanti.it/download/Tagliavia%20sentenza.pdf|title=Sentenza del processo di 1º grado a Francesco Tagliavia per le stragi del 1993}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parlamento.it/application/xmanager/projects/parlamento/Reso.steno.26.3.2012Int..pdf|title=Audizione del procuratore Sergio Lari dinanzi alla Commissione Parlamentare Antimafia – XVI LEGISLATURA (PDF).}}</ref> [[File:Echadas_de_Monedas.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bettino Craxi]], viewed by many as the symbol of [[Tangentopoli]], Leader of the [[Italian Socialist Party|Socialist Party]] and Prime Minister from 1983 to 1987, is greeted by a salvo of coins as a sign of loathing by protesters.]] From 1992 to 1997, Italy faced significant challenges as voters disenchanted with political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organised crime's considerable influence collectively called the political system [[Tangentopoli]]. As Tangentopoli was under a set of judicial investigations by the name of [[Mani pulite]] (Italian for "clean hands"), voters demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms. The Tangentopoli scandals involved all major parties, but especially those in the government coalition: between 1992-94 the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|DC]] underwent a severe crisis and was dissolved, splitting up into several pieces, among whom the [[Italian People's Party (1994–2002)|Italian People's Party]] and the [[Christian Democratic Center]]. The [[Italian Socialist Party|PSI]] (along with other minor governing parties) completely dissolved.<ref>Sarah Waters, "'Tangentopoli' and the emergence of a new political order in Italy." ''West European Politics'' (1994): 17#1 pp:169–182.</ref><ref>Donald Sassoon, "Tangentopoli or the democratization of corruption: Considerations on the end of Italy's first republic." ''Journal of Modern Italian Studies'' (1995) 1#1 pp: 124–143.</ref> The [[Italian general election, 1994|1994 general election]] also swept media magnate [[Silvio Berlusconi]] (Leader of "[[Pole of Freedoms]]" coalition) into office as Prime Minister. Berlusconi, however, was forced to step down in December 1994 when his [[Lega Nord]] partners withdrew support. The Berlusconi government was succeeded by a [[technical government]] headed by Prime Minister [[Lamberto Dini]], which left office in early-1996. At the [[Italian general election, 1996|1996 general election]], [[Romano Prodi]] led a centre-left coalition to victory. Prodi's first government became the third-longest to stay in power before he narrowly lost a vote of confidence, by three votes, in October 1998. A new government was formed by [[Democrats of the Left]] leader and former Communist [[Massimo D'Alema]], but in April 2000, following poor performance by his coalition in regional elections, D'Alema resigned. The succeeding centre-left government, including most of the same parties, was headed by [[Giuliano Amato]] (social-democratic), who previously served as Prime Minister from 1992 to 1993 and again from April 2000 until June 2001. That same year, a centre-right coalition [[Italian general election, 2001|formed the government]] and [[Silvio Berlusconi]] was able to regain power and keep it for a complete five-year mandate; becoming the longest-serving government in post-war Italy. Berlusconi participated in the US-led [[multinational coalition in Iraq]]. {{multiple image |align=right|direction=horizontal | image1 = Romano Prodi 1999 (cropped).jpg | width1 = 122 | image2 = Silvio Berlusconi 1996.jpg | width2 = 131 | caption1 = [[Romano Prodi]], Prime Minister from 1996 to 1998 and from 2006 to 2008, and long-time leader of the [[Centre-left coalition (Italy)|centre-left coalition]] | caption2 = [[Silvio Berlusconi]], Prime Minister from 1994 to 1995, from 2001 to 2006 and from 2008 to 2011, and long-time leader of the [[Centre-right coalition (Italy)|centre-right coalition]] }} The [[Italian general election, 2006|2006 general election]] returned Prodi to government, leading an all-encompassing centre-left coalition of 11 parties ([[The Union (political coalition)|The Union]]). Prodi won with only a narrow majority in the Senate, also due to the new proportional [[electoral law]] introduced by Berlusconi and [[Roberto Calderoli|Calderoli]] in 2005. In the first year of his government, Prodi followed a cautious policy of economic liberalisation and reduction of public debt. His government, in loss of popularity, was anyway sacked by the end of support from centrist MPs led by [[Clemente Mastella]]. Berlusconi won the [[Italian general election, 2008|2008 general election]], with the [[People of Freedom]] party (fusion of his previous [[Forza Italia]] party and of Fini's [[National Alliance (Italy)|National Alliance]]) against [[Walter Veltroni]] of the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]]. Italy was among the countries hit hardest by the [[Great Recession]] of 2008–09 and the subsequent [[European debt crisis]]. The national economy shrunk by 6.76% during the whole period, totalling seven quarters of recession.