Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.23 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 1526 123188 122210 2026-10-09T09:29:11Z MediaWiki message delivery 2648 /* Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist */ new section 123188 wikitext text/x-wiki {{User:MiszaBot/config |maxarchivesize = 10 |counter = 1 |algo = old(48h) |archive = Wikipedia:Vidumbizgano vya chikaya/Archive %(counter)d |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 20 }} {{Archives}} <!--- New sections go at the BOTTOM of the page ---> <!--- New sections go at the BOTTOM of the page ---> == Request for the renewal of Interface sysop == MU CHITUMBUKA Monile chikaya chose,nkhupempha kuti nilutilizge kuŵa admin wa interface. Ntchito yane mukuimanya kale ngati ni mwa nyengo zose. Uyo wakususka, panji kuzomelezga, walemba maganizo ghake pasi. ENGLISH I would like to request for interface adminship. I would like to continue updating and creating JSON and CSS pages. I have done this here a countless times. I have been an interface admin for more than 3 times, and it's nothing new. Requesting 2-3 years. Thank you. -- [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 01:51, 7 Ogasiti 2026 (UTC) === Agree (nkhuzomelezga) === * {{Support}} [[User:Chanda Vavilaya|Chanda Vavilaya]] ([[User talk:Chanda Vavilaya|pakuchezgela]]) 07:59, 20 Ogasiti 2026 (UTC) * {{Support}}- Tumbuka Arch is very deservent of this right, they work very hard on the wiki. 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You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. 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Please reach out if you have any questions, or if your wiki would like to opt-out, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|pakuchezgela]]) 09:29, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) (This message was sent to [[:Wikipedia:Community Portal]] and is being posted here due to a redirect.) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_Test_List&oldid=31142775 --> jm2kskyt8rvzqxj0e4fiuhc00lfmf85 0 4407 123178 122925 2026-10-09T00:30:40Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 123178 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dendroaspis polylepis 01.jpg|thumb|250px|Nkhomi]] '''Nkhomi''' (''Dendroaspis polylepis''). '''Nkhomi''' ni zina la chikhalidwe ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Malaŵi]] na [[Zambia]] ŵa ku [[ŴaTumbuka]] na [[ŴaSenga]] ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pakuyowoya za njoka zakofya chomene, za poizoni, chomenechomene mamba wakufipa (''Dendroaspis polylepis''). Mu chiyowoyero cha ku malo agha na ntharika za mitheto, lizgu ili likukolerana chomene na kukoma, luwiro, na mikhaliro yakuzizwiska. == Mazgo na ng'anamuro lake == Mu vigaŵa ivyo viyowoyero vya [[ChiTumbuka]] na Afilika Wapakati vikuyowoyeka, lizgu lakuti ''Nkhomi'' likuzgoŵezgeka ku ng'anamuro ilo likukolerana na "wakukoma" panji chinthu icho chikupangiska nyifwa mwamabuchibuchi. Chifukwa chakuti njoka iyi yikwenda mwaluŵiro chomene ndiposo yikuŵa na poizoni wankhongono wakukoma wongo, kukumana na mamba wakufipa mu mdauko kukapangiska kuti munthu wafwe mwaluŵiro pambere ŵandafike ku wovwiri wa munkhwala, ndipo ivi vikakhozga zina lake mu viyowoyero vya ku malo agha. == Kuzirwa kwa chikhalidwe na ntharika == Mu mitheto ya mlomo ya Malawi na nkhani za ku mizi, nyengo zinyake ''Nkhomi'' wakusazgikana na mikhaliro ya ntharika panji yakujumphizga: * '''Nthano ya "Chaholi":''' Mu vigaŵa vinyake vya ku mpoto kwa Malaŵi nga ni [[Boma la Chitipa|Chitipa]] na [[Embangweni]], ŵalara ŵakukoleska ŵa Nkhomi na ntharika ya ŵa ''Njoka Tambala''. Nthano ya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha yikuti njoka iyi yili na chipeso na chipeso cha tambala pa mutu wake ndipo yingayezga kulira kwa mbalame kuti yikope nyama panji kuchenjezga ŵanthu. * '''Kupambana kwa Kumanyikwa:''' Nangauli herpetology ya mazuŵa ghano yikumanyiska ''Nkhomi'' mwakukhora kuti ni mamba wakufipa, kulongosora kwa mizi kwa malo agha nyengo zinyake kukukhwaskana panji kusakanizga chimanyikwiro na njoka zinyake zakofya, nga ni boomslang yachimuna (''Dispholidus typus'') panji mamba wakubiriŵira, chifukwa cha nkharo yawo yakugaŵana ya arboreal. == Malo ghakukhalamo na kuchezga na ŵanthu == Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakulondezgera vinthu na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nkhomi ŵakutemwa chomene mapiri gha malibwe, malo gha mapiri, na malo ghakuwomira gha savanna. Chifukwa cha ngozi yikuru iyo yikupangika na kuluma kwake, ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ŵali kupanga nthowa zakukhora zakuchimbira njoka na nthowa zakale zakuchizgira panji kuchimbizga njoka para yafika pafupi chomene na malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. [[Category:Vinyama]] fgazv0hl6ouztyu7kaa80gt57fvshj5 0 6194 123153 122858 2026-10-08T16:33:54Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123153 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chigaŵa cha masamu}} {{About||the kind of algebraic structure|Algebra over a field|other uses}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Featured article}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2024 |cs1-dates=ly }} {{multiple image |perrow=1 / 1 |total_width=350 |image1=Polynomial2.svg |alt1=Polynomial equation: 2x^2 + 4x - 6 = 0 |link1=Polynomial equation |caption1=[[Elementary algebra|Algebra ya pulayimale]] yikusambira kuti ivyakuyaniska ivi vikuzirwa na vipimo vichi, ivyo vyakupangika mwakugwiliskira nchito za masamu. |image2=Ring of integers2.svg |alt2=Signature of the ring of integers |link2=Ring of integers |caption2=[[Abstract algebra|Algebra yakudumura]] yikusambira [[algebraic structure|magulu gha algebra]], nga umo mphete ya [[integer|vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]] vikuchemeka <math>(\Z)</math> pamoza na [[Algebraic operation|nchito]] za [[addition|kusazga]] ({{tmath|1= + }}) na [[multiplication|kwandaniska]] ({{tmath|1= \times }}). }} '''Algebra''' ni chigaŵa cha [[mathematics|masamu]] icho chikukhwaskana na ndondomeko zambura kuwoneka, izo zikuchemeka [[algebraic structure|magulu gha algebra]], na kugwiriskira nchito mazgu mukati mwa ndondomeko izo (ivyo vikuchemeka [[Expression (mathematics)|viyelezgero]]). Ni kusazgirako kwa [[arithmetic|masamu ghakwamba]], icho chikwiza na [[Variable (mathematics)|vyambura-kumanyikwa]] na nchito zinyake padera pa nchito za masamu ghakwamba, nga [[addition|kusazga]] na [[multiplication|kwandaniska]]. [[Elementary algebra|Algebra ya pulayimale]] ndiyo nthowa yikuru ya algebra iyo yikusambizgika mu masukulu. Iwo ukusanda mazgu gha masamu mwakugwiliskira nchito vyakusintha vya vigaŵa vyambura kumanyikwa, na kukhumba kumanya kuti ni mikhaliro wuli iyo mazgu agha ghali ghaunenesko. Kuti ŵacite nthena, ŵakugwiriskira nchito nthowa zakupambana-pambana zakusinthira vyakuyaniska kuti ŵapature vinthu vyakusintha vya vigaŵa. [[Linear algebra|Algebra ya mzere]] ni chigaŵa chakukolerana chomene na algebra ya pulayimale, icho chikufufuza vyakuyaniska vya mzere na kunozgeka kwake, ivyo vikuchemeka ''[[system of linear equations|magulu gha vyakuyaniska vya mzere]]''. Chikupereka nthowa zakusanga vipimo ivyo vikwaniska vyakuyaniska vyose mu gulu pa nyengo yimoza, na kusambira gulu la vigaŵa ivi. <!-- paragraphs 1 and 2 are transcluded into [[Outline of algebra]] --> [[Abstract algebra|Algebra yakudumura]] yikusambira [[Algebraic structure|magulu gha algebra]], ivyo vikupangika na gulu la vinthu vya masamu pamoza na nchito yimoza panji zinandi izo zikulongosoreka pa gulu ilo. Ni kusazgirako kwa algebra ya pulayimale na ya mzere, chifukwa chikuzomerezga vinthu vinyake padera pa vipendeko na nchito zambura kuŵa za masamu ghakwamba. Chikupambaniska pakati pa mitundu yakupambana-pambana ya magulu gha algebra, nga [[Group (mathematics)|magulu]], [[Ring (mathematics)|mphete]], na [[Field (mathematics)|minda]], kuyana na unandi wa nchito izo zikugwiriskirika ntchito na madango agho ghakulondezgeka, ghakuchemeka [[axioms|madango ghakuzomerezgeka]]. [[Universal algebra|Algebra ya wonse]] na [[category theory|sambiro la mikhaliro]] vikupereka vipangiro vyakuwaneko kuti vifufuze vipimo vyambura kuwoneka ivyo vikulongosora magulu ghakupambana-pambana gha algebra. Nthowa za algebra zikasambika dankha mu [[ancient period|nyengo yakale]] kuti zithaske masuzgo ghapadera mu vigaŵa nga [[geometry]]. Ichi chikasintha mu vilimika vya m'ma 800 na [[Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]], uyo wakanozga algebra kuŵa chigaŵa chakujipeleka cha masamu, chakupambana na geometry. Ŵasandi ŵakwamba ŵakalongosoranga vyakuyaniska na vyakuvitatuza mwakugwiliskira nchito mazgu na vifupikizgo, m'paka mu vilimika vya m'ma 1500 na 1600, apo nthowa yakukhwima ya viwimbo (symbols) yikapangika. Pakati pa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, uzelu wa algebra ukasazgirapo kuluska sambiro la vyakuyaniska pera na kusazgako mitundu yakupambana-pambana ya nchito na magulu gha algebra. Algebra yikukhwaskana na vigaŵa vinandi vya masamu, nga geometry, [[topology]], [[number theory|sambiro la vipendeko]], na [[calculus]], kweniso vigaŵa vinyake, nga [[logic]] na [[empirical sciences|kasandiro kakuzenga pa vyakuwonekera]]. == Ng'anamuro na Muko wa Lizgu == Algebra ni nthambi ya masamu iyo yikusambira magulu gha algebra na nchito izo ghakugwiliskira ntchito.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA4 4]}} }}</ref> Gulu la algebra ni gulu la vinthu vya masamu ilo lilije kuŵa lambura kanthu, nga vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika, pamoza na nchito za algebra izo zikulongosoreka pa gulu ilo, nga kusazga na kwandaniska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fiche|Hebuterne|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TqkckiuuXg8C&pg=PT326 326]}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and Its Connection with Other Branches of Mathematics.}} | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA4 4]}} }}</ref>{{efn|When understood in the widest sense, an algebraic operation is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] from a [[Cartesian product#n-ary Cartesian power|Cartesian power of a set into that set]], expressed formally as {{tmath|1= \omega: A^n \to A }}. The addition of real numbers is an example of an algebraic operation: it takes two numbers as input and produces one number as output. It has the form {{nowrap|<math>+: \R^2 \to \R</math>.<ref>{{harvnb|Baranovich|2023|loc=Lead section}}</ref>}}}} Algebra yikufufuza malango, mikhaliro yose, na mitundu ya magulu gha algebra. Mu magulu ghanyake gha algebra, yikuwoneseska umo vinthu vyakusintha (vyambura-kumanyikwa) vikugwiriskirika ntchito mu vyakuyaniska na umo vingachitikira kuvisintha.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 1. Elementary Algebra, § 2. Abstract Algebra, § 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and Its Connection with Other Branches of Mathematics.}} }}</ref>{{efn|Algebra is covered by division 512 in the [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]<ref>{{harvnb|Higham|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ferEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296 296]}}</ref> and subclass QA 150{{hyphen}}272.5 in the [[Library of Congress Classification]].<ref>{{harvnb|Library of Congress|p=3}}</ref> It encompasses several areas in the [[Mathematics Subject Classification]].<ref>{{harvnb|zbMATH Open|2024}}</ref>}} Kanandi algebra yikupulikiskika kuŵa kusazgirako kwa [[arithmetic|masamu ghakwamba]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=129}} | {{harvnb|Burgin|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWF2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 45]}} }}</ref> Masamu ghakwamba ghakusambira nchito nga kusazga, [[subtraction|kuwuskapo]], kwandaniska, na [[Division (mathematics)|kugaŵa]], mu chigaŵa chinyake cha vipendeko, nga vipendeko vyaunenesko.<ref name="auto1">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Romanowski|2008|pp=302–303}} | {{harvnb|HC Staff|2022}} | {{harvnb|MW Staff|2023}} | {{harvnb|Bukhshtab|Pechaev|2020}} }}</ref> [[Elementary algebra|Algebra ya pulayimale]] njiyo mlingo wakwamba wa kudumuka. Nga umo masamu ghakwamba ghakucitira, yikujikanizga ku mitundu yinyake ya vipendeko na nchito. Yikusazgirapo nchito izi mwakuzomerezga unandi wambura kumanyikwa mu mtundu wa vyambura-kumanyikwa padera pa vipendeko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=129–130}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Wagner|Kieran|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uW4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 225]}} }}</ref> Mlingo wapachanya wa kudumuka ukusangika mu [[abstract algebra|algebra yakudumura]], iyo yikumara yayi pa chigaŵa chinyake ndipo yikuwoneseska magulu gha algebra nga [[Group (mathematics)|magulu]] na [[Ring (mathematics)|mphete]]. Yikuluta kuluska nchito zamasamu ghakwamba mwakusazgaposo mitundu yinyake ya nchito.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Wagner|Kieran|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uW4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 225]}} }}</ref> [[Universal algebra|Algebra ya wonse]] njakudumura comenecomene chifukwa yikupulikira yayi magulu gha algebra ghapadera, kweni yikufufuza mikhaliro ya magulu gha algebra mwaunenesko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Grillet|2007|p=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-71568-1_15 559]}} | {{harvnb|Denecke|Wismath|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2UlZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v]}} | {{harvnb|Cohn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6tbuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii]}} }}</ref> [[File:Image-Al-Kitāb al-muḫtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala.jpg|upright=.8|thumb|alt=Title page of The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|Lizgu lakuti ''algebra'' likufuma ku mutu wa buku la [[al-Khwarizmi]] lakuti {{transliteration|ar|[[Al-Jabr]]}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cresswell|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4i3zV4vnBAC&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|OUP Staff}} | {{harvnb|Menini|Oystaeyen|2017|p=722}} }}</ref>]] Lizgu lakuti ''algebra'' nyengo zinyake likugwiriskirika ntchito mwakucepa kuti likung'anamurenge waka algebra ya pulayimale panji algebra yakudumura yekha.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=46}} | {{harvnb|Walz|2016|loc=[https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 Algebra]}} }}</ref> Para likugwiriskirika ntchito nga zina lakuŵerengeka, algebra ni mtundu unyake wa gulu la algebra uwo ukukhwaskana na malo gha [[vector space|vector]] agho ghali na mtundu unyake wa nchito ya viŵiri viŵiri, iyo yikuchemeka [[bilinear map|nchito yakuŵiriska]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=46}} | {{harvnb|Brešar|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PkvPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR33 xxxiii]}} | {{harvnb|Golan|1995|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-8502-6_18 219–227]}} }}</ref> Kulingana na umo vikuyowoyekera, algebra yingayowoyaso za vigaŵa vinyake vya algebra, nga [[Lie algebra]] panji [[associative algebra|algebra yakukolerana]].<ref>{{harvnb|EoM Staff|2017}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti ''algebra'' likufuma ku lizgu la Chiarabu lakuti {{lang|ar|الجبر}} ({{transliteration|ar|al-jabr}}), ilo pakwamba likang'anamuranga opareshoni yakuchizgira viwangwa. Mu vilimika vya m'ma 800 C.E., lizgu ili likaŵa na ng'anamuro la masamu apo [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]], uyo wakasambiranga masamu ku Persia, wakagwiriskira ntchito lizgu ili kuti wazunure nthowa yakusinthira vyakuyaniska. Wakagwiriskira ntchito lizgu ili pa mutu wa buku lake, ilo mutu wake ukung'anamulika kuti {{transliteration|ar|[[Al-Jabr|al-Kitāb al-Mukhtaṣar fī Ḥisāb al-Jabr wal-Muqābalah]]}} [Buku Lakulongosora Kupenda mwa Kumalizga na Kulinganiza]. Mutu uwu ukang'anamulika mu Chilatini kuti {{lang|la|Liber Algebrae et Almucabola}}.{{efn|The exact meaning of the term {{transliteration|ar|al-jabr}} in al-Khwarizmi's work is disputed. In some passages, it expresses that a quantity diminished by subtraction is restored to its original value, similar to how a bonesetter restores broken bones by bringing them into proper alignment.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Oaks|Alkhateeb|2007|pp=45–46, 58}} | {{harvnb|Gandz|1926|p=437}} }}</ref>}} Lizgu ili likanjira mu Chingelezi mu vilimika vya m'ma 1500 kufuma ku Chiitaliya, Chisipanishi, na Chilatini cha mu nyengo ya Ŵamitundu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cresswell|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J4i3zV4vnBAC&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|OUP Staff}} | {{harvnb|Menini|Oystaeyen|2017|p=722}} | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=10}} }}</ref> Pakwamba, ng'anamuro lake likaŵa waka pa fundo yakuti [[theory of equations|kufundizga vyakuyaniska]], ndikuti, uzeru wa kusintha [[polynomial equations|vyakuyaniska vyakuvinandi]] mwakukhumba kuvitatuza. Ichi chikasintha mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800{{efn|These changes were in part triggered by discoveries that solved many of the older problems of algebra. For example, the proof of the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] demonstrated the existence of complex solutions of polynomials<ref name="auto7">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=308}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra}} }}</ref> and the introduction of [[Galois theory]] characterized the polynomials that have [[solution in radicals|general solutions]].<ref name="auto2">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=314–345}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Galois Theory, § Applications of Group Theory}} }}</ref>}} apo uzelu wa algebra ukasazgirapo kuti ukwatire kusambira mitundu yakupambana-pambana ya nchito na magulu gha algebra pamoza na [[axiom|madango ghakuzomerezgeka]] ghawo, malango agho ghakulondezgeka.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Structural Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73–74]}} }}</ref> == Vigaŵa Vikuru == === Algebra ya Pulayimale === {{main|Elementary algebra}} [[File:algebraic equation notation.svg|thumb|right|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of an algebraic expression|Umo mazgu gha algebra ghakulembeka:<br />&nbsp; 1 – chikwezgo (exponent)<br />&nbsp; 2 – muwandaniso (coefficient)<br />&nbsp; 3 – chigaŵa (term)<br />&nbsp; 4 – chiwimbo cha nchito (operator)<br />&nbsp; 5 – chigaŵa cambura-kusintha (constant term)<br />&nbsp; <math>c</math> – cambura-kusintha (constant)<br />&nbsp; <math>x</math> <math>y</math> – vyambura-kumanyikwa (variables)]] Algebra ya pulayimale, iyo yikuchemekaso algebra ya sukulu, ndiyo ni algebra yakale chomene ndiposo yakuzirwa chomene.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N2R9DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} | {{harvnb|Benson|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nNbnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 111–112]}} }}</ref> Ni generalization ya masamu ghakwamba iyo yikuthemba pa vyakusintha (vyambura-kumanyikwa) na kusanda umo mazgu gha masamu ghangasinthira.<ref name="auto4">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=129}} | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ 1. Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Masamu ghakwamba ni kasandiro ka nchito za manambara. Ghakufufuza umo manambara ghakusazgikira na kusinthika mwakugwiliskira ntchito kusazga, [[subtraction|kuwuskapo]], [[multiplication|kwandaniska]], [[Division (mathematics)|kugaŵa]], kuwoneska (exponentiation), kufumiska misisi (roots), na [[logarithm|logarithimu]]. Mwachiyelezgero, nchito ya kusazga yikusazga manambara ghaŵiri, ghakuchemeka vyakusazgika, kuŵa nambara yachitatu, iyo yikuchemeka [[sum|muzgoro]], nga umo <math>2 + 5 = 7</math>.<ref name="auto1"/> Algebra ya pulayimale yikuthemba pa nchito zenezo waka kweni yikuzomerezga vyambura-kumanyikwa padera pa manambara ghaŵaka. Vyambura-kumanyikwa ni viwimbo vya vinthu ivyo vindamanyikwe panji ivyo vyambura kumanyikwa. Vikupangiska kuti wanthu ŵayowoye ukoli uwo munthu wandaumanye mwakukhwima, na kuyowoya malango ghakumanyikwa agho ghali ghaunenesko, kwambura kupwelelera manambara agho ghakugwiriskirika ntchito. Mwachiyelezgero, cakuyaniska <math>2 \times 3 = 3 \times 2</math> chikuŵa cha masamu ghakwamba ndipo chikulongora kuyana kwa manambara agha ghekha. Para tikapoka manambara na vyambura-kumanyikwa, tingayowoya dango likuru ilo likulongosoreka ku kunozgeka kose kwa manambara, nga dango la kusintha malo (commutative property) la kwandaniska, ilo likulongosoreka mu cakuyaniska {{nowrap|<math>a \times b = b \times a</math>.<ref name="auto4"/>}} [[Algebraic expression|Mazgu gha algebra]] ghakupangika mwakugwiliskira nchito za masamu ghakwamba kuti akole pamoza vyambura-kumanyikwa na manambara. Mwakuyana na umo vikuŵira, vilembo vichoko nga ni <math>x</math>, <math>y</math>, na <math>z</math> vikwimira vyambura-kumanyikwa. Mu vinthu vinyake, viwimbo vyapasi (subscripts) vikusazgikako kupambaniska vyambura-kumanyikwa, nga <math>x_1</math>, <math>x_2</math>, na <math>x_3</math>. Vilembo vichoko-choko nga ni <math>a</math>, <math>b</math>, na <math>c</math> kanandi ghakugwiriskirika ntchito pa vyambura-kusintha (constants) na vyakusazgirako pa kwandaniska (coefficients).{{efn|Constants represent fixed numbers that do not change during the study of a specific problem.<ref>{{harvnb|Sobolev|2015}}</ref>}} Mazgu ghakuti <math>5x + 3</math> ni mazgu gha algebra ghakupangika mwa kuchulukizga nambara 5 na cambura-kusintha <math>x</math> na kusazgako nambara 3 ku ivyo vikusangika. Vyakuwoneska vinyake vya mazgu gha algebra ni <math>32xyz</math> na {{nowrap|<math>64x_1{}^2 + 7x_2 - c</math>.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=129–130}} | {{harvnb|Young|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=RA1-PA999 999]}} | {{harvnb|Majewski|2004|p=347}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Sorell|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EksSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}} }}</ref>}} Mazgu ghanyake gha algebra ghakuŵa nga mazgu ghakukhwaskana na mazgu ghaŵiri pamoza. [[Equation|Cakuyaniska]] ni mazgu ghakupangika mwa kuyerezgera mazgu ghaŵiri, kuyowoya kuti ghakuyana waka. Ichi chingalongoreka mwakugwiliskira nchito chiwimbo cha kuyana ({{tmath|1= = }}), nga <math>5x^2 + 6x = 3y + 4</math>. [[Inequation|Vyambura-kuyana]] vikukhwaskana na mtundu wakupambana wa kuyerezgera, kuyowoya kuti vigaŵa viŵiri ivi ni vyakupambana. Ichi chingalongoreka mwakugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo nga chiwimbo cha kuchepa ({{tmath|1= < }}), chiwimbo cha kuluska ({{tmath|1= > }}), na chiwimbo cha kupambana ({{tmath|1= \neq }}). Kupambana na mazgu ghanyake, mazgu agha ghangaŵa ghaunenesko panji ghautesi, ndipo unenesko wawo ukuthemba pa mtengo wa vinthu ivyo vikusintha. Mwachiyelezgero, mazgu ghakuti <math>x^2 = 4</math> ni ghaunenesko usange <math>x</math> ni 2 panji −2, ndipo ghautesi mwakupambanako. Ma equation ghakukhala na vyambura-kumanyikwa vingagaŵika mu ma equation ghakumanyikwa (identity equations) na ma equation ghakukhazikika (conditional equations). Ma equation ghakumanyikwa ghali ghaunenesko pa vyose ivyo vingapelekeka ku vyambura-kumanyikwa, nga cakuyaniska {{tmath|1= 2x + 5x = 7x }}. Ma equation ghakukhazikika ghakuŵa ghaunenesko waka pa vinyake vyakusintha. Mwachiyelezgero, cakuyaniska <math>x + 4 = 9</math> ni chaunenesko waka usange <math>x</math> ni 5.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Musser|Peterson|Burger|2013|p=16}} | {{harvnb|Goodman|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TvY7DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} | {{harvnb|Williams|2022}} }}</ref> Chakulinga chikuru cha algebra ya pulayimale nkhumanya mtengo uwo mazgu ghakuyowoyeka ghaunenesko. Ici cingacitika mwa kusintha na kugwiliskira nchito mazgu mwakuyana na malango ghanyake. Fundo yikuru njakuti nchito yiliyose iyo yikuchitika ku chigaŵa chimoza cha cakuyaniska yikweneraso kuchitika ku chigaŵa chinyake. Mwachiyelezgero, usange munthu wawuskako 5 ku chigaŵa cha kumaryero, wakwenerato kuwuskako 5 ku chigaŵa cha kumalyero kuti ŵalinganiske vigaŵa vyose viŵiri. Chilato cha ndondomeko izi nkhupatura chinthu icho munthu wakukhumba ku chigaŵa chimoza, ndondomeko iyo yikumanyikwa kuti nkhumazga cakuyaniska kwa chinthu icho chikusintha. Mwachiyelezgero, cakuyaniska <math>x - 7 = 4</math> chingamazgika kwa <math>x</math> mwa kusazgako 7 ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri, ivyo vikupatura <math>x</math> ku chigaŵa cha kumaryero na kusanga cakuyaniska {{tmath|1= x = 11 }}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=130}} | {{harvnb|McKeague|1986|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sq7iBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 51–54]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1. Elementary Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ 1. Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Pali nthowa zinyake zinandi izo zikugwiriskirika ntchito kumazga ma equation. [[Simplification (algebra)|Kupepuska]] kukugwiriskirika ntchito kuti chiŵike mazgu ghakusuzga na ghanyake ghakuyana kweni ghapusu. Mwachiyelezgero, mazgu ghakuti <math>7x - 3x</math> ghangaŵikika na mazgu ghakuti <math>4x</math> chifukwa <math>7x - 3x = (7-3)x = 4x</math> mwa dango la [[distributive property|kugaŵanya]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tan|Steeb|Hardy|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UDb0BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306 306]}} | {{harvnb|Lamagna|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8PSDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 150]}} }}</ref> Pa mazgu agho ghali na vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi, kuŵikirapo m'malo mwake (substitution) ni nthowa yakumanyikwa yakusinthira chinthu chimoza na mazgu ghakuyana ghambura kusazgako cambura-kusintha ico. Mwachiyelezgero, usange munthu wamanya kuti <math>y = 3x</math>, wangapepuska mazgu ghakuti <math>7xy</math> na kusanga {{tmath|1= 21x^2 }}. Munthowa yakuyana, usange munthu wamanya mtengo wa cambura-kusintha chimoza, wangagwiriskira ntchito umo kumanya mtengo wa vinyake.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Solving Systems of Algebraic Equations}} | {{harvnb|McKeague|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nI7iBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA386 386]}} | {{harvnb|McKeague|1986|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sq7iBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA148 148]}} }}</ref> [[File:Graph (y = 0.5x - 1).svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Graph of equation "y = 0.5x − 1"|Ma equation gha algebra ghangagwiriskirika ntchito kulongosora vithuzi vya geometry. Mtengo wose wa <math>x</math> na <math>y</math> uwo ukumazga cakuyaniska ukupulikiskika kuŵa songo. Vikulembeka nga mzere wa cikuwundi, wakukwera, mu giraf yakucanya.]] Ma equation gha algebra ghangamasulika mu [[geometry]] kuti ghalongosore viŵelengero vya malo mu mtundu wa [[graph of a function|giraf]]. Vinthu vyakupambana-pambana ivyo vili mu equation vikupulikikwa nga ni [[Cartesian coordinate system|maryeruzgo]], ndipo vigaŵa ivyo vikumazga equation vikung'anamulika nga ni fundo za giraf. Mwachiyelezgero, usange <math>x</math> yikuŵikika pa zero mu equation {{tmath|1= y=0.5x - 1 }}, mbwenu <math>y</math> yikwenera kuŵa negative one kuti equation yiŵe yaunenesko. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti mafupa gha <math>(x, y)</math> ghakuti <math>(0, -1)</math> ni chigaŵa cha giraf ya equation. Mafupa gha <math>(x, y)</math> ghakuti {{tmath|1= (0, 7) }}, mwakupambanako, ghakumazga yayi equation ndipo ntheura ghali yayi chigaŵa cha giraf. Grafu yikukhwaska chiŵelengero chose cha x,y paŵiri awo ŵakumazga equation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=130–131}} | {{harvnb|Rohde|Jain|Poddar|Ghosh|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vk2XbZpsBOwC&pg=PT89 89]}} | {{harvnb|Walz|2016|loc=[https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 Algebra]}}}}</ref> ==== Ma Polynomial ==== {{main|Polynomial}} [[Polynomial|Polynomial]] ni mazgu ghakuchitika na chigaŵa chimoza panji vinandi ivyo vikusazgika panji kuwuskika pakati pawo, nga {{tmath|1= x^4+3xy^2+5x^3-1 }}. Chigaŵa chilichose ni cambura-kusintha, cambura-kumanyikwa, panji muzgoro wa cambura-kusintha na vyambura-kumanyikwa. Cambura-kumanyikwa chilichose chingakwezgeka ku chikwezgo cha cipendeko cambura kupambika (positive integer). Polynomial ya chigaŵa chimoza yikuchemeka [[monomial]], apo polynomial za vigaŵa viŵiri na vitatu zikuchemeka [[binomial]] na [[trinomial]]. [[Degree of a polynomial|Digiri ya polynomial]] ni mtengo wapachanya wa muzgoro wa vikwezgo vya vyambura-kumanyikwa (pakati pa vigaŵa vyake) (4 mu chiyelezgero ichi pacanya).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bracken|Miller|2014|pp=386–387}} | {{harvnb|Kaufmann|Schwitters|2011|p=220}} | {{harvnb|Markushevich|2015}} }}</ref> Ma polynomial gha digiri yimoza ghakuchemeka ''ma polynomial gha mzere''. Algebra ya mzere yikusambira magulu gha ma polynomial gha mzere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sahai|Bist|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yjkgNYfApj4C&pg=PA21 21]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Barrera-Mora|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xmu8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix, 1–2]}} }}</ref> Polynomial yikuchemeka ''univariate'' panji ''multivariate'', kuyana na usange yikugwiriskira ntchito cambura-kumanyikwa chimoza panji vinandi.<ref>{{harvnb|Geddes|Czapor|Labahn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fOUwkkRxT4C&pg=PA46 46]}}</ref> [[Factorization|Kugaŵaniska]] ni nthowa yakugwiriskira ntchito kupepuska ma polynomial, kupangiska kuti chiŵe chapusu kuvisanda na kumanya vigaŵa ivyo vikuŵa zero. Kugaŵaniska nkhulembaso polynomial kuŵa muzgoro wa vigaŵaniso vinandi. Mwachiyelezgero, polynomial <math>x^2 - 3x - 10</math> yingagaŵaniskika kuŵa {{tmath|1= (x + 2)(x - 5) }}. Polynomial yose njizero pekha usange chimoza mwa vigaŵaniso vyake ni zero, ndikuti, usange <math>x</math> ni −2 panji 5.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lukas|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1-dvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 47–49]}} | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Algebraic Expressions, § Solving Algebraic Equations}} }}</ref> Pambere vilimika vya m'ma 1800 vindafike, vigaŵa vinandi vya algebra vikaŵanga vya equation ya polynomial, equation iyo yikasangika para munthu wakuyaniska polynomial na zero. Kuyezgayezga kwakwamba kwa kumazga ma equation gha polynomial kukaŵa kwakuti ŵalongore vyakumazga mu mazgu gha misisi ya nth. Muzgoro wa equation ya polynomial ya digiri yachiŵiri ukuperekeka na fomula ya quadratic<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Solving algebraic equations}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Classical algebra}} }}</ref> <math display="block">x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt {b^2-4ac\ }}{2a}.</math> Mayankho gha madigiri ghatatu na ghanayi ghakupelekeka na mafomula gha [[cubic formula|cubic]] na [[quartic formula|quartic]]. Palije mayankho ghakumanyikwa ghakumazgira madigiri ghapachanya, nga umo vikawonekera mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800 na [[Abel–Ruffini theorem|fundo ya Abel-Ruffini]].<ref name="auto3"/> Nanga ni para mayankho ghakumanyikwa ghalipo yayi, mayankho ghakuyana waka ghangasangika mwakugwiliskira nchito vipangizo vya manambara nga [[Newton–Raphson method|nthowa ya Newton-Raphson]].<ref>{{harvnb|Igarashi|Altman|Funada|Kamiyama|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=58ySAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}}</ref> [[Fundamental theorem of algebra|Fundo yikuru ya algebra]] yikuti equation yiliyose ya univariate polynomial ya digiri yiwemi iyo yili na coefficients yeneco panji yakusuzga yili na yankho limoza lakusuzga. Ntheura, polynomial yiliyose ya digiri yiwemi yingagaŵika mu ma [[polynomial factorization|polynomial gha mzere]]. Fundo yikuzirwa iyi yikakhozgeka kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, kweni yikupereka yayi nthowa yiliyose yakusangirapo vyakumazga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berggren|2015|loc=§ Solving algebraic equations}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=308}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra}} }}</ref> === Algebra ya Mzere === {{main|Linear algebra}} Algebra ya mzere yikwamba na kusambira [[System of linear equations|ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Barrera-Mora|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xmu8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix, 1–2], }} }}</ref> [[Linear equation|Equation njakumzere]] usange yingalembeka mu njila ya {{tmath|1= a_1x_1 + a_2x_2 + ... + a_nx_n = b}}, apo {{tmath|1= a_1 }}, {{tmath|1= a_2 }}, ..., <math>a_n</math> na <math>b</math> ni vyambura-kusintha. Vyakuyelezgera ni <math>x_1 - 7x_2 + 3x_3 = 0</math> na {{tmath|1= \textstyle \frac{1}{4} x - y = 4 }}. ''Ndondomeko ya ma equation gha mzere'' ni gulu la ma equation gha mzere agho munthu wakukhumba kusanga vyakumazga vyakuyana pakati pawo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=2–3}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Voitsekhovskii|2011}} }}</ref> [[Matrix (mathematics)|Ma matrix]] ni magulu ghakuŵungana gha manambara mwakachilato (rows na columns) agho ghakambiliranga kwiziliska nga chiwimbo chakufinya na chakuyana mwakukwana cha ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Saikia|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KhM7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Lal|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FwPNDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} | {{harvnb|Mirakhor|Krichene|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G6XNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT107 107]}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, ndondomeko ya ma equation <math display="block"> \begin{align} 9x_1 + 3x_2 - 13x_3 &= 0 \\ 2.3x_1 + 7x_3 &= 9 \\ -5x_1 - 17x_2 &= -3 \end{align} </math> yingalembeka nga <math display="block">AX=B,</math> apo {{tmath|1= A }}, <math>X</math> na <math>B</math> ni ma matrix <math display="block">A=\begin{bmatrix}9 & 3 & -13 \\ 2.3 & 0 & 7 \\ -5 & -17 & 0 \end{bmatrix}, \quad X= \begin{bmatrix}x_1 \\ x_2 \\ x_3 \end{bmatrix},\quad B = \begin{bmatrix}0 \\ 9 \\ -3 \end{bmatrix}.</math> Kuyana na vinjeru vya chiŵelengero cha mizere na mizati, ma matrix ghangasazgika, ghangandaniskika, ndipo nyengo zinyake ghangapiluskika (ghangawendeskeka mwakupiluka).{{efn|Kupiluskika (inversion) nkhung'anamura kusanga matrix yinyake iyo, para yandaniskika na matrix yakwamba, yikupeleka matrix ya "identity"—iyo njakuyana na cipendeko 1 pa nkhani ya kwandaniska manambara.}} Nthowa zose zakumazgira ndondomeko za mzere zingalongosoreka nga vyakuwendeska matrix mwakugwiliskira nchito izi. Mwachiyelezgero, kumazga ndondomeko yamucanya nkhupenja matrix yakupiluskika <math>A^{-1}</math> iyo <math>A^{-1}A = I,</math> apo <math>I</math> ni [[identity matrix|matrix ya identity]]. Penepapo, kwandaniska ku mkono wamazere mbali zose ziŵiri za equation ya matrix yamucanya na <math>A^{-1},</math> munthu wakusanga muzgoro wa ndondomeko ya ma equation gha mzere nga<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brown|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=POlVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 30–31]}} | {{harvnb|Waerden|2003|pp=70–72}} }}</ref> <math display="block">X=A^{-1}B.</math> Nthowa zakumazgira ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere zikwambira ku izo zili zapafupi kumanya, nga kwiza-mu-malo-mwa (substitution)<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Young|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=PA697 697–698]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Sullivan|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NKaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–54]}} }}</ref> na kuwuskapo (elimination),<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=7–8}} | {{harvnb|Sullivan|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NKaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 55–56]}} | {{harvnb|Atanasiu|Mikusinski|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VbySDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}}}}</ref> kufika ku vipangizo vyapachanya ivyo vikugwiliskira ntchito ma matrix, nga [[Cramer's rule|dango la Cramer]], [[Gaussian elimination|kuwuskapo kwa Gauss]], na [[LU decomposition|kugaŵaniska kwa LU]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=7–8, 11, 491}} }}</ref> Ndondomeko zinyake za ma equation nizambura-kuyana (inconsistent),<ref name="auto10">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=3–7}} | {{harvnb|Mortensen|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KYDrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73–74]}} | {{harvnb|Young|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pMSZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA714 714–715]}} }}</ref> ndikuti, vyakumazga vilipo yayi chifukwa ma equation ghakususkana wene.{{efn|Mwachiyelezgero, ma equation <math>x_1 - 3x_2 = 0</math> na <math>x_1 - 3x_2 = 7</math> ghakususkana wene chifukwa palije mtengo wa <math>x_1</math> na <math>x_2</math> uwo ungamazga ma equation ghaŵiri ghara pa nyengo yimoza.<ref name="auto10"/>}} Ndondomeko zakuyana zili na yankho limoza lakupambanapambana panji viŵelengero vyambura kumazgika vya vyakumazga.<ref name="auto11">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=131}} | {{harvnb|Harrison|Waldron|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_sisAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT464 464]}} | {{harvnb|Anton|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=neYGCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA255 255]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Usange ndondomeko yakuyana ya ma equation yili na yankho limoza pera, ivi vikukhozga pa chiŵelengero cha vyambura-kumanyikwa na ma [[independent equation|equation ghakujipima paŵiri]]. Ma equation ghakuti ghakujipima paŵiri usange ghakupeleka yayi mzimu umoza ndipo ghangafuma yayi kuchimoza na chinyake. Yankho limoza likuŵako usange chiŵelengero cha vyambura-kumanyikwa nchakuyana na chiŵelengero cha ma equation ghakujipima paŵiri. [[Underdetermined system|Ndondomeko zambura kumazgikirathu]], kusambazgana na izi, zili na vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi kuluska ma equation ghakujipima paŵiri ndipo zili na viŵelengero vyambura kumazgika vya vyakumazga usange nizakuyana.<ref name="auto11"/>}} Kusambira [[vector space|malo gha vector]] na [[linear map|mapu gha mzere]] nkhukuru mu algebra ya mzere. Malo gha vector ni gulu la algebra ilo likupangika na gulu (set) lino lili na kusazga uko kukupangiska kuŵa [[abelian group|gulu la abelian]] na kwandaniska na cipendeko (scalar multiplication) uko kukuyanapo na kusazga (wonani [[vector space|malo gha vector]] kuti mumanye vinandi). Mapu gha mzere ni nchito (function) pakati pa malo gha vector iyo yikuyanapo na kusazga na kwandaniska na cipendeko. Pa nkhani ya [[finite-dimensional vector space|malo gha vector ghakumalira]], ma vector na mapu gha mzere ghangayimilirika na ma matrix. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti masambiro gha ma matrix na malo gha vector ghakumalira ghakuyana waka. Comenecomene, malo gha vector ghakupereka nthowa yachitatu yakulongosolera na kugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko za ma equation gha mzere.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Valenza|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7x8MCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 vii]}} | {{harvnb|Chahal|2018|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BGR8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 § 1.1 What is Linear Algebra?]}} | {{harvnb|Solomon|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BpvSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57–58, 61–62]}} | {{harvnb|Ricardo|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s7bMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA389 389]}} }}</ref> Kwiza pa mkhalidwe uwu, matrix ni chithunzithunzi cha mapu gha mzere: usange munthu wakusankha [[Basis (linear algebra)|msingi]] wanyake wakulongosolera ma vector agho ghakusinthika, mbwenu ivyo vikulembeka mu matrix vikupereka vyakufumapo vya kugwiliskira ntchito mapu gha mzere ku ma vector gha msingi.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Solomon|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BpvSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} | {{harvnb|Ricardo|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s7bMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA395 395–396]}} }}</ref> [[File:Linear Function Graph.svg|thumb|alt=Graph of two linear equations|Ma equation gha mzere agho ghali na vyambura-kumanyikwa viŵiri ghangang'anamulika nga [[Line (geometry)|mizere]]. Yankho la ndondomeko ya ma equation gha mzere ni apo mizere yikukhwaskana.]] Ndondomeko za ma equation zingang'anamulika nga vithunzithunzi vya geometry. Ku ndondomeko zakuŵa na vyambura-kumanyikwa viŵiri, equation yiliyose yikwimira [[Line (geometry)|mzere]] mu [[two-dimensional space|malo gha mibaru yiŵiri]]. Apo mizere yiŵiri yikukhwaskana ndipo ni yankho la ndondomeko yose chifukwa apa ndipapera apo pakumazga equation yakwamba na yachiŵiri pamoza. Ku ndondomeko zambura-kuyana, mizere yiŵiri yikwenda mwakuyana kwambura kukhwaskana, ndikuti, palije yankho chifukwa yikukhwaskana yayi nakale. Usange ma equation ghaŵiri ngambura kujipima paŵiri, ghakulongosora mzere umoza wene, ndikuti, yankho la equation yimoza njakumazgaso equation yinyake. Vyakuyanapo ivi vikupangiska kuti munthu wasange vyakumazga mwakuwona pa giraf, kulemba ma equation na kumanya apo ghakukhwaskana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=3–5}} | {{harvnb|Young|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=PA696 696–697]}} | {{harvnb|Sneyd|Fewster|McGillivray|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 211]}} }}</ref> Fundo zenezi zikugwira ntchito so ku ndondomeko za ma equation zakuŵa na vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi, kweni kupambana nkhwakuti ma equation agha ghakulongosora yayi mizere kweni vithunzithunzi vyapachanya kuluska. Mwachiyelezgero, ma equation gha vyambura-kumanyikwa vitatu ghakuyana na [[Plane (mathematics)|mabwalo]] mu [[three-dimensional space|malo gha mibaru yitatu]], ndipo apo mabwalo ghose ghakukhwaskana ndipo pakumazga ndondomeko ya ma equation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2013|pp=3–5}} | {{harvnb|Young|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=PA713 713]}} | {{harvnb|Sneyd|Fewster|McGillivray|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 211]}} }}</ref> === Algebra Yakudumura === {{main|Abstract algebra}} Algebra yakudumura, iyo yikuchemekaso algebra ya sono,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Dominich|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uEedNKV3nlUC&pg=PA19 19]}} }}</ref> njakusambira [[algebraic structures|magulu gha algebra]]. Gulu la algebra ni chiwongo cha kupulikiska [[Operation (mathematics)|nchito]] pa [[mathematical object|vinthu vya masamu]], nga kusazga kwa vipendeko. Apo algebra ya pulayimale na algebra ya mzere zikugwira ntchito pakati pa vipimo vya magulu gha algebra ghakupambanapambana, algebra yakudumura yikutora nthowa yikuru kuluska, yakuyaniska umo magulu gha algebra ghakupambanirana na mitundu yose ya magulu gha algebra iyo yiliko, nga [[Group (mathematics)|magulu]], [[Ring (mathematics)|mphete]], na [[Field (mathematics)|minda]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA1 1–3]}} | {{harvnb|Dominich|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uEedNKV3nlUC&pg=PA19 19]}} }}</ref> Kupambana kukuru pakati pa mitundu iyi ya magulu gha algebra nkhu chiŵelengero cha nchito izo zikugwiliskira ntchito na madango agho ghakuzomerezgeka.<ref name="auto9"/> Mu [[mathematics education|masambizgo gha masamu]], algebra yakudumura yikwimira kalasi yapachanya ya ku yunivesite iyo ŵakusambira masamu ŵakusambira pamanyuma pakumazga makalasi gha algebra ya mzere.<ref>{{harvnb|Hausberger|2020|loc=Abstract Algebra Teaching and Learning}}</ref> [[File:Binary operations as black box.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of binary operation|Magulu ghanandi gha algebra ghakuzirwa pa nchito zaŵiri (binary operations), izo zikutora vinthu viŵiri kuŵa vyakwiza-mu nchito ndipo vikuvikoleranga kuŵa chinthu chimoza kuŵa vyakufumamo, nga umo kusazga na kwandaniska vikuchitira.]] Pa mkhalidwe wakuzomerezgeka, gulu la algebra ni [[Set (mathematics)|gulu la vinthu]]{{efn|Gulu la vinthu ni chiŵungano cha vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vilije njila yakukhwaskana, nga vipendeko, ma vector, panji magulu ghanyake. [[Set theory|Sambiro la magulu]] likulongosora madango na mikhaliro ya magulu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=460}} | {{harvnb|Murthy|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CBc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 1.3]}} }}</ref>}} lakuzikapo, pamoza na nchito yimoza panji zinandi.{{efn|Kuyana na malongosoro ghanyake, magulu gha algebra ghakusazgapo chinthu chakupambana nga chigaŵa chinyake chakusazgikapo, nga chinthu cha identity pa nkhani ya kwandaniska.<ref name="auto5">{{harvnb|Ovchinnikov|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UMbXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27]}}</ref>}} Algebra yakudumura yikukhumbisiska comenecomene [[binary operation|nchito zaŵiri]],{{efn|Magulu ghanyake gha algebra agho ghakusambirika na algebra yakudumura ghali na [[unary operation|nchito yimoza]] kusazgikapo pa nchito zaŵiri. Mwachiyelezgero, [[normed vector space|malo gha vector ghakuŵa na muyeso]] ghali na [[Norm (mathematics)|muyeso]] (norm), uwo ni nchito yimoza iyo yikugwiliskikira comenecomene kukhwaskanya vector na utali wake.<ref>{{harvnb|Grillet|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LJtyhu8-xYwC&pg=PA247 247]}}</ref>}} izo zikutora vinthu viŵiri vilivyose mu gulu lakuzikapo kuŵa vyakwiza-mu, ndipo zikuvipeleka ku chinthu chinyake mu gulu ili kuŵa chakufumamo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Whitelaw|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f2hyf0QoB_0C&pg=PA61 61]}} | {{harvnb|Nicholson|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w-GaLpapRcEC&pg=PA70 70]}} | {{harvnb|Fiche|Hebuterne|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TqkckiuuXg8C&pg=PT326 326]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, gulu la algebra <math>\langle \N, + \rangle</math> lili na [[natural numbers|vipendeko vyakuŵelenjera]] ({{tmath|1= \N }}) kuŵa gulu lakuzikapo na kusazga ({{tmath|1= + }}) kuŵa nchito yake yaŵiri.<ref name="auto5"/> Gulu lakuzikapo lingaŵa na vinthu vinyake kupambuka vipendeko, ndipo nchito zake nizakukakikizgika yayi ku nchito zaumaliro za masamu pera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, gulu lakuzikapo la [[symmetry group|gulu la symmetry]] la chinthu cha geometry likupangika na [[geometric transformation|kusintha kwa geometry]], nga [[rotation|kuzingilizga]], apo munsi mwake chinthu chikukhalilira [[Invariant (mathematics)|chambura-kusintha]]. Nchito yake yaŵiri ni [[function composition|kukolerana kwa mapu]], iyo yikutora vyakusintha viŵiri kuŵa vyakwiza-mu ndipo yili na chakusintha icho chikufuma pa kugwiliskira ntchito chakusintha chakwamba kulondezgeka na chachiŵiri kuŵa chakufumamo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Olver|1999|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1GlHYhNRAqEC&pg=PA55 55–56]}} | {{harvnb|Abas|Salman|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5snsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58–59]}} | {{harvnb|Häberle|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=McvSa-cFZCMC&pg=PA640 640]}} }}</ref> ==== Sambiro la Magulu ==== {{main|Group theory}} Algebra yakudumura yikupatuliska magulu gha algebra kuyana na madango panji [[axiom|maxiom]] agho nchito zake zikuzomerezga na chiŵelengero cha nchito izo zikugwiliskira ntchito. Mtundu wa chiyambipo comenecomene ni gulu (group), ilo lili na nchito yimoza ndipo likukhumba kuti nchito iyi njakukolerana ([[Associative property|associative]]) ndiposo yili na [[identity element|chinthu cha identity]] na [[inverse element|vinthu vyakupiluska]]. Nchito njakukolerana usange kalongozgero ka kugwiliskira ntchito kanandi kalije mphampha, ndikuti, usange {{nowrap|<math>(a \circ b) \circ c</math>{{efn|Viwimbo <math>\circ</math> na <math>\star</math> vikugwiliskika mu nkhani iyi kwimira nchito yiliyose iyo yingayana panji yambakuyana na nchito za masamu.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilbert|Nicholson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=paINAXYHN8kC&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref>}}}} nchakuyana na <math>a \circ (b \circ c)</math> ku vinthu vyose. Nchito yili na chinthu cha identity panji chinthu chambura-kusintha usange chinthu chimoza ''e'' chilipo icho chikusintha yayi mtengo wa chinthu chilichose chinyake, ndikuti, usange {{tmath|1= a \circ e = e \circ a = a }}. Nchito yili na vinthu vyakupiluska usange ku chinthu chilichose <math>a</math> pali chinthu chakuwelengana <math>a^{-1}</math> icho chikuwuskapo vya {{tmath|1= a }}. Usange chinthu chikugwira ntchito pa icho chakupiluska chake mbwenu muzgoro ni chinthu chambura-kusintha ''e'', chakulongosoreka mwakuzomerezgeka nga {{tmath|1= a \circ a^{-1} = a^{-1} \circ a = e }}. Gulu la algebra lililose ilo likukwaniska vikhumbikwa ivi ni gulu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kargapolov|Merzlyakov|2016|loc=§ Definition}} | {{harvnb|Khattar|Agrawal|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7-nIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4–6]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA258 258]}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, <math>\langle \Z, + \rangle</math> ni gulu ilo lapangika na gulu la [[integers|vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]] pamoza na nchito ya kusazga. Chinthu chambura-kusintha ni 0 ndipo chinthu chakupiluska cha cipendeko chilichose <math>a</math> ni {{nowrap|<math>-a</math>.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Khattar|Agrawal|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7-nIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6–7]}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|pp=131–132}} | {{harvnb|Adhikari|Adhikari|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lBO7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}}}}</ref>}} Vipendeko vyakuŵelenjera pamoza na kusazga, kususkana na ivi, vikupanga yayi gulu chifukwa vili pera na vipendeko vyakuzomerezgeka ndipo ntheura vikusoŵa vinthu vyakupiluska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McWeeny|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x3fjIXY93TsC&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Kramer|Pippich|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nvM-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49]}} }}</ref> [[Group theory|Sambiro la magulu]] likusanda umo magulu ghaliri, pamoza na fundo za musingi nga [[fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups|fundo yikuru ya magulu gha abelian ghakumalira]] na [[Feit–Thompson theorem|fundo ya Feit-Thompson]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=242}} | {{harvnb|Bhattacharya|Jain|Nagpaul|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hiQ8e0b48swC&pg=PA141 141]}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=D_XKBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1020 1020]}} }}</ref> Iyi yachiŵiri yikaŵa njira yikuru yakwambilira mu chimoza mwa vinthu vikuru comenecomene mu masamu vya vilimika vya m'ma 1900: nchito yakugwirira pamoza, iyo yikatora mapeji ghakuluska 10,000 mu majenali ndipo yikafuma comenecomene pakati pa 1960 na 2004, iyo yikafiskira ku [[classification of finite simple groups|kupatuliska magulu ghapusu ghakumalira]] kwakukwana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Elwes|2006}} | {{harvnb|Wilson|2009|p=2}} }}</ref> ==== Sambiro la Mphete na Sambiro la Munda ==== {{main|Ring theory|Field (mathematics)}} Mphete ni gulu la algebra lino lili na nchito ziŵiri izo zikugwira ntchito mwakuyana na kusazga na kwandaniska kwa vipendeko ndipo zikuchemeka na kulembeka mwakuyana. Mphete ni [[commutative group|gulu lakusinthana]] pasi pa kusazga: kusazga kwa mphete nkhwakukolerana, kwakusinthana, ndipo kuli na chinthu cha identity na vinthu vyakupiluska. Kwandaniska nkhwakukolerana ndiposo [[distributivity|kwakugaŵira]] ku kusazga; ndikuti, <math>a (b + c) = a b + a c</math> na <math>(b + c) a = b a + c a.</math> Kweniso, kwandaniska nkhwakukolerana ndipo kuli na [[identity element|chinthu cha identity]] icho chikuchemeka comenecomene {{math|1}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|p=2579}} | {{harvnb|Maxwell|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yD0irRUE_u4C&pg=PA73 73–74]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 2.3 Rings}} }}</ref>{{efn|Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakukhumba yayi kuŵako kwa chinthu cha identity mu kwandaniska. Mphete iyo yilije chinthu cha identity mu kwandaniska nyengo zinyake yikuchemeka {{not a typo|[[rng (algebra)|rng]].}}<ref>{{harvnb|Silverman|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PKFnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}}</ref>}} Kwandaniska nkhukhumbikwa yayi kuŵa kwakusinthana; usange nkhwakusinthana, munthu wali na [[commutative ring|mphete yakusinthana]].<ref>{{harvnb|Geddes|Czapor|Labahn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fOUwkkRxT4C&pg=PA24 24]}}</ref> [[ring of integers|Mphete ya vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]] ({{tmath|1= \Z }}) ni yimoza mwa mphete zapusu comenecomene izo zili zakusinthana.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MXu9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}}</ref> ''[[field (mathematics)|Munda]]'' ni mphete yakusinthana iyo {{tmath|1\ne 0}}{{efn|Ichi chikung'anamura kuti kwandaniska na kusazga vikugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Moh|1992|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=maK3sbTVhsoC&pg=PA102 102–103]}}</ref>}} ndipo chinthu chilichose ichi mbura kuŵa zero chili na [[multiplicative inverse|chakupiluska cha kwandaniska]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geddes|Czapor|Labahn|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fOUwkkRxT4C&pg=PA24 24]}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=1047, 2579}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 2.4 Fields}} }}</ref> Mphete ya vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika njambura kupanga munda chifukwa yikusoŵa vyakupiluska vya kwandaniska. Mwachiyelezgero, chakupiluska cha kwandaniska cha <math>7</math> ni {{tmath|1= \tfrac{1}{7} }}, icho ndi cipendeko cambura kugaŵika yayi. [[rational numbers|Vipendeko vyakugaŵikika]], [[real numbers|vipendeko vyeneco]], na [[complex numbers|vipendeko vyakusuzga]] vilivyose vikupanga munda na nchito za kusazga na kwandaniska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Irving|2004|pp=77, 236}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=1047, 2579}} | {{harvnb|Hohn|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9XlFu4XQ6nUC&pg=PA83 83–84]}} }}</ref> [[Ring theory|Sambiro la mphete]] ni kusambira mphete, kupenja vinthu nga [[subring|mphete zamunsi]], [[quotient ring|mphete za mgaŵano]], [[polynomial ring|mphete za polynomial]], na [[Ideal (ring theory)|ma ideal]] pamoza na fundo nga [[Hilbert's basis theorem|fundo ya msingi ya Hilbert]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Serovajsky|2020|loc=§ Room 4B.5 Rings}} | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA63 63]}} | {{harvnb|Kline|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8YaBuGcmLb0C&pg=PA1153 1153]}} }}</ref> Sambiro la munda likukhwaskana na minda, kupenja [[field extension|kutandarizga kwa munda]], [[algebraic closure|kujara kwa algebra]], na [[finite fields|minda yakumalira]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Waerden|2003|pp=110–114, 231, 246}} | {{harvnb|Karpilovsky|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-2WR0fw9gLMC&pg=PA45 45]}} | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA63 63]}} }}</ref> [[Galois theory|Sambiro la Galois]] likupenja uzeru pakati pa sambiro la munda na sambiro la magulu, likujizika pa [[fundamental theorem of Galois theory|fundo yikuru ya sambiro la Galois]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lang|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fge-BwqhqIYC&pg=PA261 261–262]}} | {{harvnb|Cox|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vBKrOch1AkYC&pg=PA161 161–162]}} }}</ref> ==== Sambiro la Kukhwaskana Pakati pa Magulu gha Algebra ==== [[File:Magma to group2.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of relations between some algebraic structures|Chithunzithunzi cha ukhwaskano pakati pa magulu ghanyake gha algebra. Mwachiyelezgero, mbali yake yapachanya kumalyo yikulongora kuti [[Magma (algebra)|magma]] yikuŵa [[semigroup|semigroup]] usange nchito yake njakukolerana.]] Kupambuka magulu, mphete, na minda, kuli magulu ghanandi ghanyake gha algebra agho ghakusambirika na algebra. Ghakusazgamo [[Magma (algebra)|ma magma]], [[semigroup|ma semigroup]], [[monoid|ma monoid]], [[abelian group|magulu gha abelian]], [[commutative ring|mphete zakusinthana]], [[Module (mathematics)|ma module]], [[Lattice (order)|ma lattice]], [[vector space|malo gha vector]], [[Algebra over a field|algebra pa munda]], na magulu [[associative|ghakukolerana]] na [[non-associative algebras|ghambura kukolerana]]. Ghakupambana pakati pawo pa mtundu wa vinthu ivyo ghakulongosora na vikhumbikwa ivyo nchito zawo zikufiska. Ghanandi ghakukhwaskana wene pakati pawo mu ntchito yakuti gulu la musingi lingasinthika kuŵa gulu lakuzikirapo comenecomene mwakusazgirapo vikakiro.<ref name="auto9">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=Lead section, § 2. Abstract Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=The Subject Matter of Algebra, Its Principal Branches and Its Connection with Other Branches of Mathematics.}} | {{harvnb|Bourbaki|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=STS9aZ6F204C&pg=PA428 428–430, 446]}} }}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, magma yikuŵa semigroup usange nchito yake njakukolerana.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooper|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fybzl6QB62gC&pg=PA60 60]}}</ref> [[Homomorphism|Ma homomorphism]] ni vipangizo vyakupenjera vinjeru vya mzimu mwakuyaniska magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rowen|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AhEPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.3 Birkhoff's Theorem}} | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|p=34}} }}</ref> Homomorphism ni mapu ghakufuma ku gulu lakuzikapo la gulu limoza la algebra kuya ku gulu lakuzikapo la gulu linyake la algebra, ghakusunga mikhaliro yinyake ya mzimu. Usange magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra ghakugwiliskira ntchito nchito zaŵiri ndipo ghali mu mtundu <math>\langle A, \circ \rangle</math> na <math>\langle B, \star \rangle</math> mbwenu mapu <math>h: A \to B</math> ni homomorphism usange ghakukwaniska ivi: {{tmath|1= h(x \circ y) = h(x) \star h(y) }}. Kuŵako kwa homomorphism kukulongora kuti nchito <math>\star</math> mu gulu lachiŵiri la algebra yikugwira ntchito yakuyana na iyo nchito <math>\circ</math> yikugwira mu gulu lakwamba la algebra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.3 Birkhoff's Theorem}} | {{harvnb|Rowen|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AhEPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA27 27–28]}} | {{harvnb|Adhikari|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MIAXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5–6]}} }}</ref> [[Isomorphisms|Ma isomorphism]] ni mtundu wapadera wa homomorphism uwo ukulongora kuyanako kukuru pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra. Isomorphism ni homomorphism [[bijective|yakwenerana pa chimoza-na-chimoza]], ndikuti, yikupanga ukhwaskano wa chimoza-na-chimoza pakati pa vinthu vya magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti chinthu chilichose cha gulu lakwamba la algebra chikuya ku chinthu chimoza chapadera mu gulu lachiŵiri, kwambura vinthu vyakusoŵa mapu mu gulu lachiŵiri.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278–279]}} | {{harvnb|Ivanova|Smirnov|2012}} | {{harvnb|Deo|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HjtRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA295 295]}} | {{harvnb|Ono|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SR2nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 84]}}}}</ref> [[File:Venn A subset B.svg|thumb|alt=Venn diagram of a set and its subset|[[Subalgebra|Vigulu vyamunsi vya algebra]] vikufinyikizga nchito zake ku chigaŵa cha gulu lakuzikapo la gulu la algebra lakwamba.]] Chipangizo chinyake cha kuyaniska nkhukhwaskana pakati pa gulu la algebra na [[Subalgebra#Subalgebras in universal algebra|chigulu chamunsi cha algebra]] chake.<ref name="auto8">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Indurkhya|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=foTrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217–218]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.3 Birkhoff's Theorem}} | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|p=34}} }}</ref> Gulu la algebra na chigulu chamunsi chake vikugwiliskira ntchito nchito zakuyana,{{efn|Kuyana na malongosoro ghanyake, chigulu chamunsi chingaŵaso na nchito zichoko.<ref name="auto6">{{harvnb|Indurkhya|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=foTrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217–218]}}</ref>}} izo zikulondezga maxiom ghakuyana. Kupambana kwapera nkhwakuti gulu lakuzikapo la chigulu chamunsi ni chigaŵa cha gulu lakuzikapo la gulu la algebra.{{efn|Ichi chikung'anamura kuti vinthu vyose vya gulu lakwamba nivyaso vinthu vya gulu lachiŵiri kweni gulu lachiŵiri lingaŵa na vinthu ivyo vilipo yayi mu gulu lakwamba.<ref>{{harvnb|Efimov|2014}}</ref>}} Nchito zose mu chigulu chamunsi zikukhumbikwa kuŵa [[Closure (mathematics)|zakujara]] mu gulu lake lakuzikapo, ndikuti, zikufumiska pera vinthu ivyo vili mu gulu ili.<ref name="auto8"/> Mwachiyelezgero, gulu la [[Parity (mathematics)|vipendeko vyakwenerana]] pamoza na kusazga ni chigulu chamunsi cha gulu lose la vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika pamoza na kusazga. Ichi nchakuti chifukwa muzgoro wa vipendeko viŵiri vyakwenerana ni cipendeko cakwenerana kavili. Kweni gulu la vipendeko vyambura kwenerana pamoza na kusazga nichigulu chamunsi yayi chifukwa nichambura kujara: kusazga vipendeko viŵiri vyambura kwenerana vikufumiska cipendeko chakwenerana, icho ndi chigaŵa yayi cha gulu ilo lasankhika.<ref name="auto6"/> [[Universal algebra|Algebra ya wonse]] ni sambiro la magulu gha algebra mwaŵukuru. Nga chigaŵa cha vinjeru vyake vyakuwonera vinthu vyakuzomerezgeka, yikupwelelera yayi vinthu vyeneco ivyo vikupanga magulu ghakuzikapo ndipo yikuwona nchito izo zili na vyakwiza-mu vinandi kuluska viŵiri, nga [[ternary operation|nchito zitatu]]. Yikupereka chiwongo cha kupenja vinjeru vya mzimu ivyo magulu ghakupambanapambana gha algebra ghali navyo pamoza.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Cohn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6tbuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR13 xiii]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Nthowa yakupambanako pachoko yikupulikiska algebra ya wonse kuŵa sambiro la mtundu umoza wa magulu gha algebra ghakumanyikwa nga ma algebra ghawonse. Ma algebra ghawonse ghakulongosoreka mwakuzirwa kuti ghasazgemo magulu ghanyake ghanandi gha algebra. Mwachiyelezgero, magulu na mphete ni mitundu yapadera ya algebra ya wonse.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smirnov|2020}} | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|pp=7–8}} | {{harvnb|Bahturin|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8RbvCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA346 346]}} }}</ref>}} Chimoza mwa vinjeru vya mzimu ivi vikukhwaskana na [[Identity (mathematics)#Logic and universal algebra|vinthu vyakuyana]] (identities) ivyo nivyanadi mu magulu ghakupambanapambana gha algebra. Mu mkhalidwe uwu, chinthu chakuyana ni equation [[Universal quantification|yawonse]] panji equation iyo nyanadi ku vinthu vyose vya gulu lakuzikapo. Mwachiyelezgero, kusinthana (commutativity) ni equation yawonse iyo yikuti <math>a \circ b</math> nichakuyana na <math>b \circ a</math> ku vinthu vyose.