Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.22 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 3809 122849 122700 2026-10-04T01:20:22Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122849 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = United Republic of Tanzania | common_name = Tanzania | native_name = {{native name|sw|Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania}} | image_flag = Flag of Tanzania.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg | national_motto = {{native phrase|sw|"Uhuru na Umoja"|italic=no}} <br />"[[Freedom and Unity]]" | national_anthem = "[[Mungu ibariki Afrika]]" <br />"God Bless Africa" <br />{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Tanzania by US Navy Band.ogg]]}} | image_map = Tanzania (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = Location of Tanzania (dark green) in eastern Africa | image_map2 = File:Tanzania map-en.svg | capital = [[Dodoma]] | largest_city = [[Dar es Salaam]] | official_languages = {{hlist|[[Swahili language|Swahili]]|[[English language|English]]|[[Arabic language|Arabic]] (only in Zanzibar)<ref name="Tanzania Ethnolgue">{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/TZ/languages| title=Tanzania| work=Ethnologue| publisher=SIL International}}</ref>}} | languages_type = [[National language]] | languages = [[Swahili language|Swahili]]<ref name="Tanzania Ethnolgue"/> | languages2_type = Other languages | languages2 = [[Languages of Tanzania|Over 100 languages]], including (1m+): {{hlist ||[[Sukuma language|Sukuma]]|[[Nyamwezi language|Nyamwezi]]|[[Chaga languages|Chaga]]|[[Ha language|Ha]]|[[Bena language|Bena]]|[[Gogo language|Gogo]]|[[Haya language|Haya]]|[[Dholuo]]|[[Makonde language|Makonde]]|[[Nyaturu language|Nyaturu]]|[[Maasai language|Maasai]]|[[Jita language|Jita]]|[[Pare language|Pare]]}} | ethnic_groups = Over [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania|100 ethnic groups]] | demonym = [[Demographics of Tanzania|Tanzanian]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Tanzania|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Samia Suluhu Hassan]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Tanzania|Vice-President]] | leader_name2 = [[Philip Mpango]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Tanzania|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Kassim Majaliwa]] | leader_title4 = [[Speaker of the National Assembly of Tanzania|Speaker]] | leader_name4 = [[Tulia Ackson]] | leader_title5 = [[Chief Justice of Tanzania|Chief Justice]] | leader_name5 = [[Ibrahim Hamis Juma]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Tanzania)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = Independence {{nobold|from the [[United Kingdom]], the [[German Empire]] and the [[Omani Empire]]}} | established_event1 = [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] | established_date1 = 9 December 1961 | established_event2 = {{nowrap|[[People's Republic of Zanzibar|Zanzibar]]}} | established_date2 = 10 December 1963 | established_event3 = Merger | established_date3 = 26 April 1964 | established_event4 = Current constitution | established_date4 = 25 April 1977 | area_km2 = 947,303 | area_rank = 30th | area_sq_mi = 365,756<ref name="BFF"/> <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 6.4<ref name="BFF"/> | population_census = 61,741,120{{r|2022_census}} | population_estimate_rank = 24th | population_census_year = 2022 | population_density_km2 = 47.5 | population_density_sq_mi = 123.1 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = 157th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$207.5&nbsp;billion <ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= December 23, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 72nd | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $3,374 <ref name="imf2"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 161th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$76.5 <ref name="imf2"/>&nbsp;billion | GDP_nominal_rank = 76th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$1,245<ref name="imf2"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 164th | Gini = 40.5 | Gini_year = 2017 | Gini_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison|title=Gini Index coefficient|publisher=CIA Factbook|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630032239/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/|archive-date=30 June 2021}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.549<!--number only, between 0 and 1--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 160th | currency = [[Tanzanian shilling]] | currency_code = TZS | time_zone = [[East Africa Time]] | utc_offset = +3 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = left | iso3166code = TZ | calling_code = [[+255]]{{efn|+007 from Kenya and Uganda.}} | cctld = [[.tz]] | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/tanzania#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016|title=Religions in Tanzania &#124; PEW-GRF|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org}}</ref> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |63.1% [[Christianity in Tanzania|Christianity]] |34.1% [[Islam in Tanzania|Islam]] |1.5% [[Irreligion|No religion]] |1.2% [[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]] |0.1% Others }} | today = | map_caption2 = Map of Tanzania }} '''Tanzania''' ntchalo icho chili kumpoto cha kumafumilo ya zuba ya chalo cha [[Malaŵi]]. Chalo ichi kumpoto kwake kuli chalo cha [[Kenya]], kumafumilo ya zuba yakhe kuli nyanja ya mchele ya [[:en:Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]] ndipo ku mwela kwake kuli chalo cha [[Mozambique]]. Chalo ichi chili na vinyama vinandi. ==Mbiri== {{Main|Mbiri ya Tanzania}} [[File:Olduvai stone chopping tool (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|right| Chiŵiya chakudumura malibwe icho chili na vyaka 1.8 miliyoni, icho ŵakasanga ku [[Olduvai Gorge]] ndipo ŵali kuchiŵika ku [[British Museum]]]] ===Kale=== Charu cha Tanzania nchimoza mwa vyaru vyakale comene pa caru capasi. Viwangwa vya ŵanthu na vyamoyo vinyake vya ŵanthu vikaŵako mu nyengo ya [[Quaternary]]. [[Olduvai Gorge]], mu [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], yili na vinthu ivyo vikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vinthu ivi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku East Africa ŵakughanaghana kuti mbanthu ŵa ku [[ŵaHadza]] na [[ŵaSandawe]] ŵa ku Tanzania. <ref name="Genetics">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1172257 |title=The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5930 |pages=1035–44 |year=2009 |pmid=19407144 |pmc=2947357 |last1=Tishkoff |first1=S. A. |last2=Reed |first2=F. A. |last3=Friedlaender |first3=F. R.| last4=Ehret |first4=C. |last5=Ranciaro |first5=A. |last6=Froment |first6=A. |last7=Hirbo |first7=J. B. |last8=Awomoyi |first8=A. A. |last9=Bodo |first9=J. M. |last10=Doumbo |first10=O. |last11=Ibrahim |first11= M. |last12=Juma |first12=A. T. |last13=Kotze |first13=M. J. |last14=Lema |first14=G. |last15=Moore |first15=J. H. |last16=Mortensen |first16=H. |last17=Nyambo |first17=T. B. |last18=Omar |first18= S. A. |last19=Powell |first19=K. |last20=Pretorius |first20=G. S. |last21=Smith |first21=M. W. |last22=Thera |first22=M. A. |last23=Wambebe |first23=C. |last24=Weber |first24=J. L. |last25=Williams |first25=S. M.| bibcode=2009Sci...324.1035T}}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku South Kushitic ndiwo ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku Ethiopia na Somalia kuya ku Tanzania. Ŵanthu aŵa mbakufuma ku chiyowoyero cha Iraqi, Gorowa, na Burunge. Kuyana na maukaboni gha chiyowoyero, ŵanthu ŵa ku East Cushitic ŵakaluta ku Tanzania vyaka 4,000 na 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha. <ref name="Genetics"/> Ukaboni wa vinthu vyakusangika kale ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku South Nilotes, kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵa ku Datooga, ŵakasamira kumwera kufuma ku chigaŵa icho sono ni mphaka pakati pa [[South Sudan]] na [[Ethiopia]]. <ref name="Genetics"/> Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya [[Nyanja ya Victoria]] na [[Nyanja ya Tanganyika]]. Ŵakiza na mitheto ya vyakumera mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kufuma apo, ŵakafumamo mu vigaŵa ivi na kuluta ku vigaŵa vinyake vya Tanzania pakati pa vyaka 2,300 na 1,700 ivyo vyajumpha. <ref name="Genetics"/> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[East Nilotic]], kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Masai]], ndiwo ŵakasama kufuma ku South Sudan mu vyaka 500 m'paka 1,500 ivyo vyajumpha. <ref name="Genetics"/><ref>{{cite book |first1=Phyllis |last1=Martin |first2=Patrick |last2=O'Meara |title=Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/africa00mart |url-access=registration |date=1995 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20984-9}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakugwira nchito ya kupanga visulo na visulo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Pare]] ndiwo ŵakapanganga visulo vya ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Tanzania. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Shoup |first1=John A. |title=Ethnic groups of Africa and the Middle East : an encyclopedia |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-59884-362-0 |page=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN5yv3-U6goC&pg=PA67}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Haya awo ŵakakhalanga ku vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Victoria ŵakapanga ng'anjo ya moto, iyo yikaŵawovwira kuti ŵapangenge visulo vya karboni pa nyengo iyo kukaŵa kotcha chomene. <ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17830304 |year=1978 |last1=Schmidt |first1=P. |title=Complex iron smelting and prehistoric culture in Tanzania |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1978-09-22_201_4361/page/1085 |journal=Science |volume=201 |issue=4361 | pages=1085–89 |last2=Avery |first2=D.H. |doi=10.1126/science.201.4361.1085| bibcode=1978Sci...201.1085S |s2cid=37926350}}</ref> Ŵalendo na ŵamalonda ŵakufuma ku [[Persian Gulf]] na [[India]] ŵakalutanga ku East Africa kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E. <ref>{{cite book |first=Kevin |last=Shillington |title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA1510 |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-45670-2 |page=1510}}</ref> Chisimu aŵala ŵaŵaliji pa [[chilambo cha Swahili]], ŵaŵaliji pa chilambocho ikaŵeje m'ma 700 kapena 800 AD. <ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/7chapter5.shtml "The Story of Africa"]. ''BBC World Service''.</ref> === Vyaka vyapakati === Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga [[chiBantu]] ŵakazenga mizi yakulimira na kuguliska vinthu mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Tanzania kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E. Vinthu vyakusangika ku Fukuchani, kumpoto kwa Zanzibar, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha m'ma 600 C.E. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikasangika pa malo agha vikulongora kuti ŵakazenga nyumba za mathabwa. Pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga vinthu pa mtunda utali chomene yayi. Ŵakasanga vinthu vichoko waka vyakuzengera ku charu chinyake. Kuyana kwa malo agha na malo ghanyake nga ni [[Mkokotoni]] na [[Dar es Salaam]], kukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga pamoza. Vikuwoneka kuti misumba iyi yikachitanga malonda mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean na mu Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 C.E., malonda ghakalutilira kukura ndipo kuumaliro wa m'ma 900 C.E., Zanzibar yikaŵa msumba ukuru wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. <ref>Horton, Mark and Middleton, Tom. "The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Community." (Oxford: Blackwell, 2010), 46.</ref> Kukula kwa sitima za ku [[Egypt]] na [[Persia]]n kufuma ku [[Nyanja Yiswesi]] na Persian Gulf kukakhozga malonda gha ku [[Indian Ocean]], comenecomene pamanyuma pakuti Fatimid Caliphate yikasamukira ku Fustat ([[Cairo]]). Ŵalimi ŵa Chiswahili ŵakazenga mizi yinandi kuti ŵaguliskane vinthu. Ufumu wa Venda-Shona wa Mapungubwe na [[Zimbabwe]] mu [[South Africa]] na Zimbabwe, vikamba kupanga golide mu nyengo yeneyiyi. Ufumu wa Kilwa ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa vya cuma, vya ŵanthu, na vya cisopa. Kilwa wakaŵa na vipata vichoko ivyo vikafika m'paka ku Mozambique. Sofala wakazgoka malo ghakurughakuru ghakusungirako golide ndipo Kilwa wakazgoka musambazi cifukwa ca malonda agha. Ku mpoto kwa charu ichi ndiko kukaŵa Mombasa na Malindi. Kilwa ndiyo yikaŵa boma likuru comene ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa mpaka apo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakiza ku Africa kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 1400. <ref>Campbell, Gwyn. "Africa and the Indian Ocean World from Early Times to Circa 1900." Cambridge University Press. 2019</ref> Mu chaka cha 1954, Julius Nyerere wakasintha gulu ili kuŵa gulu la ndyali la [[Tanganyika African National Union]] (TANU). Cakulinga cikuru ca TANU cikaŵa cakuti Tanganyika yiŵe na wanangwa wa kuwusa. Ŵakapanga kampeni yakulembeska ŵanthu ŵaphya, ndipo mu caka cimoza, TANU yikazgoka gulu likuru la ndyali mu caru ici. Nyerere wakaŵa nduna ya boma la Tanganyika mu 1960 ndipo wakalutilira kuŵa nduna yikuru mu 1961 apo Tanganyika yikajiyimira yekha. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mulenga|first=Derek C.|date=November 2001|title=Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: a critical review of his contributions to adult education and postcolonialism|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-lifelong-education_november-december-2001_20_6/page/446|journal=International Journal of Lifelong Education|volume=20|issue=6|pages=446–470|doi=10.1080/02601370110088436|s2cid=143740319|issn=0260-1370}}</ref> ===Koloni=== [[File:City of Kilwa, 1572.jpg|thumb|left| Chithunzi cha 1572 cha mzinda wa [[Kilwa]], malo a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]] Pakukhumba malo agha, Sultan wa [[Oman]] [[Said bin Sultan]] wakasamuskira msumba wake ku [[Zanzibar City]] mu 1840. Mu nyengo iyi, Zanzibar yikazgoka malo ghakusangirako ŵazga ŵa ku East Africa. <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title=Slavery |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zanzibar awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵakaŵa pakati pa 65 na 90 peresenti. <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548305/slavery/24157/Slave-societies |title=Slave societies |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=22 January 2014 |access-date=19 February 2014}}</ref> Yumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga ku East Africa wakaŵa [[Tippu Tip]], uyo wakaŵa muzukuru wa munthu wa ku Africa uyo wakaŵa muzga. Ŵanthu ŵa [[Nyamwezi]] ŵakendanga na ŵazga awo ŵakalongozgekanga na [[Msiri]] na [[Mirambo]]. <ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/9chapter3.shtml "The Story of Africa |BBC World Service"]. BBC.</ref> Kuyana na [[Timothy Insoll]], "Vikulongora kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵazga 718 000 ŵakatolekera ku vyaru vinyake kufuma ku Swahili, ndipo 769,000 ŵakasungika ku vyaru vinyake". <ref>{{cite book |first=Junius P. |last=Rodriguez |title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr |url-access=registration |date=1997 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-885-7}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890, ŵazga ŵakalekeka. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.enchantingtravels.com/travel-blog/zanzibar-map-history |title=On The Zanzibar Map: Spices, Slaves And A Bit Of History |date=17 February 2015}}</ref> [[File:Wilhelm Kuhnert Schlacht bei Mahenge 2.jpg|thumb| Nkhondo ya [[Maji Maji Rebellion]] yolimbana ndi ulamuliro wa [[German East Africa]] mu 1905.]] Mu 1863, gulu la Holy Spirit Mission likakhazikiska malo ghakwambilira gha kupokelera ŵalendo mu Zanzibar. Mu 1877, pakulondezga ivyo [[Henry Morton Stanley]] wakacita apo wakaluta ku Africa, ndipo Themba [[Mutessa I la Buganda]] likamuzomerezga Stanley, mpingo wa Church Missionary Society ukatuma ŵamishonale [[Edward John Baxter]] na Henry Cole kuti ŵakhazikiske maofesi gha mu caru. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Middleton |first1=Dorothy |title=Henry Morton Stanley |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Morton-Stanley |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=29 December 2022 |date=6 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Johnson, Hildergard Binder |title=The Locations of Christian Missions in Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/213158 |journal=Geographical Review |year=1967 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=168–202 |publisher=Taylor and Francis Ltd |access-date=29 December 2022 |doi=10.2307/213158|jstor=213158 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Europeans In East Africa - View entry |url=https://www.europeansineastafrica.co.uk/_site/custom/database/?a=viewIndividual&pid=2&person=174 |access-date=2022-12-18 |website=www.europeansineastafrica.co.uk}}</ref> Mu 1885, [[Germany]] yikathereska vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Tanzania (kwambura Zanzibar) na kuviŵika mu [[German East Africa]] (GEA). <ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Early Political Discord in Kenya: European Settlers' Political Struggles in the East Africa Protectorate, 1902–1912|publisher=West Virginia University Libraries|first=Makhete|last=Fall|year=2016 |doi=10.33915/etd.5569|doi-access=free}}</ref> Pa 7 Meyi 1919, khoti likuru la [[Paris Peace Conference]] likapeleka GEA yose ku [[Britain]], nangauli [[Belgium]] yikaŵasuska. [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]], [[Alfred Milner]], and [[Belgium's minister to the conference]], [[Pierre Orts]], then negotiated the [[Anglo-Belgian agreement]] of 30 May 1919 Mulembi wa boma wa Britain wakuwona vya maboma, Alfred Milner, na nduna ya Belgium yakuwona vya maboma, Pierre Orts, ŵakadumbiskana za phangano la Anglo-Belgian la 30 May 1919 Apo Britain yikapeleka vigaŵa vya kumpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa GEA vya [[Ruanda]] na [[Urundi]] ku Belgium. <ref name="Ends">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC&pg=PA246 |title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization |author=William Roger Louis |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |access-date=19 September 2017 |isbn=978-1-84511-347-6}}</ref> Komiti Yakulaŵilira Malango ya ungano uwu yikazomerezga phangano ili pa Julayi 16, 1919. <ref name="Ends"/> Pa Ogasiti 7, 1919, Khoti Likuru Chomene likazomera phangano ili. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1919Parisv07/pg_613 |title=PAPERS RELATING TO THE FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE, 1919 |publisher=United States Department of State |volume=7 |access-date=19 September 2017}}</ref> Pa Julayi 12, 1919, Komiti ya Mandates yikakolerana kuti chigaŵa chichoko cha [[Kionga Triangle]] kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Rovuma chipelekekenge ku [[Mozambique]]. <ref name="Ends"/> Komiti iyi yikati mu 1894, caru ca Germany cikacicizga caru ca Portugal kuti cipeleke malo agha. <ref name="Ends"/> [[Phangano la Versailles]] likalembeka pa 28 Juni 1919, kweni likamba kugwira ntchito pa 10 Janyuwale 1920. Pa zuŵa ili, boma la Britain, Belgium, na Portugal ndilo likamba kulamulira charu ichi. Kweniso pa zuŵa ili, "Tanganyika" likazgoka zina la caru ca Britain. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1920, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kulamulira charu cha Tanzania. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liebenow|first=J. Gus|date=1956|title=Responses to Planned Political Change in a Tanganyika Tribal Group|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400067496/type/journal_article|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=50|issue=2|pages=447–448|doi=10.2307/1951678|jstor=1951678 |s2cid=144390538 |issn=0003-0554}}</ref> [[Chigaluka cha Maji-Maji]], pakati pa 1905 na 1907, chikaŵa chigaluka cha mafuko ghanandi gha ku Africa mu German East Africa kwimikana na maboma gha maboma gha vyaru vinyake. Ŵakaŵasuzga comene, ndipo pamoza na njara, ŵanthu 300,000 ŵakafwa. <ref>John Iliffe, "The Organization of the Maji Maji Rebellion" ''The Journal of African History'', pp. 495–512</ref> Mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ŵanthu pafupifupi 100,000 ŵakufuma ku Tanganyika ŵakanjira usilikari. <ref name="Heale">{{cite book |first1=Jay |last1=Heale |first2=Winnie |last2=Wong |title=Tanzania |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UhNJxHg14wC |year=2010 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-3417-7}}</ref> Ndipo ŵakaŵa pakati pa Ŵafrika 375,000 awo ŵakarwa nkhondo na ŵasilikari aŵa. <ref name="MGT">[http://www.mgtrust.org/afr2.htm "African participants in the Second World War"]. mgtrust.org.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanganyika ŵakarwa mu gulu la [[King's African Rifles]] mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku East Africa ku [[Somalia]] na Ethiopia ku [[Abyssinia]], ku [[Madagascar]] ku [[Vichy French]] mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Madagascar, na ku [[Burma]] ku [[Japan]] mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Burma. <ref name="MGT"/> Charu cha Tanganyika chikaŵa na vyakurya vinandi chomene mu nyengo ya nkhondo iyi, ndipo ndalama izo ŵakaguliskanga zikaŵa zinandi chomene pakuyaniska na izo ŵakaguliskanga pambere nkhondo yindambe. <ref name="Heale"/> Ndipouli, cifukwa ca nkhondo, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora comene mu cigaŵa ici. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150204203753/http://www.content.eisa.org.za/old-page/tanzania-british-rule-between-wars-1916-1945 "Tanzania: British rule between the Wars (1916–1945)"]. ''eisa.org.za''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204203753/http://www.content.eisa.org.za/old-page/tanzania-british-rule-between-wars-1916-1945 |date=4 February 2015}}</ref> Mu 1954, [[Julius Nyerere]] wakasintha wupu uwu kuŵa gulu la ndyali la [[Tanganyika African National Union]] (TANU). Cakulinga cikuru ca TANU cikaŵa cakuti Tanganyika yiŵe na mazaza. Ŵakapanga kampeni yakulembeska ŵanthu ŵaphya, ndipo mu caka cimoza, TANU yikazgoka gulu likuru la ndyali mu caru ici. Nyerere wakaŵa nduna ya boma la Tanganyika mu 1960 ndipo wakalutilira kuŵa nduna yikuru mu 1961 apo Tanganyika yikajiyimira yekha. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mulenga|first=Derek C.|date=November 2001|title=Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: a critical review of his contributions to adult education and postcolonialism|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-lifelong-education_november-december-2001_20_6/page/446|journal=International Journal of Lifelong Education|volume=20|issue=6|pages=446–470|doi=10.1080/02601370110088436|s2cid=143740319|issn=0260-1370}}</ref> ===Mazuŵa Ghano=== Ufumu wa Britain ukamara pa Disembala 9, 1961. [[Elizabeth II]], uyo wakakhala pa chitengo cha ufumu wa Britain mu 1952, wakalutilira kuwusa mu chaka chakwamba cha kujithemba kwa Tanganyika, kweni sono ni [[Fumukazi ya Tanganyika]], ndipo wakuyimilirika na kazembe mukuru. Mu 1961, charu cha Tanganyika nacho chikaŵa mu wupu wa [[British Commonwealth]]. Pa Disembala 9, 1962, charu cha Tanganyika chikazgoka charu cha demokilase icho chikaŵa na pulezidenti. Pambuyo pa [[kusintha kwa Zanzibar]] komwe kunagwetsa ufumu wachiarabu ku Zanzibar yoyandikana nayo, limodzi ndi kuphedwa kwa zikwizikwi za [[Aarabu a Zanzibar]], <ref name="Zanzibar">{{cite news |title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm |work=BBC News |date=25 July 2009}}</ref> chirwa ichi chikajiyimira paŵekha mu 1963, ndipo chikasazgikana na charu cha Tanganyika pa 26 Epulero 1964. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vpo.go.tz/document_storage/historical_overview.pdf |title=Background history of The Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar |publisher=Vice President's Office, United Republic of Tanzania |access-date=25 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125124815/http://www.vpo.go.tz/document_storage/historical_overview.pdf |archive-date=25 January 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Kufuma apo, caru ciphya ici cikacemeka ''United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar''. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/united-republic-tanganyika-and-zanzibar-renamed-united-republic-tanzania|title=The United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar is renamed United Republic of Tanzania|publisher=South African History Online|access-date=10 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/united-republic-tanzania/history|title=United Republic of Tanzania : History|publisher=Commonwealth.org|access-date=10 February 2019|archive-date=23 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223235543/http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/united-republic-tanzania/history|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pa Okutobala 29 wa chaka chenechichi, charu ichi chikachemeka United Republic of Tanzania ("Tan" kufuma ku Tanganyika na "Zan" kufuma ku Zanzibar). Chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa chakususkana chomene na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zanzibar (nanga ni awo ŵakakolerana na chipani ichi) kweni boma la [[Nyerere]] na boma la Zanzibar ŵakazomera chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakakolerana. Pamanyuma pakuti charu cha Tanganyika chajiyimira pawekha na kuwungana na charu cha Zanzibar kuti chiŵe charu cha Tanzania, Pulezidenti Nyerere wakadidimizga kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu chiphya ŵamanye umo charu chawo chiliri. Kuti ivi vicitike, Nyerere wakapeleka ivyo vikuwoneka nga ni umo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikiranga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake na kusintha zina lawo mu Africa. <ref>[[Pierre Englebert]] and Kevin C. Dunn, "Inside African Politics" 2013: 81</ref> Ku Tanzania kuli viyowoyero vyakujumpha 130. Nangauli pakaŵa suzgo ili, kweni ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene mu Tanzania pakuyaniska na vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene Kenya. Kweniso kufuma apo charu cha Tanzania chikapokera wanangwa wake, chikaŵa na mtende wa ndyali kuluska vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa. <ref>Henry Bienen and John Waterbury, "World Development Vol 17", 1989: 100</ref> [[File:Arusha Declaration Monument.jpg|thumb|[[Chipilala cha Chipharazgo cha Arusha]]]] Mu chaka cha 1967, boma la Nyerere likamba kughanaghana vya ndyali za kumalyero pamanyuma pa chikalata cha Arusha, icho chikalembapo za [[socialism]] kweniso [[pan-Africanism]]. Pamanyuma pa pharazgo ili, mabanki na mafakitale ghanandi ghakaŵa gha boma. Charu cha Tanzania chikakolerana na charu cha [[China]], icho kufuma mu 1970 m'paka mu 1975 chikapeleka ndalama na kovwira kuzenga [[njanji ya TAZARA]] ya makilomita 1,860 kufuma ku Dar es Salaam m'paka ku Zambia. <ref>{{cite book |first=Jamie |last=Monson |title=Africa's Freedom Railway: How a Chinese Development Project Changed Lives and Livelihoods in Tanzania |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xeeDwcT51BcC&pg=PA23 |year=2009 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-35271-2 |page=199}}</ref> Ndipouli, kwamba m'ma 1970, vinthu vikamba kunangika mu Tanzania chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma ilo likaŵa mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana. == Kulemba mabuku == <gallery> Elephant and Kilimanjaro.jpg|Njovu yikujumpha pafupi na [[Phiri la Kilimanjaro]]. Ngorongoro Crater.jpg|[[Ngorongoro Crater]], ni crater yikuru comene pa caru cose iyo yikucitika yayi. </gallery> Malo agha ghakukwana makilomita 947,303, <ref name="BFF">{{cite web|url=http://www.nbs.go.tz/nbs/takwimu/Statistical_Methods_and_Standards/Basic_Facts_and_Figures_on_Human_Settlements_2012_Tanzania_Mainland.zip|title="Basic Facts and Figures on Human Settlements, 2012", National Bureau of Statistics, Tanzania Ministry of Finance, 2013, page 1. Retrieved 10 November 2014}}</ref> Charu cha Tanzania chili pa nambara 13 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru mu Africa ndipo pa nambara 31 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa charu chose chapasi. <ref name="Size">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |title=CIA&nbsp;– The World Factbook&nbsp;– Rank Order&nbsp;– Area |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=16 October 2014 |archive-date=9 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Charu ichi chili kumpoto na Kenya na Uganda, kumanjiliro gha dazi na Rwanda, Burundi, na Democratic Republic of Congo, ndipo kumwera na Zambia, Malawi, na Mozambique. Charu cha Tanzania chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0477e/a0477e13.htm|title=Country review: United Republic of Tanzania|date=December 2003|website=Fisheries and Aquaculture Depart, United Nations. (FAO)}}</ref> Mu charu ichi muli virwa vinandi nga ni [[Unguja]] (Zanzibar), [[Pemba]], na [[Mafia]]. Charu ichi chili na malo ghapachanya na ghachoko chomene mu Africa: Phiri la Kilimanjaro, ilo lili pa mamita 5,895 (mamita 19,341) pachanya pa nyanja, na [[Nyanja ya Tanganyika]], iyo yili pa mamita 1,471 (mamita 4,826) pachanya pa nyanja. [[File:Wildebeest Migration in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05| Kusamalika kwa viyuni vyamuthondo mu [[Serengeti]]]] Charu cha Tanzania chili na mapiri ghanandi kweniso nkhorongo kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Viziŵa vikuruvikuru vitatu vya mu Africa vili mu Tanzania. Kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kuli Nyanja ya Victoria, nyanja yikuru comene mu Africa, na Nyanja ya Tanganyika, nyanja yakunyang'amira comene mu Africa. Kumwera kwa nyanja iyi kuli Nyanja ya Nyasa. Charu chapakati cha Tanzania chili na mapiri ghakuru na malo ghakutowa. Mphepete mwa nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi ni yakuzizima na yakututuŵa, ndipo mumphepete mwa nyanja muli virwa vya [[Zanzibar]]. [[Kalambo Falls]] mu chigaŵa cha kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa [[Rukwa]] ni maji ghaŵiri ghatali chomene mu Africa, ndipo ghali pafupi na nyanja ya Tanganyika. <ref> {{cite web|url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Kalambo-Falls|name=Kalambo Falls|author=Britannica}} </ref> Malo [[ghakuvikilirika gha Menai Bay]] ni malo ghakuru chomene ku Zanzibar. === Umoyo === [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map TZA present.svg|thumb|upright=1.75|Tanzania mapu of Köppen climate classification]] Nyengo ya mu Tanzania yikupambana chomene. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri, mu nyengo yakuzizima na yakuzizima, matenthedwe ghakuŵa pakati pa 10 na 20 °C. Ku vigaŵa vinyake vya charu ichi, matenthe ghakukhizga chomene yayi. Nyengo yakuzizima chomene yikuŵa pakati pa Novembala na Febuluwale (25°C panji 77.0°F) apo nyengo yakuzizima chomene yikuŵa pakati pa Meyi na Ogasiti (15°C panji 59°F). Kutentha kwa pachaka ndi 20 °C (68.0 °F). Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri muli mphepo yakuzizima. Kusintha kwa nyengo ku Tanzania kukupangiska kuti vula yambe kuwa chomene (kukaŵa na maji ghanandi) kweniso kukaŵa chilangalanga. <ref>{{cite web|title=Tanzania|url=https://www.climatelinks.org/countries/tanzania|access-date=27 November 2020|website=Climatelinks|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614161023/https://www.climatelinks.org/countries/tanzania|archive-date=14 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Future Climate for Africa|year=2017|title=Future Climate Projections for Tanzania|url=https://futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/fcfa_tanzania_climatebrief_web.pdf|website=Future Climate for Africa|access-date=2023-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209143534/https://www.futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/fcfa_tanzania_climatebrief_web.pdf|archive-date=2022-02-09}}</ref> Kusintha kwa nyengo kukukhwaska kale vyalo vya Tanzania nga ni ulimi, maji, umoyo na nkhongono. Kuwuka kwa nyanja na kusintha kwa umo maji ghakukhalira vikukhwaska somba na vyakumera. <ref>{{cite web|title=Tanzania {{!}} UNDP Climate Change Adaptation|url=https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/eastern-africa/united-republic-tanzania|access-date=27 November 2020|website=www.adaptation-undp.org|language=en}}</ref> Charu cha Tanzania chikapanga [[National Adaptation Programs of Action]] (NAPAs) mu chaka cha 2007 nga umo chikalembeka na United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Mu 2012, charu cha Tanzania chikapanga ndondomeko ya kusintha kwa nyengo chifukwa cha kufipa mtima na umo vinthu vyasinthira pa charu. <ref>{{cite web|title=Tanzania: National climate change strategy - National Policy, Plans & Statements - PreventionWeb.net|url=https://www.preventionweb.net/english/policies/v.php?id=59982&cid=0|access-date=27 November 2020|website=preventionweb.net|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417211255/https://www.preventionweb.net/english/policies/v.php?id=59982&cid=0|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Vinyama vyamuthondo na kuvikilira === [[File:Mannetjes masaigiraffe in de Serengeti, Tanzania, -12 januari 2013 a.jpg|thumb|[[Chilombo cha Masai]] ndi chinyama cha dziko la Tanzania]] Ku Tanzania kuli vinyama vinandi vya ndopa zakotcha ivyo vili na viŵaro pafupifupi 20 pa viŵaro vyose vya mu Africa. Malo agha ghakukwana makilomita ghakujumpha 42,000 ndipo ghakukwana 38 peresenti ya charu ichi. <ref>{{cite book |first1=Ridwan |last1=Laher |first2=Korir |last2=SingíOei |title=Indigenous People in Africa.: Contestations, Empowerment and Group Rights |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZiyAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |date=2014 |publisher=Africa Institute of South Africa |isbn=978-0-7983-0464-1 |page=57}}</ref> Ku Tanzania kuli malo ghakusungirako vyamoyo 21, <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tanzaniaparks.com/ |title=Home |publisher=Tanzania National Parks |access-date=16 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006085600/http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/ |archive-date=6 October 2014 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Kweniso kuli malo ghakupambanapambana gha vinyama na nkhorongo, kusazgapo malo gha [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], kweni pali ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu Ngorongoro ndipo ŵakukhumba kunanga malo. Ku Tanzania kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Gombe Stream National Park]] ndiko Jane Goodall wakambira kusambira za kachitiro ka [[chimpanzees]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tanzaniaparks.com/gombe.html |title=Gombe Stream National Park |publisher=Tanzania National Parks |access-date=16 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004004545/http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/gombe.html |archive-date=4 October 2014 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Laura |last1=Riley |first2=William |last2=Riley |title=Nature's Strongholds: The World's Great Wildlife Reserves |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_icMuBQhW4vgC |date= 2005 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12219-9}}</ref> Ku Tanzania kuli vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana. <ref>{{cite book |author1=S. N. Stuart |first2=Martin |last2=Jenkins |title=Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and Its Islands: Conservation, Management, and Sustainable Use |url=https://archive.org/details/biodiversityinsu0000stua |url-access=registration |date=1990 |publisher=IUCN |isbn=978-2-8317-0021-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/biodiversityinsu0000stua/page/204 204]}}</ref> Mu malo gha [[Serengeti]] ku Tanzania, kuli viyuni vinyake nga ni viyuni vyamuthondo (Connochaetes taurinus mearnsi) na viyuni vinyake nga ni mbuzi (zebra) <ref>{{cite web |title=Serengeti wildebeest migration |url=https://www.expertafrica.com/tanzania/info/serengeti-wildebeest-migration |access-date=20 March 2019}}</ref> Ŵakuchitako ulendo ukuru wa pa chaka. Mu charu cha Tanzania muli vyamoyo vyakujumpha 130 vya viyuni vya [[amphibian]] na vyamoyo vyakujumpha 275 vya vinyama ivyo vikukhwaŵa. <ref>Edoarado Razzetti and Charles Andekia Msuya (2002) [https://web.archive.org/web/20200716094052/http://www-3.unipv.it/webshi/images/files/tanzie2002.pdf "Introduction"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716094052/http://www-3.unipv.it/webshi/images/files/tanzie2002.pdf |date=16 July 2020}}, ''Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of Arusha National Park''. Tanzania National Parks. p. 11</ref> Ku Tanzania ndiko kuli nkharamu zinandi comene pa caru cose. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201908120146.html|title=Africa: Tanzania Has Largest Number of Lions in Africa, New Report Says|first=Edward Qorro in|last=Arusha|date=12 August 2019|website=allAfrica.com}}</ref> Charu cha Tanzania chikaŵa na chiŵerengero cha 7.13/10 pa vyaru 172. <ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. 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J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Maulalo Ena == * [[Mfumu Burrito Nyerere]] * [[Kevin Nyerere]] ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} {{Afrika}} [[Category:Afrika]] [[Category:Tanzania]] jytn3ul1kzw8e2in09xmry1is35yc64 0 6194 122858 122443 2026-10-04T05:09:27Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:3|0|0 */ 122858 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chigaŵa cha masamu}} {{About||the kind of algebraic structure|Algebra over a field|other uses}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Featured article}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2024 |cs1-dates=ly }} {{multiple image |perrow=1 / 1 |total_width=350 |image1=Polynomial2.svg |alt1=Polynomial equation: 2x^2 + 4x - 6 = 0 |link1=Polynomial equation |caption1=[[Elementary algebra|Algebra ya pulayimale]] yikusambira kuti ivyakuyaniska ivi vikuzirwa na vipimo vichi, ivyo vyakupangika mwakugwiliskira nchito za masamu. |image2=Ring of integers2.svg |alt2=Signature of the ring of integers |link2=Ring of integers |caption2=[[Abstract algebra|Algebra yakudumura]] yikusambira [[algebraic structure|magulu gha algebra]], nga umo mphete ya [[integer|vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]] vikuchemeka <math>(\Z)</math> pamoza na [[Algebraic operation|nchito]] za [[addition|kusazga]] ({{tmath|1= + }}) na [[multiplication|kwandaniska]] ({{tmath|1= \times }}). }} '''Algebra''' ni chigaŵa cha [[mathematics|masamu]] icho chikukhwaskana na ndondomeko zambura kuwoneka, izo zikuchemeka [[algebraic structure|magulu gha algebra]], na kugwiriskira nchito mazgu mukati mwa ndondomeko izo (ivyo vikuchemeka [[Expression (mathematics)|viyelezgero]]). Ni kusazgirako kwa [[arithmetic|masamu ghakwamba]], icho chikwiza na [[Variable (mathematics)|vyambura-kumanyikwa]] na nchito zinyake padera pa nchito za masamu ghakwamba, nga [[addition|kusazga]] na [[multiplication|kwandaniska]]. [[Elementary algebra|Algebra ya pulayimale]] ndiyo nthowa yikuru ya algebra iyo yikusambizgika mu masukulu. Iwo ukusanda mazgu gha masamu mwakugwiliskira nchito vyakusintha vya vigaŵa vyambura kumanyikwa, na kukhumba kumanya kuti ni mikhaliro wuli iyo mazgu agha ghali ghaunenesko. Kuti ŵacite nthena, ŵakugwiriskira nchito nthowa zakupambana-pambana zakusinthira vyakuyaniska kuti ŵapature vinthu vyakusintha vya vigaŵa. [[Linear algebra|Algebra ya mzere]] ni chigaŵa chakukolerana chomene na algebra ya pulayimale, icho chikufufuza vyakuyaniska vya mzere na kunozgeka kwake, ivyo vikuchemeka ''[[system of linear equations|magulu gha vyakuyaniska vya mzere]]''. Chikupereka nthowa zakusanga vipimo ivyo vikwaniska vyakuyaniska vyose mu gulu pa nyengo yimoza, na kusambira gulu la vigaŵa ivi. <!-- paragraphs 1 and 2 are transcluded into [[Outline of algebra]] --> [[Abstract algebra|Algebra yakudumura]] yikusambira [[Algebraic structure|magulu gha algebra]], ivyo vikupangika na gulu la vinthu vya masamu pamoza na nchito yimoza panji zinandi izo zikulongosoreka pa gulu ilo. Ni kusazgirako kwa algebra ya pulayimale na ya mzere, chifukwa chikuzomerezga vinthu vinyake padera pa vipendeko na nchito zambura kuŵa za masamu ghakwamba. Chikupambaniska pakati pa mitundu yakupambana-pambana ya magulu gha algebra, nga [[Group (mathematics)|magulu]], [[Ring (mathematics)|mphete]], na [[Field (mathematics)|minda]], kuyana na unandi wa nchito izo zikugwiriskirika ntchito na madango agho ghakulondezgeka, ghakuchemeka [[axioms|madango ghakuzomerezgeka]]. [[Universal algebra|Algebra ya wonse]] na [[category theory|sambiro la mikhaliro]] vikupereka vipangiro vyakuwaneko kuti vifufuze vipimo vyambura kuwoneka ivyo vikulongosora magulu ghakupambana-pambana gha algebra. Nthowa za algebra zikasambika dankha mu [[ancient period|nyengo yakale]] kuti zithaske masuzgo ghapadera mu vigaŵa nga [[geometry]]. Ichi chikasintha mu vilimika vya m'ma 800 na [[Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]], uyo wakanozga algebra kuŵa chigaŵa chakujipeleka cha masamu, chakupambana na geometry. Ŵasandi ŵakwamba ŵakalongosoranga vyakuyaniska na vyakuvitatuza mwakugwiliskira nchito mazgu na vifupikizgo, m'paka mu vilimika vya m'ma 1500 na 1600, apo nthowa yakukhwima ya viwimbo (symbols) yikapangika. Pakati pa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, uzelu wa algebra ukasazgirapo kuluska sambiro la vyakuyaniska pera na kusazgako mitundu yakupambana-pambana ya nchito na magulu gha algebra. Algebra yikukhwaskana na vigaŵa vinandi vya masamu, nga geometry, [[topology]], [[number theory|sambiro la vipendeko]], na [[calculus]], kweniso vigaŵa vinyake, nga [[logic]] na [[empirical sciences|kasandiro kakuzenga pa vyakuwonekera]]. == Ng'anamuro na Muko wa Lizgu == Algebra ni nthambi ya masamu iyo yikusambira magulu gha algebra na nchito izo ghakugwiliskira ntchito.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA4 4]}} }}</ref> Gulu la algebra ni gulu la vinthu vya masamu ilo lilije kuŵa lambura kanthu, nga vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika, pamoza na nchito za algebra izo zikulongosoreka pa gulu ilo, nga kusazga na kwandaniska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiche|Hebuterne|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TqkckiuuXg8C&pg=PT326 326]}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and Its Connection with Other Branches of Mathematics.}} | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA4 4]}} }}</ref>{{efn|When understood in the widest sense, an algebraic operation is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] from a [[Cartesian product#n-ary Cartesian power|Cartesian power of a set into that set]], expressed formally as {{tmath|1= \omega: A^n \to A }}. The addition of real numbers is an example of an algebraic operation: it takes two numbers as input and produces one number as output. It has the form {{nowrap|<math>+: \R^2 \to \R</math>.<ref>{{harvnb|Baranovich|2023|loc=Lead section}}</ref>}}}} Algebra yikufufuza malango, mikhaliro yose, na mitundu ya magulu gha algebra. Mu magulu ghanyake gha algebra, yikuwoneseska umo vinthu vyakusintha (vyambura-kumanyikwa) vikugwiriskirika ntchito mu vyakuyaniska na umo vingachitikira kuvisintha.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 1. Elementary Algebra, § 2. Abstract Algebra, § 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and Its Connection with Other Branches of Mathematics.}} }}</ref>{{efn|Algebra is covered by division 512 in the [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]<ref>{{harvnb|Higham|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ferEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296 296]}}</ref> and subclass QA 150{{hyphen}}272.5 in the [[Library of Congress Classification]].<ref>{{harvnb|Library of Congress|p=3}}</ref> It encompasses several areas in the [[Mathematics Subject Classification]].<ref>{{harvnb|zbMATH Open|2024}}</ref>}} Kanandi algebra yikupulikiskika kuŵa kusazgirako kwa [[arithmetic|masamu ghakwamba]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=129}} | {{harvnb|Burgin|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWF2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 45]}} }}</ref> Masamu ghakwamba ghakusambira nchito nga kusazga, [[subtraction|kuwuskapo]], kwandaniska, na [[Division (mathematics)|kugaŵa]], mu chigaŵa chinyake cha vipendeko, nga vipendeko vyaunenesko.<ref name="auto1">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Romanowski|2008|pp=302–303}} | {{harvnb|HC Staff|2022}} | {{harvnb|MW Staff|2023}} | {{harvnb|Bukhshtab|Pechaev|2020}} }}</ref> [[Elementary algebra|Algebra ya pulayimale]] njiyo mlingo wakwamba wa kudumuka. Nga umo masamu ghakwamba ghakucitira, yikujikanizga ku mitundu yinyake ya vipendeko na nchito. Yikusazgirapo nchito izi mwakuzomerezga unandi wambura kumanyikwa mu mtundu wa vyambura-kumanyikwa padera pa vipendeko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=129–130}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Wagner|Kieran|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uW4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 225]}} }}</ref> Mlingo wapachanya wa kudumuka ukusangika mu [[abstract algebra|algebra yakudumura]], iyo yikumara yayi pa chigaŵa chinyake ndipo yikuwoneseska magulu gha algebra nga [[Group (mathematics)|magulu]] na [[Ring (mathematics)|mphete]]. Yikuluta kuluska nchito zamasamu ghakwamba mwakusazgaposo mitundu yinyake ya nchito.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Wagner|Kieran|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uW4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 225]}} }}</ref> [[Universal algebra|Algebra ya wonse]] njakudumura comenecomene chifukwa yikupulikira yayi magulu gha algebra ghapadera, kweni yikufufuza mikhaliro ya magulu gha algebra mwaunenesko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Grillet|2007|p=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-71568-1_15 559]}} | {{harvnb|Denecke|Wismath|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2UlZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v]}} | {{harvnb|Cohn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6tbuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii]}} }}</ref> [[File:Image-Al-Kitāb al-muḫtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala.jpg|upright=.8|thumb|alt=Title page of The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|Lizgu lakuti ''algebra'' likufuma ku mutu wa buku la [[al-Khwarizmi]] lakuti {{transliteration|ar|[[Al-Jabr]]}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cresswell|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4i3zV4vnBAC&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|OUP Staff}} | {{harvnb|Menini|Oystaeyen|2017|p=722}} }}</ref>]] Lizgu lakuti ''algebra'' nyengo zinyake likugwiriskirika ntchito mwakucepa kuti likung'anamurenge waka algebra ya pulayimale panji algebra yakudumura yekha.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=46}} | {{harvnb|Walz|2016|loc=[https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 Algebra]}} }}</ref> Para likugwiriskirika ntchito nga zina lakuŵerengeka, algebra ni mtundu unyake wa gulu la algebra uwo ukukhwaskana na malo gha [[vector space|vector]] agho ghali na mtundu unyake wa nchito ya viŵiri viŵiri, iyo yikuchemeka [[bilinear map|nchito yakuŵiriska]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=46}} | {{harvnb|Brešar|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PkvPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR33 xxxiii]}} | {{harvnb|Golan|1995|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8502-6_18 219–227]}} }}</ref> Kulingana na umo vikuyowoyekera, algebra yingayowoyaso za vigaŵa vinyake vya algebra, nga [[Lie algebra]] panji [[associative algebra|algebra yakukolerana]].<ref>{{harvnb|EoM Staff|2017}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti ''algebra'' likufuma ku lizgu la Chiarabu lakuti {{lang|ar|الجبر}} ({{transliteration|ar|al-jabr}}), ilo pakwamba likang'anamuranga opareshoni yakuchizgira viwangwa. Mu vilimika vya m'ma 800 C.E., lizgu ili likaŵa na ng'anamuro la masamu apo [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]], uyo wakasambiranga masamu ku Persia, wakagwiriskira ntchito lizgu ili kuti wazunure nthowa yakusinthira vyakuyaniska. Wakagwiriskira ntchito lizgu ili pa mutu wa buku lake, ilo mutu wake ukung'anamulika kuti {{transliteration|ar|[[Al-Jabr|al-Kitāb al-Mukhtaṣar fī Ḥisāb al-Jabr wal-Muqābalah]]}} [Buku Lakulongosora Kupenda mwa Kumalizga na Kulinganiza]. Mutu uwu ukang'anamulika mu Chilatini kuti {{lang|la|Liber Algebrae et Almucabola}}.{{efn|The exact meaning of the term {{transliteration|ar|al-jabr}} in al-Khwarizmi's work is disputed. In some passages, it expresses that a quantity diminished by subtraction is restored to its original value, similar to how a bonesetter restores broken bones by bringing them into proper alignment.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Oaks|Alkhateeb|2007|pp=45–46, 58}} | {{harvnb|Gandz|1926|p=437}} }}</ref>}} Lizgu ili likanjira mu Chingelezi mu vilimika vya m'ma 1500 kufuma ku Chiitaliya, Chisipanishi, na Chilatini cha mu nyengo ya Ŵamitundu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cresswell|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4i3zV4vnBAC&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|OUP Staff}} | {{harvnb|Menini|Oystaeyen|2017|p=722}} | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=10}} }}</ref> Pakwamba, ng'anamuro lake likaŵa waka pa fundo yakuti [[theory of equations|kufundizga vyakuyaniska]], ndikuti, uzeru wa kusintha [[polynomial equations|vyakuyaniska vyakuvinandi]] mwakukhumba kuvitatuza. Ichi chikasintha mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800{{efn|These changes were in part triggered by discoveries that solved many of the older problems of algebra. For example, the proof of the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] demonstrated the existence of complex solutions of polynomials<ref name="auto7">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=308}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra}} }}</ref> and the introduction of [[Galois theory]] characterized the polynomials that have [[solution in radicals|general solutions]].<ref name="auto2">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=314–345}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Galois Theory, § Applications of Group Theory}} }}</ref>}} apo uzelu wa algebra ukasazgirapo kuti ukwatire kusambira mitundu yakupambana-pambana ya nchito na magulu gha algebra pamoza na [[axiom|madango ghakuzomerezgeka]] ghawo, malango agho ghakulondezgeka.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Structural Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73–74]}} }}</ref> == Vigaŵa Vikuru == === Algebra ya Pulayimale === {{main|Elementary algebra}} [[File:algebraic equation notation.svg|thumb|right|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of an algebraic expression|Umo mazgu gha algebra ghakulembeka:<br />&nbsp; 1 – chikwezgo (exponent)<br />&nbsp; 2 – muwandaniso (coefficient)<br />&nbsp; 3 – chigaŵa (term)<br />&nbsp; 4 – chiwimbo cha nchito (operator)<br />&nbsp; 5 – chigaŵa cambura-kusintha (constant term)<br />&nbsp; <math>c</math> – cambura-kusintha (constant)<br />&nbsp; <math>x</math> <math>y</math> – vyambura-kumanyikwa (variables)]] Algebra ya pulayimale, iyo yikuchemekaso algebra ya sukulu, ndiyo ni algebra yakale chomene ndiposo yakuzirwa chomene.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N2R9DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} | {{harvnb|Benson|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nNbnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111–112]}} }}</ref> Ni generalization ya masamu ghakwamba iyo yikuthemba pa vyakusintha (vyambura-kumanyikwa) na kusanda umo mazgu gha masamu ghangasinthira.<ref name="auto4">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=129}} | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ 1. Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Masamu ghakwamba ni kasandiro ka nchito za manambara. Ghakufufuza umo manambara ghakusazgikira na kusinthika mwakugwiliskira ntchito kusazga, [[subtraction|kuwuskapo]], [[multiplication|kwandaniska]], [[Division (mathematics)|kugaŵa]], kuwoneska (exponentiation), kufumiska misisi (roots), na [[logarithm|logarithimu]]. Mwachiyelezgero, nchito ya kusazga yikusazga manambara ghaŵiri, ghakuchemeka vyakusazgika, kuŵa nambara yachitatu, iyo yikuchemeka [[sum|muzgoro]], nga umo <math>2 + 5 = 7</math>.<ref name="auto1"/> Algebra ya pulayimale yikuthemba pa nchito zenezo waka kweni yikuzomerezga vyambura-kumanyikwa padera pa manambara ghaŵaka. Vyambura-kumanyikwa ni viwimbo vya vinthu ivyo vindamanyikwe panji ivyo vyambura kumanyikwa. Vikupangiska kuti wanthu ŵayowoye ukoli uwo munthu wandaumanye mwakukhwima, na kuyowoya malango ghakumanyikwa agho ghali ghaunenesko, kwambura kupwelelera manambara agho ghakugwiriskirika ntchito. Mwachiyelezgero, cakuyaniska <math>2 \times 3 = 3 \times 2</math> chikuŵa cha masamu ghakwamba ndipo chikulongora kuyana kwa manambara agha ghekha. Para tikapoka manambara na vyambura-kumanyikwa, tingayowoya dango likuru ilo likulongosoreka ku kunozgeka kose kwa manambara, nga dango la kusintha malo (commutative property) la kwandaniska, ilo likulongosoreka mu cakuyaniska {{nowrap|<math>a \times b = b \times a</math>.<ref name="auto4"/>}} [[Algebraic expression|Mazgu gha algebra]] ghakupangika mwakugwiliskira nchito za masamu ghakwamba kuti akole pamoza vyambura-kumanyikwa na manambara. Mwakuyana na umo vikuŵira, vilembo vichoko nga ni <math>x</math>, <math>y</math>, na <math>z</math> vikwimira vyambura-kumanyikwa. Mu vinthu vinyake, viwimbo vyapasi (subscripts) vikusazgikako kupambaniska vyambura-kumanyikwa, nga <math>x_1</math>, <math>x_2</math>, na <math>x_3</math>. Vilembo vichoko-choko nga ni <math>a</math>, <math>b</math>, na <math>c</math> kanandi ghakugwiriskirika ntchito pa vyambura-kusintha (constants) na vyakusazgirako pa kwandaniska (coefficients).{{efn|Constants represent fixed numbers that do not change during the study of a specific problem.<ref>{{harvnb|Sobolev|2015}}</ref>}} Mazgu ghakuti <math>5x + 3</math> ni mazgu gha algebra ghakupangika mwa kuchulukizga nambara 5 na cambura-kusintha <math>x</math> na kusazgako nambara 3 ku ivyo vikusangika. Vyakuwoneska vinyake vya mazgu gha algebra ni <math>32xyz</math> na {{nowrap|<math>64x_1{}^2 + 7x_2 - c</math>.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=129–130}} | {{harvnb|Young|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=RA1-PA999 999]}} | {{harvnb|Majewski|2004|p=347}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Sorell|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EksSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}} }}</ref>}} Mazgu ghanyake gha algebra ghakuŵa nga mazgu ghakukhwaskana na mazgu ghaŵiri pamoza. [[Equation|Cakuyaniska]] ni mazgu ghakupangika mwa kuyerezgera mazgu ghaŵiri, kuyowoya kuti ghakuyana waka. Ichi chingalongoreka mwakugwiliskira nchito chiwimbo cha kuyana ({{tmath|1= = }}), nga <math>5x^2 + 6x = 3y + 4</math>. [[Inequation|Vyambura-kuyana]] vikukhwaskana na mtundu wakupambana wa kuyerezgera, kuyowoya kuti vigaŵa viŵiri ivi ni vyakupambana. Ichi chingalongoreka mwakugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo nga chiwimbo cha kuchepa ({{tmath|1= < }}), chiwimbo cha kuluska ({{tmath|1= > }}), na chiwimbo cha kupambana ({{tmath|1= \neq }}). Kupambana na mazgu ghanyake, mazgu agha ghangaŵa ghaunenesko panji ghautesi, ndipo unenesko wawo ukuthemba pa mtengo wa vinthu ivyo vikusintha. Mwachiyelezgero, mazgu ghakuti <math>x^2 = 4</math> ni ghaunenesko usange <math>x</math> ni 2 panji −2, ndipo ghautesi mwakupambanako. Ma equation ghakukhala na vyambura-kumanyikwa vingagaŵika mu ma equation ghakumanyikwa (identity equations) na ma equation ghakukhazikika (conditional equations). Ma equation ghakumanyikwa ghali ghaunenesko pa vyose ivyo vingapelekeka ku vyambura-kumanyikwa, nga cakuyaniska {{tmath|1= 2x + 5x = 7x }}. Ma equation ghakukhazikika ghakuŵa ghaunenesko waka pa vinyake vyakusintha. Mwachiyelezgero, cakuyaniska <math>x + 4 = 9</math> ni chaunenesko waka usange <math>x</math> ni 5.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Musser|Peterson|Burger|2013|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Goodman|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TvY7DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} | {{harvnb|Williams|2022}} }}</ref> Chakulinga chikuru cha algebra ya pulayimale nkhumanya mtengo uwo mazgu ghakuyowoyeka ghaunenesko. Ici cingacitika mwa kusintha na kugwiliskira nchito mazgu mwakuyana na malango ghanyake. Fundo yikuru njakuti nchito yiliyose iyo yikuchitika ku chigaŵa chimoza cha cakuyaniska yikweneraso kuchitika ku chigaŵa chinyake. Mwachiyelezgero, usange munthu wawuskako 5 ku chigaŵa cha kumaryero, wakwenerato kuwuskako 5 ku chigaŵa cha kumalyero kuti ŵalinganiske vigaŵa vyose viŵiri. Chilato cha ndondomeko izi nkhupatura chinthu icho munthu wakukhumba ku chigaŵa chimoza, ndondomeko iyo yikumanyikwa kuti nkhumazga cakuyaniska kwa chinthu icho chikusintha. Mwachiyelezgero, cakuyaniska <math>x - 7 = 4</math> chingamazgika kwa <math>x</math> mwa kusazgako 7 ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri, ivyo vikupatura <math>x</math> ku chigaŵa cha kumaryero na kusanga cakuyaniska {{tmath|1= x = 11 }}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=130}} | {{harvnb|McKeague|1986|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sq7iBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 51–54]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ 1. Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Pali nthowa zinyake zinandi izo zikugwiriskirika ntchito kumazga ma equation. [[Simplification (algebra)|Kupepuska]] kukugwiriskirika ntchito kuti chiŵike mazgu ghakusuzga na ghanyake ghakuyana kweni ghapusu. Mwachiyelezgero, mazgu ghakuti <math>7x - 3x</math> ghangaŵikika na mazgu ghakuti <math>4x</math> chifukwa <math>7x - 3x = (7-3)x = 4x</math> mwa dango la [[distributive property|kugaŵanya]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tan|Steeb|Hardy|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UDb0BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306 306]}} | {{harvnb|Lamagna|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8PSDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 150]}} }}</ref> Pa mazgu agho ghali na vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi, kuŵikirapo m'malo mwake (substitution) ni nthowa yakumanyikwa yakusinthira chinthu chimoza na mazgu ghakuyana ghambura kusazgako cambura-kusintha ico. Mwachiyelezgero, usange munthu wamanya kuti <math>y = 3x</math>, wangapepuska mazgu ghakuti <math>7xy</math> na kusanga {{tmath|1= 21x^2 }}. Munthowa yakuyana, usange munthu wamanya mtengo wa cambura-kusintha chimoza, wangagwiriskira ntchito umo kumanya mtengo wa vinyake.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Solving Systems of Algebraic Equations}} | {{harvnb|McKeague|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nI7iBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA386 386]}} | {{harvnb|McKeague|1986|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sq7iBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA148 148]}} }}</ref> [[File:Graph (y = 0.5x - 1).svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Graph of equation "y = 0.5x − 1"|Ma equation gha algebra ghangagwiriskirika ntchito kulongosora vithuzi vya geometry. Mtengo wose wa <math>x</math> na <math>y</math> uwo ukumazga cakuyaniska ukupulikiskika kuŵa songo. Vikulembeka nga mzere wa cikuwundi, wakukwera, mu giraf yakucanya.]] Ma equation gha algebra ghangamasulika mu [[geometry]] kuti ghalongosore viŵelengero vya malo mu mtundu wa [[graph of a function|giraf]]. Vinthu vyakupambana-pambana ivyo vili mu equation vikupulikikwa nga ni [[Cartesian coordinate system|maryeruzgo]], ndipo vigaŵa ivyo vikumazga equation vikung'anamulika nga ni fundo za giraf. Mwachiyelezgero, usange <math>x</math> yikuŵikika pa zero mu equation {{tmath|1= y=0.5x - 1 }}, mbwenu <math>y</math> yikwenera kuŵa negative one kuti equation yiŵe yaunenesko. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti mafupa gha <math>(x, y)</math> ghakuti <math>(0, -1)</math> ni chigaŵa cha giraf ya equation. Mafupa gha <math>(x, y)</math> ghakuti {{tmath|1= (0, 7) }}, mwakupambanako, ghakumazga yayi equation ndipo ntheura ghali yayi chigaŵa cha giraf. Grafu yikukhwaska chiŵelengero chose cha x,y paŵiri awo ŵakumazga equation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=130–131}} | {{harvnb|Rohde|Jain|Poddar|Ghosh|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vk2XbZpsBOwC&pg=PT89 89]}} | {{harvnb|Walz|2016|loc=[https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 Algebra]}}}}</ref> ==== Ma Polynomial ==== {{main|Polynomial}} [[Polynomial|Polynomial]] ni mazgu ghakuchitika na chigaŵa chimoza panji vinandi ivyo vikusazgika panji kuwuskika pakati pawo, nga {{tmath|1= x^4+3xy^2+5x^3-1 }}. Chigaŵa chilichose ni cambura-kusintha, cambura-kumanyikwa, panji muzgoro wa cambura-kusintha na vyambura-kumanyikwa. Cambura-kumanyikwa chilichose chingakwezgeka ku chikwezgo cha cipendeko cambura kupambika (positive integer). Polynomial ya chigaŵa chimoza yikuchemeka [[monomial]], apo polynomial za vigaŵa viŵiri na vitatu zikuchemeka [[binomial]] na [[trinomial]]. [[Degree of a polynomial|Digiri ya polynomial]] ni mtengo wapachanya wa muzgoro wa vikwezgo vya vyambura-kumanyikwa (pakati pa vigaŵa vyake) (4 mu chiyelezgero ichi pacanya).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bracken|Miller|2014|pp=386–387}} | {{harvnb|Kaufmann|Schwitters|2011|p=220}} | {{harvnb|Markushevich|2015}} }}</ref> Ma polynomial gha digiri yimoza ghakuchemeka ''ma polynomial gha mzere''. Algebra ya mzere yikusambira magulu gha ma polynomial gha mzere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sahai|Bist|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yjkgNYfApj4C&pg=PA21 21]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Barrera-Mora|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xmu8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix, 1–2]}} }}</ref> Polynomial yikuchemeka ''univariate'' panji ''multivariate'', kuyana na usange yikugwiriskira ntchito cambura-kumanyikwa chimoza panji vinandi.<ref>{{harvnb|Geddes|Czapor|Labahn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fOUwkkRxT4C&pg=PA46 46]}}</ref> [[Factorization|Kugaŵaniska]] ni nthowa yakugwiriskira ntchito kupepuska ma polynomial, kupangiska kuti chiŵe chapusu kuvisanda na kumanya vigaŵa ivyo vikuŵa zero. Kugaŵaniska nkhulembaso polynomial kuŵa muzgoro wa vigaŵaniso vinandi. Mwachiyelezgero, polynomial <math>x^2 - 3x - 10</math> yingagaŵaniskika kuŵa {{tmath|1= (x + 2)(x - 5) }}. Polynomial yose njizero pekha usange chimoza mwa vigaŵaniso vyake ni zero, ndikuti, usange <math>x</math> ni −2 panji 5.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lukas|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1-dvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 47–49]}} | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Algebraic Expressions, § Solving Algebraic Equations}} }}</ref> Pambere vilimika vya m'ma 1800 vindafike, vigaŵa vinandi vya algebra vikaŵanga vya equation ya polynomial, equation iyo yikasangika para munthu wakuyaniska polynomial na zero. Kuyezgayezga kwakwamba kwa kumazga ma equation gha polynomial kukaŵa kwakuti ŵalongore vyakumazga mu mazgu gha misisi ya nth. Muzgoro wa equation ya polynomial ya digiri yachiŵiri ukuperekeka na fomula ya quadratic<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Solving algebraic equations}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Classical algebra}} }}</ref> <math display="block">x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt {b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.</math> Mayankho gha madigiri ghatatu na ghanayi ghakupelekeka na mafomula gha [[cubic formula|cubic]] na [[quartic formula|quartic]]. Palije mayankho ghakumanyikwa ghakumazgira madigiri ghapachanya, nga umo vikawonekera mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800 na [[Abel–Ruffini theorem|fundo ya Abel-Ruffini]].<ref name="auto3"/> Nanga ni para mayankho ghakumanyikwa ghalipo yayi, mayankho ghakuyana waka ghangasangika mwakugwiliskira nchito vipangizo vya manambara nga [[Newton–Raphson method|nthowa ya Newton-Raphson]].<ref>{{harvnb|Igarashi|Altman|Funada|Kamiyama|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=58ySAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}}</ref> [[Fundamental theorem of algebra|Fundo yikuru ya algebra]] yikuti equation yiliyose ya univariate polynomial ya digiri yiwemi iyo yili na coefficients yeneco panji yakusuzga yili na yankho limoza lakusuzga. Ntheura, polynomial yiliyose ya digiri yiwemi yingagaŵika mu ma [[polynomial factorization|polynomial gha mzere]]. Fundo yikuzirwa iyi yikakhozgeka kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, kweni yikupereka yayi nthowa yiliyose yakusangirapo vyakumazga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Solving algebraic equations}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=308}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra}} }}</ref> === Algebra ya Mzere === {{main|Linear algebra}} Algebra ya mzere yikwamba na kusambira [[System of linear equations|ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Barrera-Mora|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xmu8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix, 1–2], }} }}</ref> [[Linear equation|Equation njakumzere]] usange yingalembeka mu njila ya {{tmath|1= a_1x_1 + a_2x_2 + ... + a_nx_n = b}}, apo {{tmath|1= a_1 }}, {{tmath|1= a_2 }}, ..., <math>a_n</math> na <math>b</math> ni vyambura-kusintha. Vyakuyelezgera ni <math>x_1 - 7x_2 + 3x_3 = 0</math> na {{tmath|1= \textstyle \frac{1}{4} x - y = 4 }}. ''Ndondomeko ya ma equation gha mzere'' ni gulu la ma equation gha mzere agho munthu wakukhumba kusanga vyakumazga vyakuyana pakati pawo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=2–3}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Voitsekhovskii|2011}} }}</ref> [[Matrix (mathematics)|Ma matrix]] ni magulu ghakuŵungana gha manambara mwakachilato (rows na columns) agho ghakambiliranga kwiziliska nga chiwimbo chakufinya na chakuyana mwakukwana cha ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Saikia|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KhM7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Lal|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FwPNDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} | {{harvnb|Mirakhor|Krichene|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G6XNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT107 107]}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, ndondomeko ya ma equation <math display="block"> \begin{align} 9x_1 + 3x_2 - 13x_3 &= 0 \\ 2.3x_1 + 7x_3 &= 9 \\ -5x_1 - 17x_2 &= -3 \end{align} </math> yingalembeka nga <math display="block">AX=B,</math> apo {{tmath|1= A }}, <math>X</math> na <math>B</math> ni ma matrix <math display="block">A=\begin{bmatrix}9 & 3 & -13 \\ 2.3 & 0 & 7 \\ -5 & -17 & 0 \end{bmatrix}, \quad X= \begin{bmatrix}x_1 \\ x_2 \\ x_3 \end{bmatrix},\quad B = \begin{bmatrix}0 \\ 9 \\ -3 \end{bmatrix}.</math> Kuyana na vinjeru vya chiŵelengero cha mizere na mizati, ma matrix ghangasazgika, ghangandaniskika, ndipo nyengo zinyake ghangapiluskika (ghangawendeskeka mwakupiluka).{{efn|Kupiluskika (inversion) nkhung'anamura kusanga matrix yinyake iyo, para yandaniskika na matrix yakwamba, yikupeleka matrix ya "identity"—iyo njakuyana na cipendeko 1 pa nkhani ya kwandaniska manambara.}} Nthowa zose zakumazgira ndondomeko za mzere zingalongosoreka nga vyakuwendeska matrix mwakugwiliskira nchito izi. Mwachiyelezgero, kumazga ndondomeko yamucanya nkhupenja matrix yakupiluskika <math>A^{-1}</math> iyo <math>A^{-1}A = I,</math> apo <math>I</math> ni [[identity matrix|matrix ya identity]]. Penepapo, kwandaniska ku mkono wamazere mbali zose ziŵiri za equation ya matrix yamucanya na <math>A^{-1},</math> munthu wakusanga muzgoro wa ndondomeko ya ma equation gha mzere nga<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brown|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=POlVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 30–31]}} | {{harvnb|Waerden|2003|pp=70–72}} }}</ref> <math display="block">X=A^{-1}B.</math> Nthowa zakumazgira ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere zikwambira ku izo zili zapafupi kumanya, nga kwiza-mu-malo-mwa (substitution)<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Young|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=PA697 697–698]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Sullivan|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NKaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–54]}} }}</ref> na kuwuskapo (elimination),<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=7–8}} | {{harvnb|Sullivan|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NKaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 55–56]}} | {{harvnb|Atanasiu|Mikusinski|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VbySDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}}}}</ref> kufika ku vipangizo vyapachanya ivyo vikugwiliskira ntchito ma matrix, nga [[Cramer's rule|dango la Cramer]], [[Gaussian elimination|kuwuskapo kwa Gauss]], na [[LU decomposition|kugaŵaniska kwa LU]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=7–8, 11, 491}} }}</ref> Ndondomeko zinyake za ma equation nizambura-kuyana (inconsistent),<ref name="auto10">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=3–7}} | {{harvnb|Mortensen|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYDrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73–74]}} | {{harvnb|Young|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pMSZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA714 714–715]}} }}</ref> ndikuti, vyakumazga vilipo yayi chifukwa ma equation ghakususkana wene.{{efn|Mwachiyelezgero, ma equation <math>x_1 - 3x_2 = 0</math> na <math>x_1 - 3x_2 = 7</math> ghakususkana wene chifukwa palije mtengo wa <math>x_1</math> na <math>x_2</math> uwo ungamazga ma equation ghaŵiri ghara pa nyengo yimoza.<ref name="auto10"/>}} Ndondomeko zakuyana zili na yankho limoza lakupambanapambana panji viŵelengero vyambura kumazgika vya vyakumazga.<ref name="auto11">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Harrison|Waldron|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_sisAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT464 464]}} | {{harvnb|Anton|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=neYGCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA255 255]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Usange ndondomeko yakuyana ya ma equation yili na yankho limoza pera, ivi vikukhozga pa chiŵelengero cha vyambura-kumanyikwa na ma [[independent equation|equation ghakujipima paŵiri]]. Ma equation ghakuti ghakujipima paŵiri usange ghakupeleka yayi mzimu umoza ndipo ghangafuma yayi kuchimoza na chinyake. Yankho limoza likuŵako usange chiŵelengero cha vyambura-kumanyikwa nchakuyana na chiŵelengero cha ma equation ghakujipima paŵiri. [[Underdetermined system|Ndondomeko zambura kumazgikirathu]], kusambazgana na izi, zili na vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi kuluska ma equation ghakujipima paŵiri ndipo zili na viŵelengero vyambura kumazgika vya vyakumazga usange nizakuyana.<ref name="auto11"/>}} Kusambira [[vector space|malo gha vector]] na [[linear map|mapu gha mzere]] nkhukuru mu algebra ya mzere. Malo gha vector ni gulu la algebra ilo likupangika na gulu (set) lino lili na kusazga uko kukupangiska kuŵa [[abelian group|gulu la abelian]] na kwandaniska na cipendeko (scalar multiplication) uko kukuyanapo na kusazga (wonani [[vector space|malo gha vector]] kuti mumanye vinandi). Mapu gha mzere ni nchito (function) pakati pa malo gha vector iyo yikuyanapo na kusazga na kwandaniska na cipendeko. Pa nkhani ya [[finite-dimensional vector space|malo gha vector ghakumalira]], ma vector na mapu gha mzere ghangayimilirika na ma matrix. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti masambiro gha ma matrix na malo gha vector ghakumalira ghakuyana waka. Comenecomene, malo gha vector ghakupereka nthowa yachitatu yakulongosolera na kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Valenza|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7x8MCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 vii]}} | {{harvnb|Chahal|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BGR8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 § 1.1 What is Linear Algebra?]}} | {{harvnb|Solomon|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BpvSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57–58, 61–62]}} | {{harvnb|Ricardo|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s7bMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA389 389]}} }}</ref> Kwiza pa mkhalidwe uwu, matrix ni chithunzithunzi cha mapu gha mzere: usange munthu wakusankha [[Basis (linear algebra)|msingi]] wanyake wakulongosolera ma vector agho ghakusinthika, mbwenu ivyo vikulembeka mu matrix vikupereka vyakufumapo vya kugwiliskira ntchito mapu gha mzere ku ma vector gha msingi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Solomon|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BpvSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} | {{harvnb|Ricardo|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s7bMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA395 395–396]}} }}</ref> [[File:Linear Function Graph.svg|thumb|alt=Graph of two linear equations|Ma equation gha mzere agho ghali na vyambura-kumanyikwa viŵiri ghangang'anamulika nga [[Line (geometry)|mizere]]. Yankho la ndondomeko ya ma equation gha mzere ni apo mizere yikukhwaskana.]] Ndondomeko za ma equation zingang'anamulika nga vithunzithunzi vya geometry. Ku ndondomeko zakuŵa na vyambura-kumanyikwa viŵiri, equation yiliyose yikwimira [[Line (geometry)|mzere]] mu [[two-dimensional space|malo gha mibaru yiŵiri]]. Apo mizere yiŵiri yikukhwaskana ndipo ni yankho la ndondomeko yose chifukwa apa ndipapera apo pakumazga equation yakwamba na yachiŵiri pamoza. Ku ndondomeko zambura-kuyana, mizere yiŵiri yikwenda mwakuyana kwambura kukhwaskana, ndikuti, palije yankho chifukwa yikukhwaskana yayi nakale. Usange ma equation ghaŵiri ngambura kujipima paŵiri, ghakulongosora mzere umoza wene, ndikuti, yankho la equation yimoza njakumazgaso equation yinyake. Vyakuyanapo ivi vikupangiska kuti munthu wasange vyakumazga mwakuwona pa giraf, kulemba ma equation na kumanya apo ghakukhwaskana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=3–5}} | {{harvnb|Young|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=PA696 696–697]}} | {{harvnb|Sneyd|Fewster|McGillivray|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 211]}} }}</ref> Fundo zenezi zikugwira ntchito so ku ndondomeko za ma equation zakuŵa na vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi, kweni kupambana nkhwakuti ma equation agha ghakulongosora yayi mizere kweni vithunzithunzi vyapachanya kuluska. Mwachiyelezgero, ma equation gha vyambura-kumanyikwa vitatu ghakuyana na [[Plane (mathematics)|mabwalo]] mu [[three-dimensional space|malo gha mibaru yitatu]], ndipo apo mabwalo ghose ghakukhwaskana ndipo pakumazga ndondomeko ya ma equation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=3–5}} | {{harvnb|Young|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=PA713 713]}} | {{harvnb|Sneyd|Fewster|McGillivray|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 211]}} }}</ref> === Algebra Yakudumura === {{main|Abstract algebra}} Algebra yakudumura, iyo yikuchemekaso algebra ya sono,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Dominich|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uEedNKV3nlUC&pg=PA19 19]}} }}</ref> njakusambira [[algebraic structures|magulu gha algebra]]. Gulu la algebra ni chiwongo cha kupulikiska [[Operation (mathematics)|nchito]] pa [[mathematical object|vinthu vya masamu]], nga kusazga kwa vipendeko. Apo algebra ya pulayimale na algebra ya mzere zikugwira ntchito pakati pa vipimo vya magulu gha algebra ghakupambanapambana, algebra yakudumura yikutora nthowa yikuru kuluska, yakuyaniska umo magulu gha algebra ghakupambanirana na mitundu yose ya magulu gha algebra iyo yiliko, nga [[Group (mathematics)|magulu]], [[Ring (mathematics)|mphete]], na [[Field (mathematics)|minda]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA1 1–3]}} | {{harvnb|Dominich|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uEedNKV3nlUC&pg=PA19 19]}} }}</ref> Kupambana kukuru pakati pa mitundu iyi ya magulu gha algebra nkhu chiŵelengero cha nchito izo zikugwiliskira ntchito na madango agho ghakuzomerezgeka.<ref name="auto9"/> Mu [[mathematics education|masambizgo gha masamu]], algebra yakudumura yikwimira kalasi yapachanya ya ku yunivesite iyo ŵakusambira masamu ŵakusambira pamanyuma pakumazga makalasi gha algebra ya mzere.<ref>{{harvnb|Hausberger|2020|loc=Abstract Algebra Teaching and Learning}}</ref> [[File:Binary operations as black box.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of binary operation|Magulu ghanandi gha algebra ghakuzirwa pa nchito zaŵiri (binary operations), izo zikutora vinthu viŵiri kuŵa vyakwiza-mu nchito ndipo vikuvikoleranga kuŵa chinthu chimoza kuŵa vyakufumamo, nga umo kusazga na kwandaniska vikuchitira.]] Pa mkhalidwe wakuzomerezgeka, gulu la algebra ni [[Set (mathematics)|gulu la vinthu]]{{efn|Gulu la vinthu ni chiŵungano cha vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vilije njila yakukhwaskana, nga vipendeko, ma vector, panji magulu ghanyake. [[Set theory|Sambiro la magulu]] likulongosora madango na mikhaliro ya magulu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=460}} | {{harvnb|Murthy|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CBc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 1.3]}} }}</ref>}} lakuzikapo, pamoza na nchito yimoza panji zinandi.{{efn|Kuyana na malongosoro ghanyake, magulu gha algebra ghakusazgapo chinthu chakupambana nga chigaŵa chinyake chakusazgikapo, nga chinthu cha identity pa nkhani ya kwandaniska.<ref name="auto5">{{harvnb|Ovchinnikov|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UMbXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27]}}</ref>}} Algebra yakudumura yikukhumbisiska comenecomene [[binary operation|nchito zaŵiri]],{{efn|Magulu ghanyake gha algebra agho ghakusambirika na algebra yakudumura ghali na [[unary operation|nchito yimoza]] kusazgikapo pa nchito zaŵiri. Mwachiyelezgero, [[normed vector space|malo gha vector ghakuŵa na muyeso]] ghali na [[Norm (mathematics)|muyeso]] (norm), uwo ni nchito yimoza iyo yikugwiliskikira comenecomene kukhwaskanya vector na utali wake.<ref>{{harvnb|Grillet|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LJtyhu8-xYwC&pg=PA247 247]}}</ref>}} izo zikutora vinthu viŵiri vilivyose mu gulu lakuzikapo kuŵa vyakwiza-mu, ndipo zikuvipeleka ku chinthu chinyake mu gulu ili kuŵa chakufumamo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Whitelaw|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f2hyf0QoB_0C&pg=PA61 61]}} | {{harvnb|Nicholson|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w-GaLpapRcEC&pg=PA70 70]}} | {{harvnb|Fiche|Hebuterne|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TqkckiuuXg8C&pg=PT326 326]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, gulu la algebra <math>\langle \N, + \rangle</math> lili na [[natural numbers|vipendeko vyakuŵelenjera]] ({{tmath|1= \N }}) kuŵa gulu lakuzikapo na kusazga ({{tmath|1= + }}) kuŵa nchito yake yaŵiri.<ref name="auto5"/> Gulu lakuzikapo lingaŵa na vinthu vinyake kupambuka vipendeko, ndipo nchito zake nizakukakikizgika yayi ku nchito zaumaliro za masamu pera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, gulu lakuzikapo la [[symmetry group|gulu la symmetry]] la chinthu cha geometry likupangika na [[geometric transformation|kusintha kwa geometry]], nga [[rotation|kuzingilizga]], apo munsi mwake chinthu chikukhalilira [[Invariant (mathematics)|chambura-kusintha]]. Nchito yake yaŵiri ni [[function composition|kukolerana kwa mapu]], iyo yikutora vyakusintha viŵiri kuŵa vyakwiza-mu ndipo yili na chakusintha icho chikufuma pa kugwiliskira ntchito chakusintha chakwamba kulondezgeka na chachiŵiri kuŵa chakufumamo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Olver|1999|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1GlHYhNRAqEC&pg=PA55 55–56]}} | {{harvnb|Abas|Salman|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5snsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58–59]}} | {{harvnb|Häberle|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=McvSa-cFZCMC&pg=PA640 640]}} }}</ref> ==== Sambiro la Magulu ==== {{main|Group theory}} Algebra yakudumura yikupatuliska magulu gha algebra kuyana na madango panji [[axiom|maxiom]] agho nchito zake zikuzomerezga na chiŵelengero cha nchito izo zikugwiliskira ntchito. Mtundu wa chiyambipo comenecomene ni gulu (group), ilo lili na nchito yimoza ndipo likukhumba kuti nchito iyi njakukolerana ([[Associative property|associative]]) ndiposo yili na [[identity element|chinthu cha identity]] na [[inverse element|vinthu vyakupiluska]]. Nchito njakukolerana usange kalongozgero ka kugwiliskira ntchito kanandi kalije mphampha, ndikuti, usange {{nowrap|<math>(a \circ b) \circ c</math>{{efn|Viwimbo <math>\circ</math> na <math>\star</math> vikugwiliskika mu nkhani iyi kwimira nchito yiliyose iyo yingayana panji yambakuyana na nchito za masamu.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref>}}}} nchakuyana na <math>a \circ (b \circ c)</math> ku vinthu vyose. Nchito yili na chinthu cha identity panji chinthu chambura-kusintha usange chinthu chimoza ''e'' chilipo icho chikusintha yayi mtengo wa chinthu chilichose chinyake, ndikuti, usange {{tmath|1= a \circ e = e \circ a = a }}. Nchito yili na vinthu vyakupiluska usange ku chinthu chilichose <math>a</math> pali chinthu chakuwelengana <math>a^{-1}</math> icho chikuwuskapo vya {{tmath|1= a }}. Usange chinthu chikugwira ntchito pa icho chakupiluska chake mbwenu muzgoro ni chinthu chambura-kusintha ''e'', chakulongosoreka mwakuzomerezgeka nga {{tmath|1= a \circ a^{-1} = a^{-1} \circ a = e }}. Gulu la algebra lililose ilo likukwaniska vikhumbikwa ivi ni gulu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kargapolov|Merzlyakov|2016|loc=§ Definition}} | {{harvnb|Khattar|Agrawal|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7-nIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4–6]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA258 258]}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, <math>\langle \Z, + \rangle</math> ni gulu ilo lapangika na gulu la [[integers|vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]] pamoza na nchito ya kusazga. Chinthu chambura-kusintha ni 0 ndipo chinthu chakupiluska cha cipendeko chilichose <math>a</math> ni {{nowrap|<math>-a</math>.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Khattar|Agrawal|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7-nIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6–7]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Adhikari|Adhikari|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lBO7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}}}}</ref>}} Vipendeko vyakuŵelenjera pamoza na kusazga, kususkana na ivi, vikupanga yayi gulu chifukwa vili pera na vipendeko vyakuzomerezgeka ndipo ntheura vikusoŵa vinthu vyakupiluska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McWeeny|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3fjIXY93TsC&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Kramer|Pippich|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nvM-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49]}} }}</ref> [[Group theory|Sambiro la magulu]] likusanda umo magulu ghaliri, pamoza na fundo za musingi nga [[fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups|fundo yikuru ya magulu gha abelian ghakumalira]] na [[Feit–Thompson theorem|fundo ya Feit-Thompson]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=242}} | {{harvnb|Bhattacharya|Jain|Nagpaul|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hiQ8e0b48swC&pg=PA141 141]}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D_XKBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1020 1020]}} }}</ref> Iyi yachiŵiri yikaŵa njira yikuru yakwambilira mu chimoza mwa vinthu vikuru comenecomene mu masamu vya vilimika vya m'ma 1900: nchito yakugwirira pamoza, iyo yikatora mapeji ghakuluska 10,000 mu majenali ndipo yikafuma comenecomene pakati pa 1960 na 2004, iyo yikafiskira ku [[classification of finite simple groups|kupatuliska magulu ghapusu ghakumalira]] kwakukwana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Elwes|2006}} | {{harvnb|Wilson|2009|p=2}} }}</ref> ==== Sambiro la Mphete na Sambiro la Munda ==== {{main|Ring theory|Field (mathematics)}} Mphete ni gulu la algebra lino lili na nchito ziŵiri izo zikugwira ntchito mwakuyana na kusazga na kwandaniska kwa vipendeko ndipo zikuchemeka na kulembeka mwakuyana. Mphete ni [[commutative group|gulu lakusinthana]] pasi pa kusazga: kusazga kwa mphete nkhwakukolerana, kwakusinthana, ndipo kuli na chinthu cha identity na vinthu vyakupiluska. Kwandaniska nkhwakukolerana ndiposo [[distributivity|kwakugaŵira]] ku kusazga; ndikuti, <math>a (b + c) = a b + a c</math> na <math>(b + c) a = b a + c a.