<ref name="OECD">{{cite web |url=http://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=350 |title=Quarterly Growth Rates of real GDP, change over previous quarter |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] |access-date=8 February 2015}}</ref> In 2010, Berlusconi's party saw the splintering of [[Gianfranco Fini]]'s new faction, which formed a parliamentary group and voted against him in a no-confidence vote on 14 December 2010. Berlusconi's government was able to avoid no-confidence thanks to support from sparse MPs, but has lost a consistent majority in the lower Chamber. In November 2011, the Italian bond yield was 6.74 per cent for 10-year bonds, nearing a 7% level where Italy is thought to lose access to financial markets.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Barry|last1=Moody|first2=James|last2=Mackenzie|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-idUSTRE7A72NG20111108|title=Berlusconi to resign after parliamentary setback|date=8 November 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=8 February 2015|archive-date=18 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918220156/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/08/us-italy-idUSTRE7A72NG20111108|url-status=live}}</ref> On 12 November 2011, Berlusconi eventually resigned, and the famous economist [[Mario Monti]] was sworn in as Prime Minister at the head of a [[technocracy|technocratic]] government. As a shock therapy to avoid the debt crisis and kick-start economic growth, Monti's [[national unity government]] launched a massive programme of [[austerity measures]]; that reduced the deficit but precipitated the country in a [[double-dip recession]] in 2012 and 2013, receiving criticism from numerous economists.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Krugman|first1=Paul|title=Austerity, Italian-Style|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/25/opinion/krugman-austerity-italian-style.html|access-date=26 November 2017|work=The New York Times|date=24 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Orsi|first1=Roberto|title=The Demise of Italy and the Rise of Chaos|date=8 October 2013 |url=http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/eurocrisispress/2013/10/08/the-demise-of-italy-and-the-rise-of-chaos/|publisher=[[London School of Economics]]|access-date=26 November 2017}}</ref> [[File:2015 sicily.jpg|thumb|left|Asylum seekers arrive in [[Sicily]], 2015. The [[Arab Spring]] and the [[Syrian Civil War|Syrian War]] created factors that led to a [[European migrant crisis|migrant crisis]] that saw hundreds of thousands of boat-dwellers seeking refuge in Italy and other Mediterranean countries.]] On 24 and 25 February 2013, a [[Italian general election, 2013|general election]] was held; a centre-left coalition led [[Pier Luigi Bersani]], Leader of the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]], won a slight majority in the Chamber of Deputies but did not control the Senate. The election was characterised by the surprise success of the [[anti-establishment]] [[Five Star Movement]], founded by former comedian [[Beppe Grillo]], which came second with 25.5% of votes. On 24 April, President Napolitano gave to the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party, [[Enrico Letta]], the task of forming a government, having determined that Bersani could not form a government. Letta formed a short-lived [[Grand coalition (Italy)|grand coalition]] government, supported also by [[The People of Freedom]] of [[Silvio Berlusconi]] and [[Civic Choice]] of [[Mario Monti]]. Letta's cabinet lasted until 22 February 2014 (for a total of 300 days), as the government fell apart after the Democratic Party retired its support of Letta in favour of [[Matteo Renzi]], the 39-year-old mayor of Florence and nicknamed "''Il Rottamatore''" (The scrapper), who formed a new [[Renzi Cabinet|government]] with the support of some centrist parties. The Cabinet was the youngest government of Italy up to date, with an average age of 47 years and the first in which the number of female ministers was equal to the number of male ministers. The government implemented numerous reforms, including changes to the [[Italian electoral law|electoral system]], a relaxation of labour and employment laws with the intention of boosting economic growth, a thorough reformation of the [[public administration]] and the introduction of [[Civil union|same-sex civil union]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2015-09-29/italy-prime-minister-matteo-renzi-on-senate-reform|title= Italy Prime Minister Mattro Renzi on Senate Reform|publisher= [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]]|access-date= 29 September 2015}}</ref> However, Renzi resigned after losing a [[Italian constitutional referendum, 2016|constitutional referendum]] in December 2016, and was succeeded by [[Paolo Gentiloni]]. The centre-left Cabinets were plagued by the aftermath of the [[European debt crisis]] and the [[European migrant crisis]], which fuelled support for populist and right-wing parties.