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3.2 Equational Logic}} | {{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|pp=210–211}} }}</ref> [[Variety (universal algebra)|Mtundu wakuyana]] (variety) ni gulu la magulu ghose gha algebra agho ghakukwaniska vinthu vinyake vyakuyana. Mwachiyelezgero, usange magulu ghaŵiri gha algebra ghakukwaniska kusinthana mbwenu ghose ghaŵiri ni chigaŵa cha mtundu wakuyana uwo ukuyana nawo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|pp=210–211}} | {{harvnb|Cohn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6tbuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162]}} | {{harvnb|Rosen|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-oVvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA779 779]}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA406 406]}} }}</ref>{{efn|Mtundu uliwose wa gulu la algebra ukupanga yayi mtundu wakuyana. Mwachiyelezgero, magulu na mphete vyose vikupanga mtundu wakuyana kweni minda njambura kupanga.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohn|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-4ADgUgpSMC&pg=PA8 8]}}</ref>}}{{efn|Kupambuka vinthu vyakuyana, algebra ya wonse yikukhumbikwaso na vinjeru vya mzimu ivyo vikukhwaskana na [[quasi-identity|vinthu vyakuyana pachoko]] (quasi-identities). Chinthu chakuyana pachoko ni chinthu chakuyana icho chikukhumbikwa pera pasi pa vikhumbikwa vinyake (ivyo vikuŵa mu mtundu wa [[Horn clause|chigaŵa cha Horn]]<ref>{{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|p=211}}</ref>). Ni kutandarizga kwa chinthu chakuyana mu mzimu wakuti chinthu chilichose chakuyana ni chinthu chakuyana pachoko kweni chinthu chilichose chakuyana pachoko ni yayi chinthu chakuyana. [[Quasivariety|Mtundu wakuyana pachoko]] ni gulu la magulu ghose gha algebra agho ghakukwaniska vinthu vinyake vyakuyana pachoko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mal’cev|1973|pp=210–211}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Artamonov|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sLDGY4Hk8V0C&pg=PA873 873]}} }}</ref>}} [[Category theory|Sambiro la mikhaliro]] likupenja umo vinthu vya masamu vikukhwaskirana na chinyake mwakugwiliskira ntchito mzimu wa [[Category (mathematics)|mikhaliro]] (categories). Mkhaliro ni chiŵungano cha vinthu pamoza na chiŵungano cha [[morphisms|vilongozgi]] panji "mivi" pakati pa vinthu ivi. Viŵungano ivi viŵiri vikwenera kukwaniska vikhumbikwa vinyake. Mwachiyelezgero, vilongozgi vingakolerana, panji ku ''kolerana'': usange muvi ukuŵako kufuma ku chinthu <math>a</math> kuya ku chinthu {{tmath|1= b }}, ndipo muvi unyake kufuma ku chinthu <math>b</math> kuya ku chinthu {{tmath|1= c }}, mbwenu pakwenera kuŵakoso muvi kufuma ku chinthu <math>a</math> kuya ku chinthu {{tmath|1= c }}. Kukolerana kwa vilongozgi kukukhumbikwa kuŵa kwakukolerana, ndipo pakwenera kuŵako "muvi wa identity" ku chinthu chilichose.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=347–348}} | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA6 6, 165]}} | {{harvnb|Cheng|2023|p=102}} }}</ref> Mikhaliro yikugwiliskika comenecomene mu masamu gha sono chifukwa yikupereka chiwongo chakukoleranya kuti chilongosore na kupenja vinjeru vinandi vya musingi vya masamu. Mwachiyelezgero, magulu ya vinthu ghangalongosoreka na [[category of sets|mkhaliro wa magulu]], ndipo gulu lililose lingawoneka kuŵa vilongozgi vya mkhaliro uwo uli na chinthu chimoza pera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA6 6, 165]}} | {{harvnb|Borceux|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YfzImoopB-IC&pg=PA20 20]}} | {{harvnb|Laos|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1r7dSn4ZqogC&pg=PA100 100]}} | {{harvnb|Cheng|2023|pp=128–131}} }}</ref> == Mbiri == {{main|History of algebra|Timeline of algebra}} [[File:Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.jpg|thumb|alt=Rhind Papyrus|[[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus|Papyrus ya Rhind Mathematical]] kufuma ku [[ancient Egypt|Egypt yakale]], iyo yikuŵa ya {{circa|1650 BCE}}, ni chimoza cha vyolálemba vyakale comenecomene ivyo vikudumbiskana masuzgo gha algebra.]] Chiyambi cha algebra chili mu kuyezgayezga kwakumazga masuzgo gha masamu agho ghakukhwaskana na kuŵelenga na viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa. Vyakukula ivi vikachitika mu nyengo yakale mu [[Babylonia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Ancient China|China]], na [[Ancient India|India]]. Chimoza mwa vyolálemba vyakale comenecomene pa masuzgo gha algebra ni [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus|Papyrus ya Rhind Mathematical]] kufuma ku [[Egypt]] yakale, iyo yikalembeka pafupifupi mu 1650&nbsp;BCE.{{efn|Zuŵa lenelene nkhwakususkana, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵakuti liŵe pafupifupi mu 1550&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Problem-Solving in Egypt and Babylon}} | {{harvnb|Brezinski|Meurant|Redivo-Zaglia|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4IGhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}} }}</ref>}} Yikudumbiskana vyakumazga vya [[linear equations|ma equation gha mzere]], nga umo vikulongosoreka mu masuzgo nga "Chinthu; chigaŵa chake chachinayi chikusazgikapo pa icho. Chikuŵa 15. Kasi chinthu ni chiwuli?" Mabuwe gha dongo gha ku Babylon kufuma pa nyengo yeneyiyo ghakulongosora nthowa zakumazga ma equation gha mzere na [[Quadratic equation|polynomial gha digiri yachiŵiri]], nga nthowa ya [[completing the square|kukwaniska cikwezgo]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=9}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=290}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Problem Solving in Egypt and Babylon}} }}</ref> Vinandi mwa vinjeru ivi vikafika ku Ŵagiriki ŵakale. Kwambira mu vilimika vya 6 BCE, chikhumbo chawo chikuru chikaŵa geometry m'malo mwa algebra, kweni ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kumazga masuzgo gha geometry. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵakasandanga vithunzithunzi vya geometry apo utali na malo ghake vikatoleka kuŵa viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa ivyo vikwenera kusangika, nga umo vikawonekera mu nthowa ya [[Pythagoras]] ya [[difference of two squares|mphambano wa vikwezgo viŵiri]] na munyuma mu buku la [[Euclid's Elements|Euclid's Elements]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=9}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=290}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Pythagoreans and Euclid}} }}</ref> Mu vilimika vya 3 CE, [[Diophantus]] wakapeleka malongosoro ghakuzura gha umo wangamazgira ma equation gha algebra mu magazini ghakuchemeka ''[[Arithmetica]]''. Ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kuyezgayezga kugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo (symbolic notation) kulongosora ma polynomial.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Sialaros|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2PZYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 55]}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Diophantus}} }}</ref> Ntchito ya Diophantus yikakhwaskira kukula kwa algebra ku Ŵaarabu, apo nthowa zake zinandi zikawonekera mu vinjeru na vipangizo ivyo vikagwiliskika mu algebra ya Chiarabu ya nyengo za pakati.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hettle|2015|pp=139–141, 160–161}} | {{harvnb|Christianidis|Megremi|2019|pp=16–17}} }}</ref> Ku [[China]] wakale, ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]'', buku ilo likalembeka pa nyengo yakufuma ku vilimika vya 10 BCE kufika ku vilimika vya 2 CE,<ref>{{harvnb|Burgin|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWF2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}}</ref> likasandaso nthowa zakupambanapambana zakumazgira ma equation gha algebra, kusazgamo kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakuyana na matrix.<ref>{{harvnb|Higgins|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QANiCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 89]}}</ref> [[File:Al-Khwarizmi portrait.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|left|Chithunzi cha kuyezgayezga cha [[Al-Khwarizmi]], chakufuma pa sitembu ya Soviet]] Nkhwakususkana usange vyakukula ivi vyakale ni chigaŵa cha algebra panji ni vyakwambiliranji pera. Vikapeleka vyakumazga vya masuzgo gha algebra kweni vikaghanaghanira yayi mwamzimu wakudumura na wawonse, m'malo mwake vikakhalilira pa mkhalidwe pakuyowoya na kugwiliskika padera pera.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=290–291}} | {{harvnb|Sialaros|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2PZYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 55]}} | {{harvnb|Boyer|Merzbach|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bR9HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} | {{harvnb|Derbyshire|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLqaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT39 31]}} }}</ref> Ichi chikasintha na msandi wa masamu wa ku Persia, [[Al-Khwarizmi]],{{efn|Ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵakumuwona kuŵa "wiske wa algebra" apo ŵanyake ŵakupeleka zina ili ku Diophantus.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Boyer|Merzbach|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bR9HAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} | {{harvnb|Derbyshire|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mLqaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} }}</ref> }} uyo wakafumiska buku lake ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing]]'' mu 825 CE. Al-Khwarizmi wakapeleka malongosoro ghakwamba ghakuzomerezgeka ghakumazgira ma equation mwakughaŵika mu mitundu 6 yakuzomerezgeka{{Efn|Mitundu iyi ni <math> bx = c </math>, <math> ax^2 = bx </math>, <math> ax^2 = c </math>, <math> ax^2 + bx = c </math>, <math> ax^2 + c = bx </math>, na <math> ax^2 = bx + c </math>.{{sfn|Bradley|2006|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=EIdtVPeD7GcC&pg=PA95 95]}}}} ndiposo kupereka ndondomeko zakuzomerezgeka, mwakuyila-kuyila, za vyakuvimazga. Mwakuwuskapo nthowa izi ku vithunzithunzi vyapadera vya geometry na kuwona viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa kuŵa vinthu vyawonse vya algebra, wakakhozga chiwongo cha kugwira ntchito chakuzomerezgeka. Kusintha uku, kufuma ku kumazga masuzgo ghapadera kuya ku kukhozga nthowa yawonse, nkhwakasintha algebra kuŵa sambiro lakujimira paokha.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=291–293}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Vyakukhwaskira vinyake vyakuzirwa ku algebra vikafuma ku msandi wa masamu wa Chiarabu [[Thābit ibn Qurra]] naye so mu vilimika vya 9 CE na msandi wa masamu wa ku Persia [[Omar Khayyam]] mu vilimika vya 11 na 12.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Waerden|2013|pp=3, 15–16, 24–25}} | {{harvnb|Jenkins|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=giEkCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 82]}} | {{harvnb|Pickover|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA90 90]}} }}</ref> Ku [[India]], [[Brahmagupta]] wakasanda umo wangamazgira ma equation gha digiri yachiŵiri na ndondomeko za ma equation gha vyambura-kumanyikwa vinandi mu vilimika vya 7 CE. Pakati pa vyakukula vyake vikaŵako kugwiliskira ntchito zero na vipendeko vyakusuzga (negative numbers) mu ma equation gha algebra.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|pp=9–10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ The Equation in India and China}} }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵa ku India [[Mahāvīra (mathematician)|Mahāvīra]] mu vilimika vya 9 na [[Bhāskara II]] mu vilimika vya 12 ŵakakhozgaso nthowa na vinjeru vya Brahmagupta.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Seshadri|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w_JdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 156]}} | {{harvnb|Emch|Sridharan|Srinivas|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qfJdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20]}} }}</ref> Mu 1247, msandi wa masamu wa ku China [[Qin Jiushao]] wakalemba buku la ''[[Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections]]'', ilo likusazgamo [[Horner's method|nthowa yakuŵelenga]] ya [[Polynomial evaluation|kuŵelenga mtengo wa ma polynomial]], kusazgamo ma polynomial gha madigiri ghapachanya.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smorynski|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qY657eFq7UgC&pg=PA137 137]}} | {{harvnb|Zwillinger|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gE_MBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA812 812]}} }}</ref> {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Francois Viete.jpeg | alt1 = Drawing of François Viète | image2 = Frans Hals - Portret van René Descartes (cropped).jpg | alt2 = Painting of René Descartes | footer = [[François Viète]] (kumalyo) na [[René Descartes]] ŵakasanga viwimbo vyakwenerana kulongosora ma equation mwamzimu wakudumura na wachidango. }} Msandi wa masamu wa ku Italy [[Fibonacci]] wakiza na vinjeru na nthowa za Al-Khwarizmi ku Ulaya mu mabuku ghake, kusazgamo ''[[Liber Abaci]]''.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Waerden|2013|pp=32–35}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=293}} }}</ref> Mu 1545, msandi wa masamu wa mitundu yinandi wa ku Italy [[Gerolamo Cardano]] wakafumiska buku lake ''[[Ars Magna (Cardano book)|Ars Magna]]'', ilo likakhwaskira vinthu vinandi mu algebra, likadumbiskana [[imaginary numbers|vipendeko vya mung'anamuro]], ndipo likaŵa lakwamba kupeleka nthowa zawonse zakumazgira ma equation gha [[Cubic equation|digiri yitatu]] na [[quartic equation|digiri yinayi]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|p=293}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Cardano and the Solving of Cubic and Quartic Equations}} | {{harvnb|Miyake|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G0P2BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA268 268]}} }}</ref> Mu vilimika vya 16 na 17, ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵa ku France [[François Viète]] na [[René Descartes]] ŵakiza na malembelo na viwimbo kwimira vyambura-kumanyikwa na nchito, kupangiska kuti ma equation ghalembeke mwamzimu wachidango na wakudumura. Awo ŵakaŵako panthazi pawo ŵakajighemezga pa malongosoro ghakuyowoya gha masuzgo na vyakumazga.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Kvasz|2006|pp=291–292, 297–298, 302}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Viète and the Formal Equation, § Analytic Geometry}} }}</ref> Ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mbiri ŵakuwona kukula uku kuŵa mzuŵa wakuzirwa mu mbiri ya algebra ndipo ŵakuwona ivyo vikaŵako pambere kuŵa mbiri-ntchakwamba ya algebra chifukwa vikasoŵanga mzimu wakudumura uwo ukujimira pa kugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73]}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} }}</ref> Mu vilimika vya 17 na 18, kuyezgayezga kwakuluska kukachitika kupenja vyakumazga vyawonse ku ma polynomial gha digiri yankonde na yapachanya. Vyose ivi vikafiliskika.<ref name="auto3">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Impasse with Radical Methods}} }}</ref> Kumapeleko gha vilimika vya 18, msandi wa masamu wa ku Germany [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] wakalongosora fundo yikuru ya algebra, iyo yikulongosora kuŵako kwa [[Zero of a function|vizero]] vya ma polynomial gha digiri yiliyose kwambura kupeleka yankho lawonse.<ref name="auto7"/> Kwambilira kwa vilimika vya 19, msandi wa masamu wa ku Italy [[Paolo Ruffini]] na msandi wa masamu wa ku Norway [[Niels Henrik Abel]] [[Abel–Ruffini theorem|ŵakakhozga]] kuti palije yankho lawonse ilo lilipo ku ma polynomial gha digiri yankonde na yapachanya.<ref name="auto3"/> Kwiza pa na pamanyuma pachoko pa vyakusanga vyawo, msandi wa masamu wa ku France [[Évariste Galois]] wakakhozga icho pamanyuma chikachemeka [[Galois theory|sambiro la Galois]], ilo likapeleka kupenja kwakukuzura kwa vyakumazga vya ma polynomial apo so likakhozga msingi wa [[group theory|sambiro la magulu]].<ref name="auto2"/> Ŵasandi ŵa masamu paukhwakuŵa ŵakamanya kuzirwa kwa sambiro la magulu ku magulu ghanyake gha masamu ndipo ŵakaligwiliskira ntchito ku vipangizo nga geometry na sambiro la vipendeko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Applications of Group Theory}} | {{harvnb|Bueno|French|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kmZaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73–75]}} }}</ref> [[File:Garrett Birkhoff.jpeg|thumb|alt=Photo of Garrett Birkhoff|[[Garrett Birkhoff]] wakakhozga vinjeru vinandi vya msingi vya algebra ya wonse.|left|upright=0.8]] Kwambira pakati pa vilimika vya 19, chikhumbo mu algebra chikasintha kufuma ku kusambira ma polynomial ivyo vikakhwaskana na algebra ya pulayimale kuya ku kupenja kwakukuru kwa magulu gha algebra, ndipo ichi chikawoneka pakufuma kwa [[abstract algebra|algebra yakudumura]]. Nthowa iyi yikapenja msingi wa maxiom wa nchito za algebra zakupambanapambana.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Structural Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73–74]}} }}</ref> Kusangika kwa ndondomeko nyifya za algebra izo zikuzirwa pa nchito na vinthu vyakupambanapambana vikalondezga kukula uku, nga [[Boolean algebra]], [[Vector space|algebra ya vector]], na [[matrix algebra|algebra ya matrix]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Tanton|2005|p=10}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Matrices, § Quaternions and Vectors}} }}</ref> Vyakukula vyakuzirwa vyakwamba mu algebra yakudumura vikapangika na ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵa ku Germany [[David Hilbert]], [[Ernst Steinitz]], na [[Emmy Noether]] pamoza na msandi wa masamu wa ku Austria [[Emil Artin]]. Ŵakasanda mitundu yakupambanapambana ya magulu gha algebra ndipo ŵakaghapatuliska kuyana na maxiom ghawo ghakuzikapo kuŵa mitundu, nga magulu, mphete, na minda.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Merzlyakov|Shirshov|2020|loc=§ Historical Survey}} | {{harvnb|Corry|2024|loc=§ Hilbert and Steinitz, § Noether and Artin}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA73 73–74]}} }}</ref> Mzimu wa nthowa yikuru comenecomene iyo yikukhwaskana na algebra ya wonse ukaghanaghanika na msandi wa masamu wa ku England [[Alfred North Whitehead]] mu buku lake la 1898 ''A Treatise on Universal Algebra''. Kwambira mu vya 1930, msandi wa masamu wa ku America [[Garrett Birkhoff]] wakatandarizga vinjeru ivi ndipo wakakhozga vinjeru vinandi vya msingi vya gulu ili la sambiro.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grätzer|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8lNkXPJas4wC&pg=PR7 vii]}} | {{harvnb|Chang|Keisler|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uiHq0EmaFp0C&pg=PA603 603]}} | {{harvnb|Knoebel|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VWS_sgO2uvgC&pg=PA5 5]}} | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} }}</ref> Kusangika kwa algebra ya wonse kukalongozgera ku kufuma kwa vipimo vinyake vinyifya ivyo vikang'anamuka pa kupanga algebra ya masamu ghanyake{{em dash}}ndikuti, kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra ku magulu ghanyake gha masamu. Algebra ya topology yikafuma mu vilimika vyakwamba vya 20, kusambira magulu gha algebra nga [[topological groups|magulu gha topology]] na [[Lie groups|magulu gha Lie]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA100 100]}} | {{harvnb|Carlson|2024|loc=§ History of topology}} }}</ref> Mu vya 1940 na 50, [[homological algebra|algebra ya homology]] yikafuma, kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kusambira [[Homology (mathematics)|homology]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Weibel|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UtIhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR11 xi, 4]}} }}</ref> Pafupifupi nyengo yeneyiyo, [[category theory|sambiro la mikhaliro]] likafuma ndipo lyakhala likugwira ntchito yikuru mu [[foundations of mathematics|msingi wa masamu]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Krömer|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=41bHxtHxjUAC&pg=PA61 61]}} | {{harvnb|Laos|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1r7dSn4ZqogC&pg=PA100 100]}} }}</ref> Vyakukula vinyake vikaŵa kupangika kwa [[model theory|sambiro la vimodel]] na kusambira [[free algebra|algebra zamahara]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hazewinkel|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PE1a-EIG22kC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 6. Free Algebras}} }}</ref> {{clear}} == Kugwiliskika Ntchito == {{see also|Applied mathematics}} Chikoliro cha algebra nkhutandarika comenecomene, mu masamu mwene na mu kugwiliskika kwake ku magulu ghanyake gha masamu.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Houston|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&pg=PA319 319]}} | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}} | {{harvnb|Lidl|Pilz|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_49AmSWo4_AC&pg=PR7 vii–viii]}} }}</ref> Kupanga masamu ghanyake kuŵa gha algebra nkhu ndondomeko ya kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa na vinjeru vya algebra ku [[branches of mathematics|magulu ghanyake gha masamu]], nga [[geometry]], [[topology]], [[number theory|sambiro la vipendeko]], na [[calculus]]. Ichi chikuchitika mwakugwiliskira ntchito viwimbo mu mtundu wa vyambura-kumanyikwa kulongosora vinjeru vya masamu pa vipimo vikuru, kupangiska kuti ŵasandi ŵa masamu ŵapange vimodel vyakuzomerezgeka ivyo vikulongosora umo vinthu vikukhwaskirana na kukolerana wene.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kleiner|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udj-1UuaOiIC&pg=PA100 100]}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5. Algebraization of Mathematics}} | {{harvnb|Maddocks|2008|p=130}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5. Algebraization of Mathematics}} | {{harvnb|Mancosu|1999|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=60qaEePdqcoC&pg=PA84 84–85]}} }}</ref> [[File:Sphere Quadric.png|thumb|alt=Rendered image of a sphere|Equation ya algebra <math>x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 1</math> yikulongosora [[sphere|sphere]] ku [[Origin (mathematics)|malo ghakwambira]] ghali na radius ya 1.]] Nchito yimoza, iyo yikusangika mu geometry, ni kugwiliskira ntchito mazgu gha algebra kulongosora vithunzithunzi vya geometry. Mwachiyelezgero, equation <math>y = 3x - 7</math> yikulongosora mzere mu malo gha mibaru yiŵiri apo equation <math>x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 1</math> yikuyana na [[sphere|sphere]] mu malo gha mibaru yitatu. Vyakuzirwa comenecomene ku [[algebraic geometry|geometry ya algebra]] ni [[algebraic varieties|mitundu yakuyana ya algebra]],{{efn|Mitundu yakuyana ya algebra iyo yikusambirika mu geometry njakupambana na mitundu yakuyana yikuru iyo yikusambirika mu algebra ya wonse.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 1.4 Cartesian geometry, § 3. Universal Algebra}} | {{harvnb|Danilov|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-QMWR-x66XUC&pg=PA174 174]}} }}</ref>}} izo ni vyakumazga vya [[systems of polynomial equations|ndondomeko za ma equation gha polynomial]] ivyo vingagwiliskika kulongosora vithunzithunzi vyapasuzgika vya geometry.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.1 Algebraic Geometry}} | {{harvnb|Danilov|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-QMWR-x66XUC&pg=PA172 172, 174]}} }}</ref> Kughanaghanira mwa algebra kungamazgaso masuzgo gha geometry. Mwachiyelezgero, munthu wangamanya usange na apo mzere wakulongosoreka na <math>y = x + 1</math> ukukhwaskana na dindi (circle) ilo likulongosoreka na <math>x^2 + y^2 = 25</math> mwakumazga ndondomeko ya ma equation ghakupangika na ma equation ghaŵiri agha.<ref>{{harvnb|Vince|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=B574tQbP6WcC&pg=PA133 133]}}</ref> Topology yikusambira vinjeru vya vithunzithunzi vya geometry panji [[topological space|malo gha topology]] ivyo vikukhalilira mwambura kusintha para vichitikirwa [[continuous deformation|kusintha kwakulutilira]]. [[Algebraic topology|Topology ya algebra]] yikuzirwa pa vinjeru vya algebra nga sambiro la magulu kupatuliska malo gha topology. Mwachiyelezgero, [[homotopy groups|magulu gha homotopy]] ghakupatuliska malo gha topology kuyana na kuŵako kwa [[Loop (topology)|majoro]] panji [[Hole#In mathematics|maenja]] mwa iwo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.3 Algebraic Topology}} | {{harvnb|Rabadan|Blumberg|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2967DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 49–50]}} | {{harvnb|Nakahara|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p2C1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 121]}} | {{harvnb|Weisstein|2003|pp=52–53}} }}</ref> Sambiro la vipendeko likukhwaskana na vinjeru na ukhwaskano pakati pa vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika. [[Algebraic number theory|Sambiro la vipendeko la algebra]] likugwiliskira ntchito nthowa na vinjeru vya algebra ku chipangizo ichi cha kupenja. Vyakuyelezgera ni kugwiliskira ntchito mazgu gha algebra kulongosora madango ghawonse, nga [[Fermat's Last Theorem|fundo yaumaliro ya Fermat]], na kugwiliskira ntchito magulu gha algebra kusanda mkhalidwe wa vipendeko, nga [[ring of integers|mphete ya vipendeko vyambura kugaŵika]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.2 Algebraic Number Theory}} | {{harvnb|Jarvis|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0j0qBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Viterbo|Hong|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d89QRR24jbMC&pg=PA127 127]}} }}</ref> Chipangizo chakukhwaskana ichi cha [[combinatorics|combinatorics]] chikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kumazga masuzgo ghakukhwaskana na kuŵelenga, kunozga, na kukoleranya vinthu vyakupambanapambana. Chiyelezgero mu [[algebraic combinatorics|combinatorics ya algebra]] ni kugwiliskira ntchito sambiro la magulu kusanda [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|ma graph]] na symmetries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gowers|Barrow-Green|Leader|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOfUsvemJDMC&pg=PA550 550, 561]}} | {{harvnb|Godsil|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLs6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR8 viii]}} | {{harvnb|Betten|Kohnert|Laue|Wassermann|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G1TmCAAAQBAJ&pg=PP9 ix]}} }}</ref> Vinjeru vya algebra vikuzirwaso ku calculus, iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito mazgu gha masamu kupenja [[rates of change|liŵiro la kusintha]] na [[Integral|kuwungana]]. Yikuzirwa pa algebra, mwachiyelezgero, kupulikiska umo mazgu agha ghangasinthika na mzimu uwo vyambura-kumanyikwa vikugwira mwa iwo.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kilty|McAllister|2018|pp=x, 347, 589}} | {{harvnb|Bressoud|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GkgHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}} }}</ref> [[Algebraic logic|Logic ya algebra]] yikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za algebra kulongosora na kusanda magulu na vinjeru ivyo vili musingi wa [[logical reasoning|kughanaghanira kwa logic]],<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Halmos|1956|p=363}} | {{harvnb|Burris|Legris|2021|loc=§ 1. Introduction}} }}</ref> kupenja vyose viŵiri, magulu ghenegho gha masamu na kugwiliskika kwawo ku masuzgo ghakuwoneka gha logic.<ref>{{harvnb|Andréka|Németi|Sain|2001|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-0452-6_3 133–134]}}</ref> Yikusazgamo kusambira [[Boolean algebra]] kulongosora [[propositional logic]]<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Andréka|Madarász|Németi|2020|loc=§ Concrete Algebraic Logic}} | {{harvnb|Pratt|2022|loc=§ 5.4 Algebraic Logic}} | {{harvnb|Plotkin|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-v3xCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 155–156]}} | {{harvnb|Jansana|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> pamoza na kupanga na kusanda magulu gha algebra ghakuyana na [[Logic#Systems_of_logic|ndondomeko za logic]] zapasuzgika kuluska.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Andréka|Madarász|Németi|2020|loc=§ Abstract Algebraic Logic}} | {{harvnb|Jansana|2022|loc=§ 4. Algebras}} }}</ref> [[File:Rubik's cube.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Picture of Rubik's cube|Mbali za [[Rubik's Cube]] zingazingilizgika kusintha kunozgeka kwa vipande vyakupambanapambana mitundu (colored patches). Vipimo ivyo vikufuma pamanyuma (permutations) vikupanga gulu ilo likuchemeka [[Rubik's Cube group|gulu la Rubik's Cube]].<ref>{{harvnb|Joyner|2008|p=92}}</ref>]] Nthowa za algebra zikugwiliskikaso comenecomene mu magulu ghanyake, nga sayansi za chilengechilenge. Mwachiyelezgero, zikugwiliskika kulongosora [[scientific laws|madango gha kasandiro]] na kumazga ma equation mu [[physics]], [[chemistry]], na [[biology]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Houston|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC&pg=PA319 319]}} | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}} | {{harvnb|Anton|Rorres|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1PJ-WHepeBsC&pg=PA327 327]}} }}</ref> Kugwiliskika kwakuyana kukusangikaso mu magulu nga [[economics]], [[geography]], [[engineering]] (kusazgamo [[electronics]] na [[robotics]]), na [[computer science]] kulongosora ukhwaskano, kumazga masuzgo, na kupanga vimodel vya ndondomeko.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Neri|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}} | {{harvnb|Aleskerov|Ersel|Piontkovski|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ipcSD8ZGB8cC&pg=PA1 1–9]}} | {{harvnb|Straffin|1980|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2689388 269]}} | {{harvnb|Menini|Oystaeyen|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3mlQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 v]}} | {{harvnb|Lovett|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jRUqCgAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} | {{harvnb|Lidl|Pilz|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_49AmSWo4_AC&pg=PR7 vii–viii]}} }}</ref> Algebra ya mzere yikugwira ntchito yikuru mu [[artificial intelligence]] na [[machine learning]], mwachiyelezgero, mwakukhozgera kuwendeska na kusanda [[dataset|masetu gha data]] ghakuru mwakuzomerezgeka.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wheeler|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IqQIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29, 36–37]}} | {{harvnb|Gallier|Quaintance|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jWLcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> Magulu ghakupambanapambana ghakuzirwa pa magulu gha algebra ghakusambirika na algebra yakudumura. Mwachiyelezgero, sayansi za vinthu nga [[crystallography]] na [[quantum mechanics]] zikugwiliskira ntchito comenecomene sambiro la magulu,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Klimov|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DZK3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix]}} | {{harvnb|Bengtsson|Życzkowski|2017|pp=313–353}} }}</ref> ilo likugwiliskikaso kusambira ma puzzle nga [[Sudoku]] na [[Rubik's Cube]],<ref>{{harvnb|Terras|2019|pp=63–64, 142}}</ref> na [[Mathematics of paper folding|origami]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hull|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LdX7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 180]}}</ref> Vyose viŵiri [[coding theory|sambiro la ma code]] na [[cryptology]] zikuzirwa pa algebra yakudumura kumazga masuzgo ghakukhwaskana na [[data transmission|kutuma data]], nga kujiwezga na vikwaskiro (noise) na kukhozgera [[data security|chitetezo cha data]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lidl|Pilz|1997|pp=183–184, 239–240}} | {{harvnb|Carstensen|Fine|Rosenberger|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xo6iSxRfXz0C&pg=PA326 326–327]}} }}</ref> == Masambizgo == {{See also|Mathematics education}} [[File:Balance scale.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|class=skin-invert-image|alt=Diagram of a balance scale|[[Balance scales|Vipimiro vyakulinganya]] vikugwiliskika mu masambizgo gha algebra kovwira ŵasambiri kupulikiska umo ma equation ghangasinthika kuti ghamanye viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kieran|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OTCsKu0BZ0kC&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Kaput|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1GUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 186]}} |{{harvnb|Gardella|DeLucia|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HBXFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19–22]}} }}</ref>]] Masambizgo gha algebra ghakuzirwa comenecomene pa algebra ya pulayimale, chimoza mwa vifukwa ivyo algebra ya pulayimale yikuchemekaso "algebra ya sukulu". Comenecomene, yikwambiskika yayi kwambira mu [[secondary education|masambizgo ghapachanya]] chifukwa yikukhumba kumanya makora masamu ghakwamba apo yikwizaso na vyakusuzga vinyake vipya ivyo vikukhwaskana na kughanaghanira kwakudumura na kwawonse.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|p=xiii}} | {{harvnb|Dekker|Dolk|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7sVFaMhwackC&pg=PA69 69]}} }}</ref> Yikukhumba kuzgoŵeska ŵasambiri na mbali yakuzomerezgeka ya masamu mwakuŵawovwira kupulikiska viwimbo vya masamu, mwachiyelezgero, umo vyambura-kumanyikwa vingagwiliskika kwimira viŵelengero vyambura kumanyikwa. Kususka kwinyake ku ŵasambiri nkhwakuti, kupambana na kuŵelenga kwaumaliro, mazgu gha algebra ghakusuzga comenecomene kumazgika mwakwenderana. M'malo mwake, ŵasambiri ŵakukhumbikwa kusambira umo ŵangaghasinthira kuyana na madango ghanyake, kanandi kuti ŵamanye chiŵelengero chambura kumanyikwa.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|pp=2–5}} | {{harvnb|Drijvers|Goddijn|Kindt|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7sVFaMhwackC&pg=PA8 8–10, 16–18]}} }}</ref> Vipangizo vinyake vyakwiziska ŵasambiri ku mbali yakudumura ya algebra vikuzirwa pa vimodel vyakuwoneka na kulongora ma equation, kusazgamo vyakuyelezgera vya geometry, vipangizo vyakugwira nawo nchito nga vikoli panji makapu, na "makina gha nchito" (function machines) ivyo vikulongora ma equation kuŵa [[flow diagram|maonekero gha kuluta patsogolo]]. Nthowa yimoza yikugwiliskira ntchito [[balance scales|vipimiro vyakulinganya]] kuŵa nthowa yakuwoneka yakovwira ŵasambiri kupulikiska masuzgo ghakwamba gha algebra. Uzito wa vinthu vinyake pa chipimiro nchambura kumanyikwa ndipo ukwimira vyambura-kumanyikwa. Kumazga equation kukuyana na kusazga na kuwuskapo vinthu ku mbali zose ziŵiri mwakuti mbali zikhalilire mu ulinganyi mpaka chinthu chimoza pera icho chikhala pa mbali yimoza ni chinthu chambura kumanyikwa uzito wake.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kieran|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OTCsKu0BZ0kC&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Kaput|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1GUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 186]}} |{{harvnb|Gardella|DeLucia|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HBXFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19–22]}} | {{harvnb|Star|Foegen|Larson|McCallum|2015|pp=16–17}} }}</ref> [[Word problem (mathematics education)|Masuzgo gha mazgu]] ni chipangizo chinyake chakulongora umo algebra yikugwiliskika ku vinthu vyaunenesko vya moyo. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵasambiri ŵangapika mu mkhalidwe uwo mbale wa Naomi wali na machiyembe ghakuŵirapo kuŵiri kuluska Naomi. Pakuti ŵaŵiri wose pamoza ŵali na machiyembe 12, ŵasambiri ŵakupikika kuti ŵasange equation ya algebra iyo yikulongosora mkhalidwe uwu ({{tmath|1= 2x + x = 12 }}) na kumanya machiyembe ghaŵi agho Naomi wali nagho {{nowrap|({{tmath|1= x = 4 }}).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Arcavi|Drijvers|Stacey|2016|pp=58–59}} | {{harvnb|Drijvers|Goddijn|Kindt|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7sVFaMhwackC&pg=PA13 13]}} }}</ref>}} Pa vipimo vya yunivesite, ŵasambiri ŵa masamu ŵakukhwaskana na mitu yapachanya ya algebra kufuma ku algebra ya mzere na algebra yakudumura. Makalasi ghakwamba gha [[undergraduate|digiri yakwamba]] mu algebra ya mzere ghakuzirwa pa ma matrix, malo gha vector, na mapu gha mzere. Para ŵamalizga, ŵasambiri comenecomene ŵakwiziskika ku algebra yakudumura, uko ŵakusambira magulu gha algebra nga magulu, mphete, na minda, pamoza na ukhwaskano pakati pawo. Masambiro (curriculum) ghakuzirwa comenecomene ghakukhwaskaso vithuzi vyapadera vya magulu gha algebra, nga ndondomeko za vipendeko vyakugaŵikika, vipendeko vyeneco, na ma polynomial.<ref>{{harvnb|Hausberger|Zandieh|Fleischmann|2021|pp=147–148}}</ref> == Vinyake Vyakukhwaskana == {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * {{annotated link|Commutative algebra}} * {{annotated link|Computer algebra}} * {{annotated link|Exterior algebra}} * {{annotated link|F-algebra}} * {{annotated link|Geometric algebra}} * {{annotated link|Non-associative algebra}} * {{annotated link|Outline of algebra}} * {{annotated link|Representation theory}} * {{annotated link|Tensor}} {{div col end}} == References == === Notes === {{notelist}} === Citations === {{reflist}} === Sources === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last1=Abas |first1=Syed Jan |last2=Salman |first2=Amer Shaker |title=Symmetries Of Islamic Geometrical Patterns |date=1994 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-4502-21-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5snsCgAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=March 12, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mahima Ranjan |title=Basic Algebraic Topology and its Applications |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-2843-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MIAXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |language=en |date=2016 |access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mahima Ranjan |last2=Adhikari |first2=Avishek |title=Basic Modern Algebra with Applications |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-1599-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBO7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 |language=en |date=2013 |access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Aleskerov |first1=Fuad |last2=Ersel |first2=Hasan |last3=Piontkovski |first3=Dmitri |title=Linear Algebra for Economists |date=2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-20570-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ipcSD8ZGB8cC&pg=PA1 |language=en |access-date=March 11, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |last1=Andréka |first1=H. |last2=Madarász |first2=J. 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E. |title=Inconsistent Mathematics |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-015-8453-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYDrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 |language=en |access-date=January 18, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Murthy |first1=Swamy and |title=Algebra: Abstract and Modern |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-93-325-0993-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CBc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |language=en |date=2012 |access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Musser |first1=Gary L. |last2=Peterson |first2=Blake E. |last3=Burger |first3=William F. |title=Mathematics for Elementary Teachers: A Contemporary Approach |date=2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-48700-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8jh7DwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=March 11, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |author1=MW Staff |title=Definition of Arithmetic |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/arithmetic |website=Merriam-Webster |access-date=October 19, 2023 |language=en |date=2023 |archive-date=November 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231114193352/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/arithmetic |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Nakahara |first1=Mikio |title=Geometry, Topology and Physics |date=2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-4200-5694-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2C1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 |language=en |access-date=January 24, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Neri |first1=Ferrante |title=Linear Algebra for Computational Sciences and Engineering |date=2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-21321-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NMOlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 |language=en |access-date=January 24, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Nicholson |first1=W. Keith |title=Introduction to Abstract Algebra |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-13535-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w-GaLpapRcEC&pg=PA70 |language=en |date=2012 |access-date=August 30, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite journal |last1=Oaks |first1=Jeffrey A. |last2=Alkhateeb |first2=Haitham M. |title=Simplifying equations in Arabic algebra |journal=Historia Mathematica |volume=34 |issue=1 |doi=10.1016/j.hm.2006.02.006 |date=2007 |pages=45–61}} * {{cite book |last1=Olver |first1=Peter J. |title=Classical Invariant Theory |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-55821-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GlHYhNRAqEC&pg=PA55 |language=en |access-date=March 12, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Ono |first1=Hiroakira |title=Proof Theory and Algebra in Logic |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-13-7997-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SR2nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 |language=en |date=2019}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/algebra |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131120000000/https://web.archive.org/web/20131120000000/http://www.lexico.com/definition/algebra |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-11-20 |title=Algebra |website=[[Lexico]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |author=OUP Staff |access-date=2026-09-09}} * {{cite book |last1=Ovchinnikov |first1=Sergei |title=Number Systems |date=2015 |publisher=American Mathematical Society |isbn=978-1-4704-2018-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMbXBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 |language=en |access-date=January 20, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Pickover |first1=Clifford A. |title=The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics |date=2009 |publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4027-5796-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA90 |language=en |access-date=January 28, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Plotkin |first1=B. |title=Universal Algebra, Algebraic Logic, and Databases |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-011-0820-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-v3xCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 |language=en |access-date=January 24, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |last1=Pratt |first1=Vaughan |title=Algebra |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/algebra/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=January 11, 2024 |date=2022 |archive-date=January 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240129081755/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/algebra/ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Rabadan |first1=Raul |last2=Blumberg |first2=Andrew J. |title=Topological Data Analysis for Genomics and Evolution: Topology in Biology |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-15954-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2967DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |language=en |access-date=January 24, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Ricardo |first1=Henry |title=A Modern Introduction to Linear Algebra |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-9461-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s7bMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA389 |language=en |date=2009 |access-date=August 29, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Rohde |first1=Ulrich L. |last2=Jain |first2=G. C. |last3=Poddar |first3=Ajay K. |last4=Ghosh |first4=A. K. |title=Introduction to Differential Calculus: Systematic Studies with Engineering Applications for Beginners |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-13014-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vk2XbZpsBOwC&pg=PT89 |language=en |access-date=January 16, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Romanowski |first1=Perry |editor1-last=Lerner |editor1-first=Brenda Wilmoth |editor2-last=Lerner |editor2-first=K. Lee |title=The Gale Encyclopedia of Science |date=2008 |publisher=Thompson Gale |isbn=978-1-4144-2877-2 |edition=4th |chapter=Arithmetic |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/mathematics/mathematics/arithmetic |access-date=January 13, 2024 |archive-date=November 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101124957/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/mathematics/mathematics/arithmetic |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Rosen |first1=Kenneth |title=Discrete Maths and Its Applications Global Edition 7e |publisher=McGraw Hill |isbn=978-0-07-715151-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-oVvEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA779 |language=en |date=2012}} * {{cite book |last1=Rowen |first1=Louis Halle |title=Graduate Algebra: Commutative View: Commutative View |publisher=American Mathematical Society |isbn=978-0-8218-0570-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AhEPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |language=en |date=2006 |access-date=June 14, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Sahai |first1=Vivek |last2=Bist |first2=Vikas |title=Linear Algebra |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-2426-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjkgNYfApj4C&pg=PA21 |language=en |date=2002}} * {{cite book |last1=Saikia |first1=Promode Kumar |title=Linear Algebra |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-4276-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KhM7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |date=2008 |access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Serovajsky |first1=Simon |title=Architecture of Mathematics |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-89353-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6EX1DwAAQBAJ&pg=SA3-PA89 |language=en |date=2020}} * {{cite book |last1=Seshadri |first1=C. S. |title=Studies in the History of Indian Mathematics |date=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-93-86279-49-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_JdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |language=en |access-date=January 27, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Sialaros |first1=Michalis |title=Revolutions and Continuity in Greek Mathematics |date=2018 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-056527-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2PZYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55 |language=en |access-date=January 27, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Silverman |first1=Joseph H. |author-link=Joseph H. Silverman |title=Abstract Algebra: An Integrated Approach |publisher=American Mathematical Society |isbn=978-1-4704-6860-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PKFnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 |language=en |date=2022}} * {{cite web |last1=Smirnov |first1=D. M. |title=Universal Algebra |url=https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Universal_algebra |website=Encyclopedia of Mathematics |publisher=Springer |date=2020 |access-date=August 30, 2024 |archive-date=March 1, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301115432/https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Universal_algebra |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Jonathan D. H. |title=Introduction to Abstract Algebra |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4987-3162-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MXu9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 |language=en |date=2015 |access-date=June 14, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Smorynski |first1=Craig |title=History of Mathematics: A Supplement |date=2007 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-75481-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qY657eFq7UgC&pg=PA137 |language=en |access-date=January 27, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Sneyd |first1=James |last2=Fewster |first2=Rachel M. |last3=McGillivray |first3=Duncan |title=Mathematics and Statistics for Science |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-031-05318-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |language=en |date=2022}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |last1=Sobolev |first1=S. K. |title=Constant |url=https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Algebraic_logic |website=Encyclopedia of Mathematics |publisher=Springer |access-date=October 23, 2023 |date=2015 |archive-date=January 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124094606/https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Algebraic_logic |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Solomon |first1=Bruce |title=Linear Algebra, Geometry and Transformation |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4822-9930-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BpvSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |language=en |date=2014 |access-date=August 29, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Sorell |first1=Tom |title=Descartes: A Very Short Introduction |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285409-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EksSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |language=en |access-date=March 11, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Star |first1=Jon R. |last2=Foegen |first2=Anne |last3=Larson |first3=Matthew R. |last4=McCallum |first4=William G. |last5=Porath |first5=Jane |last6=Zbiek |first6=Rose Mary |title=Teaching Strategies for Improving Algebra Knowledge in Middle and High School Students |publisher=U.S. Department of Education / Institute of Education Sciences |date=2015 |oclc=5867417164}} * {{cite journal |last1=Straffin |first1=Philip D. |title=Linear Algebra in Geography: Eigenvectors of Networks |journal=Mathematics Magazine |date=1980 |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=269–276 |doi=10.2307/2689388 |jstor=2689388 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2689388 |issn=0025-570X|url-access=subscription }} * {{cite book |last1=Sullivan |first1=Michael |title=Finite Mathematics: An Applied Approach |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-87639-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NKaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |language=en |access-date=January 18, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Tan |first1=Kiat Shi |last2=Steeb |first2=Willi-Hans |last3=Hardy |first3=Yorick |title=SymbolicC++:An Introduction to Computer Algebra Using Object-Oriented Programming: An Introduction to Computer Algebra Using Object-Oriented Programming |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4471-0405-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDb0BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306 |language=en |access-date=January 16, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Tanton |first1=James |title=Encyclopedia of Mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma0000tant |date=2005 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-5124-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Terras |first1=Audrey |title=Abstract Algebra with Applications |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16407-9 |date=2019}} * {{cite book |last1=Tsokos |first1=Chris P. |last2=Wooten |first2=Rebecca D. |title=The Joy of Finite Mathematics: The Language and Art of Math |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-802985-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zu7HBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA451 |language=en |date=2015}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Valenza |first1=Robert J. |title=Linear Algebra: An Introduction to Abstract Mathematics |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4612-0901-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7x8MCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 |language=en |date=2012 |access-date=August 29, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Vince |first1=John |title=Vector Analysis for Computer Graphics |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-84628-803-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B574tQbP6WcC&pg=PA133 |language=en |date=2007 |access-date=August 5, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Viterbo |first1=Emanuele |last2=Hong |first2=Yi |editor1-last=Hlawatsch |editor1-first=Franz |editor2-last=Matz |editor2-first=Gerald |title=Wireless Communications Over Rapidly Time-Varying Channels |date=2011 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-08-092272-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d89QRR24jbMC&pg=PA127 |language=en |chapter=3.4 Algebraic Number Theory |access-date=January 24, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |last1=Voitsekhovskii |first1=M. I. |title=Linear Equation |url=https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Linear_equation |website=Encyclopedia of Mathematics |publisher=Springer |access-date=January 10, 2024 |date=2011 |archive-date=November 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123235759/https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Linear_equation |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Waerden |first1=Bartel L. van der |author-link=Bartel Leendert van der Waerden |title=Algebra |publisher=Springer |isbn=0-387-40624-7 |volume=1 |date=2003}} * {{cite book |last1=Waerden |first1=Bartel L. van der |title=A History of Algebra: From al-Khwārizmī to Emmy Noether |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-51599-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6DwCAAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=January 27, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Wagner |first1=Sigrid |last2=Kieran |first2=Carolyn |title=Research Issues in the Learning and Teaching of Algebra: The Research Agenda for Mathematics Education |volume=4 |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-43421-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uW4ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225 |language=en |access-date=January 13, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Walz |first1=Guido |title=Lexikon der Mathematik: Band 1: A bis Eif |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-53498-4 |url=https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 |language=de |chapter=Algebra |access-date=January 13, 2024 |archive-date=January 12, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112171819/https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/mathematik/algebra/12062 |url-status=live |trans-title=Encyclopedia of Mathematics: Volume 1: A to Eif}} * {{cite book |last1=Weibel |first1=Charles A. |author-link=Charles Weibel |title=An Introduction to Homological Algebra |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-64307-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtIhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR11 |language=en |date=1995}} * {{cite book |last1=Weisstein |first1=Eric W. |title=CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics |date=2003 |publisher=Chapman & Hall/CRC |isbn=978-1-58488-347-0 |edition=2nd}} * {{cite book |last1=Wheeler |first1=Jeffrey Paul |title=An Introduction to Optimization with Applications in Machine Learning and Data Analytics |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-003-80359-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IqQIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |language=en |date=2023}} * {{cite book |last1=Whitelaw |first1=T. A. |title=Introduction to Abstract Algebra, Third Edition |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-7514-0147-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2hyf0QoB_0C&pg=PA61 |language=en |date=1995}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=G. Arnell |title=Algebra the Beautiful: An Ode to Math's Least-Loved Subject |date=2022 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-1-5416-0070-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=581CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |language=en |access-date=March 11, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Robert A. |author-link=Robert Arnott Wilson |title=The Finite Simple Groups |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |series=[[Graduate Texts in Mathematics]] |isbn=978-1-84800-987-5 |doi=10.1007/978-1-84800-988-2 |year=2009 |zbl=1203.20012 |volume=251}} * {{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Cynthia Y. |title=Precalculus |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-75684-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HRLAn326zEC&pg=RA1-PA999 |language=en |access-date=January 16, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Cynthia Y. |title=Precalculus |date=2023 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-86940-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pMSZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA714 |language=en |access-date=January 18, 2024}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite web |author1=zbMATH Open |title=Classification |url=https://zbmath.org/classification/ |website=zbMATH Open |publisher=Mathematical Reviews and zbMATH Open |access-date=March 17, 2024 |language=en |date=2024 |archive-date=July 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719184539/https://zbmath.org/classification/ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Zwillinger |first1=Daniel |title=CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae |date=2002 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-3534-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE_MBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA812 |language=en |access-date=January 27, 2024}}{{cbignore}} {{Refend}} == External links == {{Wikiquote}} {{Wiktionary|algebra}} {{Wikibooks|Algebra}} {{EB1911 poster|Algebra}} {{Algebra}} {{Polynomials}} {{Areas of mathematics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Algebra| ]] pbo66p8gk7webkwn16oc7jm9d2j2cy2 0 35996 123167 122214 2026-10-08T17:24:01Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123167 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Mlimo wakulondezga ndondomeko pakusanga umanyi}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{For-multi|the journal|Science (journal){{!}}''Science'' (journal)|a topical guide|Outline of science|other uses}} {{Use British English|date=December 2024}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}} {{Sidebar | name = Usanthuro | pretitle = Part of [[Portal:Science|a series]] on | title = [[Usanthuro]] | image = [[File:Stylised atom with three Bohr model orbits and stylised nucleus.svg|100px]] | contentclass = hlist | heading1 = Usanisani | content1 = * [[Mbiri ya Usanthuro|Mbiri]] * [[vyakulemba vya Usanthuro|Vyakulemba]] * [[Ndondomeko ya Usanthuro|Ndondomeko]] * [[Kusanda umanyi mwa usanthuro|Kusanda-Umanyi]] | heading2 = Nthavi | content2 = * [[usanthuro wa malango ghakunyoloka|Vya malango ghakunyoloka]] * [[Usanthuro chilengiwa chose|Vya chilengiwa chose]] ** [[Usanthuro wa vya mvimba|Vya mvimba]] ** [[Usanthuro wa vya moyo|Vya moyo]] * [[Usanthuro wa ŵanthu|Vya ŵanthu]] ** [[Usanthuro wa nkharo za ŵanthu|Vya nkharo za ŵanthu]] ** [[Usanthuro wa vya zeru|Vya zeru]] * [[Usanthuro wa kukhazikiskika|wa Kukhazikiskika]] | heading3 = Mu Vikaya | content3 = * [[Kudumbiskana kwa vya usanthuro|Kudumbiskana]] * [[Ŵasanthuri|Ŵasanthuri]] * [[Masambiro gha sayansi|Masambiro]] * [[Kufighilira ndalama za usanthuro|Kufighilira ndalama]] * [[Malango gha usanthuro|Malango]] * [[Ma usanthuro gha yautesi]] * [[Msanthura]] | below = * [[File:Nuvola apps kcmsystem.png|15px|link=Portal:Science]] [[Portal:Science|Science portal]] * [[Outline of science|Outline]] * [[:Category:Science|Category]] * [[Index of science articles|Article indexes]] * [[Glossary of scientific terms|Glossaries]] }} '''Usanthuro''' ni nthowa yakulongosoka ya masambiro iyo yikuzenga na kunozga umanyi kwizira mu [[maghanoghano|maghanoghano gha kusachizga]] agho ghangapimika na [[ivyo vikusololeka|vyakuloskeka]] vya chilengiwa chose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=E. O. |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135 |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |publisher=Vintage |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8 |edition=Reprint |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55 49]–71 |chapter=The natural sciences |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Heilbron2003">{{cite book |last=Heilbron |first=J. L. |author-link=J. L. Heilbron |title=The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_q5e5 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-511229-0 |location=New York |pages=vii–x |chapter=Preface |quote=...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions. |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Usanthuro wa mu nyengo yasono kanandi yikugaŵika mu vipaturo vikuru viŵiri{{snd}}panji vitatu{{snd}}vikuru:<ref name="Cohen2021">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Eliel |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |title=The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-56298-4 |location=New York |pages=14–41 |chapter=The boundary lens: theorising academic activity |access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[vipaturo vya kusanda vinthu vya chilengiwa]], ivyo vikusanda [[charu chakukhwaskika na vyakuwoneka|vya mvimba]], na [[vipaturo vya kusanda makhaliro gha ŵanthu|mausanthuro gha kusanda makhaliro gha ŵanthu]], agho ghakusanda munthu payekha na kakhaliro ka ŵanthu mu vikaya na misumba.<ref name="Colander2019">{{cite book |last1=Colander |first1=David C. |title=Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society |last2=Hunt |first2=Elgin F. |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |edition=17th |location=New York |pages=1–22 |chapter=Social science and its methods}}</ref><ref name="Nisbet2020">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Social Science |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |access-date=9 May 2021 |date=16 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202193947/https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |archive-date=2 February 2022 |last2=Greenfeld |first2=Liah |last1=Nisbet |first1=Robert A. |url-status=live}}</ref> Nangauli ghakuchemeka [[masambiro gha malango ghakunyoloka|mausanthuro gha malango ghakunyoloka]], masambiro gha [[kaghanaghaniro kanyoloka|kaghanaghaniro kakunyoloka]], [[kusanda kwa manambala|kusanda kwa kupenda]], na [[kaghanaghaniro ka makina ghakupenda|usanthuro wa fundo za makina gha kurangura]] kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ngapadera chifukwa ghakuthemba pa [[nthowa yakulongosolera kufuma ku malango ghakumanyikwa kale]] m'malo mwa [[nthowa ya kusanda vinthu pakuyezgelera|nthowa ya kusanthura]] kuŵa nthowa yawo yikuru ya kachitiro ka milimo.<ref name="Kluwer">{{cite book |last1=Bishop |first1=Alan |title=Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education |publisher=Kluwer |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7923-1270-3 |location=Norwell, MA |pages=20–59 |chapter=Environmental activities and mathematical culture |access-date=24 March 2018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref><ref name="Fetzer2013">{{cite book |last1=Fetzer |first1=James H. |title=Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines |publisher=Kluwer |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4438-1946-6 |location=Newcastle, United Kingdom |pages=271–308 |chapter=Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nickles |first1=Thomas |title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |page=104 |chapter=The Problem of Demarcation}}</ref> Panyengo yeneyiyo, [[masambiro ghakuŵika kumanya pa milimo|mausanthuro ghakuŵika kumanya pa milimo]] ni masambiro agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito kumanya kwa usanthuro pa milimo yakukhwaskika, nga ni luso la kupanga-mwaufundi na luso la munkhwara.