</math> Kweniso, kwandaniska nkhwakukolerana ndipo kuli na [[identity element|chinthu cha identity]] icho chikuchemeka comenecomene {{math|1}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=2579}} | {{harvnb|Maxwell|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yD0irRUE_u4C&pg=PA73 73–74]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 2.3 Rings}} }}</ref>{{efn|Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakukhumba yayi kuŵako kwa chinthu cha identity mu kwandaniska. Mphete iyo yilije chinthu cha identity mu kwandaniska nyengo zinyake yikuchemeka {{not a typo|[[rng (algebra)|rng]].}}<ref>{{harvnb|Silverman|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PKFnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}}</ref>}} Kwandaniska nkhukhumbikwa yayi kuŵa kwakusinthana; usange nkhwakusinthana, munthu wali na [[commutative ring|mphete yakusinthana]].<ref>{{harvnb|Geddes|Czapor|Labahn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fOUwkkRxT4C&pg=PA24 24]}}</ref> [[ring of integers|Mphete ya vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]] ({{tmath|1= \Z }}) ni yimoza mwa mphete zapusu comenecomene izo zili zakusinthana.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MXu9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}}</ref> ''[[field (mathematics)|Munda]]'' ni mphete yakusinthana iyo {{tmath|1\ne 0}}{{efn|Ichi chikung'anamura kuti kwandaniska na kusazga vikugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Moh|1992|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=maK3sbTVhsoC&pg=PA102 102–103]}}</ref>}} ndipo chinthu chilichose ichi mbura kuŵa zero chili na [[multiplicative inverse|chakupiluska cha kwandaniska]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geddes|Czapor|Labahn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fOUwkkRxT4C&pg=PA24 24]}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=1047, 2579}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 2.4 Fields}} }}</ref> Mphete ya vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika njambura kupanga munda chifukwa yikusoŵa vyakupiluska vya kwandaniska. Mwachiyelezgero, chakupiluska cha kwandaniska cha <math>7</math> ni {{tmath|1= \tfrac{1}{7} }}, icho ndi cipendeko cambura kugaŵika yayi. [[rational numbers|Vipendeko vyakugaŵikika]], [[real numbers|vipendeko vyeneco]], na [[complex numbers|vipendeko vyakusuzga]] vilivyose vikupanga munda na nchito za kusazga na kwandaniska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Irving|2004|pp=77, 236}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=1047, 2579}} | {{harvnb|Hohn|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9XlFu4XQ6nUC&pg=PA83 83–84]}} }}</ref> [[Ring theory|Sambiro la mphete]] ni kusambira mphete, kupenja vinthu nga [[subring|mphete zamunsi]], [[quotient ring|mphete za mgaŵano]], [[polynomial ring|mphete za polynomial]], na [[Ideal (ring theory)|ma ideal]] pamoza na fundo nga [[Hilbert's basis theorem|fundo ya msingi ya Hilbert]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Serovajsky|2020|loc=§ Room 4B.5 Rings}} | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA63 63]}} | {{harvnb|Kline|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8YaBuGcmLb0C&pg=PA1153 1153]}} }}</ref> Sambiro la munda likukhwaskana na minda, kupenja [[field extension|kutandarizga kwa munda]], [[algebraic closure|kujara kwa algebra]], na [[finite fields|minda yakumalira]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Waerden|2003|pp=110–114, 231, 246}} | {{harvnb|Karpilovsky|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-2WR0fw9gLMC&pg=PA45 45]}} | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA63 63]}} }}</ref> [[Galois theory|Sambiro la Galois]] likupenja uzeru pakati pa sambiro la munda na sambiro la magulu, likujizika pa [[fundamental theorem of Galois theory|fundo yikuru ya sambiro la Galois]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lang|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fge-BwqhqIYC&pg=PA261 261–262]}} | {{harvnb|Cox|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vBKrOch1AkYC&pg=PA161 161–162]}} }}</ref> ==== Sambiro la Kukhwaskana Pakati pa Magulu gha Algebra ==== [[File:Magma to group2.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of relations between some algebraic structures|Chithunzithunzi cha ukhwaskano pakati pa magulu ghanyake gha algebra. Mwachiyelezgero, mbali yake yapachanya kumalyo yikulongora kuti [[Magma (algebra)|magma]] yikuŵa [[semigroup|semigroup]] usange nchito yake njakukolerana.]] Kupambuka magulu, mphete, na minda, kuli magulu ghanandi ghanyake gha algebra agho ghakusambirika na algebra. Ghakusazgamo [[Magma (algebra)|ma magma]], [[semigroup|ma semigroup]], [[monoid|ma monoid]], [[abelian group|magulu gha abelian]], [[commutative ring|mphete zakusinthana]], [[Module (mathematics)|ma module]], [[Lattice (order)|ma lattice]], [[vector space|malo gha vector]], [[Algebra over a field|algebra pa munda]], na magulu [[associative|ghakukolerana]] na [[non-associative algebras|ghambura kukolerana]]. Ghakupambana pakati pawo pa mtundu wa vinthu ivyo ghakulongosora na vikhumbikwa ivyo nchito zawo zikufiska. Ghanandi ghakukhwaskana wene pakati pawo mu ntchito yakuti gulu la musingi lingasinthika kuŵa gulu lakuzikirapo comenecomene mwakusazgirapo vikakiro.<ref name="auto9">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and Its Connection with Other Branches of Mathematics.}} | {{harvnb|Bourbaki|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=STS9aZ6F204C&pg=PA428 428–430, 446]}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, magma yikuŵa semigroup usange nchito yake njakukolerana.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooper|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fybzl6QB62gC&pg=PA60 60]}}</ref> [[Homomorphism|Ma homomorphism]] ni vipangizo vyakupenjera vinjeru vya mzimu mwakuyaniska magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rowen|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AhEPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.3 Birkhoff's Theorem}} | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|p=34}} }}</ref> Homomorphism ni mapu ghakufuma ku gulu lakuzikapo la gulu limoza la algebra kuya ku gulu lakuzikapo la gulu linyake la algebra, ghakusunga mikhaliro yinyake ya mzimu. Usange magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra ghakugwiliskira ntchito nchito zaŵiri ndipo ghali mu mtundu <math>\langle A, \circ \rangle</math> na <math>\langle B, \star \rangle</math> mbwenu mapu <math>h: A \to B</math> ni homomorphism usange ghakukwaniska ivi: {{tmath|1= h(x \circ y) = h(x) \star h(y) }}. Kuŵako kwa homomorphism kukulongora kuti nchito <math>\star</math> mu gulu lachiŵiri la algebra yikugwira ntchito yakuyana na iyo nchito <math>\circ</math> yikugwira mu gulu lakwamba la algebra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.3 Birkhoff's Theorem}} | {{harvnb|Rowen|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AhEPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA27 27–28]}} | {{harvnb|Adhikari|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MIAXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5–6]}} }}</ref> [[Isomorphisms|Ma isomorphism]] ni mtundu wapadera wa homomorphism uwo ukulongora kuyanako kukuru pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra. Isomorphism ni homomorphism [[bijective|yakwenerana pa chimoza-na-chimoza]], ndikuti, yikupanga ukhwaskano wa chimoza-na-chimoza pakati pa vinthu vya magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti chinthu chilichose cha gulu lakwamba la algebra chikuya ku chinthu chimoza chapadera mu gulu lachiŵiri, kwambura vinthu vyakusoŵa mapu mu gulu lachiŵiri.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278–279]}} | {{harvnb|Ivanova|Smirnov|2012}} | {{harvnb|Deo|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA295 295]}} | {{harvnb|Ono|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SR2nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 84]}}}}</ref> [[File:Venn A subset B.svg|thumb|alt=Venn diagram of a set and its subset|[[Subalgebra|Vigulu vyamunsi vya algebra]] vikufinyikizga nchito zake ku chigaŵa cha gulu lakuzikapo la gulu la algebra lakwamba.]] Chipangizo chinyake cha kuyaniska nkhukhwaskana pakati pa gulu la algebra na [[Subalgebra#Subalgebras in universal algebra|chigulu chamunsi cha algebra]] chake.<ref name="auto8">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Indurkhya|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=foTrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217–218]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.3 Birkhoff's Theorem}} | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|p=34}} }}</ref> Gulu la algebra na chigulu chamunsi chake vikugwiliskira ntchito nchito zakuyana,{{efn|Kuyana na malongosoro ghanyake, chigulu chamunsi chingaŵaso na nchito zichoko.<ref name="auto6">{{harvnb|Indurkhya|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=foTrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217–218]}}</ref>}} izo zikulondezga maxiom ghakuyana. Kupambana kwapera nkhwakuti gulu lakuzikapo la chigulu chamunsi ni chigaŵa cha gulu lakuzikapo la gulu la algebra.{{efn|Ichi chikung'anamura kuti vinthu vyose vya gulu lakwamba nivyaso vinthu vya gulu lachiŵiri kweni gulu lachiŵiri lingaŵa na vinthu ivyo vilipo yayi mu gulu lakwamba.<ref>{{harvnb|Efimov|2014}}</ref>}} Nchito zose mu chigulu chamunsi zikukhumbikwa kuŵa [[Closure (mathematics)|zakujara]] mu gulu lake lakuzikapo, ndikuti, zikufumiska pera vinthu ivyo vili mu gulu ili.<ref name="auto8"/> Mwachiyelezgero, gulu la [[Parity (mathematics)|vipendeko vyakwenerana]] pamoza na kusazga ni chigulu chamunsi cha gulu lose la vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika pamoza na kusazga. Ichi nchakuti chifukwa muzgoro wa vipendeko viŵiri vyakwenerana ni cipendeko cakwenerana kavili. Kweni gulu la vipendeko vyambura kwenerana pamoza na kusazga nichigulu chamunsi yayi chifukwa nichambura kujara: kusazga vipendeko viŵiri vyambura kwenerana vikufumiska cipendeko chakwenerana, icho ndi chigaŵa yayi cha gulu ilo lasankhika.<ref name="auto6"/> [[Universal algebra|Algebra ya wonse]] ni sambiro la magulu gha algebra mwaŵukuru. Nga chigaŵa cha vinjeru vyake vyakuwonera vinthu vyakuzomerezgeka, yikupwelelera yayi vinthu vyeneco ivyo vikupanga magulu ghakuzikapo ndipo yikuwona nchito izo zili na vyakwiza-mu vinandi kuluska viŵiri, nga [[ternary operation|nchito zitatu]]. Yikupereka chiwongo cha kupenja vinjeru vya mzimu ivyo magulu ghakupambanapambana gha algebra ghali navyo pamoza.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Cohn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6tbuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Nthowa yakupambanako pachoko yikupulikiska algebra ya wonse kuŵa sambiro la mtundu umoza wa magulu gha algebra ghakumanyikwa nga ma algebra ghawonse. Ma algebra ghawonse ghakulongosoreka mwakuzirwa kuti ghasazgemo magulu ghanyake ghanandi gha algebra. Mwachiyelezgero, magulu na mphete ni mitundu yapadera ya algebra ya wonse.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smirnov|2020}} | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|pp=7–8}} | {{harvnb|Bahturin|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8RbvCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA346 346]}} }}</ref>}} Chimoza mwa vinjeru vya mzimu ivi vikukhwaskana na [[Identity (mathematics)#Logic and universal algebra|vinthu vyakuyana]] (identities) ivyo nivyanadi mu magulu ghakupambanapambana gha algebra. Mu mkhalidwe uwu, chinthu chakuyana ni equation [[Universal quantification|yawonse]] panji equation iyo nyanadi ku vinthu vyose vya gulu lakuzikapo. Mwachiyelezgero, kusinthana (commutativity) ni equation yawonse iyo yikuti <math>a \circ b</math> nichakuyana na <math>b \circ a</math> ku vinthu vyose.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.2 Equational Logic}} | {{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|pp=210–211}} }}</ref> [[Variety (universal algebra)|Mtundu wakuyana]] (variety) ni gulu la magulu ghose gha algebra agho ghakukwaniska vinthu vinyake vyakuyana. Mwachiyelezgero, usange magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra ghakukwaniska kusinthana mbwenu ghose ghaŵiri ni chigaŵa cha mtundu wakuyana uwo ukuyana nawo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|pp=210–211}} | {{harvnb|Cohn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6tbuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162]}} | {{harvnb|Rosen|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-oVvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA779 779]}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA406 406]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Mtundu uliwose wa gulu la algebra ukupanga yayi mtundu wakuyana. Mwachiyelezgero, magulu na mphete vyose vikupanga mtundu wakuyana kweni minda njambura kupanga.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohn|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-4ADgUgpSMC&pg=PA8 8]}}</ref>}}{{efn|Kupambuka vinthu vyakuyana, algebra ya wonse yikukhumbikwaso na vinjeru vya mzimu ivyo vikukhwaskana na [[quasi-identity|vinthu vyakuyana pachoko]] (quasi-identities). Chinthu chakuyana pachoko ni chinthu chakuyana icho chikukhumbikwa pera pasi pa vikhumbikwa vinyake (ivyo vikuŵa mu mtundu wa [[Horn clause|chigaŵa cha Horn]]<ref>{{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|p=211}}</ref>). Ni kutandarizga kwa chinthu chakuyana mu mzimu wakuti chinthu chilichose chakuyana ni chinthu chakuyana pachoko kweni chinthu chilichose chakuyana pachoko ni yayi chinthu chakuyana. [[Quasivariety|Mtundu wakuyana pachoko]] ni gulu la magulu ghose gha algebra agho ghakukwaniska vinthu vinyake vyakuyana pachoko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|pp=210–211}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Artamonov|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sLDGY4Hk8V0C&pg=PA873 873]}} }}</ref>}} [[Category theory|Sambiro la mikhaliro]] likupenja umo vinthu vya masamu vikukhwaskirana na chinyake mwakugwiliskira ntchito mzimu wa [[Category (mathematics)|mikhaliro]] (categories). Mkhaliro ni chiŵungano cha vinthu pamoza na chiŵungano cha [[morphisms|vilongozgi]] panji "mivi" pakati pa vinthu ivi. Viŵungano ivi viŵiri vikwenera kukwaniska vikhumbikwa vinyake. Mwachiyelezgero, vilongozgi vingakolerana, panji ku ''kolerana'': usange muvi ukuŵako kufuma ku chinthu <math>a</math> kuya ku chinthu {{tmath|1= b }}, ndipo muvi unyake kufuma ku chinthu <math>b</math> kuya ku chinthu {{tmath|1= c }}, mbwenu pakwenera kuŵakoso muvi kufuma ku chinthu <math>a</math> kuya ku chinthu {{tmath|1= c }}. Kukolerana kwa vilongozgi kukukhumbikwa kuŵa kwakukolerana, ndipo pakwenera kuŵako "muvi wa identity" ku chinthu chilichose.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=347–348}} | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA6 6, 165]}} | {{harvnb|Cheng|2023|p=102}} }}</ref> Mikhaliro yikugwiliskika comenecomene mu masamu gha sono chifukwa yikupereka chiwongo chakukoleranya kuti chilongosore na kupenja vinjeru vinandi vya musingi vya masamu. Mwachiyelezgero, magulu ya vinthu ghangalongosoreka na [[category of sets|mkhaliro wa magulu]], ndipo gulu lililose lingawoneka kuŵa vilongozgi vya mkhaliro uwo uli na chinthu chimoza pera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA6 6, 165]}} | {{harvnb|Borceux|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YfzImoopB-IC&pg=PA20 20]}} | {{harvnb|Laos|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1r7dSn4ZqogC&pg=PA100 100]}} | {{harvnb|Cheng|2023|pp=128–131}} }}</ref> == Mbiri == {{main|History of algebra|Timeline of algebra}} [[File:Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.jpg|thumb|alt=Rhind Papyrus|[[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus|Papyrus ya Rhind Mathematical]] kufuma ku [[ancient Egypt|Egypt yakale]], iyo yikuŵa ya {{circa|1650 BCE}}, ni chimoza cha vyolálemba vyakale comenecomene ivyo vikudumbiskana masuzgo gha algebra.]] Chiyambi cha algebra chili mu kuyezgayezga kwakumazga masuzgo gha masamu agho ghakukhwaskana na kuŵelenga na viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa. Vyakukula ivi vikachitika mu nyengo yakale mu [[Babylonia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Ancient China|China]], na [[Ancient India|India]]. Chimoza mwa vyolálemba vyakale comenecomene pa masuzgo gha algebra ni [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus|Papyrus ya Rhind Mathematical]] kufuma ku [[Egypt]] yakale, iyo yikalembeka pafupifupi mu 1650&nbsp;BCE.{{efn|Zuŵa lenelene nkhwakususkana, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵakuti liŵe pafupifupi mu 1550&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Problem-Solving in Egypt and Babylon}} | {{harvnb|Brezinski|Meurant|Redivo-Zaglia|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4IGhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}} }}</ref>}} Yikudumbiskana vyakumazga vya [[linear equations|ma equation gha mzere]], nga umo vikulongosoreka mu masuzgo nga "Chinthu; chigaŵa chake chachinayi chikusazgikapo pa icho. Chikuŵa 15. Kasi chinthu ni chiwuli?" Mabuwe gha dongo gha ku Babylon kufuma pa nyengo yeneyiyo ghakulongosora nthowa zakumazga ma equation gha mzere na [[Quadratic equation|polynomial gha digiri yachiŵiri]], nga nthowa ya [[completing the square|kukwaniska cikwezgo]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=9}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=290}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Problem Solving in Egypt and Babylon}} }}</ref> Vinandi mwa vinjeru ivi vikafika ku Ŵagiriki ŵakale. Kwambira mu vilimika vya 6 BCE, chikhumbo chawo chikuru chikaŵa geometry m'malo mwa algebra, kweni ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kumazga masuzgo gha geometry. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵakasandanga vithunzithunzi vya geometry apo utali na malo ghake vikatoleka kuŵa viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa ivyo vikwenera kusangika, nga umo vikawonekera mu nthowa ya [[Pythagoras]] ya [[difference of two squares|mphambano wa vikwezgo viŵiri]] na munyuma mu buku la [[Euclid's Elements|Euclid's Elements]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=9}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=290}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Pythagoreans and Euclid}} }}</ref> Mu vilimika vya 3 CE, [[Diophantus]] wakapeleka malongosoro ghakuzura gha umo wangamazgira ma equation gha algebra mu magazini ghakuchemeka ''[[Arithmetica]]''. Ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kuyezgayezga kugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo (symbolic notation) kulongosora ma polynomial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Sialaros|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2PZYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 55]}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Diophantus}} }}</ref> Ntchito ya Diophantus yikakhwaskira kukula kwa algebra ku Ŵaarabu, apo nthowa zake zinandi zikawonekera mu vinjeru na vipangizo ivyo vikagwiliskika mu algebra ya Chiarabu ya nyengo za pakati.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hettle|2015|pp=139–141, 160–161}} | {{harvnb|Christianidis|Megremi|2019|pp=16–17}} }}</ref> Ku [[China]] wakale, ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]'', buku ilo likalembeka pa nyengo yakufuma ku vilimika vya 10 BCE kufika ku vilimika vya 2 CE,<ref>{{harvnb|Burgin|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWF2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}}</ref> likasandaso nthowa zakupambanapambana zakumazgira ma equation gha algebra, kusazgamo kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakuyana na matrix.<ref>{{harvnb|Higgins|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QANiCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 89]}}</ref> [[File:Al-Khwarizmi portrait.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|left|Chithunzi cha kuyezgayezga cha [[Al-Khwarizmi]], chakufuma pa sitembu ya Soviet]] Nkhwakususkana usange vyakukula ivi vyakale ni chigaŵa cha algebra panji ni vyakwambiliranji pera. Vikapeleka vyakumazga vya masuzgo gha algebra kweni vikaghanaghanira yayi mwamzimu wakudumura na wawonse, m'malo mwake vikakhalilira pa mkhalidwe pakuyowoya na kugwiliskika padera pera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=290–291}} | {{harvnb|Sialaros|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2PZYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 55]}} | {{harvnb|Boyer|Merzbach|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bR9HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} | {{harvnb|Derbyshire|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLqaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT39 31]}} }}</ref> Ichi chikasintha na msandi wa masamu wa ku Persia, [[Al-Khwarizmi]],{{efn|Ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵakumuwona kuŵa "wiske wa algebra" apo ŵanyake ŵakupeleka zina ili ku Diophantus.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Boyer|Merzbach|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bR9HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} | {{harvnb|Derbyshire|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLqaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} }}</ref> }} uyo wakafumiska buku lake ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing]]'' mu 825 CE. Al-Khwarizmi wakapeleka malongosoro ghakwamba ghakuzomerezgeka ghakumazgira ma equation mwakughaŵika mu mitundu 6 yakuzomerezgeka{{Efn|Mitundu iyi ni <math> bx = c </math>, <math> ax^2 = bx </math>, <math> ax^2 = c </math>, <math> ax^2 + bx = c </math>, <math> ax^2 + c = bx </math>, na <math> ax^2 = bx + c </math>.{{sfn|Bradley|2006|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=EIdtVPeD7GcC&pg=PA95 95]}}}} ndiposo kupereka ndondomeko zakuzomerezgeka, mwakuyila-kuyila, za vyakuvimazga. Mwakuwuskapo nthowa izi ku vithunzithunzi vyapadera vya geometry na kuwona viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa kuŵa vinthu vyawonse vya algebra, wakakhozga chiwongo cha kugwira ntchito chakuzomerezgeka. Kusintha uku, kufuma ku kumazga masuzgo ghapadera kuya ku kukhozga nthowa yawonse, nkhwakasintha algebra kuŵa sambiro lakujimira paokha.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=291–293}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Vyakukhwaskira vinyake vyakuzirwa ku algebra vikafuma ku msandi wa masamu wa Chiarabu [[Thābit ibn Qurra]] naye so mu vilimika vya 9 CE na msandi wa masamu wa ku Persia [[Omar Khayyam]] mu vilimika vya 11 na 12.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Waerden|2013|pp=3, 15–16, 24–25}} | {{harvnb|Jenkins|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=giEkCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 82]}} | {{harvnb|Pickover|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA90 90]}} }}</ref> Ku [[India]], [[Brahmagupta]] wakasanda umo wangamazgira ma equation gha digiri yachiŵiri na ndondomeko za ma equation gha vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi mu vilimika vya 7 CE. Pakati pa vyakukula vyake vikaŵako kugwiliskira ntchito zero na vipendeko vyakusuzga (negative numbers) mu ma equation gha algebra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|pp=9–10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Equation in India and China}} }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵa ku India [[Mahāvīra (mathematician)|Mahāvīra]] mu vilimika vya 9 na [[Bhāskara II]] mu vilimika vya 12 ŵakakhozgaso nthowa na vinjeru vya Brahmagupta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Seshadri|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w_JdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 156]}} | {{harvnb|Emch|Sridharan|Srinivas|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qfJdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20]}} }}</ref> Mu 1247, msandi wa masamu wa ku China [[Qin Jiushao]] wakalemba buku la ''[[Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections]]'', ilo likusazgamo [[Horner's method|nthowa yakuŵelenga]] ya [[Polynomial evaluation|kuŵelenga mtengo wa ma polynomial]], kusazgamo ma polynomial gha madigiri ghapachanya.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smorynski|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qY657eFq7UgC&pg=PA137 137]}} | {{harvnb|Zwillinger|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gE_MBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA812 812]}} }}</ref> {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Francois Viete.jpeg | alt1 = Drawing of François Viète | image2 = Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes (cropped).jpg | alt2 = Painting of René Descartes | footer = [[François Viète]] (kumalyo) na [[René Descartes]] ŵakasanga viwimbo vyakwenerana kulongosora ma equation mwamzimu wakudumura na wachidango. }} Msandi wa masamu wa ku Italy [[Fibonacci]] wakiza na vinjeru na nthowa za Al-Khwarizmi ku Ulaya mu mabuku ghake, kusazgamo ''[[Liber Abaci]]''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Waerden|2013|pp=32–35}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=293}} }}</ref> Mu 1545, msandi wa masamu wa mitundu yinandi wa ku Italy [[Gerolamo Cardano]] wakafumiska buku lake ''[[Ars Magna (Cardano book)|Ars Magna]]'', ilo likakhwaskira vinthu vinandi mu algebra, likadumbiskana [[imaginary numbers|vipendeko vya mung'anamuro]], ndipo likaŵa lakwamba kupeleka nthowa zawonse zakumazgira ma equation gha [[Cubic equation|digiri yitatu]] na [[quartic equation|digiri yinayi]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=293}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Cardano and the Solving of Cubic and Quartic Equations}} | {{harvnb|Miyake|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G0P2BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA268 268]}} }}</ref> Mu vilimika vya 16 na 17, ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵa ku France [[François Viète]] na [[René Descartes]] ŵakiza na malembelo na viwimbo kwimira vyambura-kumanyikwa na nchito, kupangiska kuti ma equation ghalembeke mwamzimu wachidango na wakudumura. Awo ŵakaŵako panthazi pawo ŵakajighemezga pa malongosoro ghakuyowoya gha masuzgo na vyakumazga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=291–292, 297–298, 302}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Viète and the Formal Equation, § Analytic Geometry}} }}</ref> Ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵakuwona kukula uku kuŵa mzuŵa wakuzirwa mu mbiri ya algebra ndipo ŵakuwona ivyo vikaŵako pambere kuŵa mbiri-ntchakwamba ya algebra chifukwa vikasoŵanga mzimu wakudumura uwo ukujimira pa kugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73]}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Mu vilimika vya 17 na 18, kuyezgayezga kwakuluska kukachitika kupenja vyakumazga vyawonse ku ma polynomial gha digiri yankonde na yapachanya. Vyose ivi vikafiliskika.<ref name="auto3">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Impasse with Radical Methods}} }}</ref> Kumapeleko gha vilimika vya 18, msandi wa masamu wa ku Germany [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] wakalongosora fundo yikuru ya algebra, iyo yikulongosora kuŵako kwa [[Zero of a function|vizero]] vya ma polynomial gha digiri yiliyose kwambura kupeleka yankho lawonse.<ref name="auto7"/> Kwambilira kwa vilimika vya 19, msandi wa masamu wa ku Italy [[Paolo Ruffini]] na msandi wa masamu wa ku Norway [[Niels Henrik Abel]] [[Abel–Ruffini theorem|ŵakakhozga]] kuti palije yankho lawonse ilo lilipo ku ma polynomial gha digiri yankonde na yapachanya.<ref name="auto3"/> Kwiza pa na pamanyuma pachoko pa vyakusanga vyawo, msandi wa masamu wa ku France [[Évariste Galois]] wakakhozga icho pamanyuma chikachemeka [[Galois theory|sambiro la Galois]], ilo likapeleka kupenja kwakukuzura kwa vyakumazga vya ma polynomial apo so likakhozga msingi wa [[group theory|sambiro la magulu]].<ref name="auto2"/> Ŵasandi ŵa masamu paukhwakuŵa ŵakamanya kuzirwa kwa sambiro la magulu ku magulu ghanyake gha masamu ndipo ŵakaligwiliskira ntchito ku vipangizo nga geometry na sambiro la vipendeko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Applications of Group Theory}} | {{harvnb|Bueno|French|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kmZaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73–75]}} }}</ref> [[File:Garrett Birkhoff.jpeg|thumb|alt=Photo of Garrett Birkhoff|[[Garrett Birkhoff]] wakakhozga vinjeru vinandi vya msingi vya algebra ya wonse.|left|upright=0.8]] Kwambira pakati pa vilimika vya 19, chikhumbo mu algebra chikasintha kufuma ku kusambira ma polynomial ivyo vikakhwaskana na algebra ya pulayimale kuya ku kupenja kwakukuru kwa magulu gha algebra, ndipo ichi chikawoneka pakufuma kwa [[abstract algebra|algebra yakudumura]]. Nthowa iyi yikapenja msingi wa maxiom wa nchito za algebra zakupambanapambana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Structural Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73–74]}} }}</ref> Kusangika kwa ndondomeko nyifya za algebra izo zikuzirwa pa nchito na vinthu vyakupambanapambana vikalondezga kukula uku, nga [[Boolean algebra]], [[Vector space|algebra ya vector]], na [[matrix algebra|algebra ya matrix]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Matrices, § Quaternions and Vectors}} }}</ref> Vyakukula vyakuzirwa vyakwamba mu algebra yakudumura vikapangika na ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵa ku Germany [[David Hilbert]], [[Ernst Steinitz]], na [[Emmy Noether]] pamoza na msandi wa masamu wa ku Austria [[Emil Artin]]. Ŵakasanda mitundu yakupambanapambana ya magulu gha algebra ndipo ŵakaghapatuliska kuyana na maxiom ghawo ghakuzikapo kuŵa mitundu, nga magulu, mphete, na minda.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Hilbert and Steinitz, § Noether and Artin}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73–74]}} }}</ref> Mzimu wa nthowa yikuru comenecomene iyo yikukhwaskana na algebra ya wonse ukaghanaghanika na msandi wa masamu wa ku England [[Alfred North Whitehead]] mu buku lake la 1898 ''A Treatise on Universal Algebra''. Kwambira mu vya 1930, msandi wa masamu wa ku America [[Garrett Birkhoff]] wakatandarizga vinjeru ivi ndipo wakakhozga vinjeru vinandi vya msingi vya gulu ili la sambiro.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8lNkXPJas4wC&pg=PR7 vii]}} | {{harvnb|Chang|Keisler|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uiHq0EmaFp0C&pg=PA603 603]}} | {{harvnb|Knoebel|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VWS_sgO2uvgC&pg=PA5 5]}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} }}</ref> Kusangika kwa algebra ya wonse kukalongozgera ku kufuma kwa vipimo vinyake vinyifya ivyo vikang'anamuka pa kupanga algebra ya masamu ghanyake{{em dash}}ndikuti, kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra ku magulu ghanyake gha masamu. Algebra ya topology yikafuma mu vilimika vyakwamba vya 20, kusambira magulu gha algebra nga [[topological groups|magulu gha topology]] na [[Lie groups|magulu gha Lie]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA100 100]}} | {{harvnb|Carlson|2024|loc=§ History of topology}} }}</ref> Mu vya 1940 na 50, [[homological algebra|algebra ya homology]] yikafuma, kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kusambira [[Homology (mathematics)|homology]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Weibel|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UtIhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR11 xi, 4]}} }}</ref> Pafupifupi nyengo yeneyiyo, [[category theory|sambiro la mikhaliro]] likafuma ndipo lyakhala likugwira ntchito yikuru mu [[foundations of mathematics|msingi wa masamu]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Krömer|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=41bHxtHxjUAC&pg=PA61 61]}} | {{harvnb|Laos|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1r7dSn4ZqogC&pg=PA100 100]}} }}</ref> Vyakukula vinyake vikaŵa kupangika kwa [[model theory|sambiro la vimodel]] na kusambira [[free algebra|algebra zamahara]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 6. Free Algebras}} }}</ref> {{clear}} == Kugwiliskika Ntchito == {{see also|Applied mathematics}} Chikoliro cha algebra nkhutandarika comenecomene, mu masamu mwene na mu kugwiliskika kwake ku magulu ghanyake gha masamu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Houston|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&pg=PA319 319]}} | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}} | {{harvnb|Lidl|Pilz|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_49AmSWo4_AC&pg=PR7 vii–viii]}} }}</ref> Kupanga masamu ghanyake kuŵa gha algebra nkhu ndondomeko ya kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa na vinjeru vya algebra ku [[branches of mathematics|magulu ghanyake gha masamu]], nga [[geometry]], [[topology]], [[number theory|sambiro la vipendeko]], na [[calculus]]. Ichi chikuchitika mwakugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo mu mtundu wa vyambura-kumanyikwa kulongosora vinjeru vya masamu pa vipimo vikuru, kupangiska kuti ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵapange vimodel vyakuzomerezgeka ivyo vikulongosora umo vinthu vikukhwaskirana na kukolerana wene.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA100 100]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5. Algebraization of Mathematics}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=130}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5. Algebraization of Mathematics}} | {{harvnb|Mancosu|1999|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=60qaEePdqcoC&pg=PA84 84–85]}} }}</ref> [[File:Sphere Quadric.png|thumb|alt=Rendered image of a sphere|Equation ya algebra <math>x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 1</math> yikulongosora [[sphere|sphere]] ku [[Origin (mathematics)|malo ghakwambira]] ghali na radius ya 1.]] Nchito yimoza, iyo yikusangika mu geometry, ni kugwiliskira ntchito mazgu gha algebra kulongosora vithunzithunzi vya geometry. Mwachiyelezgero, equation <math>y = 3x - 7</math> yikulongosora mzere mu malo gha mibaru yiŵiri apo equation <math>x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 1</math> yikuyana na [[sphere|sphere]] mu malo gha mibaru yitatu. Vyakuzirwa comenecomene ku [[algebraic geometry|geometry ya algebra]] ni [[algebraic varieties|mitundu yakuyana ya algebra]],{{efn|Mitundu yakuyana ya algebra iyo yikusambirika mu geometry njakupambana na mitundu yakuyana yikuru iyo yikusambirika mu algebra ya wonse.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1.4 Cartesian geometry, § 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Danilov|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-QMWR-x66XUC&pg=PA174 174]}} }}</ref>}} izo ni vyakumazga vya [[systems of polynomial equations|ndondomeko za ma equation gha polynomial]] ivyo vingagwiliskika kulongosora vithunzithunzi vyapasuzgika vya geometry.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.1 Algebraic Geometry}} | {{harvnb|Danilov|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-QMWR-x66XUC&pg=PA172 172, 174]}} }}</ref> Kughanaghanira mwa algebra kungamazgaso masuzgo gha geometry. Mwachiyelezgero, munthu wangamanya usange na apo mzere wakulongosoreka na <math>y = x + 1</math> ukukhwaskana na dindi (circle) ilo likulongosoreka na <math>x^2 + y^2 = 25</math> mwakumazga ndondomeko ya ma equation ghakupangika na ma equation ghaŵiri agha.<ref>{{harvnb|Vince|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=B574tQbP6WcC&pg=PA133 133]}}</ref> Topology yikusambira vinjeru vya vithunzithunzi vya geometry panji [[topological space|malo gha topology]] ivyo vikukhalilira mwambura kusintha para vichitikirwa [[continuous deformation|kusintha kwakulutilira]]. [[Algebraic topology|Topology ya algebra]] yikuzirwa pa vinjeru vya algebra nga sambiro la magulu kupatuliska malo gha topology. Mwachiyelezgero, [[homotopy groups|magulu gha homotopy]] ghakupatuliska malo gha topology kuyana na kuŵako kwa [[Loop (topology)|majoro]] panji [[Hole#In mathematics|maenja]] mwa iwo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.3 Algebraic Topology}} | {{harvnb|Rabadan|Blumberg|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2967DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49–50]}} | {{harvnb|Nakahara|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p2C1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 121]}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=52–53}} }}</ref> Sambiro la vipendeko likukhwaskana na vinjeru na ukhwaskano pakati pa vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika. [[Algebraic number theory|Sambiro la vipendeko la algebra]] likugwiliskira ntchito nthowa na vinjeru vya algebra ku chipangizo ichi cha kupenja. Vyakuyelezgera ni kugwiliskira ntchito mazgu gha algebra kulongosora madango ghawonse, nga [[Fermat's Last Theorem|fundo yaumaliro ya Fermat]], na kugwiliskira ntchito magulu gha algebra kusanda mkhalidwe wa vipendeko, nga [[ring of integers|mphete ya vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.2 Algebraic Number Theory}} | {{harvnb|Jarvis|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0j0qBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Viterbo|Hong|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d89QRR24jbMC&pg=PA127 127]}} }}</ref> Chipangizo chakukhwaskana ichi cha [[combinatorics|combinatorics]] chikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kumazga masuzgo ghakukhwaskana na kuŵelenga, kunozga, na kukoleranya vinthu vyakupambanapambana. Chiyelezgero mu [[algebraic combinatorics|combinatorics ya algebra]] ni kugwiliskira ntchito sambiro la magulu kusanda [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|ma graph]] na symmetries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA550 550, 561]}} | {{harvnb|Godsil|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLs6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR8 viii]}} | {{harvnb|Betten|Kohnert|Laue|Wassermann|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G1TmCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP9 ix]}} }}</ref> Vinjeru vya algebra vikuzirwaso ku calculus, iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito mazgu gha masamu kupenja [[rates of change|liŵiro la kusintha]] na [[Integral|kuwungana]]. Yikuzirwa pa algebra, mwachiyelezgero, kupulikiska umo mazgu agha ghangasinthika na mzimu uwo vyambura-kumanyikwa vikugwira mwa iwo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kilty|McAllister|2018|pp=x, 347, 589}} | {{harvnb|Bressoud|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkgHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}} }}</ref> [[Algebraic logic|Logic ya algebra]] yikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kulongosora na kusanda magulu na vinjeru ivyo vili musingi wa [[logical reasoning|kughanaghanira kwa logic]],<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Halmos|1956|p=363}} | {{harvnb|Burris|Legris|2021|loc=§ 1. Introduction}} }}</ref> kupenja vyose viŵiri, magulu ghenegho gha masamu na kugwiliskika kwawo ku masuzgo ghakuwoneka gha logic.<ref>{{harvnb|Andréka|Németi|Sain|2001|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-0452-6_3 133–134]}}</ref> Yikusazgamo kusambira [[Boolean algebra]] kulongosora [[propositional logic]]<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Andréka|Madarász|Németi|2020|loc=§ Concrete Algebraic Logic}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.4 Algebraic Logic}} | {{harvnb|Plotkin|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-v3xCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 155–156]}} | {{harvnb|Jansana|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> pamoza na kupanga na kusanda magulu gha algebra ghakuyana na [[Logic#Systems_of_logic|ndondomeko za logic]] zapasuzgika kuluska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Andréka|Madarász|Németi|2020|loc=§ Abstract Algebraic Logic}} | {{harvnb|Jansana|2022|loc=§ 4. Algebras}} }}</ref> [[File:Rubik's cube.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Picture of Rubik's cube|Mbali za [[Rubik's Cube]] zingazingilizgika kusintha kunozgeka kwa vipande vyakupambanapambana mitundu (colored patches). Vipimo ivyo vikufuma pamanyuma (permutations) vikupanga gulu ilo likuchemeka [[Rubik's Cube group|gulu la Rubik's Cube]].<ref>{{harvnb|Joyner|2008|p=92}}</ref>]] Nthowa za algebra zikugwiliskikaso comenecomene mu magulu ghanyake, nga sayansi za chilengechilenge. Mwachiyelezgero, zikugwiliskika kulongosora [[scientific laws|madango gha kasandiro]] na kumazga ma equation mu [[physics]], [[chemistry]], na [[biology]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Houston|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&pg=PA319 319]}} | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}} | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1PJ-WHepeBsC&pg=PA327 327]}} }}</ref> Kugwiliskika kwakuyana kukusangikaso mu magulu nga [[economics]], [[geography]], [[engineering]] (kusazgamo [[electronics]] na [[robotics]]), na [[computer science]] kulongosora ukhwaskano, kumazga masuzgo, na kupanga vimodel vya ndondomeko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}} | {{harvnb|Aleskerov|Ersel|Piontkovski|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ipcSD8ZGB8cC&pg=PA1 1–9]}} | {{harvnb|Straffin|1980|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2689388 269]}} | {{harvnb|Menini|Oystaeyen|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3mlQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v]}} | {{harvnb|Lovett|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jRUqCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} | {{harvnb|Lidl|Pilz|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_49AmSWo4_AC&pg=PR7 vii–viii]}} }}</ref> Algebra ya mzere yikugwira ntchito yikuru mu [[artificial intelligence]] na [[machine learning]], mwachiyelezgero, mwakukhozgera kuwendeska na kusanda [[dataset|masetu gha data]] ghakuru mwakuzomerezgeka.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wheeler|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IqQIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29, 36–37]}} | {{harvnb|Gallier|Quaintance|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jWLcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> Magulu ghakupambanapambana ghakuzirwa pa magulu gha algebra ghakusambirika na algebra yakudumura. Mwachiyelezgero, sayansi za vinthu nga [[crystallography]] na [[quantum mechanics]] zikugwiliskira ntchito comenecomene sambiro la magulu,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Klimov|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DZK3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} | {{harvnb|Bengtsson|Życzkowski|2017|pp=313–353}} }}</ref> ilo likugwiliskikaso kusambira ma puzzle nga [[Sudoku]] na [[Rubik's Cube]],<ref>{{harvnb|Terras|2019|pp=63–64, 142}}</ref> na [[Mathematics of paper folding|origami]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hull|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LdX7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 180]}}</ref> Vyose viŵiri [[coding theory|sambiro la ma code]] na [[cryptology]] zikuzirwa pa algebra yakudumura kumazga masuzgo ghakukhwaskana na [[data transmission|kutuma data]], nga kujiwezga na vikwaskiro (noise) na kukhozgera [[data security|chitetezo cha data]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lidl|Pilz|1997|pp=183–184, 239–240}} | {{harvnb|Carstensen|Fine|Rosenberger|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xo6iSxRfXz0C&pg=PA326 326–327]}} }}</ref> == Masambizgo == {{See also|Mathematics education}} [[File:Balance scale.