<ref>{{cite news |title=Fear of migrants feeds growth of Italy's far-right |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/fear-of-migrants-feeds-growth-of-italy-s-far-right-1.3393398 |access-date=10 June 2021 |publisher=[[The Irish Times]] |date=17 February 2018}}</ref> [[File:Covid-19 San Salvatore 09.jpg|thumb|Exhausted nurse takes a break in an Italian hospital during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Italy|COVID-19 emergency]].]] The [[Italian general election, 2018|2018 general election]] resulted in a [[hung parliament]] once again, which led to an unlikely [[Conte I Cabinet|populist government]] between the anti-establishment Five Star Movement and Salvini's [[Lega (political party)|Lega]], led by [[Giuseppe Conte]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/24/opinion/populists-rome-five-star-movement.html |title=Opinion – The Populists Take Rome |work=The New York Times |date=24 May 2018 |access-date=2 June 2018 |via=NYTimes.com}}</ref> However, after only fourteen months, the League withdrew its support to Conte, who subsequently allied with the Democratic Party and other smaller left-wing parties to form a new Cabinet.<ref>{{cite news |title=Italy's Conte forms coalition of bitter rivals, booting far-right from power |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190905-italy-coalition-conte-five-star-populists-democrats |access-date=9 September 2019 |work=France 24 |date=5 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=New Italian government formed, allying M5S and the centre-left {{!}} DW {{!}} 4 September 2019 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/new-italian-government-formed-allying-m5s-and-the-center-left/a-50287864 |access-date=9 September 2019 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=4 September 2019}}</ref> In 2020, Italy was severely hit by the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Italy|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>[http://www.salute.gov.it/nuovocoronavirus Nuovo coronavirus], ''Minsitero della Salute''</ref> From March to May 2020, Conte's government imposed a [[2020 Italy coronavirus lockdown|national lockdown]] as a measure to limit the spread of COVID-19.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51810673 |title=Italy extends emergency measures nationwide}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Beaumont |first1=Peter |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/10/from-confidence-to-quarantine-how-coronavirus-swept-italy |title=From confidence to quarantine: how coronavirus swept Italy |date=10 March 2020 |work=The Guardian|access-date=12 March 2020 |last2=Sample |first2=Ian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The measures, despite being widely approved by public opinion,<ref>{{cite web |last1=De Feo |first1=Gianluca |title=Sondaggio Demos: gradimento per Conte alle stelle |url=https://www.youtrend.it/2020/03/20/sondaggio-demos-gradimento-per-conte-alle-stelle/ |website=YouTrend |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=it-IT |date=20 March 2020}}</ref> were also described as the largest suppression of [[constitutional right]]s in the history of the republic.<ref>{{cite news |title=Blog {{!}} Coronavirus, la sospensione delle libertà costituzionali è realtà. Ma per me ce la stiamo cavando bene |url=https://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2020/03/18/coronavirus-la-sospensione-delle-liberta-costituzionali-e-realta-ma-per-me-ce-la-stiamo-cavando-bene/5739296/ |access-date=22 March 2020 |work=Il Fatto Quotidiano |date=18 March 2020 |language=it-IT}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Un uomo solo è al comando dell'Italia, e nessuno ha niente da ridire |url=https://www.linkiesta.it/2020/03/italia-coronavirus-conte-uomo-solo-al-comando/ |access-date=4 March 2020 |work=Linkiesta |date=24 March 2020 |language=it-IT}}</ref> With more than 100,000 confirmed fatalities, Italy was one of the countries with the highest total number of deaths in the [[COVID-19 pandemic|worldwide coronavirus pandemic]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Italy mourns its 100,000 dead as third wave builds |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/coronavirus/2021/0318/1204668-corovirus-global/ |access-date=10 June 2021 |agency=[[Raidió Teilifís Éireann]] |date=18 Mar 2021}}</ref> The pandemic caused also a [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic|severe economic disruption]], which resulted in Italy being one of the most affected countries.<ref>[https://www.agi.it/economia/news/2020-04-14/coronavirus-fmi-crisi-economica-8331041/ L'Italia pagherà il conto più salato della crisi post-epidemia], AGI</ref> In February 2021, these extraordinary circumstances brought to the formation of a [[Draghi Cabinet|national coalition government]] led by former President of the European Central Bank [[Mario Draghi]]. On 13 February 2021, he was sworn in as Prime Minister. The [[Draghi Cabinet|Draghi cabinet]] had support across the broad political spectrum.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mario Draghi sworn in as Italy's new prime minister |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56049115 |work=BBC News |date=13 February 2021}}</ref> In January 2022, President [[Sergio Mattarella]] was re-elected to serve a second consecutive seven-year term.