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=M. R. |last2=Fabry |first2=G |year=2014 |title=Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education |journal=GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=Doc24 |doi=10.3205/zma000916 |pmc=4027809 |pmid=24872859}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sinclair |first=Marius |year=1993 |title=On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods |url=https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |url-status=live |journal=The International Journal of Engineering Education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |archive-date=15 November 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966">{{Cite book |last=Bunge |first=M. |title=Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology |publisher=Springer |year=1966 |isbn=978-94-010-2184-5 |editor-last=Rapp |editor-first=F. |location=Dordrecht |pages=19–39 |chapter=Technology as Applied Science |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 |s2cid=110332727}}</ref> [[Mbiri ya kusanda kwa ndondomeko|Mbiri ya usanthuro]] yikutandazgika mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vili kulembeka kale, apo masambiro ghakwambilira agho ghakatovwira kufika pa masambiro gha mazuŵa ghano ghakamba mu [[Nyengo ya Chikuŵa]] ku [[Eguputo wa kale|Eguputo]] na [[Mesopotamiya]] ({{circa|3000–1200 BC}}). Kutovwira kwawo pa masambiro gha manambala, [[kusanda nyenyezi]], na [[luso la kurapa]] kukasolora na kuozga [[mahala gha chilengedwe]] gha Chigiriki gha [[nyengo yakale chomene]] ndipo pamanyuma masambiro gha mu [[Medieval renaissances|nyengo ya kuwuka kwa masambiro ya mu pakati]], apo pakaŵa kuyezgelera kwa ndondomeko kuti paŵe kulongosola vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu [[charu chakukhwaskika na vyakuwoneka]] kwizira mu vifukwa vya chilengedwe; apo kukulira kunyake, kusazgapo kwizika kwa [[nthowa ya manambala ya ku Indiya na Chiarabu]], kukachitika mu [[Golden Age of India#Gupta Empire|Nyengo ya Ukuru ya Indiya]] na [[Islamic Golden Age|Nyengo ya Ukuru ya Chisilamu]].<ref name="Lindberg2007">{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name="Grant2007a"> {{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |location=New York }}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ Building Bridges Among the BRICs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081025/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ |date=18 April 2023 }}, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 |title=India: A history |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 132] |quote=The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden. |author-link=John Keay}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" /> Kusangika so na kusazgika kwa [[Ancient Greek literature|mabuku gha Chigiriki]] na [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|mafumbo gha Chisilamu]] mu kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Yuropu mu nyengo ya [[Renaissance|Kuwuka kukhuru kwa masambiro]] kukawuska so mahala gha chilengedwe,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=193–224, 225–253}}<ref>Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything+we+would+today+call+science+came+through+Islam%22&pg=PA80 Pages 80–81] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240827070053/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything%20we%20would%20today%20call%20science%20came%20through%20Islam%22&pg=PA80 |date=27 August 2024 }}. Retrieved 6 October 2023</ref> ilo pamanyuma likasinthika na [[Scientific Revolution|Kusintha kukhuru kwa nthowa zakusandira vinthu]] uko kukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500<ref>{{cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin/page/1 1]–3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> apo maghanoghano na visangwa viphya vikapatukana na kaghanaghaniro na maluso gha kale gha Chigiriki.<ref name="Lindberg2007" /><ref name="Grant2007a" /> [[nthowa ya kusanda vinthu pakuyezgelera]] mwaluŵiro yikamba kuchita ntchito yikuru pa kusanga kumanya, ndipo mu [[19th century in science|vyaka vya m'ma 1800]], vinandi mwa kakhaliro ka [[Institutionalisation|nyumba za masambiro]] na [[Professionalization|luso la pa ntchito]] la kusanda kwa ndondomeko vikamba kuoneka,<ref>{{cite book |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |url=https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-08928-7 |editor1-last=Cahan |editor1-first=David}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/367 367] |chapter=13. Science and the Public |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter}}</ref> pamoza na kusintha kwa "mahala gha chilengedwe" kuŵa "vipaturo vya kusanda vinthu vya chilengedwe".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |year=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18451-7 |pages=164–165 |quote=The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life. |author-link1=Peter Harrison (historian)}}</ref> Kumanya kupya mu kusanda kwa ndondomeko kukukulira chifukwa cha kusanda kwa ŵasandi awo ŵali na khumbo la kumanya vinandi vya charu na khumbo la kumazga masuzgo.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacRitchie |first=Finlay |url=https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |title=Scientific Research as a Career |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4398-6965-9 |location=New York |pages=1–6 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505074020/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marder |first=Michael P. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |title=Research Methods for Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-14584-8 |location=New York |pages=1–17 |chapter=Curiosity and research |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505001547/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |url-status=live}}</ref> Kusanda kwa ndondomeko kwa mazuŵa ghano kanandi nkhwa kugwilira ntchito pamoza kwa magulu mu [[nyumba za masambiro na zakusandiramo vinthu]], maofesi gha boma,<ref name="Lindberg2007" /> na magulu gha malonda.<ref>{{cite book |last=Szycher |first=Michael |url=https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |title=Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-40741-1 |location=New York |pages=159–176 |chapter=Establishing your dream team |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818032914/https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, visangwa vinandi vikuru—makamaka mu [[kusanda vinthu pafupifupi na mizu yawo]]—vafuma ku ŵasandi payekha ndipo vikumanyikwa chomene kwizira mu [[chawanangwa]] chikuru cha pa charu chose nga ni [[Nobel Prize|Chawanangwa cha Nobelo]]. Vyandulo vyakukhwaskika vya ntchito ya kusanda vinthu vyapangiska kuti kuŵe [[Science policy|ndondomeko za boma pa vya kusanda vinthu]] izo zikupenja kuŵika pakwamba [[Responsible Research and Innovation|kukuzga mwakuchita makora]] kwa vinthu vya malonda, chisamaliro cha umoyo, nthowa za kwendera na kukhala kwa ŵanthu, [[environmental protection|kuvikilira chilengedwe]], na mphanvu za kuvikilira charu. == Kujima lizgu == Mazgu ghakuti ''science (usanthuro)'' ghayamba kale kugwiliskirika ntchito mu Chingelezi kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 ([[Middle English|Chingelezi cha mu vyaka vya pakati]]) mu kakhaliro kakuti "kuŵa na kumanya". Mazgu agha ghakatoleka kufuma ku [[Anglo-Norman language|chiyowoyero cha Anglo-Norman]] nga ni chivizizgo cha {{lang|xno|-cience}}, icho chikachita kutoleka kufuma ku mazgu gha [[Latin|Chilatini]] gha {{lang|la|[[wikt:scientia|scientia]]}}, kung'anamura {{gloss|kumanya, kuŵa maso, kupulikiska}}, [[Morphological derivation|mazgu ghakufuma]] ku {{lang|la|[[wikt:sciens|sciens]]}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kumanya}}, ilo pakulokha ni kanyake ka mazgu ghakuchita ka {{wikt-lang|la|sciō}} {{gloss|kumanya}}.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Science |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |access-date=16 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901035713/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |archive-date=1 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Paliso maghanoghano ghanandi ghakuyezgelereka pa nkhani ya uko mazgu ghakuti ''science'' ghakafuma na kukhazikika. Kuyana na [[Michiel de Vaan]], wakumanya vya viyowoyero wa ku Netherlands ndipo [[Indo-Europeanist|wakumanya viyowoyero vya ku Indiya na Yuropu]], {{lang|la|sciō}} lingaŵa kuti lina mafumiro ghake mu [[Proto-Italic language|chiyowoyero chakwambilira cha Chitaliya]] nga ni {{lang|itc-x-proto|*skije-}} panji {{lang|itc-x-proto|*skijo-}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kumanya}}, icho lingaŵa kuti lina mafumiro kufuma mu [[Proto-Indo-European language|chiyowoyero chakwambilira cha ku Indiya na Yuropu]] nga ni {{lang|ine-x-proto|skh₁-ie}}, {{lang|ine-x-proto|skh₁-io}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kuŵatula}}. Buku la ''[[Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben]]'' likati {{lang|la|sciō}} ni [[back-formation|mazgu ghakupangika kufuma]] ku {{lang|la|[[wikt:nescire|nescīre]]}}, kung'anamura {{gloss|kuleka kumanya, kuleka kuŵa na chizambizambi}}, icho lingafuma ku Proto-Indo-European ''{{lang|ine-x-proto|[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/sek-|sekH-]]}}'' mu Chilatini ni {{lang|la|[[wikt:secare|secāre]]}}, panji {{lang|ine-x-proto|skh₂-}} kufuma ku {{lang|ine-x-proto|sḱʰeh2(i)-}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kudumura}}.<ref>{{Cite dictionary |year=2008 |title=sciō |dictionary=Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/m-de-vaan-2008-etymological-dictionary-of-latin-and-the-other-italic-languages/page/544/ |last=Vaan |first=Michiel de |author-link=Michiel de Vaan |series=[[Indo-European Etymological Dictionary]] |page=545 |isbn=978-90-04-16797-1}}</ref> Mu nyengo zakale, kusanda kwa ndondomeko yikaŵa chinthu chimoza na "kumanya" panji "kusambira," mwakukolerana na mafumiro ghake gha Chilatini. Munthu uyo wakachitanga kafukufuku wa kusanda kwa ndondomeko wakachemekanga "[[natural philosopher|wamahara wa vinthu vya chilengedwe]]" panji "munthu wa masambiro gha kusanda."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cahan |first=David |title=From natural philosophy to the sciences: writing the history of nineteenth-century science |url=https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-08927-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse/page/3 3]–15}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 1834, [[William Whewell]] wakazika mazgu ghakuti ''scientist'' (wakumanya vya kusanda kwa ndondomeko) mu kuwunika kwake kwa buku la [[Mary Somerville]] lakuti ''[[On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ross |first=Sydney |year=1962 |title=Scientist: The story of a word |journal=[[Annals of Science]] |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=65–85 |doi=10.1080/00033796200202722 |doi-access=free}}</ref> apo wakapeleka ulemu wa kupangika kwa mazgu agha kwa "mwanalume munyake wamahara" (panyake wakaŵa iyeyu mwaŵene).<ref>{{cite OED|scientist}}</ref> == Mbiri == {{Main|Mbiri ya usanthuro}} === Mbiri yakwambilira === {{Main|Usanthuro mu charu cha mchiyamwaka}} [[File:Megaliths Aswan Nubia museum.JPG|left|thumb|Malibwe ghakuru kufuma ku [[Nabta Playa]], ghakazengeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu [[Neolithic|nyengo ya mawe ghasono]] kuti ŵalongozge kawonero ka vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, ghakusangika mu [[Aswan]], [[Upper Egypt|Kuchanya kwa Eguputo]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |page=107 |language=en}}</ref>]] [[File:Plimpton 322.jpg|thumb|Lupapati la dongo la [[Plimpton 322]] cha ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Babylonia]] chikulemba [[Pythagorean triple|vigaŵa vitatu vya Pythagoras]], chikulembeka {{circa|1800 BCE}}|alt=Clay tablet with markings, three columns for numbers and one for ordinals]] Kusanda kwa ndondomeko kulije mafumiro ghamoza pera. M'malo mwake, kaghanaghaniro ka kusanda kanyumba kano kakamba kuoneka pachoko na pachoko mu vyaka vinkhaniro vinandi,<ref>{{Citation |last=Carruthers |first=Peter |title=The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking |date=2 May 2002 |work=The Cognitive Basis of Science |pages=73–96 |editor-last=Carruthers |editor-first=Peter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511613517.005 |isbn=978-0-521-81229-0 |editor2-last=Stich |editor2-first=Stephen |editor3-last=Siegal |editor3-first=Michael}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lombard |first1=Marlize |last2=Gärdenfors |first2=Peter |year=2017 |title=Tracking the Evolution of Causal Cognition in Humans |journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences |volume=95 |issue=95 |pages=219–234 |doi=10.4436/JASS.95006 |pmid=28489015 |issn=1827-4765}}</ref> pakutora kakhaliro kantu kakupambanapambana pa charu chose, ndipo vigaŵa vichoko pera ndivyo vikumanyikwa pa nkhani ya kukuzga kwakwambilira chomene. [[Women in science|Ŵanakazi]] ŵakaŵa na ntchito yikuru chomene mu kusanda kwa ndondomeko mu nyengo zakuzizwa pambere mbiri yindakhalikike,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graeber |first1=David |last2=Wengrow |first2=David |author-link1=David Graeber |author-link2=David Wengrow |year=2021 |title=The Dawn of Everything |title-link=The Dawn of Everything |page=[https://archive.org/details/dawnofeverything0000grae/page/248 248]}}</ref> nga ni umo vikaŵira na [[Ritual#Religious perspectives|maluso gha chisopa]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Faerie Smith Meets the Bronze Industry: Magic Versus Science in the Interpretation of Prehistoric Metal-Making |jstor=124782 |last1=Budd |first1=Paul |last2=Taylor |first2=Timothy |journal=World Archaeology |year=1995 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=133–143 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1995.9980297 |bibcode=1995WoArc..27..133B }}</ref> Ŵamahara ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazgu ghakuti "[[protoscience|masambiro ghakuyana na kusanda]]" pakuyowoya vya milimo ya mu nyengo yakale iyo yikuyana na kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano mu vigaŵa vinyake kweni mu vyose yayi;<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuomela |first=Raimo |year=1987 |chapter=Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience |editor-last1=Pitt |editor-first1=J. C. |editor-last2=Pera |editor-first2=M. |title=Rational Changes in Science |series=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |volume=98 |pages=83–101 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6_4 |isbn=978-94-010-8181-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/599864 |first=Pamela H. |last=Smith |title=Science on the Move: Recent Trends in the History of Early Modern Science |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_renaissance-quarterly_summer-2009_62_2/page/345 |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |volume=62 |number=2 |year=2009 |pages=345–375 |pmid=19750597 |s2cid=43643053}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fleck |first=Robert |date=March 2021 |title=Fundamental Themes in Physics from the History of Art |journal=Physics in Perspective |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=25–48 |doi=10.1007/s00016-020-00269-7 |bibcode=2021PhP....23...25F |s2cid=253597172 |issn=1422-6944 |doi-access=free}}</ref> kweni, mazgu agha ghakususulika kuti ghakuyuyura, panji ghakuŵika mtima chomene pa [[Presentism (historical analysis)|kawonero ka mazuŵa ghano]], pakughanaghanira milimo iyo mwakukolerana pera na vigaŵa vya mazuŵa ghano.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/007327531205000203 |first=Peter |last=Dear |title=Historiography of Not-So-Recent Science |journal=History of Science |volume=50 |number=2 |year=2012 |pages=197–211 |s2cid=141599452}}</ref> Ukaboni wakudunjika wa nthowa za kusanda kwa ndondomeko ukumanyikwa makora chomene pamanyuma pa kwizika kwa [[writing systems|nthowa za kulembera]] mu [[Bronze Age|nyengo ya chikuŵa]] mu vyaka vya m'ma civilisations gha [[Ancient Egypt|Eguputo wa kale]] na [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamiya]] ({{circa|3000–1200 BCE}}), kupanga maliboti ghakwambilira gha kulembeka mu [[history of science|mbiri ya kusanda kwa ndondomeko]].<ref name="Lindberg2007" /><ref name="Grant2007a" /> Nangauli mazgu na maghanoghano gha "kusanda kwa ndondomeko" na "chilengedwe" ghakaŵa mu maghanoghano gha ŵanthu panyengo iyo yayi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakale na Mesopotamiya ŵakaŵa na vyakusanguluska ivyo pamanyuma vikaŵa na malo mu kusanda kwa Chigiriki na kwa mu nyengo ya pakati: masambiro gha manambala, kusanda nyenyezi, na luso la kurapa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rochberg |first1=Francesca |author-link=Francesca Rochberg |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/9 9] |chapter=Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" /> Kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 3000 BCE, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakale ŵakazenga [[Decimal#Origin|nthowa ya kupenda ya nambala khumi]] iyo njakuzengeka pa kakhaliro ka manambala yayi,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |url=https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000kreb_p4w4 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32433-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000kreb_p4w4/page/127 127]}}</ref> ŵakamazgo masuzgo gha pa mlima kwizira mu [[geometry|masambiro gha mikhaliro ya malo na vigaŵa]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlich |first1=Ḥaggai |author-link=Haggai Erlich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&q=egyptian%20geometry%20Nile&pg=PA80 |title=The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths |last2=Gershoni |first2=Israel |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner |isbn=978-1-55587-672-2 |pages=80–81 |quote=The Nile occupied an important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to disappear." |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref> ndipo ŵakapanga [[Egyptian calendar|ndondomeko ya kalendala]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Telling Time in Ancient Egypt |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |date=February 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303133140/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa zawo za kuraŵa zikasazgapo matupi gha munkhwala na milimo yakuzizwa, nga ni malurombo, [[incantation|mashontho]], na maluso gha kachitiro.<ref name="Lindberg2007" /> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Nubians|Nubiya]] ŵakale ŵakaŵa na nthowa yakwambilira ya [[antibiotics|minkhwala yakukoma tushilingini mu thupi]] ndipo ŵakakhazikiska nthowa ya [[geometrics|masambiro gha mikhaliro ya malo]] iyo yikawovwira pa [[sundials|maworoghe gha dazi]] ghakwambilira. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubiya ŵakagwiliskirangaso ntchito nthowa ya [[Trigonometry|masambiro gha makona gha vigaŵa vitatu]] yakuyanako na ŵanyawo ŵa ku Eguputo.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Armelagos, George |date=2000 |title=Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians |url=https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/482bd90a-de71-49b3-9bbc-d8ff0ab974b3 |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |issue=5 |pages=50–3 |s2cid=89542474}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry|first=Leo|last=Depuydt|date=1 January 1998|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=84|pages=171–180|doi=10.2307/3822211|jstor=3822211}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|title=Neolithic Skywatchers|date=27 May 1998|first=Andrew|last=Slayman|website=Archaeology Magazine Archive|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234044/http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|archive-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&q=nubia&pg=PA744|title=A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy|last=Neugebauer|first=O.|date=2004-09-17|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-06995-9|language=en}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamiya]] ŵakale ŵakagwiliskira ntchito kumanya kwa makhaliro gha vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya chilengedwe pakupanga [[pottery|viŵiya vya dongo]], [[faience|vinthu vya dongo vyakuŵala]], gilasi, sopo, visulo, [[lime plaster|malasitara gha njala]], na nthowa za kukanizga maji kunjira.<ref name="McIntosh2005">{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane R. |author-link=Jane McIntosh |title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-57607-966-9 |pages=273–276 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵakasambira vya [[animal physiology|kakhaliro ka matupi gha vinyama]], [[anatomy|makhaliro gha mukati mwa thupi]], [[animal behavior|makhaliro gha vinyama]], na [[astrology|kusambira nyenyezi]] chifukwa cha [[divinatory|milimo ya kuombeza]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |last=Aaboe |first=Asger |author-link=Asger Aaboe |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=2 May 1974 |pages=21–42 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |jstor=74272 |s2cid=122508567}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mesopotamiya ŵakaŵa na [[Babylonian medicine|khumbo likuru mu luso la kurapa]] ndipo [[medical prescription|machira gha minkhwala]] ghakwambilira ghakaoneka mu [[Sumerian language|chiyowoyero cha Chisumeriya]] mu nyengo ya [[Third Dynasty of Ur|Ufumu wachitatu wa Ur]].<ref name="McIntosh2005" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia |first=R. D. |last=Biggs |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2005 |pages=7–18}}</ref> Vikulongora kuti ŵakasambiranga vinthu vya kusanda ivyo vikaŵa na ntchito ya pa mlima panji ya chisopa ndipo ŵakaŵa na khumbo lichoko chomene la kumanya vinthu chifukwa cha khumbo lakukhorweska waka fumbo la mu mtima.<ref name="McIntosh2005" /> === Nyengo yakale ya mahara === {{Main|Science in classical antiquity}} [[File:MANNapoli 124545 plato's academy mosaic.jpg|left|thumb|[[Plato's Academy mosaic]], yakupangika pakati pa 100 BC na 79 AD, yikulongora ŵavinjeru ŵanandi na ŵakusambira ŵa Chigiriki.|alt=Chithuzi cha ŵavinjeru ŵakuwungana na kudumbiskana]] Mu [[classical antiquity|nyengo yakale ya mahara]], mukaŵavyepi munthu uyo tingamuyana na munasayansi wa mazuŵa ghano. M'malo mwake, ŵanalume ŵakusambira, awo kanandi ŵakaŵa ŵakusampha, ŵakachitanga kafukufuku wakupambanapambana mu vyaka vya chilengiwa pa nyengo iyo ŵakaŵira na mpata.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehoux |first1=Daryn |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/39 39] |chapter=2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World}}</ref> Pambere fundo ya [[concept|chilengiwa]] panji kuti ''[[phusis]]'' yindasandulike na [[pre-Socratic philosopher|ŵavinjeru ŵakwambilira ŵa Chigiriki]], mazgu ghamoza ghakagwiliskirikanga ntchito pakulongosora "nthowa" iyo khuni likukulira,<ref>An account of the pre-Socratic use of the concept of φύσις may be found in {{cite book |last=Naddaf |first=Gerard |year=2006 |title=The Greek Concept of Nature |publisher=SUNY Press |postscript=,}} and in {{cite journal |last1=Ducarme |first1=Frédéric |last2=Couvet |first2=Denis |year=2020 |title=What does 'nature' mean? |journal=[[Palgrave Communications]] |volume=6 |issue=14 |article-number=14 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |doi=10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816053756/https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |url-status=live}} The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word ''nature'' is used, as confirmed by {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus |postscript=none}} (volume 2 of his ''History of Greek Philosophy''), Cambridge University Press, 1965.</ref> kweniso "nthowa" iyo fuko linyake likusopera chiuta wawo. Pa chifukwa ichi, chikuyowoyeka kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵavinjeru ŵakwamba panji kuti ŵafilozofwa ŵeneko, kweniso ŵakwamba kupatula pakati pa "chilengiwa" na "maluso gha ŵanthu".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Strauss |first1=Leo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpx2j0TumyIC |title=An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss |last2=Gildin |first2=Hilail |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8143-1902-4 |chapter=Progress or Return? The Contemporary Crisis in Western Education |year=1989 |access-date=30 May 2022 |page=209}}</ref> Ŵavinjeru ŵakwambilira ŵa [[Greek philosophers|Chigiriki]] ŵa ku sukulu ya ku Mileto, iyo yikambika na [[Thales of Miletus|Thales]] ndipo panyuma yikalutilizgika na [[Anaximander]] ndipo pamanyuma [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]], ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuyezga kulongosora [[natural phenomena|vinthu vyakuzizwiska vya chilengiwa]] kwambura kuthemba pa [[supernatural|nkhongono za mizimu]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Grady |first1=Patricia F. |author-link=Patricia O'Grady |title=Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7546-0533-1 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&q=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist&pg=PA245 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵa [[Pythagoreans|pizagoliyasi]] ŵakapanga mahara ghakusuzga ghakukhwaskana na manambara<ref name="Burkert1972">{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1}}</ref>{{rp|467–468}} ndipo ŵakawovwira chomene pakukuzga mahara gha kupenda na kulinganya.<ref name="Burkert1972" />{{rp|465}} Fundo ya [[atomism|tizidutswa tuchoko-tuchoko]] yikapangika na mwanamahara wa ku Giriki [[Leucippus]] na msambiri wake [[Democritus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pullman |first1=Bernard |title=The Atom in the History of Human Thought |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-515040-7 |pages=31–33 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56 |bibcode=1998ahht.book.....P |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=Henri |editor2-last=Lefebvre |editor2-first=Claire |title=Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science |year=2017 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-08-101107-2 |page=427 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA427 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pamanyuma, [[Epicurus]] wakazenga fundo yakunonoka ya makhaliro gha chilengiwa yakujintha pa tizidutswa utu, ndipo wakambiska "ndondomeko" iyo yikaŵika vipimo vya unenesko wa sayansi. <ref>[[Lucretius]] ({{floruit}}1st century BCE) {{lang|la|[[De rerum natura]]}}</ref> Dokotala wa ku Giriki [[Hippocrates]] wakambiska ndondomeko ya masambiro gha munkhwala na wovwiri wa thupi<ref>{{cite book |last=Margotta |first=Roberto |year=1968 |title=The Story of Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrAAAAMAAJ |location=New York |publisher=[[Golden Press]] |access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Touwaide |first1=Alain |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |year=2005 |editor1-last=Glick |editor1-first=Thomas F. |editor2-last=Livesey |editor2-first=Steven |editor3-last=Wallis |editor3-first=Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-96930-7 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=Hippocrates+medical+science&pg=PA224 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti "[[List of persons considered father or mother of a scientific field#Medicine and physiology|Wiske wa Munkhwala]]".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leff |first1=Samuel |last2=Leff |first2=Vera |year=1956 |title=From Witchcraft to World Health |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjNrAAAAMAAJ |location=London |publisher=Macmillan |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref> Kusinthika kukuru mu mdauko wa vinjeru vya chilengiwa kukawoneka pa chiyelezgero cha [[Socrates]] uyo wakagwiliskira ntchito mahara pakusambira vya makhaliro gha ŵanthu, makhaliro gha magulu gha ndale, na kumanya kwa munthu mwenecho. [[Socratic method|Ndondomeko ya Socrates]] umo yikulembekera mu mabuluku gha [[Plato]] ni nthowa ya kudumbiskana m’paka kusanga unenesko: fundo ziwemi zikusangika mwa kuwunguzga na kuseka zila izo zikupereka kususukana. Nthowa iyi yikupenja unenesko uwo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali nawo uwo ukulongozga vigomezgo vyawo na kuviwunguzga kuti viwoneke usange ni vyaunenesko.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |title=Plato, Apology |page=17 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Socrates wakasuska masambiro gha kale gha sayansi ya vinthu (physics) chifukwa wakati ghakaŵa gha maghanoghano waka kwambura kujiwunguzga dankha.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |title=Plato, Apology |page=27 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 BCE, [[Aristotle]] wakambiska ndondomeko yakunozgeka makora ya vinjeru vya [[teleological|chilato cha chilengiwa]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |edition=H. Rackham |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317140402/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc= |archive-date=17 March 2012 |access-date=22 September 2010 |at=1139b}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 BCE, munthu wakusambira vya nyenyezi wa ku Giriki [[Aristarchus of Samos]] wakaŵa wakwamba kuyowoya kuti [[heliocentric model|dazi lili pakati pa chilengiwa]], ndipo mapulaneti ghose ghakuchizungulira.<ref name="McClellan2015">{{cite book |last1=McClellan |first1=James E. III |last2=Dorn |first2=Harold |title=Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction |year=2015 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=978-1-4214-1776-9 |pages=99–100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&q=Aristarchus+heliocentrism&pg=PA99 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Fundo ya Aristarchus yikakanika na ŵanthu ŵanandi chifukwa ŵakawonanga kuti yikususkana na malango gha sayansi ya vinthu,<ref name="McClellan2015" /> ndipo m'malo mwake buku la Ptolemy la ''[[Almagest]]'', lilo likuti charu chapasi ndicho chili pakati pa [[Solar System|ndondomeko ya dazi]], likapokelereka m’paka mu nyengo ya Renaissance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graßhoff |first=Gerd |title=The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalogue |year=1990 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4612-8788-9 |series=Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences |volume=14 |location=New York |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=Susanne M. |title=Hipparchs Himmelsglobus |year=2017 |publisher=Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-658-18682-1 |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8 |bibcode=2017hihi.book.....H}}</ref> Munthu wakupanga vinthu na kusambira manambara [[Archimedes of Syracuse]] wakachita vintu vikuru pakwambiska masambiro gha [[calculus|masamu ghakusuzga]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=C. H. Jr. |title=The Historical Development of the Calculus |year=1979 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-94313-8 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilrlBwAAQBAJ&q=Archimedes+calculus&pg=PA75 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] wakaŵa mulembi wa Chiroma uyo wakamanyanga vinthu vinandi, ndipo wakalemba buku likuru lakuti ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Russell m. |title=Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-85109-539-1 |pages=190–191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia&pg=PA190 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Trevor Morgan |title=Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926288-5 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NC_T_tG9lQC&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Doody |first1=Aude |title=Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48453-4 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoEhAwAAQBAJ&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> [[Positional notation|Nthowa yakulembera manambara kuyana na malo ghawo]] yikulongora kuti yikawoneka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 200 na 400 CE mu nthowa za malonda za ku Indiya. Ndondomeko ya manambara iyi yikapangitsa kuti [[arithmetic|kupenda manambara]] kuŵe kwambura kusuzga ndipo pamanyuma yikazakaŵa nthowa yakuzirwa ya masamu pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conner |first=Clifford D. |title=A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and "Low Mechanicks" |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000conn_v0x0 |year=2005 |publisher=Nation Books |isbn=1-56025-748-2 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000conn_v0x0/page/72 72]–74}}</ref> === Vyaka vya Pakati === {{Main|History of science#Middle Ages}} [[File:ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg|thumb|Pa peji lakwamba la [[Vienna Dioscurides]] pali chithuzi cha [[peacock|nkhwali]], icho chikalembeka mu vyaka vya m’ma 500.|alt=Picture of a peacock on very old paper]] Chifukwa cha [[collapse of the Western Roman Empire|kubwanganduka kwa Ufumu wa Roma wa Kumanjiliro gha Dazi]], mu vyaka vya m’ma 400 vinjeru vikakhira chomene, ndipo kamanidwe ka vinjeru vya Ŵagriki ŵakale pakuyowoya vya chilengiwa kakamba kumala mu Ulaya wa Kumanjiliro gha Dazi.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=194}} Ŵasungiri ŵa vinjeru mu viyowoyero vya Chilatini mu nyengo iyi, nga ni [[Isidore of Seville]], ŵakasungilira vinjeru vinandi vya kale.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC |title=The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional and Intellectual Contexts |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-56762-6 |series=Cambridge Studies in the History of Science |pages=7–17 |access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref> Kweni mwakupambana na ichi, chifukwa chakuti [[Byzantine Empire|Ufumu wa Bizantini]] ukatonda nkhondo za ŵalwani, ukaŵa na nkhongono yakusungilira na kunozga vinjeru ivyo vikaŵako kale.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=159}} [[John Philoponus]], nkhwantha ya ku Bizantini mu vyaka vya m’ma 500, wakamba kususkana na masambiro gha Aristotelu pa nkhani ya malango gha chilengiwa, ndipo wakambiska [[theory of impetus|chigomezgo cha nkhongono ya kachidukulu]].<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307, 311, 363, 402}} Kususkana kwake kukawovwira nkhwantha za mu vyaka vya pakati na Galileo Galilei, uyo wakazunura chomene mabuku ghake pakati pajumpha vyaka chikwi chimoza.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307–308}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Philoponus |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Christian |last=Wildberg |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |date=1 May 2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822110331/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya [[late antiquity|kunthazi ya usambazi wakale]] na [[Early Middle Ages|Vyaka vya Pakati vya Pakwamba]], vinjeru vya chilengiwa vikapimikanga chomene kwizira mu kandiro ka Aristotelu. Kandiro aka kakuŵa na [[four causes|vifukwa vinayi]] vya Aristotelu: chifukwa cha chinthu icho chapangika, kawonekelo kake, icho chikuchichititiska kwenda, na chilato chake chaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Aristotle on Causality |last=Falcon |first=Andrea |editor-last=Zalta |year=2019 |editor-first=Edward |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Spring 2019 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |access-date=3 October 2020 |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009032459/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |url-status=live}}</ref> Malemba manandi gha Ŵagriki ŵakale yakasungika na [[Byzantine Empire|Ufumu wa Bizantini]] ndipo yakang’anamulika mu [[Arabic|Chiarabu]] na Ŵakhristu, chomenechomene ŵa [[Nestorian schism|Chinesitoli]] na ŵa [[Miaphysites|Chimiyafiziti]]. Mu muwuso wa Ŵaabasi, mang’anamuliro agha ghakanozgeka na kukuzgika na nkhwantha za Chiarabu.<ref name="Grant2007a"/>{{rp|pp=62-67}} Mu vyaka vya m’ma 500 na 600, [[Sasanian Empire|Ufumu wa Sasani]] uwo ukaŵa pafupi ukakhazikiska sukulu ya un’anga ya [[Academy of Gondishapur]], iyo yikawonekanga na madokotala gha Chigriki, Chisiriya, na Chipereziya kuŵa malo ghakuzirwa chomene gha munkhwala mu charu cha kale.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Iran |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0007unse_b4w5 |date=1968–1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last=Fisher |first=W. B. |isbn=978-0-521-20093-6}}</ref> Kusanda kwa Chisilamu pa vya [[Aristotelianism#Islamic world|Masambiro gha Aristotelu]] kukakura chomene mu [[House of Wisdom|Nyumba ya Vinjeru]] iyo yikakhazikiskika mu msumba wa [[Baghdad]], Iraq<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |title=Bayt al-Hikmah |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104043313/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> ndipo kukalutilira<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Hossein Nasr |editor-first=Seyyed |title=History of Islamic Philosophy |title-link=History of Islamic Philosophy |editor-last2=Leaman |editor-first2=Oliver |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-25934-7 |pages=165–167 |editor-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr}}</ref> m’paka mu nyengo ya [[Mongol invasions|kuwukira kwa Ŵamongoli]] mu vyaka vya m’ma 1200. [[Ibn al-Haytham]], uyo wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Alhazen, wakachita magesi ghakupimika mu kusanda kwake kwa mboniwoni.{{efn|name=doubtPtolemy|1= Buku la Ibn al-Haytham la ''[[Book of Optics|Mboniwoni]]'' likasuskana na chigomezgo cha Claudius Ptolemy chakuti mboniwoni yikufuma mu maso kuluta ku chinthu: "Ntheura, kufuma kwa minziro ya mboniwoni nkhwakusazgirapo waka ndipo kulije ntchito". Wonani kung’anamulika kwa A. Mark Smith kufuma mu Chilatini,<ref name="Smith2001" /> Buku I, [6.54], pp. 372, 408. }}<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=228328 |last1=Toomer |first1=G. J. |title=Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=463–465 |year=1964 |doi=10.1086/349914}} Wonani p. 464: "Schramm wakulongosora ivyo [Ibn Al-Haytham] wafiska pa nkhani ya kukuzga nthowa ya vinjeru.", p. 465: "Schramm walongora .. kwambura kukana kulikose kuti Ibn al-Haytham ni munthu wakuzirwa mu luso la vinjeru vya Chisilamu, chomenechomene pa nkhani ya kulenga nthowa zakuyezgelera." p. 465: "pekha pala muwuso wa Ibn al-Haytham na ŵanyake pa malemba gha chilengiwa gha mu vyaka vya pakati wasandika mwakupwelelera ndipo apo chigomezgo cha Schramm chakuti Ibn al-Haytham ndiyo wakaŵa muvumbuzi wanadi wa vinjeru vya mazuŵa gano gha chilengiwa chingapimika."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=H. Floris |author-link=Floris Cohen |chapter=Greek nature knowledge transplanted: The Islamic world |title=How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough |year=2010 |pages=99–156 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8964-239-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Kudandawula kwa [[Avicenna]] mu buku la ''[[The Canon of Medicine|Dango la Un’anga]]'', ilo ni buku likuru la usambazi wa munkhwala, kukuwoneka kuŵa limoza mwa mabuku ghakuzirwa chomene mu un’anga ndipo likagwiriskikanga ntchito m’paka mu vyaka vya m’ma 1700.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli |url-access=limited |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli/page/n168 155]–156 |publisher=Springer |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2 |editor-last1=Selin |editor-first1=Helaine |editor-link=Helaine Selin}}</ref> Pofika mu vyaka vya m’ma 1000, vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya vikaŵa vya Chikhristu,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} ndipo mu 1088, [[University of Bologna|Sukulu Yikuru ya Bologna]] ikawoneka kuŵa sukulu yikuru yakwamba mu Ulaya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=Josiah C. |year=1959 |title=Gratian, Irnerius, and the Early Schools of Bologna |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mississippi-quarterly_fall-1959_12_4/page/168 |journal=[[The Mississippi Quarterly]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=168–188 |jstor=26473232 |quote=Panji ntheura kale chomene mu 1088 (nyengo iyo yikapangika mwadango yakukhazikiskika kwa Sukulu Yikuru)}}</ref> Chifukwa cha ichi, khumbiro la kung’anamulira malemba gha kale na gha vinjeru mu Chilatini likakura,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} icho chikaŵa chifukwa chikuru cha [[Renaissance of the 12th century|Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru kwa mu vyaka vya m’ma 1100]]. Masambiro gha ku sukulu mu Ulaya wa kumanjiliro gha dazi yakakura, ndipo magesi ghakachitikanga mu nthowa ya kulaŵiska, kulongosora, na kupanga magulu gha vinthu vya m’chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |title=St. Albertus Magnus |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 October 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028045424/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |archive-date=28 October 2017}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1200, ŵasambi na ŵasambizgi ŵa un’anga ku Bologna ŵakamba kujula mathupi gha ŵanthu, icho chikapangiska kuti paŵe buku lakwamba la kamanidwe ka thupi lakuzingatira pa kujula thupi la munthu ilo likalembeka na [[Mondino de Luzzi]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03327-6 |page=45 |access-date=27 March 2018 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru === {{Main|Science in the Renaissance|Copernican heliocentrism}} [[File:De Revolutionibus manuscript p9b.jpg|thumb|Chithuzi cha nthowa ya kuzingulira kwa dazi nga umo vikasachizgika na Copernicus mu buku lake la {{lang|la|[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]}}alt=Drawing of planets' orbit around the Sun]] Vinthu viphanya ivyo vikavumbulika pa nkhani ya mboniwoni vikawovwira pakwamba kwa [[Renaissance|Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru]], mwa kususkana na maghanoghano gha kale gha [[metaphysical|vinjeru vya kuseri kwa chilengiwa]] pa nkhani ya umo munthu wakuwonera vinthu, kweniso mwa kuwovwira pa kunozga na kukuzga maluso gha mazuŵa gano nga ni [[camera obscura]] na [[telescope|galasi lakulaŵiskira vyakumaso]]. Pakuyamba kwa Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru, [[Roger Bacon]], [[Vitello]], na [[John Peckham]] waliyose wakazenga usambazi wa [[ontology|masambiro gha umo vinthu viliri]] pa nkhani ya kudura kwa vinthu kwambira na kupulika, kuwona, na paumaliro [[apperception|kumanya chomene]] kwa kawonekelo ka munthu payekha na ka chilengiwa chose ka Aristotelu.<ref name="Smith2001">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=A. Mark |title=Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's ''De Aspectibus'', the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāẓir'': Volume Two |title-link=De Aspectibus |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-87169-914-5 |series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=91, parts 4 & 5 |location=Philadelphia }}</ref>{{rp|Book I}} Nthowa ya mboniwoni iyo pambere yikamanyikwanga kuti [[perspectivism|nthowa ya kawonekelo]] [[One-point perspective|yikagwiriskikanga ntchito na kusambirika]] na ŵaluso ŵa vyakujambula ŵa mu nyengo ya Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru. Chigomezgo ichi chikugwiriskira ntchito vifukwa vitatu pera pa vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotelu: kawonekelo, chinthu icho chapangika, na chilato chaumaliro.<ref name="Smith1981">{{Cite journal |jstor=231249 |doi=10.1086/352843 |pmid=7040292 |title=Getting the Big Picture in Perspectivist Optics |journal=Isis |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=568–589 |last1=Smith |first1=A. Mark |year=1981 |s2cid=27806323}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1500, [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] wakapanga [[Copernican_heliocentrism|nthowa yakuti dazi ndilo liri pakati]] pa nthandala ya vyakuzingulira, uku Dazi lili pafupi na pakati pa chilengiwa chose,<ref>"Munthu uyo wakawuskapo charu pa malo ghake ghakunotha pakuŵa pakati pa chilengiwa ndipo wakamanya kuti nkhachimoza waka mwa vyakuzingulira vinyake, wakawona kuti nkhwakukhumbikwa kuchipha malo ghapadera mu nthowa yake yiphanya. Nangauli wakati 'pakati pa vyose pali dazi,' mu vigomezgo vyake vya vyakuzingulira wakayezgerera kuti pakati pa mayendero ghose pakaŵa pakati pa nthandala ya charu, apo dazi pakaŵavye." Dreyer, J.L.E. ''A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler,'' (Dover Publications, 1953). p.343. {{ISBN|9780486600796}}</ref><ref>"...chikaŵa chakuwonekerathu kwa Copernicus...kuti charu chingenda mwakuyana yanyi yayi mu nkhulungulu uku dazi lili pakati. Ntheura Copernicus wakaŵika dazi pakati pa nthandala ya charu yayi, kweni patali kachoko. Pakati pa nthandala ya vyakuzingulira, na pa chilengiwa chose, mu nthowa ya Copernicus ni dazi yayi, kweni ni 'dazi la pakati,' la pakati pa nthandala ya charu. Ntheura, nkhunozga chomene kuchema nthowa ya Copernicus kuŵa nthowa yakukhazikika ya dazi kuluska nthowa yakuti dazi liri pakati." [[I. Bernard Cohen|Cohen, I. Bernard]]. ''The Birth of a New Physics (Revised and Updated)'' (W.W. Norton & Company, 1985). p.44. {{ISBN|0-393-01994-2}}</ref> kwambura kwenda, uku Charu na vyakuzingulira vinyake vikuchizungulira mu mayendero gha nkhulungulu,<ref>"Mayendero ghose mukati mwake (kuwaro kwa pafupi na Charu) yakutolezga dango lakuti mayendero gha kuchanya nga nkhulungulu ndipo ntheura ghakusintha yayi. Ptolemy, Copernicus wakaghanaghana, wakapambana na dango ili...mwa kusazgirapo tumikhulungulu tuchoko pa mayendero ghakuru kuti walongosore chifukwa chake vyakuzingulira nyengo zinyake vikuwoneka nga vikufuma kunyuma mu mlengalenga, kweni mwa kwambiska [[equant]] kuti wachitiske mayendero agha kwenda luŵiro panji kukhira." [[David_Wootton_(historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> ghakosoleka na [[epicycle|tumikhulungulu]], kweniso pa maluwiro ghakuyana. Nthowa ya Copernicus ikasuskana na [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic_model|nthowa yakuti charu chili pakati]] ya [[Ptolemy]], iyo yikaŵika Charu pakati pa chilengiwa chose. Ŵasanda-nyenyezi ŵa m’ma 1500 ŵakagomezganga kuti kufumyapo kwa Copernicus kwa [[equant]] ndiko kukaŵa kufiska kwake kukuru<ref>"Kupenda kwane kwa Copernicus paumaliro kukawovwira kukhazikiska kuti unandi wa ŵasanda-nyenyezi ŵa m’ma 1500 ŵakaghanaghananga kuti kufumyapo kwa [[equant]] ndiko kukaŵa kufiska kukuru kwa Copernicus, chifukwa chikakhorweska dango la kale la kawonekelo kakutowa lakuti mayendero ghamuyirayira gha kuchanya yakaŵenge ghakuyana na gha nkhulungulu..." Gingerich, Owen. ''The Book Nobody Read'' (Walker & Company, 2004).p.55. {{ISBN|0-8027-1415-3}}</ref> kweni nthowa yake yikapoka malo gha Ptolemy yayi, iyo yikaluŵika pakati pajumpha vyaka 70 kufuma apo [[Galileo_Galilei#Phases_of_Venus|Galileo wakawonera na galasi lakulaŵiskira mu 1610]].<ref>"Nkhupusu kulongora kuti usambazi wa Ptolemy ukaŵa wakukula m’paka 1610 [apo Galileo wakawona masinthiro gha Venus na galasi] ndipo ukathera nyengo yichoko waka panyuma...Ukaboni ngwakupanikizga: [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic_model|usambazi wa Ptolemy]] ukayambukirika na Copernicus yayi; ukasuzgika kachoko waka na [[SN 1572|nyenyezi yiphanya ya 1572]], kweni pofika kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m’ma 1500 ukaŵa kuti waŵajikaso. Galasi lakulaŵiskira, ku kanyake, likapangiska kubwanganduka kwake kwa luŵiro na kwambura kuwelera." [[David_Wootton_(historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> === Kusintha Kukuru kwa Vinjeru vya Chilengiwa === {{Main|Scientific Revolution}} [[Johannes Kepler]] na ŵanyake ŵakasuskana na maghanoghano ghakuti ntchito yimoza pera ya jiso nkhuwona, ndipo ŵakasuntha khumbo likuru mu masambiro gha mboniwoni kufuma ku jiso kuya ku umo ungweru ukuyendera.<ref name="Smith1981" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=H. Floris |author-link=Floris Cohen |chapter=Greek nature knowledge transplanted and more: Renaissance Europe |title=How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough |year=2010 |pages=99–156 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8964-239-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Kweni Kepler wakumanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha kusanga kwa [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|malango gha Kepler gha mayendero gha vyakuzingulira]]. Kepler wakakana yayi vinjeru vya kuseri kwa chilengiwa vya Aristotelu ndipo wakalongosora ntchito yake nga nkhupenja [[Harmony of the Spheres|Kuyana kwa Vyakuchanya]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koestler |first=Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/sleepwalkershist00koes_0/page/1 |title=The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe |publisher=Penguin |year=1990 |isbn=0-14-019246-8 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/sleepwalkershist00koes_0/page/1 1] |author-link=Arthur Koestler |orig-date=1959}}</ref> [[Galileo]] wakachita vintu vyakuzirwa chomene mu usambazi wa nyenyezi, malango gha chilengiwa, na vyakupangapanga. Kweni, wakamba kutambuzgika panyuma pakuti Papa Urban VIII wamupaka mulandu chifukwa cha kulemba vya nthowa yakuti dazi ndilo liri pakati.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html |title=Pope Urban VIII |last=van Helden |first=Al |year=1995 |website=The Galileo Project |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111033150/http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html |archive-date=11 November 2016}}</ref> [[printing press|Chakuponderezgera malemba]] chikagwiriskikanga ntchito chomene pakupharazga maghanoghano gha nkhwantha, kusazgapo ghanyake agho yakasuskana chomene na maghanoghano gha mu nyengo iyo pa vya chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gingerich |first=Owen |title=Copernicus and the Impact of Printing |journal=Vistas in Astronomy |volume=17 |year=1975 |issue=1 |pages=201–218 |doi=10.1016/0083-6656(75)90061-6 |bibcode=1975VA.....17..201G}}</ref> [[Francis Bacon]] na [[René Descartes]] ŵakafumiska maghanoghano gha vinjeru pakuvikilira mtundu uphanya wa vinjeru vya chilengiwa uwo ukaŵa wa Aristotelu yayi. Bacon wakadidimizga pa kuzirwa kwa kuyezgelera kuluska kulanguruka waka, wakasuskana na vifukwa vya Aristotelu vya kawonekelo na chilato chaumaliro, ndipo wakachiska fundo yakuti vinjeru vya chilengiwa visambirenge [[Physical law|malango gha chilengiwa]] na kunozga kwa umoyo wa ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zagorin |first=Perez |title=Francis Bacon |url=https://archive.org/details/francisbacon0000zago |page=[https://archive.org/details/francisbacon0000zago/page/84 84] |year=1998 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00966-7}}</ref> Descartes wakadidimizga pa kaghanaghaniro ka munthu payekha ndipo wakayowoya kuti masambiro gha manambala m’malo mwa masambiro gha mapangikiro gha vinthu ndigho ghagwiriskikenge ntchito pa kusanda chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Philip J. |last2=Hersh |first2=Reuben |year=1986 |title=Descartes' Dream: The World According to Mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/descartesdreamwo0000davi |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[Harcourt Brace Jovanovich]]}}</ref> Gemini said === Nyengo ya Kungweluka kwa Vinjeru === {{Main|Science in the Age of Enlightenment}} [[File:Newton's Principia title page.png|thumb|upright|Pa peji lakwamba la buku lakwamba la mu 1687 la {{lang|la|[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]}} lakulembeka na Isaac Newton]] Kuyamba kwa [[Age of Enlightenment|Nyengo ya Kung’weluka kwa Vinjeru]], [[Isaac Newton]] wakakhazikiska fumbiro la [[classical mechanics|malango gha kanyamazira na kachidukulu]] kwizira mu buku lake la {{lang|la|[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]}} ilo likawovwira chomene nkhwantha za vinjeru vya chilengiwa zanthazi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gribbin |first=John |title=Science: A History 1543–2001 |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencehistory150000grib |year=2002 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencehistory150000grib/page/241 241] |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9503-9 |quote=Nangauli chikaŵa chimoza mwa vinthu vinandi mu Nyengo ya Kung'weluka, kutonda kwa malango gha Newton pa nkhani ya kupereka ndondomeko ya manambala ya charu chakunozgeka kukachita chigaŵa chikuru mu kukura kwa kayendero aka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700}}</ref> [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] wakasazgira mazgu ghakufuma mu [[Aristotelian physics|vinjeru vya chilengiwa vya Aristotelu]], agho panyengo iyi ghakagwiriskikanga ntchito mu nthowa yiphanya [[teleological|yambura kulinga pa chilato chakubabika nacho]]. Ichi chikang’anamuranga kusintha kwa umo vinthu vikuwonekerwa: vinthu vikamba kuwoneka kuŵa vyambura vilato vya m’kati. Leibniz wakagomezganga kuti mitundu yakupambanapambana ya vinthu yose yikugwira ntchito kuyana na malango ghakuyana gha chilengiwa, kwambura vifukwa vyapadera vya kawonekelo panji vya chilato chaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz/ |title=Gottfried Leibniz – Biography |website=Maths History |access-date=2 March 2021 |archive-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711221621/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Leibniz.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, chilato na kuzirwa kwa vinjeru vya chilengiwa kukazgoka kupanga usambazi na vyakupangapanga ivyo vinganozga umoyo wa ŵanthu, mu nthowa ya [[Economic materialism|khumbiro la vyakuthupi]] ya kuŵa na vyakurya vinandi, vyakuvwala, na vinthu vinyake. Mu [[Novum Organum|mazgu gha Bacon]], "chilato cheneko na chakuzomerezgeka cha vinjeru {{em|nkhupereka mwaŵi ku umoyo wa munthu na vyakupangapanga viphanya na usambazi}}", ndipo wakachiska nkhwantha kuti zileke kulondezga maghanoghano gha kuseri kwa chilengiwa panji gha vyauzimu, agho wakagomezganga kuti ghakovwira pachoko chomene ku chimwemwe cha munthu kuluska "utunthi wa maghanoghano ghakusuzga panji ghakukondweska waka".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmbZIybuRoC&pg=PA162 |title=The Social and Economic Roots of the Scientific Revolution: Texts by Boris Hessen and Henryk Grossmann |last1=Freudenthal |first1=Gideon |last2=McLaughlin |first2=Peter |date=20 May 2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-9604-4 |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Vinjeru vya chilengiwa mu nyengo ya Kung’weluka vikalongozgekanga na [[scientific societies|mabungwe gha nkhwantha]] na masukulu ghakuya,<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Goddard Bergin |editor-first1=Thomas |editor1-link=Thomas G. Bergin |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_d0p5 |title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance |editor-last2=Speake |editor-first2=Jennifer |editor2-link=Jennifer Speake |year=1987 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-1315-9}}</ref> agho panyengo iyi yakatora malo gha masukulu ghachanya pakuŵa malo ghakusandira na kukuzgyira vinjeru. Mabungwe na masukulu agha yikaŵa fumbiro la kukura kwa ntchito ya unkhwantha wa vinjeru vya chilengiwa. Chinthu chinyake chakuzirwa chikaŵa [[popular culture|kuthandazgika kwa vinjeru]] pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakambanga kumanya chomene kuŵazga na kulemba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=van Horn Melton |first=James |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |title=The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-511-81942-1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511819421 |access-date=27 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |pages=82–83 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120143805/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |url-status=live}}</ref> Nkhwantha za vinjeru za mu nyengo ya Kung’weluka zikaŵazganga ntchito za ŵakale ŵawo—chomenechomene [[Galileo]], [[Kepler]], [[Robert Boyle|Boyle]], na Newton—pakuŵa ŵalongozgi mu vigaŵa vyose vya vyakuthupi na vya kukhaliro kwa ŵanthu vya mazuŵa gano.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment (1500–1780) |url=https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114191547/https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Scientific Revolution |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |access-date=29 January 2024 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518105004/https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1700 kukawoneka kukura kukuru mu kachitidwe ka un’anga<ref>{{cite book |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |url=https://archive.org/details/brockbiologyofmi0011madi |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-144329-7 |editor-last=Madigan |editor-first=M. |editor-last2=Martinko |editor-first2=J. |edition=11th}}</ref> na vinjeru vya chilengiwa;<ref>{{cite book |last=Guicciardini |first=N. |url=https://archive.org/details/readingprincipia0000guic |title=Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-64066-4 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> kukuzgyika kwa [[Taxonomy (biology)|ndondomeko ya magulu gha vyamoyo]] na [[Carl Linnaeus]];<ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Charles Calisher |last1=Calisher |first1=CH |year=2007 |title=Taxonomy: what's in a name? Doesn't a rose by any other name smell as sweet? |journal=Croatian Medical Journal |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=268–270 |pmc=2080517 |pmid=17436393}}</ref> kapulikisko kaphanya ka [[magnetism|nkhongono yakuguza]] na mphenzi; <ref>{{cite book |last1=Darrigol |first1=Olivier |url=https://archive.org/details/electrodynamicsf0000darr |title=Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-850594-9 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> ndipo kukura kwa vinjeru vya [[chemistry|kapangikiro ka vinthu]] pakuŵa chigaŵa chakujiyimira pa chekha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olby |first1=R. C. |last2=Cantor |first2=G. N. |last3=Christie |first3=J. R. R. |last4=Hodge |first4=M. J. S. |year=1990 |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=265}}</ref> Maghanoghano pa nkhani ya mukhaliro wa munthu, chalo, na usambazi yakasinthaso mu nyengo ya Kung’weluka. Hume na nkhwantha zinyake za ku Scotland ŵakapanga buku la ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature|Muwonekelo wa Mukhaliro wa Munthu]]'', ilo likalongosoreka mu nthowa ya mbiri mu malemba gha ŵalembi nga ni [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo|James Burnett]], [[Adam Ferguson]], [[John Millar (philosopher)|John Millar]] na [[William Robertson (historian)|William Robertson]], ŵose awo ŵakasazga kusanda kwa unkhwantha kwa umo ŵanthu ŵakachitiranga mu nyengo za kale na mu mitheto yakwamba, uku ŵakumanya chomene nkhongono izo zikupanga [[modernity|mukhaliro wa mazuŵa gano]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magnusson |first=Magnus |date=10 November 2003 |title=Review of James Buchan, ''Capital of the Mind: how Edinburgh Changed the World'' |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606015918/http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-date=6 June 2011 |access-date=27 April 2014 |work=New Statesman}}</ref> Masambiro gha mazuŵa gano gha mukhaliro wa ŵanthu mu chalo yakambira mu nthandala iyi.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=588406 |title=Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-sociology_1970-06_21_2/page/164 |journal=The British Journal of Sociology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=164–180 |last1=Swingewood |first1=Alan |year=1970 |doi=10.2307/588406}}</ref> Mu 1776, [[Adam Smith]] wakafumiska buku la ''[[The Wealth of Nations|Usambazi wa Mabuku]]'', ilo kanandi likuwoneka kuŵa ntchito yakwamba ya masambiro gha mazuŵa gano gha usambazi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fry |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/adamsmithslegacy0000unse |title=Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |others=[[Paul Samuelson]], [[Lawrence Klein]], [[Franco Modigliani]], [[James M. Buchanan]], [[Maurice Allais]], [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Richard Stone]], [[James Tobin]], [[Wassily Leontief]], [[Jan Tinbergen]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-415-06164-3 |url-access=registration}}</ref> === Vyaka vya m’ma 1800 === {{Main|19th century in science}} [[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|thumb|upright|Chithuzi chakwamba cha [[Phylogenetic tree|khuni la kusanduka kwa vyamoyo]] chakupangika na [[Charles Darwin]] mu 1837|alt=Sketch of a map with captions]] Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800, vinthu vinandi ivyo vikumanyikwitsa vinjeru vya chilengiwa vya mazuŵa gano vikamba kuŵako. Ivi vikasazgapo kusanduka kwa masambiro gha vyamoyo na vyakuthupi; kugwiriskira ntchito chomene vipimiro vyakugomezgeka; kuŵako kwa mazgu nga ni "wasanda-vyamoyo", "wasanda-vyakuthupi", na "wasanda-vinjeru vya chilengiwa"; kukura kwa ntchito ya kusanda chilengiwa; nkhwantha za vinjeru kusanga mazaza gha mitheto pa vigaŵa vinandi vya ŵanthu; kukhazikiskika kwa mafakitale mu vyaru vinandi; kuthandazgika kwa malemba gha vinjeru vya chilengiwa pakati pa ŵanthu; na kuŵako kwa mabuku gha nkhwantha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/367 367] |chapter=13. Science and the Public}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800, masambiro gha makhaliro gha maghanoghano yakafumamo mu masambiro gha vinjeru vya umoyo apo [[Wilhelm Wundt]] wakakhazikiskika malo ghakwamba ghakusandira makhaliro gha maghanoghano mu 1879.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leahey |first=Thomas Hardy |title=A History of Psychology: From Antiquity to Modernity |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpsychol0000thom |year=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-65242-2 |edition=8th |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpsychol0000thom/page/219 219]–253 |chapter=The psychology of consciousness}}</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m’ma 1800, [[Charles Darwin]] na [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] waliyose payekha wakasachizga chigomezgo cha kusanduka kwa vyamoyo kwizira mu [[natural selection|kusankhika na chilengiwa]] mu 1858, icho chikulongosora umo vyakumera na vinyama vyakupambanapambana vikayambira na kusanduka. Chigomezgo chawo chikayowoyeka mwakudidimizga mu buku la Darwin la ''[[On the Origin of Species|Pa Chiyambi cha Mitundu ya Vyamoyo]]'', ilo likafumiskika mu 1859.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Padian |first=Kevin |title=Darwin's enduring legacy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2008-02-07_451_7179/page/632 |journal=Nature |volume=451 |issue=7179 |pages=632–634 |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/451632a |pmid=18256649 |bibcode=2008Natur.451..632P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kwakujiyimira pa yekha, [[Gregor Mendel]] wakapereka lipoti lake, "[[Experiments on Plant Hybridisation|Kuyezgelera pa Kusazga Vyakumera]]" mu 1865,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henig |first=Robin Marantz |author-link=Robin Marantz Henig |url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni |title=The monk in the garden: the lost and found genius of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics |year=2000 |pages=134–138}}</ref> ilo likalongosora malango gha chiharo cha m’thupi, icho chikachita pakuŵa fumbiro la vinjeru vya mazuŵa gano vya chiharo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miko |first=Ilona |title=Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they? |journal=Nature Education |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=134 |year=2008 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593/ |access-date=9 May 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224056/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kuyamba kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1800 [[John Dalton]] wakasachizga [[atomic theory|chigomezgo cha mazuŵa gano cha kachidutswa kambura kugaŵika]], chakuzingatira pa ghanoghano la Democritus la tuchidutswa tuchoko chomene twambura kugaŵika uto tikuchemeka ''atoms''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rocke |first1=Alan J. |year=2005 |title=In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-research_spring-2005_72_1/page/125 |journal=Social Research |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=125–158 |doi=10.1353/sor.2005.0003 |jstor=40972005 |s2cid=141350239}}</ref> Malango gha [[conservation of energy|kusungilira nkhongono]], [[conservation of momentum|kusungilira kanyamazira]] na [[conservation of mass|kusungilira unandi wa chinthu]] yakalongora chilengiwa chakukhalira apo pangaŵa kutayika pachoko kwa vinthu. Kweni, chifukwa cha kwiza kwa [[steam engine|injini ya nthuzi]] na [[Industrial Revolution|Kusintha Kukuru kwa Mafakitale]] pakaŵa kapulikisko kakuru kakuti ni mitundu yose ya nkhongono yayi iyo yili na mukhaliro wakuyana, mwa kupusu kusandulika kuŵa [[Work (thermodynamics)|ntchito]] yakuzirwa panji kuŵa nkhongono yinyake.