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of a balance scale|[[Balance scales|Vipimiro vyakulinganya]] vikugwiliskika mu masambizgo gha algebra kovwira ŵasambiri kupulikiska umo ma equation ghangasinthika kuti ghamanye viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kieran|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OTCsKu0BZ0kC&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Kaput|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1GUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 186]}} |{{harvnb|Gardella|DeLucia|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HBXFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19–22]}} }}</ref>]] Masambizgo gha algebra ghakuzirwa comenecomene pa algebra ya pulayimale, chimoza mwa vifukwa ivyo algebra ya pulayimale yikuchemekaso "algebra ya sukulu". Comenecomene, yikwambiskika yayi kwambira mu [[secondary education|masambizgo ghapachanya]] chifukwa yikukhumba kumanya makora masamu ghakwamba apo yikwizaso na vyakusuzga vinyake vipya ivyo vikukhwaskana na kughanaghanira kwakudumura na kwawonse.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|p=xiii}} | {{harvnb|Dekker|Dolk|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7sVFaMhwackC&pg=PA69 69]}} }}</ref> Yikukhumba kuzgoŵeska ŵasambiri na mbali yakuzomerezgeka ya masamu mwakuŵawovwira kupulikiska viwimbo vya masamu, mwachiyelezgero, umo vyambura-kumanyikwa vingagwiliskika kwimira viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa. Kususka kwinyake ku ŵasambiri nkhwakuti, kupambana na kuŵelenga kwaumaliro, mazgu gha algebra ghakusuzga comenecomene kumazgika mwakwenderana. M'malo mwake, ŵasambiri ŵakukhumbikwa kusambira umo ŵangaghasinthira kuyana na madango ghanyake, kanandi kuti ŵamanye chiŵelengero chambura kumanyikwa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|pp=2–5}} | {{harvnb|Drijvers|Goddijn|Kindt|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7sVFaMhwackC&pg=PA8 8–10, 16–18]}} }}</ref> Vipangizo vinyake vyakwiziska ŵasambiri ku mbali yakudumura ya algebra vikuzirwa pa vimodel vyakuwoneka na kulongora ma equation, kusazgamo vyakuyelezgera vya geometry, vipangizo vyakugwira nawo nchito nga vikoli panji makapu, na "makina gha nchito" (function machines) ivyo vikulongora ma equation kuŵa [[flow diagram|maonekero gha kuluta patsogolo]]. Nthowa yimoza yikugwiliskira ntchito [[balance scales|vipimiro vyakulinganya]] kuŵa nthowa yakuwoneka yakovwira ŵasambiri kupulikiska masuzgo ghakwamba gha algebra. Uzito wa vinthu vinyake pa chipimiro nchambura kumanyikwa ndipo ukwimira vyambura-kumanyikwa. Kumazga equation kukuyana na kusazga na kuwuskapo vinthu ku mbali zose ziŵiri mwakuti mbali zikhalilire mu ulinganyi mpaka chinthu chimoza pera icho chikhala pa mbali yimoza ni chinthu chambura kumanyikwa uzito wake.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kieran|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OTCsKu0BZ0kC&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Kaput|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1GUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 186]}} |{{harvnb|Gardella|DeLucia|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HBXFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19–22]}} | {{harvnb|Star|Foegen|Larson|McCallum|2015|pp=16–17}} }}</ref> [[Word problem (mathematics education)|Masuzgo gha mazgu]] ni chipangizo chinyake chakulongora umo algebra yikugwiliskika ku vinthu vyaunenesko vya moyo. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵasambiri ŵangapika mu mkhalidwe uwo mbale wa Naomi wali na machiyembe ghakuŵirapo kuŵiri kuluska Naomi. Pakuti ŵaŵiri wose pamoza ŵali na machiyembe 12, ŵasambiri ŵakupikika kuti ŵasange equation ya algebra iyo yikulongosora mkhalidwe uwu ({{tmath|1= 2x + x = 12 }}) na kumanya machiyembe ghaŵi agho Naomi wali nagho {{nowrap|({{tmath|1= x = 4 }}).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|pp=58–59}} | {{harvnb|Drijvers|Goddijn|Kindt|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7sVFaMhwackC&pg=PA13 13]}} }}</ref>}} Pa vipimo vya yunivesite, ŵasambiri ŵa masamu ŵakukhwaskana na mitu yapachanya ya algebra kufuma ku algebra ya mzere na algebra yakudumura. Makalasi ghakwamba gha [[undergraduate|digiri yakwamba]] mu algebra ya mzere ghakuzirwa pa ma matrix, malo gha vector, na mapu gha mzere. Para ŵamalizga, ŵasambiri comenecomene ŵakwiziskika ku algebra yakudumura, uko ŵakusambira magulu gha algebra nga magulu, mphete, na minda, pamoza na ukhwaskano pakati pawo. Masambiro (curriculum) ghakuzirwa comenecomene ghakukhwaskaso vithuzi vyapadera vya magulu gha algebra, nga ndondomeko za vipendeko vyakugaŵikika, vipendeko vyeneco, na ma polynomial.<ref>{{harvnb|Hausberger|Zandieh|Fleischmann|2021|pp=147–148}}</ref> == Vinyake Vyakukhwaskana == {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * {{annotated link|Commutative algebra}} * {{annotated link|Computer algebra}} * {{annotated link|Exterior algebra}} * {{annotated link|F-algebra}} * {{annotated link|Geometric algebra}} * {{annotated link|Non-associative algebra}} * {{annotated link|Outline of algebra}} * {{annotated link|Representation theory}} * {{annotated link|Tensor}} {{div col end}} == References == === Notes === {{notelist}} === Citations === {{reflist}} === Sources === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last1=Abas |first1=Syed Jan |last2=Salman |first2=Amer Shaker |title=Symmetries Of Islamic Geometrical Patterns |date=1994 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-4502-21-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5snsCgAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=March 12, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mahima Ranjan |title=Basic Algebraic Topology and its Applications |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-2843-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MIAXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |language=en |date=2016 |access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mahima Ranjan |last2=Adhikari |first2=Avishek |title=Basic Modern Algebra with Applications |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-1599-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBO7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 |language=en |date=2013 |access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Aleskerov |first1=Fuad |last2=Ersel |first2=Hasan |last3=Piontkovski |first3=Dmitri |title=Linear Algebra for Economists |date=2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-20570-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ipcSD8ZGB8cC&pg=PA1 |language=en |access-date=March 11, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |last1=Andréka |first1=H. |last2=Madarász |first2=J. 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I. |title=Linear Equation |url=https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Linear_equation |website=Encyclopedia of Mathematics |publisher=Springer |access-date=January 10, 2024 |date=2011 |archive-date=November 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123235759/https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Linear_equation |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Waerden |first1=Bartel L. van der |author-link=Bartel Leendert van der Waerden |title=Algebra |publisher=Springer |isbn=0-387-40624-7 |volume=1 |date=2003}} * {{cite book |last1=Waerden |first1=Bartel L. van der |title=A History of Algebra: From al-Khwārizmī to Emmy Noether |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-51599-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6DwCAAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=January 27, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Wagner |first1=Sigrid |last2=Kieran |first2=Carolyn |title=Research Issues in the Learning and Teaching of Algebra: The Research Agenda for Mathematics Education |volume=4 |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-43421-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uW4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 |language=en |access-date=January 13, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Walz |first1=Guido |title=Lexikon der Mathematik: Band 1: A bis Eif |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53498-4 |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 |language=de |chapter=Algebra |access-date=January 13, 2024 |archive-date=January 12, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112171819/https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 |url-status=live |trans-title=Encyclopedia of Mathematics: Volume 1: A to Eif}} * {{cite book |last1=Weibel |first1=Charles A. |author-link=Charles Weibel |title=An Introduction to Homological Algebra |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-64307-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtIhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR11 |language=en |date=1995}} * {{cite book |last1=Weisstein |first1=Eric W. |title=CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics |date=2003 |publisher=Chapman & Hall/CRC |isbn=978-1-58488-347-0 |edition=2nd}} * {{cite book |last1=Wheeler |first1=Jeffrey Paul |title=An Introduction to Optimization with Applications in Machine Learning and Data Analytics |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-003-80359-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IqQIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |language=en |date=2023}} * {{cite book |last1=Whitelaw |first1=T. A. |title=Introduction to Abstract Algebra, Third Edition |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-7514-0147-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2hyf0QoB_0C&pg=PA61 |language=en |date=1995}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=G. Arnell |title=Algebra the Beautiful: An Ode to Math's Least-Loved Subject |date=2022 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-1-5416-0070-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=581CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |language=en |access-date=March 11, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Robert A. |author-link=Robert Arnott Wilson |title=The Finite Simple Groups |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |series=[[Graduate Texts in Mathematics]] |isbn=978-1-84800-987-5 |doi=10.1007/978-1-84800-988-2 |year=2009 |zbl=1203.20012 |volume=251}} * {{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Cynthia Y. |title=Precalculus |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-75684-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=RA1-PA999 |language=en |access-date=January 16, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Cynthia Y. |title=Precalculus |date=2023 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-86940-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pMSZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA714 |language=en |access-date=January 18, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |author1=zbMATH Open |title=Classification |url=https://zbmath.org/classification/ |website=zbMATH Open |publisher=Mathematical Reviews and zbMATH Open |access-date=March 17, 2024 |language=en |date=2024 |archive-date=July 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719184539/https://zbmath.org/classification/ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Zwillinger |first1=Daniel |title=CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae |date=2002 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-3534-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE_MBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA812 |language=en |access-date=January 27, 2024}}{{cbignore}} {{Refend}} == External links == {{Wikiquote}} {{Wiktionary|algebra}} {{Wikibooks|Algebra}} {{EB1911 poster|Algebra}} {{Algebra}} {{Polynomials}} {{Areas of mathematics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Algebra| ]] 5567lnvanxg3y9jvuxaw34rpbe3w4j8 0 6977 122848 122597 2026-10-04T00:59:42Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122848 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Island nation in the Indian Ocean}} {{about|the African island nation in the Indian Ocean|||other uses}} {{distinguish|Mauritania}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Mauritius | native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|fr|République de Maurice}}|{{native name|mfe|Repiblik Moris}}}} | common_name = Mauritius | image_flag = Flag of Mauritius.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Mauritius.svg | coa_size = 90 | image_map = Mauritius (orthographic projection with inset).svg | map_caption = Islands of the Republic of Mauritius (excluding Chagos Archipelago and Tromelin Island) | image_map2 = Mauritius (+claim islands).svg | map_caption2 = Islands of the Republic of Mauritius labelled in black; Chagos Archipelago and Tromelin are claimed by Mauritius. | national_motto = {{native phrase|la|Stella Clavisque Maris Indici|italics=off}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Government Information Service – Coat of Arms |url=http://gis.govmu.org/English/About%20Mauritius/Pages/Coats-of-Arms.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612094501/http://gis.govmu.org/English/About%20Mauritius/Pages/Coats-of-Arms.aspx |archive-date=12 June 2020 |access-date=29 July 2019 |publisher=govmu.org}}</ref><br />"Star and Key of the Indian Ocean" | national_anthem = "[[Motherland (anthem)|Motherland]]"<div style="padding-top:0.5em;" class="center">[[File:Motherland_(instrumental).ogg]]</div> | capital = [[Port Louis]] | languages2_type = [[Language Spoken at Home]] | languages2 = {{unbulleted list |86.5% [[Mauritian Creole]] |5.3% [[Bhojpuri]] |4.4% French |1.4% Two languages |2.4% [[Languages of Mauritius|Others]] (incl. English, [[Tamil language|Tamil]], and [[Chinese language|Chinese]])}}<ref name="CIATONGA">{{Cite web |date=22 September 2022 |title=Africa :: MAURITIUS |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mauritius/ |publisher=CIA The World Factbook |access-date=12 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090348/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mauritius |archive-date=9 January 2021}}</ref> | languages_type = [[Lingua franca]] | languages = [[Mauritian Creole]] | official_languages = None {{small|(''de jure'')}}<br>{{nowrap|{{hlist|[[English language|English]]|[[French language|French]]}} {{small|(''de facto'')}}<ref>The [[Constitution of Mauritius|Mauritian constitution]] makes no mention of an [[official language]]. The Constitution only mentions that the official language of the National Assembly is English; however, any member can also address the chair in French.</ref>}} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 67% [[Mauritians of Indian origin|Indian]] | 28% [[Mauritian Creoles|Creole]] | 3% [[Mauritians of Chinese origin|Chinese]] | 2% [[Franco-Mauritians|French]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 December 2021 |title=Mauritius – the World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mauritius/ |access-date=12 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090348/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mauritius |archive-date=9 January 2021}}</ref>}} | ethnic_groups_year = | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |48.54% [[Hinduism in Mauritius|Hinduism]] |32.71% [[Christianity in Mauritius|Christianity]] |17.30% [[Islam in Mauritius|Islam]] |1.45% [[Religion in Mauritius|Others]] / [[Irreligion|None]] }} | religion_year = 2011 census | religion_ref =<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population and Housing Census 2010 Report |url=http://www.nsb.gov.sc/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Population_and_Housing_Census_2010_Report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514112130/http://www.nsb.gov.sc/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Population_and_Housing_Census_2010_Report.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2014 |access-date=26 April 2015}}</ref> | coordinates = {{coord|-20.2|57.5|display=inline,title|type:country}} | demonym = [[Mauritian]] | largest_city = [[Port Louis]] | government_type = [[Unitary parliamentary republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Mauritius|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Prithvirajsing Roopun]] | leader_name2 = [[Eddy Boissézon]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Mauritius|Vice President]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Mauritius|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Pravind Jugnauth]] | leader_title4 = [[List of Speakers of the National Assembly of Mauritius|Speaker of the National Assembly]] | leader_name4 = [[Sooroojdev Phokeer]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Mauritius)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]] | established_event1 = [[Constitution of Mauritius]] | established_date1 = 12 March 1968 | established_event2 = Republic | established_date2 = 12 March 1992 | area_rank = 169th <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_km2 = 2040 | percent_water = 0.07 | population_estimate = 1,265,475<ref name="31 Dec 2019 Statistics">{{Cite web |date=March 2020 |title=Population and Vital Statistics – Year 2019 |url=http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/English/Publications/Pages/Pop_Vital_Yr19.aspx |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=Statistics Mauritius}}</ref> | population_estimate_rank = 158th | population_estimate_year = 2019 | population_census = 1,237,091<ref name="2011census">{{Cite web |author-link=Statistics Mauritius |title=2011 Population Census – Main Results |url=http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/English/CensusandSurveys/Documents/ESI/pop2011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111152858/http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/English/CensusandSurveys/Documents/ESI/pop2011.pdf |archive-date=11 November 2017 |access-date=11 November 2017 |website=Statistics Mauritius}}</ref> | population_census_year = 2011 | population_density_km2 = 618.24 | population_density_sq_mi = 1,602.55 | population_density_rank = 21st | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $36.794&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEOMU">{{Cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2022 |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=10&pr.y=10&sy=2017&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=684&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |access-date=8 June 2022 |website=IMF.org |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 139th | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $29,164<ref name="IMFWEOMU" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 62th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $14.570&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEOMU" /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 143th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $11,548<ref name="IMFWEOMU" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 73rd | Gini_year = 2017 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = 36.8 | Gini_ref =<ref>{{Cite web |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Mauritius |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=MU |access-date=1 July 2020 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase | HDI = 0.802 | HDI_ref =<ref name="HDI">{{Cite web |date=8 September 2022 |title=Human Development Report 2021/2022 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |access-date=8 September 2022 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 63rd | currency = [[Mauritian rupee]] | currency_code = MUR | time_zone = [[Mauritius Time|MUT]] | utc_offset = +4 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy ([[Anno Domini|AD]]) | drives_on = left | calling_code = [[+230]] | cctld = [[.mu]] }} '''Mauritius''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Mauritius.ogg|m|ə|ˈ||r|ɪ|ʃ|(|i|)|ə|s|,_|m|ɔː|-}} ; {{lang-fr|Maurice|link=no}} {{IPA-fr|mɔʁis, moʁis||LL-Q150 (fra)-Jules78120-Maurice.wav}}; {{lang-mfe|label=[[Mauritian Creole]]|Moris}} {{IPA-mfe|moʁis|}}), mwalamulo '''Charu cha Mauritius''' ({{lang-fr|République de Maurice}}; {{lang-mfe|label=[[Mauritian Creole]]|Repiblik Moris}}), ni chalo icho chili pa [[chirwa]] cha [[Africa]] mu [[Indian Ocean]], pafupifupi makilomita 2,000 (1,100 nautical miles) kufupi na mphepete mwa nyanja ya East Africa, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Madagascar]]. Chirwa ichi chili na virwa vikuruvikuru nga ni [[Rodrigues]], [[Agaléga]], na [[St. Brandon]].<ref name="ICJ">{{Cite web |date=1 March 2018 |title=Written Statement of the Republic of Mauritius |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/169/169-20180301-WRI-05-00-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216031708/https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/169/169-20180301-WRI-05-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2018 |access-date=15 December 2018 |website=[[International Court of Justice]] |pages=23–24 |volume=1}}</ref><ref name="PCA Memorial Vol 1">{{Cite book |url=https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1796 |title=Memorial of the Republic of Mauritius |date=1 August 2012 |publisher=[[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] |volume=I |page=9}}</ref> Virwa vya Mauritius na Rodrigues, pamoza na [[Réunion]] (chigaŵa cha ku [[France]] icho chili kufupi na [[Nyanja ya Meditereniyani]]), ni vigaŵa vya [[Mascarene Islands]]. Cirwa cikuru ca Mauritius, uko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndiko kuli msumba ukuru wa [[Port Louis]]. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 2,040 square kilometres (790 sq mi) ndipo chili na chigaŵa cha vyamalonda icho chili na malo ghakukwana 2,300,000 square kilometres (670,000 square nautical miles).<ref name="EEZ 1977">{{Cite book |url=https://files.pca-cpa.org//pcadocs/mu-uk/Annexes%20to%20Memorial/MM%20Charts.pdf |title=Memorial of the Republic of Mauritius |publisher=[[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] |year=2012 |volume=IV |chapter=Figure 7: Mauritius' EEZ: 1977 |access-date=12 October 2019}}</ref> Ŵalwani ŵa ku Arabia ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kusanga cirwa ici, ca m'ma 975, ndipo ŵakacicema Dina Arobi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History &#124; Mauritian Archaeology |url=https://mauritianarchaeology.sites.stanford.edu/history |access-date=1 August 2021 |archive-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628000251/https://mauritianarchaeology.sites.stanford.edu/history }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_FnBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA344 |title=International Education: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Issues and Systems |date=17 March 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317467519}}</ref> Mu 1507, ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ŵakiza pa chirwa ichi. Pa mapu ghakwambilira gha ku Portugal, pa chirwa ichi pakalembeka kuti Cirne panji Do-Cerne. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Netherlands, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Admiral Van Warwyck, ŵakafika pa malo agho sono ghakuchemeka Grand Port ndipo ŵakamba kulamulira chilumba ichi mu 1598. Paumaliro, mu vilimika 120 vyakulondezgapo, ŵakakhazikiska malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands, kuti ŵagwiliskirenge nchito makuni gha makuni gha ebeni na kupanga shuga. Ŵakaŵanga na vyakumera vya mkaka vyakufuma ku Java na ŵazga ŵakujumpha 300 ŵa ku Madagascar. Mu 1715, caru ici cikapokeka na ŵa ku France ndipo ŵakacicemaso kuti Isle de France. Mu 1810, caru ca United Kingdom cikapoka cirwa ici, ndipo pati pajumpha vilimika vinayi, mu phangano la Paris, France likapeleka cirwa ca Mauritius na vyaru vinyake ku caru ca United Kingdom. Virwa vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Mauritius vikaŵa Rodrigues, Agaléga, St. Brandon, Chagos Archipelago, na Seychelles m'paka mu 1906.<ref name="ICJ" /><ref name="PCA Memorial Vol 1" /> Mauritius na France ŵakususkana za cilumba ca Tromelin cifukwa cakuti phangano la Paris likayowoyapo yayi. Charu cha Mauritius chikalutilira kulamulirika na Britain m'paka apo chikafwatukira mu 1968. Mu 1965, boma la Britain likawuskako virwa vya Chagos ku Mauritius na kupanga British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). Ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakaŵachimbizga pakati pa 1968 na 1973 ndipo chirwa chikuru chomene, Diego Garcia, ŵakagulira ku United States. Mauritius na Britain ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya mazaza gha visirwa vya Chagos. Mu 2019, khoti la International Court of Justice likapeleka upharazgi wakulangula UK kuti wawezgere virwa vya Chagos ku Mauritius, ndipo mu 2021, International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea yikadumura kuti yikukhozgera fundo iyi, yikati UK "yilije mazaza pa virwa vya Chagos". Boma la pa chirwa ichi likulondezga ndondomeko ya pa nyumba ya malango ya ku Westminster. Charu cha Mauritius chili na wanangwa wa vyachuma na ndyali.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Democracy Index 2021: The China challenge |url=https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2021/}}</ref><ref name="WB GROUP">{{Cite web |title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |access-date=1 July 2020 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Charu ichi chili na boma ilo likupeleka wovwiri wa munkhwala, masambiro ghaulere, na kwendeska magalimoto ghaulere ku ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵachekuru, na ŵakupendera. Cifukwa ca malo agho Mauritius ghali na ŵanthu ŵakupambana mitundu, mitheto, viyowoyero, na visopa. Ni caru cimoza pera mu Africa ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusopa ŵacihindu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Religions in Africa {{!}} African Religions {{!}} PEW-GRF |url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/regions/sub-saharan-africa#/?region_map_religion=Hindus |access-date=28 April 2020 |website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Global Religious Landscape |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/ |access-date=28 April 2020 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |date=18 December 2012 |language=en-US}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi mba Indo-Mauritian. Pamoza na virwa vinyake vya Mascarene, Mauritius ni malo agho kuli vyakumera na vinyama vinandi. Vinyama vinandi vikukhala pa cirwa ici. Pa cirwa ici ndipo pakaŵa viyuni vinyake vinandi ivyo vikafwa cifukwa ca ŵanthu. Pali vinyama vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu charu ichi nga ni mphazi ya ku Mauritius, na nkhunda ya pinki. ==Ukaboni== Ukaboni wakwamba wakulongora kuti cirwa ico sono cikucemeka Mauritius cikaŵako ni mapu agho wakalemba Alberto Cantino mu 1502.<ref>Toorawa, S. (2007). ''The medieval Waqwaq islands and the Mascarenes''. Hassam Toorawa Trust, Port Louis, Mauritius</ref><ref>{{Cite web |year=1502 |title=Cantino Planisphere by anonymous Portuguese (1502) – Biblioteca Estense Universitaria, Modena, Italy, Public Domain |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26117950}}</ref> Mu 1507, ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ŵakiza pa chirwa ichi. Pa mapu ghakwambilira gha ku Portugal, pa chirwa ichi pakaŵa mazina gha Chiphwitikizi ghakuti Cirne panji Do-Cerne. Munthu munyake wa ku Portugal, zina lake Dom Pedro Mascarenhas, ndiyo wakathya chirwa ichi Mascarenes. Mu 1598, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Netherlands ilo likalongozgekanga na Admiral Wybrand van Warwyck, likakhira pa Grand Port na kuchema chirwa ichi kuti Mauritius, kucindika Fumu Maurice van Nassau, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma la Netherlands. Pamanyuma, chirwa ichi chikaŵa pasi pa France ndipo chikachemeka Isle de France. Pa Disembala 3, 1810, ŵa ku France ŵakapeleka chilumba ichi ku Britain. Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain, zina la cirwa ici likazgoka Mauritius {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Mauritius.ogg|m|ə|ˈ|r|ɪ|ʃ|ə|s}}. Charu cha Mauritius chikuchemekaso Mauritius (kuyowoya [mɔˈʁis]) na Île Maurice mu Chifurenchi, Moris mu Chikiliyo cha ku Mauritius.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prime Minister's Office – Cabinet Decisions taken on 24 MAY 2019 |url=http://pmo.govmu.org/English/News/Pages/Cabinet-Decisions-taken-on-24-MAY-2019.aspx |access-date=25 June 2019 |website=pmo.govmu.org}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{main|History of Mauritius}} ===Mbili yakwambilila=== Cirwa ca Mauritius cikaŵa cambura ŵanthu pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ŵandambe kwiza ku malo agha mu ma 1500. Zina lakuti Dina Arobi likukolerana na awo ŵakamba kusanga cirwa ici. ==='Portuguese Mauritius' (1507–1590s)=== [[File:D._Pedro_Mascarenhas.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pedro Mascarenhas]], [[List of governors of Portuguese India|Viceroy of Portuguese India]] and namesake of the [[Mascarene Islands]].]] Phangano la ku Tordesillas likaŵa lakuti Ufumu wa Portugal ndiwo uzakalamulire chigaŵa ichi. Mu 1507, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Portugal ŵakiza pa cirwa ici ndipo ŵakakhazikika penepara. Diogo Fernandes Pereira, uyo wakaŵa mweneko wa boti wa ku Portugal, ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kufika ku Mauritius. Wakathya cirwa ici zina lakuti "Ilha do Cisne". Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhalako nyengo yitali yayi cifukwa ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuwona virwa ivi.<ref name="govt">{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.govmu.org/English/ExploreMauritius/Pages/History.aspx#dutch |access-date=22 January 2015 |website=Government of Mauritius |archive-date=16 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016015207/http://www.govmu.org/English/ExploreMauritius/Pages/History.aspx#dutch }}</ref> Virwa vya Mascarene vili na zina la Pedro Mascarenhas, muwusi mulara wa ku India, uyo wakaluta ku virwa ivi mu 1512. Chirwa cha Rodrigues chikapika zina ili chifukwa cha Diogo Rodrigues, uyo wakafika pa chirwa ichi mu 1528. ===Dutch Mauritius (1638–1710)=== {{Main|Dutch Mauritius}} [[File:Het Tweede Boeck.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|left|Dutch activities on Mauritius, as well as the first published depiction of a [[dodo]] bird, on the left in front of a tree, 1601]] Mu 1598 gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Dutch ilo likaŵa pasi pa Admiral Wybrand Van Warwyck likafika ku Grand Port na kulichema kuti "Mauritius" chifukwa cha zina la Fumu Maurice wa ku Nassau. Mu 1638, Ŵachidachi ŵakakhazikika pa chirwa ichi, ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito makuni gha eboni na kunjizga mkaka, viŵeto, na nkharamu. Kufuma ku malo agha, Abel Tasman, uyo wakaŵa mulendo wa ku Netherlands, wakaluta kukapenja malo ghanyake gha ku South Australia. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakakhalako vyaka 20. Mu 1639, ŵazga ŵakiza ku Mauritius kufuma ku Madagascar. Wupu wa Dutch East India Company ukaŵatolera kuti ŵakadumulire makuni gha eboni na kugwira nchito mu minda yiphya ya hona na mskambo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵakayezgapo kanandi waka kuti ŵakhazikiske malo ghakukhazikika, kweni malo agha ghakaŵa kuti ghandasangepo phindu, ntheura mu 1710 Ŵachidachi ŵakaleka kukhala ku Mauritius.<ref name="govt" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Mauritius |url=http://culture.govmu.org/English//DOCUMENTS/PAMPHLET%20STRIPPED.PDF |access-date=22 January 2015 |website=Government of Mauritius}}</ref> Nkhani yinyake iyo yikalembeka mu 1755 mu nyuzipepara ya Leeds Intelligencer yikati chirwa ichi chikalekeka chifukwa cha vibenene vinandi ivyo "vikaparanya vyose". Ŵalwani ŵa ku Portugal ŵakiza na vinyama ivi ku virwa ivi kufuma ku malo agho vikakhalanga ku Southeast Asia, pambere Ŵachidachi ŵandambe kulamulira.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Macaque monkeys on Mauritius, a sad monkey's tale &#124; The Earth Times |url=https://earthtimes.org/conservation/macaque-monkeys-mauritius-sad-monkey-tale/1501/ |access-date=12 March 2023 |website=earthtimes.org|date=11 October 2011 }}</ref> ===French Mauritius (1715–1810)=== {{main|Isle de France (Mauritius)}} France, uyo wakaŵa kuti wali kale na mazaza pa charu cha Île Bourbon (sono ni Réunion), wakapoka Mauritius mu 1715 na kucemaso kuti Isle de France. Mu 1723, ŵakalemba dango lakucemeka Code Noir ilo likalongozganga wuzga. Dango ili likati ŵanthu ŵaŵe nga ni "vinthu", mwakuti mwenecho wa vinthu ivi wapokere ndalama za inshuwalansi na malipiro para vinthu vyake vyazgeŵa. Mu 1735, kazembe wa ku France, Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, wakiza ku France. Mahé de La Bourdonnais wakazenga Port Louis kuŵa msasa wa ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo na malo ghakuzengera ngalaŵa. Pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa kazembe, ŵakazenga nyumba zinandi izo zichalipo. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni Nyumba ya Boma, Château de Mon Plaisir, na Line Barracks, malo agho ŵapolisi ŵakakhalanga. Chirwa ichi chikaŵa pasi pa boma la French East India Company, ilo likalutilira kulamulira m'paka mu 1767. Mu nyengo iyo Ŵafulentshi ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici, ŵazga ŵakizanga kufuma ku vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa nga ni Mozambique na Zanzibar. Cifukwa ca ici, mu vilimika 30 ŵanthu ŵa pa cirwa ici ŵakakwera comene kufuma pa 15,000 kufika pa 49,000. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵazga ŵa ku Africa ndiwo ŵakaŵa 80 peresenti ya ŵanthu ŵa pa cirwa ici, ndipo kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, pa cirwa ici pakaŵa ŵazga 60,000. Kukwambilira kwa 1729, ŵanthu ŵa ku India ŵakufuma ku Pondicherry ŵakafika ku Mauritius pa boti lakucemeka La Sirène. Ŵakamba kugwira nchito iyi mu 1734 apo ŵakaŵa ŵanangwa.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2004 |title=Tamouls, les racines de l'histoire |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/tamouls-les-racines-de-lhistoire |access-date=5 February 2004 |website=L'Express}}</ref> [[File:Combat de Grand Port mg 9425.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Grand Port]] between French and British naval forces, 20–27 August 1810]] Kwambira mu 1767 m'paka mu 1810, kupaturako nyengo yichoko waka ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku France, apo ŵanthu ŵakakhazikiskanga boma lakujiyimira pawekha. Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre wakakhalanga pa cirwa ici kwambira mu 1768 m'paka mu 1771, ndipo wakawelera ku France, uko wakalemba Paul et Virginie, nkhani ya citemwa iyo yikapangiska kuti cirwa ici ciŵe cakumanyikwa kulikose uko ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Cifurenci. Mu 1796, boma la Paris likayezga kumazga wuzga, ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaleka kuwusika na ŵa ku France.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 February 2019 |title=Mauritius profile – Timeline |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13882731 |access-date=25 February 2019}}</ref> Ŵalongozgi ŵaŵiri ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku France ŵakaŵa Vicomte de Souillac (uyo wakazenga msewu wa Chaussée mu Port Louis na kukhuŵilizga ŵalimi kuti ŵakhalenge mu cigaŵa ca Savanne) na Antoine Bruni d'Entrecasteaux (uyo wakawoneseska kuti ŵa ku France awo ŵakakhalanga mu Nyanja ya Indian ŵakhalenge ku Mauritius m'malo mwa ku Pondicherry mu India). Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari mu Nkhondo za Kuwukira ku France, ndipo nyengo zinyake wakalimbananga na Napoleon I. Wakaŵa kazembe wa Isle de France na Réunion kufuma mu 1803 m'paka 1810. Matthew Flinders, uyo wakaŵa wakulemba mapu wa ku Britain, wakakakika na kukakika na Jenerale Decaen pa cirwa ici mu 1803 m'paka 1810, mwakuswa dango la Napoléon. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za ku Europe, Mauritius yikaŵa malo agho ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakalutanga kuti ŵakakome ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain. Ŵakacita nthena mpaka mu 1810, apo ŵasilikari ŵa Royal Navy awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Commodore Josias Rowley, R.N., uyo wakaŵa wa ku Ireland, ŵakatumika kuti ŵakakore cirwa ici. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakatonda nkhondo ya Grand Port, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakathereskeka yayi. Ŵakapeleka chilumba ichi pa zuŵa lachinkhondi la kuwukira kwawo, pa Disembala 3, 1810, pa fundo izo zikapeleka mwaŵi ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha kuti ŵasungenge malo ghawo na katundu wawo, kweniso kuti ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito chiyowoyero cha ku France na malango gha ku France pa milandu ya milandu na ya ŵanthu wose. Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain, zina la cirwa ici likazgoka Mauritius. Nkhondo iyi yikalembeka mu buku la Patrick O'Brian lakuti The Mauritius Command. ===British Mauritius (1810–1968)=== {{main|British Mauritius}} [[File:Isle of France, 2 December 1810.jpg|thumb|British forces [[Invasion of Isle de France|seizing the Isle of France]] on 2 December 1810]] ==== 1830–1835: British rule and reform ==== Boma la Britain, ilo likamba na Sir Robert Farquhar kuŵa kazembe wakwamba, likawona kuti vinthu vikusintha mwaluŵiro pa umoyo wa ŵanthu na vyachuma. Ndipouli, suzgo la Ratsitatane likakhwaska comene. Ratsitatane, muzukuru wa Themba Radama la ku Madagascar, wakatolekera ku Mauritius nga ni kayidi wa ndyali. Wakacimbira mu jere ndipo wakambiska ciwukirano ico cikakhumbanga kufwatura ŵazga ŵa pa cirwa ici. Wakatoleka na munyawo Laizaf ndipo wakakoleka na gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Adrien d'Épinay, loya wa ku Mauritius. Ŵakamudumura mutu pa Plaine Verte pa Epulero 15, 1822, ndipo mutu wake ŵakawuŵika pa malo ghanyake kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuwukira ŵazga. Mu 1832, d'Épinay wakambiska nyuzipepara yakwamba ya ku Mauritius (Le Cernéen). Mu caka ceneco, loya wa boma wakakhumbanga kuti wuzga uleke kuŵako kwambura kulipira ŵeneco. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukhorwa, ndipo boma likalangura ŵanthu wose kuti ŵajipeleke. Kweniso ŵakazenga linga la malibwe, Fort Adelaide, pa kaphiri (uko sono ni Citadel hill) mu msumba wa Port Louis kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma. Kufumira mu 1833, ŵazga ŵakamara mu vilimika vinandi, ndipo paumaliro ŵalimi ŵakapokera ndalama zakukwana mapaundi mamiliyoni ghaŵiri gha ku United States kuti ŵaŵalipire ŵazga awo ŵakaŵatora ku Africa na ku Madagascar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mauritius: Sugar, indentured labour and their consequences (1835–1910) |url=https://www.eisa.org/wep/mauoverview5.htm |access-date=20 September 2020 |publisher=EISA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207155908/https://www.eisa.org/wep/mauoverview5.htm |archive-date=7 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Legacies of British Slave-ownership project |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/search/ |access-date=7 July 2021 |publisher=University College London}}</ref> ==== 1834–1921: Indian labour imported ==== [[File:Visual Art of the first indentured Indian labourers arriving in Mauritius (1834).jpg|thumb | alt= Mixed emotions and feelings are portrayed |First indentured Indian workers (1834)]] Kuwuskako wuzga kukaŵa na vyakuzirwa comene pa umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Mauritius. Ŵakulima ŵakiza na ŵantchito ŵanandi kufuma ku India kuti ŵakagwire nchito mu minda ya mkaka. Pakati pa 1834 na 1921, pa cirwa ici pakaŵa ŵantchito pafupifupi hafu ya miliyoni. Ŵakagwiranga nchito mu mafamu gha shuga, mafakitale, na mu malo ghakuzengera. Kweniso, ku virwa ivi kukaŵaso ŵasilikari ŵa ku India 8,740. Aapravasi Ghat, mu nyanja ya Port Louis, iyo sono ni malo ghakukumbukika na UNESCO, ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghakwamba gha Britain kupokelera ŵateŵeti. Mu 1885, ŵakalemba dango liphya. Chikachemekanga Cens Démocratique ndipo chikaŵa na fundo zinyake izo yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵa Creole, Onésipho Beaugeard, wakayowoya. Likapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵasankhike mu Nyumba ya Malango, nangauli ŵakaŵavya wanangwa uwu. Mu 1886, Kazembe John Pope Hennessy wakasankha Gnanadicarayen Arlanda kuŵa mubali wakwamba wa ku India-Mauritius mu wupu wakulongozga nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku India ŵakamutemwanga chomene Emile Sandapa. Arlanda wakateŵetera m'paka mu 1891. Pa nyengo iyi, pakaŵa magulu ghaŵiri gha ndyali agho ghakacitanga vinthu mwakukolerana na Hennessy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2005 |title=Mauritian democracy: a caesarean birth |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/mauritian-democracy-caesarean-birth |access-date=3 December 2020 |website=L'Express}}</ref>[[File:Numa Desjardins Champ de Mars Port Louis 1880.jpg|thumb|[[Champ de Mars Racecourse]], Port Louis, 1880]] Ŵantchito awo ŵakafumanga ku India ŵakaŵapokeleranga makora yayi, ndipo Mujeremani munyake zina lake Adolph von Plevitz, wakajizgora yekha mulinda wa ŵanthu aŵa. Wakaŵa pamoza na ŵantchito ŵanandi, ndipo mu 1871 wakaŵawovwira kulemba kalata iyo ŵakatumizga kwa Kazembe Gordon. Komiti yikimikika kuti yiwoneso ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku India ŵakadandawuranga, ndipo mu 1872 maloya ghaŵiri agho ghakasankhika na boma la Britain, ghakatumika kufuma ku England kuti ghapende. Komiti iyi yikayowoyapo vinthu vinandi ivyo vikhwaskenge umoyo wa ŵantchito ŵa ku India mu vilimika 50 vyakunthazi.<ref name="Toussaint">''A short History of Mauritius'', P.J. Barnwell & A. Toussaint</ref> ==== 1901–1914: Modernization and reform ==== Mu 1901, ŵanthu ŵakamba kwendeska mawoko mwaluŵiro kuluta ku Rodrigues. Mu 1903, ku Mauritius ŵakamba kugura magalimoto, ndipo mu 1910, magalimoto ghakwamba ghakamba kuguliskika. Mu 1909, msumba wa Port Louis ukaŵa na magesi, ndipo mu vyaka ivi, kampani ya Mauritius Hydro Electric Company ya ŵabali ŵa Atchia, yikapika mazaza kuti yivikilire misumba ya ku Upper Plaines Wilhems.[[File:The web of empire - a diary of the imperial tour of their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York in 1901 (1902) (14763807672).jpg|thumb|Ulendo wa Duke na Duchess wa ku Cornwall na York ku Mauritius, 1901]] Chizindikiro cha charu cha Mauritius chikapangika mu 1906, ndipo chili na njati ya Sambur na dodo. M'ma 1910, vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi pa nkhani za ndyali. Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi (ŵadokotala, maloya, na ŵasambizgi) ŵakamba kususka ŵeneco ŵa minda ya mkaka. Dr. Wakayama Eugène Laurent, meya wa Port Louis, ndiyo wakalongozganga gulu liphya ili. Chipani cha Action Libérale chikasuskika na chipani cha Parti de l'Ordre, icho chikalongozgekanga na Henri Leclézio, uyo wakaŵa na mazaza comene pa ŵamalonda ŵa shuga.<ref name="Toussaint" /> Mu 1911, mu Port Louis mukaŵa vivulupi cifukwa ca mphindano yakuti Dr. Eugène Laurent wakakomeka na ŵamazaza ŵa Curepipe. Ivi vikamanyikwa kuti ni vivulupi vya mu Curepipe mu 1911. Mu msumba uwu, mashopu na maofesi ghakasakazika ndipo munthu yumoza wakafwa. Mu 1911, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwonelera mafilimu mu tawuni ya Curepipe. Mu 1912, boma, makampani, na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakamba kwimba mafoni. ==== 1914–1919: World War I prosperity ==== Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikamba mu Ogasiti 1914. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Mauritius ŵakajipeleka kuti ŵarwe nkhondo na Ŵachijeremani ku Europe na ku Mesopotamiya. Kweni nkhondo iyi yikatimbanizga comene Mauritius kuluska nkhondo izo zikacitika mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800. Nakuti nkhondo ya mu 1914-1918 yikaŵa nyengo iyo vinthu vikaŵa makora chomene chifukwa cha kukwera kwa mtengo wa shuga. Mu 1919, wupu wa Mauritius Sugar Syndicate ukaŵako, uwo ukaŵa na 70% ya ŵanthu wose awo ŵakapanga shuga.<ref name="Republic of Mauritius- History">{{Cite web |title=Republic of Mauritius- History |url=http://www.govmu.org/English/ExploreMauritius/Pages/History.aspx |access-date=29 May 2020 |website=govmu.org |archive-date=16 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016015207/http://www.govmu.org/English/ExploreMauritius/Pages/History.aspx }}</ref> ==== 1920–1939: Liberalisation and reaction ==== M'ma 1920 kukawuka gulu la "retrocessionism", ilo likakhumbanga kuti charu cha Mauritius chiwelere ku France. Mwaluŵiro, gulu ili likamara cifukwa palije uyo wakakhumbanga kuti Mauritius wawelere ku France. Mu nyengo ya suzgo ya ndalama iyo yikaŵako pamanyuma pa nkhondo, mtengo wa shuga ukakhira comene. Malo ghanandi ghakusungirako shuga ghakajalika, ndipo ivi vikalongora kuti ŵantchito ŵa mu vyaru ivi ŵamara. Raoul Rivet, mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya Le Mauricien, wakakhumbanga kuti boma lisinthe malango gha caru kuti ŵanthu ŵa m'maumba ghaciŵiri ŵambe kwendeska vinthu mu caru. Fundo za Arya Samaj zikamba kujintha mu ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Chihindu, awo ŵakakhumbanga urunji.<ref name="Dinan">''Mauritius in the making across the censuses 1846–2000'', Monique Dinan. {{ISBN|99903-904-6-0}}</ref> Kufuma apo Arlanda wakambira kuwusa mu 1891, m'paka mu 1926, mu wupu wakulongozga mukaŵavya ŵanthu ŵa ku India na Mauritius. Ndipouli, pa 1926 chisankho, Dunputh Lallah na Rajcoomar Gujadhur ŵakaŵa ŵa Indo-Mauritian ŵakwamba kusankhika ku wupu wa malango. Ku Grand Port, Lallah wakathereska Fernand Louis Morel na Gaston Gebert; ku Flacq, Gujadhur wakatonda Pierre Montocchio. Mu 1936, pakababika chipani chakuchemeka Labour Party, icho chikambiska na Maurice Curé. Emmanuel Anquetil wakawovwira ŵantchito ŵa mu matawuni apo Pandit Sahadeo wakawovwira ŵantchito ŵa ku mizi. Nkhondo ya Uba ya mu 1937 yikapangiska kuti boma la Britain lisinthe vinthu kuti ntchito yiŵe makora ndipo likamazga kukanizgika kwa mawupu gha ŵantchito. Zuŵa la Ŵantchito likakondwelereka kakwamba mu 1938. Ŵantchito ŵakujumpha 30,000 ŵakaleka malipiro ghawo gha zuŵa limoza ndipo ŵakiza kufuma mu vigaŵa vyose vya cirwa ici kuzakaŵapo pa ungano ukuru uwo ukacitikira pa malo ghakucemeka Champ de Mars. Pamanyuma pa kunyamuka kwa ŵantchito ŵa pa dowoko, Emmanuel Anquetil uyo wakaŵa mu wupu wa ŵantchito wakatolekera ku Rodrigues, Maurice Curé na Pandit Sahadeo ŵakakakika pa nyumba zawo, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa mu jele. Kazembe wa boma Sir Bede Clifford wakawovwira Mr. Jules Leclezio wa wupu wa Mauritius Sugar Syndicate kuti wawovwirepo pa suzgo ili mwa kugwiliskira nchito ŵantchito ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti "black legs".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Report of Truth and Justice Commission |url=https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/ROL/TJC_Vol1.pdf |access-date=25 October 2011 |publisher=Government of Mauritius |ref=ISBN 978-99903-1-025-2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908040459/https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/ROL/TJC_Vol1.pdf |archive-date=8 September 2019}}</ref> ==== 1939–1945: World War II ==== Apo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikambanga mu 1939, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Mauritius ŵakajipeleka kuti ŵateŵetere ku Africa na ku vyaru vya ku Near East. Ŵanyake ŵakaluta ku England kukapharazga ndipo ŵakamba kwendera ndege. Nangauli ku Mauritius kukaŵavya suzgo, kweni mu 1943, sitima za pasi pa maji za ku Germany zikabizga sitima zinandi za ku Britain kufupi na Port Louis. Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya nkhondo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku malo agha ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuvikilira caru usange ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵafumako. Gulu linyake la ŵasilikari likapika mulimo wa kwendeska maboti gha mlengalenga kuti ghasangirepo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Japan. Pa 24 March 1943, Mauritius Regiment, yikapangika nga ni gulu la ufumu na gulu liphya la East Africa Command (EAC), ilo lingagwiriskika nchito kulikose apo kale ŵasilikari ŵa Mauritius ŵakagwiriskikanga nchito pa vinthu vya mukati pera. Kuumaliro wa 1943, ŵasilikari ŵa 1st Battalion of the Mauritius Regiment (1MR) ŵakatumika ku Madagascar kuti ŵakasambizgike, ndipo mu malo mwawo, ŵasilikari ŵa King's African Rifles (KAR) ŵakatumika ku Mauritius. Ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵakakwiya chomene na ivyo vikachitika, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa ku vyaru vinyake awo ŵakaŵa ku vyaru vinyake ŵakaŵa ŵambura kuzgoŵera nkhondo. Ŵasilikari ŵa 1MR ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca kusankhana mitundu, malipiro ghambura kuyana, masambiro ghakusuzga, ndiposo kopa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Japan. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi mu caru ici. Pakaŵa vivulupi, ndipo boma likakanizga milimo yose ya wupu. Ndipouli, ŵantchito ŵa ku Belle Vue Harel Sugar Estate ŵakamba kunyenyenkha nchito pa Seputembala 27, 1943. Ŵapolisi ŵakamba kuwombera ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakakoma ŵantchito ŵanayi: Soondrum Pavatdan (uyo wakumanyikwa kuti Anjalay Coopen, mwanakazi wa vyaka 32 uyo wakaŵa na nthumbo), Moonsamy Moonien (msepuka wa vyaka 14), Kistnasamy Mooneesamy (wantchito wa vyaka 37), na Marday Panapen. Ici cikacemeka Belle Vue Harel Massacre mu 1943. Basdeo Bissoondoyal, uyo wakaŵa muteŵeti wa boma kweniso mulongozgi wa gulu la Jan Andolan, ndiyo wakanozga viphikiro vya nyifwa ya ŵantchito ŵanayi awo ŵakafwa. Pakati pajumpha myezi yitatu, pa Disembala 12, 1943, Bissoondoyal wakanozga ungano wa ŵanthu ŵanandi ku "Marie Reine de la Paix" ku Port Louis, ndipo wumba ukuru wa ŵantchito ŵakufuma mu vigaŵa vyose vya cirwa ici ukakhozgera kuti gulu lake la Jan Andolan ndakumanyikwa comene.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Soobarah |first=Paramanund |date=29 April 2019 |title=MBC defeats a government initiative |url=http://www.mauritiustimes.com/mt/the-mbc-defeats-a-government-initiative/ |access-date=29 April 2019 |website=Mauritius Times}}</ref> ==== 1945–1960: Postwar politics, universal suffrage ==== Pamanyuma pa kukhazikiska dango liphya la Mauritius mu 1947, pa Ogasiti 9, 1948, pakaŵa mavoti ghacigaŵa, ndipo aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti boma la ku Mauritius liŵape wanangwa wa kulemba mazina ŵanthu wose ŵakukhwima awo ŵangalemba mazina ghawo mu viyowoyero 19 vya pa cirwa ici.<ref name="CD">{{Cite web |title=Mauritius - Toward Independence |url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-8615.html |access-date=12 March 2023 |website=country-data.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Mauritius: The road to independence (1945–1968) |encyclopedia=African Democracy Encyclopaedia Project |publisher=[[Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa]] |url=https://www.eisa.org/wep/mauoverview7.htm |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508100629/https://www.eisa.org/wep/mauoverview7.htm |archive-date=8 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Chipani cha Guy Rozemont cha Labour Party chikapokera mavoti ghanandi, ndipo pa malo 19 agho ghakaŵa ku mavoti, 11 ghakaŵa gha Ŵahindu. Ndipouli, Kazembe Mukuru Donald Mackenzie-Kennedy wakasora ŵa Conservative 12 mu Wupu Wakulongozga pa 23 Ogasiti 1948 kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ŵa ku France na Mauritius. Mu 1948, Emilienne Rochecouste wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba kusankhika kuŵa mu wupu wakuwona vya malango. Gulu la Guy Rozemont likasintha comene mu 1953, ndipo likati lasanga candulo na maungano, likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu wose ŵaŵe na wanangwa wa kusankha. Mu 1955 na 1957, ku London kukacitika ungano wa malango, ndipo boma likamba kwendera fundo za ŵalaŵiliri. Pa 9 Malichi, 1959, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuvota. Chisankho chachikulu chinapambananso ndi chipani cha Labour, chomwe chikutsogoleredwa ndi Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam.<ref name="ram">{{Cite news |title=Histoire: Mauritius Independence 1961–1968 |work=Le Mauricien=9 March 2014 |url=http://www.lemauricien.com/article/histoire-mauritius-independence-1961-1968 |access-date=9 September 2014}}</ref> ==== 1960–1968: Ethnic tensions ==== Mu 1961, ku London kukacitika ungano wa kusanda malango, ndipo pakapangika pulogiramu ya kusanda malango. Mu 1963, chipani cha Labour na ŵabwezi ŵake ndiwo ŵakathereska ŵanthu. Ofesi ya Colonial Office yikayowoya kuti ndyali izo zikukolerana na mafuko zikamba kuwoneka chomene ku Mauritius, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakasankhanga ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuŵa ŵalongozgi (ŵakupambanapambana) na awo ŵakukhumba kuvota (ŵakusankha). Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Britain, Richard Titmuss na James Meade, ŵakalemba lipoti lakulongosora masuzgo agho ŵanthu ŵakakumananga nagho pa chirwa ichi chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe ntchito yikuru ya kulekeska kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu. Kukwambilira kwa chaka cha 1965, ŵanthu ŵakakomeka mu tawuni ya Quatre Bornes, mu tawuni ya Belle-Rose.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sécurité: des gros bras indispensables à certains politiciens |work=L'Express |publisher=lexpress.mu |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/350433/securite-gros-bras-indispensables-certains-politiciens |access-date=2 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Li Ching Hum |first=Philip |title=Belle Rose-Quatre Bornes, Ville des Fleurs |work=Mauritius Times |url=http://www.mauritiustimes.com/mt/belle-rose-quatre-bornes-ville-des-fleurs/ |access-date=22 December 2017}}</ref> Pa Meyi 10, 1965, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusankhana mitundu mu muzi wa Trois Boutiques kufupi na Souillac. Mu charu chose cha Britain mukaŵa suzgo likuru. Nkhondo iyi yikayamba cifukwa ca kukoma Beesoo mu galimoto yake na gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Creole. Kufuma apo, munthu munyake zina lake Mr. Robert Brousse ku Trois Boutiques. Kufuma apo, gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Creole ŵakaluta ku muzi wakale wa Mahébourg, uwo ukaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja, kuti ŵakawukire ŵanthu ŵa ku Mauritius awo ŵakawoneleranga mafilimu gha ku India. Apolisi a Mahébourg adalemba madandaulo pafupifupi 100 okhudza nkhanza za Indo-Mauritian.<ref name="vm">{{Cite web |date=18 July 2014 |title=Port Louis – Rioting against Independence at the General Elections of 1967 – Vintage Mauritius |url=http://vintagemauritius.org/port-louis/port-louis-rioting-independence-general-elections-1967/ |access-date=15 August 2018 |website=Vintage Mauritius |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Independence (since 1968)=== {{main|Mauritius (1968–1992)}} [[File:Seewoosagur Ramgoolam.jpg|thumb|upright|Sir [[Seewoosagur Ramgoolam]], first [[Prime Minister of Mauritius]] at Lod airport, Israel 1962]] Pa ungano wa Lancaster mu 1965, vikamanyikwa kuti Britain yikukhumba kufumako ku Mauritius. Mu 1959, Harold Macmillan wakayowoya nkhani yake yakumanyikwa comene yakuti "Wind of Change Speech" (Mphepo ya Kusintha) umo wakazomerezga kuti nthowa yiwemi comene yakuti Britain yilondezge nkhupeleka wanangwa wose ku vyaru ivyo yikaŵa pasi pake. Mwantheura, kwamba kuumaliro wa ma 1950, caru cikaŵa cakunozgeka kuti ciŵe cakufwatuka. Pamanyuma, mu 1965, pamanyuma pa ungano wa Lancaster, chigaŵa cha Chagos chikapatuka ku Mauritius na kuzgoka British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). Pa Ogasiti 7, 1967, pakaŵa maungano gha boma, ndipo chipani cha Independence chikapokera vithuzithuzi vinandi. Mu Janyuwale 1968, masabata ghankhondi na limoza pambere boma la Mauritius lindambe kujiyimira palokha, mu Port Louis mukacitika vivulupi ivyo vikakoma ŵanthu 25.<ref name="mg">{{Cite web |date=6 October 2011 |title=An eye witness account of the 1968 riots |url=http://www.mauritiusmag.com/?p=598 |access-date=15 August 2018 |website=mauritiusmag.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="eisa">{{Cite web |title=EISA Mauritius: The road to independence (1945–1968) |url=https://www.eisa.org.za/wep/mauoverview7.htm |access-date=15 August 2018 |website=eisa.org.za}}</ref>[[File:Stamp Mauritius 1954 5c.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Elizabeth II]] was [[Queen of Mauritius]] from 1968 to 1992.]] Charu cha Mauritius chikaŵa na dango liphya ndipo chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha pa Malichi 12, 1968. Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam wakazgoka nduna yikuru yakwamba ya Mauritius yakujiyimira pawekha. Mu 1969, chipani cha opposition, Mauritian Militant Movement (MMM), chikayambika, chakulongozgeka na Paul Bérenger. Pamanyuma pake, mu 1971, MMM - yakukhozgeka na mawupu gha ŵantchito - yikamba kubenekelerana mu dowoko, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti mu caru cose muŵe suzgo. Boma la Labour Party na la PMSD (Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate) likakanizga wanangwa wa ŵanthu na kukanizga wanangwa wa vyalo. Paul Bérenger wakayezgeka kukoma ŵanthu ŵaŵiri. * On 1 October 1971, his supporter [[Fareed Muttur]] died in suspicious circumstances at Le Réduit, whilst driving Paul Bérenger's car.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Déjeuner à Rose Hill: Fareed Muttur est mort à ma place |date=18 July 2017 |url=https://www.lemauricien.com/le-mauricien/dejeuner-rose-hill-fareed-muttur-mort-ma-place-declare-paul-berenger/151890/ |access-date=18 July 2017 |publisher=Le Mauricien}}</ref> * Caciŵiri cikacitiska kuti Azor Adélaïde, uyo wakagwiranga nchito ku dowoko na kucitako vinthu vinyake, wafwe pa Novembala 25, 1971. Pa nyengo iyi, maungano ghakakanizgika. Ŵabali ŵa MMM, kusazgapo Paul Bérenger ŵakakakika pa 23 Disembala 1971. Mulongozgi wa MMM wakafwatulika pakati pajumpha cilimika cimoza. Mu Meyi 1975, ku Yunivesite ya ku Mauritius, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakagaluka. Ŵasambiri aŵa ŵakakhorwa yayi na masambiro agho ghakaŵapa yayi mwaŵi wa kusanga nchito. Pa Meyi 20, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵanandi ŵakayezga kunjira mu Port-Louis kujumpha pa mlatho wa Grand River North West, ndipo ŵakakumana na ŵapolisi. Pa Disembala 16, 1975, Nyumba ya Malamulo yikapeleka dango lakuti ŵana wose ŵa vyaka 18 ŵaŵe na wanangwa wa kuvota. Ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti uwu ni nthowa yakuti ŵawukirano ŵaleke kukhuŵara. Pa Disembala 20, 1976 pakaŵa maungano ghacigaŵa. Wupu wa Labour-CAM ukapokera vithuzi 28 pera pa vithuzi 62. MMM yikasanga vithuzi 34 mu Nyumba ya Malamulo kweni Prime Minister wakufumapo Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam wakakwaniska kukhala mu ofesi, na vithuzi viŵiri, pamanyuma pa kukolerana na PMSD ya Gaetan Duval. Mu 1982, boma la MMM-PSM (lakulongozgeka na Nduna Nkuru Anerood Jugnauth, Nduna Nkuru Harish Boodhoo na Nduna ya vya Ndalama Paul Bérenger) likasoleka. Ndipouli, pakaŵa mphindano za maghanoghano na mikhaliro mu ŵalongozgi ŵa MMM na PSM. Nkhondo ya mazaza pakati pa Bérenger na Jugnauth yikamara mu Malichi 1983. Jugnauth wakaluta ku New Delhi kuti wakaŵepo pa ungano wa vyaru vyambura kukolerana; wati wawerako, Bérenger wakapempha kuti paŵe kusintha kwa dango la boma. Pa pempho la Jugnauth, nduna yikuru ya India, Indira Gandhi, yikanozga vyakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku India ŵanjirengepo kuti ŵaleke kuwukira boma.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 March 2013 |title=When India drew Top Secret 'red line' in Mauritius |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/when-india-drew-top-secret-red-line-in-mauritius/article4493495.ece |access-date=22 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Medcalf |first=Rory |date=19 March 2013 |title=When India (Almost) Invaded Mauritius |work=The Diplomat |url=https://thediplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2013/03/19/when-india-almost-invaded-mauritius/ |access-date=22 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=David |last=Brewster |url=https://www.academia.edu/7992843 |title=India's Ocean: the Story of India's Bid for Regional Leadership}}. Retrieved 13 August 2014</ref> Boma la MMM-PSM likapatukana myezi 9 pamanyuma pa mavoti gha Juni 1982. Kuyana na nduna yinyake ya munthavi, myezi yinkhondi na yimoza iyi yikaŵa "ciyezgo ca wupu wa Socialist". Harish Boodhoo wakamazga chipani chake cha PSM kuti wanembare wose ŵa PSM ŵanjire chipani chiphya cha Jugnauth cha MSM, mwakuti ŵakhalilire mu boma uku ŵakujipatura ku MMM. Gulu la MSM-Labour-PMSD likathereska pa mavoti gha mu Ogasiti 1983, ndipo Anerood Jugnauth wakaŵa Prime Minister ndipo Gaëtan Duval wakaŵa Deputy Prime Minister. Mu nyengo iyi, chigaŵa cha EPZ chikakura. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora mu mizi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kugwira ntchito mu misasa. Ici cikapangiska kuti makampani gha shuga ghaleke kukhwaska comene cuma. Makampani ghakurughakuru ghakamba kujura mashopu mu 1985 na kupeleka ngongoli ku ŵanthu ŵambura kusanga ndalama zinandi. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuluta ku malo ghakwendakwenda, ndipo mahotelo ghaphya ghakazengeka pa chirwa chose. Mu 1989, ŵakajura msika wa malonda, ndipo mu 1992, ŵakajura chiŵanja cha nyanja. Mu 1990, nduna yikaluza pa kuvota pa kusintha Dango kuti caru ici ciŵe caru ca wupu.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Jane |last=Perlez |date=27 August 1990 |title=Mauritius' Political Quarrel Saves the Queen |work=The New York Times |location=Great Britain; Mauritius |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/27/world/mauritius-political-quarrel-saves-the-queen.html |access-date=6 September 2016}}</ref> ===Republic (since 1992)=== Pa Malichi 12, 1992, vilimika 24 kufuma apo Mauritius wakapokera wanangwa wake, likapharazgika kuti ni charu cha Commonwealth. Kazembe waumaliro wa Mauritius, Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo, wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba. Ivi vikacitika cifukwa ca ndondomeko ya nyengo yicoko waka, ndipo mu caka ici, Cassam Uteem ndiyo wakanjira mu malo ghake. Nduna yikuru ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa ndyali. Nangauli vinthu vikamba kwenda makora mu caru ici, ndipo mafuta ghakakhira, kweniso ndalama zikakwera, kweni boma likakondwa yayi na ŵanthu. Kuzakafika mu 1984, ŵanthu ŵakakondwa yayi. Kwizira mu Dango Lakukhwaskana na Manyuzipepara na Magazini, boma likayezga kuti nyuzipepara yiliyose yipeleke ndalama zakukwana hafu ya miliyoni. Ŵapharazgi 43 ŵakasuska na kunjilirapo pa ungano wa pa wumba ku Port Louis, panthazi pa Nyumba ya Ufumu. Ŵakakakika na kufwatulika pa kaunti. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵacitire ukali boma ndipo likakhumbikwiranga kuweleramo mu ndondomeko yake. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakakondwa yayi na masambiro. Pakaŵavya masukulu gha masambiro ghaciŵiri ghapacanya agho ghakaŵa ghakwenelera kuti ghapulikiske ŵanthu awo ŵakumalizga masambiro gha ku pulayimale. Mu 1991, boma likathereska boma chifukwa cha kuleka kukhozgera pulani ya masambiro. Mu Disembala 1995, Navin Ramgoolam wakasankhika kuŵa Prime Minister wa Labour/MMM alliance. Mu Okutobala 1996, ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakakomeka pa Gorah-Issac Street ku Port Louis, ŵakakakika na kufumbika nyengo yitali. Mu 1999, mu Febuluwale na Meyi mukaŵa viwawa. Pamanyuma pa vivulupi vya ku Kaya, Pulezidenti Cassam Uteem na Cardinal Jean Margéot ŵakendera caru cose ndipo mtende ukawelerapo pamanyuma pa mazuŵa ghanayi gha vivulupi. Pakaŵaso komiti yakudumbiskana kuti yamanye ivyo vikambiska suzgo ili. Lipoti ili likalongosora ivyo vikupangiska ukavu ndipo likati visambizgo vinandi vyautesi ni vyautesi. Mu Janyuwale 2000, Rajen Sabapathee, uyo wakaŵa wakulimbikira vya ndyali, wakakomeka na vilwero wati wafumamo mu jele la La Bastille.<ref>{{Cite web |title=La vérité sur la mort de mon père |url=https://www.5plus.mu/node/13712 |access-date=28 November 2020 |publisher=5 Plus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205034231/https://www.5plus.mu/node/13712 |archive-date=5 February 2021}}</ref>[[File:Mauriceybbrfrinwodas.jpg|thumbnail|Perceived failure of [[Government of Mauritius|the government]] to respond promptly and effectively to the [[MV Wakashio oil spill|MV ''Wakashio'' oil spill]] resulted in anti-government protests.]] Sir Anerood Jugnauth wa MSM wakawelera ku mazaza mu Seputembala 2000 pamanyuma pa kukolerana na MMM. Mu 2002, cirwa ca Rodrigues cikazgoka cigaŵa cakujiyimira pacekha mu caru ici ndipo cikaŵa na wanangwa wa kusankha ŵimiliri ŵake kuti ŵakawusenge. Mu 2003, nduna yikuru yikapelekeka kwa Paul Bérenger wa MMM, ndipo Sir Anerood Jugnauth wakaŵa purezidenti. Bérenger wakaŵa nduna yikuru yakwamba ya France na Mauritius mu mbiri ya chalo ichi. Mu mavoti gha 2005, Navin Ramgoolam wakazgoka Prime Minister pasi pa chipani chiphya cha Labour PMXDVFMRMMSM. Mu mavoti gha 2010 chipani cha Labour/MSM/PMSD chikapoka mazaza ndipo Navin Ramgoolam wakalutilira kuŵa Prime Minister mpaka 2014. Chipani cha MSM PMS DML chikapambana pa chisankho cha 2014 pasi pa Anerood Jugnauth. Nangauli pakaŵa mphindano mukati mwa chipani icho chikaŵa pa muwuso icho chikapangiska kuti PMSD yifumeko, kweni MSM ̊ML yikalutilira kuwusa kwa vyaka 5. Pa 21 January 2017, Sir Anerood Jugnauth wakapharazga kuti wafumengepo ndipo mwana wake Pravind Jugnauth ndiyo waŵenge nduna yikuru. Pa 23 January 2017, boma likasintha ndondomeko yake. Mu 2018, pulezidenti wa Mauritius Ameenah Gurib-Fakim wakaleka ntchito chifukwa cha suzgo la ndalama. Purezidenti wapano ndi Prithvirajsing Roopun yemwe wakhala akugwira ntchito kuyambira Disembala 2019. Pa chisankho cha November 2019 ku Mauritius, chipani cha Militant Socialist Movement (MSM) chikapambana mipando yakujumpha hafu mu nyumba ya malango, ndipo Prime Minister Pravind Kumar Jugnauth wakapika nyengo yinyakeso ya vyaka vinkhondi. Pa Julayi 25, 2020, sitima ya ku Japan yakuchemeka MV Wakashio yikakhira pa korali mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Mauritius, ndipo mafuta ghakukwana matani 1,000 ghakafuma mu nyanja. Malo agha ghakaŵa pafupi na malo ghakutowa gha mu nyanja ndipo ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa pa caru cose.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 August 2020 |title=Mauritius oil spill compensation could be limited by maritime law technicality |url=https://www.climatechangenews.com/2020/08/28/mauritius-oil-spill-compensation-limited-maritime-law-technicality/ |access-date=24 July 2021 |website=Climate Home News}}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{main|Geography of Mauritius}} Chigaŵa chose cha charu ichi ni 2,040 km2 (790 sq mi). Ni caru ca nambara 170 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa caru cose. Chirwa cha Mauritius chili na virwa vinandi. Chigaŵa cha chuma cha charu ichi chili na malo ghakujumpha 2.3 miliyoni km2 (890,000 sq mi) mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean, kusazgapo malo ghakujumpha 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi) agho ghakwendeskeka pamoza na Seychelles.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Mauritius: Promoting the Development of an Ocean Economy |url=https://intercontinentaltrust.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/ITL-Newsletter-Vol-6-Issue-11-Mauritius-Exclusive-Economic-Zone.pdf |url-status=live |magazine=Intercontinental Trust Newsletter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109075149/http://www.intercontinentaltrust.com/admin/documents/all/ITL%20Newsletter%20Vol%206%20Issue%2011%20-%20Mauritius%20Exclusive%20Economic%20Zone.pdf |archive-date=9 November 2013 |access-date=25 November 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=National Coast Guard |url=http://police.govmu.org/English/Publication/Documents/NCG2013.pdf |access-date=22 January 2015 |website=Government of Mauritius}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) Outer limits of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines:Submissions to the Commission: Joint submission by the Republic of Mauritius and the Republic of Seychelles |url=https://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_musc.htm |access-date=22 January 2015 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> ===Mauritius Island=== Chilumba cha Mauritius chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 2,000 (1,200 mi) kufupi na kumwera kwa Africa, pakati pa latitude 19°58.8'S na 20°31.7'S na longitude 57°18.0'E na 57°46.5'E. Ni mtunda wa makilomita 65 mu utali na makilomita 45 mu usani. Malo ghake ghakukwana 1,864.8 km2 (720.0 sq mi).<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2008 |title=Meteorological Services − Monthly Bulletin of Climatological Summaries |url=http://metservice.intnet.mu/pdfs/monthly-climatological-summaries.pdf |access-date=22 January 2015 |publisher=Mauritius Meteorological Services |page=3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=General Info – Geography |url=http://www.mauritius.net/general_info/index.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212061824/http://www.mauritius.net/general_info/index.php |archive-date=12 February 2012 |access-date=22 January 2015 |publisher=Mauritius.net}}</ref> Chirwa ichi chili na mchenga uwemi wa mchenga uwo uli pa mtunda wa makilomita ghakujumpha 150. Ku Mauritius kuli virwa na tumazinga pafupifupi 49, ndipo vinandi vya vyaru ivi vili kuzunulika kuti ni malo ghakusungirako vyamoyo. Chirwa cha Mauritius (Mauritian Creole: Isle Moris; French: Île Maurice, [il mɔʁis]) chili na vyaka vichoko chomene chifukwa cha vimalibwe ivyo vikachitika vyaka 8 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Pamoza na Saint Brandon, Réunion, na Rodrigues, cirwa ici nchimoza mwa virwa vya Mascarene. Virwa ivi vikababika cifukwa ca kuphulika kwa vimalibwe vikuruvikuru ivyo vikacitika pasi pa maji, makilomita ghanandi kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa na Madagascar. Ŵali kuleka kuphulika, ndipo sono malo agha ghali kusi kwa Réunion Island. Mauritius wali kuzingilizgika na mapiri ghatali, agho ghakukwera mamita 300 m'paka 800. Malo agha ghakukwera kufuma ku malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja kuya ku malo ghapakati apo ghakukwana mamita 670 (2,200 ft); pachanya pa mapiri ghose pali Piton de la Petite Rivière Noire (828 m). Pa chirwa ichi pali milonga na tumilonga tunandi uto tukapangika mu mipata iyo yilipo chifukwa cha maji agho ghakwenda.[[File:Mauritius.png|thumb|center|650px|A panoramic view of Mauritius Island]] ===Rodrigues Island=== {{main|Rodrigues}} Chirwa cha Rodrigues chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 560 kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mauritius. Rodrigues ni cirwa ico cikucitika cifukwa ca vimalibwe ivyo vikufuma mu mphepete mwa mapiri gha Mascarene. Chirwa ichi chili na mapiri ndipo chili na msana ukuru uwo ukufika pachanya pa Phiri la Limon. Kweniso pa cirwa ici pali malibwe ghanandi gha korali. Malinga ndi Statistics Mauritius, pa 1 Julayi 2019, chiwerengero cha anthu pachilumbachi chinali 43,371.<ref name="1 July 2019 Statistics">{{Cite web |title=Population and Vital Statistics Republic of Mauritius, January – June 2019 |url=http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/English/Publications/Documents/2019/EI1471/Pop_Vital_Jan-Jun19.pdf |access-date=12 October 2019 |publisher=[[Statistics Mauritius]]}}</ref> ===Chagos Archipelago=== {{main|Chagos Archipelago}} Chirwa cha Chagos chili na virwa vinandi, ndipo chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 2,200 kumpoto kwa Mauritius. Kumpoto kwa chilumba cha Chagos kuli Peros Banhos, Solomon Islands, na Nelson Island; kumwera kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi kuli The Three Brothers, Eagle Islands, Egmont Islands, na Danger Island. Diego Garcia wali kumwera ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa cirwa ici. Mu 2016, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chagossian chikaŵa 8,700 ku Mauritius, kusazgapo ŵanthu 483 ŵa ku Mauritius; ŵanthu 350 ŵa mtundu wa Chagossian ŵakukhala ku Seychelles, kusazgapo ŵanthu 75 ŵa ku Seychelles, uku ŵanthu 3,000, kusazgapo ŵanthu 127 ŵa ku Seychelles, ŵakukhala ku UK (ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakura kufuma pa ŵanthu 1200 ŵa mtundu wa Chagossian awo ŵakasamira ku Seychelles).<ref name="chif">{{Cite journal |date=5 July 2016 |title=La population chagossienne en chiffres |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/287013/population-chagossienne-en-chiffres |journal=[[L'Express (Mauritius)]]}}</ref> ===St. Brandon=== [[File:The Thirteen Islands of St Brandon - Images of L'Île Coco, Cargados Carajos in Mauritius 02.jpg|thumb|The Thirteen Islands of St Brandon - Images of L'Île Coco, Cargados Carajos in Mauritius]] {{main|St. Brandon}} St. Brandon, uyo wakumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Cargados Carajos Shoals, wali pa mtunda wa makilomita 402 kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa chirwa cha Mauritius. Chirwa cha Saint Brandon chili na virwa vinkhondi ivyo vili kufuma ku Mauritius. Virwa ivi vili na virwa 28 m'paka 40. Mu 2008, khoti likuru la Britain (Privy Council) likadumura (Ndime 71) kuti Raphaël Fishing Company ndiyo yili na wanangwa wakukhalapo pa virwa 13 ivyo vili kulembeka mu chikalata cha mu 1901 (cholembeka mu buku la TB25 No. 342) ndipo vikukolerana na fundo izo zili kulembeka mu chikalata ichi'';''<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Raphael Fishing Company Ltd v. The State of Mauritius & Anor (Mauritius) [2008] UKPC 43 (30 July 2008) |url=http://www.saflii.org/mu/cases/UKPC/2008/43.html |access-date=24 November 2017 |website=saflii.org}}</ref> ===Agaléga Islands=== {{main|Agaléga}} Virwa viŵiri vya Agaléga vili pa mtunda wa makilomita 1,000 kumpoto kwa Mauritius. Chirwa cha North chili na utali wa makilomita 12.5 na usani wa makilomita 1.5. Malo ghose gha virwa ivi ni 26 km2. Kuyana na Statistics Mauritius, pa 1 July 2019, ŵanthu ŵa ku Agaléga na St. Brandon wakaŵa na vyaka 274.<ref name="1 July 2019 Statistics" /> ===Tromelin=== {{main|Tromelin Island}} [[File:Tromelin aerial photograph.JPG|thumb|Aerial view of Tromelin Island]] Cirwa ca Tromelin cili pa mtunda wa makilomita 430 kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mauritius. Chirwa cha Tromelin chili pasi pa mazaza gha Mauritius, nangauli chili ku France. Mu 1715, ŵa ku France ŵakamba kulamulira Mauritius, ndipo ŵakamuthya Isle de France. Ku France, charu cha Mauritius chikapelekeka ku Britain na phangano la Paris ilo likalembeka pa Meyi 30, 1814. Charu cha Mauritius chikaŵa pasi pa Britain. Brandon, Tromelin, na Chagos Archipelago, apo Seychelles ghakazgoka malo ghakupambana mu 1906. Ŵanthu ŵakususkana usange Isle de France (uko kukaŵa Mauritius pakwamba) na vigaŵa vyake ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa France vikapelekeka ku Britain mu 1814. Ndime 8 ya phangano la Paris yikati France wapelekenge ku Britain chilumba cha Isle de France "na vyaru ivyo vikuthemba pa charu ichi, nga ni Rodrigues na Seychelles". France yikuwona kuti ufumu wa cirwa ca Tromelin undapelekeke ku Britain. Fundo ya Mauritius yikukolerana na fundo yakuti Isle de France na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pasi pake vikapelekeka ku Britain mu 1814. Charu cha Mauritius chikuyowoya kuti pakuti Tromelin yikaŵa chigaŵa cha Isle de France, yikapelekeka ku Britain mu 1814. Virwa vya Agaléga, St. Brandon na Chagos navyo vikazunulika yayi mu phangano la Paris, kweni vikazgoka chigaŵa cha Mauritius. Kweniso boma la Britain ku Mauritius likachitanga vinthu vinyake vyakukhwaskana na Tromelin. Mwaciyelezgero, pakati pa 1901 na 1951, boma la Britain likapeleka wanangwa wa kugwiliskira nchito visomba vinayi pa cirwa ca Tromelin. Mu 1959, ŵalara ŵa boma la Britain ku Mauritius ŵakaphalira wupu wa World Meteorological Organization kuti boma ili likuwona kuti Tromelin ni malo ghawo. Mu 2010, France na Mauritius ŵakachita phangano la kuwusa pamoza, kweni ŵandalisinthe.<ref name="diploma">{{Cite web |date=1 April 2020 |title=Political relations |url=https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/mauritius/ |access-date=25 April 2020 |publisher=France Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs}}</ref> == Chagos Archipelago territorial dispute == {{main|Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute|Expulsion of the Chagossians}} [[File:Chagos map.PNG|thumb|Map of the [[Chagos Archipelago]]]] Mauritius yakhala nyengo yitali yikukhumba kuzomerezga Chirwa cha Chagos, icho chili kumpoto-mafumiro gha dazi kwa mtunda wa makilomita 1,287. Chagos yikaŵa chigaŵa cha Mauritius kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, apo Ŵafurentshi ŵakamba kukhazikika pa chirwa ichi. Virwa vyose ivyo vikaŵa vigaŵa vya Chirwa cha France (nga umo Mauritius yikaŵira nyengo yira) vikaŵaso vya Ŵangelezi mu 1810 pasi pa Dango la Capitulation ilo likasazgikira pakati pa maufumu ghaŵiri.<ref name="real">{{Cite web |date=6 April 2012 |title=Time for UK to Leave Chagos Archipelago |url=http://www.realclearworld.com/articles/2012/04/06/mauritius_chagos_archipelago_diego_garcia_99999.html |access-date=22 January 2015 |publisher=Real clear world}}</ref> Mu 1965, vyaka vitatu pambere Mauritius yindambe kujiyimira pawekha, Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukagaŵa virwa vya Chagos kufuma ku Mauritius na virwa vya Aldabra, Farquhar na Desroches kufuma ku Seychelles kuti viŵe British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). Pa Novembala 8, 1965, virwa ivi vikaŵa chigaŵa cha United Kingdom. Pa Juni 23, 1976, Aldabra, Farquhar, na Desroches ŵakawelera ku Seychelles cifukwa ca kujiwombora. Sono chigaŵa ichi chili na virwa vya Chagos pera. Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukapeleka ku United States cigaŵa cikuru ca Diego Garcia, kuti ciŵe cikaya ca ŵasilikari. Mu 2016, Britain yikatumizga katundu uyu ku United States m'paka mu 2036. Charu cha Mauritius chikayowoyapo kanandi waka kuti kupatukana kwa vigaŵa vyake nkhuswa fundo za wupu wa United Nations izo zikukanizga kugaŵikana kwa vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa vyakukolerana na charu cha Mauritius pambere charu ichi chindaŵe na wanangwa wakulamulira. Pakati pa 1968 na 1973, ŵalara ŵa boma la Britain ŵakacicizga ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1,000 ŵa ku Chagossian kuti ŵalute ku Mauritius na Seychelles. Pakufumiska ŵanthu mu caru ici, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Britain ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakapeleka dango lakuti ntcheŵe 1,000 za pa cirwa ici zikomeke na gasi.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Evers |first1=Sandra |url=https://archive.org/details/evictionfromchag00ever |title=Eviction from the Chagos Islands: Displacement and Struggle for Identity Against Two World Powers |last2=Kooy |first2=Marry |date=2011 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=9789004202603 |page=[https://archive.org/details/evictionfromchag00ever/page/n21 3] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="dog">{{Cite news |last=Cork |first=Tristan |title=The shocking reason there are dogs hanging from a tree in Bristol |work=Bristol Post |url=https://www.bristolpost.co.uk/news/bristol-news/shocking-reason-dogs-hanging-tree-2140149}}</ref> Pa wupu wa United Nations na pa Nyumba ya Malamulo, Britain yikati ku virwa vya Chagos kulije ŵanthu "ŵakukhora" ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakucemeka "ŵaganyu". Kwambira mu 1971, ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha Diego Garcia, uko kuli ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari 3,000 ŵa Britain na United States. Kufuma nyengo yira, ŵanthu ŵa ku Chagossi ŵakamba kulimbikira kuti ŵawelere ku virwa ivi. Chilumba cha Mauritius chikuwona kuti nyanja ya Chagos Archipelago na chirwa cha Tromelin ni chigaŵa cha malo ghake gha vyamalonda.<ref name="EEZ 1977" />[[File:Camp Justice --Diego Garcia.jpg|thumb|The military base of [[Camp Justice (Diego Garcia)|Camp Justice]] on [[Diego Garcia]]]] Pa Disembala 20, 2010, charu cha Mauritius chikamba kuzenga mulandu ku United Kingdom kuyana na United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) kuti chipeleke ukaboni wakuti malo gha Chagos Marine Protected Area (MPA) agho charu cha United Kingdom chikakhumbanga kuzunura kuzingilizga chigaŵa cha Chagos mu Epulero 2010, ngaunenesko yayi. Khoti la Permanent Court of Arbitration ndilo likadumura mulandu uwu. Khoti likadumura kuti Ufumu wa United Kingdom uli na wanangwa wakuwezgera chilumba cha Chagos ku Mauritius. Pa Febuluwale 25, 2019, ŵeruzgi ŵa International Court of Justice ŵakadumura kuti Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukwenera kumazga mwaluŵiro boma la Chagos. Mweruzgi munyake wa ku America, Joan Donoghue, ndiyo wakazomerezga. Mulongozgi wa khoti ili, Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf, wakati chigaŵa cha Chagos mu 1965 chikafuma ku Mauritius chifukwa cha "kuyowoya mwakufwatuka ndiposo mwaunenesko yayi". Iyo wakati: "Ufumu wa Britain uli na mulimo wa kumazga boma la Chagos mwaluŵiro comene, ndipo vyaru vyose ivyo vili mu wupu uwu vikwenera kukolerana na wupu wa United Nations kuti Mauritius lileke kuŵa na ŵanthu". Pa Meyi 22, 2019, wupu wa United Nations General Assembly ukadumbiskana na kukolerana fundo iyo yikati chigaŵa cha Chagos, icho chili pasi pa boma la Britain kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 50, "ntchigaŵa cha Mauritius". Fundo iyi yikukolerana na fundo ya khoti la International Court of Justice (ICJ), iyo yikati Britain "yifumiskemo boma lake mu vyaru vinyake mu myezi 6". Pa nyengo ya kudumbiskana, nduna yikuru ya Mauritius yikati kufumiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Chagossi "nkhuheni kwa ŵanthu". Nangauli fundo iyi njambura kukanizgika na dango, kweni njakuzirwa comene pa nkhani za ndyali, cifukwa ni khoti likuru comene la UN ilo likadumura mulandu uwu. Fundo iyi yili na vyakufumapo viwemi: UN, mawupu ghake, na mawupu ghanyake ghose gha pa caru cose, sono ghali na wanangwa wa kwendera malango gha UN kuti ghawovwire Mauritius kuleka kukolerana na vyaru vinyake nangauli UK yikuyowoya kuti yikukayika yayi za muwuso wake.<ref name="Resolution">{{Cite journal|last=Sands|first=Philippe|date=24 May 2019|title=At last, the Chagossians have a real chance of going back home|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/may/24/chagossians-britain-colony-shameful-un-resolution?|journal=[[The Guardian]]|quote=Britain's behaviour towards its former colony has been shameful. The UN resolution changes everything}}</ref> == Chilengiwa == ===Biodiversity=== {{main|Wildlife of Mauritius}} [[File:Dronte dodo Raphus cucullatus.jpg|thumb|Ku Mauritius ndiko kukaŵa ciŵeto cimoza pera ico cikamanyikwanga kuti cikukhala na tuyuni utu.]] [[File:Phelsuma ornata - journal.pbio.1001382.png|thumb|[[Mauritius ornate day gecko]]]] Mu caru ici muli vyakumera na vinyama vinyake ivyo ni vichoko comene pa caru, kweni ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu vyaru ivi ndipo vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu vyaru ivi vikumara. Cifukwa cakuti cirwa ca Mauritius cili na mapiri, nchitali comene, nchakutali comene, ndiposo cili na malo ghapadera, pali vyakumera na vinyama vyakupambanapambana. Pambere Ŵapwitikizi ŵandafike mu 1507, pa cirwa ici pakaŵavya vinyama. Ivi vikapangiska kuti viyuni vinandi ivyo vingawulukira yayi na vinyama vikuruvikuru viŵepo. Ŵanthu ŵati ŵafika, ŵakambiska vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vikaŵako mwaluŵiro chomene. Nkhuku ya dodo iyo yikuleka kuwuluka, iyo njimoza mwa vinyama ivyo vikusangika mu charu cha Mauritius, yili kumara.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shapiro |first1=Beth |last2=Sibthorpe |first2=Dean |last3=Rambaut |first3=Andrew |last4=Wragg |first4=Graham M. |last5=Bininda-Emonds |first5=Olaf R.P. |last6=Lee |first6=Patricia L.M. |last7=Coooper |first7=Alan |display-authors=3 |year=2002 |title=Flight of the Dodo |url=http://pgl.soe.ucsc.edu/dodo_Shapiro02.pdf |journal=Science |volume=295 |issue=5560 |page=1683 |doi=10.1126/science.295.5560.1683 |pmid=11872833}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smaill |first=Belinda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3y8eDQAAQBAJ&dq=dodo+extinction+emblematic&pg=PA76 |title=Regarding Life: Animals and the Documentary Moving Image |date=21 September 2016 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-1-4384-6249-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hollars |first=B. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K94nDwAAQBAJ&dq=dodo+%22poster+child%22&pg=PA3 |title=Flock Together: A Love Affair with Extinct Birds |date=1 February 2017 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-9642-8}}</ref> Nyama iyi yikuwoneka makora chomene pa vikozgo vya ku Mauritius. Pasono nkhorongo yichoko waka pa vigaŵa viŵiri ivyo vili mu charu ichi, yili mu Black River Gorges National Park kumwera kwa charu ichi, Bambous Mountain Range kumwera kwa charu ichi, na Moka-Port Louis Ranges kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Mu tawuni iyi muli mapiri ghanandi, Corps de Garde, Le Morne Brabant, na virwa vinyake vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Vinyama na vyakumera vyakujumpha 100 vili kumara ndipo vinyake vinandi vili pangozi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ntchito ya kuvikilira vyakumera na viyuni yikamba. Mu 2011, Unduna wa Vyakwendakwenda na Vyakuzenga ukafumiska lipoti lakuti "Mauritius Environment Outlook Report", ilo likayowoya kuti msumba wa St. Brandon uŵe malo ghakuvikilirika. Mu Malipoti gha Pulezidenti wa Mauritian Wildlife Foundation gha mu Malichi 2016, St Brandon wakuyowoyeka kuti ni projekiti ya MWF yakovwira kuvikilira cirwa ici. Nkhaŵala yakuwuluka ya ku Mauritius ndiyo yikukhala pa chirwa ichi, ndipo yili pangozi yikuru mu vyaka vyasonosono apa chifukwa cha boma ilo likakanizga kupha nkhunda mu Novembala 2015. Pambere chaka cha 2015 chindafike, chifukwa cha chimphepo chikuru, chiŵeto cha viyuni ivi chikakwera chomene. Mu Okutobala 2018, ŵakazomerezga kuti 20% ya viyuni vya viyuni vya viyuni vya viyuni vya viyuni ivi vifwe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation (MWF) – In The Field – Mauritius – Mauritius Fruit Bat |url=http://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/application/index.php?tpid=30&tcid=81 |access-date=22 February 2019 |website=mauritian-wildlife.org |archive-date=16 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316190712/http://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/application/index.php?tpid=30&tcid=81 }}</ref> ===Environment and climate=== [[File:Black River Gorges National Park, Mauritius.jpg|left|thumb|Black River Gorges National Park]] {{Anchor|Climate change in Mauritius}}Malo gha ku Mauritius ngakututuka mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Vivula ivyo vikuchitika nyengo na nyengo vikuparanya vyakumera na vinyama, nangauli vikusintha luŵiro. Charu cha Mauritius chili pa malo ghaciŵiri pa ndondomeko ya umo mphepo yikukhalira iyo yikalembeka na wupu wa vyaumoyo pa caru cose mu 2011. Chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa pa malo gha 100 pa vyaru 172. Pakuti charu cha Mauritius chili pafupi na Tropic of Capricorn, nyengo yake njakuthukira. Pali nyengo ziŵiri: chihanya chamoto kufuma mu Novembala m'paka Epulero, ndipo nyengo yakuzizima yikuŵa yakuzizima kufuma mu Juni m'paka Seputembala. Kusiyana kwa matenthedwe pakati pa nyengo za mu chaka ni 4.3°C pera. Miyezi yakuzizima chomene ni Janyuwale na Febuluwale, ndipo muhanya wakuzizima chomene wakufika pa 29.2 °C (84.6 °F). Ku chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja kukulokwa maji ghakukwana 900 mm m'paka 1,500 mm mu chigaŵa chapakati. Nangauli nyengo ya vula yikuŵako yayi, kweni vula yinandi yikulokwa mu nyengo ya chihanya. Kutentha kwa nyanja mu nyanja iyi kukufuma pa 22°C kufika pa 27°C. Malo agha ngakutowa comene kuluska malo ghanyake gha mumphepete mwa nyanja ndipo ghakukhoma comene. Mphepo ya ku mpoto yikovwira kuti chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa cirwa ici ciŵe cakupumulirapo ndipo yikupeleka vula yinandi. Nyengo zinyake, mu Janyuwale m'paka Malichi, kukuŵa chimphepo chikuru icho chikuchitiska kuti kuŵe vula zinandi. Prime Minister Pravind Jugnauth wakapharazga kuti pali suzgo la vyalo pamanyuma pa ngozi ya mafuta ya MV Wakashio pa 25 July 2020. France wakatumizga ndege na ŵantchito ŵakufuma ku Réunion ndipo Greenpeace yikati nthenda iyi yikananga vyamoyo vikuruvikuru, ivyo "vingafwa mu nyanja ya ukazuzi".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Oil spill threatens ecological disaster as Mauritius declares emergency |publisher=Yahoo! News |agency=Reuters |url=https://news.yahoo.com/france-offers-aid-mauritius-declares-122144531.html |access-date=8 August 2020}}</ref> ==Boma na ndale== {{main|Politics of Mauritius}} [[File:Government House Port Louis.JPG|thumb|Government House, Port Louis]] Boma la Mauritius lili na boma la demokilase, ndipo pulezidenti ndiyo ni mutu wa boma. Charu cha Mauritius chili na vyaru vinandi. Boma ndilo lili na mazaza ghakulongozga. Boma na Nyumba ya Malango ndivyo vili na mazaza gha kupanga malango. Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Mauritius yikucemeka kuti Nyumba ya Malango m'paka mu 1992, apo charu ichi chikazgoka repubulika. Wupu uwu uli na ŵanthu 70, ndipo ŵanthu 62 ŵakusankhika kuti ŵateŵetere vyaka vinayi mu vigaŵa vinandi. Komiti ya UN ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (UNHRC), iyo yikulaŵilira umo vyaru vyamunyumba vikulondezgera phangano la wanangwa wa ndyali na wanangwa wa ŵanthu (ICPCR), yikususka ndondomeko ya boma ya "Best Loser System" pamanyuma pa kudandawura kwa wupu wa ŵawukirano na wupu wa wupu wa vyamalonda.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UN Human Rights Committee criticises Best Loser System |url=http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=59556590&Country=Mauritius&topic=Politics&subtopic=Forecast&subsubtopic=Election+watch&u=1&pid=1764509560&oid=1764509560&uid=1 |access-date=6 September 2016 |publisher=Country.eiu.com}}</ref>Pulezidenti wakusankhika na Nyumba ya Malamulo kuti waŵepo vyaka vinkhondi. Chirwa cha Mauritius chili na vigaŵa 20, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chili na ŵanthu ŵatatu. Chirwa cha Rodrigues chili na chigaŵa chimoza icho chili na ŵanthu ŵaŵiri. Para paŵa maungano ghacigaŵa, wupu wakuwona vya maungano ungimika ŵanthu ŵanyake 8 kuti ŵawovwirepo. Ndondomeko iyi yikumanyikwa kuti ndiyo yikovwira kuti munthu waleke kusuzgika. Chipani panji chipani icho chikupokera vithuzithuzi vinandi mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ndicho chikupangiska boma. Mulongozgi wake ni nduna yikuru, uyo wakusankha nduna kufuma mu ŵanthu awo ŵakusoleka mu wumba, padera pa loya mukuru wa Mauritius, uyo wangaŵa mu wumba yayi. Chipani panji wupu wa ndyali uwo uli na ŵimiliri ŵanandi chomene ndiwo ukuŵa chipani icho chikususkana na boma ndipo mulongozgi wake wakuŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi. Pa milimo yake yakwamba, wupu uwu ukusankha mulara wa komiti, mulara wa komiti, na mulara wa komiti. Charu cha Mauritius chili na boma la demokilase ilo likusankhika pa vilimika vinkhondi vilivyose. Chisankho chaposachedwa kwambiri cha National Assembly chidachitika pa 7 Novembala 2019 m'malo onse 20 osankhika, komanso m'chigawo chomwe chimaphimba chilumba cha Rodrigues. Pa nyengo iyi, maungano gha vipani viŵiri vikuru vikususkana pa nkhani ya kusankha ŵanthu. Mu 2018 Ibrahim Index of African Governance, Mauritius wali pa malo ghakwamba pa nkhani ya muwuso uwemi. Kuyana na Democracy Index ya 2017 iyo yikupangika na Economist Intelligence Unit iyo yikupima umo demokilase yiliri mu vyaru 167, Mauritius yili pa nambara 16 pa caru cose ndipo ndico cikaya cimoza pera mu Africa ico cili na "demokrasi yeneko".<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 March 2012 |title=African democracy − A glass half-full |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/node/21551494 |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- !Office held!!Office holder!!Incumbency<ref name="foreign">{{Cite web |date=14 October 2014 |title=National lists of precedence of Mauritius |url=http://foreign.govmu.org/English/Documents/List%20of%20Precedence118.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211032755/http://foreign.govmu.org/English/Documents/List%20of%20Precedence118.pdf |archive-date=11 February 2015 |access-date=16 February 2015}}</ref> |- |[[President of Mauritius|President]]||[[Prithvirajsing Roopun]]||2 December 2019<ref name="president.govmu.org">{{Cite web |title=The President of the Republic - Home |url=http://president.govmu.org/English/Pages/default.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209062453/http://president.govmu.org/English/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=9 February 2015}}</ref> |- |[[Prime Minister of Mauritius|Prime Minister]]||[[Pravind Jugnauth]]|| 23 January 2017 |- |[[Vice President of Mauritius|Vice President]]|| [[Marie Cyril Eddy Boissézon]] ||| 2 December 2019<ref name="president.govmu.org" /> |- |[[Deputy Prime Minister of Mauritius|Deputy Prime Minister]]|| [[Steven Obeegadoo]] || 25 June 2020 |- |[[Supreme Court of Mauritius|Chief Justice]]||[[Supreme Court of Mauritius|Rehana Mungly-Gulbul]]|| 18 November 2021 |- |[[List of Speakers of the National Assembly of Mauritius|Speaker of the National Assembly]]||[[Sooroojdev Phokeer]]|| 21 November 2019 |- |[[Leader of the Opposition (Mauritius)|Leader of the Opposition]]||[[Xavier-Luc Duval]]|| 4 March 2021 |} === Administrative subdivisions === {{Main|Outer Islands of Mauritius|Districts of Mauritius}} {{Mauritius Districts Labelled Map|float=right}} Chirwa cha Mauritius chili na chigaŵa chimoza pera, cha Outer Islands of Mauritius (Chifurenchi: Îles éparses de Maurice). Chirwa cha Mauritius chili na vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri.<ref name="gu">{{Cite web |title=Location – The territory of Mauritius |url=http://www.govmu.org/English/ExploreMauritius/Geography-People/Pages/GeographyPeople/Location.aspx |website=Government of Mauritius |access-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327103512/http://www.govmu.org/English/ExploreMauritius/Geography-People/Pages/GeographyPeople/Location.aspx |archive-date=27 March 2023}}</ref> ===Military=== {{main|Military of Mauritius}} Ŵasilikari, ŵapolisi, na ŵavikiliri wose ŵa ku Mauritius ŵakuteŵetera na ŵasilikari 10,000. Gulu la ŵapolisi ilo lili na ŵanthu 8,000, ndilo likuvikilira malango mu charu. Gulu la Special Mobile Force (SMF) la ŵanthu 1,400 na National Coast Guard la ŵanthu 688 ndiwo ni magulu ghaŵiri pera gha ŵasilikari ku Mauritius. Ŵapolisi ŵa mu maofesi agha ŵakugwira nchito nyengo yitali. Kweniso ku Mauritius kuli ŵasilikari awo ŵakugwira ntchito zapadera ndipo ŵakumanyikwa kuti 'GIPM' awo ŵakunjilirapo para kwacitika vivulupi panji vinthu vinyake vyakofya.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Background Note: Mauritius – Scoop News |url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO0901/S00160.htm |access-date=18 January 2017 |website=scoop.co.nz}}</ref> ===Foreign relations=== {{main|Foreign relations of Mauritius}} [[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi meeting the Prime Minister of Mauritius, Mr. Pravind Jugnauth, on the sidelines of CHOGM 2018, in London on April 19, 2018 (2).JPG|thumb|left|Prime Minister [[Pravind Jugnauth]] with Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]], 19 April 2018]] Mauritius wali na ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru vya ku Africa, America, Asia, Europe na Oceania. Pakuti Mauritius ni cigaŵa ca ku Africa, wali na ubwezi na vyaru vya mu Africa, comenecomene na vyaru vya ku South Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mauritius ŵakunjira mu vyaru vya ku Africa, comenecomene Madagascar, Mozambique na Zimbabwe. Vinthu vya ndyali ivyo charu ichi chikulondezga na kuthemba chomene vyamalonda vya ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, vyapangiska kuti chiŵe paubwezi na wupu wa European Union na vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene France. Ubwezi withu na India ngwakukhora comene cifukwa ca mbiri na malonda. Mu Epulero 1972, charu cha Mauritius chikamba kukolerana na charu cha China, ndipo mu chaka chenechichi chikachichizgika kuvikilira charu ichi. Kweniso likusazgirako mulimo wake wa ku Middle East mwa kuzenga ofesi ya ku Saudi Arabia, iyo yili na nthumwi ku Bahrain. Charu cha Mauritius chili mu wupu wa United Nations, World Trade Organization, African Union, Commonwealth of Nations, La Francophonie, Southern Africa Development Community, Indian Ocean Commission, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, na Indian Ocean Rim Association.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Embassy of the Republic of Mauritius – Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |url=https://foreign.govmu.org/Pages/Embassies%20and%20Consulates/Mauritius%20Diplomatic%20Missions%20Overseas/EMBASSY-OF-THE-REPUBLIC-OF-MAURITIUS---RIYADH,-KINGDOM-OF-SAUDI-ARABIA.aspx |access-date=19 October 2020 |website=foreign.govmu.org}}</ref> ===Legal system=== {{further|Laws and regulations for electronic payment in Mauritius}} Charu cha Mauritius chili na malango ghakupambanapambana agho ghakafuma ku malango gha Britain na French. Ndondomeko ya Mauritius yikupatura mazaza pakati pa wupu wakulongozga, wupu wakulongozga, na wupu wakweruzga. Mauritius yili na khoti limoza ilo lili na makhoti ghaŵiri, Khoti Likuru Chomene na makhoti ghapasi. Khoti Likuru Nkhanira lili na maofesi ghakupambanapambana nga ni Master's Court, Family Division, Commercial Division (Bankruptcy), Criminal Division, Mediation Division, Court of First Instance in civil and criminal proceedings, Appellate jurisdiction: the Court of Civil Appeal and the Court of Criminal Appeal. Makhoti ghakulongozga ghakusazgapo makhoti gha Intermediate Court, Industrial Court, District Courts, Bail and Remand Court na Court of Rodrigues. Komiti ya vya Malango ya Privy Council ndiyo ni khoti lakunjilirapo la Mauritius. Mauritius wakati wapokera wanangwa wake mu 1968, wakalutilira kuŵa na khoti lakunjilirapo. Para khoti la apilu panji la khoti likuru lakwera ku khoti ili, munthu wangapempha khoti ili kuti limovwire, nga umo vili kulembekera mu chigaŵa cha 81 cha Dango na chigaŵa cha 70A cha Dango la Makhoti. Komiti ya Malango yingapelekaso wanangwa wapadera wa kuchemerezga ku khoti la milandu ya wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa kuyana na chigaŵa cha 81 (5) cha Dango.<ref name="Constitution">{{Cite web |date=13 October 2019 |title=Constitution of Mauritius |url=http://mauritiusassembly.govmu.org/English/constitution/Pages/constitution2016.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826223209/http://mauritiusassembly.govmu.org/English/constitution/Pages/constitution2016.pdf |archive-date=26 August 2018 |access-date=13 October 2019 |publisher=[[National Assembly (Mauritius)]]}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Largest cities | country = Mauritius | stat_ref = Source:<ref name=MAURITIUSCITIES>{{cite web |url=https://www.geonames.org/MU/largest-cities-in-mauritius.html|archive-date=2023-06-23|title=Mauritius Cities by Population 2022}}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = | div_link = Districts of Mauritius{{!}}District | city_1 = Port Louis| div_1 =Port Louis District{{!}}Port Louis| pop_1 = 155,226| img_1 = Port Louis Waterfront (4717482626).jpg | city_2 = Vacoas | div_2 = Plaines Wilhems| pop_2 = 115,289| img_2 = Bureau CEB Vacoas.jpg | city_3 =Beau Bassin-Rose Hill| div_3 =Plaines Wilhems| pop_3 = 111,355| img_3 =Plaza (Mauritius).jpg | city_4 = Curepipe | div_4 = Plaines Wilhems| pop_4 = 78,618| img_4 =Curepipe police station, Sir Winston Churchill Street.JPG | city_5 = Quatre Bornes | div_5 = Plaines Wilhems| pop_5 = 77,308 | city_6 = Triolet, Mauritius{{!}}Triolet| div_6 = Pamplemousses| pop_6 = 23,269 | city_7 = Goodlands, Mauritius{{!}}Goodlands| div_7 = Rivière du Rempart District{{!}}Rivière du Rempart | pop_7 = 20,910 | city_8 =Centre de Flacq| div_8 = Flacq| pop_8 = 17,710 | city_9 = Bel Air Rivière Sèche| div_9 =Flacq| pop_9 = 17,671 | city_10 = Mahébourg | div_10 = Grand Port| pop_10 = 17,042 }} {{main|Demographics of Mauritius}} [[File:Mauritius population pyramid 2011.svg|thumb|[[Population pyramid]] (2011)]] Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Mauritius chikaŵa 1,265,985, ndipo 626,341 ŵakaŵa ŵanalume ndipo 639,644 ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi pa Julayi 1, 2019. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga pa cirwa ca Mauritius ŵakaŵa 1,222,340, ndipo ŵa pa cirwa ca Rodrigues ŵakaŵa 43,371; Agaléga na Saint Brandon ŵakaŵa 274. Charu cha Mauritius ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene kuluska vyaru vinyake mu Africa. Kuyana na dango ilo likasintha mu 1982, kalembera uyu wakulembapo yayi vya ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake, kweni wakulembapo vya chisopa. Kafukufuku wa mu 1972 ndiyo wakaŵa waumaliro kupima mtundu.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 June 2008 |title=A critical appraisal of the Best Loser System |work=[[L'Express (Mauritius)]] |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/critical-appraisal-best-loser-system |access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first=M. Rafic |last=Soormally |date=10 September 2012 |title=Debate on Best Loser System |url=http://www.defimedia.info/blog/item/18524-debate-on-best-loser-system.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121084740/http://www.defimedia.info/blog/item/18524-debate-on-best-loser-system.html |archive-date=21 January 2015 |access-date=21 January 2015 |publisher=Le Défi Media Group}}</ref> Charu cha Mauritius chili na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Kuyana na Dango la Mauritius, pali vigaŵa vinayi pa chirwa ichi. Kuyana na dango ili, maukaboni gha ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake gha mu 1972 ghakovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake ŵagomezgeke makora.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dobson |first=Reena Jane |title='The Most Cosmopolitan Island under the Sun'? Negotiating Ethnicity and Nationhood in Everyday Mauritius |url=https://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws%3A8256/datastream/PDF/download/citation.pdf |access-date=15 December 2009 |publisher=Centre for Cultural Research University of Western Sydney}}</ref>{{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Religion in Mauritius (2011)<ref name="2011 Census Religion" /> |label1 = [[Hinduism]] |value1 = 48.54 |color1 = DarkOrange |label2 = Christianity |value2 = 32.71 |color2 = DodgerBlue |label3 = [[Islam]] |value3 = 17.30 |color3 = Green |label4 = [[Buddhism]] |value4 = 0.43 |color4 = Gold |label5 = Other/Not stated |value5 = 1.03 |color5 = DarkRed }} [[File:Maurice religions 2011.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Geographical distribution by religion (2011)]] === Chisopo === {{main|Religion in Mauritius}} Kuyana na kalembera wa 2011 uyo wakachitika na Statistics Mauritius, 48.5% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Mauritius ŵakulondezga Chihindu, ndipo ŵakulondezga Chikhristu (32.7%), mwa iwo 26.3% mba Katolika, Chisilamu (17.2%) na visopa vinyake (0.7%). Pa ŵanthu aŵa, 0,7% ŵakajiwonanga kuti ŵakusopa yayi ndipo 0,1% ŵakazgora yayi. Ndondomeko iyi yikukanizga kusankhana chifukwa cha chisopa ndipo yikuphalira munthu kuti waŵe na wanangwa wakusopa, kusintha chisopa, panji kuleka kuŵa nacho. Tchalitchi la Roman Catholic, Church of England, Presbyterian Church of Mauritius, Seventh-day Adventists, Hindu Temples Associations and Muslim Mosques Organizations, ŵakususkika pa msonkho ndipo ŵakupokera wovwiri wa ndalama mwakuyana na unandi wa ŵanthu. Visopa vinyake vingalembeka na kufwatulika ku msonkho, kweni vikupokera ndalama yayi. Maholide gha visopa ni Maha Shivaratri, Ougadi, Thaipoosam Cavadee, Ganesh Chaturthi, na Diwali, kweniso Eid al-Fitr. Boma likucitapo kanthu pa ndondomeko iyi na makomiti ghapadera agho ghakulongozga ulendo wa ku Ganga Talao pa zuŵa la Maha Shivaratri na ulendo wa chaka na chaka wa Ŵakatolika ku malo ghakupumulirako Jacques-Désiré Laval ku Sainte-Croix.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Mauritius: Maha Shivratree 2022 - the Prime Minister Chairs the National Task Force |date=25 November 2021 |publisher=[[Government of Mauritius]] |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/202111260112.html |via=AllAfrica.com |place=Port Louis}}</ref> ===Viyowoyelo=== {{main|Languages of Mauritius}} Dango la Mauritius likuyowoyapo yayi za chiyowoyero cha boma. Dango la caru likulongosora waka kuti ciyowoyero cakuzomerezgeka ca Nyumba ya Ufumu ni Cingelezi. Kweni waliyose wangayowoya ciyowoyero ca ku France. Chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi na Chifurenchi ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene ku Mauritius chifukwa ndicho chikuŵa chiyowoyero cha boma, makhoti, na bizinesi. Dango la Mauritius lili kulembeka mu Cingelezi, kweni malango ghanyake nga ni Civil Code na Criminal code ghali kulembeka mu Cifurenci. Ndalama za ku Mauritius zili na vilembo vya Cilatini, Tamil, na Devanagari. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mauritius ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya makora Chingelezi na Chifurenchi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuyowoya Cifurenci na Cingelezi para ŵakusambira panji para ŵakuchita ntchito zinyake, kweni viyowoyero vya ku Asia vikugwiliskirika nchito comene pa nkhani ya sumu, cisopa, na mitheto. Ŵakupharazga na kulemba mabuku ghanandi mu Cifurenci. Chiyowoyero cha Mauritian Creole, icho chili kufuma ku Chifurenchi, chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi nga ni chiyowoyero chawo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Demographics |url=http://mauritiusgovernment.com/demographics.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425080648/http://mauritiusgovernment.com/demographics.htm |archive-date=25 April 2012 |access-date=7 November 2013 |publisher=mauritiusgovernment.com}}</ref> Viyowoyero vya Creole ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu virwa vyakupambanapambana vya caru ici vikuyana: Creole ya ku Mauritius, Creole ya ku Rodrigues, Creole ya ku Agalega na Creole ya ku Chagos vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Mauritius, Rodrigues, Agaléga na Chagos. Viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu Mauritius ni: Chi Bhojpuri, Chitchayinizi, Chihindi, ChiMarathi, Chitamilu, ChiTelugu, na Chiurdu. Pa nyengo yinyake, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero ici, kweni pasono ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya yayi. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2011, ŵanthu 5% ndiwo ŵakayowoyanga Ci Bhojpuri. Ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakwenera kusambira Cingelezi na Cifurenci. Visambizgo vikupambana ku sukulu na sukulu, kweni visambizgo ivi vikuŵa mu Chingelezi ku masukulu gha boma na ghapadera. Masambiro gha O-Level na A-Level ghakuchitika mu masukulu gha boma na ghapachekha agho boma likovwira. ==Masambilo== {{main|Education in Mauritius}} Masukulu gha ku Mauritius ghakupambanapambana. Masambiro agha ghakukhala vyaka viŵiri panji vitatu, vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza vya masambiro gha ku pulayimale, vyaka vinkhondi vya masambiro gha ku sekondare, na vyaka viŵiri vya masambiro gha ku sekondare. Ŵasambizgi ŵa masukulu gha sekondare ŵakuzunura mazgu ghakuti "koleji". Boma la Mauritius likupeleka masambiro ghaulere ku ŵanthu ŵake kwambira ku pulayimale m'paka ku masambiro ghapachanya. Mu 2013, ndalama izo boma likagwiliskiranga ntchito pa masambiro zikaŵa 13,584 miliyoni.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2013 |title=Education statistics |url=http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/English/StatsbySubj/Documents/ei1063/edu.pdf |access-date=22 January 2015 |website=Statistics Mauritius}}</ref> Kwambira mu Janyuwale 2017, boma lasintha ndondomeko ya masambiro mu charu ichi. Masambiro gha O-Level na A-Level ghakucitika na University of Cambridge kwizira mu University of Cambridge International Examinations mwakukolerana na MES. Masukulu ghapachanya ghakusazgapo mayunivesite na maofesi ghanyake gha vya sayansi mu Mauritius. Maunivesite ghaŵiri ghakuru gha boma ni Yunivesite ya Mauritius na Yunivesite ya Technology, kusazgapo Université des Mascareignes, iyo yikambika mu 2012, na Open University Mauritius. Masukulu ghanayi gha boma agha pamoza na masukulu ghanyake ghanandi gha masukulu gha masukulu ghapachanya, ghalije malipiro gha masambiro. Mu 2015, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba chikaŵa 92.7%. Charu cha Mauritius chili pa malo 52 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, ndipo chili pa malo 1 mu Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/ |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=RTD – Item |url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898 |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=European Commission}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index &#124; What is the future of innovation-driven growth? |url=https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/Home |website=Global Innovation Index}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{main|Economy of Mauritius|International rankings of Mauritius}} [[File:Mauritius Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|upright=1.25|A proportional representation of Mauritius exports, 2019]] Kufuma apo charu cha Mauritius chikapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Britain mu 1968, chikaŵa na ndalama zichoko chomene ndipo chikaŵa pa ulimi. Kweni sono chili na ndalama zinandi chomene. Mbiri ya vyachuma ya charu cha Mauritius kufuma apo chikapokera wanangwa yikuchemeka "Cakuzizwiska cha ku Mauritius" kweniso "Cakuzizwiska cha mu Africa".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mauritius: The Drivers of Growth&nbsp;– Can the Past be Extended? |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2014/wp14134.pdf |type=IMF Working paper 2014}}</ref> Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vyakupharazga, vyakurya vya mu nyanja, kupokelera ŵalendo na kupanga katundu, vyakupwelelera umoyo, nkhongono zakusunkhunyikaso, na masambiro na masambiro vyazgoka vigaŵa vyakuzirwa, ndipo vikukopa ndalama zinandi kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Charu cha Mauritius chilije mafuta agho ghangaŵawovwira, ntheura ghakuthemba pa mafuta kuti ghatovwire kusanga nkhongono. Magesi gha mu malo agha na ghakusangikaso ni biomass, hydro, solar na wind. Charu cha Mauritius chili na chigaŵa chikuru chomene pa charu chose, ndipo mu 2012, boma likapharazga kuti likukhumba kukhozga vyalo vya mu nyanja. Charu cha Mauritius chili pa malo ghapacanya comene pa nkhani ya mpikisano wa vya cuma, malo ghakwendeskera ndalama, muwuso uwemi, na cuma cakufwatuka. GDP (PPP) yikayaniskika pa US$ 29.187 billion mu 2018, ndipo GDP (PPP) pa munthu yumoza yikajumpha US$ 22,909, ndiyo yikaŵa yaciŵiri pa vyaru vinandi mu Africa.<ref name="heritage foundation">{{Cite news|title=Mauritius|publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/country/mauritius|access-date=16 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="State.gov">{{Cite web |date=June 2012 |title=2012 Investment Climate Statement – Mauritius |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2012/191196.htm |access-date=8 August 2012 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref name="Doing business">{{Cite web |title=Economy Rankings |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025055932/http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings |archive-date=25 October 2012 |access-date=24 October 2012 |website=Doing Business}}</ref> Ku Mauritius kuli vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakusangirapo ndalama zinandi chomene. Mu lipoti la World Bank la Ease of Doing Business Index la 2019, Mauritius wali pa nambara 13 pa vyaru vyose pa charu chose. Kuyana na Unduna wa Vyachilendo wa ku Mauritius, masuzgo agho caru ici cikukumana nagho nkhugomezga comene vigaŵa vicoko waka vya vyamalonda, kucenjera comene, kusoŵa kwa ŵantchito ŵaluso, ucekuru wa ŵanthu, na makampani gha boma na mawupu gha boma agho ghakucita makora yayi. Charu cha Mauritius chili na chuma cha msika. Kuyana na lipoti la 2019 Economic Freedom of the World, Mauritius wali pa nambara 9 pa vyaru ivyo vili na chuma cha wanangwa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Economic Freedom of the World: 2019 Annual Report |url=https://www.fraserinstitute.org/sites/default/files/economic-freedom-of-the-world-2019.pdf |access-date=26 October 2019}}</ref> ===Financial services=== [[File:Evening Port Louis.jpg|thumb|[[Port-Louis]], the capital of Mauritius]] Wupu wa Financial Services Commission ukati mu 2018, ntchito za ndalama na za inshuwalansi zikapangiska kuti GDP ya charu ichi yikwane 11.1%. Mu vyaka vyose ivi, Mauritius wali kujilongora kuti ni malo ghakwenelera kugwilira nchito mu vyaru vya ku Africa cifukwa ca malo agho ghalipo pakati pa Asia na Africa, malango ghakwendeskera vyaru vinyake, kucita bizinesi mwakupepuka, malango ghakovwira kuvikilira ndalama, malango ghakukanizga msonkho, ŵanthu awo ŵali na maluso ghanandi ndiposo awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi, mtende wa ndyali, unonono wa milandu, kweniso vinthu vyamahara ivyo vingawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana. Mu tawuni iyi muli mabanki ghanandi gha pa caru cose, mawupu gha malango, mawupu ghakupeleka wovwiri ku mabungwe, mabungwe gha vya ndalama, na mabungwe ghanyake. Vinthu vya ndalama na mauteŵeti, vikusazgapo banki ya ŵanthu ŵekha, bizinesi ya pa caru cose, inshuwalansi na reinshuwalansi, mabungwe ghakukanizgika, mabungwe ghakusungirako vinthu, mabungwe ghakusungirako vinthu, mabungwe ghakusungirako vinthu, mabungwe gha vya ndalama, maofesi gha boma gha pa caru cose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview of the Financial Services Sector |url=http://www.edbmauritius.org/opportunities/financial-services/fs-overview/#tabname-3901-2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331181342/http://www.edbmauritius.org/opportunities/financial-services/fs-overview/#tabname-3901-2 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |access-date=31 March 2019 |website=Economic Development Board}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Africa Strategy |url=http://www.edbmauritius.org/africa-strategy/africa-strategy/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331131530/http://www.edbmauritius.org/africa-strategy/africa-strategy/ |archive-date=31 March 2019 |access-date=31 March 2019 |website=Economic Development Board}}</ref> Msonkho wa ŵanthu wose ukufuma pa 15% m'paka 17% ndipo msonkho wa munthu waliyose ukufuma pa 10% m'paka 25%.<ref name="taxindividual">{{Cite web |date=31 August 2020 |title=MAURITIUS PERSONAL TAX: SOLIDARITY LEVY |url=https://www.dtos-mu.com/mauritius-personal-tax-solidarity-levy/ |access-date=9 August 2021 |website=DTOS}}</ref><ref name="corporate tax">{{Cite web |title=Corporate – Taxes on corporate income |url=https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/mauritius/corporate/taxes-on-corporate-income |access-date=9 August 2021 |website=PWC}}</ref> Nangauli caru ici cikuperekaso vyandulo nga ni msonkho na kufwatuka mu vigaŵa vinyake kuti cikhozge mpikisano wake, kweni kanandi ŵapharazgi ŵakuciwona nga ni malo gha msonkho cifukwa ca ŵanthu na makampani agho ghakucita vinthu vyambura kwenelera mu cigaŵa ca vya ndalama. Charu ichi chili na mbiri yiwemi chifukwa cha kulondezga ndondomeko yiwemi na malango ghakukhora. Mu Juni 2015, charu cha Mauritius chikapokelera phangano la vyaru vinandi lakukhwaskana na wovwiri wa boma pa nkhani za misonkho. Charu cha Mauritius chili mu wupu wakuzenga wupu wa Eastern and Southern Africa Anti-Money Laundering Group, ndipo chili panthazi pa kulimbana na vigeŵenga. Charu chazomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵasinthane mauthenga mwakuyana na Common Reporting Standard na Foreign Accounts Tax Compliance Act.<ref name="govt5">{{Cite web |title=Prime Minister denies Mauritius being a tax haven |url=http://www.govmu.org/English/News/Pages/-Prime-Minister-denies-Mauritius-being-a-tax-haven.aspx |access-date=31 March 2019 |website=[[Government of Mauritius]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331131526/http://www.govmu.org/English/News/Pages/-Prime-Minister-denies-Mauritius-being-a-tax-haven.aspx |archive-date=31 March 2019}}</ref> ===Tourism=== {{main|Tourism in Mauritius}} [[File:Mauritius beach.png|thumb|A tropical beach in [[Trou-aux-Biches]]]] Charu cha Mauritius ntchigaŵa chikuru icho ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda, ndipo vyalo ivi ndivyo vikovwira chomene pa vyachuma. Chirwa ichi chili na maji ghawemi, vigaŵa vya nyanja vyakubisilizga, vigaŵa vya nyanja, vyakumera na vyakumera vya mu vyaru vyamuthondo, kweniso ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Code of ethics of tourism for Mauritius |url=http://www.tourism-mauritius.mu/documents/ethic_code.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121054348/http://www.tourism-mauritius.mu/documents/ethic_code.pdf |archive-date=21 January 2012 |access-date=28 January 2012 |publisher=MTPA}}</ref> Chiŵelengero cha ŵalendo awo ŵizenge mu charu ichi mu 2019 chikukwana 1,450,000. Mazuŵa ghano, charu cha Mauritius chili na malo ghaŵiri agho ghakumanyikwa na UNESCO kuti ntchiharo cha charu chose. Kweniso, Black River Gorges National Park yili pa ndondomeko ya UNESCO.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mauritius |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/mu/ |access-date=20 May 2019 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> ===Transport=== {{main|Transport in Mauritius}} [[File:Metro Express Mauritius.jpg|thumb|An [[CAF Urbos|Urbos 100–3]] at Rose Hill Central Station]] Kwambira mu 2005, basi za ŵanthu wose ku Mauritius ni zaulere ku ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵanthu ŵakupendera, na ŵacekuru. Pasono ku Mauritius kuli nchito ya kujintha njanji, cifukwa njanji izo kale zikaŵa za ŵanthu ŵacilendo zili kuleka kugwira nchito. Ku Port Louis kuli dowoko la malonda gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana kweniso malo ghakwendako sitima. Malo ghekha ghakwendera ndege gha pa charu chose ni Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport, ndipo ni malo ghakwendera ndege gha boma la Mauritius.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mauritius airport inaugurates US$305m terminal |url=http://www.passengerterminaltoday.com/viewnews.php?NewsID=51796 |access-date=22 August 2014 |publisher=Passenger Terminal Today}}</ref> Malo ghanyake ghakwendera ndege ni Sir Gaëtan Duval Airport ku Rodrigues. Charu cha Mauritius chili na suzgo likuru la magalimoto cifukwa ca unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakwenda pa msewu, comenecomene awo ŵakwenda pa galimoto. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo la kunjira mu misewu, boma la Japan lakwamba kupanga sitima ya Metro Express. Mzere uwu ukufuma ku Port Louis na kuluta ku Curepipe. Chigaŵa chakwamba chikamba mu 2020 ndipo chigaŵa chachiŵiri chikamara mu 2021. Ntchito iyi yili pafupi kumara ndipo yizamwamba mu Okutobala 2023. Boma likunozgaso vinyake. ===Information and communications technology=== Munda wa umanyi na mawupu (ICT) ndiwo ukapangiska 5.7% ya GDP mu 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistics Mauritius – ICT Statistics Year 2016 |url=http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/English/Publications/Pages/ICT_Stats_Yr2016.aspx |access-date=13 November 2018 |website=statsmauritius.govmu.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Kweniso, wupu wa African Network Information Centre (AFRINIC) (Ubungwe wa pa Intaneti ku Africa) uli na ofesi yake mu Ebene. Charu cha Mauritius chikukolerana na Intaneti pa charu chose kwizira mu tumakompyuta tunandi uto tukwendeskeka na maji, nga ni Lower Indian Ocean Network (LION), Mauritius-Rodrigues Submarine Cable, na South Africa Far East (SAFE). ==Mwambo== {{main|Culture of Mauritius}} ===Art=== Ŵaluso ŵa ku Mauritius nga ni Henri Le Sidaner, Malcolm de Chazal, Raouf Oderuth na Vaco Baissac.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Experience Mauritius Through Vaco Baissac |magazine=Kreol International Magazine |url=https://kreolmagazine.com/culture/art/experience-mauritius-through-vaco-baissac/}}</ref> [[File:Place D’Armes, Port Louis, Mauritius 1930s.jpg|thumb | alt= Vintage Mauritius | Historical Mauritius. A scene from the 1950s]] [[File:Chinatown, Port Louis, Mauritius 1860s.jpg|thumb|alt= Vintage years |Chinatown 1960s]] Gabrielle Wiehe ni munthu wakumanyikwa comene pakucita vithuzithuzi na kupanga vithuzi. Kweniso ku Mauritius ndiko kukafuma mathamalero gha ku Mauritius, agho ghakaŵa ghacoko comene pa mathamalero ghose pa caru capasi.<ref>David Feldman SA, ''Mauritius: Classic Postage Stamps and Postal History'', Switzerland (1993), ''Prices Realized supplement''.</ref> ===Architecture=== Vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vili mu charu cha Mauritius vikulongora umo charu ichi chikaŵira pakwamba. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands, France, na Britain ŵakamba kupanga vinthu vyakupambanapambana na ku India na East Africa. Vinthu vya ku Mauritius vili kupangika mu nthowa zakupambanapambana, kweniso vili na vinthu vyakutowa ivyo vikukolerana na mbiri ya charu cha Mauritius, nyanja ya Indian Ocean, na vyaru vya ku Europe.<ref name="wmf.org">{{Cite web |title=Traditional Architecture of Mauritius |url=https://www.wmf.org/project/traditional-architecture-mauritius |website=World Monuments Fund}}</ref> Vyaka vinandi vya kusintha kwa ndyali, umoyo wa ŵanthu, na vya cuma, vyapangiska kuti vinthu vya ku Mauritius vileke kusangikaso. Pakati pa 1960 na 1980, nyumba zakutowa izo zikaŵa pa malo ghapacanya gha pa cirwa ici, zikamara kuzimwika. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵabwangandura minda, nyumba za ŵanthu, na nyumba za ŵanthu. Msumba ukuru wa Port Louis ndiwo ukasintha yayi m'paka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1990, kweni sono uli na vinthu vinandi ivyo vinganangikirathu. Vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikuchitika pa malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale ku Mauritius vikupangiska kuti malo agha ghaleke kuŵa na phindu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu nyumba za ŵanthu ŵa ku Creole.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2014 |title=Old Colonial and Creole-Style Houses in Mauritius – Part 1 – Vintage Mauritius |url=http://vintagemauritius.org/vintage-houses/old-colonial-creole-style-houses-mauritius-part-1/ |access-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222172800/http://vintagemauritius.org/vintage-houses/old-colonial-creole-style-houses-mauritius-part-1/ |archive-date=22 December 2021}}</ref> ===Literature=== {{Main|Mauritian literature}} Ŵanandi awo ŵakalembako mabuku mu Mauritius ŵakaŵa Eugénie Poujade, Marie-Thérèse Humbert, Malcolm de Chazal, Ananda Devi, Shenaz Patel, Khal Torabully, J. M. Wakayama G. Le Clézio, Aqiil Gopee na Dev Virahsawmy. J. Wakayama M. Wakayama G. Le Clézio, uyo wakapokera chawanangwa cha Nobel mu 2008, ni wa ku Mauritius ndipo wali na wanangwa wa ku France na Mauritius. Pa cirwa ici ndipo pakacitikiranga upharazgi wa Le Prince Maurice Prize. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵa pa cirwa ici ŵakucitira, pa cilimika cilicose ŵakupeleka cawanangwa ici ku ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Cingelezi na Cifurenci. ===Music=== {{main|Music of Mauritius|Sega (genre)}} Vyakwimba vikuru comene vya ku Mauritius ni Sega na sumu zake za fusion, Seggae, sumu za ŵanthu ŵa ku Bhojpuri, sumu za mafilimu gha ku India comenecomene za ku Bollywood, na sumu za Classical comenecomene za ku Western Classical Music na za ku India Classical Music. ===Cuisine=== {{Further|Mauritian cuisine}} Vyakurya vya ku Mauritius vikusazga vyakurya vya ku India, Creole, French, na Chinese. Vyakununkhira ni vyakurya vyakuzirwa chomene mu Mauritius. Pali mtundu unyake wa Falaooda wa ku Peresiya, uwo ukuchemeka alouda. Mu malo ghanandi ŵakuguliska vingwa vya ku France. Vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kurya ni vyakurya vyakuphakaphaka vyakuchemeka dholl puri, biryani wakupangika na mpunga, na gâteau piment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=Darlene |date=20 October 2016 |title=Mauritius Dholl Puri (Yellow Split Pea Wrap) |url=https://www.internationalcuisine.com/mauritius-dholl-puri/ |access-date=20 October 2016 |publisher=International Cuisine}}</ref> <!---FA and GA review note ..Galleries or clusters of images are generally discouraged as they cause undue weight to one particular section of a summary article and may cause accessibility problems. See WP:GALLERY for more information.---> <gallery mode="packed" heights="134"> File:La Marmite Mauricienne (Flic-en-Flac) - beignets de poisson.jpg|Fish fritters File:La Marmite Mauricienne (Flic-en-Flac) - chop suey crevettes (1).jpg|Chop suey shrimp File:La Marmite Mauricienne (Flic-en-Flac) - curry de poisson (1).jpg|Fish curry </gallery> ===Holidays and festivals=== Mazuŵa gha vikondwelero vya ku Mauritius ghakukolerana na mitheto yakupambanapambana. Pali viphikiro vya Chihindu, vya Chikhristu, vya ku China, na vya Ŵasilamu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Public Holidays - 2020.pdf |url=http://pmo.govmu.org/English/Documents/Communiqu%C3%A9%20and%20Reports/Public%20holidays%20-%202020.pdf |access-date=4 November 2019}}</ref> Ku Mauritius kuli maholide 14 ndipo chaka chiphya chikukondwelereka kwa mazuŵa ghaŵiri usange chikuchitika pa sabata. Maholide ghose gha visopa ghakusintha chaka na chaka, kweni Khisimasi pera ndiyo yikusintha. Vikondwelero vinyake nga ni Holi, Raksha Bandhan, Durga Puja, Père Laval Pilgrimage navyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa Mauritius ŵakhalenge makora.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 September 2017 |title=Mauritius: Celebration of Durga Puja over nine days for Hindu devotees of the island |url=https://mauritiushindinews.com/mauritius-hindu-festival/mauritius-celebration-durga-puja-nine-days-hindu-devotees-island/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125034911/https://mauritiushindinews.com/mauritius-hindu-festival/mauritius-celebration-durga-puja-nine-days-hindu-devotees-island/ |archive-date=25 November 2022 |access-date=25 November 2022 |website=Hindi Pracharak |language=en-US}}{{cbignore}}</ref> {| class="wikitable collapsible" style="text-align:left;" |- style="text-align:left" !Public holidays in Mauritius in 2022!! Date |- | [[New Year|New Year's Day]] || Saturday 1 January – Sunday 2 January |- | [[Thaipusam|Thaipoosam Cavadee]] || Tuesday 18 January |- | [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|Abolition of slavery]] || Tuesday 1 February |- | [[Chinese Spring Festival]] || Tuesday 1 February |- | [[Mahashivratri|Maha Shivaratri]] || Tuesday 1 March |- | [[History of Mauritius|Independence and Republic Day]] || Saturday 12 March |- | [[Ugadi]] || Saturday 2 April |- | Labour Day || Sunday 1 May |- | [[Eid ul-Fitr]] (''Depending on the visibility of the moon'') || Tuesday 3 May |- |[[Assumption of Mary|Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary]] |Monday 15 August |- | [[Ganesh Chaturthi]]|| Thursday 1 September |- | [[Diwali]]|| Monday 24 October |- | [[Indian Arrival Day|Arrival of the Indentured Labourers]]|| Wednesday 2 November |- | Christmas Day || Sunday 25 December |} ===Sport=== [[File:Maiden Cup 2006, Champ de Mars Racecourse, Port Louis, Mauritius - 20060910.jpg|thumb|The Maiden Cup in 2006]] {{see also|Football in Mauritius}} Maseŵera agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa ku Mauritius ni bola ndipo timu ya charu ichi yikucemeka The Dodos panji Club M. Maseŵero ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa ku Mauritius nga ni kuchimbira njinga, maseŵero gha pa thebulu, kuphalizgana pa mahachi, badminton, volleyball, basketball, handball, nkhonya, judo, karate, taekwondo, kuwuska vizito, kuzenga thupi, na maseŵero ghanyake. Maseŵero gha mu maji nga nkhuskamba, kwendeska ngalaŵa, kuskamba, kuskamba pa mphepo, na kuskamba pa ndege.