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sergio Mattarella: At 80, Italy president re-elected on amid successor row |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60183929 |work=BBC News |date=29 January 2022}}</ref> On 21 July 2022, following a [[2022 Italian government crisis|government crisis]] which ended with FI, League and the M5S deciding to withdraw their support to the government, Prime Minister Draghi resigned. President [[Sergio Mattarella]] consequently dissolved the Parliament<ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/elections-legislature-italy-802d6ab0965feebf4e3f7bda1659df42 | title=Italy heads to early election after Draghi's coalition fails | website=[[Associated Press]] | date=21 July 2022 }}</ref> and called a [[2022 Italian general election|snap election]], which resulted in the [[Centre-right coalition (Italy)|centre-right coalition]] gaining an absolute majority of seats.<ref>{{cite news|date=27 September 2022|title=Italy's far-right Meloni begins tricky government talks|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220927-italy-s-far-right-meloni-begins-tricky-government-talks |access-date=2 October 2022|work=France 24|publisher=Agence France-Press}}</ref> On 22 October 2022, [[Giorgia Meloni]] was sworn in as Italy's first female prime minister. Her [[Brothers of Italy]] party formed a right-wing government with the far-right [[Lega (political party)|League]] and centre-right of ex-prime minister [[Silvio Berlusconi|Silvio Berlusconi's]] party.<ref>{{cite news |title=Who is Giorgia Meloni? The rise to power of Italy's new far-right PM |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-63351655 |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2022}}</ref> ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Duchy of Urbino]] * [[Genetic history of Italy]] * [[History of Capri]] * [[History of Naples]] * [[History of Rome]] * [[History of Sardinia]] * [[History of Sicily]] * [[History of the Republic of Venice]] * [[History of Trentino]] * [[History of Tuscany]] * [[History of Verona]] * [[Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia]] * [[List of consorts of Montferrat]] * [[List of consorts of Naples]] * [[List of consorts of Savoy]] * [[List of consorts of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]] * [[List of consorts of Tuscany]] * [[List of Italian queens]] * [[List of Italian inventions and discoveries]] * [[List of kings of the Lombards]] * [[List of Milanese consorts]] * [[List of Modenese consorts]] * [[List of monarchs of Naples]] * [[List of monarchs of Sardinia]] * [[List of monarchs of Sicily]] * [[List of monarchs of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]] * [[List of Parmese consorts]] * [[List of presidents of Italy]] * [[List of prime ministers of Italy]] * [[List of queens of the Lombards]] * [[List of Roman and Byzantine Empresses]] * [[List of rulers of Tuscany]] * [[List of Sardinian consorts]] * [[List of Sicilian consorts]] * [[List of State Archives of Italy]] * [[List of viceroys of Naples]] * [[List of viceroys of Sicily]] * [[Milan]] * [[Military history of Italy]] * [[Politics of Italy]] {{div col end}} ==Vyakulemba== {{Reflist|group=nb}} ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == ===Surveys=== * Coppa, Frank J. ed. ''Dictionary of Modern Italian History'' (1985) * Di Scala, Spencer M. ''Italy: From Revolution to Republic, 1700 to the Present.'' (1998) 436pp [https://www.questia.com/read/98920663 online edition] * Domenico, Roy. ''The Regions of Italy: A Reference Guide to History and Culture'' (2002) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605071013/http://www.questia.com/read/102135404?title=The%20Regions%20of%20Italy:%20A%20Reference%20Guide%20to%20History%20and%20Culture online edition] * Duggan, Christopher. ''The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0618353674 excerpt and text search] * Hearder, Henry, and D. P. Waley; ''A Short History of Italy: From Classical Times to the Present Day'' (1963) [https://web.archive.org/web/20080621180349/http://www.questia.com/read/1149043 online edition] * Holmes, George. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Italy'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0192854445 excerpt and text search] * Killinger; Charles L. ''The History of Italy'' (2002) [https://www.questia.com/read/101544720 online edition] * Smith, Denis Mack. ''Modern Italy: A Political History'' (1997) * {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Denis Mack |title=Mussolini: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack_m0l4 |date=1983 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0394716589}} ===Geography and environment=== * Armiero, Marco, and Marcus Hall, eds. ''Nature and History in Modern Italy'' (Ecology and History Series) (Ohio University Press, 2010) 295 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|978-0-8214-1916-8}} [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=31962 online review] * [[Lorenzo Arnone Sipari|Arnone Sipari, Lorenzo]], ed. ''Scritti scelti di Erminio Sipari sul Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo (1922–1933)'' (Nature and Parks series) (Trento, 2011) 349 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|978-88-97372-05-9}} * Delano-Smith, Catherine. ''Western Mediterranean Europe: A Historical Geography of Italy, Spain, and Southern France Since the Neolithic'' (1980) ===Ancient=== * Cary, M. and