<ref name="Reichl1980" /> Kumanya ichi kukapangiska kukuzga kwa malango gha [[thermodynamics|vinjeru vya nkhongono ya chithukuzi]], mwa icho nkhongono yakuzirwa ya chilengiwa yikuwoneka kuŵa yakukhira nyengo zose: [[entropy|kubwanganduka]] kwa chilengiwa chakuzingika kukuluta panthazi m’paka muyirayira.{{efn|name= HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde|1= Usange chilengiwa chili chakuzingika panji chakujulika, panji [[shape of the universe|kawonekelo ka chilengiwa]], ni fumbo lambura kumanyikwa. Dango lachiŵiri la vinjeru vya nkhongono ya chithukuzi,<ref name="Reichl1980">{{cite book |last=Reichl |first=Linda |author-link=Linda Reichl |year=1980 |title=A Modern Course in Statistical Physics |url= |location= |publisher=Edward Arnold |isbn=0-7131-2789-9}}</ref>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Rao |first=Y. V. C. |title=Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics |publisher=Universities Press |isbn=978-81-7371-048-3 |year=1997 |page=158}}</ref> na dango lachitatu la vinjeru vya nkhongono ya chithukuzi<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.aop.2016.07.031 |title=Bounded energy exchange as an alternative to the third law of thermodynamics |year=2016 |last1=Heidrich |first1=M. |journal=Annals of Physics |volume=373 |pages=665–681 |bibcode=2016AnPhy.373..665H}}</ref> ghakulongora [[heat death of the universe|nyifwa ya chithukuzi ya chilengiwa]] usange chilengiwa chili nthandala yakuzingika, kweni ni ntheura yayi kwa chilengiwa icho chikukulirako.}} [[electromagnetic theory|Chigomezgo cha nkhongono ya mphenzi na kuguza]] chikakhazikiskika mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800 na ntchito za [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Oliver Heaviside]], na [[Heinrich Hertz]]. Chigomezgo chiphanya ichi chikawuska mafumbo agho yakaŵa ghakusuzga kuzgoreka kwizira mu ndondomeko ya Newton. Kusangika kwa [[X-ray|minziro ya X]] kukachiska kusangika kwa [[radioactivity|ungweru wakofya wa malibwe]] na [[Henri Becquerel]] na [[Marie Curie]] mu 1896,<ref>{{cite book |last=Mould |first=Richard F. |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofxraysra0000moul |year=1995 |publisher=Inst. of Physics Publ. |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |edition=Reprint. with minor corr |location=Bristol |page=[https://archive.org/details/centuryofxraysra0000moul/page/12 12]}}</ref> Marie Curie panyuma wakazgoka munthu wakwamba kutonda viphale viŵiri vya Nobel.<ref name="Estreicher1938">{{cite book |last=Estreicher |first=Tadeusz |title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4 |title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny |year=1938 |page=113 |language=pl |chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich |author-link=Tadeusz Estreicher}}</ref> Mu chaka chakulondezgapo kukasangika kachidutswa kakwamba kam’kati ka atomu, kano kakuchemeka [[electron]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thomson |first=J. J. |year=1897 |title=Cathode Rays |journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]] |volume=44 |issue=269 |pages=293–316 |doi=10.1080/14786449708621070 |bibcode=1897LEDPM..44..293T }}</ref> === Vyaka chitanda cha 20 === {{Main|20th century in science}} [[File:Carte trou ozone Antarctique.jpg|alt=Chithuzi chikulongora kuchepa kwa nkhongono ya mlengalenga ku Mpoto kwa charu|thumb|Chithuzi cha pakompyuta cha [[dindi la mlengalenga]] icho chikachitika mu chaka cha 1987 pakugwiliskira ntchito uthenga wa telesikopu ya ku mlengalenga]] Mu chigaŵa chakwamba cha chaka chitanda ichi, kupangika kwa [[munkhwala wakukoma tumpoyo]] na [[mufundo wakupangika na mawoko]] kukawovya chomene umoyo wa ŵanthu pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goyotte |first=Dolores |year=2017 |title=The Surgical Legacy of World War II. Part II: The age of antibiotics |url=https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Surgical Technologist |volume=109 |pages=257–264 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505180530/https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2021 |access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erisman |first1=Jan Willem |first2=M. A. |last2=Sutton |first3=J. |last3=Galloway |first4=Z. |last4=Klimont |first5=W. |last5=Winiwarter |date=October 2008 |title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world |url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=636–639 |bibcode=2008NatGe...1..636E |doi=10.1038/ngeo325 |s2cid=94880859 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723223052/http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |archive-date=23 July 2010 |access-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> Masuzgo ghakofya gha [[vyakuzingilizga]] nga ni [[kumalika kwa mlengalenga]], [[kununkhira kwa nyanja]], [[kuzara kwa vyakumera mu maji]], na [[kusintha kwa kanyengo]] kukamba kumanyikwa na ŵanthu ndipo kukambiska [[masambiro gha vyakuzingilizga]].<ref>{{cite journal |editor-last1=Emmett |editor-first1=Rob |editor-last2=Zelko |editor-first2=Frank |url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |title=Minding the Gap: Working Across Disciplines in Environmental Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121054306/https://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |archive-date=21 January 2022 |series=RCC Perspectives no. 2 |year=2014 |doi=10.5282/rcc/6313 |last1=Emmett |first1=Robert |last2=Zelko |first2=Frank |journal=Environment & Society Portal}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, kuyezgelera kwa vya umanyi kukakula chomene ndipo kukamba kupenja [[Umanyi ukuru|ndalama zinandi na nthowa zikuru]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Furner |first=Jonathan |date=1 June 2003 |title=Little Book, Big Book: Before and After Little Science, Big Science: A Review Article, Part I |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-librarianship-and-information-science_2003-06_35_2/page/115 |journal=Journal of Librarianship and Information Science |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1177/0961000603352006 |s2cid=34844169}}</ref> Kusintha kukuru kwa luso chifukwa cha [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose]], [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]], na [[Nkhondo ya Mazgu]] kukambiska chiphalizgano pakati pa [[Mautongi ghankhongono|mautongi ghakurughakuru gha charu]], nga ni [[Chiphalizgano cha ku Mlengalenga]] na [[chiphalizgano cha vilwero vyakofya]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kraft |first1=Chris |url=https://archive.org/details/flight00chri |title=Flight: My Life in Mission Control |first2=James |last2=Schefter |publisher=Dutton |year=2001 |isbn=0-525-94571-7 |location=New York |author-link1=Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. |pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Herman |author-link=Herman Kahn |year=1962 |title=Thinking about the Unthinkable |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkingaboutunt0000kahn |publisher=Horizon}}</ref> Kukawa so kukolerana kukuru pakati pa vyaru, nangauli pakaŵa nkhondo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shrum |first=Wesley |title=Structures of scientific collaboration |url=https://archive.org/details/structuresofscie0000shru |year=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |others=Joel Genuth, Ivan Chompalov |isbn=978-0-262-28358-8 |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> Kukumpoto kwa vyaka chitanda cha 20, kukoleka kwa ŵanakazi na kuwuskapo kwa [[kusankhulana chifukwa cha kwanakazi]] kukapangiska kuti ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵaje ŵasanduzi ŵa umanyi, kweni kupambana kukuru pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukhalilira mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosser |first=Sue V. |title=Breaking into the Lab: Engineering Progress for Women in Science |url=https://archive.org/details/breakingintolabe0000ross |date=12 March 2012 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-7645-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/breakingintolabe0000ross/page/7 7]}}</ref> Kusangika kwa [[kungweruka kwa mlengalenga]] mu chaka cha 1964<ref>{{cite journal |last=Penzias |first=A. A. |year=2006 |title=The origin of elements |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |journal=Science |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] |volume=205 |issue=4406 |pages=549–554 |doi=10.1126/science.205.4406.549 |pmid=17729659 |access-date=4 October 2006 |archive-date=17 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117225210/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> kukapangiska kukana [[fundo ya chilengiwa chakukhazikika]] na kupokelera fundo ya [[Big Bang]] ya [[Georges Lemaître]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=S. |url=https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 |title=Gravitation and Cosmology |publisher=John Whitney & Sons |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-471-92567-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 464–495] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Chaka chitanda ichi chikawona kusintha kukuru mu vigaŵa vya umanyi. Kusintha kwa vyamoyo kukazgoka fundo yimoza mu vyaka vyakwamba vya 1900 apo [[Kukolerana kwa mazuŵa gano (chaka chitanda cha 20)|kukolerana kwa mazuŵa gano]] kukasazga fundo ya kusintha kwa vyamoyo ya Darwin na [[masambiro gha mazuŵa ghano gha ndonda za umoyo]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Futuyma |first1=Douglas J. |title=Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu_j9h3 |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=Mark |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-60535-605-1 |edition=4th |pages=[https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu_j9h3/page/n26 3]–26 |chapter=Chapter 1: Evolutionary Biology |publisher=Sinauer}}</ref> [[Albert Einstein]] na [[fundo yake ya unandi wa vinthu]] kweniso kukura kwa [[umanyi wa tinthu tuchoko chomene]] kukasazgirapo pa umanyi wakale wa kanyengo na [[nkhongono yakuguzira]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Arthur I. |title=Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911) |year=1981 |location=Reading |publisher=Addison–Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-04679-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=ter Haar |first=D. |url=https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar |title=The Old Quantum Theory |publisher=Pergamon |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-08-012101-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar/page/206 206] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Kugwiliskira ntchito chomene [[nthambo zakukolerana za magesi]] mu vigaŵa vyaumaliro vya chaka chitanda cha 20, pamoza na [[pachanya pa mlengalenga vyakuperekera uthenga]], kukambiska kusintha kukuru mu luso lwa uthenga na kukura kwa nthambo ya charu chose ya uthenga na [[vipangizgo vyakuyendayenda]], kusazgapo [[foni zamazuŵa gano]]. Kukhumbikwa kwa ndondomeko ya vinthu vinandi vyakukolerana kukapangiska kukura kwa [[fundo ya ndondomeko]] na [[kapangiro ka vinthu pakugwiliskira ntchito kompyuta]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=von Bertalanffy |first1=Ludwig |year=1972 |title=The History and Status of General Systems Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_academy-of-management-journal_1972-12_15_4/page/407 |journal=The Academy of Management Journal |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=407–426 |jstor=255139 |bibcode=1972AManJ..15..407V }}</ref> === Vyaka chitanda cha 21 === {{Main|21st century#Science and technology}} [[Ndondomeko ya ndonda za umoyo wa muntu]] ikamalizgika mu chaka cha 2003 pakumanya na kuŵika mapu gha ndonda zose za [[ndonda za muntu]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Naidoo |first1=Nasheen |last2=Pawitan |first2=Yudi |last3=Soong |first3=Richie |last4=Cooper |first4=David N. |last5=Ku |first5=Chee-Seng |date=October 2011 |title=Human genetics and genomics a decade after the release of the draft sequence of the human genome |journal=Human Genomics |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=577–622 |doi=10.1186/1479-7364-5-6-577 |pmc=3525251 |pmid=22155605 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Maselo ghakwamba gha [[Maselo ghakuyana na gha mwana uyo wandababike]] ghakapangika mu chaka cha 2006, icho chikazomerezga maselo gha ŵanthu ŵakuru kuzgoka [[maselo ghakwamba]] na kuŵa selo lililose ilo likusangika mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=S. Tamir |last2=Alexander |first2=Graeme J. M. |date=March 2013 |title=Induced pluripotent stem cells: from Nobel Prizes to clinical applications |journal=Journal of Hepatology |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=625–629 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2012.10.026 |issn=1600-0641 |pmid=23131523 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pakusimikizga kusangika kwa [[Higgs boson]] mu chaka cha 2013, kantu kaumaliro ako kakayowoyekerathu na [[Ndondomeko ya Umanyi]] ya umanyi wa tinthu tuchoko chomene kakasangika.<ref>{{cite press release |last=O'Luanaigh |first=C. |date=14 March 2013 |title=New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson |publisher=[[CERN]] |url=http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020000722/http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |archive-date=20 October 2015}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2015, [[mafumbi gha nkhongono yakuguzira]], agho ghakayowoyekerathu na [[fundo ya unandi wa vinthu]] chaka chitanda chimoza kumasinda, [[Kuwoneka kwakwamba kwa mafumbi gha nkhongono yakuguzira|ghakawoneka kakwamba]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/aa91c9 |title=Multi-messenger Observations of a Binary Neutron Star Merger |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=848 |issue=2 |page=L12 |year=2017 |last1=Abbott |first1=B. P. |last2=Abbott |first2=R. |last3=Abbott |first3=T. D. |last4=Acernese |first4=F. |last5=Ackley |first5=K. |last6=Adams |first6=C. |last7=Adams |first7=T. |last8=Addesso |first8=P. |last9=Adhikari |first9=R. X.|last10 = Adya|first10 = V. B. |last11=Affeldt |first11=C. |last12=Afrough |first12=M. |last13=Agarwal |first13=B. |last14=Agathos |first14=M. |last15=Agatsuma |first15=K. |last16=Aggarwal |first16=N. |last17=Aguiar |first17=O. D. |last18=Aiello |first18=L. |last19=Ain |first19=A.|last20 = Ajith|first20 = P. |last21=Allen |first21=B. |last22=Allen |first22=G. |last23=Allocca |first23=A. |last24=Altin |first24=P. A. |last25=Amato |first25=A. |last26=Ananyeva |first26=A. |last27=Anderson |first27=S. B. |last28=Anderson |first28=W. G. |last29=Angelova |first29=S. V.|last30 = Antier|first30 = S. |display-authors=29 |bibcode=2017ApJ...848L..12A |arxiv=1710.05833 |s2cid=217162243 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.aar2149 |title=Merging neutron stars generate gravitational waves and a celestial light show |journal=Science |year=2017 |last1=Cho |first1=Adrian}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2019, kukolerana kwa charu chose kwa [[Telesikopu ya m'mbali mwa dindi]] kukalongora chithuzi chakwamba cha [[chizongwe chafifi]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2019 |title=Media Advisory: First Results from the Event Horizon Telescope to be Presented on April 10th |publisher=Event Horizon Telescope |url=https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420135254/https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-date=20 April 2019 |access-date=21 September 2021}}</ref> == Mirazi == {{Main|Branches of science}} Umanyi wa mazuŵa gano ukugaŵika mu [[Mirazi ya umanyi|mirazi]] yikuru yitatu: [[umanyi wa chilengiwa]], [[umanyi wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu]], na [[umanyi wa ndondomeko]].<ref name="Cohen2021" /> Chigaŵa chilichose mwa vigaŵa ivi chili na masambiro ghake agho nyengo zinyake ghakusazgikana ndipo ghali na [[maina gha luso]] na umanyi wake.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |title=Scientific Method: Relationships Among Scientific Paradigms |date=7 March 2007 |magazine=Seed Magazine |access-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101001155/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |archive-date=1 November 2016}}</ref> Umanyi wa chilengiwa na wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ghose ni [[umanyi wa kuyezgelera]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung |last=Bunge |first=Mario Augusto |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung/page/24 24]}}</ref> pakuti umanyi wawo wukuzikira pa [[ukaboni wa maso]] ndipo ungayezgeka na ŵasanduzi ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu mikhalidwe yakuyana.<ref name="Popper2002">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl R. |year=2002a |chapter=A survey of some fundamental problems |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574 |url-access=limited |orig-date=1959 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133 3]–26 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-27844-7}}</ref>{{rp|pp=3-26}} === Chilengiwa === [[Natural science|Umanyi wa chilengiwa]] ni kusambira vya charu icho tikuwona. Ukugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: [[umanyi wa vyamoyo]] na [[umanyi wa vinthu vyambura umoyo]]. Mirazi iyi yingasazgirika mu vigaŵa vinyake vya luso. Chiyelezgero, umanyi wa vinthu vyambura umoyo ungagaŵika mu physics, [[chemistry]], [[umanyi wa mlengalenga]], na [[umanyi wa charu pasi]]. Umanyi wa chilengiwa wa mazuŵa gano uli kufuma ku [[fundo za chilengiwa]] izo zikambira ku [[Greece yakale]]. [[Galileo]], [[Descartes]], [[Francis Bacon|Bacon]], na [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] ŵakadumbiskananga uwemi wa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za [[physics wa masamu]] na kuyezgelera mu nthowa yakudunjika. Kweni, kaghanaliro ka vinthu na [[maghanoghano gha mu mutu]] vikuŵa vyakukhumbikwa ni m'paka lero mu umanyi wa chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gauch |first=Hugh G. Jr. |chapter=Science in perspective |title=Scientific Method in Practice |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71 |pages=21–73 |isbn=978-0-521-01708-4 |year=2003 |access-date=3 September 2018}}</ref> Kusonkhanitsa uthenga mu nthowa yakukhazikika kukatora malo gha [[mbiri ya chilengiwa]], iyo ikawoneka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 pakulongosora na kugaŵa vyakumera, vinyama, malibwe, na vinthu vinyake vyamoyo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Oglivie |first=Brian W. |year=2008 |chapter=Introduction |title=The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceofdescrib0000ogil |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scienceofdescrib0000ogil/page/1 1]–24 |edition=Paperback |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-62088-6}}</ref> Lero, "mbiri ya chilengiwa" yikuyowoya chomene za malongosolero gha vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka na maso ku ŵanthu bweka.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Natural History |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |dictionary=Princeton University WordNet |access-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303173506/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref> === Kakhaliro ka ŵanthu === [[File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg|thumb|[[Kuguliska na kukhumba]] mu vyachuma, kukumana pa malo ghawemi|alt=Mizere yiŵiri yakusatuka, kupanga chizindikiro cha X]] [[Social science|Umanyi wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu]] ni kusambira kakhaliro ka ŵanthu na umo magulu gha ŵanthu ghakwendera.<ref name="Colander2019" /><ref name="Nisbet2020" /> Uli na masambiro ghanandi nga ni [[anthropoloji]], vyachuma, mbiri, [[geografe ya ŵanthu]], [[umanyi wa ndyali]], sayikoloji, na sosiyoloji.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Mu umanyi wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu, muli maghanoghano ghanandi ghakupambana agho ghakusazgirika mu [[mapulogilamu gha kafukufuku]] ghakupambana.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Chifukwa cha kusuzga kuchita kuyezgelera kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi panji pa nkhani zakusuzga, ŵasanduzi ŵa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ŵangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zinyake nga ni [[nthowa ya mbiri]], [[kusambira chinthu chimoza]], na [[kusambira mitheto yakupambana]]. Kweniso, usange uthenga wa manambala ulipo, ŵasanduzi ŵangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa za masamu kuti ŵapulikiske makora kakhaliro na mendero gha ŵanthu.<ref name="Colander2019" /> === Ndondomeko === [[Formal science|Umanyi wa ndondomeko]] ni chigaŵa cha masambiro icho chikupanga umanyi pakugwiliskira ntchito [[ndondomeko zakukhazikika]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |title=Formal Sciences: Washington and Lee University |website=Washington and Lee University |access-date=14 May 2021 |quote=A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in Mathematics and Computer Science. Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on them. |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514125428/https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Löwe2002">{{cite journal |last=Löwe |first=Benedikt |author-link=Benedikt Löwe |year=2002 |title=The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |issue=1/2 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/A:1020887832028 |issn=0039-7857 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref><ref name="Rucker2019">{{cite book |last=Rucker |first=Rudy |author-link=Rudy Rucker |url=http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |title=Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-691-19138-6 |edition=Reprint |pages=157–188 |chapter=Robots and souls |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226212447/http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ndondomeko yakukhazikika ni [[kakhaliro ka vinthu mu mutu]] ako kakugwiliskira ntchito [[fundo zakusimikizga]] kufuma pa [[fundo zakwamba]] kuyana na malango. Ukusazgapo masamu,<ref>{{cite book |last=Tomalin |first=Marcus |year=2006 |title=Linguistics and the Formal Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/a:1020887832028 |year=2002 |last1=Löwe |first1=Benedikt |issue=1/2 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref> [[fundo ya ndondomeko]], na [[umanyi wa kompyuta]]. Umanyi wa ndondomeko wuli na kukozgana na mirazi yinyake yiŵiri pakugomezga kusambira vinthu mu nthowa yakudunjika na yakutowa. Kweni upambana na umanyi wa kuyezgelera chifukwa ukugomezga chomene kaghanaliro ka mu mutu kwambura kukhumbikwa kwa ukaboni wa maso kuti usimikizge vinthu.<ref name="Fetzer2013" /><ref>{{cite book |first=Thompson |last=Bill |title=The Nature of Statistical Evidence |chapter=2.4 Formal Science and Applied Mathematics |publisher=Springer |series=Lecture Notes in Statistics |volume=189 |year=2007 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Popper2002" /> Pa chifukwa ichi, pali kupambana maghanoghano usange umanyi uwu ni umanyi nadi.<ref name="Kluwer" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |year=1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref> Ndipouli, umanyi wa ndondomeko uli na ntchito yikuru mu umanyi wa kuyezgelera. Chiyelezgero, [[Calculus]] wakambiska kuti munthu apulikiske [[mendero]] mu physics.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mujumdar |first1=Anshu Gupta |last2=Singh |first2=Tejinder |year=2016 |chapter=Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics |title=Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/trickortruthmyst0000unse |editor-first1=Anthony |editor-last1=Aguirre |editor-first2=Brendan |editor-last2=Foster |series=The Frontiers Collection |pages=[https://archive.org/details/trickortruthmyst0000unse/page/201 201]–218 |location=Switzerland |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-27494-2}}</ref> Umanyi wa chilengiwa na wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu uwo ukugomezga chomene masamu ukusazgapo [[physics wa masamu]],<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Journal |url=http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003233339/http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-date=3 October 2006 |access-date=3 October 2006 |website=[[Journal of Mathematical Physics]]}}</ref> [[chemistry wa masamu]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Restrepo |first=G. |chapter=Mathematical chemistry, a new discipline |title=Essays in the philosophy of chemistry |editor-last1=Scerri |editor-first1=E. |editor-last2=Fisher |editor-first2=G. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2016 |pages=332–351 |isbn=978-0-19-049459-9 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |archive-date=10 June 2021 |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610130352/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |url-status=live}}</ref> [[bioloji wa masamu]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is mathematical biology |publisher=Centre for Mathematical Biology, University of Bath |url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923070442/http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-date=23 September 2018 |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> [[vyachuma vya masamu]],<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Johnson |first=Tim |date=1 September 2009 |title=What is financial mathematics? |url=https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |access-date=1 March 2021 |magazine=+Plus Magazine |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408231344/https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |url-status=live}}</ref> na [[ekonomiki ya masamu]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Varian |first=Hal |author-link=Hal Varian |year=1997 |chapter=What Use Is Economic Theory? |editor-last1=D'Autume |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Cartelier |editor-first2=J. |title=Is Economics Becoming a Hard Science? |publisher=Edward Elgar}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf Pre-publication]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf |date=25 June 2006 }}. Retrieved 1 April 2008.</ref> === Kugwiliskira Ntchito === [[Applied science|Umanyi wakugwiliskira ntchito]] ni kukhazikika kwa [[nthowa za umanyi]] na kumanya vinthu kuti ufikepo pa ivyo ukukhumba mu umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, ndipo ukusazgapo vigaŵa nga ni unjinariya na munkhwala.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Reem Rachel |year=2004 |title=Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students |journal=Advances in Physiology Education |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=102–104 |doi=10.1152/advan.00001.2004 |pmid=15319191 |s2cid=21610124}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966" /> Unjinariya ni kugwiliskira ntchito fundo za umanyi pakupanga, kuzenga mashini, na luso linyake.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |title=Engineering |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819030859/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |url-status=live}}</ref> Umanyi ungawovya pakupanga luso liphya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Harvey |date=1 September 1994 |title=The relationship between science and technology |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |journal=Research Policy |series=Special Issue in Honor of Nathan Rosenberg |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 |issn=0048-7333 |access-date=14 October 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230224402/https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Munkhwala ni ntchito ya kupwelelerera ŵalwari mwa kusunga na kuwezgerapo umoyo kwizira mu [[kuvilekeska (munkhwala)|kuvilekeska]], [[kumanya nthenda]], na [[chovwiro|kuchizga]] nthenda panji kupwetekeka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Firth |first=John |title=Oxford textbook of medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-874669-0 |chapter=Science in medicine: when, how, and what}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=J. |date=June 2000 |title=The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science |journal=Med Humanit |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=18–22 |doi=10.1136/mh.26.1.18 |pmid=12484313 |doi-access=free |s2cid=73306806 |pmc=1071282}}</ref> === Yakwamba === Umanyi wakugwiliskira ntchito kanandi ukupambaniskika na [[umanyi wakwamba]], uwo ukulaŵiska chomene pa kusazgirako fundo na malango gha umanyi agho ghakulongosora na kuyowoyerathu ivyo vikuchitika mu chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Bernard D. |date=March 2000 |title=Limited scope of science |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471 |postscript=none}} & "Technology" in {{cite journal |first=Bernard |last=Davis |author-link1=Bernard Davis (biologist) |date=Mar 2000 |title=The scientist's world |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews]] |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=James |last=McCormick |year=2001 |title=Scientific medicine—fact of fiction? The contribution of science to medicine |journal=Occasional Paper (Royal College of General Practitioners) |pages=3–6 |pmc=2560978 |pmid=19790950 |number=80}}</ref> === Kafukufuku wa mlengalenga === {{Excerpt|Blue skies research|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs|hat=no}} === Pakugwiliskira ntchito makina === [[Computational science|Umanyi wa makina]] ukugwiliskira ntchito [[kuyezgelera kwa pakompyuta]] mu umanyi, icho chikupangiska kupulikiska makora masuzgo gha umanyi kuluska umo masamu pera ghangachitira. Kugwiliskira ntchito [[makina ghakusambira pande]] na [[luso lwakupangika na munthu mu makina]] kukuzgoka chigaŵa chikuru cha wovwiri wa makina mu umanyi, chiyelezgero mu [[vyachuma vyakusanda na makina]], [[makuni ghakupambana gha masamu]], [[kapangiro ka mitu ya nkhani]] na nthowa zinandi zakuyowoyerathu ivyo vichitikenge. Kweni, makina pa ghaŵo ghekha nyengo zinandi ghangasazgirako yayi umanyi chifukwa ghakukhumbikira mulongozgi wa munthu na nkhongono ya kughanaghanira; ndipo ghangasazgirako sankho pa magulu gha ŵanthu panji nyengo zinyake kugwira ntchito pasi pa nkhongono ya munthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breznau |first1=Nate |year=2022 |title=Integrating Computer Prediction Methods in Social Science: A Comment on Hofman et al. (2021) |journal=Social Science Computer Review |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=844–853 |doi=10.1177/08944393211049776 |doi-access=free |s2cid=248334446 |url=[suspicious link removed] |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429040922/https://osf.io/adxb3/download |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hofman |first1=Jake M. |last2=Watts |first2=Duncan J. |author2-link=Duncan J. Watts |last3=Athey |first3=Susan |author3-link=Susan Athey |last4=Garip |first4=Filiz |last5=Griffiths |first5=Thomas L. |author5-link=Tom Griffiths (cognitive scientist) |last6=Kleinberg |first6=Jon |author6-link=Jon Kleinberg |last7=Margetts |first7=Helen |author7-link=Helen Margetts |last8=Mullainathan |first8=Sendhil |author8-link=Sendhil Mullainathan |last9=Salganik |first9=Matthew J. |author9-link=Matthew J. Salganik |last10=Vazire |first10=Simine |author10-link=Simine Vazire |last11=Vespignani |first11=Alessandro |author11-link=Alessandro Vespignani |date=July 2021 |title=Integrating explanation and prediction in computational social science |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |volume=595 |issue=7866 |pages=181–188 |bibcode=2021Natur.595..181H |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03659-0 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=34194044 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925074416/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |access-date=25 September 2021 |s2cid=235697917}}</ref> === Kusazga masambiro === [[Interdisciplinary science|Umanyi wakusazga masambiro]] ukusazgapo kusazga masambiro ghaŵiri panji kujumpha kuŵa limoza,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nissani |first=M. |year=1995 |title=Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working definition of Interdisciplinarity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-educational-thought_1995-08_29_2/page/121 |journal=The Journal of Educational Thought |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=121–128 |doi=10.55016/ojs/jet.v29i2.52385 |jstor=23767672}}</ref> nga ni [[bioinformatics]], kusazgika kwa bioloji na umanyi wa kompyuta<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalcodeoflif0000mood |title=Digital Code of Life: How Bioinformatics is Revolutionizing Science, Medicine, and Business |last=Moody |first=G. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-32788-2 |url-access=registration |page=vii |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> panji [[umanyi wa kaghanaliro]]. Fundo iyi yaŵako kwamba mu nyengo ya Greece yakale ndipo ikambaso kumanyikwa mu vyaka chitanda cha 20.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ausburg |first=Tanya |title=Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/becominginterdis0000augs |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing |year=2006 |edition=2nd |location=New York}}</ref> == Kafukufuku == Kafukufuku wa umanyi ungathyakika kuŵa kafukufuku wakwamba panji kafukufuku wakugwiliskira ntchito. [[Basic research|Kafukufuku wakwamba]] ni kupenja umanyi ndipo [[applied research|kafukufuku wakugwiliskira ntchito]] ni kupenja nthowa zamazgu ku masuzgo ghakuwoneka pakugwiliskira ntchito umanyi uwu. Kupulikiska vinandi kukufuma mu kafukufuku wakwamba, nangauli nyengo zinyake kafukufuku wakugwiliskira ntchito ukulazga ku masuzgo ghachindunji. Ichi chikupangiska kukura kwa luso ilo pakwamba likaŵa lakusuzga kughanaghanira.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119113522/http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |title=To Live at All Is Miracle Enough |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |publisher=RichardDawkins.net |date=10 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> === Nthowa za umanyi === [[File:The Scientific Method.svg|thumb|Chithuzi chakulongora nthowa za umanyi nga ni [[Scientific method#Elements of the scientific method|ndondomeko yakulutilira]]|alt=Vigaŵa 6 vya nthowa za umanyi mu kamuzingizgi]] Shutterstock Kafukufuku wa umanyi ukusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito [[scientific method|nthowa za umanyi]], izo zikupenja kulongosora vyakuchitika vya [[chilengiwa]] kwambura sankho mu nthowa iyo [[kuyezgeka so|ingachitika so]].<ref name="di Francia1976">{{cite book |last=di Francia |first=Giuliano Toraldo |chapter=The method of physics |title=The Investigation of the Physical World |url=https://archive.org/details/investigationofp0000tora |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1976 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/investigationofp0000tora/page/1 1]–52 |isbn=978-0-521-29925-1 |quote=The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!}}</ref> Ŵasanduzi kanandi ŵakupokelera fundo zinyake zakwamba izo zikukhumbikwa kuti nthowa za umanyi ziŵe zakwenelera: pali [[unenesko uwo ulipo]] uwo uliupange kwa ŵasanduzi wose; unenesko uwu ukulongozgeka na [[malango gha chilengiwa]]; malango agha ghakasangika kwizira mu [[kuwonelera]] kwakukhazikika na kuyezgelera.<ref name="Heilbron2003" /> Masamu ngakukhumbikwa chomene mu kupanga [[maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka]], [[fundo za umanyi]], na malango, chifukwa ghakugwiliskira ntchito chomene mu kupanga vipangizgo, kuwonelera, na kusonkhanitsa [[milingo]].<ref name=Popper2002 />{{rp|pp=3-26}} Masamu gha dongo ghakugwiliskira ntchito pakudumura na kusanda uthenga, icho chikuzomerezga ŵasanduzi kupima kugomezgeka kwa ivyo vyasangika mu kuyezgelera.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Diggle |first1=Peter J. |author-link=Peter Diggle |title=Statistics and Scientific Method: An Introduction for Students and Researchers |url=https://archive.org/details/statisticsscient0000digg |last2=Chetwynd |first2=Amanda G. |author2-link=Amanda Chetwynd |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954318-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statisticsscient0000digg/page/1 1]–2}}</ref> Mu nthowa za umanyi, [[kuyezgelera mu mutu]] panji maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka ghakuŵikika nga ni malongosolero pakugwiliskira ntchito [[fundo yakudumura vinthu]] ndipo ghakulindilirika kupenja [[kukolerana]] – kuyana na unenesko unyake wakuzomerezgeka wakukhwaskana na ivyo vikuwoneka panji fumbo la umanyi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Edward |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity0000wils |publisher=Vintage |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref> Malongosolero agha ghakugwiliskira ntchito pakupanga vinthu ivyo [[vingasangika kuti mbutesi]], ivyo kanandi vikuŵikika pakweru pambere vindayezgeke na kuyezgelera. Kutondeka kwa ivyo vikayowoyerathu mbukaboni wa kukura kwa umanyi.<ref name="di Francia1976" />{{Rp|pages=4–5}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Fara |first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Fara |year=2009 |chapter=Decisions |title=Science: A Four Thousand Year History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-922689-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408 408] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/306}}</ref> Kuyezgelera nkhwakukhumbikwa chomene mu umanyi kuti kukhozge [[kukolerana kwa vyakuchitika]] kugega [[upusikizgi wa kukozgana kwa vinthu]], nangauli mu umanyi unyake nga ni wa mlengalenga panji wa malibwe, kuwonelera ivyo vikayowoyerathu kungaŵa kwakwenelera chomene.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aldrich |first=John |journal=Statistical Science |volume=10 |year=1995 |pages=364–376 |title=Correlations Genuine and Spurious in Pearson and Yule |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_statistical-science_1995-11_10_4/page/364 |jstor=2246135 |doi=10.1214/ss/1177009870 |issue=4 |bibcode=1995StaSc..1009870A |doi-access=free}}</ref> Usange maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka ghasangika kuti ngakukhorweska yayi, ghakusinthika panji kutayika. Usange maghanoghano agha ghapona pa kuyezgelera, ghangapokelereka mu ndondomeko ya [[scientific theory|fundo ya umanyi]], iyo ni chakuwonelerapo chakukhazikika chakulongosora kakhaliro ka vyakuchitika vinyake vya chilengiwa. Fundo ya umanyi kanandi yikulongosora kakhaliro ka vinthu vinandi chomene kuluska maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka; kanandi, maghanoghano ghanandi ghangakolerana pamoza na fundo yimoza ya umanyi. Ntheura, fundo ya umanyi ni maghanoghano ghakulongosora maghanoghano ghanyake ghanandi. Mu nthowa yimoza iyi, fundo za umanyi zikupangika kuyana na malango gha umanyi ghakuyana na gha maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka. Ŵasanduzi ŵangapanga [[Scientific modelling|chakuwonelerapo]], kuyezga kulongosora panji kuwoneska ivyo vikuwoneka mu nthowa ya masamu panji ya thupi, na kupanga maghanoghano ghaphya agho ghangayezgeka na kuyezgelera.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nola |first1=Robert |last2=Irzik |first2=Gürol |year=2005 |title=Philosophy, science, education and culture |volume=28 |series=Science & technology education library |isbn=978-1-4020-3769-6 |publisher=Springer |pages=207–230}}</ref> Pachita kuyezgelera kuti ŵayezge maghanoghano, ŵasanduzi ŵangaŵa na kakhumbiro ka kuti chinthu chimoza chichitike kuluska chinyake.<ref>{{cite web |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |year=1999 |url=http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |title="Heads I win, tails you lose": A Foray Into the Psychology of Philosophy |publisher=University of Melbourne |access-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409054240/http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pease |first=Craig |date=6 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619154617/http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm |archive-date=19 June 2010 |title=Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science |website=Science for Business, Law and Journalism |publisher=Vermont Law School |url=http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm}}</ref> Kuwuskapo sankho kungaoneka kwizira mu kachitiro kakweru, [[kapangiro kawemi ka kuyezgelera]], na nthowa ya [[kusanda kwa ŵasanduzi ŵanyake]] pa ivyo vyasangika. Pamanyuma pa kupharazga ivyo vyasangika, ni kakhaliro kakwenelera kuti ŵasanduzi ŵanyake ŵazakaŵereso umo kafukufuku ukayendera, na kuchita kuyezgelera kwakuyana kuti ŵawone usange ivyo vyasangika vingagomezgeka.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ruth Ellen |last1=Bulger |year=2002 |last2=Heitman |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Reiser |first3=Stanley Joel |title=The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-521-00886-0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Pakuwona kose, nthowa za umanyi zikuzomerezga kumazga masuzgo mu nthowa ya luso uku zikuchepeska sankho na [[kukhozgera maghanoghano gha munthu]]. [[Kusimikizga kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi]], nkhongono ya kufika pa kukolerana na kupangika so kwa ivyo vyasangika, nkhwakukhumbikwa chomene pa kupanga umanyi wose wa umanyi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziman |first=John |title=Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1978c |isbn=978-0-521-22087-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42 42–76] |chapter=Common observation |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42}}</ref> === Mabuku === {{Main|Scientific literature|Lists of important publications in science}} [[File:Nature cover, November 4, 1869.jpg|thumb|Chifupi cha nkhani yakwamba ya ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', 4 Novemba 1869|alt=Lilembo la "NATURE" pakati, na malemba gha umanyi kusi]] Kafukufuku wa umanyi ukupharazgika mu mabuku ghanandi.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=John Ziman |last=Ziman |first=J. M. |journal=Science |title=The proliferation of scientific literature: a natural process |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1980-04-25_208_4442/page/369 |year=1980 |volume=208 |issue=4442 |pages=369–371 |doi=10.1126/science.7367863 |pmid=7367863 |bibcode=1980Sci...208..369Z}}</ref> [[Scientific journal|Mabuku gha umanyi]] ghakupharazga na kusunga ivyo vyasangika mu kafukufuku uwo ukuchitika mu maunivesite na malo gha kafukufuku, kuŵa nga ni nkhokwe ya umanyi. Mabuku ghakwamba gha umanyi, {{lang|fr|[[Journal des sçavans]]}} kulondezgana na ''[[Philosophical Transactions]]'', ghakamba kupharazgika mu chaka cha 1665. Kufuma nyengo iyo, unandi wa mabuku agha wakulutilira kukura. Mu chaka cha 1981, unandi wa mabuku gha umanyi na luso ukaŵa pafupifupi 11,500.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Krishna |last1=Subramanyam |last2=Subramanyam |first2=Bhadriraju |year=1981 |title=Scientific and Technical Information Resources |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8247-8297-9}}</ref> Mabuku ghanandi gha umanyi ghakuyowoya za chigaŵa chimoza cha umanyi; kafukufuku kanandi wakuŵikika mu nthowa ya [[nkhani ya umanyi]]. Umanyi wazara chomene mu magulu gha ŵanthu mazuŵa gano mwakuti nkhwakukhumbikwa kupharazga ivyo vyachitika, uthenga, na makhumbiro gha ŵasanduzi kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi.<ref name="Bush1945">{{cite web |last=Bush |first=Vannevar |date=July 1945 |title=Science the Endless Frontier |url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221306/https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=4 November 2016 |publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref> == Fundo za kaghanaliro == {{anchor|ConjectureAndRefutation}} [[File:Epicycle and deferent.svg|thumb|Kwayana na [[Thomas Kuhn|Kuhn]], kusazgirako [[maghanoghano gha mizere]] mu umanyi wa Ptolemy kukaŵa "umanyi wa bweka" mu ndondomeko yimoza, uku [[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions#Copernican Revolution|Kusintha kwa Copernicus]] kukaŵa kusintha kukuru kwa ndondomeko.|alt=Chithuzi cha mizere ya kuzingilira, apo polaneti yikuzingilira mu nthambo yikuru]] Pali magulu gha kaghanaliro ghakupambana mu [[philosophy of science|fundo za kaghanaliro ka umanyi]]. Kaghanaliro kamanyikwa chomene ni [[empiricism]], ako kakusambizga kuti umanyi ukupangika kwizira mu kuwonelera; fundo za umanyi zikusazga ivyo vikuwonelereka.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=39-56}} Empiricism kanandi yikusazgapo [[inductivism]], iyo yikulongosora umo fundo zikuru zingapangikira kufuma pa ukaboni wa maso uchoko uwo ulipo. Pali nthowa zinandi za empiricism, izo zikumanyikwa chomene ni [[Bayesianism]] na [[hypothetico-deductive method]].<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=219-232}} Empiricism yakhala yakupambana na [[rationalism]], kaghanaliro ako pakwamba kakavikilirika na [[Descartes]], ako kakusambizga kuti umanyi ukupangika na nzeru ya munthu, osati na kuwonelera.<ref name=pGS2003 >{{cite book |last=Godfrey-Smith |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryrealityint00godf |title=Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-30062-7 }}</ref>{{rp|pp=19-38}} [[Critical rationalism]] ni nthowa yakupambana ya vyaka chitanda cha 20, iyo yikambika na wakughanaghanira wa ku Austria-Britain [[Karl Popper]]. Popper wakakana nthowa iyo empiricism yikulongosolera kukolerana pakati pa fundo na kuwonelera. Iye wakati fundo zikupangika na kuwonelera yayi, kweni kuwonelera kukuchitika chifukwa cha fundo, ndipo nthowa yekha iyo fundo A yingakhwaskika na kuwonelera ni ''pamanyuma'' pakuti fundo A yagalukira kuwonelera, kweni fundo B yapona pa kuwonelera uko.<ref name=pGS2003/>{{rp|pp=57-74}} Popper wakayowoya kuti malo ghakusimikizga vinthu ghaŵe [[falsifiability]] (kusangika kuŵa utesi) nga ni chimanyikwiro cha fundo za umanyi, kusintha nthowa ya kusanda na nthowa ya kusanga utesi nga ni nthowa ya kafukufuku. Popper wakayowoyaso kuti kuli nthowa yimoza pera pa charu chose, osati ya umanyi pera: nthowa ya kususka, [[kuyezga na kutondeka]], ikusazgapo vyose ivyo nzeru ya munthu yapanga, kusazgapo umanyi, masamu, kaghanaliro, na luso.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl |title=Objective Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/objectiveknowled0000karl |year=1972}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake, [[instrumentalism]], yikulongora uwemi wa fundo nga ni vipangizgo vyakulongosolera na kuyowoyerathu vyakuchitika. Yikuwona fundo za umanyi nga ni mabokosi ghafifi, apo ivyo vikuŵikikamo (mikhalidwe yakwamba) na ivyo vikufumamo (ivyo vikayowoyerathu) ndivyo ni vyakukhumbikwa. Ivyo vikuchitika, vigaŵa vya fundo, na kapangiro ka maghanoghano vikuyowoyeka kuti ni vinthu ivyo vikwenera kulekeka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Newton-Smith |first=W. H. |url=https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt |title=The Rationality of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7100-0913-5 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt/page/30 30] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Pafupi na instrumentalism pali [[constructive empiricism]], kuyana na iyo chimanyikwiro chikuru cha kupambana kwa fundo ya umanyi ni usange icho yikuyowoya pa vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka ni unenesko.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Votsis |first=I. |year=2004 |title=The Epistemological Status of Scientific Theories: An Investigation of the Structural Realist Account |publisher=University of London, London School of Economics |degree=PhD |page=39}}</ref> [[Thomas Kuhn]] wakayowoya kuti ndondomeko ya kuwonelera na kupima ikuchitika mkati mwa ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya kaghanaliro (paradigm), "chithuzi" cha charu icho chikukolerana na kuwonelera uko kukuchitika. Iye wakati ''umanyi wa bweka'' ni ndondomeko ya kuwonelera na "kumazga fumbo", icho chikuchitika mkati mwa ndondomeko iyo, apo ''umanyi wakusintha vinthu'' ukuchitika apo ndondomeko yimoza yikuwira yinyake mu [[paradigm shift|kusintha kwa kaghanaliro]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Bird |first=Alexander |year=2013 |editor1-last=Zalta |editor1-first=Edward N. |title=Thomas Kuhn |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715191833/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |archive-date=15 July 2020 |access-date=26 October 2015 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> Ndondomeko yiliyose ili na mafumbo ghake, makhumbiro, na malongosolero ghake. Kusankha pakati pa ndondomeko kuli nga nkhuyelezgera "vithuzi" viŵiri panji kujumpha pa charu na kusankha icho chikuwoneka kuti nchakugomezgeka chomene. Kusintha kwa kaghanaliro kukuchitika apo masuzgo ghanandi ghakuwoneka mu ndondomeko yakale ndipo ndondomeko yiphya yikulongosora makora. Ntheura, kusankha ndondomeko yiphya kukuzikira pa kuwonelera, nangauli kuwonelera uko kukuchitika mu chithuzi cha ndondomeko yakale. Kwa Kuhn, kupokelera panji kukana ndondomeko ni kakhaliro ka ŵanthu kukuluka kakhaliro ka maghanoghano. Kweni kaghanaliro ka Kuhn si kaghanaliro ka [[relativism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuhn |first=Thomas S. |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-226-45804-5 |edition=2nd |page=206 |access-date=30 May 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019102817/https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake iyo yikuzunulika chomene mu kudumbiskana kwa [[scientific scepticism|kukayikira umanyi]] kususka magulu nga ni "[[creation science|umanyi wa chilengiwa]]" ni [[methodological naturalism]]. Ŵasanduzi ŵa kaghanaliro aka ŵakusimikizga kuti mphaukaboni uŵepo pakati pa chilengiwa na vyamizimu, ndipo umanyi ukwenera kuŵa pa malongosolero gha chilengiwa pera.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=149-162}} Methodological naturalism yikusambizga kuti umanyi ukukhumbikira kulondezga chomene kafukufuku wa [[empirical|ukaboni wa maso]] na kusimikizga kwambura kuthemba chinthu chinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brugger |first=E. Christian |year=2004 |title=Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition |journal=The Review of Metaphysics |volume=58 |issue=2}}</ref> == Gulu == [[Scientific community|Gulu la umanyi]] ni nthambo ya kukolerana kwa ŵasanduzi awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku wa umanyi. Gulu ili lili na magulu ghachoko awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu vigaŵa vya umanyi. Pakuŵa na [[peer review|kusanda kwa ŵasanduzi ŵanyake]], kwizira mu kudumbiskana mu mabuku na misonkhano, ŵasanduzi ŵakusunga mukhaliro wa nthowa za kafukufuku na kuleka sankho pakulongosora ivyo vyasangika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kornfeld |first1=W. |last2=Hewitt |first2=C. E. |year=1981 |title=The Scientific Community Metaphor |url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=24–33 |doi=10.1109/TSMC.1981.4308575 |bibcode=1981ITSMC..11...24K |hdl-access=free |hdl=1721.1/5693 |s2cid=1322857 |access-date=26 May 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408100757/http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Ŵasanduzi === [[File:Marie Curie c. 1920s.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Marie Curie]] wakaŵa muntu wakwamba kupokera vyawanangwa viŵiri vya Nobel: [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]] mu chaka cha 1903 na [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]] mu chaka cha 1911.<ref name="Estreicher1938" />|alt=Chithuzi cha mwanakazi mulara]] Ŵasanduzi ni ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku wa umanyi kuti ŵasazgireko umanyi mu chigaŵa chakukhumbikwa.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |title=Eusocial climbers |publisher=E. O. Wilson Foundation |access-date=3 September 2018 |quote=But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says. |archive-date=27 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427085753/https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |title=Our definition of a scientist |publisher=Science Council |access-date=7 September 2018 |quote=A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge. |archive-date=23 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823135636/https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasanduzi ŵangaŵa na khumbiro likuru lakumanya unenesko na kakhumbiro ka kugwiliskira ntchito umanyi wa umanyi kuti ŵawovye umoyo wa ŵanthu, vyaru, vyakuzingilizga, panji mafakitale; vifukwa vinyake ni kumanyikwa na ŵasanduzi ŵanyake na uchindami.<ref name=leeEtal2007/> Mu nyengo zino, ŵasanduzi ŵanandi ŵakusambira vigaŵa vinyake mu [[academic institution|malo gha masambiro ghapachanya]], kanandi ŵakupokera [[terminal degree|madigiri ghapachanya]] mu nthowa iyi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cyranoski |first1=David |last2=Gilbert |first2=Natasha |last3=Ledford |first3=Heidi |last4=Nayar |first4=Anjali |author4-link=Anjali Nayar |last5=Yahia |first5=Mohammed |year=2011 |title=Education: The PhD factory |journal=Nature |volume=472 |issue=7343 |pages=276–279 |doi=10.1038/472276a |pmid=21512548 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..276C |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ŵasanduzi ŵanandi ŵakuchita ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambana nga ni mu maunivesite, mafakitale, boma, na magulu ghambura kupanga phindu.<ref name=kwok2017>{{cite journal |last1=Kwok |first1=Roberta |title=Flexible working: Science in the gig economy |journal=Nature |volume=550 |pages=419–421 |doi=10.1038/nj7677-549a |year=2017 |issue=7677 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=woolston2024 >{{cite journal |year=2024 |title=How researchers in remote regions handle the isolation |journal=Nature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01523-5 |last1=Woolston |first1=Chris |volume=629 |issue=8014 |pages=1193–1195 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-01523-5 |pmid=38789626 |bibcode=2024Natur.629.1193W }}</ref><ref name=leeEtal2007>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Adrian |last2=Dennis |first2=Carina |last3=Campbell |first3=Phillip |year=2007 |title=Nature's guide for mentors |journal=Nature |volume=447 |issue=7677 |pages=791–797 |doi=10.1038/447791a |doi-access=free |pmid=17568738 |bibcode=2007Natur.447..791L }}</ref> Umanyi mwa mbiri waŵa chigaŵa chakuŵalamulika na ŵanalume, nangauli pakaŵa ŵanakazi ŵanyake ŵakuzirwa. Ŵanakazi ŵakumana na sankho likuru mu umanyi, nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya magulu gha ŵanthu ghakulamulika na ŵanalume. Chiyelezgero, ŵanakazi kanandi ŵakaŵanyimanga mwaŵi wa ntchito na kuleka kupika uchindami pa ntchito yawo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Leigh Ann |title=Women's History as Scientists |url=https://archive.org/details/womenshistoryass0000whal |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003}}</ref> Ivyo [[women in science|ŵanakazi mu umanyi]] ŵafika navyo vyayowoyeka kuti ni chifukwa cha kukana kukhala mu kakhaliro kaŵo ka mbiri nga mbanchito ŵa pa nyumba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spanier |first=Bonnie |title=Im/partial Science: Gender Identity in Molecular Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/impartialscience0000span |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-253-20968-9 |chapter=From Molecules to Brains, Normal Science Supports Sexist Beliefs about Difference}}</ref> === Mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru === [[File:200 y Anniversary of Berlin Academy 1900.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵasayansi pa kukwaniska vilimika 200 vya [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]], 1900|left]] [[Learned societies|Mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru]] ghakukolerana na kutandazga maghanoghano gha vinjeru vya chilengiwa na kuyezga vinthu ghaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya kuwuka kwa vinjeru.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parrott |first=Jim |date=9 August 2007 |url=http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |title=Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599 |publisher=Scholarly Societies Project |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106185404/http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵali mu mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru agho ghakovwira pa nkhani ya luso lwawo, [[profession|mulimo wawo]], panji magulu gha maluso ghakuyana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |title=The Environmental Studies Association of Canada – What is a Learned Society? |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529163615/http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref> Kuŵa chiŵaro kungaŵa kwa waliyose, panji kukukhumbikwa kuŵa na maukaboni gha vinjeru, panji kusankhika na ŵanthu ŵanji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |title=Learned societies & academies |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603140851/http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |archive-date=3 June 2014}}</ref> Mawungano ghanandi gha vinjeru ni mawupu ghamasambiro agho ghakupenja phindu yayi,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2019 |title=Learned Societies, the key to realising an open access future? |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |access-date=22 January 2023 |website=Impact of Social Sciences |publisher=London School of Economics |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205140831/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ndipo ghanandi ni [[professional association|mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa maluso]]. Milimo yawo kanandi yikusazgapo kuchita [[academic conference|maungano]] ghakukhazikika ghakupeleka na kudumbiskana vinthu viphanya ivyo vasangika pakufufuza, na kusindikiza panji kovwira [[academic journal|mabuku gha maluso]] pa luso lwawo. Mawungano ghanji ghakugwira ntchito nga ni [[professional bodies|mawupu gha maluso]], ghakulongozga milimo ya viŵaro vyawo kuti ŵanthu wose panji viŵaro vose visange chandulo. Kuzgora sayansi kuŵa mulimo wa luso kukayamba mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800, ndipo chovwiro chikuru chikafuma mu kulengeka kwa mawupu ghakumanyikwa gha m'charu chose gha [[academy of sciences|nyumba za vinjeru]] nga ni Italian {{lang|it|[[Accademia dei Lincei]]}} mu 1603,<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |url=http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |title=Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei |language=it |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228005402/http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |archive-date=28 February 2010}}</ref> British [[Royal Society]] mu 1660,<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2004 |title=Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building |url=http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |access-date=7 December 2009 |publisher=The Royal Society |archive-date=9 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409010143/https://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[French Academy of Sciences]] mu 1666,<ref>{{cite web |first=G. G. |last=Meynell |url=http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |title=The French Academy of Sciences, 1666–91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666–83) and Louvois (1683–91) |access-date=13 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118174108/http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> American [[National Academy of Sciences]] mu 1863,<ref>{{cite web |title=Founding of the National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |access-date=12 March 2012 |publisher=.nationalacademies.org |archive-date=3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203154802/http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |url-status=live}}</ref> German [[Kaiser Wilhelm Society]] mu 1911,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (1911) |url=https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |access-date=30 May 2022 |publisher=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302052520/https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |url-status=live}}</ref> na [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]] mu 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=Chinese Academy of Sciences |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331215338/https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> Mawupu gha sayansi gha m'charu chose, nga ni [[International Science Council|Wupu wa Vinjeru wa mu Vyaru Vyose]], ghakuyezgayezga pa nkhani ya [[international cooperation|kukolerana kwa vyaru vyose]] kuti vinjeru vilute panthazi.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2018 |title=Two main Science Councils merge to address complex global challenges |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |access-date=21 October 2018 |publisher=UNESCO |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712044005/https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |url-status=live}}</ref> === Vyawanangwa === [[Lists of science and technology awards|Vyawanangwa vya vinjeru]] kanandi vikupelekeka kwa ŵanthu panji mawupu agho ghachita vinthu vikulu mu luso lwawo. Kanandi vikupelekeka na mawupu ghakumanyikwa; ntheura, chikuŵa chinthu cha ulemu ukulu kwa wasayansi uyo wapokera. Kufuma mu nyengo ya kuwuka kwa vinjeru, ŵasayansi kanandi ŵakumanyikwa na vyawanangwa vya mendulo, ndalama, na mazina gha ulemu. Chawanangwa cha Nobel, icho chikumanyikwa chomene m'charu chose, chikupelekeka chaka chilichose kwa awo ŵachita vinjeru viphanya mu vigaŵa vya munkhwala, vya makhaliro gha vinthu, na [[chemistry|luso lwa mankhwala]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=7 October 2014 |title=How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth? |newspaper=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet |url-status=live |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619044702/https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet/ |archive-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> == Banthu na kukhala kwawo == {{Redirect-distinguish|Science and society|Science & Society|Sociology of scientific knowledge}} === Chovwiro na malango === [[File:NASA-Budget-Federal.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Budget of NASA]] nga ni chiŵerengero cha [[United States federal budget]], apo chikafika pa 4.4% mu 1966 ndipo chayamba kukhira kufuma nyengo iyo|alt=see caption]] [[Funding of science|Chovwiro cha ndalama mu vinjeru]] kanandi chikuchitika mu nthowa ya kuphalizgana umo milimo ya kufufuza yikuwunikika ndipo iyo njakovwira chomene ndiyo yikupokera ndalama. Nthowa izi, izo zikulongozgeka na boma, makampani, panji mawupu ghakupeleka chovwiro, zikugaŵa ndalama zichoko izo ziliko. Chovwiro chose cha kufufuza mu vyaru ivyo [[developed countries|vyatukuka kale]] chili pakati pa 1.5% na 3% ya usambazi wose wa charu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |title=Main Science and Technology Indicators – 2008-1 |publisher=[[OECD]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215172528/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010}}</ref> Mu mawupu gha [[OECD]], pafupifupi vigaŵa viŵiri pa vitatu vya [[research and development|kufufuza na kutukuska]] mu vigaŵa vya vinjeru na maluso chikuchitika na makampani, ndipo 20% na 10% chikuchitika na mayunivesite na boma. Chovwiro cha boma mu vigaŵa vinyake ntchikulu chomene, ndipo chikuluska mu kufufuza kwa nkhani za ŵanthu na [[humanities|maluso gha kukhala kwa ŵanthu]]. Mu vyaru ivyo vindatukuke chomene, boma ndilo likupeleka chovwiro chikuru pa nkhani za kufufuza kwa vinjeru vyakwamba.