<ref>Richards, Alexandra.''Mauritius: Rodrigues, Réunion''. Bradt Travel Guides, 2009, p. 90</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuphalizgana pa mahachi kufuma mu 1812 apo ŵakajura malo ghakuchemeka Champ de Mars. Charu ichi ndicho chikachitiska maseŵero gha ku virwa vya mu Nyanja ya Indian (Indian Ocean Island Games) ghaciŵiri (1985), cacinayi (2003) na ca khumi (2019). Chilumba cha Mauritius chinalandira mendulo yake yoyamba ya Olimpiki pa Olimpiki ya Chilimwe ya 2008 ku Beijing pamene nkhonya Bruno Julie inalandira mendulo ya bronze. Mu gofu, Mauritius Open wakale na AfrAsia Bank Mauritius Open sono ni vigaŵa vya European Tour. ==Wonaniso== {{Portal|Africa|Islands}} * [[St. Brandon|Cargados Carajos]] and [[Agaléga|Agalega]] * [[Constitution of Mauritius]] * [[Index of Mauritius-related articles]] * [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] * [[List of Mauritius-related topics]] * [[List of Sino-Mauritian dishes]] * [[Mauritian rupee]] * [[Outline of Mauritius]] == Vyakulremba == {{Reflist|group=Note}} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Mabuku== {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Macdonald |first=Fiona |title=Peoples of Africa |pages=340–341 |chapter=Mauritius |display-authors=etal}} * ''This article incorporates public domain text from the websites of the <span class="plainlinks">[https://web.archive.org/web/20181022022534/http://www1.govmu.org/ Government of Mauritius]</span>, the [[United States Department of State]], the U.S. [[Library of Congress]], and the [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]].'' {{refend}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == * {{Cite book |last=Bahadur |first=Gaiutra |title=Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture |url=https://archive.org/details/cooliewomanodyss0000baha |publisher=The University of Chicago |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-226-21138-1}} * {{Cite book |last=Moree |first=Perry J. |title=A Concise History of Dutch Mauritius, 1598–1710: A Fruitful and Healthy Land |publisher=Routledge |year=1998}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vink |first=Markus |year=2003 |title='The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century |journal=[[Journal of World History]] |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=131–177 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2003.0026 |s2cid=145450338}} ==Mabuku== * [[Geneviève Dormann]], ''Le bal du dodo'', Albin Michel, 2000, {{ISBN|9782226036568}}. * [[J.M.G. Le Clézio]], ''La quarantaine'', Gallimard, 1997, {{ISBN|9782070402106}}. * [[Nathacha Appanah]], ''Les rochers de poudre d'or'', Gallimard, 2006. * [[Shenaz Patel]], ''Le silence des Chagos'', [[éditions de l'Olivier]], 2005, {{ISBN|9782879294544}}. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|Mauritius|voy=Mauritius}} <!-- please only list links of nation-wide relevance here. Consider adding other links to the "External links" section of the sub-articles listed. --> '''Reference''' * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Mauritius}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13882233 Country Profile] from [[BBC News]] * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=MU Key Development Forecasts for Mauritius] from [[International Futures]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607053434/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/mauritius.htm Mauritius] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/370153/Mauritius Mauritius] entry at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210109090348/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mauritius Mauritius]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. '''Government''' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120101020658/http://www.boimauritius.com/ Board of Investment] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181022022534/http://www1.govmu.org/ Mauritius Government portal] * [http://statsmauritius.govmu.org/ Statistics Mauritius] '''Geography''' * {{osmrelation-inline|1=535828#map=10/-20.2963/57.6727}} * {{Wikiatlas|Mauritius}} * [http://www.wikimapia.org/#lat=-20.2544671&lon=57.5614929&z=10&l=0&m=b&search=mauritius WikiSatellite view of Mauritius at WikiMapia] <!-- === === ===({{NoMoreLinks}})======= DO ''not'' ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS ''not'' A COLLECTION OF LINKS. If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, but put it on this article's discussion page first or submit your link to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org) and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. Links that have not been verified WILL BE DELETED. 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Chi- icho chili kunthazi kwa Tumbuka chikung'anamura "mu nthowa ya", ndipo apa likung'anamura "chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵa Tumbuka". ChiTumbuka chili mu chiyowoyero chimoza na [[ChiCheŵa|ChiCheŵa]] na [[ChiSena|Sena]].<ref>Kiso (2012), pp.21ff.</ref> Buku linyake ([[The World Almanac]]) likuti mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 2,080,000. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ChiTumbuka, nangauli ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵalipo ŵachoko chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuyowoya ChiTumbuka ŵakukhala mu Malaŵi.<ref name="Michigan" /> ChiTumbuka ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene kumpoto kwa Malawi, chomenechomene mu vigaŵa vya [[Rumphi]], [[Mzuzu]], na [[Mzimba]].<ref>University of Malawi (2006) Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi.</ref> Pali mphambano yikuru pakati pa ciyowoyero ca ChiTumbuka ico cikuyowoyeka mu misumba ya ku Malawi (ico cili na mazgu ghanyake kufuma ku [[Chiswahili|Ciswahili]] na ChiCheŵa) na ciyowoyero ca ChiTumbuka ico cikuyowoyeka mu mizi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti chiyowoyero cha Rumphi ndicho ntchakutowa chomene.<ref>Kamwendo (2004), p.282.</ref> Chiyowoyero cha ku Mzimba chikakhwaskika chomene na chiNgoni ([[ChiZulu|Zulu]]). Kwamba kale, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ChiTumbuka na ChiCheŵa. Ndipouli, ciyowoyero ca Tumbuka cikasuzgika comene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Pulezidenti [[Hastings Kamuzu Banda]], cifukwa mu 1968 cifukwa ca fundo yake yakuti paŵe mtundu umoza na ciyowoyero cimoza, ciyowoyero ici cikaleka kuŵa ca boma mu Malawi. Ntheura, mu masukulu, pa wayilesi, na mu manyuzipepara ŵakafumiskamo ciyowoyero ici.<ref>Kamwendo (2004), p.278.</ref> Mu 1994, apo boma la Tumbuka likamba kulamulira na vipani vinandi, ŵakambaso kutegherezga maungano gha pa wayilesi. Kweni mabuku na mabuku ghanyake ghakaŵa ghanandi yayi.<ref>See Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi (2006), pp.38-40 for a list of publications.</ref> == Malembelo == [[File:WIKITONGUES-Temwa_Speaking_Tumbuka_-_free_to_use_file_under_Wikipedia_policies.webm|thumb|326x326px|Temwa wakuyowoya ChiTumbuka.]] Pali nthowa ziŵiri zakulembera ChiTumbuka izo zikugwiliskirika nchito: kalembero ka kaluso (kakulembeka mu [[Baibolo]] la ChiTumbuka la [[Wikipediya|Wikipedia]] na mu [[nyuzipepara y]]<nowiki/>a Fuko), umo mazgu gha banthu 'ŵanthu' na chaka 'chaka' ghakulembeka na 'b' na 'ch', na kalembero ka kaluso (kakulembeka mu dikishonare ya ChiTumbuka iyo yikufumiskika pa [[Intaneti]] na Centre for Language Studies na mu Baibolo la pa Intaneti), umo mazgu ghakulembeka na 'ŵ' na 'c', nga ŵanthu na caka. (Sumu ya 'ŵ' ni [w] yakuzingilizgika makora iyo yikuzunulika na lulimi pafupi na i).<ref>Atkins, Guy (1950) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1156786 "Suggestions for an Amended Spelling and Word Division of Nyanja"] ''Africa: Journal of the International African Institute'', Vol. 20, No. 3, p.205.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakumanya yayi apo ŵakwenera kulemba 'r' na 'l', nga ni cakulya ([[Dikishonare]]) panji cakurya (Baibolo) 'chakurya.' (Nadi, [l] na [r] ni mazgu ghakupambanapambana gha chiyowoyero chimoza.) Kweniso pali kukayikira pakati pa mazgu ghakuti'sk' na'sy' (miskombe na misyombe ('bamboo') ghali mu dikishonare ya ChiTumbuka).<ref>See entries {{lang|tum|citatanga}}, {{lang|tum|cidunga}}, {{lang|tum|cihengo}}.</ref> == Kuyowoya mazgu == === Mavowele === Mu chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka muli mazgu ghakuyana waka nga ni /a/, /ɛ/, /i/, /ɔ/, /u/ na /m̩/ aghoso ghali mu [[ChiCheŵa]].<ref>Vail (1972), p. 1.</ref> [[File:Monile.ogg|thumb|Kutauzgana mu ChiTumbuka.]] === Makonsonanti === Malizga gha chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka ghakuyana waka na gha ChiCheŵa, kweni ghakupambana. Mu chiyowoyero cha ChiCheŵa mulije mazgu ghakuti /ɣ/, /β/, na /h/. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kupulika mazgu agho ghakufuma mu mulomo {{IPA|/vʲ/}}, {{IPA|/fʲ/}}, {{IPA|/bʲ/}}, {{IPA|/pʲ/}}, {{IPA|/skʲ/}}, {{IPA|/zgʲ/}}, and {{IPA|/ɽʲ/}}. Mu ChiTumbuka mulije vilembo vya ChiCheŵa nga ni /psj/, /bzj/, /t͡s/, /d͡z/. Mazgu gha /s/ na /z/ ghakusangika yayi mu ChiTumbuka, ntheura Chewa nsómba ('somba') = Tumbuka somba. Lizgu lakuti /ʃ/ likusangika mu mazgu gha ku vyaru vinyake pera nga ni shati ('shati') na shuga ('shuga'). ChiTumbuka /?? / nyengo zinyake chikuyana na ChiCheŵa /d/, ChiCheŵa kudwala 'kuŵa mulwari' = Tumbuka kulwala, ChiCheŵa kudya 'kurya' = Tumbuka kulya. Kuyowoya kwa lizgu lakuti "sk" na lizgu lakuti "zg" vikupambana kuyana na chiyowoyero. Makonsonanti gha Tumbuka kanandi ghakusangika mu viyowoyero vinyake. Vinyake vingalembeka pambere chindindindi chindambe kufuma. Pa chithuzithuzi ichi, pali mazgu agho ghangaŵa pa chilembo ichi: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Malembo gha Tumbuka<ref>Chavula (2016), pp. 11–13.</ref><ref>Vail (1972), pp. 4–19.</ref> ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! colspan="3" |[[Labial consonant|labial]] ! colspan="3" |[[Dental consonant|dental]] ! colspan="2" |[[Palatal consonant|palatal]] ! colspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|velar]] ! rowspan="2" |[[Glottal consonant|glottal]] |- !<small>plain</small> !<small>lab.</small> !<small>pal.</small> !<small>plain</small> !<small>lab.</small> !<small>pal.</small> !<small>plain</small> !<small>lab.</small> !<small>plain</small> !<small>lab.</small> |- ! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|nasal]] |ma<br />{{IPAslink|m}} |mwa<br />{{IPAslink|mʷ}} |mya<br />{{IPAslink|mʲ}} |na<br />{{IPAslink|n}} |nwa<br />{{IPAslink|nʷ}} |nya<br />{{IPAslink|nʲ}} | | |ng'a<br />{{IPAslink|ŋ}} |ng'wa<br />{{IPAslink|ŋʷ}} | |- ! rowspan="5" |[[plosive]]/<br />[[affricate]] !<small>unvoiced</small> |pa<br />{{IPAslink|p}} |pwa<br />{{IPAslink|pʷ}} |pya<br />{{IPAslink|pʲ}} |ta<br />{{IPAslink|t}} |twa<br />{{IPAslink|tʷ}} |tya<br />{{IPAslink|tʲ}} |ca<br />{{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} |cwa<br />{{IPAslink|t͡ʃʷ}} |ka<br />{{IPAslink|k}} |kwa<br />{{IPAslink|kʷ}} | |- !<small>voiced</small> |ba<br />{{IPAslink|ɓ}} |bwa<br />{{IPAslink|ɓʷ}} |bya<br />{{IPAslink|bʲ}} |da<br />{{IPAslink|ɗ}} |dwa<br />{{IPAslink|ɗʷ}} |dya<br />{{IPAslink|ɗʲ}} |ja<br />{{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}} |jwa<br />{{IPAslink|d͡ʒʷ}} |ga<br />{{IPAslink|g}} |gwa<br />{{IPAslink|gʷ}} | |- !<small>aspirated</small> |pha<br />{{IPAslink|pʰ}} |phwa<br />{{IPAslink|pʷʰ}} |phya<br />{{IPAslink|pʲʰ}} |tha<br />{{IPAslink|tʰ}} |thwa<br />{{IPAslink|tʷʰ}} |thya<br />{{IPAslink|tʲʰ}} |cha<br />{{IPAslink|t͡ʃʰ}} | |kha<br />{{IPAslink|kʰ}} |khwa<br />{{IPAslink|kʷʰ}} | |- !<small>nasalised</small> |mba<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐb}} |mbwa<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐbʷ}} |mbya<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐbʲ}} |nda<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿd}} |ndwa<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿdʷ}} |(ndya){{efn|Only in the word {{lang|tum|ndyali}}.}}<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿdʲ}} |nja<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿd͡ʒ}} | |nga<br />{{IPAslink|ᵑg}} |ngwa<br />{{IPAslink|ᵑgʷ}} | |- !<small>nasalised<br />aspirated</small> |mpha<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐpʰ}} |mphwa<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐpʷʰ}} |mphya<br />{{IPAslink|ᵐpʲʰ}} |ntha<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿtʰ}} |nthwa<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿtʷʰ}} |(nthya)<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿtʲʰ}} |ncha<br />{{IPAslink|ⁿt͡ʃʰ}} | |nkha<br />{{IPAslink|ᵑkʰ}} |nkhwa<br />{{IPAslink|ᵑkʷʰ}} | |- ! rowspan="2" |[[fricative]] !<small>unvoiced</small> |fa<br />{{IPAslink|f}} |fwa<br />{{IPAslink|fʷ}} |fya<br />{{IPAslink|fʲ}} |sa<br />{{IPAslink|s}} |swa<br />{{IPAslink|sʷ}} |ska (sya)<br />{{IPAslink|sʲ}} |(sha)<br />{{IPAslink|ʃ}} | | | |ha<br />{{IPAslink|h}} |- !<small>voiced</small> |va<br />{{IPAslink|v}} |vwa<br />{{IPAslink|vʷ}} |vya<br />{{IPAslink|vʲ}} |za<br />{{IPAslink|z}} |zwa<br />{{IPAslink|zʷ}} |zga<br />{{IPAslink|zʲ}} | | | | | |- ! colspan="2" |[[semivowel]]/ [[Liquid consonant|liquid]] |ŵa<br />{{IPAslink|β}} |wa<br />{{IPAslink|w}} | |la/ra<br />{{IPAslink|ɽ}} |lwa/rwa<br />{{IPAslink|ɽʷ}} |lya/rya<br />{{IPAslink|ɽʲ}} |ya<br />{{IPAslink|j}} | |gha<br />{{IPAslink|ɣ}} | | |} {{notelist}} === Kapulikikilo === Kupambana kukuru pakati pa ChiCheŵa na ChiTumbuka nkhwa kuti ChiCheŵa ni chiyowoyero icho chikuyowoya mazgu ghakupambanapambana. ChiTumbuka chili na mazgu ghakupambanapambana, chifukwa lizgu lililose ilo likuyowoyeka payekha likuyana waka na lizgu lakwamba ilo likufuma pa lizgu laumaliro.<ref>Downing (2008, 2012).</ref> Ntheura, mu ChiTumbuka nchambura macitiko kupambaniska mazgu ghaŵiri ghakupambanapambana, nga umo vikuŵira mu ChiCheŵa na viyowoyero vinyake vya Bantu. Ndipouli, lizgu laumaliro yayi ndilo likuŵa pa lizgu lililose, kweni lizgu laumaliro pera:<ref>Downing (2012), p.123.</ref> * {{lang|tum|ti-ku-phika sî:ma}} 'tikuphika sima' A greater variety of tonal patterns is found in the [[Ideophone|ideophones]] (expressive words) of Tumbuka; for example Low ({{lang|tum|yoyoyo}} 'disintegrating into small pieces'), High ({{lang|tum|fyá:}} 'swooping low (of birds)'), High-Low ({{lang|tum|phúli}} 'sound of thing bursting'), and Low-High ({{lang|tum|yií}} 'sudden disappearance'), etc.<ref>Moto (1999), pp.112-120.</ref> Intonational tones are also used in Tumbuka; for example, in yes-no questions there is often a High-Low fall on the final syllable of the question:<ref>Downing (2008), p.55.</ref> * {{lang|tum|ku-limirâ-so ngô:mâ?}} 'are you also weeding the maize?' There does not seem to be any consistent, direct correlation between tone in Tumbuka and [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]].<ref>Downing (2012), p.129.</ref> == Mazina == === Makilasi gha manoun === Nga umo vikuŵira na viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu, mazina gha ChiTumbuka ghakupangika mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana kuyana na vigaŵa vya mazina. Lizgu lililose lili na lizgu lake lakwimira, lizgu lakwimira, na lizgu la chiyowoyero. Para pali mphindano pakati pa mazgu agha na mazgu ghakwambilira, mazgu agha ndigho ghakuŵa pakwamba pakusankha zina. Mwaciyelezgero, lizgu lakuti katundu 'vinthu,' nangauli lili na lizgu lakuti ka-, lili mu gulu 1, cifukwa munthu wakuyowoya katundu uyu 'vinthu ivi' na lizgu lakuti uyu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Malaŵi (nga umo viliri mu dikishonare ya ChiTumbuka ya pa Yunivesite ya Malawi) ŵakuzunura mazina gha viŵaro mu viyowoyero vinyake nga ni "Mu-Ŵa-"; kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu ŵakuzunura viŵaro mu manambara (1/2 etc.) agho ghakuyana na viŵaro vya viŵaro mu viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Bantu. Nyengo zinyake mazina ghakukolerana yayi na magulu ghakulondezgapo agha, nga ni fumu'mukuru' (kalasi 9) uyo wali na mazina ghanandi mu kilasi 6. '''Class 1/2 (Mu-Ŵa-)''' Some nouns in this class lack the prefix Mu-: * {{lang|tum|Munthu}} pl. {{lang|tum|ŵanthu (banthu)}} = person * {{lang|tum|Muzungu}} pl. {{lang|tum|ŵazungu (bazungu)}} = foreigner, white man * {{lang|tum|Mwana}} pl. {{lang|tum|ŵana (bana)}} = child * {{lang|tum|Bulu}} pl. {{lang|tum|ŵabulu}} = donkey * {{lang|tum|Sibweni}} pl. {{lang|tum|ŵasibweni}} = maternal uncle * {{lang|tum|Katundu}} (no pl.) = goods, possessions '''Class 3/4 (Mu-Mi-)''' * {{lang|tum|Mutu}} pl. {{lang|tum|mitu}} = head * {{lang|tum|Mkuyu}} pl. {{lang|tum|mikuyu}} = fig-tree * {{lang|tum|Moyo}} pl. {{lang|tum|miyoyo}} = life * {{lang|tum|Mtima}} pl. {{lang|tum|mitima}} = heart '''Class 5/6 (Li-Ma-)''' * {{lang|tum|Bele (bhele}} pl. {{lang|tum|mabele (mabhele)}} = breast * {{lang|tum|Boma (bhoma)}} pl. {{lang|tum|maboma (mabhoma)}} = government, district * {{lang|tum|Botolo (bhotolo)}} pl. {{lang|tum|mabotolo (mabhotolo)}} = bottle * {{lang|tum|Fuko}} pl. {{lang|tum|mafuko}} = tribe, nation * {{lang|tum|Jiso}} pl. {{lang|tum|maso}} = eye * {{lang|tum|Maji}} (no singular) = water * {{lang|tum|Phiri}} pl. {{lang|tum|mapiri}} = hill * {{lang|tum|Suzgo}} pl. {{lang|tum|masuzgo}} = problem, trouble * {{lang|tum|Woko}} pl. {{lang|tum|mawoko}} = hand '''Class 7/8 (Ci-Vi-)''' * {{lang|tum|Caka (chaka)}} pl. {{lang|tum|vyaka}} = year * {{lang|tum|Caro (charo)}} pl. {{lang|tum|vyaro}} = country, land * {{lang|tum|Ciŵeto (chibeto)}} pl. {{lang|tum|viŵeto (vibeto)}} = farm animal * {{lang|tum|Cidakwa (chidakwa)}} pl. {{lang|tum|vidakwa}} = drunkard * {{lang|tum|Cikoti (chikoti)}} pl. {{lang|tum|vikoti}} = whip '''Class 9/10 (Yi-Zi-)''' * {{lang|tum|Mbale}} pl. {{lang|tum|mbale (mambale)}} = plate * {{lang|tum|Ndalama}} pl. {{lang|tum|ndalama}} = money * {{lang|tum|Njelwa}} pl. {{lang|tum|njelwa}} = brick * {{lang|tum|Nkhuku}} pl. {{lang|tum|nkhuku}} = chicken * {{lang|tum|Somba}} pl. {{lang|tum|somba}} = fish '''Class 11 (Lu-)''' Some speakers treat words in this class as if they were in class 5/6.<ref>Shiozaki (2004).</ref> * {{lang|tum|Lwande}} = side * {{lang|tum|Lumbiri}} = fame * {{lang|tum|Lulimi}} = tongue '''Class 12/13 (Ka-Tu-)''' * {{lang|tum|Kanthu (kantu)}} pl. {{lang|tum|tunthu (tuntu)}} = small thing * {{lang|tum|Kamwana}} pl. {{lang|tum|tuŵana (tubana)}} = baby * {{lang|tum|Kayuni}} pl. {{lang|tum|tuyuni}} = bird * {{lang|tum|Tulo}} (no singular) = sleep '''Class 14/6 (U-Ma-)''' These nouns are frequently abstract and have no plural. * {{lang|tum|Usiku}} = night * {{lang|tum|Ulimi}} = farming * {{lang|tum|Ulalo}} pl. {{lang|tum|maulalo}} = bridge * {{lang|tum|Uta}} pl. {{lang|tum|mauta}} = bow '''Class 15 (Ku-) Infinitive''' * {{lang|tum|Kugula}} = to buy, buying * {{lang|tum|Kwiba (kwibha)}} = to steal, stealing '''Classes 16, 17, 18 (Pa-, Ku-, Mu-) Locative''' * {{lang|tum|Pasi}} = underneath * {{lang|tum|Kunthazi (kuntazi)}} = in front, before * {{lang|tum|Mukati}} = inside === Concords === Viyezgo, vimanyikwiro, manambara, mazgu ghakupambanapambana, na vimanyikwiro mu ChiTumbuka vikwenera kukolerana na lizgu ilo likuyowoyeka. Ŵakuchita nthena na vilembo vyakwambilira, vyakunthazi, panji vyakunthazi ivyo vikuchemeka 'concords.' Mtundu 1 uli na viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana, nga ni mazina ghakwimira vinthu, mazgu ghakwamba, mazgu ghaumaliro, manambara, vimanyikwiro, na mazgu ghaumaliro:<ref>Chase (2004).</ref><ref>Shiozaki (2004)</ref><ref>Vail (1971).</ref> * {{lang|tum|Mwana u'''yu'''}} = this child * {{lang|tum|Mwana '''yu'''moza}} = one child * {{lang|tum|Mwana u'''yo'''}} = that child * {{lang|tum|Mwana '''yo'''se}} = the whole child * {{lang|tum|Mwana '''wa'''li'''yo'''se}} = every child * {{lang|tum|Mwana '''wa'''ka'''mu'''wona}} = the child saw him * {{lang|tum|Mwana '''mu'''choko (coko)}} = the small child * {{lang|tum|Mwana '''wa''' Khumbo}} = Khumbo's child * {{lang|tum|Mwana '''wa'''ne}} = my child * {{lang|tum|Mwana '''wa'''wona}} = the child has seen Makilasi ghanyake gha manoun ghali na mitundu yichoko ya vimanyikwiro vyakukolerana, nga umo tingawonera pa thebulu ilo lili musi umu: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 200px; height: 200px;" |+Table of Tumbuka concords ! !noun !English !this !num !that !all !subj !object !adj !of !perf |- !1 |{{lang|tum|mwana}} |child |{{lang|tum|uyu}} |''yu-'' |{{lang|tum|uyo}} |{{lang|tum|yose}} |''wa-'' |''-mu-'' |''mu-'' |{{lang|tum|wa}} |''wa-'' |- !2 |{{lang|tum|ŵana}} |children |{{lang|tum|aŵa}} |''ŵa-'' |{{lang|tum|awo}} |{{lang|tum|wose}} |''ŵa-'' |''-ŵa-'' |''ŵa-'' |{{lang|tum|ŵa}} |''ŵa-'' |- !3 |{{lang|tum|mutu}} |head |{{lang|tum|uwu}} |''wu-'' |{{lang|tum|uwo}} |{{lang|tum|wose}} |''wu-'' | -''wu-'' |''wu-'' |{{lang|tum|wa}} |''wa-'' |- !4 |{{lang|tum|mitu}} |heads |{{lang|tum|iyi}} |''yi-'' |{{lang|tum|iyo}} |{{lang|tum|yose}} |''yi-'' |''-yi-'' |''yi-'' |{{lang|tum|ya}} |''ya-'' |- !5 |{{lang|tum|jiso}} |eye |{{lang|tum|ili}} |''li-'' |{{lang|tum|ilo}} |{{lang|tum|lose}} |''li-'' |''-li-'' |''li-'' |{{lang|tum|la}} |''la-'' |- !6 |{{lang|tum|maso}} |eyes |{{lang|tum|agha}} |''gha-'' |{{lang|tum|agho}} |{{lang|tum|ghose}} |''gha-'' |''-gha-'' |''gha-'' |{{lang|tum|gha}} |''gha-'' |- !7 |{{lang|tum|caka}} |year |{{lang|tum|ici}} |''ci-'' |{{lang|tum|ico}} |{{lang|tum|cose}} |''ci-'' |''-ci-'' |''ci-'' |{{lang|tum|ca}} |''ca-'' |- !8 |{{lang|tum|vyaka}} |years |{{lang|tum|ivi}} |''vi-'' |{{lang|tum|ivyo}} |{{lang|tum|vyose}} |''vi-'' |''-vi-'' |''vi-'' |{{lang|tum|vya}} |''vya-'' |- !9 |{{lang|tum|nyumba}} |house |{{lang|tum|iyi}} |''yi-'' |{{lang|tum|iyo}} |{{lang|tum|yose}} |''yi-'' |''-yi-'' |''yi-'' |{{lang|tum|ya}} |''ya-'' |- !10 |{{lang|tum|nyumba}} |houses |{{lang|tum|izi}} |''zi-'' |{{lang|tum|izo}} |{{lang|tum|zose}} |''zi-'' |''-zi-'' |''zi-'' |{{lang|tum|za}} |''za-'' |- !11 |{{lang|tum|lwande}} |side |{{lang|tum|ulu}} |''lu-'' |{{lang|tum|ulo}} |{{lang|tum|lose}} |''lu-'' |''-lu-'' |''lu-'' |{{lang|tum|lwa}} |''lwa-'' |- ! | |(or: |{{lang|tum|ili}} |''li-'' |{{lang|tum|ilo}} |{{lang|tum|lose}} |''li-'' |''-li-'' |''li-'' |{{lang|tum|la}} |''la-'') |- !12 |{{lang|tum|kayuni}} |bird |{{lang|tum|aka}} |''ka-'' |{{lang|tum|ako}} |{{lang|tum|kose}} |''ka-'' |''-ka-'' |''ka-'' |{{lang|tum|ka}} |''ka-'' |- !13 |{{lang|tum|tuyuni}} |birds |{{lang|tum|utu}} |''tu-'' |{{lang|tum|uto}} |{{lang|tum|tose}} |''tu-'' |''-tu-'' |''tu-'' |{{lang|tum|twa}} |''twa-'' |- !14 |{{lang|tum|uta}} |bow |{{lang|tum|uwu}} |''wu''- |{{lang|tum|uwo}} |{{lang|tum|wose}} |''wu-'' |''-wu-'' |''wu-'' |{{lang|tum|wa}} |''wa-'' |- !15 |{{lang|tum|kugula}} |buying |{{lang|tum|uku}} |''ku-'' |{{lang|tum|uko}} |{{lang|tum|kose}} |''ku-'' |''-ku-'' |''ku-'' |{{lang|tum|kwa}} |''kwa-'' |- !16 |{{lang|tum|pasi}} |underneath |{{lang|tum|apa}} |''pa-'' |{{lang|tum|apo}} |{{lang|tum|pose}} |''pa-'' |''-pa-'' |''pa-'' |{{lang|tum|pa}} |''pa-'' |- !17 |{{lang|tum|kunthazi}} |in front |{{lang|tum|uku}} |''ku-'' |{{lang|tum|uko}} |{{lang|tum|kose}} |''ku-'' |''-ku-'' |''ku-'' |{{lang|tum|kwa}} |''kwa-'' |- !18 |{{lang|tum|mukati}} |inside |{{lang|tum|umu}} |''mu-'' |{{lang|tum|umo}} |{{lang|tum|mose}} |''mu-'' |''-mu-'' |''mu-'' |{{lang|tum|mwa}} |''mwa-'' |- |} == Viyelezgero vya mazgu na malemba == Mazgu agha ndigho munthu wangayowoya para wakuluta ku chigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ChiTumbuka: {| class="wikitable" |+ !Tumbuka !Chizungu |- |Moni |Hello |- |Monile |hello, to a group of people |- |Muli makola? Mwaŵa uli? |how are you? |- |Muli makola? Mwaŵa uli? |How are you?, to a group of people |- |Nili makola |I'm okay |- |Tili makola |We're okay |- |Naonga (chomene) |Thank you (a lot) |- |Yewo (chomene) |Thanks (a lot) |- |Ndiwe njani zina lako? |What is your name? |- |Zina lane ndine.... |My name is.... |- |Nyengo ili uli? |What is the time? |- |Ningakuvwila? |Can I help you? |- |Uyende makola |Goodbye/go well/safe travels |- |Mwende makola |Goodbye/go well/safe travels (said to a group of people) |- |Enya/ Eh |Yes |- |Yayi/Chala |No |- |Kwali |I don't know |- |Mukumanya kuyowoya Chizungu? |Can you speak English? |- |Nayambapo kusambilila ChiTumbuka |I've just started learning Tumbuka |- |Mukung'anamula vichi? |What do you mean? |- |Chonde, ningaluta kubafa? |May I please go to the bathroom? |- |Nakutemwa/Nkhukutemwa |"I love you" |- |Phepa |Sorry |- |Phepani |Sorry (to agroup of people) |- |Banja |Family |- |Yowoya |Talk/speak |} == Verbs == === Subject prefix === Viyezgo vyose vikwenera kuŵa na lizgu lakunjilira ilo likuyana na lizgu lakunjilira. Mwaciyerezgero, lizgu lakuti ciŵinda'muthondo' lili mu gulu la 7, ntheura usange ni munthu, verebu ili lili na c-: : {{lang|tum|ciŵinda '''ci'''-ka-koma nkhalamu}} = 'the hunter killed a lion'<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 42.</ref> It is also possible for the subject to be a locative noun (classes 16, 17, 18), in which case the verb has a locative prefix:<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 23.</ref> : {{lang|tum|pamphasa '''pa'''-ka-khala mwana}} = 'on the mat there sat down a child' The locative prefix ''ku-'' (class 17) is also used impersonally when discussing the weather:<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 24.</ref> : {{lang|tum|'''ku'''kuzizima madazi ghano}} = 'it's cold these days' When the subject is a personal pronoun, the subject prefixes are as follows (the pronoun itself may be omitted, but not the subject prefix): : {{lang|tum|(ine) '''n'''-kha-gula}} = 'I bought' (''nkha-'' stands for ''ni-ka-'') : {{lang|tum|(iwe) '''u'''-ka-gula}} = 'you bought' (informal, singular) : {{lang|tum|(iyo)<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 23. But Kishindo et al. (2018), s.v. {{lang|tum|iye}}, have {{lang|tum|iye}}.</ref> '''wa'''-ka-gula}} = 'he, she bought' : {{lang|tum|(ise) '''ti'''-ka-gula}} = 'we bought' : {{lang|tum|(imwe) '''mu'''-ka-gula}} = 'you bought' (plural or respectful) : {{lang|tum|(iwo) '''ŵa'''-ka-gula}} = 'they bought', 'he/she bought' (plural or respectful) In the perfect tense, these are shortened to {{lang|tum|n-a-, w-a-, w-a-, t-a-, mw-a-, ŵ-a-}}, e.g. {{lang|tum|t-a-gula}} 'we have bought'. In [[Karonga]] dialect, in the 3rd person singular ''a-'' is found instead of ''wa-'', and the 3rd plural is ''wa-'' instead of ''ŵa-'', except in the perfect tense, when ''wa-'' and ''ŵa-'' are used.<ref>McNicholl (2010), pp. 7–8.</ref> === Object-marker === To indicate the object, an infix can be added to the verb immediately before the verb root. Generally speaking, the object-marker is optional:<ref>Chavula (2016), pp. 51–64.</ref> : {{lang|tum|Pokani wa('''yi''')gula galimoto}} = 'Pokani has bought a car' (class 9) : {{lang|tum|Changa waka('''mu''')nyamula katundu}} = 'Changa carried the luggage' (class 1) The object-marker agrees with the class of the object, as shown on the table of concords above. The object-marker can also be a locative (classes 16, 17, or 18):<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 56.</ref> : {{lang|tum|Kondwani wa('''pa''')kwera pa nyumba}} = 'Kondwani has climbed on top of the house' The locative markers for personal pronouns are as follows:<ref>Chavula (2016), pp. 53–4.</ref> : {{lang|tum|wa'''ni'''ona (ine)}} = 'he has seen me' : {{lang|tum|wa'''ku'''ona (iwe)}} = 'he has seen you' : {{lang|tum|wa'''mu'''ona}} = 'he has seen him/her' : {{lang|tum|wa'''ti'''ona}} = 'he has seen us' : {{lang|tum|wa'''mu'''ona'''ni'''}} = 'he has seen you' (plural or respectful) : {{lang|tum|wa'''ŵa'''ona}} = 'he has seen them' === Tenses === Tenses in Tumbuka are made partly by adding infixes, and partly by suffixes. Unlike ChiCheŵa, tones do not form any part of the distinction between one tense and another. In the past a distinction is made between hodiernal tenses (referring to events of today) and remote tenses (referring to events of yesterday or some time ago). However, the boundary between recent and remote is not exact.<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 176.</ref> Pali mphambano yikuru pakati pa nyengo iyo yajumpha na nyengo iyo yajumpha. Para munthu wakuyowoya mu nyengo yakufikapo, wakuyowoya kuti vinthu vicali makora, nga ni para wakuti: 'Vikondamoyo vyatandazgika mu munda.' Para munthu wakuyowoya lizgu lakuti ndakhala, wakung'anamura kuti "Nkhukhala" panji ndakondwa. Chizindikiro cha kutali chikugwiliskirika nchito pa vinthu ivyo vikacitika kale comene kweni ivyo vikucitika mazuŵa ghano, nga ni libwe lilikuwa 'libwe lawira' panji walikutayika 'wali kufwa.'<ref>Kiso (2012), pp. 171, 178.</ref><ref>Kiso (2012), p. 171, quoting Vail (1972).</ref> Nyengo zakunthazi nazo zikupambaniska pakati pa vyakuchitika vyapafupi na vyakutali. Vinyake vikulongora kuti cakucitika ici cizamucitikira kunyake, nga ni ndamukuchezga 'Nizamuluta kukacezga.'<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 184, quoting Vail (1972).</ref> Compound tenses are also found in Tumbuka, such as {{lang|tum|wati wagona}} 'he had slept', {{lang|tum|wakaŵa kuti wafumapo}} 'he had just left' and {{lang|tum|wazamukuŵa waguliska}} 'he will have sold'.<ref>Kiso (2012), pp. 172, 182, 184, quoting Vail (1972).</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left" |+Some Tumbuka tenses<ref>Kiso (2012), pp. 163–192.</ref> !Tense !Tense marker !Example !Translation |- !Present infinitive |ku- |{{lang|tum|'''ku'''-luta}} |‘to go' |- ! |- !Present simple | -ku- |{{lang|tum|wa-'''ku'''-luta}} |‘he/she goes/is going’ |- !Present habitual | -ku-...-anga |{{lang|tum|wa-'''ku'''-lut-'''anga'''}} |‘he/she goes’ (some speakers only) |- ! |- !Present perfect | -a- |{{lang|tum|w-'''a'''-luta}} |‘he/she has gone’ |- !Present perfect continuous | -a-...-anga |{{lang|tum|w-'''a'''-lut-'''anga'''}} |‘he/she has been going' |- !Remote perfect | -liku- |{{lang|tum|wa-'''liku'''-luta}} |‘he/she has gone’ |- ! |- !Recent past simple | -angu- |{{lang|tum|w-'''angu'''-luta}} |‘he/she went’ (today) |- !Recent past continuous | -angu-...-anga |{{lang|tum|w-'''angu'''-lut-'''anga'''}} |‘he/she was going' (today) |- !Remote past simple | -ka- |{{lang|tum|wa-'''ka'''-luta}} |‘he/she went’ |- !Remote past continuous | -ka-...-anga |{{lang|tum|wa-'''ka'''-lut-'''anga'''}} |‘he/she was going/used to go' |- ! |- ![[Near future (grammar)|Near future]] |...-enge |{{lang|tum|wa-lut-'''enge'''}} |'he will go' (now or today) |- !Emphatic future<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 183, quoting Vail (1972).</ref> | -ti-...-enge |{{lang|tum|wa-'''ti'''-lut-'''enge'''}} |'he will certainly go' |- !Distal future<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 184, 185, quoting Vail (1972). For the term 'distal', see Botne (1999).</ref> | -amu-(ku)- |{{lang|tum|w-'''amuku'''-gula}} |‘he/she will buy’ (elsewhere) |- !Remote future | -zamu-(ku)- |{{lang|tum|wa-'''zamu'''-luta}} |‘he/she will go’ (tomorrow or later) |- !Remote future continuous | -zamu-...-anga |{{lang|tum|wa-'''zamu'''-lut-'''anga'''}} |‘he/she will be going' (tomorrow or later) |- ! |- !Present subjunctive | -e |{{lang|tum|ti-lut-'''e'''}} |‘let's go' |- !Distal subjunctive | -ka-...-e |{{lang|tum|wa-'''ka'''-gul-'''e'''}} |‘so that he can buy (elsewhere)' |- !Potential | -nga- |{{lang|tum|wa-'''nga'''-luta}} |'he can go'<ref>McNicholl (2010), p. 8.</ref> |} Other future tenses are given by Vail (1972) and others.<ref>See Kiso (2012) pp. 182–188.</ref> In the 1st person singular, ''ni-ku-'' and ''ni-ka-'' are shortened to ''nkhu-'' and ''nkha-'': {{lang|tum|nkhuluta}} 'I am going', 'I go', {{lang|tum|nkhalutanga}} 'I used to go'.<ref>Kiso (2012), pp. 163, 173.</ref> === Negative verbs === To make the negative of a verb in Tumbuka, the word {{lang|tum|yayi}} or {{lang|tum|cha(ra)}} is added at or near the end of the clause. It seems that {{lang|tum|yayi}} is preferred by younger speakers:<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 190.</ref> : {{lang|tum|wakulemba kalata '''yayi'''}} : 'he is not writing a letter' : {{lang|tum|tizamugwira ntchito '''cha''' machero}} : 'we will not work tomorrow' With the present perfect tense, however, a separate form exists, adding ''-nda-'' and ending in ''-e'':<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 191.</ref> : {{lang|tum|enya, n'''a'''kumana nawo}} : 'yes, I have met him' : {{lang|tum|yayi, ni'''nda'''kuman'''e''' nawo}} : 'no, I haven't met him' == The Ngoni influence on Tumbuka == '''Words of Ngoni (Zulu/Ndwandwe) origin found in Tumbuka:''' Viyowoyero vyose vya ChiTumbuka vikakhwaskika na chiyowoyero cha Chigoni, chomenechomene mu chigaŵa cha Mzimba ku Malawi. Chiyowoyero cha Ngoni chikamba na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ndwandwe awo ŵakaŵa ŵazengezgani ŵa fuko la Zulu pambere Ŵazulu ŵandaŵathereske. Ntheura chiyowoyero icho Ŵandwandwe ŵakayowoyanga chikaŵa chakuyana waka na cha Ŵazulu. Apa pali viyelezgero vinyake vya mazgu gha ChiTumbuka agho ghali kufuma ku chiZulu/Ndwandwe, nangauli ghanandi ghali na mazgu ghakwambilira gha ChiTumbuka agho ghakung'anamulika mu chiyowoyero ichi. {| class="wikitable" !English !Tumbuka !Tumbuka-Ngoni dialect |- |See |Wona |Bheka |- |Smoke |Khweŵa |Bhema |- |Man |Mwanalume |Doda |- |Virgin |Mwali |Nthombi |} == An example of Tumbuka == '''Months in Tumbuka:''' {| class="wikitable" !English !Tumbuka |- |January |Mathipa |- |February |Muswela |- |March |Nyakanyaka |- |April |Masika |- |May |Vuna |- |June |Zizima |- |July |Mphepo |- |August |Mpupulu |- |September |Lupya |- |October |Zimya |- |November |Thukila |- |December |Vula |} Chiyelezgero cha nkhani ya ŵanthu iyo yikang'anamulika mu ChiTumbuka na viyowoyero vinyake vya kumpoto kwa Malawi chili mu buku la Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi, ilo likalembeka na Center for Language Studies of the University of Malawi.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210413225347/http://unima-cls.org/Docs/MappingNorthernMalawi/lm-northernmalawi.pdf Language Mapping Survey], p. 60-64.</ref> Buku la ChiTumbuka ilo lili na nkhani iyi likuti: : {{lang|tum|KALULU NA FULU (ChiTumbuka)|italics=no}} : {{lang|tum|Fulu wakaluta kukapemphiska vyakulya ku ŵanthu. Pakuyeya thumba lake wakacita kukaka ku cingwe citali na kuvwara mu singo, ndipo pakwenda thumba lake likizanga kunyuma kwakhe.|italics=no}} : {{lang|tum|Wali mu nthowa, kalulu wakiza kunyuma kwakhe ndipo wakati “bowo, thumba lane!” Fulu wakati, "Thumba ndane iwe, wona cingwe ici ndakaka sono nkhuguza pakwenda.” Kalulu wakakana nipera, ndipo wakati “Tilute ku Mphala yikateruzge.” Mphala yikadumula mlandu na kuceketa cingwe ico Fulu wakakakira thumba. Ŵakatola thumba lira ndipo ŵakapa kalulu.|italics=no}} : {{lang|tum|Pa zuŵa linyakhe Kalulu wakendanga, Fulu wakamsanga ndipo wakati, "Bowo, mcira wane!" Kalulu wakati, “Ake! Fulu iwe m'cira ngwane." Fulu wakakana, ndipo wakati, "Ndasola ngwane." Ŵakaluta ku mphala, kuti yikaŵeruzge. Ku Mphala kula mlandu ukatowera Fulu. Ŵakadumula m'cira wa Kalulu nakupa Fulu.|italics=no}} : (Translation) : THE TORTOISE AND THE HARE : Tortoise went to beg food from people. To carry his bag, he tied it to a long string and wore it round his neck. As he walked along, the bag was coming behind him. : As he was on his way, Hare came up behind him and said, "There it is, my bag!" Tortoise said "The bag is mine, see this string I've tied now I'm pulling it as I go." Hare refused to accept this and said "Let's go the Court, so that it can judge us." The Court examined the case and cut Tortoise's string which he'd tied the bag with. They took that bag and gave it to Hare. : Another day when Hare was walking along, Tortoise found him and said, "There it is, my tail!" Hare said, "Nonsense, this is my tail, Tortoise." Tortoise refused to accept this and said, "What I've got is mine." They went to the Court so that it could make a judgement. In that Court, the case went in Tortoise's favour. They cut off Hare's tail and gave it to Tortoise. == Some vocabulary == === Helpful phrases === * {{lang|tum|Enya}} = Yes * {{lang|tum|Yayi}} = No * {{lang|tum|Yebo (yeŵo)}} = Thank you * {{lang|tum|Taonga}} = We are thankful * {{lang|tum|Nkhukhumba chakurya!}} = I want some food ! * {{lang|tum|Munganipako chakurya?}} = could you give me some food? * {{lang|tum|Ine nkhuyowoya ChiTumbuka yayi!}} = I do not speak ChiTumbuka! * {{lang|tum|Yendani makola}} = Travel well. * {{lang|tum|Nkukhumba maji yakumwa}} = I would like water to drink. === Greetings === * {{lang|tum|Mwawuka uli?}} = Good morning. (How did you wake up?) * {{lang|tum|Tawuka makola. Kwali imwe?}} = Fine. And you? (I woke up well. I don't know about you?) * {{lang|tum|Muli uli?}} = How are you? * {{lang|tum|Nili makola, kwali imwe?}} = I am fine, how are you? * {{lang|tum|Mwatandala uli?}} = Good afternoon. (How did you spend the day?) * {{lang|tum|Natandala makola. Kwali imwe?}} = Good afternoon. How are you? (I spent the day well. I don't know about you?) * {{lang|tum|Monile}} = somewhat more formal than "Hi". Perhaps best translated as "Greetings". * {{lang|tum|Tionanenge}} = We shall meet again. === People === The plural ba- (ŵa-) is often used for politeness when referring to elders: * {{lang|tum|Munyamata}} = boy * {{lang|tum|Banyamata (ŵanyamata)}} = boys * {{lang|tum|Musungwana}} = girl * {{lang|tum|Basungwana (ŵasungwana)}} = girls * {{lang|tum|Bamwali (ŵamwali)}} = young ladies * {{lang|tum|Banchembere (ŵancembele)}} = a woman with babies * {{lang|tum|Bamama (ŵamama)}} = mother * {{lang|tum|Badada(ŵadhadha)}} = dad * {{lang|tum|Bagogo (ŵagogo)}} = grandmother * {{lang|tum|Babuya (ŵabhuya)}} = grandmother, also used when addressing old female persons * {{lang|tum|Basekulu (ŵasekulu)}} = grandfather * {{lang|tum|Bankhazi (ŵankhazi)}} = paternal aunt * {{lang|tum|ŵa/Bamama ŵa/bachoko / ŵa/bakulu}} = maternal aunt usually your mother's younger/older sister * {{lang|tum|Basibweni (ŵasibweni)}} = maternal uncle * {{lang|tum|Badada(ŵadhadha) bachoko / bakulu}} = paternal uncle usually your father's younger/older brother * {{lang|tum|Mudumbu(mudhumbu) wane}} = my brother/ sister (for addressing a sibling of the opposite sex) * {{lang|tum|Muchoko wane / muzuna wane/ munung'una wane}} = my young brother / sister (for addressing a sibling of the same sex) * {{lang|tum|Mukuru wane / mulala wane}} = my elder brother / sister (for addressing a sibling of the same sex) === Verbs === * {{lang|tum|Kusebela (Kuseŵera)}} = to play * {{lang|tum|Kuseka}} = to laugh * {{lang|tum|Kurya}} = to eat * {{lang|tum|Kugona}} = to sleep * {{lang|tum|Kwenda}} = to walk * {{lang|tum|Kuchimbila}} = to run * {{lang|tum|Kulemba}} = to write * {{lang|tum|Kuchapa}} = to do laundry * {{lang|tum|Kugeza}} = to bath * {{lang|tum|Kuphika}} = to cook * {{lang|tum|Kulima}} = to dig / cultivate * {{lang|tum|Kupanda}} = to plant * {{lang|tum|Kuvina}} = to dance * {{lang|tum|Kwimba}} = to sing === Animals === * {{lang|tum|Fulu}} = tortoise * {{lang|tum|Kalulu}} = hare * {{lang|tum|Gwere}} = hippo * {{lang|tum|Chimbwi}} = hyena * {{lang|tum|Njoka}} = snake * {{lang|tum|Nkhumba}} = pig * {{lang|tum|Ng'ombe}} = cow * {{lang|tum|Nchebe (Ncheŵe)}} = dog * {{lang|tum|Chona/pusi/kiti}} = cat * {{lang|tum|Mbelele}} = sheep * {{lang|tum|Nkalamu}} = lion * {{lang|tum|Mbuzi}} = goat * {{lang|tum|Nkhuku}} = chicken == Wonaniso == * [[Tumbuka people]] * [[Tumbuka mythology]] == Notable Tumbuka People == * [[Shepherd Bushiri|Sheperd Bushiri]] (Christian preacher) * [[Mwai Kumwenda]] (netball player) * [[Bridget Kumwenda|Briddget Kumwenda]] (netball player) * [[Chakufwa Chihana]] ( human rights activist and politician) * [[Enoch Chihana]] (member of parliament) == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == {{refbegin}} * Botne, Robert (1999). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210413225148/https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/3356/botne%20book%20chapter.pdf?sequence=1 "Future and distal -ka-'s: Proto-Bantu or nascent form(s)?"]. In: Jean-Marie Hombert and Larry M. Hyman (eds.), ''Bantu Historical Linguistics: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives''. Stanford, CA: Center for the Study of Language and Information, pp.&nbsp;473–515. * Chase, Robert (2004). "A Comparison of Demonstratives in the Karonga and Henga Dialects of Tumbuka". Undergraduate paper. Amherst: Dept. of Linguistics, Univ. of Massachusetts. * Chavula, Jean Josephine (2016). [https://www.lotpublications.nl/Documents/423_fulltext.pdf "Verbal derivation and valency in ChiTumbuka"]. Leiden University doctoral thesis. * Downing, Laura J. (2006). "The Prosody and Syntax of Focus in ChiTumbuka". ''ZAS Papers in Linguistics'' 43, 55-79. * Downing, Laura J. (2008). "Focus and prominence in ChiCheŵa, ChiTumbuka and Durban Zulu". ''ZAS Papers in Linguistics'' 49, 47-65. * Downing, Laura J. (2012). [http://www.lingref.com/cpp/acal/42/paper2764.pdf "On the (Non-)congruence of Focus and Prominence in Tumbuka"]. ''Selected Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Conference on African Linguistics'', ed. Michael R. Marlo et al., 122-133. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. * Downing, Laura J. (2017). "Tone and intonation in ChiCheŵa and Tumbuka". In Laura J. Downing & Annie Rialland (eds) ''Intonation in African Tone Languages''. de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, pp.&nbsp;365–392. * Downing, Laura J. (2019). [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Laura_Downing/publication/335175896_Tumbuka_prosody_Between_tone_and_stress/links/5d55398645851545af43be4d/Tumbuka-prosody-Between-tone-and-stress.pdf "Tumbuka prosody: Between tone and stress"]. In: Emily Clem et al (eds). ''Theory and Description in African Linguistics: Selected papers from the 47th Annual Conference on African Linguistics'', 75-94. Also available online at: [https://books.google.com/books?id=fPSrDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tumbuka+prosody%3A+Between+tone+and+stress&pg=PA75] * Elmslie, Walter Angus (1923): ''Introductory Grammar of the Tumbuka Language''. Livingstonia Mission Press. * Kamwendo, Gregory H. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20200929073334/http://www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdf-files/vol13num3/kamwendo.pdf Kamwendo "Your ChiTumbuka is Shallow. It's not the Real ChiTumbuka: Linguistic Purism Among ChiTumbuka Speakers in Malawi"], ''Nordic Journal of African Studies'' 13(3): 275–288. * Kishindo, Pascal J. et Allan L. Lipenga (2006). ''Parlons ChiTumbuka : langue et culture du Malawi et de la Zambie'', L'Harmattan, Paris, Budapest, Kinshasa, 138 pages. {{ISBN|2-296-00470-9}} * Kishindo, Pascal J. (ed), Jean J. Chavula and others (2018). {{lang|tum|Mung'anamulira mazgo wa ChiTumbuka}} (ChiTumbuka dictionary). Centre for Language Studies, University of Malawi. {{ISBN|978-99960-9-610-5}} * Kiso, Andrea (2012). [http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:546594/FULLTEXT01.pdf "Tense and Aspect in ChiCheŵa, ChiTumbuka, and Cisena"]. Ph.D. Thesis. Stockholm University. * McNicholl, Duncan (2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190819091447/http://malawinetwork.org/guide-to-chitumbuka.pdf "The No-Nonsense Guide to Learning ChiTumbuka: Volume 1"]. * Moto, Francis (1999). "The Tonal Phonology of Bantu Ideophones". ''Malilime: Malawian Journal of Linguistics'' no.1, 100-120. (pp.