H. H. Scullard. ''A History of Rome: Down to the Reign of Constantine'' (3rd ed. 1996), 690pp * Forsythe, Gary. ''A Critical History of Early Rome'' (2005) 400pp * Grant, Michael. ''History of Rome'' (1997) * Heather, Peter. ''The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians'' (2006) 572pp * Scullard, H. H. ''A History of the Roman World 753–146 BC'' (5th ed. 2002), 596pp * Zuppardo, Emanuele and Piccolo, Salvatore (Günther Hölbl preface). ''Terra Mater: Sulle Sponde del Gela greco'', Gela, Betania (2005), 175pp ===Medieval=== * Abulafia, David. ''Italy in the Central Middle Ages: 1000–1300'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199247048 excerpt and text search] * Bullough, Donald A. ''Italy and Her Invaders'' (1968) * Herlihy, David, Robert S. Lopez, and Vsevolod Slessarev, eds., ''Economy, Society and Government in Medieval Italy'' (1969) * Hyde, J. K. ''Society and Politics in Medieval Italy'' (1973) * La Rocca, Cristina. ''Italy in the Early Middle Ages: 476–1000'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198700482 excerpt and text search] * Smith, Denis Mack. ''Medieval Sicily, 800–1713'' (1968) * Tobacco, Giovanni. ''The Struggle for Power in Medieval Italy: Structures of Political Power'' (1989) * Wickham, Chris. ''Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400–1000'' (1981) ===Renaissance=== * {{cite book |first=John Rigby |last=Hale |author-link=John Rigby Hale |year=1981 |title=A concise encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |oclc=636355191}}. * Kohl, Benjamin G. and Allison Andrews Smith, eds. ''Major Problems in the History of the Italian Renaissance'' (1995). * Najemy, John M. ''Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550'' (The Short Oxford History of Italy) (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198700407 excerpt and text search] * White, John. ''Art and Architecture in Italy, 1250–1400'' (1993) ===Early modern=== * Cochrane, Eric. ''Italy, 1530–1630'' (1988) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605071133/http://www.questia.com/read/52710416?title=Italy%201530-1630 online edition] * Carpanetto, Dino, and Giuseppe Ricuperati. ''Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685–1789'' (1987) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605071159/http://www.questia.com/read/55015369?title=Italy%20in%20the%20Age%20of%20Reason,%201685-1789 online edition] * Marino, John A. ''Early Modern Italy: 1550–1796'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198700423 excerpt and text search] * Roberts, J.M. "Italy, 1793–1830" in C.W. Crawley, ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: IX. War and Peace in an age of upheaval 1793–1830'' (Cambridge University Press, 1965) pp 439–461. [https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemode0009unse online] * Venturi, Franco. ''Italy and the Enlightenment'' (1972) * Woolf, Stuart. ''A History of Italy, 1700–1860'' (1988) ===Risorgimento=== * Beales. D.. and E. Biagini, ''The Risorgimento and the Unification of Italy'' (2002) * Clark, Martin. ''The Italian Risorgimento'' (Routledge, 2014) * Collier, Martin, ''Italian Unification, 1820–71'' (Heinemann, 2003); textbook, 156 pages * {{cite book | title = Italy in the nineteenth century: 1796–1900 | editor-last = Davis | editor-first = John A. | year = 2000 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = London | url = https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=115250399 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110629132205/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=115250399 | archive-date = 29 June 2011 | access-date = 10 June 2023}} * Farmer, Alan. "How was Italy Unified?", ''History Review'' 54, March 2006 * Hearder, Harry. ''Italy in the Age of the Risorgimento 1790–1870'' (1983) [https://www.amazon.com/Italy-Age-Risorgimento-1790-Longman/dp/0582491460 excerpt] * Holt, Edgar. ''The Making of Italy 1815–1870,'' (1971). * Laven, David. ''Restoration and Risorgimento: Italy 1796–1870'' (2012) * Pearce, Robert, and Andrina Stiles. ''Access to History: The Unification of Italy 1789–1896'' (4th rf., Hodder Education, 2015), textbook. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IFiGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT3 excerpt] * Riall, Lucy. ''Risorgimento: The History of Italy from Napoleon to Nation State'' (2009) * Riall, Lucy. ''The Italian Risorgimento: State, Society, and National Unification'' (Routledge, 1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/103783059/the-italian-risorgimento-state-society-and-national online] * Riall, Lucy. ''Garibaldi: Invention of a hero'' (Yale UP, 2008). * {{cite journal | last1 = Riall | first1 = Lucy | year = 1998 | title = Hero, saint or revolutionary? Nineteenth-century politics and the cult of Garibaldi | journal = Modern Italy | volume = 3 | issue = 2| pages = 191–204 | doi=10.1080/13532949808454803| s2cid = 143746713 }} * Ridley, Jasper. ''Garibaldi'' (1974), a standard biography. * Smith, Denis Mack. ''Cavour'' (1985) * Smith, Denis Mack. ''Victor Emanuel, Cavour, and the Risorgimento'' (Oxford UP, 1971) * Stiles, A. ''The Unification of Italy 1815–70'' (2nd edition, 2001) * {{cite book|last=Thayer |first=William