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |title=OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015: Innovation for growth and society |publisher=OECD |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-64-23978-4 |page=156 |doi=10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2015-en |via=oecd-ilibrary.org |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525063455/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |url-status=live}}</ref> Maboma ghanandi ghali na mawupu ghake ghakovwira pakufufuza vinjeru, nga ni [[National Science Foundation]] ku United States,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kevles |first=Daniel |year=1977 |title=The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942–1945 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_1977-03_68_241/page/n5 |journal=Isis |volume=68 |issue=241 |pages=4–26 |doi=10.1086/351711 |pmid=320157 |s2cid=32956693}}</ref> [[National Scientific and Technical Research Council]] ku Argentina,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Argentina, National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) |url=https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=International Science Council |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516220311/https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]] ku Australia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Innis |first=Michelle |date=17 May 2016 |title=Australia to Lay Off Leading Scientist on Sea Levels |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507080237/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |archive-date=7 May 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> [[National Centre for Scientific Research]] ku France,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Le CNRS recherche 10.000 passionnés du blob |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=[[Le Figaro]] |language=fr |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427225305/https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Max Planck Society]] ku Germany,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bredow |first=Rafaela von |date=18 December 2021 |title=How a Prestigious Scientific Organization Came Under Suspicion of Treating Women Unequally |work=Der Spiegel |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |access-date=31 May 2022 |issn=2195-1349 |archive-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529004707/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |url-status=live}}</ref> na [[Spanish National Research Council|National Research Council]] ku Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 May 2022 |title=En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia |url=https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=ELMUNDO |language=es |archive-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513185034/https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu milimo ya bizinesi ya kutukuska na kufufuza, makampani ghanandi ghakufwilirapo chomene pa vinthu ivyo vingaguliskika mwaluŵiro kuluska kufufuza uko kuli na chilato cha kumanya waka vinthu. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Anthony C. |last2=Bourne |first2=Philip E. |date=27 September 2012 |title=Ten Simple Rules To Commercialize Scientific Research |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |volume=8 |issue=9 |article-number=e1002712 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002712 |issn=1553-734X |pmc=3459878 |pmid=23028299 |bibcode=2012PLSCB...8E2712F |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Science policy|Ndondomeko ya vinjeru]] yikukhwaskana na malango agho ghakukhwaska makhaliro gha ntchito ya vinjeru, kusazgapo [[research funding|chovwiro cha kufufuza]], kanandi pakuya pa vilato vinyake vya boma nga ni kulenga vinthu viphanya vya luso kuti vitukuske katundu wa bizinesi, kulenga vilwero, chovwiro cha vya chipatala, na kulaŵilira chilengiwa. Ndondomeko ya vinjeru nyengo zinyake yikung'anamura nchito ya kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru vya chilengiwa na kukolerana kwa maghanoghano pa nkhani ya kulenga malango gha boma. Pakuti malango gha boma ghakulaŵilira makhaliro ghawemi gha ŵanthu, chilato cha ndondomeko ya vinjeru nkhuwona umo vinjeru na luso vingawovwilira ŵanthu m'nthowa yiwemi chomene.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marburger |first=John Harmen III |title=Science policy up close |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencepolicyupc0000marb |date=10 February 2015 |others=Crease, Robert P. |isbn=978-0-674-41709-0 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Malango gha boma ghangaŵa na nkhongono pa chovwiro cha [[capital equipment|vithandizgo vikulu]] na vinthu vya vinjeru pakufufuza kwa makampani mwa kupeleka mwaŵi wa kukhizga msonkho kwa mawupu agho ghakovwira pakufufuza.<ref name="Bush1945" /> === Kusambizga na kumanyiska === {{Main|2 = Public awareness of science|3 = Science journalism}} [[File:Dinosaur exhibit - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01881.JPG|thumb|upright=1.13|Chiwonetsero cha Dinosaulo pa [[Houston Museum of Natural Science]]]] [[Science education|Masambiro gha vinjeru]] kwa ŵanthu wose ghali mu ndondomeko ya masambiro gha pa sukulu, ndipo ghakusazgirika na [[YouTube in education|vinthu vya masambiro pa Intaneti]] (chiyelezgero, YouTube na Khan Academy), nyumba zakusungiramo vinthu vyakale (museums), na mabuku gha vinjeru. Mawupu ghakulu gha [[scientist|ŵasayansi]] nga ni American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) ghakuwona vinjeru vya chilengiwa nga ni chigaŵa cha masambiro gha maluso ghakuyana na mahala (philosophy) na mbiri (history).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauch |first1=Hugh G. |title=Scientific Method in Brief |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-66672-6 |pages=7–10}}</ref> Kumanya vya vinjeru kuli na chilato cha kupulikiska [[scientific method|nthowa zakufufuzira]], vithandizgo na nthowa za [[measurement|kupima]], [[empiricism|kugwiliskira ntchito ukaboni wakuwoneka]], kupulikiska vigaŵa vya manambala ([[correlations|kukolerana kwa vinthu]], [[Qualitative research|kawonekero]] na [[Quantitative research|chiŵerengero]]), na kupulikiska vigaŵa vyakwamba vya vinjeru nga ni makhaliro gha vinthu, [[chemistry|luso lwa mankhwala]], [[biology|vinjeru vya vyamoyo]], makhaliro gha chilengiwa, vya malibwe, na [[computation|kugwiliskira ntchito makompyuta]]. Apo mwana akuluta panthazi mu [[formal education|masambiro gha pa sukulu]], ndondomeko yikufika pakuzikira chomene. Masambiro agho ghakumanyikwa chomene mu sukulu ni vinjeru vya chilengiwa na vinjeru vya manambala, nangauli mazuŵa ghano ghakusazgapo vinjeru vya kukhala kwa ŵanthu na vinjeru vyakugwiliskira ntchito luso. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Benneworth |first1=Paul |last2=Jongbloed |first2=Ben W. |date=31 July 2009 |title=Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation |journal=Higher Education |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 |issn=0018-1560 |doi-access=free |url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024214150/https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Manyuzipepara na mawayilesi ghali na masuzgo agho ghangatondeska kulongora makora unenesko wa vinjeru ivyo vikupambana mwakuyana na umo ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuvipulikira. Kusankha unenesko uwo uli na nkhongono chomene pa [[scientific debate|kudumbiskana kwa vinjeru]] kungakhumbikwa luso lukulu pa nkhani iyo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dickson |first=David |date=11 October 2004 |title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=Science and Development Network}}</ref> Mbachoko chomene ŵatola nkhani awo ŵali na vinjeru vya sayansi veneko, ndipo nanga ŵangeŵa [[beat reporter|ŵatola nkhani]] awo ŵakumanya nkhani zinyake za vinjeru, ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakumanya yayi nkhani zinyake za vinjeru izo ŵapempheka kuti ŵazilembe mwadzidzi.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=Nov–Dec 2004 |title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |url-status=live |magazine=Columbia Journalism Review |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |archive-date=17 January 2010 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIlwaine |first1=S. |last2=Nguyen |first2=D. A. |year=2005 |title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science? |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Studies in Journalism |volume=14 |pages=41–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref> [[Science magazines|Mabuku gha vinjeru]] nga ni ''[[New Scientist]]'', ''[[Science & Vie]]'', na ''[[Scientific American]]'' ghakovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene na kupeleka mwakudumura nkhani za kufufuza m'nthowa yipusu, kusazgapo ivyo vasangika viphanya na kukura kwa vinjeru mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kufufuza.<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Webb |author-first=Sarah |title=Popular science: Get the word out |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2013-12-05_504_7478/page/177 |journal=Nature |volume=504 |issue=7478 |pages=177–179 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24312943 |doi=10.1038/nj7478-177a |doi-access=free}}</ref> Nkhani za m'maghanoghano (science fiction), chomenechomene [[speculative fiction|nkhani za vyam'tsogolo]], zingatandazga maghanoghano na nthowa za vinjeru kwa ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilde |first=Fran |author-link=Fran Wilde (author) |date=21 January 2016 |title=How Do You Like Your Science Fiction? Ten Authors Weigh In On 'Hard' vs. 'Soft' SF |url=https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404025029/https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |archive-date=4 April 2019 |access-date=4 April 2019 |website=Tor.com}}</ref> Kuyezgayezga kwa mazuŵa ghano kwa kukoleraniska vinjeru vya chilengiwa na maluso ghanyake, nga ni mabuku panji ndakatulo, kukusazgapo chinthu cha ''Creative Writing Science'' icho chikapangika kwizira mu [[Royal Literary Fund]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Mario |last=Petrucci |url=http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |title=Creative Writing – Science |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106015539/http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |archive-date=6 January 2009}}</ref> === Maghanoghano ghakususka vinjeru vya chilengiwa === {{Main|Antiscience}} Nangauli nthowa ya vinjeru yakalika mwa ŵasayansi, vigaŵa vinyake vya ŵanthu vikukana maghanoghano gha vinjeru vinyake panji vikuŵa na kukayika pa nkhani ya vinjeru. Viyelezgero ni maghanoghano ghakumanyikwa akuti [[COVID-19]] ni nthenda yakofya yayi ku US (maghanoghano agha ghakaŵa na 39% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku America mu mwezi wa Ogasiti 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tyson |first1=Alec |last2=Funk |first2=Cary |last3=Kennedy |first3=Brian |last4=Johnson |first4=Courtney |date=15 September 2021 |title=Majority in U.S. Says Public Health Benefits of COVID-19 Restrictions Worth the Costs, Even as Large Shares Also See Downsides |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center Science & Society |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809114234/https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |url-status=live}}</ref> panji chipulikano chakuti [[climate change|kusinthika kwa nyengo]] nkhwakofya yayi ku US (maghanoghano agho ghakaŵa na 40% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku America, kuumaliro kwa 2019 na kukwambira kwa 2020).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Brian |title=U.S. concern about climate change is rising, but mainly among Democrats |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803101033/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasayansi ŵa vya maghanoghano (psychologists) ŵalongora vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitiska kukana ivyo vinjeru vasanga:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Philipp-Muller |first1=Aviva |last2=Lee |first2=Spike W. S. |last3=Petty |first3=Richard E. |date=26 July 2022 |title=Why are people antiscience, and what can we do about it? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=119 |issue=30 |article-number=e2120755119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120755119 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9335320 |pmid=35858405 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920755P}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mazaza mu vinjeru nyengo zinyake ŵakuwoneka nga mbambura luso, ŵambura kugomezgeka, panji [[academic bias|ŵali na chitemwano]]. Magulu ghanji gha ŵanthu agho [[marginalised|ghatondeka kuŵa na mazaza]] ghali na maghanoghano ghakususka vinjeru, chifukwa chakuti magulu agha nyengo zinandi ghakanyengetereka mu [[Unethical human experimentation|vilingo vyambura ulemu]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Test of Three Theories of Anti-Science Attitudes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_sociological-focus_2008-11_41_4/page/337 |year=2008 |doi=10.1080/00380237.2008.10571338 |last1=Gauchat |first1=Gordon William |journal=Sociological Focus |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=337–357 |s2cid=144645723}}</ref> Uthenga wakufuma kwa ŵasayansi ungasuska vigomezgo panji makhaliro gha ulemu agho ŵanthu ŵali nawo. Maghanoghano ghakususka vinjeru kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ghakuchitika chifukwa cha kopa kukanika mu magulu gha ŵanthu. Chiyelezgero, kusinthika kwa nyengo kukuwoneka nga nkhwakofya na 22% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵali ku mbali ya malango ghakale (right side), kweni na 85% ya awo ŵali ku mbali ya malango phanya (left).<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Poushter |first1=Jacob |last2=Fagan |first2=Moira |last3=Gubbala |first3=Sneha |date=31 August 2022 |title=Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |access-date=5 September 2022 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831225832/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ndiposo, usange m'modzi wa ku mbali ya malango phanya wakuleka kuwona kusinthika kwa nyengo nga nkhwakofya, munthu uyu wanganyoŵeka na kukanika mu gulu ilo. Unenesko ngwakuti, ŵanthu ŵangazomera kukana unenesko wa vinjeru kuluska kutaya panji kuŵika pa ngozi makhaliro ghawo mu gulu lawo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McRaney |first=David |title=How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion, and Persuasion |url=https://archive.org/details/howmindschangesu0000davi |publisher=Portfolio/Penguin |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-593-19029-6 |location=New York}}</ref> === Vyandyale === {{See also|Politicization of science}} [[File:2021 Survey on existence of global warming and responsibility for climate change - bar chart.svg|alt=Result in bar graph of two questions ("Is global warming occurring?" and "Are oil/gas companies responsible?"), showing large discrepancies between American Democrats and Republicans|thumb|[[Public opinion on global warming#United States|Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa kuthukira kwa charu mu United States]] kuyana na magulu gha vyandyale<ref>{{cite news |last1=McGreal |first1=Chris |date=26 October 2021 |title=Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026122356/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |archive-date=26 October 2021 |quote=Source: Guardian/Vice/CCN/YouGov poll. Note: ±4% margin of error.}}</ref>|upright=1.4]] Maghanoghano pa nkhani ya vinjeru kanandi ghakusankhika na maghanoghano gha vyandyale na vilato. Boma, bizinesi na [[advocacy group|magulu gha vyakukhumba]] ŵakumanyikwa kuti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito malango na ndalama kuti ŵakhwaske ŵafufuzi ŵa vinjeru. Vinthu vinandi vingachitika nga ni vigaŵa vya [[politicisation of science|vinjeru vyakuŵikika mu vyandyale]] nga ni [[anti-intellectualism|kukana ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru]], kuwona nga vigomezgo vya chisopa vili pa ngozi, na kopa kwa bizinesi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeanne |year=2017 |title=The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=34–39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |archive-date=16 August 2018 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> Vinjeru vyakuŵikika mu vyandyale kanandi vikuchitika usange uthenga wa vinjeru ukupelekeka mu nthowa iyo yikulongora kukayika uko kuli pa [[scientific evidence|ukaboni wa vinjeru]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bolsen |first1=Toby |last2=Druckman |first2=James N. |author2-link=James N. Druckman |year=2015 |title=Counteracting the Politicization of Science |journal=Journal of Communication |issue=65 |page=746}}</ref> Nthowa nga ni kusintha nkhani, kutondeka kuzomera unenesko, na kugwiliskira ntchito kukayika pa [[scientific consensus|kukolerana kwa ŵasayansi]] zikugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ŵapokere chitemwa pa maghanoghano agho ghali kukanika kale na ukaboni wa vinjeru.<ref name="Freudenberg2008">{{cite journal |last1=Freudenberg |first1=William F. |last2=Gramling |first2=Robert |last3=Davidson |first3=Debra J. |year=2008 |title=Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt |url=http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=2–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126214329/http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2020 |access-date=12 April 2020 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Viyelezgero vya nkhani izo zikukhwaska vinjeru vyakuŵikika mu vyandyale ni [[global warming controversy|kudumbiskana kwa kuthukira kwa charu]], [[health effects of pesticides|uheni wa mankhwala gha vinkhumbira pa umoyo]], na [[health effects of tobacco|uheni wa hona pa umoyo]].<ref name="Freudenberg2008" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Linden |first1=Sander |last2=Leiserowitz |first2=Anthony |last3=Rosenthal |first3=Seth |last4=Maibach |first4=Edward |year=2017 |title=Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/270860/1/global%20challenges.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Global Challenges |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=1 |doi=10.1002/gch2.201600008 |pmc=6607159 |pmid=31565263 |bibcode=2017GloCh...100008V |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404185312/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/270860/global%20challenges.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=4 April 2020 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> === Masuzgo === {{See also|Criticism of science|Academic bias}} [[replication crisis|Suzgo la kutondeka kuwirizga]] ni suzgo ilo lichilipo mu [[methodological|nthowa zakufufuzira]] ilo likukhwaska vigaŵa vya vinjeru vya [[social science|kukhala kwa ŵanthu]] na [[life science|vinjeru vya vyamoyo]]. Mu kufufuza kwinyake, ivyo vasangika mu masambiro ghanandi gha vinjeru vyalongoreka kuti [[reproducibility|vingawirizgika yayi]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1038/515009a |title=Metascience could rescue the 'replication crisis' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_nature_2014-11-06_515_7525/page/n19 |journal=Nature |volume=515 |issue=7525 |page=9 |year=2014 |last1=Schooler |first1=J. W. |pmid=25373639 |bibcode=2014Natur.515....9S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Suzgo ili lili na misisi yakale; lizina ili likapelekeka kukwambira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 2010<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1177/1745691612465253 |title=Editors' Introduction to the Special Section on Replicability in Psychological Science: A Crisis of Confidence? |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=528–530 |year=2012 |last1=Pashler |first1=Harold |last2=Wagenmakers |first2=Eric Jan |pmid=26168108 |s2cid=26361121 |doi-access=free}}</ref> nga ni chigaŵa cha kumanya kukuru kwa suzgo ili. Suzgo la kutondeka kuwirizga likulongora chigaŵa chakuzirwa cha kufufuza mu [[metascience|vinjeru vya vinjeru]], icho chili na chilato cha kunozga makhaliro gha kufufuza kose kwa vinjeru kwinaku chikukhizga kusakaza. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ioannidis |first1=John P. A. |last2=Fanelli |first2=Daniele |last3=Dunne |first3=Debbie Drake |last4=Goodman |first4=Steven N. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Meta-research: Evaluation and Improvement of Research Methods and Practices |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=–1002264 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002264 |pmid=26431313 |pmc=4592065 |issn=1545-7885 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mazgu ghakuti [[scientific misconduct|makhaliro ghaheni mu vinjeru]] ghakung'anamura nyengo izo ŵafufuzi ŵakugolozga unenesko wa ivyo ŵasangapo mwadala, panji kupeleka ulemu wa chinthu icho chasangika kwa munthu uyo wandachichite mwakukhumba.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Coping with fraud |journal=The COPE Report 1999 |pages=11–18 |url=http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151119/http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |quote=It is 10 years, to the month, since Stephen Lock ... Reproduced with kind permission of the Editor, The Lancet. |archive-date=28 September 2007 |url-status=usurped |access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> Chigaŵa cha masambiro panji maghanoghano agho ghakujizgora kuŵa nga ni vinjeru vya chilengiwa kuti ghawoneke nga ngaunenesko kweni ndimo ghaliri yayi, nyengo zinyake ghakuchemeka kuti [[pseudoscience|vinjeru vyautesi]], [[fringe science|vinjeru vya m'mbali]], panji [[junk science|vinjeru vyambura ntchito]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science |title=Science and Pseudoscience |at=Section 2: The "science" of pseudoscience |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first1=Sven Ove |last1=Hansson |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |date=3 September 2008 |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029205141/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shermer |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Shermer |year=1997 |title=Why people believe weird things: pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965594875 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Co. |isbn=978-0-7167-3090-3 |page=17}}</ref> Wasayansi [[Richard Feynman]] wakapanga chizina chakuti "[[cargo cult science|vinjeru vyakuyezgera waka]]" pa nkhani izo ŵafufuzi ŵakugomezga, ndipo pakuŵala ŵakuwoneka nga ŵakuchita sayansi, kweni ŵalije unenesko wakuti ivyo ŵasangapo viwunnikike makora na ŵanji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |title=Cargo Cult Science |last=Feynman |first=Richard |year=1974 |website=Center for Theoretical Neuroscience |publisher=Columbia University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050304032544/http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |archive-date=4 March 2005 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> Nthowa zakupambanapambana zakusatsira malonda, kufuma pa kukulisha nkhani kufika pa uuryezi, zingaŵa mu vigaŵa ivi. Vinjeru vya chilengiwa vyalongosoreka nga ni "chiŵiya chakuzirwa chomene" pakupatula unenesko ku utesi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novella |first=Steven |title=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake |title-link=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book) |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4736-9641-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/skepticsguidetou0000nove/page/162 162] |author-link=Steven Novella}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake, kufufuza kungaŵa na chilato chiwemi kweni kungaŵa kwakubudika, kwachikale, kwambura kukwana, panji kulongosora vinjeru m'nthowa yipusu chomene yakujumpha muyero. Paliso chigaŵa cha [[political bias|kutemwera vya ndale]] panji maghanoghano ghakuŵa ku mbali yimoza mu vinjeru. Ŵasayansi mu vyaru vinyake ŵasangika kuti ŵali na chitemwano pa nkhani ya [[political party|vipani vya ndale]] pakuyaniska na ŵanthu bweka.<ref name="y499">{{cite journal | last1=Duarte | first1=José L. | last2=Crawford | first2=Jarret T. | last3=Stern | first3=Charlotta | last4=Haidt | first4=Jonathan | last5=Jussim | first5=Lee | last6=Tetlock | first6=Philip E. | title=Political diversity will improve social psychological science | journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume=38 | date=2015 | issn=0140-525X | doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000430 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0140525X14000430/type/journal_article | access-date=2026-02-12 | page=}}</ref> == Wonaniso ivi == [[List of scientific occupations|Mndandanda wa milimo ya sayansi]] [[List of years in science|Mndandanda wa vilimika mu sayansi]] [[v:Science|Vinjeru vya Chilengiwa]] (Wikiversity) [[Scientific integrity|Unenesko mu vinjeru]] == Mazgu ghanyake == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Mahamba ghakuwaro == {{Wiktionary|science}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Science and the public}} {{Glossaries of science and engineering}} {{Science and technology studies}} {{Subject bar|auto=1|portal1=Science}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Vinjeru vya Chilengiwa| ]] [[Category:Kulaŵiska na Kuwona]] [[Category:Nkhani zikulu]] [[Category:Kufumbilira]] [[Category:Milimo ya ŵanthu]] rjmtm3qezpdk5kzfi1msdf9sjatp644 828 43807 123158 117906 2026-10-08T16:39:57Z Grufo 8824 Update from [[d:Special:GoToLinkedPage/mediawikiwiki/Q122696746|master]] using [[mw:Synchronizer| #Synchronizer]] 123158 Scribunto text/plain require[[strict]] --- --- --- PRIVATE ENVIRONMENT --- --- ________________________________ --- --- --- --[[ Abstract utilities ]]-- ---------------------------- -- Helper function for `string.gsub()` (for managing zero-padded numbers) local function zero_padded (str) return ('%03d%s'):format(#str, str) end -- Helper function for `table.sort()` (for natural sorting) local function natural_sort (var1, var2) return var1:gsub('%d+', zero_padded) < var2:gsub('%d+', zero_padded) end -- Return a copy or a reference to a table local function copy_or_ref_table (src, refonly) if refonly then return src end local newtab = {} for key, val in pairs(src) do newtab[key] = val end return newtab end -- Copy at most N items (of all kinds) from `src` to `dest` and return `dest` local function copy_table_maxn (dest, src, len) local idx = 1 for key, val in pairs(src) do dest[key], idx = val, idx + 1 if idx > len then break end end return dest end -- Remove some numeric elements from a table, shifting everything to the left local function remove_numeric_keys (tbl, idx, len) local cache, tmp = {}, idx + len - 1 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and key >= idx then if key > tmp then cache[key - len] = val end tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end -- Make a reduced copy of a table (shifting in both directions if necessary) local function copy_table_reduced (tbl, idx, len) local ret, tmp = {}, idx + len - 1 if idx > 0 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < idx then ret[key] = val elseif key > tmp then ret[key - len] = val end end elseif tmp > 0 then local nshift = 1 - idx for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then ret[key] = val elseif key > tmp then ret[key - tmp] = val elseif key < idx then ret[key + nshift] = val end end else for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key > tmp then ret[key] = val elseif key < idx then ret[key + len] = val end end end return ret end -- Make an expanded copy of a table (shifting in both directions if necessary) local function copy_table_expanded (tbl, idx, len) local ret, tmp = {}, idx + len - 1 if idx > 0 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < idx then ret[key] = val else ret[key + len] = val end end elseif tmp > 0 then local nshift = idx - 1 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then ret[key] = val elseif key > 0 then ret[key + tmp] = val elseif key < 1 then ret[key + nshift] = val end end else for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key > tmp then ret[key] = val else ret[key - len] = val end end end return ret end -- Given a table, create two new tables containing the sorted list of keys local function get_key_list_sorted (tbl, sort_fn) local nums, words, nn, nw = {}, {}, 0, 0 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then nn = nn + 1 nums[nn] = key else nw = nw + 1 words[nw] = key end end table.sort(nums) table.sort(words, sort_fn) return nums, words, nn, nw end -- Parse a parameter name string and return it as a string or a number local function get_parameter_name (par_str) local ret = par_str:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if ret ~= '0' and ret:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' == nil then return ret end return tonumber(ret) end -- Move a key from a table to another, but only if under a different name and -- always parsing numeric strings as numbers local function steal_if_renamed (val, src, skey, dest, dkey) local realkey = get_parameter_name(dkey) if skey ~= realkey then dest[realkey], src[skey] = val, nil end end --[[ Public strings ]]-- ------------------------ -- Special match keywords (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) local mkeywords = { ['or'] = 0, pattern = 1, plain = 2, strict = 3 } -- Sort functions (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) local sortfunctions = { alphabetically = false, naturally = natural_sort } -- Callback styles for the `mapping_*` and `renaming_*` class of modifiers -- (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) --[[ Meanings of the columns: col[1] = Loop type (0-3) col[2] = Number of module arguments that the style requires (1-3) col[3] = Minimum number of sequential parameters passed to the callback col[4] = Name of the callback parameter where to place each parameter name col[5] = Name of the callback parameter where to place each parameter value col[6] = Argument in the modifier's invocation that will override `col[4]` col[7] = Argument in the modifier's invocation that will override `col[5]` A value of `-1` indicates that no meaningful value is stored (i.e. `nil`) ]]-- local mapping_styles = { names_and_values = { 3, 2, 2, 1, 2, -1, -1 }, values_and_names = { 3, 2, 2, 2, 1, -1, -1 }, values_only = { 1, 2, 1, -1, 1, -1, -1 }, names_only = { 2, 2, 1, 1, -1, -1, -1 }, names_and_values_as = { 3, 4, 0, -1, -1, 2, 3 }, names_only_as = { 2, 3, 0, -1, -1, 2, -1 }, values_only_as = { 1, 3, 0, -1, -1, -1, 2 }, blindly = { 0, 2, 0, -1, -1, -1, -1 } } -- Memory slots (functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names) local memoryslots = { h = 'header', f = 'footer', i = 'itersep', l = 'lastsep', n = 'ifngiven', p = 'pairsep', s = 'oxfordsep' } -- Possible trimming modes for the `parsing` modifier local trim_parse_opts = { trim_none = { false, false }, trim_positional = { false, true }, trim_named = { true, false }, trim_all = { true, true } } -- Possible string modes for the iteration separator in the `parsing` and -- `reinterpreting` modifiers local isep_parse_opts = { splitter_pattern = false, splitter_string = true } -- Possible string modes for the key-value separator in the `parsing` and -- `reinterpreting` modifiers local psep_parse_opts = { setter_pattern = false, setter_string = true } -- Possible position references for the `splicing` modifier local position_references = { add_nothing = 0, add_smallest_number = 1, add_last_of_sequence = 2, add_largest_number = 3 } -- Possible modes for the `reassigning` modifier local a_modes = { transfer = 0, clone = 1, rename = 2, copy = 3, sacrifice = 4, provide = 5, spare = 7 } -- Functions and modifiers MUST avoid these names too: `here`, `in_substack`, -- `let`, `expose`, `use`, `with_flushed_glue`, `without_flushed_glue` -- `without_sorting` --[[ Private constants ]]-- --------------------------- -- Hard-coded name of the module (to avoid going through `frame:getTitle()`) local modulename = 'Module:Params' -- The functions listed here declare that they don't need the `frame.args` -- metatable to be copied into a regular table; if they are modifiers they also -- guarantee that they will make their own (modified) copy available local refpipe = { call_for_each_group = true, --coins = true, count = true, evaluating = true, for_each = true, list = true, list_values = true, list_maybe_with_names = true, value_of = true } -- The functions listed here declare that they don't need the -- `frame:getParent().args` metatable to be copied into a regular table; if -- they are modifiers they also guarantee that they will make their own -- (modified) copy available local refparams = { call_for_each_group = true, combining = true, combining_by_calling = true, combining_values = true, concat_and_call = true, concat_and_invoke = true, concat_and_magic = true, count = true, grouping_by_calling = true, mixing_names_and_values = true, keeping_at_most = true, renaming_by_mixing = true, renaming_to_sequence = true, renaming_to_uppercase = true, renaming_to_lowercase = true, --renaming_to_values = true, shifting = true, splicing = true, --swapping_names_and_values = true, value_of = true, with_name_matching = true } -- Maximum number of numeric parameters that can be filled, if missing (we -- chose an arbitrary number for this constant; you can discuss about its -- optimal value at Module talk:Params) local maxfill = 1024 -- The private table of functions local library = {} -- Functions and modifiers that can only be invoked in first position local static_iface = {} --[[ Private functions ]]-- --------------------------- -- Create a new context local function context_new (child_frame) local main_frame = child_frame:getParent() return { frame = main_frame, opipe = child_frame.args, oparams = main_frame.args, firstposonly = static_iface, iterfunc = pairs, sorttype = 0, n_parents = 0, n_children = 0, n_available = maxfill } end -- Move to the next action within the user-given list local function context_iterate (ctx, n_forward) local nextfn if ctx.pipe[n_forward] ~= nil then nextfn = ctx.pipe[n_forward]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if nextfn == nil then error(modulename .. ': You must specify a function to call', 0) end if library[nextfn] == nil then if ctx.firstposonly[nextfn] == nil then error(modulename .. ': The function ‘' .. nextfn .. '’ does not exist', 0) else error(modulename .. ': The ‘' .. nextfn .. '’ directive can only appear in first position', 0) end end remove_numeric_keys(ctx.pipe, 1, n_forward) return library[nextfn] end -- Main loop local function main_loop (ctx, start_with) local fn = start_with repeat fn = fn(ctx) until not fn if ctx.n_parents > 0 then error(modulename .. ': One or more ‘merging_substack’ directives are missing', 0) end if ctx.n_children > 0 then error(modulename .. ', For some of the snapshots either the ‘flushing’ directive is missing or a group has not been properly closed with ‘merging_substack’', 0) end end -- Load a `setting`-like directive string into the `dest` table local function set_strings_from_opts (dest, opts, start_from) local cmd if opts[start_from] == nil then return start_from - 1 end cmd = opts[start_from]:gsub('%s+', ''):gsub('/+', '/') :match'^/*(.*[^/])' if cmd == nil then return start_from end local vname, chr local amap, sep, argc = {}, string.byte('/'), start_from + 1 for idx = 1, #cmd do chr = cmd:byte(idx) if chr == sep then for key, val in ipairs(amap) do dest[val], amap[key] = opts[argc], nil end argc = argc + 1 else vname = memoryslots[string.char(chr)] if vname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘setting’: Unknown slot ‘' .. string.char(chr) .. '’', 0) end table.insert(amap, vname) end end for key, val in ipairs(amap) do dest[val] = opts[argc] end return argc end -- Add a new stack of parameters to `ctx.children` local function new_substack (ctx) local currsnap, newparams = ctx.n_children + 1, {} if ctx.children == nil then ctx.children = { newparams } else ctx.children[currsnap] = newparams end ctx.n_children = currsnap return newparams end -- Parse a raw argument containing a `sortfunctions` directive, or -- `'without_sorting'`, or `nil` local function load_sort_opt (raw_arg) if raw_arg == nil then return nil, 1, false end local trarg = raw_arg:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if trarg == 'without_sorting' then return nil, 2, false, trarg end local tmp = sortfunctions[trarg] if tmp == nil then return nil, 1, false, trarg end return tmp or nil, 2, true, trarg end -- Parse optional user arguments of type `...|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]| -- [number of additional parameters]|[parameter 1]|[parameter 2]|[...]` local function load_child_opts (src, start_from, append_after, params) local tnamed, tmp1, tmp2 local pin, tbl, mem = start_from, {}, {} while src[pin] ~= nil and src[pin + 1] ~= nil do tmp1 = src[pin]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tmp1 == 'let' and src[pin + 2] ~= nil then tmp1 = get_parameter_name(src[pin + 1]) mem[tmp1], tbl[tmp1], pin = nil, src[pin + 2], pin + 3 --[[ elseif tmp1 == 'expose' then tmp1 = get_parameter_name(src[pin + 1]) tmp2 = params[tmp1] mem[tmp1], tbl[tmp1], pin = tmp2, tmp2, pin + 2 ]]-- elseif tmp1 == 'use' and src[pin + 2] ~= nil then tmp1 = get_parameter_name(src[pin + 2]) tmp2 = params[tmp1] mem[tmp1], tbl[get_parameter_name(src[pin + 1])], pin = tmp2, tmp2, pin + 3 else break end end local tnew = copy_or_ref_table(params, next(mem) == nil) for key in pairs(mem) do tnew[key] = nil end if pin ~= start_from then tnamed, tbl = tbl, {} end tmp1 = tonumber(src[pin]) if tmp1 ~= nil and math.floor(tmp1) == tmp1 then if tmp1 < 0 then tmp1 = -1 end tmp2 = append_after - pin for idx = pin + 1, pin + tmp1 do tbl[idx + tmp2] = src[idx] end pin = pin + tmp1 + 1 end if tnamed ~= nil then for key, val in pairs(tnamed) do tbl[key] = val end end return tbl, pin, tnew, mem end -- Load the optional arguments of some of the `mapping_*` and `renaming_*` -- class of modifiers local function load_callback_opts (src, n_skip, default_style, params) local style, shf local tmp = src[n_skip + 1] if tmp ~= nil then style = mapping_styles[tmp:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$'] end if style == nil then style, shf = default_style, n_skip - 1 else shf = n_skip end local n_exist, karg, varg = style[3], style[4], style[5] tmp = style[6] if tmp > -1 then karg = src[tmp + shf]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if karg == '0' or karg:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then karg = tonumber(karg) n_exist = math.max(n_exist, karg) end end tmp = style[7] if tmp > -1 then varg = src[tmp + shf]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if varg == '0' or varg:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then varg = tonumber(varg) n_exist = math.max(n_exist, varg) end end local dest, argc, tnew, mem = load_child_opts(src, style[2] + shf, n_exist, params) tmp = style[1] if (tmp == 3 or tmp == 2) and dest[karg] ~= nil then tmp = tmp - 2 end if (tmp == 3 or tmp == 1) and dest[varg] ~= nil then tmp = tmp - 1 end return dest, argc, tmp, karg, varg, tnew, mem end -- Parse the arguments of some of the `mapping_*` and `renaming_*` class of -- modifiers local function load_replace_args (opts, whoami) if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No pattern string was given', 0) end if opts[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No replacement string was given', 0) end local ptn, repl, nmax, argc = opts[1], opts[2], tonumber(opts[3]), 3 if nmax ~= nil or (opts[3] or ''):match'^%s*$' ~= nil then argc = 4 end local flg = opts[argc] if flg ~= nil then flg = mkeywords[flg:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$'] end if flg == 0 then flg = nil elseif flg ~= nil then argc = argc + 1 end return ptn, repl, nmax, flg, argc, (nmax ~= nil and nmax < 1) or (flg == 3 and ptn == repl) end -- Parse the arguments of the `with_*_matching` class of modifiers local function load_pattern_args (opts, whoami) local keyw local ptns, state, nptns, cnt = {}, 0, 0, 1 for _, val in ipairs(opts) do if state == 0 then nptns, state = nptns + 1, -1 ptns[nptns] = { val, false, false } else keyw = val:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if keyw == nil or mkeywords[keyw] == nil or ( state > 0 and mkeywords[keyw] > 0 ) then break else state = mkeywords[keyw] if state > 1 then ptns[nptns][2] = true end if state == 3 then ptns[nptns][3] = true end end end cnt = cnt + 1 end if state == 0 then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No pattern was given', 0) end return ptns, nptns, cnt end -- Load the optional arguments of the `parsing`, `reinterpreting` and -- `evaluating` modifiers local function load_parse_opts (opts, start_from, isp, psp) local tmp local optslots, noptslots, argc, trimn, trimu, iplain, pplain = { true, true, true }, 3, start_from, true, false, true, true repeat noptslots, tmp = noptslots - 1, opts[argc] if tmp == nil then break end tmp = tmp:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if optslots[1] ~= nil and trim_parse_opts[tmp] ~= nil then tmp = trim_parse_opts[tmp] trimn, trimu, optslots[1] = tmp[1], tmp[2], nil elseif optslots[2] ~= nil and isep_parse_opts[tmp] ~= nil then argc = argc + 1 iplain, isp, optslots[2] = isep_parse_opts[tmp], opts[argc], nil elseif optslots[3] ~= nil and psep_parse_opts[tmp] ~= nil then argc = argc + 1 pplain, psp, optslots[3] = psep_parse_opts[tmp], opts[argc], nil else break end argc = argc + 1 until noptslots < 1 return isp, iplain, psp, pplain, trimn, trimu, argc end -- Map parameters' values using a custom callback and a referenced table local value_maps = { [0] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = fn() end end, [1] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do margs[varg] = val tbl[key] = fn() end end, [2] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key in pairs(tbl) do margs[karg] = key tbl[key] = fn() end end, [3] = function (tbl, margs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do margs[karg], margs[varg] = key, val tbl[key] = fn() end end } -- Private table for `map_names()` local name_thieves = { [0] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end, [1] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do rargs[varg] = val steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end, [2] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do rargs[karg] = key steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end, [3] = function (cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do rargs[karg], rargs[varg] = key, val steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, fn()) end end } -- Map parameters' names using a custom callback and a referenced table local function map_names (tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, fn) local cache = {} name_thieves[looptype](cache, tbl, rargs, karg, varg, fn) for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end -- Return a new table that contains `src` regrouped according to the numeric -- suffixes in its keys local function make_groups (src) -- NOTE: `src` might be the original metatable! local prefix, gid local groups = {} for key, val in pairs(src) do -- `key` must only be a string or a number... if type(key) == 'string' then prefix, gid = key:match'^%s*(.-)%s*(%-?%d*)%s*$' gid = tonumber(gid) or '' else prefix, gid = '', key end if groups[gid] == nil then groups[gid] = {} end if prefix == '0' or prefix:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then prefix = tonumber(prefix) if prefix < 1 then prefix = prefix - 1 end end groups[gid][prefix] = val end return groups end -- Split into parts a string containing the `$#` and `$@` placeholders and -- return the information as a skeleton table, a canvas table and a length local function parse_placeholder_string (target) local idx, s_pos, skel, canvas = 1, 1, {}, {} local e_pos = string.find(target, '%$[@#]', 1, false) while e_pos ~= nil do canvas[idx] = target:sub(s_pos, e_pos - 1) skel[idx + 1] = target:sub(e_pos, e_pos + 1) == '$@' idx = idx + 2 s_pos = e_pos + 2 e_pos = string.find(target, '%$[@#]', s_pos, false) end if (s_pos > target:len()) then idx = idx - 1 else canvas[idx] = target:sub(s_pos) end return skel, canvas, idx end -- Populate a table by parsing a parameter string (heavy lifting for `parsing`, -- `reinterpreting` and `evaluating`) local function parse_parameter_string (tbl, str, isp, ipl, psp, ppl, trn, tru) local key, val, spos1, spos2, pos1, pos2 local pos3, idx, lenplone = 0, 1, #str + 1 if isp == nil or isp == '' then if psp == nil or psp == '' then if tru then tbl[idx] = str:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' else tbl[idx] = str end return idx end spos1, spos2 = str:find(psp, 1, ppl) if spos1 == nil then key = idx if tru then val = str:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' else val = str end idx = idx + 1 else key = get_parameter_name(str:sub(1, spos1 - 1)) val = str:sub(spos2 + 1) if trn then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end end tbl[key] = val return idx end if psp == nil or psp == '' then repeat pos1 = pos3 + 1 pos2, pos3 = str:find(isp, pos1, ipl) val = str:sub(pos1, (pos2 or lenplone) - 1) if tru then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end tbl[idx], idx = val, idx + 1 until pos2 == nil return idx end repeat pos1 = pos3 + 1 pos2, pos3 = str:find(isp, pos1, ipl) val = str:sub(pos1, (pos2 or lenplone) - 1) spos1, spos2 = val:find(psp, 1, ppl) if spos1 == nil then key = idx if tru then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end idx = idx + 1 else key = get_parameter_name(val:sub(1, spos1 - 1)) val = val:sub(spos2 + 1) if trn then val = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end end tbl[key] = val until pos2 == nil return idx end -- Heavy lifting for `snapshotting` and `remembering` local function make_child (ctx, src, whoami) local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if len == nil or len == 0 then local stack = new_substack(ctx) for key, val in pairs(src) do stack[key] = val end return len == nil and 1 or 2 end if len < 0 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: The number of parameters to copy must be an integer greater than zero', 0) end copy_table_maxn(new_substack(ctx), src, len) return 2 end -- Heavy lifting for `setting_by_flushing`, `combining` and `combining_values` local function set_strings_from_substack (ctx, dest, whoami) if ctx.n_children < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: There are no substacks to flush', 0) end local currsnap = ctx.n_children local stack = ctx.children[currsnap] for key, val in pairs(memoryslots) do if stack[key] ~= nil then dest[val] = stack[key] end end ctx.children[currsnap], ctx.n_children = nil, currsnap - 1 end -- Heavy lifting for `combining` and `combining_values` local function combine_parameters (ctx, keyval_fn, whoami) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! This function -- MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts = ctx.pipe if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local argc local tbl, vars = ctx.params, {} local sortfn, varsarg0, do_sort, tmp = load_sort_opt(opts[2]) if varsarg0 == 2 then tmp = opts[3] and opts[3]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end if tmp == 'with_flushed_glue' then varsarg0 = varsarg0 + 1 argc = set_strings_from_opts(vars, opts, varsarg0 + 1) set_strings_from_substack(ctx, vars, whoami) else if tmp == 'without_flushed_glue' then varsarg0 = varsarg0 + 1 end argc = set_strings_from_opts(vars, opts, varsarg0 + 1) end if argc < varsarg0 then error(modulename .. ', ‘' .. whoami .. '’: No setting directive was given', 0) end if next(tbl) == nil then if vars.ifngiven ~= nil then ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1])] = vars.ifngiven } elseif tbl == ctx.oparams then ctx.params = {} end return argc end local cache, len if do_sort then local words cache, words, len, tmp = get_key_list_sorted(tbl, sortfn) for idx = 1, tmp do cache[len + idx] = words[idx] end len = len + tmp else len, cache = 0, {} for key in pairs(tbl) do len = len + 1 cache[len] = key end end local pmap, nss, kvs, pps = {}, 0, vars.pairsep or '', vars.itersep or '' for idx = 1, len do tmp, pmap[nss + 1] = cache[idx], pps pmap[nss + 2] = keyval_fn(tmp, tbl[tmp], kvs) nss = nss + 2 end tmp = vars.oxfordsep or vars.lastsep if tmp ~= nil and nss > 4 then pmap[nss - 1] = tmp elseif nss > 2 and vars.lastsep ~= nil then pmap[nss - 1] = vars.lastsep end pmap[1] = vars.header or '' if vars.footer ~= nil then pmap[nss + 1] = vars.footer end ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1])] = table.concat(pmap) } return argc end -- Concatenate the numeric keys from the table of parameters to the numeric -- keys from the table of options; non-numeric keys from the table of options -- will prevail over colliding non-numeric keys from the table of parameters local function concat_params (ctx) local retval, tbl, nmax = {}, ctx.params, table.maxn(ctx.pipe) if ctx.subset == 1 then -- We need only the sequence for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do retval[key + nmax] = val end else if ctx.subset == -1 then for key in ipairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and key > 0 then retval[key + nmax] = val else retval[key] = val end end end for key, val in pairs(ctx.pipe) do retval[key] = val end return retval end -- Flush the parameters by calling a custom function for each value (after this -- function has been invoked `ctx.params` will be no longer usable) local function flush_params (ctx, fn) local tmp local tbl = ctx.params if ctx.subset == -1 then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = nil end elseif ctx.subset == 1 then if ctx.pins == nil then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do fn(key, val) end return end tmp = {} for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do tmp[key] = val end tbl = tmp end if ctx.pins ~= nil then local marker = ctx.sorttype < 1 and ctx.subset ~= -1 or nil for idx = 1, #ctx.pins do tmp = ctx.pins[idx] if tbl[tmp] ~= nil then fn(tmp, tbl[tmp]) tbl[tmp] = marker end end if ctx.subset == 1 then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do if val ~= true then fn(key, val) end end return end end if ctx.sorttype > 0 then local nums, words, nn, nw = get_key_list_sorted(tbl, natural_sort) if ctx.sorttype == 2 then for idx = 1, nw do fn(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end for idx = 1, nn do fn(nums[idx], tbl[nums[idx]]) end return end for idx = 1, nn do fn(nums[idx], tbl[nums[idx]]) end for idx = 1, nw do fn(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end return end if ctx.subset == -1 or ctx.pins == nil then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do fn(key, val) tbl[key] = nil end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do fn(key, val) end return end for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do if val ~= true then fn(key, val) end tbl[key] = nil end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if val ~= true then fn(key, val) end end end -- Flush the parameters by calling one of two custom functions for each value -- (after this function has been invoked `ctx.params` will be no longer usable) local function mixed_flush_params (ctx, fn_seq, fn_oth) if ctx.subset == 1 then flush_params(ctx, fn_seq) return end if ctx.subset == -1 then flush_params(ctx, fn_oth) return end local tbl = ctx.params if ctx.pins == nil and ctx.sorttype < 1 then for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do fn_seq(key, val) tbl[key] = nil end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do fn_oth(key, val) end return end local tseq = {} for key, val in ipairs(tbl) do tseq[key] = val end if ctx.pins ~= nil then local tmp local marker = ctx.sorttype < 1 or nil for idx = 1, #ctx.pins do tmp = ctx.pins[idx] if tseq[tmp] ~= nil then fn_seq(tmp, tbl[tmp]) tbl[tmp], tseq[tmp] = nil, marker elseif tbl[tmp] ~= nil then fn_oth(tmp, tbl[tmp]) tbl[tmp] = nil end end end if ctx.sorttype > 0 then local nums, words, nn, nw = get_key_list_sorted(tbl, natural_sort) if ctx.sorttype == 2 then for idx = 1, nw do fn_oth(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end end for idx = 1, nn do if tseq[nums[idx]] ~= nil then fn_seq(nums[idx], tseq[nums[idx]]) else fn_oth(nums[idx], tbl[nums[idx]]) end end if ctx.sorttype ~= 2 then for idx = 1, nw do fn_oth(words[idx], tbl[words[idx]]) end end return end for key, val in ipairs(tseq) do if val ~= true then fn_seq(key, val) tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do fn_oth(key, val) end end -- Finalize and return a concatenated list local function finalize_and_return_concatenated_list (ctx, lst, len, modsize) if len > 0 then local tmp = ctx.oxfordsep or ctx.lastsep if tmp ~= nil and len > modsize * 2 then lst[len - modsize + 1] = tmp elseif len > modsize and ctx.lastsep ~= nil then lst[len - modsize + 1] = ctx.lastsep end lst[1] = ctx.header or '' if ctx.footer ~= nil then lst[len + 1] = ctx.footer end ctx.text = table.concat(lst) else ctx.text = ctx.ifngiven or '' end end --- --- --- PUBLIC ENVIRONMENT --- --- ________________________________ --- --- --- --[[ Modifiers ]]-- ------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|sequential|pipe to library.sequential = function (ctx) if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘sequential’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == -1 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘non-sequential’ and ‘sequential’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end if ctx.sorttype > 0 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘all_sorted’ and ‘reassorted’ directives are redundant when followed by ‘sequential’', 0) end ctx.iterfunc, ctx.subset = ipairs, 1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|non-sequential|pipe to library['non-sequential'] = function (ctx) if ctx.subset == -1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘non-sequential’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘sequential’ and ‘non-sequential’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end ctx.iterfunc, ctx.subset = pairs, -1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|all_sorted|pipe to library.all_sorted = function (ctx) if ctx.sorttype == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘all_sorted’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘all_sorted’ directive is redundant after ‘sequential’', 0) end if ctx.sorttype == 2 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘reassorted’ and ‘sequential’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end ctx.sorttype = 1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reassorted|pipe to library.reassorted = function (ctx) if ctx.sorttype == 2 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘reassorted’ directive has been provided more than once', 0) end if ctx.subset == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The ‘reassorted’ directive is redundant after ‘sequential’', 0) end if ctx.sorttype == 1 then error(modulename .. ': The two directives ‘sequential’ and ‘reassorted’ are in contradiction with each other', 0) end ctx.sorttype = 2 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|pinned_until|sentinel|[parameter name 1]|[parameter -- name 2]|...|parameter name N|sentinel|pipe to library.pinned_until = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘pinned_until’: No sentinel was provided', 0) end local tmp, bucket, curr, ncurr local sntl, idx = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$', 2 if ctx.pin_bucket == nil then bucket, curr, ncurr = {}, {}, 0 ctx.pin_bucket, ctx.pins = bucket, curr else bucket, curr, ncurr = ctx.pin_bucket, ctx.pins, ctx.npins end while opts[idx] ~= nil do tmp = opts[idx]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if tmp == sntl then if idx == 2 then error(modulename .. ', ‘pinned_until’: No parameters to pin were provided', 0) end ctx.npins = ncurr + idx - 2 return context_iterate(ctx, idx + 1) end if tmp == '0' or tmp:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then tmp = tonumber(tmp) end if bucket[tmp] then error(modulename .. ', ‘pinned_until’: Duplicate pinned parameter ‘' .. tostring(tmp) .. '’', 0) end curr[ncurr + idx - 1], bucket[tmp], idx = tmp, true, idx + 1 end error(modulename .. ', ‘pinned_until’: Missing sentinel in position #' .. tostring(idx), 0) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|setting|directives|...|pipe to library.setting = function (ctx) local argc = set_strings_from_opts(ctx, ctx.pipe, 1) if argc < 2 then error(modulename .. ', ‘setting’: No directive was given', 0) end return context_iterate(ctx, argc + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|scoring|new parameter name|[container]|pipe to library.scoring = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘scoring’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local tmp local retval, opts = 0, ctx.pipe for _ in pairs(ctx.params) do retval = retval + 1 end if opts[2] ~= nil then tmp = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tmp == 'in_substack' then new_substack(ctx)[get_parameter_name(opts[1])] = tostring(retval) return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end ctx.params[get_parameter_name(opts[1])] = tostring(retval) return context_iterate(ctx, tmp == 'here' and 3 or 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|squeezing|pipe to library.squeezing = function (ctx) local store, indices, tbl, newlen = {}, {}, ctx.params, 0 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then newlen = newlen + 1 indices[newlen], store[key], tbl[key] = key, val, nil end end table.sort(indices) for idx = 1, newlen do tbl[idx] = store[indices[idx]] end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|filling_the_gaps|pipe to library.filling_the_gaps = function (ctx) local newval, tbl, tmp, nmin, nmax, nnums = ctx.pipe[1], ctx.params, {}, 1, nil, -1 if newval == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘filling_the_gaps’: No value was provided', 0) end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then if nmax == nil then if key < nmin then nmin = key end nmax = key elseif key > nmax then nmax = key elseif key < nmin then nmin = key end tmp[key], nnums = val, nnums + 1 end end if nmax ~= nil and nmax - nmin > nnums then ctx.n_available = ctx.n_available + nmin + nnums - nmax if ctx.n_available < 0 then error(modulename .. ', ‘filling_the_gaps’: It is possible to fill at most ' .. tostring(maxfill) .. ' parameters', 0) end for idx = nmin, nmax, 1 do tbl[idx] = newval end for key, val in pairs(tmp) do tbl[key] = val end end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|clearing|pipe to library.clearing = function (ctx) local tbl, numerics = ctx.params, {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key], tbl[key] = val, nil end end for key, val in ipairs(numerics) do tbl[key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|cutting|left cut|right cut|pipe to library.cutting = function (ctx) local lcut = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if lcut == nil or math.floor(lcut) ~= lcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cutting’: Left cut must be an integer number', 0) end local rcut = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if rcut == nil or math.floor(rcut) ~= rcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cutting’: Right cut must be an integer number', 0) end local tbl = ctx.params local len = #tbl if lcut < 0 then lcut = len + lcut end if rcut < 0 then rcut = len + rcut end local tot = lcut + rcut if tot > 0 then local cache = {} if tot >= len then for key in ipairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = nil end tot = len else for idx = len - rcut + 1, len, 1 do tbl[idx] = nil end for idx = 1, lcut, 1 do tbl[idx] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and key > 0 then if key > len then cache[key - tot] = val else cache[key - lcut] = val end tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|cropping|left crop|right crop|pipe to library.cropping = function (ctx) local lcut = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if lcut == nil or math.floor(lcut) ~= lcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cropping’: Left crop must be an integer number', 0) end local rcut = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if rcut == nil or math.floor(rcut) ~= rcut then error(modulename .. ', ‘cropping’: Right crop must be an integer number', 0) end local tbl = ctx.params local nmin, nmax for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then if nmin == nil then nmin, nmax = key, key elseif key > nmax then nmax = key elseif key < nmin then nmin = key end end end if nmin ~= nil then local len = nmax - nmin + 1 if lcut < 0 then lcut = len + lcut end if rcut < 0 then rcut = len + rcut end if lcut + rcut - len > -1 then for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then tbl[key] = nil end end elseif lcut + rcut > 0 then for idx = nmax - rcut + 1, nmax do tbl[idx] = nil end for idx = nmin, nmin + lcut - 1 do tbl[idx] = nil end local lshift = nmin + lcut - 1 if lshift > 0 then for idx = lshift + 1, nmax, 1 do tbl[idx - lshift], tbl[idx] = tbl[idx], nil end end end end return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|purging|start offset|length|pipe to library.purging = function (ctx) local idx = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if idx == nil or math.floor(idx) ~= idx then error(modulename .. ', ‘purging’: Start offset must be an integer number', 0) end local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if len == nil or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘purging’: Length must be an integer number', 0) end local tbl = ctx.params if len < 1 then len = len + table.maxn(tbl) if idx > len then return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end len = len - idx + 1 end ctx.params = copy_table_reduced(tbl, idx, len) return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|backpurging|start offset|length|pipe to library.backpurging = function (ctx) local last = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if last == nil or math.floor(last) ~= last then error(modulename .. ', ‘backpurging’: Start offset must be an integer number', 0) end local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if len == nil or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘backpurging’: Length must be an integer number', 0) end local idx local tbl = ctx.params if len > 0 then idx = last - len + 1 else for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' and (idx == nil or key < idx) then idx = key end end if idx == nil then return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end idx = idx - len if last < idx then return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end len = last - idx + 1 end ctx.params = copy_table_reduced(ctx.params, idx, len) return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|shifting|addend|pipe to library.shifting = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local nshift = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if nshift == nil or nshift == 0 or math.floor(nshift) ~= nshift then error(modulename .. ', ‘shifting’: A non-zero integer number must be provided', 0) end local tbl = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do if type(key) == 'number' then tbl[key + nshift] = val else tbl[key] = val end end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reversing_numeric_names|pipe to library.reversing_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tbl, numerics, nmax = ctx.params, {}, 0 for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key], tbl[key] = val, nil if key > nmax then nmax = key end end end for key, val in pairs(numerics) do tbl[nmax - key + 1] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|pivoting_numeric_names|pipe to --[[ library.pivoting_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params local shift = #tbl + 1 if shift < 2 then return library.reversing_numeric_names(ctx) end local numerics = {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key] = val tbl[key] = nil end end for key, val in pairs(numerics) do tbl[shift - key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mirroring_numeric_names|pipe to --[[ library.mirroring_numeric_names = function (ctx) local nmax, nmin local tbl, numerics = ctx.params, {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then numerics[key] = val tbl[key] = nil if nmax == nil then nmin, nmax = key, key elseif key > nmax then nmax = key elseif key < nmin then nmin = key end end end for key, val in pairs(numerics) do tbl[nmax + nmin - key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|swapping_numeric_names|pipe to --[[ library.swapping_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tmp local tbl, cache, nsize = ctx.params, {}, 0 for key in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then nsize = nsize + 1 cache[nsize] = key end end table.sort(cache) for idx = math.floor(nsize / 2), 1, -1 do tmp = tbl[cache[idx] ] tbl[cache[idx] ] = tbl[cache[nsize - idx + 1] ] tbl[cache[nsize - idx + 1] ] = tmp end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|sorting_sequential_values|[criterion]|pipe to library.sorting_sequential_values = function (ctx) local sortfn if ctx.pipe[1] ~= nil then sortfn = sortfunctions[ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$'] end if sortfn then table.sort(ctx.params, sortfn) else table.sort(ctx.params) end -- i.e. either `false` or `nil` if sortfn == nil then return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|splicing|[add to position]|position|increment| -- [number of elements to write]|...