&nbsp;112–119 deals with tone in ChiTumbuka ideophones). * Mphande, L. (1989). "A Phonological Analysis of the Ideophone in ChiTumbuka". Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas, Austin. * Shiozaki, Lisa (2004). "Concordial agreement in the Karonga dialect of Tumbuka". Undergraduate paper. Amherst: Dept. of Linguistics, Univ. of Massachusetts. * Turner, W.M. (1952). ''Tumbuka–Tonga–English Dictionary'' The Hetherwick Press, Blantyre, Nyasaland (now Malawi). * University of Malawi Centre for Language Studies (2006). [https://web.archive.org/web/20210413225347/http://unima-cls.org/Docs/MappingNorthernMalawi/lm-northernmalawi.pdf "Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi"]. * Vail, Hazen Leroy (1971). "The noun classes of Tumbuka". ''African studies'', v. 30, 1, p.&nbsp;35-59. * Vail, Hazen Leroy (1972). "Aspects of the Tumbuka Verb". Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin. {{refend}} == External links == {{InterWiki|code=tum}} {{Wikivoyage|Tumbuka phrasebook|Tumbuka|a phrasebook}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151123103050/http://africa.isp.msu.edu/afrlang/Tumbuka_root.html Very brief report on Tumbuka language.] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210413225347/http://unima-cls.org/Docs/MappingNorthernMalawi/lm-northernmalawi.pdf Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi]. University of Malawi Centre for Language Studies, 2006. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210413225407/http://unima-cls.org/Docs/MappingNorthernMalawi/mw-north-a4.jpg Language Map of Northern Malawi] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051222115610/http://embangweni.com/chitumbu.htm Some more ChiTumbuka vocabulary.] * [http://www.bisharat.net/wikidoc/pmwiki.php/PanAfrLoc/Tumbuka PanAfrican L10n page on Tumbuka] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210308020136/http://www.unima-cls.org/ ChiTumbuka monolingual dictionary] {{Languages of Malawi}} {{Languages of Zambia}} {{Narrow Bantu languages|N-S}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tumbuka Language}} [[Category:Tumbuka language| ]] [[Category:Nyasa languages]] [[Category:Languages of Malawi]] [[Category:Languages of Zambia]] [[Category:Tumbuka people]] [[Category:Non-tonal languages in tonal families]] [[Category:Click languages|Tumbuka language (Mzimba dialect)]] p38vnlz7ql8vvjq9ccx2o50ew3dpna7 0 35557 122861 90148 2026-10-04T09:02:07Z Kory9 12296 /* */ 122861 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bordeaux''' ni msumba mu chigaŵa cha [[Normandy]], mu charu cha [[France]] mu chilwa chikulu cha [[Yulaya]] (Europe). [[File:France-CIA WFB Map.png|thumb|Misumba ya [[France]]]] [[Jean-Joseph Sanfourche]] [[Category:Misumba yaku France]] [[Category:France]] [[Category:Malo ghakusangika mu France]] [[Category:Misumba yamu chigaŵa cha Normandy]] [[Category:Normandy, France]] [[Category:Yulaya]] l3q57yrfh2kjg00z67etnppi5tfcslx 122863 122861 2026-10-04T09:11:43Z Kory9 12296 /* */ 122863 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bordeaux''' ni msumba mu chigaŵa cha [[Normandy]], mu charu cha [[France]] mu chilwa chikulu cha [[Yulaya]] (Europe). [[File:France-CIA WFB Map.png|thumb|Misumba ya [[France]]]] [[Category:Misumba yaku France]] [[Category:France]] [[Category:Malo ghakusangika mu France]] [[Category:Misumba yamu chigaŵa cha Normandy]] [[Category:Normandy, France]] [[Category:Yulaya]] hqnrd3uda5f5vsfmqz6692mw186r2nu 0 47961 122847 122515 2026-10-04T00:31:20Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 122847 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}} {{CIA}} {{Infobox economy | country = Cameroon | image_size = 310px | image = Ars&Urbis International Workshop - Emiliano Gandolfi 82.JPG | caption = [[Douala]], the economic capital of Cameroon | currency = [[CFA franc]] ([[ISO 4217|XAF]]) | fixed exchange = | year = Calendar year | organs = [[African Union|AU]], [[African Continental Free Trade Agreement|AfCFTA]] (signed), [[Economic Community of Central African States|ECCAS]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] | group = {{plainlist| *[[Developing country|Developing/Emerging]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2200&sg=All+countries+%2f+Emerging+market+and+developing+economies |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=29 September 2019}}</ref> *Lower-middle income economy<ref>{{cite web |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=datahelpdesk.worldbank.org |access-date=29 September 2019}}</ref>}} | population = {{increase}} 30,058,421 (2025)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=CM&name_desc=true |title=Population, total |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=12 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260731163029/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL%3Flocations%3DCM%26name_desc%3Dtrue |archive-date=31 July 2026}}</ref> | gdp = {{plainlist| * {{increase}} $60.58 billion ([[GDP (nominal)|nominal]]; {{abbr|2025|2025 forecast}})<ref name="IMF DataMapper">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/CMR |title=IMF DataMapper: Cameroon |website=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=2025 |access-date=31 May 2025}}</ref> * {{increase}} $173.30 billion ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]; {{abbr|2025|2025}})<ref name="IMF DataMapper"/> }} | gdp rank = {{plainlist| * [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|87th (nominal; 2025)]] * [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|86th (PPP; 2025)]] }} | growth = {{plainlist| * 3.6%&nbsp;(2024)<ref name="IMF DataMapper" /> * 3.6%&nbsp;({{abbr|2025|2025 forecast}})<ref name="IMF DataMapper" /> }} | per capita = {{plainlist| * {{increase}} $2,027 (nominal; {{abbr|2025|2025 forecast}})<ref name="IMF DataMapper"/> * {{increase}} $5,790 (PPP; {{abbr|2025|2025 forecast}})<ref name="IMF DataMapper"/> }} | per capita rank = {{plainlist| * [[List of countries by GDP per capita (nominal)|152nd (nominal; 2025)]] * [[List of countries by GDP per capita (PPP)|147th (PPP; 2025)]] }} | per capita growth = 0.9%&nbsp;(2024)<ref name="World Bank">{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.KD.ZG|title = GDP per capita growth (annual %), World Bank Group, accessed June 2026}}</ref> | components = | sectors = {{plainlist| *[[Primary sector of the economy|agriculture]]: 32.2% *[[Secondary sector of the economy|industry]]: 17.2% *[[Tertiary sector of the economy|services]]: 50.6% *(2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Cameroon|access-date=8 February 2024}}</ref>}} | inflation = 3.4% (2025 est.)<ref name="IMFWEOCM">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2025/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=39&pr.y=13&sy=2017&ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=622&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC%2CPCPIPCH&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, June 2025 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=6 December 2019}}</ref> | poverty = {{plainlist| *22% (2024, [[World Bank]])<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=CM |title=Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population)|publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=11 February 2019}}</ref> *23% on less than $3.20/day (estimated in 2024)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day (2017 PPP) (% of population) - Cameroon |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.LMIC?locations=CM |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref>}} | gini = 42.2 {{color|orange| medium}} (2014, [[World Bank]])<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=CM |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=11 February 2021}}</ref> | hdi = {{plainlist| *{{increase}} 0.588 {{color|darkorange|medium}} (2024)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/137506 |title=Human Development Index (HDI) |publisher=[[Human Development Report|HDRO (Human Development Report Office)]] [[United Nations Development Programme]] |website=hdr.undp.org |access-date=11 December 2023}}</ref> ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|148th]]) *0.470 {{color|red|low}} [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI|IHDI]] (2023)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-3-inequality-adjusted-human-development-index-ihdi |title=Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) |publisher=[[Human Development Report|HDRO (Human Development Report Office)]] [[United Nations Development Programme]] |website=hdr.undp.org |access-date=11 December 2023}}</ref>}} | labor = {{plainlist| *{{increase}} 11,118,837 (2024)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locations=CM&name_desc=true |title=Labor force, total |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=31 December 2024}}</ref> *62.9% employment rate (2024)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.NE.ZS?locations=CM&name_desc=true |title=Employment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (national estimate) - Cameroon |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=24 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250122055024/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.NE.ZS?locations=CM&name_desc=true |archive-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>}} | occupations = {{plainlist| *[[Primary sector of the economy|agriculture]]: 32.2% *[[Secondary sector of the economy|industry]]: 17.2% *[[Tertiary sector of the economy|commerce]]: 50.6% *(2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/>}} | unemployment = 3.5% (2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | industries = [[petroleum]] production and [[refining]], [[aluminium]] production, [[food processing]], light consumer goods, [[textiles]], [[lumber]], [[ship]] repair | exports = {{increase}} $7 billion (2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | export-goods = [[crude oil]] and [[petroleum product]]s, [[lumber]], [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]] beans, [[aluminium]], [[coffee]], [[cotton]] | export-partners = {{plainlist| *{{flag|China}} 17% *{{flag|France}} 8.9% *{{flag|India}} 7.2% *{{flag|Russia}} 6.8% *{{flag|Belgium}} 3.8% *(2024)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/>}} | imports = {{increase}} $10.58 billion (2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | import-goods = [[machinery]], [[electrical]] equipment, [[transport]] equipment, [[fuel]], [[food]] | import-partners = {{plainlist| *{{flag|China}} 19% *{{flag|France}} 7.6% *{{flag|Nigeria}} 5.5% *{{flag|India}} 4.8% *{{flag|Russia}} 4.4% *(2024)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/>}} | current account = {{increaseNegative}} −$1.2 billion (2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | FDI = | gross external debt = {{increaseNegative}} $15.104 billion (31 December 2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | debt = {{increaseNegative}} 37% of GDP (2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | revenue = {{increase}} $8.630 billion (2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | balance = −0.4% (of GDP) (2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | expenses = {{increase}} $9.370 billion (2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | aid = The Paris Club agreed to reduce Cameroon's debt of $1.3 billion by $900 million, debt relief now totals $1.26 billion ({{As of|2001|alt=2001}}) | credit = {{plainlist| *[[Standard & Poor's]]:<ref>{{cite web |title= Sovereigns rating list |publisher=Standard & Poor's |url=http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu/?subSectorCode=39 |access-date=26 May 2011}}</ref> *B- (Domestic) *B (Foreign) *BBB- (T&C Assessment)}} | reserves = {{increase}} $5.8 billion (31 December 2024 est.)<ref name="CIAWFCM"/> | spelling = }} [[File:ChrisTonaldo on his harvested coacoa.jpg|thumb|Cocoa Farm]] [[Cameroon]] has a [[Developing country|developing economy]] considered lower-middle income. It was one of the most prosperous in [[Africa]] for a quarter of a century after independence. The drop in commodity prices for its principal [[export]]s – [[petroleum]], [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]], [[coffee]], and [[cotton]] – in the mid-1980s, combined with an overvalued [[currency]] and economic mismanagement, led to a decade-long [[recession]]. Real per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] fell by more than 60% from 1986 to 1994. The current account and fiscal [[Government budget deficit|deficit]]s widened, and [[foreign debt]] grew. Yet because of its [[oil reserves]] and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon still has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in [[sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref name=Tambi2015>{{cite journal |last1=Tambi |first1=Mbu Daniel |title=Economic Growth, Crisis, and Recovery in Cameroon: A Literature Review |journal=Journal of Industrial Distribution & Business |date=30 March 2015 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=5–15 |doi=((10.13106/ijidb.2015.vol6.no1.5.)) |doi-access= }}</ref> == Agriculture == {{update section|date=August 2024}} In 2024, Cameroon produced: * 19{{nbsp}}million tons of [[cassava]] (6th largest producer in the world); * 3.9{{nbsp}}million tonnes of [[Cooking banana|plantain]] (3rd largest producer in the world, only behind Congo and Ghana); * 2.6{{nbsp}}million tons of [[palm oil]] (7th largest producer in the world); * 2.3{{nbsp}}million tons of [[maize]]; * 1.9{{nbsp}}million tons of [[taro]] (3rd largest producer in the world, second only to Nigeria and China); * 1.4{{nbsp}}million tons of [[sorghum]]; * 1.2{{nbsp}}million tons of [[banana]]; * 1.2{{nbsp}}million tons of [[sugarcane]]; * 1{{nbsp}}million tons of [[tomato]] (19th largest producer in the world); * 674,000 tonnes of [[Yam (vegetable)|yam]] (7th largest producer in the world); * 594,000 tons of [[peanut]]; * 410,000 tons of [[sweet potato]]; * 402,000 tons of [[bean]]s; * 332,000 tons of [[rice]]; * 310,000 tons of [[pineapple]]; * 307,000 tons of [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]] (5th largest producer in the world, after Ivory Coast, Ghana, Indonesia and Nigeria); * 302,000 tons of [[potato]]; * 301,000 tons of [[onion]]; * 249,000 tons of [[cotton]]. In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, such as [[coffee]] (33,000 tons) and [[natural rubber]] (55,000 tons).<ref>[http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/ Cameroon production in 2018, by FAO]</ref> ==Finance and banking== Cameroon's financial system is the largest in the [[CEMAC]] region. Access to financial services is limited, particularly for SMEs. Aside from a traditional tendency for banks to prefer dealing with large, established companies, determining factors are also found in interest rates for loans to SMEs being capped at 15 percent and being heavily taxed. As of 2006, bank loans to SMEs hardly reached 15 percent of total outstanding loans (Molua, 2002).<ref name=Tambi2015/> Around 25 percent of Cameroonians have access to a bank account(as of 2024). While the microfinance sector is consequently becoming increasingly important, its development is hampered by a loose regulatory and supervisory framework for [[microfinance]] institutions (MFIs). The banking sector is highly concentrated and dominated by foreign commercial banks. 6 out of the 11 largest commercial banks are foreign-owned, and the three largest banks hold more than 50 percent of total financial system assets. While foreign banks generally display good solvency ratios, small domestic banks are in a much weaker position. Their capitalization is well below the average of banks in the CEMAC region and their profits are close to 2 percent, compared to 20 percent for foreign banks in the country. This is partially explained by the high levels of non-performing loans, which reached 12 percent in 2007, leading to most banks holding large amounts of excess reserves as a percentage of deposits and large levels of unutilized liquidity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfw4a.org/cameroon/cameroon-financial-sector-profile.html|title=Cameroon Financial Sector Profile: MFW4A - Making Finance Work for Africa|website=www.mfw4a.org|access-date=1 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513110637/http://www.mfw4a.org/cameroon/cameroon-financial-sector-profile.html|archive-date=13 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2018, Cameroon's financial system is being requested by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to increase its tax base to cover the losses from the North-West and South-West Cameroon's regions instabilities, the loss of oil revenue, the failure to deliver on port facilities, and the decline in oil production from mature oil fields.<ref>IMF.org</ref> === Climate finance === {{Excerpt|Climate finance in Cameroon}} ==Macro-economic trend== <!--[[File:YaoundePanoramicView.jpeg|center|upright=2.0|thumb|Yaounde, the second economic center of the country]]--> Cameroon became an oil-producing country in 1977. Claiming to want to make reserves for difficult times, the authorities manage "off-budget" oil revenues in total opacity (the funds are placed in [[Paris]], [[Switzerland]] and [[New York City|New York]] accounts). Several billion dollars are thus diverted to the benefit of oil companies and regime officials. The influence of France and its 9,000 nationals in Cameroon remains considerable. African Affairs magazine noted in the early 1980s that they "continue to dominate almost all key sectors of the economy, much as they did before independence. French nationals control 55% of the modern sector of the Cameroonian economy and their control over the banking system is total.<ref>Thomas Deltombe, Manuel Domergue, Jacob Tatsita, Kamerun !, La Découverte, 2019</ref> Recent signs, however, are encouraging. As of March 1998, Cameroon's fifth IMF program – a 3-year enhanced structural adjustment program approved in August 1997 – is on track. Cameroon has rescheduled its [[Paris Club]] debt at favorable terms. GDP has grown by about 5% a year beginning in 1995. There is cautious optimism that Cameroon is emerging from its long period of economic hardship. [[File:2006Cameroonian exports.PNG|thumb|left|upright=1.25|Cameroonian exports in 2006]] The [[Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility]] (ESAF) signed recently by the IMF and Government of Cameroon calls for greater macroeconomic planning and financial accountability; [[privatization]] of most of Cameroon's nearly 100 remaining non-financial parastatal enterprises; elimination of state marketing board [[monopoly|monopolies]] on the export of cocoa, certain coffees, and cotton; privatization and price competition in the [[banking]] sector; implementation of the 1992 [[labor code]]; a vastly improved judicial system; and political liberalization to boost investment. [[France]] is Cameroon's main trading partner and source of private investment and [[foreign aid]]. Cameroon has an investment guaranty agreement and a bilateral accord with the [[United States]]. USA investment in Cameroon is about $1 million, most of it in the oil sector. Inflation has been brought back under control. Cameroon aims at becoming emerging by 2035. The government embarked upon a series of economic reform programs supported by the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) beginning in the late 1980s. Many of these measures have been painful; the government slashed [[civil service]] salaries by 65% in 1993. The [[CFA franc]] – the common currency of Cameroon and 13 other African states – was devalued by 50% in January 1994. The government failed to meet the conditions of the first four IMF programs. This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Cameroon at market prices [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcselm.cfm?G=2001 estimated] by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Central African CFA Francs. [[File:Pineapple 'Victoria' with slice.jpg|thumb|Pineapple 'Victoria', grown in Cameroon]] {| class="wikitable" |- ! Year || Gross Domestic Product || US Dollar Exchange |- | 1980 || 1,600,186 || 209.20 Francs |- | 1985 || 4,355,977 || 471.12 Francs |- | 1990 || 3,804,428 || 300.65 Francs |- | 1995 || 4,686,286 || 518.62 Francs |- | 2000 || 6,612,385 || 658.21 Francs |- | 2005 || 8,959,279 || 527.29 Francs |} The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2022. Inflation below 5% is in green.<ref>{{cite web|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=1980&ey=2023&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=622&s=NGDP_RPCH,PPPGDP,PPPPC,PCPIPCH,GGXWDG_NGDP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=35&pr.y=12|access-date=2018-08-29|language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !Year !GDP <small>(in Bil. US$PPP)</small> !GDP per capita <small>(in US$ PPP)</small> !GDP <small>(in Bil. US$nominal)</small> !GDP growth <small>(real)</small> !Inflation rate <small>(in Percent)</small> !Government debt <small>(in % of GDP)</small> |- |1980 |11.1 |1,263 |8.85 |{{Increase}}9.9% |{{IncreaseNegative}}7.7% |n/a |- |1981 |{{Increase}}14.3 |{{Increase}}1,572 |{{Increase}}10.03 |{{Increase}}17.1% |{{IncreaseNegative}}7.5% |n/a |- |1982 |{{Increase}}16.3 |{{Increase}}1,747 |{{Decrease}}9.62 |{{Increase}}7.6% |{{IncreaseNegative}}15.3% |n/a |- |1983 |{{Increase}}18.1 |{{Increase}}1,887 |{{Increase}}9.69 |{{Increase}}6.8% |{{IncreaseNegative}}20.5% |n/a |- |1984 |{{Increase}}20.1 |{{Increase}}2,047 |{{Increase}}10.24 |{{Increase}}7.5% |{{IncreaseNegative}}12.1% |n/a |- |1985 |{{Increase}}22.4 |{{Increase}}2,223 |{{Increase}}10.70 |{{Increase}}8.1% |{{Increase}}4.2% |n/a |- |1986 |{{Increase}}24.4 |{{Increase}}2,357 |{{Increase}}13.95 |{{Increase}}6.8% |{{Increase}}4.3% |n/a |- |1987 |{{Increase}}24.5 |{{Decrease}}2,298 |{{Increase}}16.15 | {{Decrease}}-2.2% |{{Increase}}2.8% |n/a |- |1988 |{{Decrease}}23.4 |{{Decrease}}2,129 |{{Increase}}16.40 | {{Decrease}}-7.9% |{{Increase}}1.7% |n/a |- |1989 |{{Decrease}}23.9 |{{Decrease}}2,110 |{{Decrease}}14.63 | {{Decrease}}-1.8% |{{Increase}}1.6% |n/a |- |1990 |{{Decrease}}23.2 |{{Decrease}}1,992 |{{Increase}}14.64 | {{Decrease}}-6.2% |{{Increase}}1.5% |n/a |- |1991 |{{Decrease}}23.1 |{{Decrease}}1,922 |{{Increase}}16.33 | {{Decrease}}-3.8% | {{DecreasePositive}}-0.6% |n/a |- |1992 |{{Decrease}}22.9 |{{Decrease}}1,850 |{{Decrease}}14.96 | {{Decrease}}-3.1% |{{Increase}}1.9% |n/a |- |1993 |{{Decrease}}22.7 |{{Decrease}}1,780 |{{Increase}}15.61 | {{Decrease}}-3.2% | {{DecreasePositive}}-3.7% |n/a |- |1994 |{{Decrease}}22.6 |{{Decrease}}1,722 |{{Decrease}}10.62 | {{Decrease}}-2.5% |{{IncreaseNegative}}12.7% |n/a |- |1995 |{{Increase}}23.9 |{{Increase}}1,766 |{{Decrease}}10.08 |{{Increase}}3.3% |{{IncreaseNegative}}25.8% |n/a |- |1996 |{{Increase}}25.5 |{{Increase}}1,836 |{{Increase}}11.23 |{{Increase}}4.9% |{{Increase}}3.9% |n/a |- |1997 |{{Increase}}27.3 |{{Increase}}1,913 |{{Increase}}11.35 |{{Increase}}5.3% |{{Increase}}4.8% |n/a |- |1998 |{{Increase}}29.0 |{{Increase}}1,974 |{{Decrease}}11.34 |{{Increase}}4.9% |{{Increase}}3.2% |68% |- |1999 |{{Increase}}30.6 |{{Increase}}2,026 |{{Increase}}11.55 |{{Increase}}4.1% |{{Increase}}1.8% |{{Steady}}68% |- |2000 |{{Increase}}32.3 |{{Increase}}2,084 |{{Decrease}}10.25 |{{Increase}}3.4% |{{Increase}}1.2% |{{IncreaseNegative}}76% |- |2001 |{{Increase}}34.2 |{{Increase}}2,145 |{{Increase}}10.95 |{{Increase}}3.4% |{{Increase}}4.5% |{{DecreasePositive}}62% |- |2002 |{{Increase}}36.4 |{{Increase}}2,224 |{{Increase}}12.37 |{{Increase}}4.8% |{{Increase}}2.8% |{{DecreasePositive}}57% |- |2003 |{{Increase}}38.9 |{{Increase}}2,318 |{{Increase}}15.94 |{{Increase}}5.0% |{{Increase}}0.6% |{{DecreasePositive}}52% |- |2004 |{{Increase}}42.6 |{{Increase}}2,469 |{{Increase}}18.80 |{{Increase}}6.6% |{{Increase}}0.3% |{{Steady}}52% |- |2005 |{{Increase}}44.5 |{{Increase}}2,509 |{{Increase}}19.53 |{{Increase}}1.2% |{{Increase}}2.0% |{{DecreasePositive}}44% |- |2006 |{{Increase}}47.5 |{{Increase}}2,605 |{{Increase}}20.91 |{{Increase}}3.5% |{{Increase}}4.9% |{{DecreasePositive}}18% |- |2007 |{{Increase}}50.8 |{{Increase}}2,710 |{{Increase}}23.93 |{{Increase}}4.1% |{{Increase}}1.1% |{{DecreasePositive}}14% |- |2008 |{{Increase}}53.2 |{{Increase}}2,764 |{{Increase}}27.71 |{{Increase}}2.9% |{{IncreaseNegative}}5.3% |{{DecreasePositive}}11% |- |2009 |{{Increase}}55.0 |{{Increase}}2,777 |{{Increase}}27.90 |{{Increase}}2.6% |{{Increase}}3.0% |{{Steady}}11% |- |2010 |{{Increase}}57.2 |{{Increase}}2,814 |{{Decrease}}27.53 |{{Increase}}2.9% |{{Increase}}1.3% |{{IncreaseNegative}}14% |- |2011 |{{Increase}}60.5 |{{Increase}}2,892 |{{Increase}}30.63 |{{Increase}}3.5% |{{Increase}}3.0% |{{IncreaseNegative}}15% |- |2012 |{{Increase}}63.6 |{{Increase}}2,959 |{{Decrease}}30.17 |{{Increase}}4.5% |{{Increase}}2.4% |{{IncreaseNegative}}15% |- |2013 |{{Increase}}69.1 |{{Increase}}3,130 |{{Increase}}33.73 |{{Increase}}5.0% |{{Increase}}2.1% |{{IncreaseNegative}}17% |- |2014 |{{Increase}}75.1 |{{Increase}}3,313 |{{Increase}}36.40 |{{Increase}}5.8% |{{Increase}}1.9% |{{IncreaseNegative}}21% |- |2015 |{{Increase}}79.1 |{{Increase}}3,396 |{{Decrease}}32.21 |{{Increase}}5.6% |{{Increase}}2.7% |{{IncreaseNegative}}32% |- |2016 |{{Increase}}84.4 |{{Increase}}3,527 |{{Increase}}33.81 |{{Increase}}4.5% |{{Increase}}0.9% |{{Steady}}32% |- |2017 |{{Increase}}90.0 |{{Increase}}3,665 |{{Increase}}36.09 |{{Increase}}3.5% |{{Increase}}0.6% |{{IncreaseNegative}}37% |- |2018 |{{Increase}}95.9 |{{Increase}}3,803 |{{Increase}}39.99 |{{Increase}}4.0% |{{Increase}}1.1% |{{IncreaseNegative}}38% |- |2019 |{{Increase}}101.0 |{{Increase}}3,901 |{{Increase}}39.67 |{{Increase}}3.4% |{{Increase}}2.5% |{{IncreaseNegative}}42% |- |2020 |{{Increase}}102.7 |{{Decrease}}3,870 |{{Increase}}40.86 |{{Increase}}0.5% |{{Increase}}2.5% |{{IncreaseNegative}}45% |- |2021 |{{Increase}}110.9 |{{Increase}}4,073 |{{Increase}}45.39 |{{Increase}}3.6% |{{Increase}}2.3% |{{IncreaseNegative}}46% |- |2022 |{{Increase}}123.3 |{{Increase}}4,419 |{{Decrease}}44.32 |{{Increase}}3.8% |{{Increase}}4.6% |{{IncreaseNegative}}47% |} ==Mining== {{Main|Mining industry of Cameroon}} ==Gallery== <gallery> File:Douala.JPG|[[Douala]] File:Limbe1.png|A touristic area in [[Limbe, Cameroon|Limbe]] File:YaoundeSportPalace.png|[[Yaoundé]] Sport palace File:Fulani herd in the dust.jpg|A [[Fula people|Fulani]] herder drives his cattle in northern Cameroon. File:Asky plane 7810.jpg|Douala International Airport File:Touristic Buses.jpg|Intercity buses in transit during the night (Touristique Express) File:WL-Cameroun-Train Yaoundé-Ngaoundéré.jpg|Interurban passenger train on the move in Cameroon (Douala-Yaounde-Ngaoundere) File:Nouveau pont sur le Wouri 04.jpg|Douala Seaport File:Transport de boissons 01.jpg|A truck transporting beers to various localities in Cameroon </gallery> ==See also== * [[Cameroon]] * [[Transport in Cameroon]] * [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{commons category}} *[http://www.trademap.org/open_access/Index.aspx?proceed=true&reporter=120 Cameroon latest trade data on ITC Trade Map] *[http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/CMR/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Cameroon] {{World Trade Organization}} {{Africa in topic|Economy of}} {{Cameroon topics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Economy of Cameroon}} [[Category:Economy of Cameroon| ]] [[Category:Economies of developing countries]] [[Category:World Trade Organization member economies|Cameroon]] [[Category:African Union member economies|Cameroon]] qv5jhchb6zelhwwpg1cabmtl3q0ivyn 0 49842 122840 2026-10-03T12:26:06Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Languages using Ethnologue.com 122840 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ChiFrisiyan cha Kumpoto''' (''Nordfriisk'') ntchiyowoyero cha ku [[Germany]] icho chili pangozi. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Indo-European. Chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na ŵalara pera. Likumanyikwa yayi kuti likusambizgika mu masukulu. ==Banja== Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Indo-European. {{InterWiki|code=frr}} [[Category:Viyowoyelo]] 85j49t3zm7wjt3j46cvglgats2x1ote 2 49843 122841 2026-10-03T12:52:43Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Creating articles using Ethnologue guide 122841 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code>'''ChiTagalog''' ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku [[Philippines]]. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka: <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! You can expand it in any way once you are done! 2rzjeogdfeqgxi3z1qtrfyq96zs2mzi 122842 122841 2026-10-03T12:53:24Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Creation process */ 122842 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki>'''ChiTagalog''' ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka: <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! You can expand it in any way once you are done! 98um3qa7uh4k2xfrwhnrehhwhvdeing 122843 122842 2026-10-03T12:53:38Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Creating the opening section */ 122843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka: <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! You can expand it in any way once you are done! qf55ctoolkogo7ly921lcxn0xv2z0w5 122844 122843 2026-10-03T13:00:21Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Creating the Family section */ 122844 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka (rough translation; may be inaccurate): <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! You can expand it in any way once you are done! 7bx21slpe5345j0cnyr8st7qr46w39n 122845 122844 2026-10-03T13:09:21Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Related edit summaries */ 122845 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka (rough translation; may be inaccurate): <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> Alternatively, you may use the Tumbuka edit summary: <code>Chiyowoyero chakugwiriskira ntchito Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! You can expand it in any way once you are done! a5ezjaz1e8xqlw3cv0km15bgmdkdyx0 122850 122845 2026-10-04T02:00:01Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 122850 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} <blockquote>[[File:Nuvola apps important.svg|left|25px|alt=]]'''This is not fully recommended'''. This idea was founded by one user's only, and is not guaranteed to produce nice and clean articles, and most being stubs.</blockquote> This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka (rough translation; may be inaccurate): <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> Alternatively, you may use the Tumbuka edit summary: <code>Chiyowoyero chakugwiriskira ntchito Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! You can expand it in any way once you are done! oaoxmi16g65pocygfgecduhqmdsnpcx 122851 122850 2026-10-04T02:00:29Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 122851 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} <blockquote>[[File:Nuvola apps important.svg|left|25px|alt=]]'''''This is not fully recommended'''. This idea was founded by one user's only, and is not guaranteed to produce nice and clean articles, and most being stubs.''</blockquote> This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka (rough translation; may be inaccurate): <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> Alternatively, you may use the Tumbuka edit summary: <code>Chiyowoyero chakugwiriskira ntchito Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! You can expand it in any way once you are done! tkjjeedczwfa059a7z401yyccjh3byr 122852 122851 2026-10-04T02:05:28Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 122852 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} <blockquote>[[File:Nuvola apps important.svg|left|25px|alt=]]'''''This is not fully recommended'''. This idea was founded by one user's only, and is not guaranteed to produce nice and clean articles, and most being stubs.''</blockquote> This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka (rough translation; may be inaccurate): <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> Alternatively, you may use the Tumbuka edit summary: <code>Chiyowoyero chakugwiriskira ntchito Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! Your article should look like this: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> <code><nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki></code> <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> You can expand it in any way once you are done! i1k41vv9j7o1d3ft11af96x7gjp3md8 122853 122852 2026-10-04T02:05:39Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Finished? */ 122853 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} <blockquote>[[File:Nuvola apps important.svg|left|25px|alt=]]'''''This is not fully recommended'''. This idea was founded by one user's only, and is not guaranteed to produce nice and clean articles, and most being stubs.''</blockquote> This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka (rough translation; may be inaccurate): <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> Alternatively, you may use the Tumbuka edit summary: <code>Chiyowoyero chakugwiriskira ntchito Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! Your article should look like this: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> <code><nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki></code> <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> You can expand it in any way once you are done! mv53rten8ja6v46avgvaa2wvevyqrz7 122854 122853 2026-10-04T02:05:49Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Finished? */ 122854 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} <blockquote>[[File:Nuvola apps important.svg|left|25px|alt=]]'''''This is not fully recommended'''. This idea was founded by one user's only, and is not guaranteed to produce nice and clean articles, and most being stubs.''</blockquote> This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka (rough translation; may be inaccurate): <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> Alternatively, you may use the Tumbuka edit summary: <code>Chiyowoyero chakugwiriskira ntchito Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! Your article should look like this: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> <code><nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki></code> <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> You can expand it in any way once you are done! 2zwieje60ljbro7eugl3hk7pg9xjfla 122855 122854 2026-10-04T02:12:17Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Fixes 122855 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} <blockquote>[[File:Nuvola apps important.svg|left|25px|alt=]]'''''This is not fully recommended'''. This idea was founded by one user's only, and is not guaranteed to produce nice and clean articles, and most being stubs.''</blockquote> This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha ku Austronesia. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka (rough translation; may be inaccurate): <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> Alternatively, you may use the Tumbuka edit summary: <code>Chiyowoyero chakugwiriskira ntchito Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! Your article should look like this: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> <code><nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki></code> <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> You can expand it in any way once you are done! jc5o5769cd6k7wj9hgtn7pfxzr8vwxc 122856 122855 2026-10-04T04:33:15Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Creating the opening section */ Fixes 122856 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="position:absolute; position: -100vw; font-size: 0px;">User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi/</span>Creating articles using Ethnologue}} <blockquote>[[File:Nuvola apps important.svg|left|25px|alt=]]'''''This is not fully recommended'''. This idea was founded by one user's only, and is not guaranteed to produce nice and clean articles, and most being stubs.''</blockquote> This is one (not fully guaranteed) way that you can create articles on the topic of languages using [[Ethnologue|Ethnologue.com]] for the Tumbuka Wikipedia. Note that this will '''<u>only</u>''' work for the <u>Tumbuka Wikipedia</u>, as other language versions will have their own rules. Also, this is only '''my''' ([[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]) thoughts, and this is not guaranteed to work, as stated above. ==Creation process== ===Creating the opening section=== First we have to talk about an important part; the opening section for the new page. It is basically the section where you can explain a basic summary of the page. To get this, we would need to go to the Ethnologue page for the language. Lets say we wanted to create an article about Tagalog, a language in the Philippines. The language code for the language is '''tl''', but URLs in Ethnologue use the 3 letter style, so we will use '''tgl'''. We would go to https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tgl/ and copy the "Summary" section into the new article. Here is the English Summary: <code>Tagalog is a language of wider communication that originated in the Philippines. It belongs to the Austronesian language family. Direct evidence is lacking, but the language is thought to be used as a first language by all in the ethnic community. It is used as a language of instruction in education.</code> English language on the Tumbuka Wikipedia is not allowed, since it is not the English Wikipedia. So we'd need to translate it to Tumbuka: <code>ChiTagalog ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku Philippines. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> And now to add wikilinks and formatting: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> ===Creating the Family section=== Ethnologue also has a section which states the language family of the language. Sticking on the new Tagalog article, the section header should be called <nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki>. Now lets find the information from the page and paste it in. Here is the English Family section: <code>It belongs to the Austronesian language family.</code> Now translate it to Tumbuka (rough translation; may be inaccurate): <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> ===Finishing touches=== To finish the new article, lets add templates and categories. Lets start with the templates. In the current tumwiki style, we'd need to add the [[Template:InterWiki|InterWiki template]]. This template uses the 2 letter language code, unless there is none. Add it like so to the bottom of the article: <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> Now for the categories, really only one is needed. More experienced editors can help by adding more if they are needed. Lets add <nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki>, literally meaning ''languages''. Do this: <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> ===Related edit summaries=== The ideal edit summary after creating articles from Ethnologue is this: <code>Languages using Ethnologue.com</code> Alternatively, you may use the Tumbuka edit summary: <code>Chiyowoyero chakugwiriskira ntchito Ethnologue.com</code> ==Finished?== Congrats, you created your (possibly) first Ethnologue article! Your article should look like this: <code><nowiki>'''ChiTagalog'''</nowiki> ntchiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ndipo chikafuma ku <nowiki>[[Philippines]]</nowiki>. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian. Ukaboni wakudunjika ukusoŵa, kweni ŵakughanaghana kuti chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu uwu. Likugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero cha kusambizga mu masambiro.</code> <code><nowiki>==Banja==</nowiki></code> <code>Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesian.</code> <code><nowiki>{{InterWiki|code=tl}}</nowiki></code> <code><nowiki>[[Category:Viyowoyelo]]</nowiki></code> You can expand it in any way once you are done! js01znvhw0kkr0wfd77sspy8pe0jcgt 0 49844 122859 2026-10-04T05:17:45Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "'''Jasmine '''ni [[zina]] lakwamba la mwanakazi. Zina la ChiNgelezi likuyowoya za chakumera icho chili na zina limoza.<ref>https://www.behindthename.com/name/jasmine</ref> ==Mndandanda wa ŵanthu== * [[Jasmine Armfield]] * [[Jasmine Artiga]] * [[Jasmine Bayes]] * [[Jasmine Camacho-Quinn]] * [[Jasmine Cheung]] * [[Jasmine Suraya Chin]] * [[Ting Chu|Jasmine Ting Chu]] * [[Jasmine Crockett]] * [[Jasmine Curtis-Smith]] * [[Jasmine van den Bogaerde]] * [[Jasmine Dickey]] *..." 122859 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jasmine '''ni [[zina]] lakwamba la mwanakazi. Zina la ChiNgelezi likuyowoya za chakumera icho chili na zina limoza.<ref>https://www.behindthename.com/name/jasmine</ref> ==Mndandanda wa ŵanthu== * [[Jasmine Armfield]] * [[Jasmine Artiga]] * [[Jasmine Bayes]] * [[Jasmine Camacho-Quinn]] * [[Jasmine Cheung]] * [[Jasmine Suraya Chin]] * [[Ting Chu|Jasmine Ting Chu]] * [[Jasmine Crockett]] * [[Jasmine Curtis-Smith]] * [[Jasmine van den Bogaerde]] * [[Jasmine Dickey]] * [[Jasmine Lepore Fiore]] * [[Jasmine Guinness]] * [[Jasmine Guy]] * [[Jasmine Harman]] * [[Jasmine (munthu wakuyimba wa ku Japan)|Jasmine]], munthu wakuyimba wa ku Japan * [[Jasmine Jobson]] * [[Jasmine Junusbayeva]] * [[Jasmine Cephas Jones]] * [[Jasmine Lennard]] * [[Jasmine Lister]] * [[Jasmine Paolini]] * [[Jasmine Petersen]] * [[Jasmine Ramilo|Jasmine Althea Ramilo]] * [[Jasmine Richards]] * [[Jasmine Richardson]] * [[Jasmine Salinas]] * [[Jasmine Sanders]] * [[Jasmine Sandlas]] * [[Jasmine Sagginario]] * [[Jasmine Sim]] * [[Jasmine Sokko]] * [[Jasmine Thomas (basiketi)|Jasmine Thomas]] * [[Jasmine Thompson]] * [[Jasmine Tookes]] * [[Jasmine Trias]] * [[Jasmine Trinca]] * [[Jasmine Twitty]] * [[Jasmine V]]illegas * [[Jasmine Walker]] * [[Jasmine Yakhlakova]] * [[Jasmine You]] ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Mazina]] fdzpqmzjkk1yxg8i8z06icc10ck5nzs 0 49845 122862 2026-10-04T09:10:59Z Kory9 12296 Created page with "{{Ŵanthu |Zina = Jean-Joseph Sanfourche |Siku_lakubabikila = Juni 25 1929 |Siku_lakufwila = Malichi 13 2010 }} '''Jean-Joseph Sanfourche''' (25 Juni 1929 - 13 Malichi 2010) ni wakupenta, ndakatulo, wakulemba na kupanga vikozgo wa ku [[France]]. [[Category:Bakupenta]]" 122862 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Ŵanthu |Zina = Jean-Joseph Sanfourche |Siku_lakubabikila = Juni 25 1929 |Siku_lakufwila = Malichi 13 2010 }} '''Jean-Joseph Sanfourche''' (25 Juni 1929 - 13 Malichi 2010) ni wakupenta, ndakatulo, wakulemba na kupanga vikozgo wa ku [[France]]. [[Category:Bakupenta]] egsigony1gi34iy4gbl036flrnjf17v