Roscoe |title=The Life and Times of Cavour vol 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zfwNAQAAMAAJ |year=1911}} old interpretations but useful on details; vol 1 goes to 1859; [https://books.google.com/books?id=sK_CnX3-ZMQC volume 2 online covers 1859–62] ===Since 1860=== {{Further|Economic history of Italy#Further reading}} * Alexander, J. ''The hunchback's tailor: Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882-1922'' (Greenwood, 2001). * {{cite book|last=Bosworth |first=Richard J. B. |title=Mussolini's Italy |year=2005}} * Burgwyn, H. James. ''Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918-1940'' (Greenwood, 1997), * Cannistraro, Philip V. ed. ''Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy'' (1982) * Chabod, Federico. ''Italian Foreign Policy: The Statecraft of the Founders, 1870-1896'' (Princeton UP, 2014). * Clark, Martin. ''Modern Italy: 1871–1982'' (1984, 3rd edn 2008) * {{cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=M. |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015 |publisher=McFarland |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |year=2017 |edition=4th |isbn=978-0786474707 }} * De Grand, Alexander. ''Giovanni Giolitti and Liberal Italy from the Challenge of Mass Politics to the Rise of Fascism, 1882–1922'' (2001) * De Grand, Alexander. ''Italian Fascism: Its Origins and Development'' (1989) * ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition plus three new volumes 30-31-32 that cover events 1911–1922 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th edition (1926) [[s:1922 Encyclopædia Britannica|partly online]] ** [https://books.google.com/books?id=CMYUAAAAQAAJ full text of vol 30 ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY online free] * Gilmour, David.''The Pursuit of Italy: A History of a Land, Its Regions, and Their Peoples'' (2011). [https://www.amazon.com/Pursuit-Italy-History-Regions-Peoples/dp/0374533601/ excerpt] * Ginsborg, Paul. ''A History of Contemporary Italy, 1943–1988'' (2003). [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1403961530 excerpt and text search] * Lyttelton, Adrian. ''Liberal and Fascist Italy: 1900–1945'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731981 excerpt and text search] * McCarthy, Patrick ed. ''Italy since 1945'' (2000). * Overy, Richard. ''The road to war'' (4th ed. 1999, {{ISBN|978-0-14-028530-7}}), covers 1930s; pp 191–244. * {{cite book|last=Smith |first=D. Mack |title=Modern Italy: A Political History |year=1997 |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=0-472-10895-6}} * Toniolo, Gianni. ''An Economic History of Liberal Italy, 1850–1918'' (1990) * Toniolo, Gianni, ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy since Unification'' (Oxford University Press, 2013) 785 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=43490 online review]; [http://eh.net/?s=Toniolo another online review] * Williams, Isobel. ''Allies and Italians under Occupation: Sicily and Southern Italy, 1943–45'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). xiv + 308 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=43968 online review] * Zamagni, Vera. ''The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990'' (1993) 413 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|0-19-828773-9}}. === Kulemba mbiri === * {{cite journal | last1 = Azzi | first1 = Stephen Corrado | date = 11 February 2009 | title = The Historiography of Fascist Foreign Policy | journal = Historical Journal | volume = 36 | issue = 1| pages = 187–203 | jstor=2639522 | doi=10.1017/s0018246x00016174| s2cid = 159720673 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Bernhard | first1 = Patrick | year = 2014 | title = Renarrating Italian Fascism: New Directions in the Historiography of a European Dictatorship | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_contemporary-european-history_2014-02_23_1/page/151 | journal = Contemporary European History | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 151–163 | doi=10.1017/s0960777313000556| s2cid = 145319131 }} * Boardman, Jonathan. ''Umbria: A Cultural History'' (Signal Books; 2012). Charts a complex history of literature, religion, art, migration, and industry. * {{cite journal | last1 = Dipper | first1 = Christof | year = 2015 | title = Italian Contemporary Historiography. A Snapshot | journal = Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte | volume = 63 | issue = 3| page = 351 | doi=10.1515/vfzg-2015-0021| s2cid = 147390477}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Ferrari | first1 = Paolo | year = 2015 | title = The memory and historiography of the First World War in Italy | journal = Comillas Journal of International Relations | volume = 2 | issue = 2| pages = 117–126 | doi = 10.14422/cir.i02.y2015.009 | doi-access = free}} * Foot, John. ''Italy's Divided Memory'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 262 pages; 2010). Describes regional, political, and other divisions in Italian public memory of history. * {{cite journal | last1 = Musi | first1 = Aurelio | year = 2013 | title = Modern Italy in French, English and American historiography | journal = Nuova Rivista Storica | volume = 97 | issue = 3| pages = 909–952}} * Pasquino, Gianfranco. "Political History in Italy," ''Journal of Policy History'' (2009) 21#3 pp 282–97, on 20th century historians; covers Italian politics after World War II, and works of Silvio Lanaro, Aurelio Lepre, and Nicola Tranfaglia. Also discusses rise of the Italian Communist party, the role of the Christian Democrats in Italian society, and the development of the Italian parliamentary Republic. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/315859/summary summary] * {{cite journal|last=Ramm |first=Agatha |title=The Risorgimento in Sicily: Recent Literature |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_1972-10_87_345/page/795 |journal=English Historical Review |date=1972 |volume=87 |issue=345 |pages=795–811 |doi=10.1093/ehr/lxxxvii.cccxlv.795|jstor=562204}} * Rao, Anna Maria. "Napoleonic Italy: Old and New Trends in Historiography." in Ute Planert, ed., ''Napoleon's Empire'' (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016). pp 84–97. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722042803/http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/foto6.asp?File=mappe_va&Tipo=index&Righe=50&Col=4 Detailed Maps of the History of Italy] * [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Italy:_Primary_Documents History of Italy: Primary Documents] * [http://www.italyrevisited.org/ Italy Revisited (historical photo archives)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20240708092045/https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23766 Collection: Italy in 19th Century Photography] from the [[University of Michigan Museum of Art]] * [https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1148/the-dolmens-of-sicily Salvatore Piccolo, The Dolmens of Sicily] from the [[World History Encyclopedia]] {{Italy topics}} {{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}} {{History of Europe}} {{European history by country}} {{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:History of Italy| ]] 7kp61hsr45kt9xz5esf63uzc8wv26p3 0 49792 122781 122750 2026-10-01T01:30:28Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca kasandiro cakukhwaskana na ulimi}} '''Kasandiro ka Ulimi''' (panji ''agriscience'' mwakufwatuka)<ref name="oed"/> ni cigaŵa cikuru ca kasandiro ca [[baiyoloji]] ico chikusazgamo vigaŵa vya tusandiro twakuwerengeka, tusandiro twa vinthu vyakuŵako, tusandiro twa chuma na tusandiro twa mtundu wa ŵanthu, izo zikugwiliskikira ntchito pakupulikiska na kucita ulimi. Ŵanthu ŵakugwira ntchito mu kasandiro ka ulimi ŵakuchemeka ŵasandi ŵa ulimi panji ŵalimi ŵasandi. ==Mbiri== {{main|Mbiri ya Kasandiro ka Ulimi}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, [[Johann Friedrich Mayer (agriculturist)|Johann Friedrich Mayer]] wakacita mayezgo gha kugwiliskira ntchito ''gypsum'' (calcium sulfate yakusazgikamo maji) nga feteleza.<ref name="jb1840"/> Mu 1843, [[John Lawes|John Bennet Lawes]] na [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]] ŵakamba mayezgo ghatali gha mu minda pa [[Rothamsted Research Station|Rothamsted Research]] ku England, ghanyake ghake ghakali kucitikabe mpaka mu 2018.<ref name="rothamsted"/> Ku United States, kusintha kukuru mu kasandiro ka ulimi kukamba na [[Hatch Act of 1887]], iyo yikagwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti "kasandiro ka ulimi". [[Smith–Hughes Act]] ya mu 1917 yikawezgera maphunziro gha ulimi ku vinthu vyakugwira na mawoko, kweni suzi la kasandiro likaŵa lamara kuzengeka.<ref name="hillison"/> Kwambira mu 1906 kufika vyaka 44 vyakulondezgapo, ndalama za boma za kafukufuku wa ulimi ku United States zikajumpha ndalama za makampani ghakujipangira.<ref name="scienceforag"/> ==Vyakukhwaskana na malo ghakuzingilira== [[Kusintha kwa nyengo]] kwaŵa na vyakukolerana vikuru pa [[ulimi wamakono]], kupangiska kuti maluŵiro gha nyengo ghaleke kumanyikwa makora na kuwonjeska kuchitika na kukoma kwa vinthu nga [[chilala]] chitali, [[chigumula]] na kutentha comene. Chifukwa ca ici, kupangika kwa vyakulya kwaŵa kwambura kumanyikwa makora nanga mu vigaŵa ivyo pakwamba vikaŵanga na nyengo yakukhozgeka.<ref name="epa"/> Kusintha kwa kutentha na vula nakoso kukovwira ku [[kuvunda kwa nthaka]], kufuma kwa nthaka kuŵa mchenga (''desertification''), na kuwonongeka kwa maji, ivyo vikukhwaskana na kupangika kwa vyakulya na umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa muminda kwa nyengo yitali.<ref name="un"/> Pakwenera kunozga masuzgo agha, pali kutemwereka kukuru mu kafukufuku na kucita vinthu vyakukolerana na nyengo (''climate-smart strategies''), izo zikukhumba kunozgeka kwa vinjazga vya ulimi na nyengo iyo yikuwoneka sono na iyo yikwiza kwiza, kweniso kucepeska vyakufuma mu mpepo ivyo vikupweteka mlengalenga apo cikwenerekaso. Masinjizgo agha ghakusazgamo kugwiliskira ntchito maji na virongo mwaluso, kusazgapo mitundu yakupambanapambana ya vinthu vyakulimika na kuŵeta, kuvikilira nthaka na maji, na kupanga mbuto na viŵeto ivyo vikuzizipizga kutentha na chilala. Ivi vyose vikulongora umo kasandiro ka ulimi kali kakuzirwa comene pakusunga kupangika kwa vyakulya, kuvikilira vyakuŵapo vya nthaka, na kukhozgera kuzizipizga kwa vyakusintha kwa nyengo.