|pipe to library.splicing = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tmp2, argc, pos, refp local opts, tbl = ctx.pipe, ctx.params local tmp1 = opts[1] if tmp1 ~= nil then tmp2 = tonumber(tmp1) if tmp2 == nil or math.floor(tmp2) ~= tmp2 then pos, argc, tmp2 = tonumber(opts[2]), 4, tmp1:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if tmp2 ~= nil then refp = position_references[tmp2] if refp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: ‘' .. tostring(tmp2) .. '’ is not a valid first argument', 0) end else refp = 0 end else pos, argc, refp = tmp2, 3, 0 end else pos, argc, refp = tonumber(opts[2]), 4, 0 end if pos == nil or math.floor(pos) ~= pos then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: The position must be an integer number', 0) end local len = tonumber(opts[argc - 1]) if len == nil or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: The increment must be an integer number', 0) end local insn = tonumber(opts[argc]) if len == 0 and (insn == nil or insn < 1) then error(modulename .. ', ‘splicing’: When the increment is zero the number of elements to write cannot be zero', 0) end if refp == 2 then for _ in ipairs(tbl) do pos = pos + 1 end refp = 0 end tmp1, tmp2 = nil, nil if refp ~= 0 or len ~= 0 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if type(key) == 'number' then if tmp1 == nil then tmp1, tmp2 = key, key elseif key < tmp1 then tmp1 = key elseif key > tmp2 then tmp2 = key end end end end if tmp2 == nil then len = 0 elseif refp == 3 then pos = pos + tmp2 elseif refp == 1 then pos = pos + tmp1 end if len > 0 and pos + len > tmp1 and pos <= tmp2 then tbl = copy_table_expanded(tbl, pos, len) elseif len < 0 and pos - len > tmp1 and pos <= tmp2 then tbl = copy_table_reduced(tbl, pos, -len) else tbl = copy_or_ref_table(tbl, tbl ~= ctx.oparams) end ctx.params = tbl if insn == nil or insn < 0 or math.floor(insn) ~= insn then return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end tmp1 = argc - pos + 1 for key = pos, pos + insn - 1 do tbl[key] = opts[key + tmp1] end return context_iterate(ctx, argc + insn + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|imposing|name|value|pipe to library.imposing = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘imposing’: Missing parameter name to impose', 0) end ctx.params[get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1])] = ctx.pipe[2] return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|providing|name|value|pipe to library.providing = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘providing’: Missing parameter name to provide', 0) end local key = get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1]) if ctx.params[key] == nil then ctx.params[key] = ctx.pipe[2] end return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reassigning|source|destination|[mode]|pipe to library.reassigning = function (ctx) local opts, tbl = ctx.pipe, ctx.params if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘reassigning’: Missing source parameter', 0) end if opts[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘reassigning’: Missing destination parameter', 0) end local mode, argc local src = get_parameter_name(opts[1]) local val = tbl[src] if opts[3] ~= nil then mode = a_modes[opts[3]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$'] end if mode == nil then mode, argc = 0, 3 else argc = 4 end if val == nil and mode > 1 then return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local dest = get_parameter_name(opts[2]) local tmp = tbl[dest] == nil if mode % 2 == 0 or (mode == 7 and tmp) then tbl[src] = nil end if tmp or mode < 4 then tbl[dest] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|discarding|name|[how many]|pipe to library.discarding = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘discarding’: Missing parameter name to discard', 0) end local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[2]) if len == nil then ctx.params[get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[1])] = nil return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end local key = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if key == nil or math.floor(key) ~= key then error(modulename .. ', ‘discarding’: A range was provided, but the initial parameter name is not an integer number', 0) end if len < 1 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘discarding’: A range can only be an integer number greater than zero', 0) end for idx = key, key + len - 1 do ctx.params[idx] = nil end return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|excluding_non-numeric_names|pipe to library['excluding_non-numeric_names'] = function (ctx) local tmp = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tmp) do if type(key) ~= 'number' then tmp[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|excluding_numeric_names|pipe to library.excluding_numeric_names = function (ctx) local tmp = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tmp) do if type(key) == 'number' then tmp[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_name_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]|[or]| -- [target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[or]|[...]|[target N]|[plain flag -- N]|pipe to library.with_name_matching = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tmp, ptn local targets, nptns, argc = load_pattern_args(ctx.pipe, 'with_name_matching') local tbl, newparams = ctx.params, {} for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then tmp = ptn[1] if tmp == '0' or tmp:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then tmp = tonumber(tmp) end newparams[tmp] = tbl[tmp] else for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if tostring(key):find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then newparams[key] = val end end end end ctx.params = newparams return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_name_not_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]| -- [and]|[target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[and]|[...]|[target N]|[plain -- flag N]|pipe to library.with_name_not_matching = function (ctx) local targets, nptns, argc = load_pattern_args(ctx.pipe, 'with_name_not_matching') local tbl = ctx.params if nptns == 1 and targets[1][3] then local tmp = targets[1][1] if tmp == '0' or tmp:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then tbl[tonumber(tmp)] = nil else tbl[tmp] = nil end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local yesmatch, ptn for key in pairs(tbl) do yesmatch = true for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then if tostring(key) ~= ptn[1] then yesmatch = false break end elseif not tostring(key):find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then yesmatch = false break end end if yesmatch then tbl[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_value_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]|[or]| -- [target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[or]|[...]|[target N]|[plain flag -- N]|pipe to library.with_value_matching = function (ctx) local nomatch, ptn local tbl = ctx.params local targets, nptns, argc = load_pattern_args(ctx.pipe, 'with_value_matching') for key, val in pairs(tbl) do nomatch = true for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then if val == ptn[1] then nomatch = false break end elseif val:find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then nomatch = false break end end if nomatch then tbl[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|with_value_not_matching|target 1|[plain flag 1]| -- [and]|[target 2]|[plain flag 2]|[and]|[...]|[target N]|[plain -- flag N]|pipe to library.with_value_not_matching = function (ctx) local yesmatch, ptn local tbl = ctx.params local targets, nptns, argc = load_pattern_args(ctx.pipe, 'with_value_not_matching') for key, val in pairs(tbl) do yesmatch = true for idx = 1, nptns do ptn = targets[idx] if ptn[3] then if val ~= ptn[1] then yesmatch = false break end elseif not val:find(ptn[1], 1, ptn[2]) then yesmatch = false break end end if yesmatch then tbl[key] = nil end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|keeping_at_most|number of parameters to pick|pipe to library.keeping_at_most = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if len == nil or len < 1 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘keeping_at_most’: The number of parameters to keep must be an integer greater than zero', 0) end ctx.params = copy_table_maxn({}, ctx.params, len) return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|trimming_values|pipe to library.trimming_values = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_to_lowercase|pipe to library.mapping_to_lowercase = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:lower() end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_to_uppercase|pipe to library.mapping_to_uppercase = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:upper() end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_calling|template name|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- parameters]|[parameter 1]|[parameter 2]|[...]|[parameter N]|pipe to library.mapping_by_calling = function (ctx) local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end local margs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 1, mapping_styles.values_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = tname, args = margs } value_maps[looptype](tbl, margs, karg, varg, function () return ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_invoking|module name|function name|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.mapping_by_invoking = function (ctx) local mname, fname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: No function name was provided', 0) end local margs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 2, mapping_styles.values_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = margs } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end value_maps[looptype](tbl, margs, karg, varg, function () return tostring(mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model))) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_magic|parser function|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.mapping_by_magic = function (ctx) local magic local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local margs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 1, mapping_styles.values_only, ctx.params) value_maps[looptype](tbl, margs, karg, varg, function () return ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, margs) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_replacing|target|replace|[count]|[plain -- flag]|pipe to library.mapping_by_replacing = function (ctx) local ptn, repl, nmax, flg, argc, die = load_replace_args(ctx.pipe, 'mapping_by_replacing') if die then return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local tbl = ctx.params if flg == 3 then for key, val in pairs(tbl) do if val == ptn then tbl[key] = repl end end else if flg == 2 then -- Copied from Module:String's `str._escapePattern()` ptn = ptn:gsub('[%(%)%.%%%+%-%*%?%[%^%$%]]', '%%%0') end for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = val:gsub(ptn, repl, nmax) end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_by_mixing|mixing string|pipe to library.mapping_by_mixing = function (ctx) if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_mixing’: No mixing string was provided', 0) end local tbl, mix = ctx.params, ctx.pipe[1] if mix == '$#' then for key in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = tostring(key) end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end local skel, cnv, n_parts = parse_placeholder_string(mix) for key, val in pairs(tbl) do for idx = 2, n_parts, 2 do if skel[idx] then cnv[idx] = val else cnv[idx] = tostring(key) end end tbl[key] = table.concat(cnv) end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mapping_to_names|pipe to --[[ library.mapping_to_names = function (ctx) local tbl = ctx.params for key in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = tostring(key) end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_lowercase|pipe to library.renaming_to_lowercase = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do if type(key) == 'string' then cache[key:lower()] = val else cache[key] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_uppercase|pipe to library.renaming_to_uppercase = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do if type(key) == 'string' then cache[key:upper()] = val else cache[key] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_sequence|[sort order]|pipe to library.renaming_to_sequence = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache, len local tbl = ctx.params local sortfn, argc, do_sort = load_sort_opt(ctx.pipe[1]) if do_sort then local words, wl cache, words, len, wl = get_key_list_sorted(tbl, sortfn) for idx = 1, len do cache[idx] = tbl[cache[idx]] end for idx = 1, wl do cache[len + idx] = tbl[words[idx]] end else len, cache = 0, {} for _, val in pairs(tbl) do len = len + 1 cache[len] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_calling|template name|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- parameters]|[parameter 1]|[parameter 2]|[...]|[parameter N]|pipe to library.renaming_by_calling = function (ctx) local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end local rargs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 1, mapping_styles.names_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = tname, args = rargs } map_names(tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, function () return ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_invoking|module name|function -- name|[call style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of -- additional arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument -- N]|pipe to library.renaming_by_invoking = function (ctx) local mname, fname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_invoking’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_invoking’: No function name was provided', 0) end local rargs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 2, mapping_styles.names_only, ctx.params) local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = rargs } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_invoking’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end map_names(tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, function () return tostring(mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model))) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_magic|parser function|[call -- style]|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.renaming_by_magic = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe local magic if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local rargs, argc, looptype, karg, varg, tbl, mem = load_callback_opts(opts, 1, mapping_styles.names_only, ctx.params) map_names(tbl, rargs, karg, varg, looptype, function () return ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, rargs) end) for key, val in pairs(mem) do tbl[key] = val end ctx.params = tbl return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_replacing|target|replace|[count]|[plain -- flag]|pipe to library.renaming_by_replacing = function (ctx) local ptn, repl, nmax, flg, argc, die = load_replace_args(ctx.pipe, 'renaming_by_replacing') if die then return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local tbl = ctx.params if flg == 3 then ptn = get_parameter_name(ptn) local val = tbl[ptn] if val ~= nil then tbl[ptn], tbl[get_parameter_name(repl)] = nil, val end else if flg == 2 then -- Copied from Module:String's `str._escapePattern()` ptn = ptn:gsub('[%(%)%.%%%+%-%*%?%[%^%$%]]', '%%%0') end local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do steal_if_renamed(val, tbl, key, cache, tostring(key):gsub(ptn, repl, nmax)) end for key, val in pairs(cache) do tbl[key] = val end end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_by_mixing|mixing string|pipe to library.renaming_by_mixing = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘renaming_by_mixing’: No mixing string was provided', 0) end local mix = ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' local cache = {} if mix == '$@' then for _, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[get_parameter_name(val)] = val end else local skel, canvas, n_parts = parse_placeholder_string(mix) for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do for idx = 2, n_parts, 2 do if skel[idx] then canvas[idx] = val else canvas[idx] = tostring(key) end end cache[get_parameter_name(table.concat(canvas))] = val end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|renaming_to_values|pipe to --[[ library.renaming_to_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for _, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[val] = val end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|grouping_by_calling|template -- name|[let/use]|[...]|[let/use]|[...]|[number of additional -- arguments]|[argument 1]|[argument 2]|[...]|[argument N]|pipe to library.grouping_by_calling = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tmp, argc, tbl, mem = load_child_opts(ctx.pipe, 2, 0, ctx.params) local gargs = {} for key, val in pairs(tmp) do if type(key) == 'number' and key < 1 then gargs[key - 1] = val else gargs[key] = val end end tmp = ctx.pipe[1] if tmp ~= nil then tmp = tmp:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tmp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘grouping_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tmp } local groups = make_groups(tbl) for gid, group in pairs(groups) do for key, val in pairs(gargs) do group[key] = val end group[0], model.args = gid, group groups[gid] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end for key, val in pairs(mem) do groups[key] = val end ctx.params = groups return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|parsing|string to parse|[trim flag]|[iteration -- delimiter setter]|[...]|[key-value delimiter setter]|[...]|pipe to library.parsing = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘parsing’: No string to parse was provided', 0) end local isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed, argc = load_parse_opts(opts, 2, '|', '=') parse_parameter_string(ctx.params, opts[1], isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed) return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|reinterpreting|parameter to reinterpret|[trim -- flag]|[iteration delimiter setter]|[...]|[key-value delimiter -- setter]|[...]|pipe to library.reinterpreting = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘reinterpreting’: No parameter to reinterpret was provided', 0) end local isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed, argc = load_parse_opts(opts, 2, '|', '=') local tbl, tmp = ctx.params, get_parameter_name(opts[1]) local str = tbl[tmp] if str ~= nil then tbl[tmp] = nil parse_parameter_string(tbl, str, isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed) end return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|evaluating|string to parse|[trim flag]|[iteration -- delimiter setter]|[...]|[key-value delimiter setter]|[...]|pipe to library.evaluating = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘evaluating’: No string to parse was provided', 0) end local isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed, argc = load_parse_opts(opts, 2, '!', ':') if opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' == nil then ctx.pipe = copy_or_ref_table(opts, opts ~= ctx.opipe) return context_iterate(ctx, argc) end local new_opts, cache = {}, {} local shift = parse_parameter_string(cache, opts[1], isep, iplain, psep, pplain, trimnamed, trimunnamed) - argc for key, val in pairs(opts) do if type(key) ~= 'number' or key < 1 then new_opts[key] = val elseif key >= argc then new_opts[key + shift] = val end end for key, val in pairs(cache) do new_opts[key] = val end ctx.pipe = new_opts return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|mixing_names_and_values|mixing string|pipe to library.mixing_names_and_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning if ctx.pipe[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mixing_names_and_values’: No mixing string was provided for parameter names', 0) end if ctx.pipe[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mixing_names_and_values’: No mixing string was provided for parameter values', 0) end local tmp local mix_k = ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' local cache, mix_v = {}, ctx.pipe[2] if mix_k == '$@' and mix_v == '$@' then for _, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[get_parameter_name(val)] = val end elseif mix_k == '$@' and mix_v == '$#' then for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[get_parameter_name(val)] = tostring(key) end elseif mix_k == '$#' and mix_v == '$#' then for key in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[key] = tostring(key) end else local skel_k, cnv_k, n_parts_k = parse_placeholder_string(mix_k) local skel_v, cnv_v, n_parts_v = parse_placeholder_string(mix_v) for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do tmp = tostring(key) for idx = 2, n_parts_k, 2 do if skel_k[idx] then cnv_k[idx] = val else cnv_k[idx] = tmp end end for idx = 2, n_parts_v, 2 do if skel_v[idx] then cnv_v[idx] = val else cnv_v[idx] = tmp end end cache[get_parameter_name(table.concat(cnv_k))] = table.concat(cnv_v) end end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|swapping_names_and_values|pipe to --[[ library.swapping_names_and_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local cache = {} for key, val in pairs(ctx.params) do cache[val] = key end ctx.params = cache return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining|new parameter name|[sort -- order]|[with/without flushed glue]|setting directives|...|pipe to library.combining = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning return context_iterate(ctx, combine_parameters( ctx, function (key, val, kvs) return key .. kvs .. val end, 'combining' ) + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_values|new parameter name|[sort -- order]|[with/without flushed glue]|setting directives|...|pipe to library.combining_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning return context_iterate(ctx, combine_parameters( ctx, function (key, val, kvs) return val end, 'combining_values' ) + 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_by_calling|template name|new parameter -- name|pipe to library.combining_by_calling = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local tname = ctx.pipe[1] if tname ~= nil then tname = tname:match'^%s*(.*%S)' else error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_calling’: No template name was provided', 0) end if ctx.pipe[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_calling’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[2])] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate{ title = tname, args = ctx.params } } return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_by_invoking|module name|function name|new -- parameter name|pipe to library.combining_by_invoking = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local mname = ctx.pipe[1] if mname ~= nil then mname = mname:match'^%s*(.*%S)' else error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_invoking’: No module name was provided', 0) end local fname = ctx.pipe[2] if fname ~= nil then fname = fname:match'^%s*(.*%S)' else error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_invoking’: No function name was provided', 0) end if ctx.pipe[3] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_invoking’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = ctx.params } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘mapping_by_invoking’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[3])] = tostring(mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model))) } return context_iterate(ctx, 4) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|combining_by_magic|parser function|new parameter -- name|pipe to library.combining_by_magic = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! As a modifier, -- this function MUST create a copy of it before returning local magic = ctx.pipe[1] if magic ~= nil then magic = magic:match'^%s*(.*%S)' else error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end if ctx.pipe[2] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘combining_by_magic’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end ctx.params = { [get_parameter_name(ctx.pipe[2])] = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, ctx.params) } return context_iterate(ctx, 3) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|snapshotting|[maximum number]|pipe to library.snapshotting = function (ctx) return context_iterate(ctx, make_child(ctx, ctx.params, 'snapshotting')) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|remembering|[maximum number]|pipe to library.remembering = function (ctx) return context_iterate(ctx, make_child(ctx, ctx.oparams, 'remembering')) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|entering_substack|[new]|pipe to library.entering_substack = function (ctx) local tbl, ncurrparent = ctx.params, ctx.n_parents + 1 if ctx.parents == nil then ctx.parents = { tbl } else ctx.parents[ncurrparent] = tbl end ctx.n_parents = ncurrparent if ctx.pipe[1] ~= nil and ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*new%s*$' then ctx.params = {} return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end local currsnap = ctx.n_children if currsnap > 0 then ctx.params, ctx.children[currsnap], ctx.n_children = ctx.children[currsnap], nil, currsnap - 1 else local newparams = {} for key, val in pairs(tbl) do newparams[key] = val end ctx.params = newparams end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|pulling|parameter name|pipe to library.pulling = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘pulling’: No parameter to pull was provided', 0) end local tmp = ctx.n_parents local parent = tmp < 1 and ctx.oparams or ctx.parents[tmp] tmp = get_parameter_name(opts[1]) if parent[tmp] ~= nil then ctx.params[tmp] = parent[tmp] end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|recalling|parameter name|pipe to library.recalling = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘recalling’: No parameter to recall was provided', 0) end local arg = get_parameter_name(opts[1]) if ctx.oparams[arg] ~= nil then ctx.params[arg] = ctx.oparams[arg] end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|finding|parameter name|pipe to --[[ library.finding = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘finding’: No parameter to find was provided', 0) end local arg = get_parameter_name(opts[1]) local parent for idx = ctx.n_parents, 1, -1 do parent = ctx.parents[idx] if parent[arg] ~= nil then ctx.params[arg] = parent[arg] return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end end if ctx.oparams[arg] ~= nil then ctx.params[arg] = ctx.oparams[arg] end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|picking|number of parameters to pick|pipe to --[[ library.picking = function (ctx) local len = tonumber(ctx.pipe[1]) if len == nil or len < 1 or math.floor(len) ~= len then error(modulename .. ', ‘picking’: The number of parameters to pick must be an integer greater than zero', 0) end if ctx.n_parents < 1 then copy_table_maxn(ctx.params, ctx.oparams, len) else copy_table_maxn(ctx.params, ctx.parents[ctx.n_parents], len) end return context_iterate(ctx, 2) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|detaching_substack|pipe to library.detaching_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘detaching_substack’: No substack has been created', 0) end local parent = ctx.parents[ncurrparent] for key in pairs(ctx.params) do parent[key] = nil end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|dropping_substack|pipe to library.dropping_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘dropping_substack’: No substack has been created', 0) end ctx.params, ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.n_parents = ctx.parents[ncurrparent], nil, ncurrparent - 1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|leaving_substack|pipe to library.leaving_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘leaving_substack’: No substack has been created', 0) end local currsnap = ctx.n_children + 1 if ctx.children == nil then ctx.children = { ctx.params } else ctx.children[currsnap] = ctx.params end ctx.params, ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.n_parents, ctx.n_children = ctx.parents[ncurrparent], nil, ncurrparent - 1, currsnap return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|merging_substack|pipe to library.merging_substack = function (ctx) local ncurrparent = ctx.n_parents if ncurrparent < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘merging_substack’: No substack has been created', 0) end local parent, child = ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.params ctx.params, ctx.parents[ncurrparent], ctx.n_parents = parent, nil, ncurrparent - 1 for key, val in pairs(child) do parent[key] = val end return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|flushing|pipe to library.flushing = function (ctx) if ctx.n_children < 1 then error(modulename .. ', ‘flushing’: There are no substacks to flush', 0) end local parent, currsnap = ctx.params, ctx.n_children for key, val in pairs(ctx.children[currsnap]) do parent[key] = val end ctx.children[currsnap], ctx.n_children = nil, currsnap - 1 return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|setting_by_flushing|pipe to library.setting_by_flushing = function (ctx) set_strings_from_substack(ctx, ctx, 'setting_by_flushing') return context_iterate(ctx, 1) end --[[ Functions ]]-- ----------------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|count library.count = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` and `ctx.params` might be the original metatables! local retval = 0 for _ in ctx.iterfunc(ctx.params) do retval = retval + 1 end if ctx.subset == -1 then retval = retval - #ctx.params end ctx.text = retval return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:args|concat_and_call|template name|[prepend 1]|[prepend 2]| -- [...]|[item n]|[named item 1=value 1]|[...]|[named item n=value -- n]|[...] library.concat_and_call = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_call’: No template name was provided', 0) end remove_numeric_keys(opts, 1, 1) ctx.text = ctx.frame:expandTemplate{ title = tname, args = concat_params(ctx) } return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:args|concat_and_invoke|module name|function name|[prepend -- 1]|[prepend 2]|[...]|[item n]|[named item 1=value 1]|[...]|[named -- item n=value n]|[...] library.concat_and_invoke = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local mname, fname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_invoke’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_invoke’: No function name was provided', 0) end remove_numeric_keys(opts, 1, 2) local mfunc = require('Module:' .. mname)[fname] if mfunc == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_invoke’: The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end ctx.text = mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild{ title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = concat_params(ctx) }) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:args|concat_and_magic|parser function|[prepend 1]|[prepend -- 2]|[...]|[item n]|[named item 1=value 1]|[...]|[named item n= -- value n]|[...] library.concat_and_magic = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.params` might be the original metatable! local magic local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘concat_and_magic’: No parser function was provided', 0) end remove_numeric_keys(opts, 1, 1) ctx.text = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, concat_params(ctx)) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|value_of|parameter name library.value_of = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` and `ctx.params` might be the original metatables! local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘value_of’: No parameter name was provided', 0) end local val local key = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.-)%s*$' if key == '0' or key:find'^%-?[1-9]%d*$' ~= nil then key = tonumber(key) val = ctx.params[key] -- No worries: #ctx.params is unused when the modifier is in -- first position (and therefore `ctx.params` is a metatable) if val ~= nil and ( ctx.subset ~= -1 or key > #ctx.params or key < 1 ) and ( ctx.subset ~= 1 or (key <= #ctx.params and key > 0) ) then ctx.text = (ctx.header or '') .. val .. (ctx.footer or '') else ctx.text = ctx.ifngiven or '' end else val = ctx.params[key] if ctx.subset ~= 1 and val ~= nil then ctx.text = (ctx.header or '') .. val .. (ctx.footer or '') else ctx.text = ctx.ifngiven or '' end end return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|list library.list = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! local ret, nss, kvs, pps = {}, 0, ctx.pairsep or '', ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], ret[nss + 3], ret[nss + 4], nss = pps, key, kvs, val, nss + 4 end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 4) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|list_values library.list_values = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! -- NOTE: `library.coins()` and `library.unique_coins()` rely on us local ret, nss, pps = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], nss = pps, val, nss + 2 end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|list_maybe_with_names library.list_maybe_with_names = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! local ret, nss, kvs, pps = {}, 0, ctx.pairsep or '', ctx.itersep or '' mixed_flush_params( ctx, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], ret[nss + 3], ret[nss + 4], nss = pps, '', '', val, nss + 4 end, function (key, val) ret[nss + 1], ret[nss + 2], ret[nss + 3], ret[nss + 4], nss = pps, key, kvs, val, nss + 4 end ) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 4) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|coins|[first coin = value 1]|[second coin = value -- 2]|[...]|[last coin = value N] --[[ library.coins = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! local opts, tbl = ctx.pipe, ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tbl[key] = opts[get_parameter_name(val)] end return library.list_values(ctx) end ]]-- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|unique_coins|[first coin = value 1]|[second coin = -- value 2]|[...]|[last coin = value N] --[[ library.unique_coins = function (ctx) local tmp local opts, tbl = ctx.pipe, ctx.params for key, val in pairs(tbl) do tmp = get_parameter_name(val) tbl[key], opts[tmp] = opts[tmp], nil end return library.list_values(ctx) end ]] -- Syntax: #invoke:params|for_each|wikitext library.for_each = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` might be the original metatable! local ret, nss, pps, txt = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '', ctx.pipe[1] or '' local skel, cnv, n_parts = parse_placeholder_string(txt) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) for idx = 2, n_parts, 2 do if skel[idx] then cnv[idx] = val else cnv[idx] = tostring(key) end end ret[nss + 1], nss = pps, nss + 2 ret[nss] = table.concat(cnv) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|call_for_each|template name|[append 1]|[append 2]| -- [...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.call_for_each = function (ctx) local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘call_for_each’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tname, args = opts } local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' table.insert(opts, 1, true) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], opts[2], ret[nss + 1], nss = key, val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|invoke_for_each|module name|module function|[append -- 1]|[append 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]| -- [named param n=value n]|[...] library.invoke_for_each = function (ctx) local mname, fname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each’: No function name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = opts } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], opts[2], ret[nss + 1], nss = key, val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model)) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|magic_for_each|parser function|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.magic_for_each = function (ctx) local magic local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘magic_for_each’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' table.insert(opts, 1, true) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], opts[2], ret[nss + 1], nss = key, val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, opts) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|call_for_each_value|template name|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.call_for_each_value = function (ctx) local tname local opts = ctx.pipe if opts[1] ~= nil then tname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘call_for_each_value’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tname, args = opts } local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], ret[nss + 1], nss = val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|invoke_for_each_value|module name|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.invoke_for_each_value = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe local mname, fname if opts[1] ~= nil then mname = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if mname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each_value’: No module name was provided', 0) end if opts[2] ~= nil then fname = opts[2]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘invoke_for_each_value’: No function name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = 'Module:' .. mname, args = opts } local mfunc = require(model.title)[fname] local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' remove_numeric_keys(opts, 1, 1) flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], ret[nss + 1], nss = val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = mfunc(ctx.frame:newChild(model)) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|magic_for_each_value|parser function|[append 1]| -- [append 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named -- param n=value n]|[...] library.magic_for_each_value = function (ctx) local opts = ctx.pipe local magic if opts[1] ~= nil then magic = opts[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if magic == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘magic_for_each_value’: No parser function was provided', 0) end local ret, nss, ccs = {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' flush_params(ctx, function (key, val) opts[1], ret[nss + 1], nss = val, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:callParserFunction(magic, opts) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end -- Syntax: #invoke:params|call_for_each_group|template name|[append 1]|[append -- 2]|[...]|[append n]|[named param 1=value 1]|[...]|[named param -- n=value n]|[...] library.call_for_each_group = function (ctx) -- NOTE: `ctx.pipe` and `ctx.params` might be the original metatables! local tmp if ctx.pipe[1] ~= nil then tmp = ctx.pipe[1]:match'^%s*(.*%S)' end if tmp == nil then error(modulename .. ', ‘call_for_each_group’: No template name was provided', 0) end local model = { title = tmp } local opts, ret, nss, ccs = {}, {}, 0, ctx.itersep or '' for key, val in pairs(ctx.pipe) do if type(key) == 'number' then opts[key - 1] = val else opts[key] = val end end ctx.pipe = opts ctx.params = make_groups(ctx.params) flush_params(ctx, function (gid, group) for key, val in pairs(opts) do group[key] = val end group[0], model.args, ret[nss + 1], nss = gid, group, ccs, nss + 2 ret[nss] = ctx.frame:expandTemplate(model) end) finalize_and_return_concatenated_list(ctx, ret, nss, 2) return false end --[[ First-position-only modifiers ]]-- --------------------------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|new|pipe to static_iface.new = function (child_frame) local ctx = context_new(child_frame) ctx.pipe = copy_or_ref_table(ctx.opipe, false) ctx.params = {} main_loop(ctx, context_iterate(ctx, 1)) return ctx.text end --[[ First-position-only functions ]]-- --------------------------------------- -- Syntax: #invoke:params|self static_iface.self = function (frame) return frame:getParent():getTitle() end --[[ Public metatable of functions ]]-- --------------------------------------- return setmetatable({}, { __index = function (_, query) local fname = query:match'^%s*(.*%S)' if fname == nil then error(modulename .. ': You must specify a function to call', 0) end local func = static_iface[fname] if func ~= nil then return func end func = library[fname] if func == nil then error(modulename .. ': The function ‘' .. fname .. '’ does not exist', 0) end return function (child_frame) local ctx = context_new(child_frame) ctx.pipe = copy_or_ref_table(ctx.opipe, refpipe[fname]) ctx.params = copy_or_ref_table(ctx.oparams, refparams[fname]) main_loop(ctx, func) return ctx.text end end }) jd4jhydnyce3tw9c50qwx3yd53quopx 0 46522 123162 122259 2026-10-08T16:51:36Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 9 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123162 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Chigaŵa cha thupi icho chikukolezgana mutu na thupi}} {{Other uses}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Singo |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Neck.png|frameless]]<div class="infobox-caption">Singo la munthu</div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''cervix; collum'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Medical Subject Headings|MeSH]] | class="infobox-data" |[https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009333 D009333] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Terminologia Anatomica|TA98]] | class="infobox-data" |[https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/01.1.00.012%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm A01.1.00.012] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Terminologia Anatomica|TA2]] | class="infobox-data" |[https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=123 123] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Foundational Model of Anatomy|FMA]] | class="infobox-data" |[https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma7155 7155] |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-below" |[[Anatomical terminology|Mazgu gha kuyowoyera viŵalo vya thupi]] |} '''Singo''' ni chigaŵa cha thupi icho chikukolezgana [[mutu (anatomy)|mutu]] na thupi lose. Mu vinyama vinandi ivyo vili na muwongo, singo njakusangika. Singo yikuchindikizga uzito wa mutu. Yikuvikiliraso misipa iyo yikupeleka mphangano pakati pa [[wongo]] na vigaŵa vinyake vyose vya thupi. Kuwonjezgapo, singo njakuthambalira chomene. Yikovwira mutu kuti uzgoke na kuwoleka mu vigaŵa vyose. Mwakuyana na anatomy, singo ya munthu yikugaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinayi: chigaŵa ca viwangwa, chigaŵa ca viŵalo vya mukati, na vigaŵa viŵiri vya misimbo.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Gray's Anatomy for Students|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_k1q8|last1=Drake|first1=Richard L.|last2=Vogl|first2=Wayne|last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.|last4=Gray|first4=Henry|date=15 November 2015|isbn=978-0-7020-5131-9|edition=3rd|location=Philadelphia|oclc=881508489}}</ref> Mu vigaŵa ivi, mu singo mukusangika [[viwangwa vya singo]], na chigaŵa ca [[muwongo]] icho chikuŵa mu singo. Mukusangikaso magaŵa gha kuchanya gha [[mzia wakuthuta mvuchi|mzia wakuthuta mvuchi]] na [[mzia wakugaya chakurya|mzia wakugaya chakurya]], viŵaya, misipa, misimbo yakufuma na misimbo yakuwelera. Minofu ya singo, iyo njakupatuka na vigaŵa ivi, njakupanga malire gha vigaŵa vya makona ghatatu vya singo.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse_h3w0|isbn=978-0-7020-5230-9|edition=41st|location=Philadelphia|oclc=920806541|last1=Standring|first1=Susan|year=2016}}</ref> Mu anatomy, singo yikuchemekaso kuti ''[[Latin|cervix]]'' panji ''collum''. Kweni apo lizgu ''cervix'' likugwiliskikira ntchito lyekha, kanandi likung'anamura [[cervix|mlomo wa nthumbo]]. Ntheura, lizgu ''cervical'' lingang'anamura singo. Ciyelezgero, likugwiliskikira mu ''viwangwa vya singo'' panji ''tulundu twa maji gha m'thupi twa m'singo''. Panji lingang'anamura mlomo wa nthumbo, nga umo likugwiliskikira mu ''chivikiliro cha nthumbo'' panji ''khansa ya mlomo wa nthumbo''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Whitmore|first=Ian|date=1999|title=Terminologia Anatomica: New terminology for the new anatomist|journal=The Anatomical Record|language=en|volume=257|issue=2|pages=50–53|doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-0185(19990415)257:2<50::aid-ar4>3.0.co;2-w|pmid=10321431|issn=1097-0185|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==Muundo== [[File:Musculi coli base.svg|thumbnail|[[Minofu]] mu singo la munthu]] ===Vigaŵa=== Vinthu vya mu singo vikugaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinayi:<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/neck-anatomy|title=Neck anatomy|website=Kenhub|language=en|access-date=2019-09-26}}</ref> * '''Chigaŵa ca viwangwa''' chili na [[viwangwa vya singo]], na [[chiwangwa chipepu|viwangwa vipepu]] pakati pa chiwangwa chilichose. Umo viwangwa ivi vyanozgeka ndiwo wukupanga umoyo wa singo.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Frietson|last1=Galis|year=1999|title=Why do almost all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae? Developmental constraints, Hox genes and Cancer|url=http://wwworm.biology.uh.edu/evodevo/lecture11/galis99.pdf|journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology|volume=285|issue=1|pages=19–26|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(19990415)285:1<19::AID-JEZ3>3.0.CO;2-Z|pmid=10327647|bibcode=1999JEZ...285...19G|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041110200159/http://wwworm.biology.uh.edu/evodevo/lecture11/galis99.pdf|archive-date=2004-11-10}}</ref> Viwangwa ivi vikuzingilira mzia wa muwongo. Ntheura, chigaŵa ca muwongo icho chikuŵa mu singo nacho chikusangika mwenemumo. * '''Chigaŵa ca viŵalo vya mukati''' chili na [[chigoromiro cha mvuchi]], [[chiŵiya cha mazgu]], [[chigoromiro]], [[chiŵaya cha pa singo]], na viŵaya vichoko vya pafupi navyo. * '''Chigaŵa ca misimbo''' chili chiŵiri, ndipo chili na masakosi ghaŵiri gha musimbo agho ghakusangika mbali zoseŵiri za chigoromiro cha mvuchi. Sakosi lililose lili na musipa wa [[Vagus]], musimbo wakufuma ukuru wa carotid, na musimbo wakuwelera wa mukati wa jugular. Kupatulira pa vinthu ivi, mu singo mukusangikaso [[tulundu twa maji gha m'thupi]] twa m'singo ivyo vikuzingilira misimbo.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|last1=Moore|first1=Keith L.|last2=Dalley|first2=Arthur F.|last3=Agur|first3=A. M. R.|isbn=978-1-4511-1945-9|edition=7th|location=Philadelphia|oclc=813301028|date=2013-02-13}}</ref> ===Minofu na vigaŵa vya makona ghatatu=== '''Minofu ya singo''' yikukolelezgeka ku [[chigaza]], ku [[chiwangwa cha Hyoid|chiwangwa cha hyoid]], ku [[viwangwa vya chiŵegha]], na ku [[chiwangwa cha chifuwa]]. Njakupanga vigaŵa viŵiri vikuru vya makona ghatatu vya singo. Vigaŵa ivi ni ca kunthazi na ca kunyuma.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kikuta|first1=Shogo|last2=Iwanaga|first2=Joe|last3=Kusukawa|first3=Jingo|last4=Tubbs|first4=R. Shane|date=30 June 2019|title=Triangles of the neck: a review with clinical/surgical applications|journal=Anatomy & Cell Biology|volume=52|issue=2|pages=120–127|doi=10.5115/acb.2019.52.2.120|issn=2093-3665|pmc=6624334|pmid=31338227}}</ref> '''Chigaŵa ca kunthazi ca makona ghatatu''' chikupimikika na mphapo ya kunthazi ya [[Minofu ya sternocleidomastoid|mnofu wa sternocleidomastoid]], mphapo ya pasi ya mhlati, na mzere wa pakati pa singo. Muli minofu iyi: stylohyoid, digastric, mylohyoid, geniohyoid, omohyoid, sternohyoid, thyrohyoid na sternothyroid. Minofu iyi yikupatulikana mu viŵiri: minofu ya pachanya pa hyoid (suprahyoid: stylohyoid, digastric, mylohyoid, geniohyoid) na minofu ya pasi pa hyoid (infrahyoid: omohyoid, sternohyoid, thyrohyoid, sternothyroid). Kupatulikana uku nkhwakuyana na usange yili pachanya panji pasi pa chiwangwa ca hyoid. Minofu ya pachanya pa hyoid yikukweza chiwangwa ca hyoid. Minofu ya pasi pa hyoid yikuchiseleska. Zikagwira ntchito pamoza, minofu izi zikovwira munthu kuyowoya na kumira chakurya.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> '''Chigaŵa ca kunyuma ca makona ghatatu''' chikupimikika na mphapo ya kunyuma ya mnofu wa sternocleidomastoid, mphapo ya kunthazi ya [[mnofu wa pachanya pa msana|mnofu wa pachanya pa msana]], na mphapo ya pachanya ya chigaŵa cha pakati ca chiwangwa ca chiŵegha. Mu chigaŵa ici muli minofu iyi: sternocleidomastoid, mnofu wa pachanya pa msana, splenius capitis, levator scapulae, omohyoid, na minofu ya scalene ya kunthazi, ya pakati, na ya kunyuma.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> ===Kupeleka misipa=== Kupulika kwa vigaŵa vya kunthazi kwa singo kukufuma ku misinjizi ya misipa ya C2 mpaka C4. Kupulika kwa chigaŵa ca kunyuma kwa singo nakho kukufuma ku misinjizi ya C4 mpaka C5.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Clinical Examination|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalexaminat0000tall_u2r6|last=Talley|first=Nicholas|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|year=2014|isbn=978-0-7295-4198-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalexaminat0000tall_u2r6/page/416 416]}}</ref> Kuwonjezgapo pa misipa iyo yikufuma na kusangika mu muwongo, musipa wakovwira na musipa wa Vagus vikwendaso pasi mu singo.<ref name=":0" /> ===Kwenda kwa ndopa na misimbo yikuru=== Misimbo yikuru iyo yikwenda mu singo ndiyo nthowa yikuru yakupeleka ndopa zakuŵa na okosijeni ku mutu, na kuwezga ndopa za mu mutu.<br> Misimbo yikuru iyo yikupeleka ndopa zakuŵa na okosijeni ku mutu na singo ni izi: musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa kuwalo, musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa mukati, misimbo yakufuma ya Vertebral, na misimbo ya Thyrocervical.<br> Misimbo ya carotid na Vertebral yikupeleka comene ndopa ku mutu. Apo misimbo yichoko yinandi ya Thyrocervical yikupeleka ndopa ku vinthu vya mu singo.<ref name="kenhub1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/neurovasculature-of-head-neck|title=Neurovasculature of the head and neck|first=Adrian Rad|last=Dimitrios Mytilinaios|publisher=Kenhub|access-date=30 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Saladin|first1=Kenneth S.|title=Human anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomy0000sala_v6k1|date=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=9780071222075|page=[https://archive.org/details/humananatomy0000sala_v6k1/page/576 576]|edition=3rd}}</ref> Musimbo wakufuma wa Subclavian ndiwo ukupambika musimbo wakufuma wa Vertebral na Thyrocervical. Iwo wakupeleka ndopa ku cerebrum, cerebellum, chigaŵa ca kunyuma ca singo, mawoko, na chifuŵa ca kunthazi na kuchanya. Musimbo wa Thyrocervical ukupeleka comene ndopa ku vinthu vya kunthazi kwa singo, ku chiŵaya cha pa singo, na ku minofu ya mwenemumo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://radiopaedia.org/articles/subclavian-artery?lang=us|title=Subclavian artery|publisher=Radiopedia|access-date=13 October 2025}}</ref> '''Musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa kuwalo''' ukupambika ku musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa pakati. Uwu ni umoza wa misimbo yiŵiri yikuru, iyo yikufuma ku aortic arch mumphepete mwakumazgoji na ku brachiocephalic trunk mumphepete mwakumalyerero.<br> Kupatulikana kwa Carotid kukuchitika pa chigaŵa ca thyroid cartilage mu chiŵiya ca mazgu. Musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa kuwalo ndiwo wekha, pakati pa vigaŵa vya musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa pakati, uwo ukupeleka mphapo ku singo. Ukupelekaso ndopa ku viŵalo vyakuwalo vya mutu na chisko.<br> Musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa kuwalo uli na mphapo zinkhonde: superior thyroid, ascending pharyngeal, lingual, facial, occipital, posterior auricular, maxillary na superficial temporal. Izi ziŵiri zaumaliro ndizo mphapo zaumaliro za Carotid wa kuwalo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/the-external-carotid-artery-and-its-branches|title=External carotid artery and its branches|first=Alexandra Sieroslawska|last=Sophie Stewart|publisher=Kenhub|access-date=10 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="GRAYS1">{{Cite book|first1=Robert Howden|last1=Henry Gray|last2=Arthur John Jex-Blake|last3=W. Fedde Fedden|title=Anatomy of the Human Body|url=https://archive.org/details/101532328.nlm.nih.gov|issue=XX|date=1918|publisher=Lea & Febiger|page=[https://archive.org/details/101532328.nlm.nih.gov/page/500 500]–518}}</ref> [[File:External carotid artery.png|280px|thumb|centre|Mphapo zinkhonde za musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa kuwalo]] [[File:Blausen 0170 CarotidArteries.png|260px|thumb|right|Musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa pakati na mphapo zake, izo zikupeleka ndopa ku mutu na ku chisko]] '''Musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa mukati''' ndiwo mphapo yaciŵiri ya Carotid wa pakati. Ukupeleka comene ndopa ku chigaŵa ca kunthazi ca wongo, ku jiso na viŵalo vyake.<ref name="pmid21452447">{{cite journal|author=Kiel JW|title=The Ocular Circulation|journal=Integrated Systems Physiology: From Molecule to Function to Disease|year=2010|volume=3|pages=1–81|pmid=21452447|doi=10.4199/C00024ED1V01Y201012ISP012|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53329/}}</ref> Ukwamba pa kupatukana kwa Carotid wa pakati (kanandi pa mphapo ya kuchanya ya thyroid cartilage, pafupi na viwangwa vya singo C3–C4). Kufuma apo ukukwera mpaka pasi pa chigaza.<ref name="pubmed">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556061/|title=Anatomy, Head and Neck: Internal Carotid Arteries|author=Matthew Charlick; Joe M. Das.|publisher=StatPearls; (NIH)|access-date=July 24, 2023}}</ref> Nthowa ya musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid wa mukati yingapatulikana mu vigaŵa vinayi:<ref name="GRAYS1"/> I. ''Chigaŵa ca m'singo (Pars cervicalis)''; Nthowa: Yikufuma ku kupatukana kwa Carotid mpaka pa mulyango wa mzia wa carotid mu chiwangwa ca petrous. Uku ukusangika mu sakosi la musimbo pamoza na musimbo wakuwelera wa mukati wa jugular na musipa wa Vagus. Chigaŵa ici mchibula mphapo.<ref name="GRAYS1"/> II. ''Chigaŵa ca petrous (Pars petrosa)''; Nthowa: Ukunjira mu mzia wa carotid mu chiwangwa ca temporal. Ukukwera pacoko, kwenekuko ukuzingilira kwakunthazi na kwapakati. Ukufuma mu mzia pafupi na foramen lacerum kunjira mu mutu. Mphapo: caroticotympanic, na mphapo ya mzia wa pterygoid (Vidian artery), iyo yikusangika waka pa nyengo zinyake.<ref name="GRAYS1"/> III. ''Chigaŵa ca cavernous (Pars cavernosa)''; Nthowa: Ukwenda kunthazi mukati mwa cavernous sinus mumphepete mwa chiwangwa ca sphenoid. Ukupanga cizungezi ca S (carotid siphon). Mphapo: mphapo za cavernous zikupeleka ndopa ku trigeminal ganglion na malire gha sinus; mphapo za hypophyseal zikupeleka ndopa ku chiŵaya ca pituitary; mphapo ya anterior meningeal yikupeleka ndopa ku dura mater ya chigaŵa ca kunthazi ca chigaza.<ref name="GRAYS1"/> IV. ''Chigaŵa ca cerebral (Pars cerebralis)''; Nthowa: Ukufuma mu cavernous sinus. Ukujumphamo pakati pa misipa ya optic na oculomotor. Ndipo ukunjira mu malo agho wongo ukusangika. Mphapo zikuru: musimbo wa Ophthalmic; musimbo wa Posterior communicating, uwo ukukumana na musimbo wa cerebral wa kunyuma kupanga Circle of Willis; musimbo wa Anterior choroidal; na misimbo ya Anterior cerebral na Middle cerebral, iyo ndiyo mphapo zaumaliro zikuru izo zikupeleka ndopa ku hemispheres za wongo.<ref name="pubmed"/><ref name="GRAYS1"/> [[File:Vertebral artery.png|260px|thumb|right|Misimbo ya singo, uwo wa Vertebral ukufuma ku misimbo wa Subclavian na kukumana kupanga musimbo wa Basilar]] '''Misimbo yakufuma ya Vertebral''' ndiyo misimbo yikuru iyo yikufuma ku musimbo wakufuma wa Subclavian. Pamoza na musimbo wa Basilar (nga mphapo yikuru), misimbo yiŵiri ya Vertebral yikupanga vertebrobasilar system. Iyi yikupeleka ndopa ku mzia wa muwongo wa kuchanya, brainstem, cerebellum, na chigaŵa ca kunyuma ca wongo.<ref name="GRAYS2">{{cite book|title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse_c5d4|first1=Susan|last1=Standing|first2=Neil R.|last2=Borely|first3=Patricia|last3=Collins|first4=Alan R.|last4=Crossman|first5=Michael A.|last5=Gatzoulis|display-authors=etal|date=2008|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|isbn=978-0-8089-2371-8|edition=40th|location=London}}</ref> Musimbo wa Vertebral ungapatulikana mu vigaŵa vinayi: * Chigaŵa cakwamba (preforaminal) chikukwera pakati pa mnofu wa scalene wa kunthazi na mnofu wa longus colli. Kunthazi kwake muli musimbo wakuwelera wa jugular wa mukati na musimbo wakuwelera wa Vertebral. Kunyuma kwake muli phapa la kuchanya la chiwangwa ca 7 ca singo pamoza na sympathetic trunk.<ref name="GRAYS1"/><ref name="ippolito">Nunziante Ippolito: Anatomical Studies on the Root of the Neck</ref> * Chigaŵa caciŵiri (foraminal) chikukwera mukati mwa maenje gha viwangwa vya singo kufuma pa C6 mpaka C2. Chili pakuzingilizgeka na mphapo za sympathetic ganglion na misimbo yakuwelera iyo yikukolerana kupanga musimbo wakuwelera wa Vertebral pasi pa singo.<ref name="GRAYS1"/> * Chigaŵa cacitatu (extradural panji atlantic) chikufuma pa foramen ya C2. Chikupatulikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: cakukwera kwakunyanya, na cakuzingilira. Cigaŵa cakuzingilira ndico chikujumphira kunyuma kwa mphapo ya kuchanya ya atlas kunjira mu mzia wa muwongo pasi pa membrane ya atlanto-occipital ya kunyuma.<ref name="GRAYS1"/><ref name="GRAYS2"/> * Chigaŵa cacinayi (intradural panji intracranial) chikujumpha mu dura mater na kwenda kunthazi kwa medulla oblongata. Pa mzere wapakati, chikukolerana na musimbo wa mphepete linyake kupanga musimbo wa Basilar.<ref name="GRAYS1"/> [[File:Thyrocervical trunk.png|250px|thumb|right|Misimbo ya Vertebral, ya Carotid na ya Subclavian, pamoza na musimbo wa Thyrocervical]] '''Misimbo ya Thyrocervical''' ni misimbo yichoko yinandi ya singo. Yikufuma ku misimbo wakufuma wa Subclavian, mumphepete mwa misimbo ya Vertebral. Musimbo uwu ukupatulikanaso mu: musimbo wa Inferior thyroid, musimbo wa Suprascapular, na musimbo wa Transverse cervical. Izi zikupeleka ndopa ku vinthu vya kunthazi kwa singo, ku minofu ya m'singo na ya phampa, na ku chiŵaya ca pa singo.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saladin|first1=Kenneth S.|title=Human anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomy0000sala_v6k1|date=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=9780071222075|page=[https://archive.org/details/humananatomy0000sala_v6k1/page/576 576]|edition=3rd}}</ref><ref name="GRAYS1"/> Musimbo wa Transverse cervical ukusangika pa vibalo viŵiri pa vitatu vyakuwerengeka. Pa cimoza pa vitatu, musimbo wa Superficial cervical na musimbo wa Dorsal scapular ndivyo vikufuma pa musimbo wa Transverse cervical.<ref name="Standring3">{{cite book|last1=Standring|first1=Susan|title=Gray's anatomy: the anatomical basis of clinical practice. Digital version|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse_h3w0|date=2016|publisher=Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, Pa.|isbn=9780702052309|page=[https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse_h3w0/page/877 877]|edition=41st.}}</ref> Musimbo wa Suprascapular na wa Transverse cervical vyose vikwenda kummbali na kujumphira kunthazi kwa mnofu wa scalene wa kunthazi na musipa wa phrenic. Musimbo wa Inferior thyroid ukukwera kufuma ku Thyrocervical mpaka pasi pa chiŵaya ca pa singo. Muli kusiyana kukuru mu umo misimbo iyi yikufumira.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Haas|first1=Franz|title=Flaps and Reconstructive Surgery – Section Two|url=https://archive.org/details/flapsreconstruct0000unse|last2=Weiglein|first2=Andreas|publisher=Saunders|year=2009|isbn=978-0-7216-0519-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/flapsreconstruct0000unse/page/249 249]–269|chapter=21 – Trapezius flap}}</ref> ===Kalembelo ka pachanya=== [[File:Ahhhhhhh.jpg|thumb|Kapiri ka pa singo, kakuwoneka pa mphepete]] [[File:Neck - Tiger.jpg|thumb|right|Kusuka kwa nkhungu ya singo chifukwa cha dazi, uzito ukuru, panji ukalamba]] Thyroid cartilage ya chiŵiya ca mazgu njakupanga vundwe pa mzere wapakati wa singo. Vundwe ili likuchemeka '''kapiri ka pa singo'''. Kanandi kapiri aka nkakuwoneka comene kwa ŵanarumi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324146.php|title=Adam's apple: What it is, what it does, and removal|website=Medical News Today|date=10 January 2019|access-date=2019-09-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/advancedanatomy1sted/chapter/surface-anatomy/|title=Surface Anatomy – Advanced Anatomy 2nd. Ed.|website=pressbooks.bccampus.ca|date=May 2018|access-date=2019-09-26|first1=Phed 301|last1=Students}}</ref> Pasi pa kapiri aka pali cricoid cartilage. Chigoromiro cha mvuchi chikuwoneka pa mzere wapakati, kufuma pa cricoid cartilage mpaka pa suprasternal notch. Kufuma mumphepete, mnofu wa sternomastoid ndiwo ukujumbikizga kuwoneka comene. Ukupatula chigaŵa ca kunthazi na ca kunyuma ca makona ghatatu. Chigaŵa cakuchanya ca chigaŵa ca kunthazi ca makona ghatatu chili na viŵaya vya submandibular, izo zili pasi pa cigaŵa ca kunyuma ca mhlati. Mzere wa musimbo wakufuma wa Carotid ukumanyikwa na kukolezga malo agho chiwangwa ca chiŵegha chikukumana na chiwangwa ca chifuwa. Mzere uwu ukuluta mpaka pa nkhomo ya mhlati. Nkhungu za singo zingawoneka pa nyengo yiliyose ya uzengwa. Ciyelezgero, chifukwa ca dazi panji ca ukalamba, apo nkhungu yikutaya luŵiro lwake na kusuka. Musipa wa 11 wa mutu, panji musipa wa spinal accessory, ukwenda pa mzere wakufuma pakati pa nkhomo ya mhlati na mastoid process mpaka pakati pa mphapo ya kunyuma ya mnofu wa sternomastoid. Kufuma apo ukujumphira mu chigaŵa ca kunyuma ca makona ghatatu mpaka mkati mwa mnofu wa pachanya pa msana. Musimbo wakuwelera wa jugular wa kuwalo ukuwoneka pachanya pa nkhungu. Ukwenda mu mzere kufuma pa nkhomo ya mhlati mpaka pakati pa chiwangwa ca chiŵegha. Pafupi nawo pali tulundu tuchoko twa maji gha m'thupi. Musimbo wakuwelera wa jugular wa kunthazi ni ncoko. Ukwenda pasi pafupi na cizoŵezi ca inchi imoza kufuma pa mzere wapakati wa singo. Chiwangwa ca chiŵegha ndico chikupimikira malire gha pasi gha singo. Mumphepete, kuselera kwa singo kuya ku phampa nkovwira na mnofu wa pachanya pa msana. ==Kupwetekwa== {{main|Kupwetekwa kwa singo}} Vilwelo vya singo ndivyo nkhongono yikuru ya kupwetekwa. Singo yili na ntchito zinandi. Kweni yikuvikilirikaso na masuzgo ghanandi. Vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka comene kuti vikupangiska kupwetekwa kwa singo ni ivi. Masuzgo ghanyake ghakolerana nagho, nga umo kupwetekwa kukwenda pasi mu woko.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Genebra|first1=Caio Vitor Dos Santos|last2=Maciel|first2=Nicoly Machado|last3=Bento|first3=Thiago Paulo Frascareli|last4=Simeão|first4=Sandra Fiorelli Almeida Penteado|last5=Vitta|first5=Alberto De|date=2017|title=Prevalence and factors associated with neck pain: a population-based study|journal=Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy|volume=21|issue=4|pages=274–280|doi=10.1016/j.bjpt.2017.05.005|issn=1413-3555|pmc=5537482|pmid=28602744}}</ref> * Kulemazgika kwa singo chifukwa ca kuzunguzika mwaluŵiro, kununkha kwa mnofu, panji kulemara kunyake kwa nyama yakupepuka * Kusuka pa malo pake kwa chiwangwa chipepu chapakati pa viwangwa vya singo * Kufinyirika kwa mzia wa muwongo mu singo * Nthenda ya nkhumano na viwangwa iyo yikwiza na ukalamba * Vyakupangiska kupwetekwa vyakolerana na misimbo, nga umo kupasuka kwa musimbo wakufuma panji kukhoma kwa ndopa mu musimbo wakuwelera wa jugular wa mukati * Kutupa kwa viŵaya vya pa singo ==Uzghali wa singo== Uzghali ukuru wa singo wakolerana na masuzgo gha mtima na ndopa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ataie-Jafari|first1=Asal|last2=Namazi|first2=Nazli|last3=Djalalinia|first3=Shirin|display-authors=etal|date=2018|title=Neck circumference and its association with cardiometabolic risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome|volume=10|article-number=72|doi=10.1186/s13098-018-0373-y|issn=1758-5996|pmc=6162928|pmid=30288175|doi-access=free}}</ref> Kukola mafuta comene kuchanya kwa thupi nkwakofya comene kuluska kukola mafuta kupasi kwa thupi. Ici nkhwakolerana na nthenda nga umo ni shuga wa mtundu wachiŵiri panji ntenda ya mtima yakolerana na misimbo yakupwetekwa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Karpe|first1=Fredrik|last2=Pinnick|first2=Katherine E.