<ref name="fao"/> ==Ŵasandi ŵakuzirwa ŵa ulimi== Kusazgamo [[Wilbur Olin Atwater]], [[Robert Bakewell (farmer)|Robert Bakewell]], [[Norman Borlaug]] (wiske wa [[Kusintha Kukuru kwa Vyakulya|Green Revolution]]), [[Luther Burbank]], [[George Washington Carver]], [[René Dumont]], [[Masanobu Fukuoka]], [[Sir Albert Howard]], [[Justus von Liebig]], [[Gregor Mendel]], [[Louis Pasteur]], [[M. S. Swaminathan]], [[Jethro Tull (agriculturist)|Jethro Tull]], na [[Sewall Wright]], mwa ŵanyake. ==Vigaŵa vinyake vyakukolerana== Kasandiro ka ulimi kakukolerana comene na vigaŵa nga [[agricultural chemistry|kemistri ya ulimi]], [[agricultural economics|kasandiro ka chuma ya ulimi]], [[agricultural engineering|uinjiniya wa ulimi]], [[soil science|kasandiro ka nthaka]], [[agronomy|agronomi]] (kusazgamo [[botany|botani]], [[horticulture|hotikulicha]], na kusankha mbuto), [[animal science|kasandiro ka viŵeto]] (kusazgamo kuŵeta na kudyeska viŵeto), [[genetic engineering|uinjiniya wa jini]], [[entomology|entomoloji]], [[environmental science|kasandiro ka malo ghakuzingilira]], [[fisheries science|kasandiro ka somba]] (kusazgamo ''aquaculture''), [[food science|kasandiro ka vyakulya]], kuthilira maji mumigunda, na kasandiro ka matenda gha mbuto. ==Malire Ghake== Ulimi, kasandiro ka ulimi, na agronomi vikukolerana comene, kweni vili na kupambana: *Ulimi ni vinthu ivyo vikusintha malo kuti vipangike viŵeto na vyamera vyakugwiliskira ŵanthu ntchito. Ulimi wakukhwaskana na maluso, kusazgamo kugwiliskira ntchito vya kafukufuku wa agronomi. *Agronomi ni kafukufuku na kusanguka kwa maluso pakusanda na kukhozga vyamera vyakulimika. *''Geoponics'' ni kasandiro ka kulima nthaka.<ref name="merriam"/> *''Hydroponics'' ni kukurizga vyamera kwambura nthaka, kugwiliskira ntchito maji ghakusazgikamo vyakuzirwa mu malo ghakupangika. ==Vigaŵa vya Kafukufuku== Kasandiro ka ulimi kakusazgamo kafukufuku na kusangika kwa vinthu ivi:<ref name="bosso"/><ref name="boucher"/> *Kuwezgera comene kupangika kwa vyakulya (nga kusankha mbuto na viŵeto ivyo vikuzizipizga chilala, kupanga feteleza ziphya, na maluso gha kuyezga kupangika kwa mbuto) *Kucepeska vyakuwonongeka vya viharo (masaka, tunyerere, mavirasi, na vinyake) pa vyamera panji viŵeto *Kusintha vyakupangika vyakwamba kuŵa vyakulya vyakumalizgira (nga kupanga, kusunga, na kuphakira vyakulya vyakufuma mu mkaka) *Kukanizga na kunozga vyakuwonongeka vya malo ghakuzingilira (nga kuvunda kwa nthaka, kupwelelera vyakutaya, na kutozga malo ghakuwonongeka) *Vinjazga vya ulimi vyakale, ivyo vikuchemekaso ''subsistence agriculture'', ivyo vikudyeska ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuvutika comene pa charu. *Kupangika na kukhumbika kwa vyakulya mucharu chose, comenecomene ku vyaru nga China, India, Brazil, US, na EU. *Tusandiro twakupambanapambana izo zikukhwaskana na vyakusanguka vya ulimi na malo ghakuzingilira, umoyo wa mbuto na viŵeto, kasandiro ka chuma ya ulimi, na sosiyoloji ya kumidzi. ==Wonaniso== *[[Mbiri ya Kasandiro ka Ulimi]] *[[Agronomi]] *[[Uinjiniya wa Ulimi]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="oed">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Agriscience|encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of English|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> <ref name="jb1840">{{Cite book|last1=Armstrong|first1=John|last2=Buel|first2=Jesse|title=A Treatise on Agriculture|year=1840|page=45}}</ref> <ref name="rothamsted">{{Cite web|title=The Long Term Experiments|publisher=Rothamsted Research|url=https://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/long-term-experiments|access-date=26 March 2018}}</ref> <ref name="hillison">{{Cite journal|last=Hillison|first=J.|title=The Origins of Agriscience: Or Where Did All That Scientific Agriculture Come From?|journal=Journal of Agricultural Education|year=1996}}</ref> <ref name="scienceforag">{{Cite book|last1=Huffman|first1=W. E.|last2=Evenson|first2=R. E.|title=Science for Agriculture|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2006}}</ref> <ref name="epa">{{Cite web|title=Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply|publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency|url=https://www.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-change-impacts-agriculture-and-food-supply}}</ref> <ref name="un">{{Cite web|title=Climate Change and Water|publisher=United Nations|url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/water}}</ref> <ref name="fao">{{Cite web|title=Climate-smart agriculture|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|url=https://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture/en/|access-date=2026-09-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407123153/https://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture/en/|archive-date=2023-04-07}}</ref> <ref name="merriam">{{Cite web|title=Geoponics|publisher=Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/geoponics|access-date=2024-11-17}}</ref> <ref name="bosso">{{Cite book|last=Bosso|first=Thelma|title=Agricultural Science|publisher=Callisto Reference|year=2015|isbn=978-1-63239-058-5}}</ref> <ref name="boucher">{{Cite book|last=Boucher|first=Jude|title=Agricultural Science and Management|publisher=Callisto Reference|year=2018|isbn=978-1-63239-965-6}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Kasandiro]] [[Mtundu:Ulimi]] 6soz6mrwhtv3067ydeup89yc22ssue6