|date=February 2015|title=Biology of upper-body and lower-body adipose tissue|journal=Nature Reviews Endocrinology|volume=11|issue=2|pages=90–100|doi=10.1038/nrendo.2014.185|pmid=25365922|issn=1759-5029}}</ref> Uzghali wa singo wakolerananso na kovwirika kupumula na cakovwira kupumula mu ŵalwari ŵa COVID-19. Ŵalwari aŵa ŵakuŵa na ntchindi yakwenderera na 26% kwa santimita yiliyose iyo singo yikukurapo.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Di Bella|first1=Stefano|last2=Cesareo|first2=Roberto|last3=De Cristofaro|first3=Paolo|display-authors=etal|date=January 2021|title=Neck circumference as reliable predictor of mechanical ventilation support in adult inpatients with COVID-19|journal=Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews|volume=37|issue=1|article-number=e3354|doi=10.1002/dmrr.3354|issn=1520-7560|pmc=7300447|pmid=32484298}}</ref> Kuwonjezgapo, ŵalwari ŵa COVID-19 awo ŵakaŵa na singo yikuru comene pakunjira ku cipatala ŵakaŵa na ntchindi yakwenderera kwakuŵirapo kuwiri kufwa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Di Bella|first1=Stefano|last2=Zerbato|first2=Verena|last3=Sanson|first3=Gianfranco|display-authors=etal|date=December 2021|title=Neck Circumference Predicts Mortality in Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients|journal=Infectious Disease Reports|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1053–1060|doi=10.3390/idr13040096|pmid=34940406|pmc=8700782|doi-access=free}}</ref> Uzghali wa singo ukupambanamo pakati pa ŵanarumi na ŵanakazi. Ici nchifukwa ca kusiyana kwa umo thupi lanozgeka, unandi wa minofu, na mahomoni. Kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi, ŵanarumi ŵali na singo yikuru kuluska ŵanakazi. Ŵanarumi ŵali na uzghali wa mainchi 15.2 (masentimita 38.7). Ŵanakazi ŵali na mainchi 13.1 (masentimita 33.3). Kusiyana uku nkwakolerana comene na umo thupi lanozgeka. Pakuti ŵanarumi ŵali na unandi wa minofu na muyeso wa kulemera kwa thupi ukuru kuluska ŵanakazi. Mahomoni ghakusiyana nagho ghalikoso na nkongono. Pakuti testosterone, iyo yili yinandi comene mwa ŵanarumi, yikovwira kukura kwa minofu, kwenderako na kwa singo. ==Vinyama== [[File:Giraffe Mikumi National Park.jpg|thumb|Singo litali ndilo cimanyikwiro cikuru ca [[thutuwa]].]] Singo likuwoneka pakati pa vibenene vyakwamba comene vya tetrapod. Ntchito iyo likupeleka njiyo yayambiska kuti likhalirepo mu vinyama vyose vyakuthaka. Likhaliraposo mu tetrapod izo zanozgeka kukhala mu nyanja nga ni kamba, seal, na penguin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Qvarnström|first1=Martin|last2=Szrek|first2=Piotr|last3=Ahlberg|first3=Per E.|last4=Niedźwiedzki|first4=Grzegorz|date=2018-01-18|title=Non-marine palaeoenvironment associated to the earliest tetrapod tracks|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|issue=1|page=1074|doi=10.1038/s41598-018-19220-5|doi-access=free|issn=2045-2322|pmc=5773519|pmid=29348562}}</ref> Kuthambalira kunyake kukukhalirapo nanga umoyo wakuwoneka pachanya wataika luŵiro, nga umo viliri mwa whale na porpoise.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mikkelsson|first1=L O|last2=Nupponen|first2=H|last3=Kaprio|first3=J|display-authors=etal|date=January 23, 2006|title=Adolescent flexibility, endurance strength, and physical activity as predictors of adult tension neck, low back pain, and knee injury|journal=British Journal of Sports Medicine|volume=40|issue=2|pages=107–113|doi=10.1136/bjsm.2004.017350|issn=0306-3674|pmc=2492014|pmid=16431995}}</ref> Singo lakugwira ntchito mwakwenderera likusangikaso mu tuyuni twa vibawo. Kusoŵeka kwake mu somba na mu vibawo vyakunyanya nkwakukumaska maso. Pakuti vinandi mwa iyo vili na umoyo wakuyana na wa vinyama vyakuthaka panji tetrapod. Panji vingakhumbikwira na kuthambalira uku.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mathison|first1=Blaine A.|last2=Pritt|first2=Bobbi S.|date=January 1, 2014|title=Laboratory Identification of Arthropod Ectoparasites|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=27|issue=1|pages=48–67|doi=10.1128/CMR.00008-13|issn=0893-8512|pmc=3910909|pmid=24396136}}</ref> Lizgu "singo" nyengo zinyake likugwiliskikira kuyowoyera chigaŵa ico chili kunyuma kwa mutu mwa nkhono zinyake na tuŵangwa tinyake twa gastropod. Nangauli kulije kupambanamo pakuwonekera pakati pa cigaŵa ici, cigaŵa ca mutu, na chigaŵa cinyake cha thupi.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Roesch|first1=Zachary K.|last2=Tadi|first2=Prasanna|title=Anatomy, Head and Neck, Neck|date=2022|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542313/|work=StatPearls|place=Treasure Island (FL)|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=31194453|access-date=2022-11-24}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== * [[Nyuma ya singo]] * [[Vyakuvwara pa singo]] * [[Chigoromiro]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{reflist}} ==Viwoto vyakwenda navyo== * [http://www.ahns.info/ American Head and Neck Society] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070709115040/http://www.anatomywiz.com/ The Anatomy Wiz] – Buku la anatomy lakuwoneka pa intaneti, lakupatulikana mwakuyana na vigaŵa vya thupi [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] d0tfjwikw4p8wytugqomfvid2d0mc1u 0 46523 123159 122250 2026-10-08T16:40:41Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123159 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Chigaŵa ca mutu wa chamoyo}} {{About|mitu mwakuyana ni chomene|mutu wa munthu|Mutu wa munthu|kagwiliskiro kanyake}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Mutu |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Portrait of a Meerkat.jpg|frameless]]<div class="infobox-caption">Mutu wa [[meerkat]]</div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''caput'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Greek language|Chigiriki]] | class="infobox-data" |κεφαλή (kephalḗ) |} '''Mutu''' ni chigaŵa ca [[chamoyo]]. Kanandi chikuŵa na [[khutu|makutu]], [[wongo]], [[chene]], [[thama]], [[kalezu]], [[jiso|maso]], [[mphuno]], na [[mlomo]]. Chilichose mwa ivi chikovwira pa nchito za kupulikiska. Nchito izi nkhuwoneska nga umo ni [[kuwona]], [[kupulika]], [[kununkha]], na [[kucheta]]. Vinyama vinyake vichoko sono vingaŵa na mutu yayi. Kweni vinyama vinandi ivyo vili na [[bilateria|umoyo wakuyana-uku-na-uku]] vikuŵa na mutu, kwambura kutolela ukulu wake. Mutu ukukura mu vinyama kwizira mu citukuko ca chibenene icho chikuchemeka [[cephalization]]. Mu vinyama ivyo vili na umoyo wakuyana-uku-na-uku, nyama ya [[misipa]] yikukolerana comene mu chigaŵa ca kunthazi. Ndipo yikupanga viŵalo ivyo vikugwira ntchito yakupokelera na kusanda vinthu. Kwizira mu citukuko ca chibenene, viŵalo vyakupulikiska na viŵalo vyakuryera navyo vikukolerananso mu chigaŵa ici ca kunthazi. Vyose ivi pamoza ndivyo vikupanga mutu. [[File:Beethovendeathmask.jpg|thumb|Mutu wa [[death mask|chikwakwa ca kufwa]]]] ==Mutu wa munthu== {{main|Mutu wa munthu|Anatomy ya mutu na singo}} [[Mutu wa munthu]] ni chigaŵa ca thupi ico chili na [[chigaza]], [[chiwangwa cha hyoid|chiwangwa ca hyoid]] na [[viwangwa vya singo]]. Chigaza chili na chigaŵa ico chikukhalamo wongo. Chilinso na viwangwa vya chisko, comwe muli [[mhlati]]. Muli viwangwa vinkhonde mu chigaŵa ico chikukhalamo wongo. Muli viwangwa vikumi na vinayi mu viwangwa vya chisko.<ref name="Halim2008">{{cite book|first=A.|last=Halim|title=Human Anatomy:Volume Iii: Head, Neck And Brain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nx0a1AIiBKQC|date=30 December 2008|publisher=I. K. International|isbn=978-81-906566-4-1|page=3}}</ref> Vithuzi vyakuŵazika vya mitu ya ŵanthu kanandi vikunozgeka kwambira pa muundo wa viwangwa. Muundo uwu uli na chigaza, chiwangwa ca mhlati, na chiwangwa ca thama. Unandi wa minofu iyo yikupanga chisko ukuŵa wakuyana pa vithuzi vinandi. Kweni umo minofu yanozgeka wukupambanapambana comene. Kupambana uku nkhwakuyana na nchito, kukura, na masikizga agho ghakulongoreka pa vyisko vya awo ŵali kuŵazika.<ref name="Slobodkin1973">{{cite book|first=Louis|last=Slobodkin|title=Sculpture: Principles and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ugsSRVCgkicC&pg=PA31|year=1973|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-22960-7|page=31}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakukhulupilira kuti mahara na wongo nchintu chimoza. Ntheura, ŵakuti mahara ni ghamoza waka na wongo. Muvinjeru [[John Searle]] wakukhozga cigomezgo cake ici. Wakuti "wongo ndico chintu chekha ico chili mu mutu wa munthu". Munjila yiyakuyana, Msayansi [[Henry Bennet-Clark]] nayo wakuyowoya kuti mutu uli na viŵalo vyakuwerengeka vyakwendeska thupi. Wakati ivi vikucitika "kwambura Mkulu Uyo Wakulongozga Vyose".<ref name="Cobb2008">{{cite book|first=John B.|last=Cobb|title=Back To Darwin: A Richer Account of Evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuhxgMlqjbwC&pg=PA375|date=4 February 2008|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-4837-6|pages=371–375}}</ref> <gallery> File:View of a Skull III.jpg|Chigaŵa ca [[Sagittal plane|mid-sagittal]] ca [[chigaza cha munthu]], cakuŵazika na [[Leonardo da Vinci]], {{Circa|1489}} File:Bartholin head transect.jpg|Kudumulika kwa mutu wa munthu, cakuŵazika na [[Thomas Bartholin]], 1673 </gallery> ==Vinyama vinyake== Citukuko ca mutu chikukolerana na [[cephalization]] iyo yikachitika mu [[Bilateria]] vyaka mamiliyoni 555 kumasinda. ===Vibawo=== {{Main|Cephalon (arthropod head)}} Mu vibawo vinyake, comene mu [[trilobite|ma trilobite]], [[Cephalon (arthropod head)|cephalon]] panji cigaŵa ca cephalic ni cigaŵa ca mutu. Ni muunganiko wa "vigaŵa vyakukolerana pamoza".<ref name="Stevenson2010">{{cite book|first=Angus|last=Stevenson|title=Oxford Dictionary of English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA283|date=19 August 2010|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-957112-3|pages=283–}}</ref> ====Tuyuni twa vibawo==== [[File:Nomada krugii, F, face, Dominican Republic, La Ve jarabacoa 2012-12-05-14.31.04 ZS PMax (8258588812).jpg|thumbnail|Mutu wa njuci ya mtundu wa [[Nomada]]]] Mutu wa kayuni ka mtundu wa vibawo kanandi kali na maso, [[antenna (biology)|maantenna]], na vigaŵa vya mlomo. Vinthu ivi vikupambanapambana comene kufuma ku kayuni kamoza mpaka kanyake. Ntheura vikovwira comene pa kumanya mtundu wa kayuni. Mu mitundu yinandi ya tuyuni twa vibawo, maso mu mutu ghakusangika nga vibaya viŵiri vya "maso ghakukolerana". Maso agha ghakuŵa na vikope vinandi. Mu mitundu yinyake yinandi, maso agha ghakusangika nga "cikope cimoza panji muunganiko wa vikope vimoza". Mu vibalo vinyake, maso ghangawoneka nga vibaya vyapachanya pa mutu. Vingaŵa vya viŵiri panji vitatu vya [[ocelli]] (viŵalo vyamaso vikope vimoza).<ref name="McCafferty1983">{{cite book|first=W. Patrick|last=McCafferty|title=Aquatic Entomology: The Fishermen's and Ecologists' Illustrated Guide to Insects and Their Relatives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiTq7x-fI_0C&pg=PA20|date=1 January 1983|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-0-86720-017-1|pages=20–}}</ref> Maantenna pa mutu wa kayuni ka vibawo ghakusangika nga vibaya vyakupatukana, vya viŵiliŵiri. Kanandi vikuŵa pakati pa maso. Ivi vikuŵa na vithuzi na ukuru wakupambanapambana. Ciyelezgero, nga ndodoli panji vyakufumphuka pa mphelo.<ref name="McCafferty1983"/> Vibawo vili na vigaŵa vya mlomo vyakupambanapambana kuyana na umo vikuryera. [[Labrum (arthropod mouthpart)|Labrum]] ni "mulomo wakuchanya". Uli mu chigaŵa ca kunthazi ca mutu ndipo ndico chigaŵa cakuwalo comene. Vibaya viŵiri vya mhlati vikusangika kunyuma kwa labrum, kuzingilira mbali za mulomo. Kwenekuko kukulondezgapo vibaya viŵiri vya [[Maxilla (arthropod mouthpart)|maxilla]]. Cilicose comwe cikuchemeka [[maxilliary palp]]. Kunyuma kwa mulomo muli [[labium (arthropod mouthpart)|labium]] panji "mulomo wakupasi". Muliso cigaŵa cinyake ca mlomo mu vibawo vinyake ico chikuchemeka [[hypopharynx]]. Kanandi chikusangika pakati pa [[maxillac]].<ref name="McCafferty1983"/> ===Viŵanga na "kayowoyero ka mutu muphya"=== Vyamoyo vya [[invertebrate|kwambura muwongo]] vya mtundu wa [[chordate]] — nga ni vibulusi vya [[tunicate]] panji [[lancelet]] — navyo vili na mitu. Kweni kwaŵako kufumba kwa umo mutu wa viŵanga ungaŵa wakafuma mu muundo wa mutu wa vyamoyo ivi. Mutu wa viŵanga ukumanyikwa na chigaza cakupatuka comene ku thupi.<ref name="jandzik2014" /> Kwakuyana na Hyman (1979), citukuko ca mutu mu [[viŵanga]] chikachitika kwizira mu kukolerana kwa unandi wakukhazikika wa vigaŵa vya kunthazi. Ici nkhwakuyana na umo vikuchitikira mu vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vili na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu vibalo vinyake, vigaŵa panji chigaŵa cinyake ca vigaŵa ivi vikuzgeŵeka. Vigaŵa vya mutu navyo vikutayaso ndondomeko zake zinandi, kupatulako ndondomeko ya misipa. Pakuti citukuko ca [[cephalization]] chikulutilira, mutu ukuwonjezgapo comene vigaŵa ivyo vili pafupi navyo mu muundo wake. Ntheura mwakuyowoya waka, umo cephalization yikuŵira yikuru, ndimo unandi wa vigaŵa ivyo vikupanga mutu ukuŵiraso ukuru.<ref name="Hyman1992">{{cite book|first=Libbie Henrietta|last=Hyman|title=Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKlWjdOkiMwC&pg=PA4|date=1979|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-87013-7|edition=3rd|page=4}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya 1980, ŵakapeleka "kayowoyero ka mutu muphya". Kakulongosora kuti mutu wa viŵanga ni chinthu chiphya mu citukuko. Chikafuma pakati pa kufumira kwa [[neural crest]] na [[placode]] za mu chigaza.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gans|first1=Carl|last2=Northcutt|first2=R. Glenn|date=1983-04-15|title=Neural Crest and the Origin of Vertebrates: A New Head|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.220.4594.268|journal=Science|volume=220|issue=4594|pages=268–273|doi=10.1126/science.220.4594.268|pmid=17732898|issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Diogo|first1=Rui|last2=Kelly|first2=Robert G.|last3=Christiaen|first3=Lionel|display-authors=etal|date=2015-04-23|title=A new heart for a new head in vertebrate cardiopharyngeal evolution|journal=Nature|volume=520|issue=7548|pages=466–473|doi=10.1038/nature14435|issn=0028-0836|pmc=4851342|pmid=25903628}}</ref> Mu 2014, nyama ya munyengo yichoko ya [[larva]] ya lancelet yikasangika kuti njakuyana comene na [[cartilage]] iyo yikufuma mu neural crest. Cartilage iyi ndiyo yikupanga chigaza ca viŵanga. Ici chikulongora kuti kukhalirapo kwa nyama iyi na kuzomera kwake mu mutu wose kungaŵa nthowa yakukwana. Nthowa iyi njakuti chigaza ca viŵanga chifume mwenemumo.<ref name="jandzik2014" /> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== ===Luso lakujana=== {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = Leonardo da vinci, Study on the proportions of head and eyes.jpg | caption1 = Kusanda umo mutu na maso vyayana, na Leonardo da Vinci | width1 = 200 | image2 = Domenico Beccafumi - Tête de jeune homme.jpg | caption2 = "Mutu wa msepuka" – Domenico Beccafumi | width2 = 192 }} Imoza mwa nthowa zakujana vithuzi vya mitu — umo [[Jack Hamm]] wakupendekezgera — ni kucitukuska mu masitepe ghakukhazikika ghankhonde. Nthowa iyi yikwamba na muwoneskero wa mutu uwo uli nga jiji. Mutu wa mwanakazi, comene, ukujanika mu vibaya viŵiri vyakuzingilira. Muwoneskero uwu ukuyana wakuŵa mwakwenelera kwa mutu wa mwanakazi. Mu cibaya cakwamba, kukupatulikana mu vigaŵa vinkhonde pa mzere wakati-na-kati. Cigaŵa cilicose cikuŵa cakufinya nga maso ghankhonde. Kufuma apo yikucitukuka mu masitepe ghakhumi. Apo cibaya cichoko chikwikika pacoko pachanya pa cibaya cikuru pa gawo lacinayi. Maso na kalezu vikuŵikika mu vithuzi vyakupambanapambana kuti vipange mutu.<ref>{{cite book|title=Drawing the Head and Figure|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qI91-vhOm8wC|date=January 1983|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-399-50791-5}}</ref> Leonardo da Vinci wakuŵikika pakati pa vinjeru vikuru vya luso pa charu chapasi. Wakajana vithuzi vya anatomy ya munthu wakugwiliskira ntchito muundo wa mizere yakukwaskana. Cithuzi cake ca chisko, cakujanika pa fundo ya mizere yakukwaskana, chili mu muyeso wakwenelera comene.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/sites/default/files/Learning_davinci.swf|title=Leonardo da Vinci Face facts|publisher=royalcollection.org|access-date=17 September 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061724/http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/sites/default/files/Learning_davinci.swf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mu mtundu uwu wa luso, Leonardo wakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya cikalamu na inki. Wakapanga cithuzi cakuchemeka "Kusanda umo mutu na maso vyayana" (icho chikulongoreka). ===Kunozga chakurya=== {{Main|Fish heads}} Mitu ya vinyama ivyo vyakomeka njakati-kati ka nyama ya viŵalo vya mukati. Ngati nyama ya viŵalo vya mukati, mutu ungapatulikana mu wongo, makutu, maso, nyama ya chisko, na lulimi. Nyama ya chisko yingasazgapo vigaŵa vyakusankhika vya pasi pa nsagwada.<ref name=Sietsama>{{Citation|title=The Offal-Eater's Handbook: Untangling the Myths of Organ Meats|last=Sietsama|first=Robert|date=2016-06-16|url=https://www.eater.com/2015/6/16/8786663/offal-organ-meat-handbook-cuts-sweetbreads-tripe-gizzard|publisher=Eater}}</ref> Mitu ya vinyama kanandi njakukhumbikwa mu kunozga "nyama yose ya cinyama", nga umo viliri mu kuwocha nkumba yose panji ''barbacoa''. Kunozga nyama yose ya chinyama nkovyanaviyana comene mu vyakurya vya mu nyanja.<ref name=Thrillist/> Mitu yakuwocheka njakugaŵika mu vyakurya vyakutowa mu miko yinandi: * ''Cabeza'' ni mtundu wa barbacoa ya ku Mexico uwo ukukhozgeka na mitu ya viŵeto yakuwochekera mu longwe.<ref>{{Citation|title=BBQ Anatomy 101: Beef Head|last=Vaughn|first=Daniel|date=2015-07-08|url=https://www.texasmonthly.com/bbq/bbq-anatomy-101-beef-head/|publisher=Texas Monthly}}</ref> * ''Tête de veau'' ni cakurya ca ku Ulaya wa Kumazgoji cakunozgeka na mutu wa mwana wa ng'ombe. * Mitu ya mberere yikuryeka yose mu miko yinandi: mu Scandinavia, nga ''smalahove'' panji ''svið''; mu Afrika Yakumwera, nga ''intkoko yemvu'' panji "vyakuseka" ([[Smiley (food)|smileys]]); na mu Kazakhstan, nga cakurya cakupikika mu maji.<ref>{{Citation|title=Smileys & Oysters: Having a ball at the kitchen table|last=Jackman|first=Tony|date=2019-05-10|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-05-10-smileys-oysters-having-a-ball-at-the-kitchen-table/|publisher=Daily Maverick}}</ref> * Mitu ya somba yakuwochekera njakugwiliskikira ntchito comene pakunozga sopo la somba, kweniso ni cakurya cakutowa: ciyelezgero cikuru ni ''fish head curry'' ku Asia ya Kumwera-Kwazuŵa.<ref name=Thrillist>{{Citation|title=What Makes Fish Heads so Damn Delicious?|last=Ved|first=Sonal|date=2022-08-30|url=https://www.thrillist.com/eat/nation/how-to-use-fish-heads|publisher=Thrillist}}</ref> * Nyama zakusankhika kufuma mu mutu zikugwiliskikira ntchito kunozga ''head cheese'' panji ''brawn''.<ref name=Sietsama/> ===Viŵoni vya mbumba=== [[File:Flag of Corsica.svg|thumb|Bendera ya [[Corsica]] njakulongora mutu ukuwoneka pa mphepete]] {{Main|Heads in heraldry}} Mitu ya ŵanthu na ya vinyama vinyake njakuwoneka kanandi pa [[viŵoni vya mbumba]].<ref name=Herald>{{Cite web|url=http://www.heraldsnet.org/saitou/parker/Jpglossh.htm|title=H|work=Head|publisher=heraldsnet.org}}</ref> Mitu ya ŵanthu nyengo zinyake njakulongoseka waka nga "mutu wa mwanarumi". Kweni kanandi njakulongoseka mwakwenderapo, panji kuyana na mtundu wa ŵanthu. Ciyelezgero, mitu ya Amoor, mitu ya Ŵasaxon, mitu ya Ŵaeguputo panji mitu ya Ŵaturk. Panji njakumanyikwa comene, nga mutu wa Mose mu chiŵoni ca Hilton, panji mutu wa Yohane Mubatizi mu chiŵoni ca London Company of Tallowchandlers.<ref name=Herald/><ref name="Fox-Davies2007">{{cite book|first=Arthur Charles|last=Fox-Davies|title=A Complete Guide to Heraldry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSeEWjQCTIAC|year=2007|publisher=Skyhorse Publishing Inc.|isbn=978-1-60239-001-0}}</ref> Mitundu yinandi ya mitu ya ŵanakazi nayo njakuwoneka. Ciyelezgero, mitu ya vinyamata (kanandi yakudumulika pasi pa cifuŵa, na sisi lakupwitikana), mitu ya ŵasungwana ŵakuru, mitu ya ŵasista ŵa mu nyumba za Mulungu (kanandi yakubenekelerapo), na nyengo zinyake mitu ya ŵafumukazi.<ref name=Herald/> ===Mazgu ghakukhozgeka=== Mazgu ghakukhozgeka ni mazgu panji vipulikizgo. Ng'anamuro lake kanandi lili lakuyelezgera. Kweni nyengo zinyake lili lakunenekera. Vyelezgero kufuma mu Cingelezi: * "To be big-headed" – kujitemwa comene panji kujiwona kuti ngwakuru kuluska ŵanyake * "To come to a head" – kufika pa gawo lakofya ilo likukhumbikwira kucitapo kanthu luŵiro<ref name="Dolgopolov 2004 p. 104"/> * "To bite someone's head off" – kudinginya munthu mwaukali<ref name="Palmatier 2000 p. 24"/> * "Can't make head or tail of something" – kutondeka kupulikiska cinthu<ref name="Curtis 2015 p. 84"/> * "A head start" – kwamba dankha na kuti wasange citeleko pa ŵanyake<ref name="Ammer 2013 p. 206"/> * "Head and shoulders above someone or something" – kuŵa muwemi comene kuluska munthu panji cinthu cinyake<ref name="Brenner 2011 p. 234"/> * "To want someone's head on a platter" – kukhumba kuti munthu wapokere ciwundo cikuru<ref>{{cite dictionary|title=head on a platter|url=http://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/head+on+a+platter|via=TheFreeDictionary.com|dictionary=Cambridge Idioms Dictionary|edition=2nd|access-date=17 September 2015|year=2006}}</ref> * "To bang your head against a brick wall" – kulutilira kuyezgayezga kufiska cinthu kwambura kufiskapo<ref name="Ayto 2010 p. 45"/> * "To have one's head in the clouds" – kuleka kuŵikapo mahara pa vinthu ivyo vikucitika mumphepete cifukwa wanjililika comene mu maghanoghano ghake<ref name="Kirkpatrick Schwarz 1993"/> ==Vithuzi== <gallery mode="packed"> File:Head nerves.gif|Misipa ya mutu wa munthu, kufuma mu ''Gray's Anatomy'', 1858 File:Andrea Vaccaro, Tête de Saint-Jean Baptiste.jpg|Mutu wa Yohane Mubatizi, na Andrea Vaccaro, mafuta pa nsalu, zaka 100 za 17 File:Statue de Saint Solange.JPG|Chikozgo ca Solange Wakupatulika, uyo mutu wake ukadumulika, ndipo ni mtetezgi wakupatulika wa cigaŵa ca Berry ku France File:Zürcher Stadtheilige.jpg|Ŵapatulika ŵakuvikilira Zürich, cithuzi ca pa lupanda, {{Circa|1400–1425}} File:POL powiat kaliski COA (1999-2024).svg|Chiŵoni ca mbumba ca mutu wa [[bison]] </gallery> ==Wonaniso== * [[Masuzgo gha mutu (cephalic disorder)|Masuzgo gha mutu]] * [[Cephalic index]] * [[Cynocephaly]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{reflist|30em|refs= <ref name="jandzik2014">{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature14000|title=Evolution of the new vertebrate head by co-option of an ancient chordate skeletal tissue|journal=Nature|year=2014|last1=Jandzik|first1=D.|last2=Garnett|first2=A. T.|last3=Square|first3=T. A.|display-authors=etal|volume=518|issue=7540|pages=534–537|pmid=25487155}}</ref> <ref name="Dolgopolov 2004 p. 104">{{cite book|last=Dolgopolov|first=Y.|title=A Collection of Confusible Phrases|url=https://archive.org/details/collectionofconf0000dolg|publisher=Llumina Press|year=2004|isbn=978-1-59526-334-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/collectionofconf0000dolg/page/104 104]}}</ref> <ref name="Palmatier 2000 p. 24">{{cite book|last=Palmatier|first=R.A.|title=Food: A Dictionary of Literal and Nonliteral Terms|url=https://archive.org/details/fooddictionaryof00palm|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-313-31436-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/fooddictionaryof00palm/page/24 24]}}</ref> <ref name="Curtis 2015 p. 84">{{cite book|last=Curtis|first=S.|title=Connect: Stories Behind Idioms 1|publisher=Acel Learning (S) Pte Limited|year=2015|isbn=978-981-09-5822-0|page=84}}</ref> <ref name="Ammer 2013 p. 206">{{cite book|last=Ammer|first=C.|title=The American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms|url=https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000amme_c2o7|edition=2nd|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2013|isbn=978-0-547-67753-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000amme_c2o7/page/206 206]}}</ref> <ref name="Brenner 2011 p. 234">{{cite book|last=Brenner|first=G.|title=Webster's New World American Idioms Handbook|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2011|isbn=978-0-544-18890-7|page=234}}</ref> <ref name="Ayto 2010 p. 45">{{cite book|last=Ayto|first=J.|title=Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms|url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_e8w8|publisher=OUP Oxford|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-954378-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_e8w8/page/45 45]}}</ref> <ref name="Kirkpatrick Schwarz 1993">{{cite book|last1=Kirkpatrick|first1=E.M.L.|last2=Schwarz|first2=C.M.|title=The Wordsworth Dictionary of Idioms|url=https://archive.org/details/wordsworthdictio0000unse_i8a0|publisher=Wordsworth|year=1993|isbn=978-1-85326-309-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/wordsworthdictio0000unse_i8a0/page/156 156]}}</ref> }} ==Vyakuŵerengelera vinyake== *{{cite book|last=Lieberman|first=Daniel E.|title=Evolution of the Human Head|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvIDVlSExS8C&pg=PA207|date=3 May 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-05944-3}} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 8bpkgly2wowp4j5jtsv8vhnj0wun8e7 0 46903 123164 118623 2026-10-08T17:20:25Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123164 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:POxy v0064 n4404 a 01 hires.jpg|thumb|Mateyu 21:34-37 pa Papiro 104. (''recto''; {{Circa|AD 150}})<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jongkind |first=Dirk |date=January 13, 2015 |title=What is the Oldest Manuscript of the New Testament? |url=https://evangelicaltextualcriticism.blogspot.com/2015/01/what-is-oldest-manuscript-of-new.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250517043441/https://evangelicaltextualcriticism.blogspot.com/2015/01/what-is-oldest-manuscript-of-new.html |archive-date=May 17, 2025 |access-date=May 17, 2025 |website=Evangelical Textual Criticism}}</ref>]] '''Uthenga Uwemi wa Mateyu''' ndilo buku lakwamba la Testamente Lasono la [[Baibolo]] ndipo ni buku limoza mwa mabuku ghatatu gha Uthenga Uwemi wakudumura. Likuyowoya za uyo mulembi wakugomezga kuti ni mesiya wa Israyeli (Khristu), Yesu, chiwuka chake, na mulimo wake ku charu. Mateyu wakukhumba kukhozgera kuti chikhalidwe cha Ŵayuda chikwenera yayi kutayika mu mpingo uwo ukaŵa kuti ukusazgikira ku ŵamitundu. Uthenga uwemi ukulongora nkhondo na nkhondo pakati pa gulu la mupharazgi na ŵaYuda ŵanyakhe, chomenechomene na kususka kwake kwakuthwa kwa ŵalembi, ŵasofi ŵalara na ŵaFarisi na udindo wakuti Ufumu wa Kuchanya watoleka kwa iwo na kupelekeka m’malo mwake ku mpingo. Ŵasambiri ŵakusanga masuzgo ghanandi na fundo yakuti Mpostole Mateyu wakalembeka, nangauli vingachitika kuti makani ghawemi ghakusazgapo buku ilo likalembeka na msambiri.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allison |first=Dale |title=The Gospels |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199580255 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0199580255 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199580255/page/27 27]}}</ref><ref name="n3072">{{cite book |last=Theissen |first=Gerd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AZdAxLt4lVUC&pg=PT109 |title=The New Testament: A Literary History |last2=Maloney |first2=Linda M. |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8006-9785-3 |series=G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series |page=unpaginated |quote= |access-date=}}</ref> Mazgu ghakuru gha ŵasambiri ghakuti likalembeka mu vilimika vyaumaliro vya vilimika vya m’ma 100 C.E. na Muyuda wambura kumanyikwa uyo wakamanyanga makora vigaŵa vya malango vya malemba. Ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti Mateyu wakagwiliskira nchito Uthenga Uwemi wa Marko na mazgu ghakughanaghana ghakuti Uthenga Uwemi Q (uwo uli na vinthu ivyo Mateyu wakugaŵana na Luka) ndipo ni chinthu icho chikafuma mu muwiro wachiŵiri wa gulu la Ŵakhristu, nangauli chikutora pa kukumbukira kwa muwiro wakwamba wa ŵasambiri ŵa Yesu.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dunn|first=James|year=2017|title=Who Was Jesus?|url=https://archive.org/details/whowasjesuslittl0000jame|publisher=Church Publishing|page=[https://archive.org/details/whowasjesuslittl0000jame/page/4 4]|isbn=978-0898692488}}</ref> Mazgu ghanyake agho ghakuyowoya kuti Mateyu wakagwiliskira ntchito Luka panji mwakupambana kwambura Q ghakusazgikira mu kumanyikwa mu masambiro.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Runesson |first=Anders |title=Jesus, New Testament, Christian Origins |date=2021 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=9780802868923}}</ref><ref name="TSP20222">{{Cite book |title=The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference |publisher=Peeters Pub and Booksellers |year=2023 |isbn=9789042950344}}</ref> == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} elr1lhq052xdv2joq3055moq07ic9qv 0 49645 123156 122102 2026-10-08T16:36:34Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123156 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language | name = ChiLombard | nativename = ''{{lang|lmo|lombard}}, {{lang|lmo|lumbard}}, {{lang|lmo|lumbart}}, {{lang|lmo|lombart}}'' | states = {{plainlist| *[[Italy]] *[[Switzerland]] }} | region = Italy<ref name=JMI>{{cite book |title=One Europe, many nations: a historical dictionary of European national groups |url=https://archive.org/details/oneeuropemanynat0000mina |first=James |last=Minahan |year=2000 |place=Westport}}</ref><ref name=CMO>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages |first=Christopher |last=Moseley |year=2007 |place=New York}}</ref><ref name=AFI>{{cite book |title=Minority language planning and micronationalism in Italy |first=Paolo |last=Coluzzi |year=2007 |place=Berne}}</ref> *[[Lombardia]] *[[Piedmont]] *[[South Tyrol]] *[[Trentino]] Switzerland<ref name=JMI/><ref name=CMO/><ref name=AFI/> *[[Grisons]] *[[Ticino]] Brazil<ref name="auto">Spoken in [[Botuverá]], in [[Brazil]], municipality established by Italian migrants coming from the valley between [[Treviglio]] and [[Crema, Lombardy|Crema]]. A thesis of [[Leiden University]] about ''Brazilian Bergamasque'': [https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/52581/Thesis.pdf?sequence=1].</ref> *[[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] | speakers = 3.8 miliyoni | date = 2002 | ref = e18 | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]] | fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]] | fam4 = [[Latin]] | fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]] | fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] | fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]] | fam8 = Gallo-Iberian | fam9 = [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]] | fam10 = [[Gallo-Italic languages|Gallo-Italic]] | fam11 = Lombard–[[ChiPiedmont|Piedmontese]]?<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/piem1239 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - Piemontese-Lombard |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029130658/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/piem1239 |archive-date=2023-10-29 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |author-link=Harald Hammarström |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |publication-place=[[Leipzig]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7398962 |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |author-link3=Martin Haspelmath |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian |doi-access=free}}</ref> | dia1 = [[Western Lombard dialect|Western Lombard]] | dia2 = [[Eastern Lombard dialect|Eastern Lombard]] | iso3 = lmo | glotto = lomb1257 | glottorefname = Lombard | lingua = 51-AAA-oc & 51-AAA-od | notice = IPA | map = File:Lombard_Language_distribution.png | mapcaption = '''ChiLombard distribution in northern Italy and Switzerland:''' {{legend|#01987c|Areas where ChiLombard is spoken}} {{legend|#01f0c4|Areas where ChiLombard is spoken alongside other languages ([[ChiAlemannic|ChiAlemannic]], [[ChiLadin|ChiLadin]] and [[ChiRomansh|ChiRomansh]]) and areas of linguistic transition (with [[ChiPiedmont|ChiPiedmont]], with [[ChiEmiliyan-Romagnol|ChiEmiliyan]] and with [[ChiVenetia|ChiVenetia]])}} {{legend|#a6feee|Areas of influence of ChiLombard ([[Trento|Tridentine]] dialect)}} '''?''' Areas of uncertain diffusion of ChiLadin | script = Latin | ancestor = [[Old Latin]] | ancestor2 = [[Vulgar Latin]] | ancestor3 = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]] | ancestor4 = [[Old Gallo-Italic language|Old Gallo-Italic]] | ancestor5 = [[Old Lombard]] }} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ntchiyowoyero icho chikuyowoyeka ku [[Lombardia]], chigaŵa chinyake cha ku [[Italy]]. ==Wonaniso== *[[Wikipediya ya {{PAGENAME}}]] ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} {{InterWiki|code=lmo}} [[Category:Viyowoyelo]] [[Category:ChiLombard| ]] [[Category:Viyowoyelo vyamu Italy]] b1aetnk39lnx6s6r6fbt0l5o4tah1v7 0 49723 123165 122311 2026-10-08T17:22:29Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123165 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Chigaŵa ca thupi ico chili pakati pa chifuwa na chiuno}} '''Nthumbo''' m'nkhani iyi yikung'anamura chigaŵa ca thupi. Lizgu ili lingagwiliskikiraso kuyowoyera kuti mwanakazi watora nthumbo (ali pa nthumbo), kweni ng'anamuro ili nkhwakupambana na icho nkhani iyi yikulongosora. {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Nthumbo |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Abdomen-periumbilical region.png|220px|Nthumbo ya munthu]]<br/><small>Nthumbo ya munthu</small> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Anatomy Abdomen Tiesworks.jpg|220px|Nthumbo ya mwanalume na viŵalo ivyo vili mkati]]<br/><small>Nthumbo ya mwanalume na viŵalo ivyo vili mkati</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''abdomen'' |} Nthumbo ni cigaŵa ca kunthazi ca thupi. Mwa ŵanthu na vinyama vinyake ivyo vili na muwongo, nthumbo yili pakati pa chifuwa na chiuno. Malo agho nthumbo yikuŵapo ghakuchemeka mzia wa nthumbo. Mu vibawo, nthumbo yikuchemekaso kuti metasoma. Ni cigaŵa ca umaliro wa thupi ndipo chikulondezga chifuwa panji cephalothorax.<ref name="dictionary">{{Cite web|title=Abdomen|publisher=Dictionary.com|access-date=2007-10-22}}</ref> Mwa ŵanthu, nthumbo yikufuma ku chifuwa pa diaphragm mpaka ku chiuno pa mphepete wa chiuno. Mphepete wa chiuno ukufuma ku nkhomano ya msana na chiuno (disc yakupakati pa L5 na S1) mpaka ku pubic symphysis. Ndiwo mphepete wa mulyango wa chiuno. Malo agho ghali pachanya pa mulyango uwu na pasi pa diaphragm ghakuchemeka mzia wa nthumbo. Malire gha mzia wa nthumbo ni khoma la nthumbo kunthazi na peritoneum kunyuma. Mu vinyama ivyo vili na muwongo, nthumbo ni mzia ukuru wa m'thupi. Ukuzingilirika na minofu ya nthumbo kunthazi na mumphepete, na chigaŵa ca msana kunyuma. Mbaru zapasi zingazingilirapo khoma la kunthazi na la mumphepete. Mzia wa nthumbo ukukolerana na kuŵa pachanya pa mzia wa chiuno. Ukukolerana na mzia wa chifuwa kwizira mu diaphragm. Vinthu nga aorta, vena cava yapasi, na nthowa ya cakurya vikujumphira mu diaphragm. Mzia wa nthumbo na mzia wa chiuno vyose vikuzingilirika na thako lakuchemeka peritoneum yakumphepete.<ref name="peritoneum">{{Cite book|title=The Veterinary Dictionary|publisher=Elsevier|year=2007}}</ref> Thako ili likukolerana na peritoneum yakuzingilira viŵalo. Nthumbo mu vinyama ivyo vili na muwongo yili na viŵalo vinandi, nga umo ni vya mzia wakugaya chakurya, mzia wakuthuta mvuchi, na mzia wa minofu. ==Ivyo vilimo== Mzia wa nthumbo uli na viŵalo vinandi vya mzia wakugaya chakurya. Muli chiŵaya ca cakurya, mala machoko, na colon pamoza na appendix yake. Viŵalo vinyake vyakugaya chakurya vikuchemeka viŵalo vyakovwira, ndipo vikusazgapo chiwindi, chiŵaya ca nyongo cakukolerana nacho, na pancreas. Ivi vikukolerana na vinyake kwizira mu nthowa zakupambanapambana. Spleen, na viŵalo vya mzia wakuthuta mvuchi nga ni maimpso, na viŵaya vya pachanya pa maimpso, navyo vili mu nthumbo. Muli misimbo yinandi ya ndopa, kusazgapo aorta na vena cava yapasi. Chiŵaya ca mkodzo, nthumbo (chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo), nthowa za mazira, na viŵaya vya mazira, vingaŵikika kuŵa viŵalo vya nthumbo panji vya chiuno. Pauumaliro, nthumbo yili na thako likuru lakuchemeka peritoneum. Peritoneum yingazingilira comene viŵalo vinyake. Kweniso yingazingilira mbali yimoza yekha ya viŵalo ivyo vili pafupi na khoma la nthumbo. Ici chikuchemeka retroperitoneum, ndipo maimpso na ureter vikuchemeka viŵalo vya retroperitoneum. ==Minofu ya nthumbo== Mu khoma la nthumbo muli mathako ghatatu gha minofu. Kufuma kuwalo kuya mkati ni: external oblique, internal oblique, na transverse abdominal. Mathako ghatatu agha ghakufuma ku msana, ku mbaru zapasi, ku iliac crest, na ku pubis ya chiuno. Vinjiri vyake vyose vikukolerana pakati na kuzingilira minofu ya rectus abdominis mu thako, kufuma apo vikukolerana mumphepete linyake pa linea alba. Nkhongono yikufuma mu kujintha kwa vinjiri, umo external oblique yikwendera pasi na kunthazi, internal oblique yikwendera pachanya na kunthazi, ndipo transverse abdominal yikwendera cimwaŵi na kunthazi.<ref name="EB">{{Cite book|title=Abdominal cavity|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|volume=I|edition=15th|location=Chicago|year=2010|pages=19–20|isbn=978-1-59339-837-8}}</ref> Mnofu wa transverse abdominal ni wakupapatala na wa makona ghatatu. Vinjiri vyake vikwendera cimwaŵi. Uli pakati pa internal oblique na transverse fascia iyo yili pasi pake. Ukufuma ku inguinal ligament, ku ma cartilage gha mbaru 7–12, ku iliac crest, na ku thoracolumbar fascia. Ukukolerana ku conjoint tendon, ku xiphoid process, ku linea alba, na ku pubic crest. Minofu ya rectus abdominis njitali na yakupapatala. Minofu iyi yikujintika na vinjiri vitatu ivyo vikuchemeka tendinous intersections. Rectus abdominis njakuzingilirika na thako likuzito, ilo lanozgeka kufuma mu vinjiri vya minofu yitatu ya khoma la mumphepete la nthumbo. Yikufuma ku chiwangwa ca pubis, yikukwera nthumbo mumphepete zoseŵiri za linea alba, ndipo yikukolerana ku ma cartilage gha mbaru yacinkhonde, yamphambano, na yankhondi na ziŵiri. Mu chigaŵa ca ntangararo, inguinal canal ni nthowa yakujumphira mu mathako agha. Mu mpherembezi uwu ndimo ma testes ghakusuzgikira kujumphira mu khoma. Ndimoso mzati kufuma ku nthumbo (chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo) mu mwanakazi ukwendera. Apa nchakoso apo kupepuka kungapangika, na kuvyusa inguinal hernia.<ref name="EB"/> Mnofu wa pyramidalis ni muchoko na wa makona ghatatu. Uli mu nthumbo yapasi, kunthazi kwa rectus abdominis. Ukufuma ku chiwangwa ca pubis ndipo ukukolerana ku linea alba, pakati pa apo na mbwera. ==Ntchito== Pa nchito yake, nthumbo ya munthu ndimo muli chigaŵa cinandi ca mzia wakugaya chakurya. Ntheura, kutolera na kugaya kwa cakurya kukuchitikira comene apa. Mzia wa cakurya mu nthumbo uli na cigaŵa capasi ca nthowa ya cakurya, chiŵaya ca cakurya, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum na appendix, ma colon ghakukwera, ghapakati, na ghakukhira, sigmoid colon, na rectum. Viŵalo vinyake vyakuzirwa mu nthumbo vikusazgapo chiwindi, maimpso, pancreas, na spleen. Khoma la nthumbo likugaŵikana mu makhoma gha kunyuma, gha mumphepete, na gha kunthazi. Minofu ya nthumbo yili na nchito zakupambanapambana zakuzirwa. Yikovwira pakupumira, comenecomene pakupumira kuwaro mwankhongono. Kuwonjezgapo, minofu iyi yikuvikilira viŵalo vya mkati. Pamoza na minofu ya msana, yikovwiraso kwimilira makola na kukhozgera muwoneskero wa thupi. Apo glottis yijalika ndipo chifuwa na chiuno vikukhazikika, minofu iyi njakukhumbikwa comene pa nchito za kukolowora, kusuzga, kufuma cakurya, kubaba mwana, kukalasika, na kwimba. Para chiuno chikhazikika, minofu iyi yingambiska kwenda kwa thupi kunthazi. Yikuvikiliraso kuti thupi lireke kupinduka comene kunyuma. Para chifuwa chikhazikika, minofu iyi yingakoka chiuno kuchanya. Pamalizgo, yingapinda msana mumphepete na kovwira mu kuzunguluska thupi.<ref name="EB"/> Mnofu wa transverse abdominis ndiwo wa mkati comene. Ntheura, ungakhwaskika yayi kufuma kuwaro. Ungakhwaska comene muwoneskero wa thupi. Minofu ya internal oblique nayo yili mkati, ndipo yikukhwaskaso muwoneskero wa thupi. Yoseŵiri yikovwira pakuzunguluska na kupinda msana mumphepete, ndipo yikugwiliskikira ntchito pakupinda na kukhozgera msana kufuma kunthazi. Minofu ya external oblique yili kuwaro comene, ndipo nayoso yikovwira pakuzunguluska na kupinda msana mumphepete. Yikukhozgeraso msana para munthu wimilira. Mnofu wa rectus abdominis ndiwo wakuwaro yayi comene pa minofu ya nthumbo. Thako lakufuma ku external oblique likuzingilira rectus abdominis. Rectus abdominis ndiwo mnofu uwo ŵanthu ŵakukhwima chomene ŵakuwukuzga kuŵa "six-pack", nangauli muli vigaŵa vinkhonde vyakwima mumphepete zoseŵiri. Vigaŵa viŵiri vyapasi vili pacoko pachanya pa chiwangwa ca pubis, ndipo kanandi vikuwoneka yayi. Nchito ya rectus abdominis ni kupinda msana kunthazi (flexion). Nchito yikuru ya minofu ya nthumbo ni kupinda msana kunthazi para yikukolerana.<ref name="abdominalmusclegroup">{{Cite web|title=The Abdominal Muscle Group|access-date=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref name="hockey">{{Cite book|last1=Terry|first1=Michael|last2=Goodman|first2=Paul|title=Hockey Anatomy|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2019|pages=74–75|isbn=978-1-4925-3588-1}}</ref> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Maghanoghano gha vikhalidwe pa muwoneskero wa nthumbo ghakupambanapambana pa charu chapasi. Kuyana na mtundu wa chikhalidwe, kunenepa comene kungawoneka kuti nkhwakulongora usambazi na mchindo chifukwa ca cakurya chinandi. Panji kungawoneka kuti nkhwakulongora umoyo uheni chifukwa ca kusoŵa kuzenga thupi. Mu vikhalidwe vinandi, nthumbo yakufumiskika pakuwaro yikuwoneka nga chinthu cakukhwaskana na tenda, munjila yakuyana na umo bere likuwonekera. ==Umoyo makola na kuzenga thupi== Minofu ya nthumbo njakuzirwa comene pakukhozgera msana na kwimilira makola. Ntheura, nchakukhumbikwa kuzenga minofu ya nthumbo makola pamoza na minofu ya msana. Usange minofu iyi njakupepuka panji njakukhinyilira comene, yingasuzgika na kupweteka na kulemazgika. Para minofu ya nthumbo yazengeka makola, yikovwira kukhozgera muwoneskero wa thupi na kwenda makola. Yikucepeskaso kupweteka kwa msana, na kuvikilira ku kulemazgika.<ref name="backpain">{{Cite book|last=Raj|first=Joshua|title=A Guide to the Prevention and Treatment of Back Pain|publisher=Armour|location=Singapore|year=2011|page=23|isbn=978-981-4305-32-7}}</ref><ref name="wellness">{{Cite book|last1=Reger-Nash|first1=Bill|last2=Smith|first2=Meredith|last3=Juckett|first3=Gregory|title=Foundations of Wellness|url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofwel0000rege|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2015|page=[https://archive.org/details/foundationsofwel0000rege/page/96 96]|isbn=978-1-4504-0200-2}}</ref> Yikovwiraso kutaŵiska ma opaleshoni ghanyake gha msana, na kovwira kuzuka kwa masuzgo gha msana panji pamanyuma pa opaleshoni ya msana. Minofu ya nthumbo yikakhozga, yikuŵikaso viwezgero. Minofu ya nthumbo yingazengeka na masuzo gha nkhongono na kuzenga thupi, kwizira mu mizirwe nga ni Pilates,<ref name="pilates">{{Cite book|last=Isacowitz|first=Rael|title=Pilates|url=https://archive.org/details/pilates0002isac|edition=2nd|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2014|page=[https://archive.org/details/pilates0002isac/page/36 36]|isbn=978-1-4504-3416-4}}</ref> yoga,<ref name="yoga">{{Cite book|last=Swenson|first=Doug|title=Power Yoga for Dummies|publisher=Wiley|year=2001|chapter=Accumulating strong abs}}</ref> tai chi, na kucimbira mwakwenderera. Kunenepa kwa nthumbo ni suzgo umo mafuta gha nthumbo ghakuwungana comene pakati pa viŵalo vya nthumbo. Ici nkhwakolerana na ntchindi yikuru ya nthenda ya mtima, asthma, na shuga wa mtundu wachiŵiri. Kwananga kwa nthumbo ni kulemazgika kwa nthumbo, ndipo kungakhwaskana na kunanga kwa viŵalo vyake. Muli ntchindi ya kutaya ndopa zinandi na kupokelera nthenda.<ref name="trauma">{{Cite journal|last1=Jansen|first1=JO|last2=Yule|first2=SR|last3=Loudon|first3=MA|title=Investigation of blunt abdominal trauma|journal=BMJ|volume=336|issue=7650|pages=938–942|date=April 2008}}</ref> Kwananga kwa chifuwa capasi kungapangiska kunanga kwa spleen na chiwindi.<ref name="emergency">{{Cite book|last=Wyatt|first=Jonathon|title=Oxford Handbook of Emergency Medicine|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_t9l0|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_t9l0/page/346 346]|isbn=978-0-19-920607-0}}</ref> Nthumbo ya scaphoid ni apo nthumbo yikutolekera mkati.<ref name="dorland">{{Cite book|title=Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/dorlandsillustra0000unse_s1g5|edition=32nd|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia|year=2012|page=[https://archive.org/details/dorlandsillustra0000unse_s1g5/page/2 2]|isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8}}</ref> Mwa mwana wakubabika kumaliro, ici chingalongora diaphragmatic hernia.<ref name="newborn">{{Cite book|last1=Durward|first1=Heather|last2=Baston|first2=Helen|title=Examination of the Newborn: A Practical Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/examinationofnew0000bast|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/examinationofnew0000bast/page/134 134]|isbn=978-0-415-19184-5}}</ref> Comenecomene, chikulongora kusoŵa kwa cakurya chakwenelera.<ref name="clinicalmethods">{{Cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Charles|title=Clinical Methods|edition=3rd|chapter=Inspection, Auscultation, Palpation, and Percussion of the Abdomen|publisher=Butterworths|location=Boston|year=1990}}</ref> ==Nthenda== Nthenda zinandi za mzia wakugaya chakurya zikukhwaska viŵalo vya nthumbo. Izi zikusazgapo nthenda za chiŵaya ca cakurya, za chiwindi, za pancreas, na za chiŵaya ca nyongo na nthowa zake. Nthenda za mala zikusazgapo enteritis, coeliac disease, diverticulitis, na irritable bowel syndrome. ==Kusanda na kupima nthenda== Nthowa zakupambanapambana za uganga zingagwiliskikira ntchito kusanda viŵalo vya mzia wakugaya chakurya. Izi zikusazgapo endoscopy, colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, enteroscopy, oesophagogastroduodenoscopy, na virtual colonoscopy. Kulipo so nthowa zinandi zakujura vithuzi vya mkati mwa thupi izo zingagwiliskikira ntchito. Fundo zakumanyikwira pachanya pa nthumbo nkhwakukhumbikwa comene pakusanda nthumbo. ==Fundo zakumanyikwira pachanya== Pa mzere wapakati, muli mphuvya yicoko iyo yikufuma ku xiphoid process kuchanya mpaka ku pubic symphysis kupasi. Iyi ndiyo linea alba mu khoma la nthumbo. Pakati-na-kati pake pali mbwera. Mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima, rectus abdominis mumphepete zoseŵiri za linea alba yikuwoneka comene. Muwoneskero wa minofu iyi ukudumulikamo na vithukuta vitatu panji kuluska, ivyo vikulongora tendinous intersections. Kanandi pali cimoza pafupi na xiphoid process, cinyake pa mbwera, na cinyake pakati pake. Ni kukolerana kwa linea alba na tendinous intersections ndiko kukupanga "six-pack" iyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhumba. Malire gha kuchanya mumphepete mwa nthumbo ni subcostal margin, iyo yikupangika na ma cartilage gha mbaru zambura unenesko (8, 9, 10) apo zikukolerana. Malire ghapasi mumphepete ni iliac crest ya kunthazi na Poupart's ligament, iyo yikufuma ku iliac spine ya kunthazi mpaka ku pubic spine. Malire agha ghapasi ghakulongoreka na vithukuta ivyo vikuwoneka. Pacoko pachanya pa pubic spines mumphepete zoseŵiri pali external abdominal rings. Agha ni maenje mu khoma la minofu ya nthumbo, agho spermatic cord yikufumira mu mwanalume, na agho inguinal hernia yingapasukira. Nthowa yimoza yakumanyira malo agho vinthu vya mu nthumbo vilimo ni kujora mizere yitatu yakugonda na yiŵiri yakwima: * Mzere wakuchanya comene ni transpyloric line ya C. Addison. Uli pakati-na-kati pa suprasternal notch na pachanya pa pubic symphysis. Kanandi ukujumphira pa phako la pyloric la chiŵaya ca cakurya, inchi yimoza kumalyerero kwa mzere wapakati. Hilum ya impso yiliyose yili pacoko pasi pake. Umaliro wake wa kumazgoji ukukhwaska pafupi na malire ghapasi gha spleen. Kunyuma, ukuyana na chiwangwa cakwamba ca lumbar. * Mzere wachiŵiri ni subcostal line, wakujorwa kufuma pa fundo yapasi comene ya subcostal arch (mbaru yakhumi). Ukuyana na cigaŵa cakuchanya ca chiwangwa cacitatu ca lumbar, ndipo uli pafupifupi inchi yimoza pachanya pa mbwera. Ukulongora pafupifupi transverse colon, maumaliro ghapasi gha maimpso, na malire ghakuchanya gha cigaŵa cacitatu ca duodenum. * Mzere wacitatu ni intertubercular line, wakwenda pakati pa vithuza viŵiri ivyo vikupulikika pa mphepete wakuwaro wa iliac crest, pafupifupi mainchi ghaŵiri na hafu (64 mm) kufuma ku iliac spine ya kunthazi. Mzere uwu ukuyana na thupi la chiwangwa cacinkhonde na cimoza ca lumbar, ndipo ukujumphira pa ileo-caecal valve panji pacoko pachanya pake, apo mala machoko ghakukolerana na mala makuru. Mizere yiŵiri yakwima (mid-Poupart) yikujorwa kufuma pa fundo yapakati-na-kati pa iliac spine ya kunthazi na pubic symphysis, mumphepete zoseŵiri, kuya kuchanya mpaka ku costal margin. * Mzere wakumalyerero ndiwo wakuzirwa comene, chifukwa ileo-caecal valve yili apo ukujumphira intertubercular line. Phako la appendix lili inchi yimoza pasi pake, pa McBurney's point. Kuchanya kwake, mzere uwu ukukumana na transpyloric line pa malire ghapasi gha mbaru, kanandi mbaru yacinkhondi na yimoza, ndipo apa ndimo chiŵaya ca nyongo chilimo. * Mzere wa mid-Poupart wa kumazgoji, mu vigaŵa vitatu vya vinayi vyake vyakuchanya, ukuyana na mphepete wa mkati wa descending colon. Costal margin ya kumalyerero yikuyana na malire ghapasi gha chiwindi. Apo ndomo ya kumalyerero yili pafupifupi hafu ya inchi pachanya pa malire ghake ghakuchanya. ==Magaŵa na vigaŵa== Nthumbo yingagaŵikika mu magaŵa panji vigaŵa kuti vilongosore malo agho chiŵalo panji chinthu chilimo. Kwamba kale, magaŵa ghakulongoseka kuti: kumazgoji kuchanya, kumazgoji kupasi, kumalyerero kuchanya, na kumalyerero kupasi. Magaŵa ghakugwiliskikiraso ntchito pakulongosora malo agho kupweteka kwa nthumbo kulimo.<ref name="saladin">{{Cite book|last=Saladin|first=Kenneth|title=Human Anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomy0000sala_v6k1|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=2011|page=[https://archive.org/details/humananatomy0000sala_v6k1/page/14 14]|isbn=9780071222075}}</ref> Nthumbo yingagaŵikikaso mu vigaŵa vinkhonde, ivyo vikunozgeka mu mizere yitatu na maolamu ghatatu: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- | hypochondriac (kumalyerero) || epigastric || hypochondriac (kumazgoji) |- | lumbar/flank (kumalyerero) || umbilical || lumbar/flank (kumazgoji) |- | inguinal/iliac (kumalyerero) || hypogastric/suprapubic || inguinal/iliac (kumazgoji) |} Mazgu agha ghakufuma mu Chigiriki: "hypo" kung'anamura "pasi" na "epi" kung'anamura "pachanya". "Chondron" kung'anamura "cartilage" (apa nkhu cartilage ya mbaru), ndipo "gaster" kung'anamura "chiŵaya ca cakurya". Kusinthirapo kwa "kumazgoji" na "kumalyerero" nkhwakwenelera, chifukwa mazina agha ghakulongora kumalyerero na kumazgoji kwa mulwari mwene, ntheura nkhwakupinduka pakuwona kwa uyo wakulaŵiska. "Right iliac fossa" (RIF) ni malo ghakuwanda ghakupwetekera ŵalwari awo ŵali na appendicitis. Fossa iyi yikuchemeka nga umo iliac fossa ya chiwangwa ca chiuno yiliri. Ntheura zina lake nlambura kwenelera comene, chifukwa vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangiska kupweteka mu cigaŵa ici nkhwambura kuŵa mu mphako wa iliac fossa yeneyo. Ndipouli, lizgu ili nkhwakugwiliskikira ntchito comene. ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Viŵalo vya nthumbo vingaŵa vyakupambana comene mu vinyama vinyake vyakuyamwiska ŵana. Mwaciyelezgero, chiŵaya ca cakurya ca ruminants (mtundu wa vinyama vyakuyamwiska ŵana uwo ukusazgamo ng'ombe na mberere) chikugaŵikana mu vyipinda vinayi — rumen, reticulum, omasum, na abomasum.<ref name="ruminant">{{Cite book|title=Ruminant|encyclopedia=The Veterinary Dictionary|publisher=Elsevier|year=2007}}</ref> Mu vibawo, nthumbo yikupangika na mbale zakuchanya izo zikuchemeka tergites na mbale zapasi izo zikuchemeka sternites. Vyose vikukolerana na thako likukhora kweni lakuthambalira. Mu tuyuni twa vibawo, nthumbo yili na mzia wakugaya chakurya na viŵalo vyakubabira vya kayuni. Mu tuyuni tunandi, nthumbo yili na vigaŵa likhumi na chimoza. Nangauli mu tuyuni tukuru tunandi tukakura, cigaŵa cakhumi na chimoza chikusoŵa. Unandi wa vigaŵa ivi ukupambana kufuma ku mtundu umoza kuya ku unyake. Mwa njuci yakuwanda, vigaŵa ivyo vikuwoneka ni vinkhonde vyekha. Mu Collembola (tuyuni twakuchemeka springtails), nthumbo yili na vigaŵa vitatandatu pera. Nyengo zinyake, nthumbo njakusintha comene. Mu Apocrita (njuci, masache, na maphiphi), cigaŵa cakwamba ca nthumbo chikukolerana na chifuwa ndipo chikuchemeka propodeum. Mu masache, cigaŵa cachiŵiri chikupanga petiole yakupapa. Masache ghanyake ghali na cigaŵa cinyake cakuchemeka postpetiole, ndipo vigaŵa vyakukhalira vikupanga gaster yakufuluma. Petiole na gaster (vigaŵa vya nthumbo kwamba pa vyaciŵiri) pamoza vikuchemeka metasoma.<ref name="glossary">{{Cite web|title=Glossary of Descriptive Terminology|url=https://desertants.org|access-date=2013-07-08}}</ref> Kupambana na vibawo vinyake, tuyuni twakura tulije malundi pa nthumbo. Nangauli Protura yili na viŵalo vichoko vyakuyana na malundi pa vigaŵa vitatu vyakwamba vya nthumbo. Archaeognatha nayo yili na "styli" zichoko izo nyengo zinyake zikuwoneka kuti ni viŵalo vichoko vyakuyambirira. Tuyuni tunandi tukuchali twa larva, kusazgapo Lepidoptera na Symphyta, tuli na viŵalo vyakupepuka vyakuchemeka prolegs pa vigaŵa vya nthumbo, kuwonjezgapo malundi ghawo ghakumanyikwa comene gha pa chifuwa. Ivi vikuvwira kukolerana na mphepete za masamba pakwenda kwawo. Mu arachnids (nkhwakala, chiŵelu, na vibawo vyakuyana navyo), lizgu "nthumbo" likugwiliskikira ntchito pamoza na "opisthosoma" ("thupi lakumanyuma"). Ici ni cigaŵa ca thupi ico chili kunyuma kwa cigaŵa ico chili na malundi na mutu (prosoma panji cephalothorax). ==Wonaniso== * [[Chifuwa]] * [[Chiuno]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist}} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 1pyqkwvvpht8o53ldh0kr81v8q180oi 0 49725 123161 122494 2026-10-08T16:44:54Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123161 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi panji mphambano icho chili mumphepete mwa chiuno}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Chiuno |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Hip.jpg|220px|Mafupa gha cigaŵa ca chiuno]]<br/><small>Mafupa gha cigaŵa ca chiuno</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''coxa'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D006615 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.2.08.005 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24964 |} '''Chiuno''' panji ''coxa'' (mu uganga) ni cigaŵa ca thupi panji mphambano icho chili mumphepete mwa chiuno. Cigaŵa ca chiuno chili mumphepete na kunthazi kwa mbombo, pasi pa iliac crest, na mumphepete mwa obturator foramen. Minofu na vinjiri vikuvundikira greater trochanter ya fupa la chigha. Mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima, mafupa ghatatu gha chiuno (ilium, ischium, na pubis) ghakukolerana kuŵa fupa limoza, ilo likupanga khoma la mkati la cigaŵa ca chiuno. Mphambano wa chiuno, uwo mu sayansi ukuchemeka acetabulofemoral joint, ni mphambano wa mpira na thumba (ball-and-socket joint) wapakati pa acetabulum ya chiuno na mutu wa fupa la chigha. Nchito yake yikuru ni kunyamula uzito wa thupi, kwenerakwene apo munthu wimilira panji wakwenda panji wakucimbira. Mphambano wa chiuno ukovwiraso pakukhozgera kwimilira makola na kukhazikika kwa chiuno. Kupweteka kwa chiuno kungiza chifukwa cha masuzgo gha mizirwe, gha mafupa, gha maka, gha kupwetekeka, panji gha kupokelera. ==Mafupa na mphambano== [[File:Hueftgelenk-gesund.jpg|thumb|Cithuzi ca X-ray ca mphambano wa chiuno wamoyo makora]] Mafupa ghatatu gha chiuno — ilium, ischium, na pubis — ghakukolerana pamoza kupanga thumba la acetabulum, ilo likupokelera mutu wa fupa la chigha. Mu ŵana, thako la kukura lakuwoneka nga chibonachibona (triradiate cartilage) likupambanikizga mafupa ghatatu agha; likukolerana comene pakati pa vyaka 14 na 16. Acetabulum yikulaŵiskira pasi na kunthazi-mumphepete. Yikukola pafupifupi hafu ya mutu wa fupa la chigha. Mumphepete mwake muli acetabular labrum, cigaŵa cakuzingilira cakuwoneka nga chibvunda ico chikuwonjezgapo kutali kwa thumba. Pakati pa acetabulum pali fovea, iyo yikukolerananga yayi na mutu wa fupa la chigha, ndipo yili na mafuta na kukolerana na ligamentum teres. Kupendeka kwa acetabulum kukumanyikwa kwizira mu vipimo vinandi ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito mu uganga, nga umo ni acetabular angle (Sharp's angle), sagittal angle, Hilgenreiner angle, Wiberg's centre-edge angle, na VCA angle.<ref name="lequesne"/> Vipimo ivi vikusintha na vyaka vya munthu, ndipo vikovwira kumanya usange acetabulum yajintha makora panji yayi.<ref name="saikia"/> ==Mutu na singo la fupa la chigha== [[File:Coxa-valga-norma-vara-000.svg|thumb|Kusintha kwa mzere wa trabecular pakusintha kwa CCD angle]] Mutu wa fupa la chigha uli wa mphinjika, wakuŵa na radius ya masentimita pafupifupi 2.5. Ukukolerana na thupi la fupa kwizira mu singo lichoko, ilo lingatimbanyika mwaphesya mwa ŵanthu ŵalara, comenecomene chifukwa cha osteoporosis. Pakati pa singo na thupi la fupa la chigha pali kupendeka kuchemeka caput-collum-diaphyseal (CCD) angle. Mu ŵana ŵaŵanda kupendeka uku nkhukuru comene, kweni mwa ŵanthu ŵakukhwima nkhwa madigiri pafupifupi 126 (ico chikuchemeka "coxa norma"). Usange kupendeka nkhuchoko comene, ici chikuchemeka coxa vara; usange nkhukuru comene, chikuchemeka coxa valga. Kupendeka uku kukukhwaska umo nkhongono yikwendera mu fupa, na umo trabecular bone yikupangikira mkati mwa fupa.<ref name="thieme2015"/> ==Thumba la mphambano== Mphambano wa chiuno uli na thumba likukhora kweni lakuthambalira, ilo likuvomerezga muwendero wamuzitali comene kuluska mphambano yiliyose mu thupi kwambura mphambano ya bega. Nangauli, thumba ili likukhozgekabe kunyamula uzito wa thupi. Thumba ili likukolerana ku mumphepete mwa acetabulum, ku acetabular labrum, na ku transverse acetabular ligament. Kunyake, likukolerana ku ma trochanter gha fupa la chigha na ku intertrochanteric line kunthazi, na ku malo pafupi na intertrochanteric crest kunyuma. Kufuma pa malo agha kunyuma, vinjiri vya thumba vikuwelera kuluta ku acetabulum kuŵa "retinacula", ivyo vikunyamula misambizi ya ndopa kuluta ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Vinjiri vinyake vya thumba vikuzingilira singo la fupa la chigha nga mphete, ivi vikuchemeka zona orbicularis. Zona orbicularis yikovwira kukoleska mutu wa fupa la chigha mkati mwa acetabulum. ==Ligament== [[File:Gray339.png|thumb|Ligament zakuwaro kwa thumba, kulaŵiskira kunthazi]] Muli ligament zinayi izo zikukhozgera mphambano wa chiuno: zitatu zili kuwaro kwa thumba, ndipo yimoza yili mkati mwake. Ku wuwaro: *'''Iliofemoral ligament''' (ligament ya Bigelow) — ndiyo ligament yankhongono comene mu thupi la munthu. Yili na muwoneskero wa chikwana C, ndipo yikuvikilira thupi kuti lireke kuwa kunyuma para munthu wimilira, kwambura kukhumbikwa kwa nkhongono ya minofu. *'''Ischiofemoral ligament''' — yikuvikilira kuti chiuno chireke kunyoloka comene. *'''Pubofemoral ligament''' — yikuvikilira kuti chiuno chireke kupatukana panji kunyoloka comene. Ligament izi zitatu zikukhozgeka comene para chiuno chanyoloka, ntheura zikupungura nkhongono iyo minofu yikukhumbikwa kuti munthu wimilire.<ref name="moore"/> Mkati mwa thumba muli: *'''Ligamentum teres''' — yikukolerana pakati pa acetabulum na fovea ya mutu wa fupa la chigha. Yikukhozgeka pera para chiuno chaguka pa malo pake. Nchito yake yikuru ni kunyamula msambizi wichoko wa ndopa (foveal artery) uwo ukupeleka ndopa ku mutu wa fupa la chigha, comenecomene mwa ŵana ŵakuti singo la fupa lawonongeka. ==Thako na fascia== Vyanya vya mphambano vikuvundikirika na thako likukhora, lakusenderezgeka la cartilage, ilo likovwira kuti vyanya vireke kukwaskana mwakukalipa. Mumphepete mwa chiuno, fascia lata yikukhora kupanga iliotibial tract, iyo yikupungura nkhongono iyo yikukwaska fupa la chigha. Chifukwa fupa la chigha lavundikirika comene na minofu, greater trochanter ndico cinthu cimoza pera ico ŵanthu ŵangakhwaska pachanya pa thupi mu cigaŵa ca chiuno. ==Ndopa== Chiuno chikupokelera ndopa comenecomene kwizira mu medial circumflex femoral artery na lateral circumflex femoral artery, izo zikufuma mu profunda femoris panji mu femoral artery. Foveal artery, msambizi uwo ukujumphira mu ligamentum teres, ukupelekaso ndopa yichoko ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Misambizi iyi yikukolerana pamoza kuti yiŵe cruciate anastomosis na trochanteric anastomosis, ndipo trochanteric anastomosis ndiyo yikupeleka ndopa yinandi ku mutu wa fupa la chigha. Usange singo la fupa la chigha latimbanyika, misambizi iyi yingadumulika. Pa nyengo iyi, foveal artery yingaŵa yekha iyo yikupeleka ndopa ku mutu wa fupa la chigha, ntheura kunyamula ndopa uku nkhwakuzirwa comene kuvikilira kufwa kwa thako la fupa (avascular necrosis), comenecomene mwa ŵana.<ref name="statpearls"/> ==Minofu== Minofu yinandi yikukhwaska mphambano wa chiuno, uku yikupanga kupinda (flexion), kunyoloka (extension), kupatukana (abduction), kukolerana (adduction), na kuzungusika (rotation). Minofu ya kupinda chiuno yikusazgapo iliopsoas, tensor fasciae latae, pectineus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, gracilis, rectus femoris, na sartorius. Minofu ya kunyoloka yikusazgapo gluteus maximus, vinjiri vya kunyuma vya gluteus medius na gluteus minimus, adductor magnus, piriformis, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, na biceps femoris. Minofu ya kupatukana yikusazgapo gluteus medius, tensor fasciae latae, gluteus maximus, gluteus minimus, piriformis, na obturator internus. Minofu ya kukolerana yikusazgapo adductor magnus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, gluteus maximus, gracilis, pectineus, quadratus femoris, na obturator externus. Minofu ya kuzungusika kuwaro yikusazgapo gluteus maximus, quadratus femoris, obturator internus, obturator externus, na vinyake vinandi. Minofu ya kuzungusika mkati yikusazgapo vinjiri vyakunthazi vya gluteus medius na gluteus minimus, na tensor fasciae latae. ==Muwendero wa mphambano== Chiuno chingapinda (flexion) mpaka madigiri 140. Chingapinduka kunyuma (extension) mpaka madigiri 20, apo iliofemoral ligament yikwimikapo. Chingazungusika kuwaro (external rotation) mpaka madigiri 30 apo chiuno chanyoloka, panji mpaka madigiri 50 apo chapindika. Chingazungusika mkati (internal rotation) mpaka madigiri 40. Chingapatukana (abduction) mpaka madigiri 50 apo chanyoloka, panji mpaka madigiri 80 apo chapindika. Chingakolerana (adduction) mpaka madigiri 30 apo chanyoloka, panji madigiri 20 apo chapindika. Kuzungulushika (circumduction) ni muwendero uwo ukukolezgapo kupinda, kunyoloka, kupatukana, na kukolerana pamoza. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la chiuno (hip fracture) ni kutimbanyika kwa fupa la chigha pachanya pake. Vimanyikwiro vyake vikusazgapo kupweteka kwa chiuno, kwenerakwene para munthu wenda, na kufupika kwa lundi. Singo la fupa la chigha likutimbanyika mwaphesya mwa ŵanthu ŵalara, comenecomene chifukwa cha osteoporosis.<ref name="orthoinfo"/> Kusintha chiuno (hip replacement panji arthroplasty) ni nthowa ya opaleshoni iyo yingagwiliskikira ntchito kunozga kutimbanyika kwa fupa panji nthenda ya osteoarthritis. Hip dysplasia ni kupendeka kwambura kwenelera kwa acetabulum, ico chingapangiska mutu wa fupa la chigha kuguka pang'ono (subluxation) panji kunanga kwa acetabular labrum.<ref name="setia"/> Usange acetabulum yavundikira mutu wa fupa comene, ici chingapangiska femoroacetabular impingement.<ref name="mannava"/> ==Kupambana pakati pa mwanalume na mwanakazi== Kupambana na vinyama vinyake vinandi, mafupa gha chiuno gha munthu ghakupambana comene pakati pa mwanalume na mwanakazi. Viuno vya mwanakazi vikutandalika pa nyengo ya kukura. Mafupa gha chigha gha mwanakazi ghali kutali comene, ici chikuwongolera kutandalika kwa mulyango wa chiuno kuti kovwire pakubaba mwana. Ilium na minofu yake mwa mwanakazi vikupangika munjila yakupambana, kuti mabele gha kunyuma ghaŵe kutali na nthowa ya kubaba, mwakuti kukolerana kwa minofu iyi pa nyengo ya kubaba kureke kupwetekera mwana. Viuno vitandalika vikuwoneka kuti nkhwakovwira pakubaba mwana, ndiposo kanandi vikuwoneka kuti ni cimanyikwiro ca umaliro wa unyamwali, ndipo kwa vyaka vinandi vyaŵa cakukhumbika mu muwoneskero wa mwanakazi. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== [[File:Canova-Dancer with her hands on her hips 45degree view.jpg|thumb|Ŵakuvina kanandi ŵakwimilira na mawoko pa chiuno]] Viuno vya mwanakazi vyakolerananga na vyakubaba ŵana na muwoneskero wa unyamwali kwa nyengo yitali. Muwoneskero wa ŵanakazi mu vithuzi, mu vithuzi vyakujorwa, panji mu vithuzi vyakukoperezgeka kanandi vikulongora viuno vyawo comene. Vyakuvwara vya ŵanakazi mu mbiri yicharu vyanandi vyakuwongolera maso ku ukuru wa chiuno. ==Ng'anamuro la lizgu== Mu Chilatini, lizgu "coxa" likagwiliskikira ntchito na Celsus kung'anamura "chiuno", kweni Pliny Mkuru wakaligwiliskira kung'anamura "fupa la chiuno". Mu Chigiriki, lizgu ili likuchemeka "ischío". ==Wonaniso== *[[Luwunda]] *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Chigha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="lequesne">{{Cite journal|last=Lequesne|first=M.|title=The normal hip joint space: variations in width, shape, and architecture on 223 pelvic radiographs|journal=Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases|volume=63|issue=9|pages=1145–1151|year=2004|doi=10.1136/ard.2003.018424|pmid=15308525}}</ref> <ref name="saikia">{{Cite journal|last1=Saikia|first1=K.C.|title=Anthropometric study of the hip joint in northeastern region population with computed tomography scan|journal=Indian Journal of Orthopaedics|volume=42|issue=3|date=July 2008|doi=10.4103/0019-5413.39572|pmid=19753150}}</ref> <ref name="thieme2015">{{Cite book|last1=Schuenke|first1=M.|last2=Schulte|first2=E.|last3=Schumacher|first3=U.|title=THIEME Atlas of Anatomy – Vol. 1: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System|edition=2nd|publisher=Thieme Medical Publishers|year=2015|page=439|isbn=978-1-60406-923-5}}</ref> <ref name="statpearls">{{Cite web|last1=Gold|first1=M.|last2=Munjal|first2=A.|last3=Varacallo|first3=M.|title=Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb, Hip Joint|publisher=StatPearls|year=2021|pmid=29262200|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470555/}}</ref> <ref name="moore">{{Cite book|last=Moore|first=Keith L.|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicallyorient0000moor_t4j3|edition=8th|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=Philadelphia|year=2018|page=[https://archive.org/details/clinicallyorient0000moor_t4j3/page/728 728]|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="orthoinfo">{{Cite web|title=Hip Fractures|publisher=OrthoInfo (AAOS)|date=April 2009|url=http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00392|access-date=2017-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629225405/http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00392|archive-date=2017-06-29}}</ref> <ref name="setia">{{Cite web|last1=Setia|first1=Rahul|last2=Gaillard|first2=Frank|title=Developmental dysplasia of the hip|publisher=Radiopaedia|date=2008-05-02|url=https://radiopaedia.org/articles/developmental-dysplasia-of-the-hip}}</ref> <ref name="mannava">{{Cite journal|last1=Mannava|first1=S.|title=Comprehensive Clinical Evaluation of Femoroacetabular Impingement, Part 2: Plain Radiography|journal=Arthroscopy Techniques|volume=6|issue=5|pages=e2003–e2009|date=October 2017|doi=10.1016/j.eats.2017.06.011|pmid=29399468}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] f6jbcew5lhll4vluzxai93ogbnv7blr 0 49729 123155 122312 2026-10-08T16:35:04Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123155 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cimanyikwiro pa nthumbo apo mzati wa mbwera ukakolerananga}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Mbwera |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Human navel, female.jpg|220px|Mbwera ni cimanyikwiro cakutuwa, cakupapatala, panji cakunjilira mkati, ico chikukhalako pamanyuma pa mzati wa mbwera kudumuka]]<br/><small>Mbwera ni cimanyikwiro cakutuwa, cakupapatala, panji cakunjilira mkati, ico chikukhalako pamanyuma pa mzati wa mbwera kudumuka</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''umbilicus'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D014472 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.2.04.005 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |61584 |} '''Mbwera''' (mu uganga: ''umbilicus'') ni cimanyikwiro pa nthumbo, cakutuwa panji cakunjilira mkati, apo mzati wa mbwera ukakolerananga na mwana pa nyengo ya nthumbo. Mbwera yikugwiliskikira ntchito kupatura nthumbo mu magaŵa. Ni cimanyikwiro icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali nacho pa malo ghakoleranako, ndipo khungu la mumphepete mwa luwunda pa cigaŵa ca mbwera likutumizgika na mzirwe wa T10 (mzirwe wakhumi wa msana wa cifuwa). Mbwera yikuŵapo pafupifupi pa cigaŵa apo chiwangwa cacitatu na cacinayi cha msana (L3 na L4) vikukolerana, nangauli mwa ŵanthu ŵanyake yingaŵapo kufuma pa L3 mpaka L5.<ref name="khati"/> Mbwera ya munthu mzimu yili na vigaŵa. Pakati pake pali cimanyikwiro cakutuwa cakuchemeka "cikola ca mzati", ico ncimanyikwiro cakusazgika para mzati wa mbwera wadumuka. Kuzingilira cikola ici muli mphete yakukhora yakuchemeka "kola la mbwera". Kuzingilira kola ili muli khungu la mumphepete mwa mbwera. Kunyuma kwa mbwera muli mzati wakukhora wakuchemeka urachus, uwo ukufuma ku chiŵaya ca mkodzo. Chifukwa mbwera njakusazgika, njakupambana pa munthu waliyose. ==Mitundu ya mbwera== [[File:T-shaped navel.jpg|thumb|220px|Mbwera ya muwoneskero wa "T"]] Mbwera yingapambanikizgika mu magaŵa ghaŵiri ghakuru: mbwera yakutupa (yikuchemekaso "outie") na mbwera yakunjilira mkati (yikuchemekaso "innie"). Mbwera yakutupa ni iyo cikola ca mzati chikutuwa kuluska khungu la mumphepete mwa mbwera; mbwera yakunjilira mkati ni iyo cikola ca mzati chikutuwa yayi. Muli mitundu yinandi yakupambanikizgika comene, nga umo ni: mbwera yakuzingoka yikuru (round), mbwera yakutandalika kwima (vertical), mbwera yakupapatala (oval), mbwera ya muwoneskero wa "T", mbwera yakutandalika mumphepete (horizontal, iyo yikuwoneka pang'ono comene), mbwera yambura muwoneskero wakwenelera (distorted), mbwera yakuzingilizgika nga chizunguzungu (spiral), na mbwera yakugaŵikamo kuŵa viŵiri na mphuvya (split). Munyake, mbwera yingaŵa yakutuwa yose kwambura kuvundikika (protrusion), panji yingaŵa na mphuvya yicoko pakati pa cikola ca mzati kwambura kudumulapo khungu la kunja (circlet). ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Mbwera yakutupa yikupambana na hernia ya mbwera (umbilical hernia); hernia yikuŵapo usange cigaŵa cakutuwa chili na masentimita 5 panji kuluska.<ref name="meier"/> Muwoneskero wa mbwera ungasintha chifukwa cha kunenepa panji kuzenga thupi, kweni kusintha kwambura kumanyikwa ya cifukwa kungaŵa cimanyikwiro ca ascites (ndopa yakuwungana mu nthumbo). Mbwera yingaŵaso na umbilical sinus panji fistula, ivyo pa nyengo zinyake vingapangiska mvuchi wa nthenda za mwanakazi panji mafunthi kufuma mu mbwera, comenecomene chifukwa cha umbilical endometriosis.<ref name="bagade"/> Omphalitis ni kufuma kwa maka mu mbwera ya mwana mwanchanda, kanandi chifukwa cha tizirombo twakupangiska maka. Nthenda zinyake za kanthendere zingasazgikako kunanga kwa mbwera (umbilical metastases).<ref name="gabriele"/> Kafukufuku wasangaso kuti mbwera njakukhalamo tizirombo tuchoko (bacteria) twakupambanapambana comene pa munthu waliyose.<ref name="moreau"/> ==Mbwera mu opaleshoni== Kuti opaleshoni yireke kusazgapo cimanyikwiro cikuru, mbwera nyengo zinyake yikugwiliskikira ntchito nga malo gha kudumulira, nga umo ni pakuwuska appendix, chiŵaya ca nyongo, panji pa opaleshoni ya umbilicoplasty payekha.<ref name="kaehler"/><ref name="bruekers"/> ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Vinyama vyose ivyo vikubaba ŵana kwizira mu placenta vili na mbwera, nangauli mwa munthu njakuwoneka comene kuluska mwa vinyama vinyake. Vinyama ivyo vikubaba ŵana ŵamoyo vili na mbwera yakuzingoka nga umo ili mwa munthu, kweni mu vinyama ivyo vikutumbuka mazira (nga ni tuyuni), mbwera njakuwoneka nga mphuvya yakwima pa nthumbo. Muli so cizimba ca dinosaur (Psittacosaurus) ico chikasangika na mbwera iyo yikawoneka nga ya vinyama ivyo vikutumbuka mazira. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Kufumiska pakuwaro mbwera na cigaŵa ca nthumbo kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukaŵa kwakuzomerezgeka yayi mu vikhalidwe vinyake vya ku Yuropu na ku America kwa nyengo yakale, ndipo kukawoneka nga kwambura mchindi. Mu malo ghanyake, kufumiska mbwera ya mwanakazi kukajalikizgika na malango, kweni maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ghasintha sono. Vyakuvwara nga ni crop top, ivyo vikufumiska mbwera na nthumbo, vyaŵa vyakuzomerezgeka comene mwa ŵanyamata. Mbwera na nthumbo vikuwoneka soso mu vyakuvwara vya sono nga ni bikini panji mavwalero ghakukwelera pasi pa nthumbo. Ku India, kufumiska mbwera na nthumbo kwaŵa kwakuzomerezgeka nyengo yitali, kwenerakwene mwa ŵanakazi ŵakuvwara sari.<ref name="banerjee"/> Ku Japan, mu nyengo yakale ya Jōmon, viwuni vitatu vichoko vikawikikanga pa vinthu vya dongo kulongora mabele na mbwera, kulongora muwoneskero wa mwanakazi. Mbwera yikakuzgika kuŵa yikuru comene, chifukwa cha kukhulupilira kuti mbwera ndiyo malo agho umoyo ukwambira.<ref name="naumann"/> Mu chikhalidwe ca ku Arabia na ku Levant, kuvina kwa belly dance ni mzimu wakuzomerezgeka uwo ukukhwaska comene nthumbo na mbwera. Mu Buddhism na Hinduism, chakra ya pa mbwera yikuchemeka manipura. Mu Hinduism, nkhongono ya kundalini nyengo zinyake yikuyowoyeka kuti yili pa mbwera. Mu qigong, mbwera yikuwoneka kuti ndiyo malo ghakuru gha nkhongono, ghakuchemeka dantian. ==Wonaniso== *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Luwunda]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="khati">{{Cite journal|last1=Khati|first1=Nadia J.|last2=Enquist|first2=Erik G.|last3=Javitt|first3=Marcia C.|title=Imaging of the Umbilicus and Periumbilical Region|journal=Radiographics|volume=18|issue=2|pages=413–431|year=1998|doi=10.1148/radiographics.18.2.9536487|pmid=9536487}}</ref> <ref name="meier">{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=Donald E.|last2=OlaOlorun|first2=David A.|last3=Omodele|first3=Rachael A.|last4=Nkor|first4=Sunday K.|last5=Tarpley|first5=John L.|title=Incidence of Umbilical Hernia in African Children: Redefinition of "Normal" and Reevaluation of Indications for Repair|journal=World Journal of Surgery|volume=25|issue=5|pages=645–648|year=2001|doi=10.1007/s002680020072|pmid=11369993}}</ref> <ref name="bagade">{{Cite journal|last1=Bagade|first1=Pallavi V.|last2=Guirguis|first2=Mamdouh M.|title=Menstruating from the umbilicus as a rare case of primary umbilical endometriosis: a case report|journal=Journal of Medical Case Reports|volume=3|pages=9326|year=2009|doi=10.1186/1752-1947-3-9326|pmid=20062755}}</ref> <ref name="gabriele">{{Cite journal|last1=Gabriele|first1=Raimondo|last2=Conte|first2=Marco|last3=Egidi|first3=Federico|last4=Borghese|first4=Mario|title=Umbilical metastases: current viewpoint|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=13|year=2005|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-13|pmid=15723695}}</ref> <ref name="moreau">{{Cite journal|last1=Moreau|first1=Corrie S.|last2=Hulcr|first2=Jiri|last3=Latimer|first3=Andrew M.|last4=Henley|first4=Jessica B.|last5=Rountree|first5=Nina R.|last6=Fierer|first6=Noah|last7=Lucky|first7=Andrea|last8=Lowman|first8=Margaret D.|last9=Dunn|first9=Robert R.|title=A Jungle in There: Bacteria in Belly Buttons are Highly Diverse, but Predictable|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=11|pages=e47712|year=2012|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0047712|pmid=23144827}}</ref> <ref name="kaehler">{{Cite journal|last1=Kaehler|first1=G.|last2=Schoenberg|first2=M. B.|last3=Kienle|first3=P.|last4=Post|first4=S.|last5=Magdeburg|first5=R.|title=Transgastric appendicectomy|journal=British Journal of Surgery|volume=100|issue=7|pages=911–915|year=2013|doi=10.1002/bjs.9115|pmid=23575528}}</ref> <ref name="bruekers">{{Cite journal|last1=Bruekers|first1=Sven E.|last2=van der Lei|first2=Berend|last3=Tan|first3=Tik L.|last4=Luijendijk|first4=Roland W.|last5=Stevens|first5=Hieronymus P. J. D.|title="Scarless" Umbilicoplasty|journal=Annals of Plastic Surgery|volume=63|issue=1|pages=15–20|year=2009|doi=10.1097/SAP.0b013e3181877b60|pmid=19546666}}</ref> <ref name="naumann">{{Cite book|last=Naumann|first=Nelly|chapter=First Indications of Symbolic Expression|title=Japanese Prehistory: The Material and Spiritual Culture of the Jōmon Period|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2000|pages=114–115|isbn=978-3-447-04329-8}}</ref> <ref name="banerjee">{{Cite book|last1=Banerjee|first1=Mukulika|last2=Miller|first2=Daniel|title=The Sari|url=https://archive.org/details/sari0000bane|publisher=Berg|year=2003|isbn=1-85973-732-3}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] qblvft2xyqp1wuepzvd3itzlcu5y9q5 0 49730 123170 122723 2026-10-08T17:30:24Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123170 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mfumo wa viŵalo vya thupi ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito pakubabira}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Viŵalo vyakubabira |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Didactic model of a mammal urogenital system-FMVZ USP-17.jpeg|220px|Cizinganya cakusambizgira cakulongora mfumo wa viŵalo vyakubabira na vya mkodzo mwa cinyama]]<br/><small>Cizinganya cakusambizgira cakulongora mfumo wa viŵalo vyakubabira na vya mkodzo mwa cinyama</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''systemata genitalia'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A09.0.00.000 |} '''Viŵalo vyakubabira''' (mfumo wa kubabira) ni viŵalo vyose vya thupi ivyo vikukolerana pakupanga ŵana. Vinthu ivyo navyo mbambura kuŵa vamoyo, nga ni madzi, mahomoni, na sungho, navyo vikovwira comene pa nchito ya kubabira. Kupambana na mifumo yinyake ya thupi, mwanalume na mwanakazi ŵakuŵa na kupambana kukuru pa viŵalo vyawo vyakubabira, ndipo kupambana uku nkhwakovwira kuti mbeŵu za mwanalume na za mwanakazi zikolerane, kupeleka mwana wakuzenga makola. Mwa ŵanthu na vinyama vinyake ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, viŵalo vikuru vya kubabira vikusazgapo viŵalo vyakuwaro (penis na vulva) pamoza na viŵalo vyinandi vya mkati, kusazgapo gonads izo zikupanga mbeŵu za kubabira. Nthenda za viŵalo vyakubabira ni zakuzomerezgeka comene mu charu chose, comenecomene nthenda izo zikupokerana kwizira mu vyakukolerana kwa thupi.<ref name="cdc"/> ==Viŵalo vya mwanalume== Viŵalo vya kubabira vya mwanalume vili kuwaro kwa thupi, mumphepete mwa chiuno. Nchito yawo yikuru ni kupeleka mbeŵu izo zingakolerane na zira la mwanakazi. Viŵalo ivi vingagaŵikika mu magaŵa ghatatu: *'''Kupanga na kusunga mbeŵu''': mbeŵu zikupangika mu testicle, ivyo vili mu scrotum iyo yikukhozgera thelezi la nyengo. Mbeŵu zichali kukura zikuluta ku epididymis kuti zikure makora na kusungikamo. *'''Chiŵaya izo zikupanga madzi ghakukolerana na mbeŵu''': kusazgapo seminal vesicle, prostate, na vas deferens. *'''Viŵalo vyakukolerana na kupeleka mbeŵu mu mwanakazi''': kusazgapo penis, urethra, na Cowper's gland. Mwanalume ŵakukula ŵakupanga vimanyikwiro vyakupambana nga ni thupi likuru na la nkhongono, mazgu ghakunenepa, ŵere pa cisko na pa thupi, mapewa ghakutandalika, na kukura kwa Adam's apple. Mahomoni gha mwanalume, nga ni testosterone, ndigho ghakupangiska vipambaniro ivi. Testicle zikutuzga homoni iyo yikwendeska kukura kwa mbeŵu na kusintha kwa thupi pa nyengo ya unyamata. ==Viŵalo vya mwanakazi== Viŵalo vya kubabira vya mwanakazi vili comenecomene mkati mwa thupi, mumphepete mwa chiuno. Vili na vigaŵa vitatu vikuru: vulva, iyo yikuluta ku vagina; chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo, ico chikutolera mwana wakukura; na viŵaya vya mazira, ivyo vikupanga mazira gha mwanakazi. Mabele ghakovwira pakulera mwana kweni ghakuŵikikanga yayi nga chiŵalo cha kubabira. Vagina yikukolerana na viŵalo vyakuwaro pa vulva, iyo yiliso na labia, clitoris, na urethra. Chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo chikukolerana na vagina kwizira mu mulyango wake, ndipo chikukolerananso na viŵaya vya mazira kwizira mu nthowa za mazira. Pa nyengo zakwenelera, chiŵaya ca mazira chikutuzga zira limoza kuluta mu nthowa ya mazira, ndipo zira ili likuluta ku chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo. Pafupifupi mazuŵa 28 ghaliyose, chiŵaya ca pasi pa ubongo chikutuzga homoni iyo yikupangiska mazira ghanyake kukura. Zira limoza likutuzgika na kujumphira mu nthowa ya mazira; mahomoni kufuma mu viŵaya vya mazira ghakunozgeraso chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo kuti chipokelere zira. Usange zira likolerane yayi na mbeŵu, thako lakukolerana na zira (endometrium) na zira lambura kukolerana vikutayikira kunja pa nyengo ya nthenda ya mwezi. Usange zira likolerane na mbeŵu, likukolerana na khoma la chiŵalo ca kutolera nthumbo, ndipo kukura kwa mwana kukwamba. ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== [[File:Joey in pouch.jpg|thumb|220px|Mwana wa kangaroo (joey) wakuyamwa mu thumba la nyuma la mama wake]] Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana vili na viŵalo vyakubabira vyakuyana na vya munthu, nangauli muli kupambana kwake.<ref name="hyman"/> Ŵanalume ŵa vinyama vinandi vili na baculum (fupa la mu penis), ilo munthu walije.<ref name="schultz"/> Malo agho testicle zikuŵapo ghakupambana: mu vinyama vinandi zikutolokera mu scrotum, mu vinyake zikukhala pa khoma la nthumbo, ndipo mu vinyama vinyake nga ni njobvu, zikukhalilira mkati mwa nthumbo pafupi na maimpso.<ref name="werdelin"/> Marsupial (nga ni kangaroo) ni vinyama vyapadera: mwanakazi wake wali na vagina ziŵiri, ndipo mwanalume wali na penis yakugaŵikamo kuŵa ziŵiri. Ŵana ŵakubabika ŵali ŵachoko comene, ndipo ŵakukwerera mu thumba la nyuma la mama wawo, mwakuŵa nkhukura.<ref name="tyndale"/> Tuyuni tuli na cloaca, njira yimoza iyo mazira, mbeŵu, na taka vikujumphirako. Kanandi tuyuni twanakazi tuli na chiŵaya cimoza pera ca mazira. Vibawo (reptiles) navyo vikugwiliskira ntchito cloaca, ndipo viŵalo vyawo vyakukolerana kanandi vikusungika mkati mwa thupi. Somba (fish) zikutuzga mazira ghanandi mu madzi (spawn), ndipo ŵanalume ŵakutuzgapo madzi ghakuŵamo mbeŵu (milt) pachanya pa mazira agha kuti ghakolerane kuwaro kwa thupi. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiuno]] *[[Nthumbo]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="werdelin">{{Cite journal|last1=Werdelin|first1=L.|last2=Nilsonne|first2=A.|title=The evolution of the scrotum and testicular descent in mammals: a phylogenetic view|journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology|volume=196|issue=1|pages=61–72|year=1999|doi=10.1006/jtbi.1998.0821|pmid=9892556}}</ref> <ref name="schultz">{{Cite journal|last1=Schultz|first1=Nicholas G.|title=The baculum was gained and lost multiple times during mammalian evolution|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology|volume=56|issue=4|pages=644–656}}</ref> <ref name="tyndale">{{Cite book|last=Tyndale-Biscoe|first=C. Hugh|title=Life of Marsupials|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofmarsupials0000tynd_v5m5|publisher=CSIRO Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-643-06257-3}}</ref> <ref name="hyman">{{Cite book|last=Hyman|first=Libbie Henrietta|title=Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/hymanscomparativ0000hyma_n8q9|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-226-87013-7}}</ref> <ref name="cdc">{{Cite web|title=STDs Today|publisher=National Prevention Network, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|url=http://www.cdcnpin.org/scripts/std/std.asp|access-date=2026-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025182016/http://www.cdcnpin.org/scripts/std/std.asp|archive-date=2014-10-25}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 6q9j7fcckrzgjfd64ycl8fec9mxq5dc 0 49741 123152 122305 2026-10-08T16:32:39Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123152 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca woko icho chili pakati pa chigongono na woko}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Woko la pasi |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Forearm labeled.png|150px|Woko la pasi likulongoreka mu utoto wa magenta]]<br/><small>Woko la pasi likulongoreka mu utoto wa magenta</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''antebrachium'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.1.00.024 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |146 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |9663 |} '''Woko la pasi''' ni cigaŵa ca woko lakuchanya icho chili pakati pa chigongono na woko. Lizgu "woko la pasi" likugwiliskikira ntchito mu sayansi ya thupi kuti lipambanyike na "woko", ilo likung'anamura woko lose kufuma ku bega kufika ku woko, kweni pa nyengo zinandi, comenecomene mu kuyowoya kwa zuŵa na zuŵa, lizgu "woko" likugwiliskikirapo kung'anamura woko la pasi pelapera. Woko la pasi likuyana na munkhoza, ico ni cigaŵa ca lundi ico chili pakati pa khongono na kalundi. ==Muundo== [[File:Radius and Ulna - Forearm Bones.jpg|thumb|Mafupa gha woko la pasi, ''radius'' kumaso na ''ulna'' kuwaro]] Woko la pasi lili na mafupa ghatali ghaŵiri — ''radius'' (ilo lili mumphepete wa chala cikuru) na ''ulna'' (ilo lili mumphepete wa chala cichoko) — ghakukolerana mu vitali vyawo na ''interosseous membrane'', ndipo ghakukolerananso pa mphambano ziŵiri, yakuchanya na yakupasi, izo zikuchemeka ''proximal radioulnar joint'' na ''distal radioulnar joint''.<ref name="grays"/> Khungu la mumphepete wakunthazi wa woko la pasi (uwo ukulaŵiskira uko dzanja likujintha) kanandi nlakuŵa na tsitsi lichoko comene na kusuzgika kukhwaska kuluska khungu la mumphepete wakunyuma. ==Mafupa== ''Radius'' yikukolerana kuchanya na fupa la woko lakuchanya (pa ''capitulum'') na na ''ulna'' (pa ''radial notch''); kupasi yikukolerana na ''ulna'' (pa ''ulnar notch'') na na mafupa gha mumkono (''scaphoid'' na ''lunate''). ''Ulna'' yikukolerana kuchanya na fupa la woko lakuchanya (pa ''trochlea'') na na ''radius''; kupasi yikupanga ''distal radioulnar joint'' na ''radius'', ndipo yikukolerana na mumkono kwizira mu ''triangular fibrocartilage complex'', m'malo mwa kukolerana pe pene na mafupa gha mumkono. ==Minofu== Minofu ya woko la pasi njakunozgeka mu magaŵa ghaŵiri: *'''Cigaŵa cakunthazi''' (minofu ya kupinda na ya kuzungusika mkati, ''pronation'') — yikulongozgeka comenecomene na mzirwe wakuchemeka ''median nerve'', pamoza na cigaŵa cinandi cakufuma ku ''ulnar nerve''. Mu thako lakuwaro muli ''flexor carpi radialis'', ''palmaris longus'', ''flexor carpi ulnaris'', na ''pronator teres''. Mu thako lapakati muli ''flexor digitorum superficialis''. Mu thako lamkati muli ''flexor digitorum profundus'', ''flexor pollicis longus'', na ''pronator quadratus''. *'''Cigaŵa cakunyuma''' (minofu ya kunyoloka na ya kuzungusika kuwaro, ''supination'') — yose yikulongozgeka na ''radial nerve''. Muli ''brachioradialis'' (ilo malo ghake ghakupambanapambana), ''extensor carpi radialis longus'', ''extensor carpi radialis brevis'', ''extensor carpi ulnaris'', ''extensor digitorum'', ''extensor digiti minimi'', ''abductor pollicis longus'', ''extensor pollicis brevis'', ''extensor pollicis longus'', ''extensor indicis'', ''supinator'', na ''anconeus''. Minofu ya kupinda njakukhora comene kuluska minofu ya kunyoloka, chifukwa nchakukhumbikwa nkhongono yikuru pakukamata vinthu mwaukhoma.<ref name="statpearls2"/> ==Ndopa na mizirwe== [[File:Veins of the forearm and hand.jpg|thumb|Mizirwe ya ndopa ya woko la pasi na woko]] Msambizi wa ''radial artery'' na wa ''ulnar artery'', pamoza na vinjiri vyawo, ndivyo vikupeleka ndopa mu woko la pasi, vikwendera comenecomene mumphepete wakunthazi. Misambizi ya ndopa iyo yikuwoneka pachanya pa khungu — ''cephalic vein'', ''median antebrachial vein'', na ''basilic vein'' — ndiyo yikugwiliskikira ntchito pakutola ndopa panji pakuŵika minjizgo. ''Median nerve'' ndiwo ukulongozga minofu yinandi ya cigaŵa cakunthazi; nthowa yake, ''anterior interosseous nerve'', yikulongozga minofu ya mkati ya cigaŵa cakunthazi. ''Ulnar nerve'' ukulongozga ''flexor carpi ulnaris'' na cigaŵa ca ''flexor digitorum profundus''. ''Radial nerve'' ukulongozga cigaŵa cose cakunyuma. ==Muwendero== Pa mphambano ya chigongono, woko la pasi lingapinda na kunyoloka. Kuzungusika mkati (''pronation'') na kuzungusika kuwaro (''supination'') — ivyo vikupangiska dzanja kulaŵiskira pasi panji kulaŵiskira pachanya — vikuchitika kwizira mu kukolerana kwa mphambano ya chigongono na mphambano ya ''distal radioulnar joint'', apo ''radius'' yikuzungazunga kuzingilira ''ulna'' iyo yikukhala cimira. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== [[File:FracRadUlnaMark.png|thumb|Kutimbanyika kwa mafupa gha ''radius'' na ''ulna'' pakati pa woko la pasi]] Kutimbanyika kwa mafupa gha woko la pasi kukupambanikizgika kuŵa kutimbanyika kwa ''radius'' pera, kwa ''ulna'' pera, panji kwa mafupa ghose ghaŵiri pamoza. Mwa ŵana, kutimbanyika kwakuchemeka ''torus'' panji ''buckle fracture'' kukunozgeka makora comene na kukakikira (splinting) kuluska kuŵikikira mu plasta yakukhora yose (casting).<ref name="torus"/> Nthenda yakupokerana mu mbumba yakuchemeka ''hereditary multiple exostoses'' (panji ''multiple osteochondromas'') yingasokoneza kukura kwa mafupa gha woko la pasi mu vigaŵa vyakukulira (''epiphyses''), na kupangiska kukhotoka kwa woko.<ref name="exostoses"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigongono]] *[[Munkhoza]] *[[Chigha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="statpearls2">{{Cite web|last1=Mitchell|first1=Brittney|last2=Whited|first2=Lacey|title=Anatomy, Shoulder and Upper Limb, Forearm Muscles|publisher=StatPearls|date=2020-08-15|access-date=2021-06-22|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534836/}}</ref> <ref name="grays">{{Cite book|editor-last=Standring|editor-first=Susan|title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse_h3w0|edition=41st|location=Philadelphia|year=2016|isbn=978-0-7020-5230-9|oclc=920806541}}</ref> <ref name="torus">{{Cite journal|last1=Jiang|first1=N.|last2=Cao|first2=Z.H.|last3=Ma|first3=Y.F.|last4=Lin|first4=Z.|last5=Yu|first5=B.|title=Management of Pediatric Forearm Torus Fractures|journal=Pediatric Emergency Care|volume=32|issue=11|pages=773–778|date=November 2016|doi=10.1097/PEC.0000000000000579|pmid=26555307}}</ref> <ref name="exostoses">{{Cite journal|last1=El-Sobky|first1=T.A.|last2=Samir|first2=S.|last3=Atiyya|first3=A.N.|last4=Mahmoud|first4=S.|last5=Aly|first5=A.S.|last6=Soliman|first6=R.|title=Current paediatric orthopaedic practice in hereditary multiple osteochondromas|journal=SICOT-J|volume=4|pages=10|year=2018|doi=10.1051/sicotj/2018002|pmc=5863686}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 8j46wom8lv6xd6doqp0jk2a5dk1ltgu 0 49742 123171 122304 2026-10-08T17:30:53Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123171 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi cha pakati pa nthumbo na chigha}} [[File:Dr Bock plate11a.jpg|thumb|Cikuni cakale cakulongora thupi la munthu, cikulongosora ntangararo (yellow) na cigaŵa ca pubic (bluish)]] [[File:Blausen 0006 AbdominopelvicRegions.png|thumb|Ntangararo za kumaso na kuwaro, zikulongoreka pasi pa muwonekero]] '''Ntangararo''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''inguinal region'' panji ''iliac region'') ni cigaŵa ico chikukolerana thupi lakuchanya na chigha.<ref name="hoagland"/> Ntangararo uli kunthazi kwa thupi, mumphepete zoseŵiri za ''pubic tubercle'', apo khoma la nthumbo yapasi likukolerana na chigha. Pa malo agha pakupangika chipindo ca khungu, ico chikuchemeka ''inguinal groove'' panji ''crease''. Ntangararo ndiwoso malo agho minofu ya kukolerana ya chiuno (yikuchemekaso minofu ya ntangararo) yikukolerana. "Ntangararo wakupwetekeka" (''groin pull''), uwo ukukolerana na kupwetekeka kwa mbumba ya minofu ya kukolerana ya lundi mu ntangararo, ni cilonda cakuzomerezgeka comene mu masewera. ==Muundo wa thupi== Apo khoma la nthumbo yapasi likukolerana na chigha, pakupangika chipindo icho chikuchemeka ''inguinal groove''. Malo agha ni malo gha cigaŵa ca mkati mwa chigha (''medial compartment'') ico chili na vikolerano vya minofu ya kukolerana ya chiuno, iyo yikuchemekaso minofu ya ntangararo.<ref name="moore2018"/> Minofu ya kukolerana iyo yikupanga ntangararo yikusazgapo ''adductor brevis'', ''adductor longus'', ''adductor magnus'', ''gracilis'', na ''pectineus''. Minofu iyi ya ntangararo yikukolezga chigha na khongono kuluta ku mzere wapakati wa thupi. Ntangararo yikulongozgeka na vinjiri vya ''lumbar plexus''. Mnofu wa ''pectineus'' ukulongozgeka na ''femoral nerve'', ndipo cigaŵa ca ''adductor magnus'' ico chikuyana na minofu ya ''hamstring'' cikulongozgeka na ''tibial nerve''. Mu ntangararo, pasi pa khungu, muli ''lymph node'' zitatu mpaka zinkhonde izo zikovwira mu mzirwe wa kuvikilira thupi ku nthenda. Vinjiri vya ''lymph node'' izo zili pafupi na khungu vikuya kukolerana na izo zili mkati. Muli maenje ghaŵiri ghakuchemeka ''fossae'' mu malo ghakuchemeka ''inguinal triangle'' — ''lateral inguinal fossa'' na ''medial inguinal fossa''. ''Inguinal ligament'' yikufuma ku ''pubic tubercle'' kuluta ku ''anterior superior iliac spine'', ndipo muundo wake nkhwakuzirwa comene mu opaleshoni za hernia. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== "Ntangararo wakupwetekeka" (''pulled groin'') kanandi likung'anamura kupwetekeka kwakukalipa kwa minofu ya kukolerana ya chiuno.<ref name="opara"/> Suzgo ili likukolerana na vinthu ivyo vikwiza navyo, kusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito minofu comene kwambura kupumulira na kupwetekeka kwakale.<ref name="whittaker"/><ref name="bourne"/><ref name="quintana"/> ''Inguinal hernia'' ni hernia ya ntangararo, ndipo yingaŵa ''direct hernia'' panji ''indirect hernia'', kuyana na malo agho yili. Nyengo zinyake, ''direct hernia'' na ''indirect hernia'' zingaŵapo pamoza mumphepete umoza, ndipo ici chikuchemeka "saddlebag hernia". Nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya thupi ivyo vikupinda pa mphambano zikuru (nga ni pasi pa bondo, mu kabaza, na pa cigongono), ntangararo ni malo agho misambizi ya ndopa na mizirwe vikujumphira pafupi na khungu, kweniso muli ''lymph node'' zinandi. Mu opaleshoni yakuchemeka ''venography'', ntangararo ni malo ghakusankhikira comene pakudumulira na kuŵika ''catheter'' mu mzirwe wa ndopa. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Chiuno]] *[[Nthumbo]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="hoagland">{{Cite web|last=Hoagland|first=T.M.|title=Inguinal Region Anatomy: Overview, Gross Anatomy, Pathophysiological Variants|publisher=Medscape|date=2025-04-21|access-date=2026-05-22}}</ref> <ref name="moore2018">{{Cite book|last1=Moore|first1=Keith L.|last2=Dalley|first2=Arthur F.|last3=Agur|first3=Anne M. R.|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicallyorient0000moor_t4j3|edition=8th|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|year=2018|page=[https://archive.org/details/clinicallyorient0000moor_t4j3/page/718 718]|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="opara">{{Cite web|last1=Opara|first1=K.|last2=Pinkerman|first2=S.|last3=Kaiser|first3=K.|title=Adductor Strain|publisher=StatPearls, US National Library of Medicine|date=2025-12-13|access-date=2026-05-22}}</ref> <ref name="whittaker">{{Cite journal|last1=Whittaker|first1=Jackie L.|last2=Small|first2=Claire|last3=Maffey|first3=Lorrie|last4=Emery|first4=Carolyn A.|title=Risk factors for groin injury in sport: an updated systematic review|journal=British Journal of Sports Medicine|volume=49|issue=12|pages=803–809|date=2015-06-01|doi=10.1136/bjsports-2014-094287|pmid=25833903}}</ref> <ref name="bourne">{{Cite journal|last1=Bourne|first1=Matthew N.|last2=Williams|first2=Morgan|last3=Jackson|first3=Jeremy|last4=Williams|first4=Kate L.|last5=Timmins|first5=Ryan G.|last6=Pizzari|first6=Tania|title=Preseason Hip/Groin Strength and HAGOS Scores Are Associated With Subsequent Injury in Professional Male Soccer Players|journal=Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy|volume=50|issue=5|pages=234–242|date=2020-04-30|doi=10.2519/jospt.2020.9022|pmid=31530069}}</ref> <ref name="quintana">{{Cite journal|last1=Quintana-Cepedal|first1=Marcos|last2=Calle|first2=Omar de la|last3=Crespo|first3=Irene|last4=Medina-Sánchez|first4=María|last5=Valle|first5=Miguel del|last6=Olmedillas|first6=Hugo|title=The Effect of Match Congestion on Hip Adductor Squeeze Strength in Youth Rink Hockey Players|journal=Apunts Sports Medicine|volume=59|issue=221|pages=100429|date=2024-01-01|doi=10.1016/j.apunsm.2023.100429}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] mtvejwtk1qh2hfg4x488vgale2q7ti9 0 49744 123166 122302 2026-10-08T17:23:24Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123166 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca lundi cha pasi pa khongono, chapakati pa khongono na kalundi}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Munkhoza |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Tibia - frontal view.png|220px|Malo gha fupa la munkhoza (lakuwoneka lakusuzumira)]]<br/><small>Malo gha fupa la munkhoza (lakuwoneka lakusuzumira)</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''(os) tibia'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D013977 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A02.5.06.001 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |1397 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24476 |} '''Munkhoza''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''shinbone'' panji ''shankbone'') ni cigaŵa cakunthazi ca lundi cha pasi pa khongono, chapakati pa khongono na kalundi.<ref name="drake1"/> Mu munkhoza muli mafupa ghaŵiri: '''fupa la munkhoza''' (ilo likuchemekaso ''tibia'') na ''fibula''. Fupa la munkhoza ndilo likuru, likukhora, kweniso ndilo lili kunthazi pakati pa mafupa ghaŵiri agha; ndilo fupa lacaŵiri pakukura mu thupi lose, kulondezga waka fupa la chigha (''femur''). Fupa la munkhoza likukolerana na ''fibula'' kwizira mu ''interosseous membrane'', kupanga mphambano yakuchemeka ''syndesmosis'' iyo njakusinthasintha pacoko waka. Fupa la munkhoza likukolelezga khongono na kalundi.<ref name="drake1"/> ==Muundo== ===Umaliro wakuchanya=== [[File:Gray257.png|thumb|left|Mphenuzi yakuchanya ya fupa la munkhoza la kumalyero (kunthazi kuli pachanya)]] Umaliro wakuchanya wa fupa la munkhoza ukukura mu upapi, ndipo uli na vikolerano viŵiri, cakumaso (''medial condyle'') na cakuwaro (''lateral condyle''), ivyo vikukolerana na fupa la chigha kupanga cigaŵa ca khongono icho chikutola nkhongono ya thupi. Pakati pa vikolerano viŵiri ivi pali malo ghakuchemeka ''intercondylar area'', apo ''ligament'' zakuzingoka (''cruciate ligaments'') na ''menisci'' vikukolerapo.<ref name="drake2"/> Pasi pa vikolerano ndimo muli ''tibial tuberosity'', malo agho ''ligament'' ya khongono (''patellar ligament''), iyo njakulondezga minofu ya ''quadriceps femoris'', yikukolerapo.<ref name="drake2"/> ===Thupi la fupa=== [[File:Gray258.png|thumb|Mafupa gha lundi lakumalyero, kulaŵiskira kunthazi]] Thupi (panji ''shaft'') la fupa la munkhoza ndakupanga vikwapa vitatu (''triangular'' mu muwonekero), ndipo lili na mphenuzi zitatu — yakunthazi, yakumaso, na yakuwaro — izo zikupanga mphande zitatu za fupa. Mphenuzi yakunthazi njakumanyikwira comene, ndipo yikukhala pasi pa khungu kwambura kuvundikika na minofu.<ref name="drake2"/> ===Umaliro wapasi=== [[File:Tibia - inferior epiphysis (anterior view).jpg|thumb|Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza la kumalyero, kulaŵiskira kunthazi]] Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza uli mucoko kuluska umaliro wakuchanya, ndipo ukufumiska cigaŵa ca fupa cakukhora chakuchemeka ''medial malleolus''. Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza, pamoza na ''fibula'' na fupa la ''talus'', ukupanga kalundi.<ref name="drake2"/> ==Ndopa== Fupa la munkhoza likupokera ndopa kufuma ku vyanthowa viŵiri: msambizi wakuzirwa comene (''nutrient artery''), na misambizi yicoko ya pachanya pa fupa (''periosteal vessels'') iyo yikufuma ku ''anterior tibial artery''.<ref name="nelson"/> ==Viungo== Fupa la munkhoza nchakusazgika mu viungo vinayi: khongono, kalundi, na viungo viŵiri vya pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' (''superior tibiofibular joint'' na ''inferior tibiofibular joint''), ivyo vikuzomerezga kusinthasintha pacoko waka.<ref name="drake2"/> Kalundi (''talocrural joint'') ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo iyo yikukolezga maumaliro ghapasi gha fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' na fupa la ''talus''.<ref name="drake2"/> ==Kukura kwa fupa== [[File:Gray260.png|thumb|Mzere wa kukura kwa fupa la munkhoza, kufuma ku malo ghatatu]] Fupa la munkhoza likukura kufuma ku malo ghatatu: limoza mu thupi la fupa, na linyake mu umaliro uliwose. Kukura uku kukwamba mu upapi, pafupifupi mulungu wacinkhonde na ciŵiri, ndipo kukulutilira mpaka ku maumaliro. Umaliro wakuchanya na wapasi vikukolerana na thupi la fupa mu vyaka vyakukura, cimoza pafupi na vyaka 18 na cinyake pafupi na vyaka 20.<ref name="drake1"/> ==Nkhongono na nchito== Minofu yinandi njakukolerapo pa fupa la munkhoza, kusazgapo ''quadriceps femoris'', ''sartorius'', ''gracilis'', na ''semitendinosus'' (izo zikukolerana pa cigaŵa cakuchemeka ''pes anserinus''), ''popliteus'', ''tibialis anterior'', ''extensor digitorum longus'', ''soleus'', na ''flexor digitorum longus''.<ref name="bojsen"/> Fupa la munkhoza likutola nkhongono yikuru pa nyengo ya kwenda, ndipo mu vigaŵa vyakukalipa vya kwenda likutola nkhongono ya kufika pa 4.7 kuyana na unenepa wa thupi.<ref name="wehner"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la munkhoza kungapambanikizgika kuŵa ako kukukolerana na fupa la munkhoza pelakene, panji ako kukusazgapo fupa la ''fibula'' nako. Cigaŵa ca thupi la fupa la munkhoza ndico malo ghakuzomerezgeka comene agho ŵanthu ŵakucita masewera ŵakusangikirapo kutimbanyika kwakufuma ku kugwiliskira ntchito nyengo yitali (''stress fracture'').<ref name="mccormick"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Mu chisopa ca Chiyuda, fupa la munkhoza la mbuzi panji la mberere likugwiliskikira ntchito pa mbale ya ''Seder'' pa nyengo ya Paska. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Khongono]] *[[Kalundi]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="drake1">{{Cite book|last1=Drake|first1=Richard L.|last2=Vogl|first2=A. Wayne|last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.|title=Gray's Anatomy for Students|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5|edition=2nd|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|year=2010|pages=[https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5/page/558 558]–560|isbn=978-0-443-06952-9}}</ref> <ref name="drake2">{{Cite book|last1=Drake|first1=Richard L.|last2=Vogl|first2=A. Wayne|last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.|title=Gray's Anatomy for Students|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5|edition=2nd|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|year=2010|pages=[https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5/page/584 584]–588|isbn=978-0-443-06952-9}}</ref> <ref name="nelson">{{Cite journal|last1=Nelson|first1=G.|last2=Kelly|first2=P.|last3=Peterson|first3=L.|last4=Janes|first4=J.|title=Blood supply of the human tibia|journal=Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, American Volume|volume=42-A|issue=4|pages=625–636|year=1960|doi=10.2106/00004623-196042040-00007|pmid=13854090}}</ref> <ref name="bojsen">{{Cite book|last1=Bojsen-Møller|first1=Finn|last2=Simonsen|first2=Erik B.|last3=Tranum-Jensen|first3=Jørgen|title=Bevægeapparatets anatomi|edition=12th|year=2001|pages=364–367|isbn=978-87-628-0307-7|language=da}}</ref> <ref name="wehner">{{Cite journal|last1=Wehner|first1=T.|last2=Claes|first2=L.|last3=Simon|first3=U.|title=Internal loads in the human tibia during gait|journal=Clinical Biomechanics|volume=24|issue=3|pages=299–302|year=2009|doi=10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2008.12.007|pmid=19185959}}</ref> <ref name="mccormick">{{Cite journal|last1=McCormick|first1=Frank|last2=Nwachukwu|first2=Benedict U.|last3=Provencher|first3=Matthew T.|title=Stress Fractures in Runners|journal=Clinics in Sports Medicine|volume=31|issue=2|pages=291–306|year=2012|doi=10.1016/j.csm.2011.09.012|pmid=22341018}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 5bhc7a8s2tbostmjsbb2eqagqa1n8vm 0 49745 123149 122314 2026-10-08T16:30:09Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123149 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mphambano ya lundi iyo yikukolezga chigha na munkhoza}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Khongono |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Human knees.jpg|150px|Makhongono gha munthu]]<br/><small>Makhongono gha munthu</small> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Blausen 0597 KneeAnatomy Side.png|220px|Khongono la kumalyerero (kulaŵiska cakunthazi-kumalyerero)]]<br/><small>Khongono la kumalyerero (kulaŵiska cakunthazi-kumalyerero)</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''articulatio genus'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Mfumo | class="infobox-data" |Mfumo wa mafupa na minofu |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Mzirwe | class="infobox-data" |Femoral, obturator, sciatic |} Mwa ŵanthu na ma primates ghanyake, '''khongono''' ni mphambano iyo yikukolezga chigha na lundi lapasi, ndipo yili na mphambano ziŵiri: yimoza pakati pa fupa la chigha na fupa la munkhoza (tibiofemoral joint), na yinyake pakati pa fupa la chigha na fupa la khongono (patellofemoral joint).<ref name="chhajer"/> Ndilo mphambano likuru comene mu thupi la munthu.<ref name="kulowski"/> Khongono ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo (''modified hinge joint''), iyo yikuzomerezga kunyoloka na kupinda, kweniso kuzungusika pacoko mkati na kuwaro. Khongono ni malo ghakuzomerezgeka pakupwetekeka na pakusangika osteoarthritis. Kanandi khongono likuchemeka "mphambano yakusazgika" (''compound joint''), chifukwa chili na vigaŵa viŵiri: tibiofemoral na patellofemoral.<ref name="rytter"/> ==Muundo== Khongono ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo, mtundu wa ''synovial joint'', iyo yili na vigaŵa vitatu vyakukolerana: mphambano ya patellofemoral (iyo yili na fupa la khongono na chipindi cakuchemeka ''patellar groove'' pa fupa la chigha, apo fupa la khongono likuzuzumira); na mphambano ziŵiri za tibiofemoral (za kumaso na kuwaro) izo zikukolezga fupa la chigha na fupa la munkhoza.<ref name="burgener"/> Mphambano yili na ''synovial fluid'' iyo yili mu thumba lakuchemeka ''joint capsule''. Khongono ni mphambano likuru comene, ndipo lili na nchito yikuzirwa comene pa kwenda (kucimbira na kwenda) na pakuluka.<ref name="lecturio"/> Pakubabika, fupa la khongono likuŵa lachali kupangika na cartilage pera, ndipo likusintha kuŵa fupa (''ossification'') pakati pa vyaka vitatu na vinkhonde. Chifukwa ndilo fupa likuru comene la mtundu wa ''sesamoid bone'' mu thupi la munthu, nchito ya kusintha uku yikutora nyengo yitali comene.<ref name="howstuffworks"/> ===Viŵalo vyakukolerana=== Viŵalo vikuru vyakukolerana pa fupa la chigha ni condyle ziŵiri, ''lateral condyle'' na ''medial condyle''. Izi zikupambana pacoko mu muwoneskero: ''lateral condyle'' njakutandalika comene kunthazi kuluska kunyuma, apo ''medial condyle'' njakuyana pa utali wake wose.<ref name="platzer"/> Ma condyle gha munkhoza (''tibial condyles'') ghawiri ghakupatulika na malo ghakuchemeka ''intercondylar eminence''.<ref name="platzer"/> Fupa la khongono nalo ndichiŵalo cakukolerana; thupi lake lakunyuma likuchemeka ''trochlea'' ya khongono, ndipo likukolerana na chipindi ca fupa la chigha icho chikukolezga ma condyle ghaŵiri gha kunthazi.<ref name="platzer"/> ===Thumba la mphambano=== Thumba la mphambano (''joint capsule'') lili na thako la ''synovial'' na thako lakukhora, izo zikupatulika na mafuta. Kunthazi, thako la ''synovial'' likukolerana na mphepete za cartilage pa fupa la chigha na pa fupa la munkhoza, ndipo likujintha kuluta ku ''suprapatellar bursa''.<ref name="platzer"/> Kunyuma, thako la ''synovial'' likukolerana na mphepete za ma condyle gha fupa la chigha, kupanga vigaŵa viŵiri (''semimembranosus bursa'' na ''popliteal bursa'').<ref name="ryan"/> ===Mizirwe=== Khongono likulongozgeka na mizirwe yinandi. Cigaŵa ca kumaso-kuchanya cikulongozgeka na mizirwe ya ''vastus lateralis'', ''vastus intermedius'', ''sciatic nerve'', na mizirwe ya ''genicular''. Cigaŵa ca kumalyerero-kuchanya cikulongozgeka na mizirwe ya ''vastus medialis'', ''obturator nerve'', na ''sciatic nerve''. Cigaŵa ca kupasi cikulongozgeka na mizirwe yicoko ya ''genicular'' na nthowa ya ''saphenous nerve''.<ref name="tran"/> Khoma lakunyuma la thumba la mphambano likulongozgeka comene na ''tibial nerve'', pamoza na ''obturator'' na ''common fibular nerve''.<ref name="fonk"/> ===Bursa=== Muli bursa zinandi izo zikuzingilira khongono. Bursa yikuru comene ni ''suprapatellar bursa''. Bursa zinayi zichoko zili kunyuma kwa khongono, ndipo bursa ziŵiri zambura kukolerana zili kunthazi kwa fupa la khongono na pasi pa tendon yake.<ref name="platzer"/> ===Cartilage=== Cartilage ni thako lakuzunguka ndipo lakusinthasintha ilo likuvikilira fupa na kuzomerezga viŵalo vya mphambano kuzuzumirana mwakupepuka. Muli mitundu yiŵiri ya cartilage mu khongono: cartilage yakukhora (''meniscus'') na ''hyaline cartilage''. ''Hyaline cartilage'' yikuvundikira malo agho mphambano yikuzuzumirapo. Mkati mwa ''hyaline cartilage'' mulije misambizi ya ndopa; chakulya chake chikwiza kwizira mu ''synovial fluid'' na mafupa ghakuzingilira. Kwenda kwa vyaka, cartilage yikuvunda, ndipo yili na nkhongono yicoko yakujizenga payekha.<ref name="britannica"/> ===Meniscus=== {{Main|Meniscus}} Vigaŵa vya cartilage vya khongono vikuchemeka ''menisci'' chifukwa vikugaŵa mphambano mu vigaŵa viŵiri pera. Ma meniscus ghaŵiri agha, ''medial meniscus'' na ''lateral meniscus'', ghali na thako la ''connective tissue'' lakuŵa na fiber zinandi za ''collagen''. Ma meniscus ghakupapatalira pakati pa mphambano, ghakukolerana na thako la ''synovial'' mumphepete, ndipo ghangazuzumira pa fupa la munkhoza.<ref name="platzer"/><ref name="ryan"/> ''Medial meniscus'' njikuru, njambura kuzingoka comene, kweniso njakuzunguka comene. ''Lateral meniscus'' nchichoko, chakuzingoka comene (pafupifupi kuŵa mzere wakuzingoka wose), ndipo chili na uzito wakuyana comene kuluska ''medial meniscus''. ''Lateral meniscus'' nchambura kukolerana comene na thumba la mphambano, chifukwa tendon ya ''popliteus'' yikwenda pakati pake na thumba.<ref name="ryan"/> ===Ligament=== [[File:Knee diagram.svg|thumb|220px|Khongono la kumalyerero, kulaŵiska cakunthazi-kuwaro]] Ma ligament ghakuzingilira khongono ghakupeleka nkhongono kwa mphambano, kucepeska kuzuzumira kwake, ndipo pamoza na ma meniscus na bursa, ghakuvikilira thumba la mphambano.<ref name="goldman"/> ====Za mkati mwa thumba (Intracapsular)==== Khongono likukhozgeka na ligament ziŵiri izo zikuzingoka (''cruciate ligaments''), izo zili mkati mwa thumba la mphambano.<ref name="kam"/> ''Anterior cruciate ligament'' (ACL) yikufuma ku ''lateral condyle'' ya fupa la chigha na kuluta ku malo gha kunthazi pakati pa ma condyle gha munkhoza; yikukanizga fupa la munkhoza kuti lireke kusonkhezgeka comene kunthazi.<ref name="ryan"/> ''Posterior cruciate ligament'' (PCL) yikufuma ku ''medial condyle'' na kuluta ku malo gha kunyuma; yikukanizga fupa la munkhoza kusonkhezgeka kunyuma.<ref name="ryan"/> Muli soso ''transverse ligament'' iyo yikukolezga ma meniscus ghaŵiri kunthazi, na ma ligament gha ''meniscofemoral'' (gha Wrisberg na Humphrey) agho ghakukolezga ''lateral meniscus'' na fupa la chigha.<ref name="platzer"/> ====Za kuwaro kwa thumba (Extracapsular)==== ''Patellar ligament'' yikukolezga fupa la khongono na fupa la munkhoza (pa ''tibial tuberosity''); nyengo zinyake yikuchemekaso ''patellar tendon''.<ref name="medterms"/> ''Medial collateral ligament'' (MCL) yikufuma ku fupa la chigha na kuluta ku fupa la munkhoza mumphepete wa mkati, ndipo yikuvikilira khongono ku nkhongono iyo yingapangiska kupinduka kuwaro (''valgus''). ''Lateral collateral ligament'' (LCL) yikufuma ku fupa la chigha na kuluta ku ''fibula'' mumphepete wakuwaro, ndipo yikuvikilira khongono ku nkhongono iyo yingapangiska kupinduka mkati (''varus'').<ref name="platzer"/> Kunyuma kwa khongono muli ma ligament ghaŵiri ghanyake, ''oblique popliteal ligament'' na ''arcuate popliteal ligament''.<ref name="platzer"/> ==Minofu== Minofu yinandi iyo yikukolerapo pa khongono yikufuma ku vigaŵa vya kunthazi, vya mkati, na vya kunyuma vya chigha. Minofu ya kunyoloka (extensors) yikufuma comenecomene ku cigaŵa ca kunthazi, apo minofu ya kupinda (flexors) yikufuma ku cigaŵa ca kunyuma. Minofu yikuru ya kunyoloka ni ''quadriceps femoris'', iyo yikupangika na ''rectus femoris'', ''vastus lateralis'', ''vastus intermedius'', na ''vastus medialis'' — yose yikukolerana pa fupa la khongono na fupa la munkhoza kwizira mu ''patellar ligament''.<ref name="gosling"/> Minofu yikuru ya kupinda ni ''hamstring'' — ''biceps femoris'', ''semitendinosus'', na ''semimembranosus'' — pamoza na ''sartorius'', ''gracilis'', na ''popliteus''. Mnofu wa ''gastrocnemius'', uwo ukufuma pa ma condyle gha fupa la chigha, ukovwiraso pang'ono pakupinda khongono, kweni nchito yake yikuru ni pa lundi.<ref name="gosling"/> ==Ndopa== [[File:Gray552.png|thumb|220px|Misambizi ya ndopa ya khongono]] Msambizi wa ''femoral artery'' na wa ''popliteal artery'' ndivyo vikupanga mtundu wa mzere wa misambizi (''plexus'') uwo ukuzingilira khongono. Muli misambizi yikuru yinkhonde: ziŵiri za ''superior genicular artery'', ziŵiri za ''inferior genicular artery'', ''descending genicular artery'', na nthowa yakuwelera ya ''anterior tibial artery''.<ref name="shim"/> ==Ntchito== Khongono likuzomerezga kunyoloka na kupinda kuzingilira mzere wakupambanika, kweniso kuzungusika pacoko mkati na kuwaro apo khongono lili kupindika. Khongono likuchemeka "lakusunkha" chifukwa fupa la chigha na ''lateral meniscus'' vikusunkha pachanya pa fupa la munkhoza pa nyengo ya kuzungusika, apo fupa la chigha likuzuzumira na kusunkha pa ma meniscus ghaŵiri pa nyengo ya kupinda na kunyoloka.<ref name="platzer"/> Kunyoloka kukuzomerezgeka pakati pa madigiri 5 na 10, apo kupinda kukuzomerezgeka pakati pa madigiri 120 na 150.<ref name="thieme"/> Pakunyoloka kwakumaliro, khongono likuzungusika pang'ono mkati (madigiri 5), nchito iyo yikuchemeka "obligatory terminal rotation". Apo khongono lanyoloka, ma ligament gha ''collateral'' ghakukhora, apo ma ''cruciate ligament'' ghakukhora comene apo khongono lapindika.<ref name="platzer"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== [[File:918 Knee Injury.jpg|thumb|220px|Kupwetekeka kwa khongono kufuma ku nkhongono ya mumphepete kungadumura MCL, ACL, na medial meniscus]] Kupweteka kwa khongono kukufuma ku kupwetekeka, kusinthika kwa muwoneskero, kuvunda, na masuzgo agho ghakupangiska arthritis.<ref name="afra"/> Suzgo lakuzomerezgeka comene ni ''patellofemoral syndrome'', ilo likupangika na kupatana kwa fupa la khongono na fupa la chigha, panji na kudumuka na kusonkhezgeka kwa khongono.<ref name="afra"/> ''Prepatellar bursitis'', iyo yikuchemekaso "khongono la muteŵeti wa nyumba" (''housemaid's knee''), ni kuvimba na kupweteka kwa bursa ya kunthazi kwa fupa la khongono, kwakufuma comenecomene ku nchito zakukhalapo pa mawondo nyengo yitali. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugegha ŵakusanga kupweteka kwa khongono kufuma ku osteoarthritis. Kupepuka kwa minofu iyo yikuzingilira khongono kungawonjezgaso suzgo ili.<ref name="pill"/> Kunenepa nakoso nkhwakovwira kuwonjezga kupweteka, chifukwa nkhongono iyo yikuŵikika pa khongono pakwenda yikuwonjezgeka comene para thupi lanenepa.<ref name="andrish"/> ===Kudumuka kwa ligament na cartilage=== Cigaŵa cakuzomerezgeka comene kudumuka ni ''anterior cruciate ligament'' (ACL), comenecomene mu masewera agho ghakukhumba kuzungusika kwa khongono mwakukalipa. Para ACL yadumuka, kanandi munthu wakupulika mvwerere, ndipo lundi lingambiskira kukoma kwambura mazgu.<ref name="acl"/> Kudumuka kwakucoko kungacira kwambura opaleshoni, kweni kudumuka kukuru kukukhumbikwa opaleshoni. ''Meniscus'' nayo yingadumuka pa nyengo ya masewera, comenecomene khongono likazungusika. Kudumuka kucoko kungalozgeka kwambura opaleshoni, kweni kudumuka kukuru kanandi kukukhumbikwa opaleshoni.<ref name="tandeter"/> Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la khongono nkhwakusoŵeka, kweni kungachitika comenecomene pa ngozi za magalimoto.<ref name="segond"/> Ma tendon gha ''quadriceps'' na ''patellar'' nagho ghangadumuka para khongono lakakamizgika mwankhongono; usange tendon yadumuka yose, kupinda panji kunyoloka lundi kukusuzga. ===Kupinduka kwa khongono (varus na valgus)=== [[File:Hip-knee-ankle angle.png|thumb|150px|Ngodya ya chiuno-khongono-kalundi]] ''Genu valgum'' ni apo fupa la munkhoza likupinduka kuwaro kuyana na fupa la chigha, kupangiska malundi kukhwaskana. ''Genu varum'' ni apo fupa la munkhoza likupinduka mkati, kupangiska malundi kupatukana, muwoneskero uwo ukuchemeka "kupendeka kwa malundi".<ref name="dahl"/> ===Kunozga na kutaŵiska=== [[File:Prothese-genou-IMG 0033.jpg|thumb|220px|Cizinganya cakulongora vigaŵa vya khongono lakupangika (opaleshoni ya kusintha khongono)]] Ŵalwari ŵanandi ŵawo ACL yikadumuka ŵakachitikirwa opaleshoni na kupumulira myezi yinandi, kweni sono, kwizira mu ''arthroscopy'', ŵanthu ŵangenda kwambura ma crutches mu majuma ghaŵiri, ndipo ŵangawelera ku masewera mu myezi yicoko.<ref name="uw"/> Para khongono lanangika comene, opaleshoni ya kusintha khongono (''knee replacement'') yingachitika, kuŵikapo vigaŵa vyakupangika kuti vitolere malo gha vigaŵa vyakununkha. ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Mwa munthu, "khongono" likung'anamura mphambano pakati pa fupa la chigha, fupa la munkhoza, na fupa la khongono. Mwa vinyama ivyo vikwenda na malundi ghanayi (nga ni mbwa, hachi, na mbeba), mphambano yakuyana yikuchemeka ''stifle joint''. Mu tuyuni, "khongono" ni mphambano pakati pa fupa la chigha na fupa lakuchemeka ''tibiotarsus''.<ref name="birds"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Munkhoza]] *[[Kalundi]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="chhajer">{{Cite book|last=Chhajer|first=Bimal|chapter=Anatomy of Knee|title=Knee Pain|publisher=Fusion Books|year=2006|pages=10–11|isbn=978-81-8419-181-3}}</ref> <ref name="kulowski">{{Cite journal|last1=Kulowski|first1=Jacob|title=Flexion contracture of the knee|journal=The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery|volume=14|issue=3|pages=618–663|year=1932}}</ref> <ref name="rytter">{{Cite journal|last1=Rytter|first1=Søren|last2=Egund|first2=Niels|last3=Jensen|first3=Lilli|last4=Bonde|first4=Jens|title=Occupational kneeling and radiographic tibiofemoral and patellofemoral osteoarthritis|journal=Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology|volume=4|pages=19|year=2009|doi=10.1186/1745-6673-4-19|pmid=19594940}}</ref> <ref name="burgener">{{Cite book|last1=Burgener|first1=Francis A.|last2=Meyers|first2=Steven P.|last3=Tan|first3=Raymond K.|last4=Zaunbauer|first4=Wolfgang|title=Differential Diagnosis in Magnetic Resonance Imaging|url=https://archive.org/details/differentialdiag0000unse_p4x3|publisher=Thieme|year=2002|page=[https://archive.org/details/differentialdiag0000unse_p4x3/page/390 390]|isbn=978-1588900852}}</ref> <ref name="lecturio">{{Cite web|title=Knee Joint|publisher=The Lecturio Medical Concept Library|access-date=2021-06-22}}</ref> <ref name="howstuffworks">{{Cite web|title=Do babies have kneecaps?|publisher=HowStuffWorks.com|date=2009-02-19}}</ref> <ref name="platzer">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|pages=26, 192–252|isbn=978-1588901590}}</ref> <ref name="ryan">{{Cite book|last1=Ryan|first1=Stephanie|title=Anatomy for diagnostic imaging|edition=3rd|publisher=Elsevier Ltd|year=2011|pages=289, 292|isbn=978-0702029714}}</ref> <ref name="tran">{{Cite journal|last1=Tran|first1=J.|last2=Peng|first2=P.W.|last3=Lam|first3=K.|last4=Baig|first4=E.|last5=Agur|first5=A.M.|last6=Gofeld|first6=M.|title=Anatomical Study of the Innervation of Anterior Knee Joint Capsule|journal=Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine|volume=43|issue=4|pages=407–414|year=2018|pmid=29557887}}</ref> <ref name="fonk">{{Cite journal|last1=Fonkoué|first1=L.|last2=Behets|first2=C.|last3=Kouassi|first3=J.K.|last4=Coyette|first4=M.|last5=Detrembleur|first5=C.|last6=Thienpont|first6=E.|last7=Cornu|first7=O.|title=Distribution of sensory nerves supplying the knee joint capsule and implications for genicular blockade and radiofrequency ablation|journal=Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy|volume=41|issue=12|pages=1461–1471|year=2019|pmid=31338537}}</ref> <ref name="britannica">{{Cite web|title=Cartilage|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> <ref name="goldman">{{Citation|last1=Goldman|first1=Lee|last2=Schafer|first2=Andrew I.|title=Goldman's Cecil Medicine|publisher=Elsevier|year=2012}}</ref> <ref name="kam">{{Cite journal|last1=Kam|first1=C.K.|last2=Chee|first2=D.W.|last3=Peh|first3=W.C.|title=Magnetic resonance imaging of cruciate ligament injuries of the knee|journal=Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal|volume=61|issue=2|pages=80–89|year=2010|pmid=20110155}}</ref> <ref name="medterms">{{Cite web|title=Definition of patellar tendon|publisher=MedicineNet.com|access-date=2008-12-11}}</ref> <ref name="gosling">{{Cite book|title=Human Anatomy: Color Atlas and Text|last1=Gosling|first1=J.A.|publisher=Mosby Elsevier|year=2008}}</ref> <ref name="shim">{{Cite journal|last1=Shim|first1=S.S.|last2=Leung|first2=G.|title=Blood supply of the knee joint. A microangiographic study in children and adults|journal=Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research|issue=208|pages=119–125|year=1986|pmid=3522019}}</ref> <ref name="thieme">{{Cite book|title=Thieme Atlas of Anatomy: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System|url=https://archive.org/details/thiemeatlasofana0000unse|publisher=Thieme|location=New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1588904195}}</ref> <ref name="afra">{{Cite journal|last1=Afra|first1=R.|last2=Schepsis|first2=A.|title=Addressing patellofemoral pathology: Biomechanics and classification|journal=The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine|date=2008-05-28}}</ref> <ref name="pill">{{Cite journal|last1=Pill|first1=S.G.|last2=Khoury|first2=L.D.|last3=Chin|first3=G.C.|title=MRI for evaluating knee pain in older patients: How useful is it?|journal=The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine|volume=25|issue=11|date=2008-10-29}}</ref> <ref name="andrish">{{Cite journal|last1=Andrish|first1=J.T.|title=Sports injuries in weekend warriors: 20 Clinical pearls|journal=The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine|volume=26|issue=5|date=2009-05-08}}</ref> <ref name="acl">{{Cite web|title=ACL injury - Symptoms and causes|publisher=Mayo Clinic|access-date=2022-12-30}}</ref> <ref name="tandeter">{{Cite journal|last1=Tandeter|first1=H.B.|last2=Shvartzman|first2=P.|last3=Stevens|first3=M.A.|title=Acute knee injuries: use of decision rules for selective radiograph ordering|journal=American Family Physician|volume=60|issue=9|pages=2599–2608|date=1999-12-01|pmid=10605994}}</ref> <ref name="segond">{{Cite web|title=Segond fracture|publisher=Radiopaedia|access-date=2026-05-01}}</ref> <ref name="dahl">{{Cite journal|last1=W-Dahl|first1=Annette|last2=Toksvig-Larsen|first2=Sören|last3=Roos|first3=Ewa M.|title=Association between knee alignment and knee pain in patients surgically treated for medial knee osteoarthritis by high tibial osteotomy|journal=BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders|volume=10|issue=1|pages=154|year=2009|pmid=19995425}}</ref> <ref name="uw">{{Cite web|title=Active After ACL Surgery|publisher=UW Orthopaedic Surgery and Sports Medicine|access-date=2026-08-27}}</ref> <ref name="birds">{{Cite web|title=Bird feet and legs|access-date=2021-06-22}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] o7pm8n52tlp76q1xnm4ovsgo64i7gln 0 49746 123150 122315 2026-10-08T16:30:51Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123150 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Malo agho lundi na khongono vikukolerana}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Kalundi |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Ankle.jpg|220px|Kalundi la munthu]]<br/><small>Kalundi la munthu</small> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Ankle en.svg|220px|Kalundi la munthu, kulaŵiska kuwaro]]<br/><small>Kalundi la munthu, kulaŵiska kuwaro</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''tarsus'' |} '''Kalundi''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''talocrural region'') ni malo agho lundi na khongono vikukolerana.<ref name="moore"/> Kalundi lili na mphambano zitatu: mphambano yakwenelera ya kalundi (''talocrural joint''), ''subtalar joint'', na ''inferior tibiofibular joint''.<ref name="milner"/> Nchito zakuchitikira pa mphambano iyi ni kupinda kwa lundi kuya kuchanya (''dorsiflexion'') na kuya pasi (''plantarflexion''). Mu kuyowoya kwa zuŵa na zuŵa, "kalundi" likung'anamura malo ghose gha apa, kweni mu uganga, lizgu ili lingang'anamura malo ghose panji mphambano ya ''talocrural'' payekha.<ref name="moore"/> Mafupa ghakuru gha kalundi ni ''talus'' (mu lundi), fupa la munkhoza, na ''fibula'' (mu lundi lapasi). Mphambano ya ''talocrural'' ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo ya mtundu wa synovial, iyo yikukolezga maumaliro ghapasi gha fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' na umaliro wakuchanya wa ''talus''. Kukolerana pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''talus'' nkhwakutola nkhongono yikuru kuluska kukolerana pakati pa ''fibula'' yicoko na ''talus''. ==Muundo== ===Cigaŵa=== Cigaŵa ca kalundi cili pa nkhomano ya lundi na phazi. Cikufuma mumusinjiro wa lundi lapasi kuya pasi, ndipo cikusazgamo vigaŵa vya phazi ivyo vili pafupi na thupi (kufuma ku cidende na khungu la pachanya pa phazi).<ref name="moore2"/> ===Mphambano ya kalundi=== Mphambano ya ''talocrural'' ndiyo mphambano yekha ya mu thupi la munthu ya mtundu wakuchemeka "mortise and tenon", zina ilo likufuma ku ntchito ya uzimba.<ref name="standring"/> Muundo wa mafupa gha kalundi uli na mafupa ghatatu: fupa la munkhoza, ''fibula'', na ''talus''. Cigaŵa ca fupa la munkhoza ico cikukolerana na ''talus'' cikuchemekaso ''plafond'' (Chifalansa kung'anamura "chikuta cakuchanya"). ''Medial malleolus'' ni cigaŵa ca fupa cakufumapo pa fupa la munkhoza mumphepete wa mkati; cigaŵa cakupasi comene ca ''fibula'' chikuchemeka ''lateral malleolus''. Malleoli ghaŵiri agha, pamoza na ma ligament ghawo, ndigho ghakukhozgera ''talus'' pasi pa fupa la munkhoza.<ref name="moore"/> Chifukwa mphambano ya ''subtalar'' yikovwira comene pakunozga muwoneskero wa phazi, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyichemeka mphambano ya kalundi ya pasi, na kuchemeka mphambano ya ''talocrural'' mphambano ya kalundi ya kuchanya.<ref name="muscolino"/> Kupinda kuya kuchanya na kuya pasi (dorsiflexion na plantarflexion) ndivyo vikuchitikira pa mphambano ya kalundi. Apo phazi lapindika kuya pasi, mphambano ya kalundi yikuzomerezgaso kuzuzumira mumphepete, kuzungusika, na kusonkhezgeka pacoko.<ref name="earthslab"/> Muwoneskero wa mafupa uwo ukupangika na ''plafond'' ya munkhoza na ma malleoli ghaŵiri ukuchemeka "mortise" ya kalundi. Malo agha ni cizingo ca makona ghanayi.<ref name="moore"/> Mphepete za viŵalo vyose vya kalundi vikuvundikirika na cartilage. ===Ligament=== [[File:919 Ankle Feet Joints.jpg|thumb|220px|Ma ligament gha kalundi na phazi]] Mphambano ya kalundi yikukhozgeka na ''deltoid ligament'' iyo njakukhora, na ma ligament ghatatu gha kuwaro: ''anterior talofibular ligament'', ''posterior talofibular ligament'', na ''calcaneofibular ligament''. *''Deltoid ligament'' yikukhozgera mumphepete wa mkati wa mphambano; yikufuma ku ''medial malleolus'' ya fupa la munkhoza ndipo yikukolerana pa malo ghanayi gha ''calcaneus'' na ''talus''. *''Anterior'' na ''posterior talofibular ligaments'' zikukhozgera mumphepete wakuwaro wa mphambano, kufuma ku ''lateral malleolus'' ya ''fibula'' kuluta ku ''talus''. *''Calcaneofibular ligament'' yikufuma ku ''lateral malleolus'' na kuluta ku ''calcaneus''. Nangauli njambura kujintha pa mphambano ya kalundi payekha, ''syndesmotic ligament'' njakuzirwa comene pakukhozgera kalundi. Kupwetekeka kwa ligament iyi kwekha kukuchemeka "high ankle sprain". Muundo wa mafupa gha kalundi ukukhora comene apo phazi lili mu ''dorsiflexion''.<ref name="gatt"/> Ntheura, kupendeka kwa kalundi (''sprained ankle'') kukuzomerezgeka comene apo phazi lapindika kuya pasi, chifukwa nyengo iyo ligament zikukhumbikwa comene pakukhozgera mphambano. Kupendeka kwakuzomerezgeka comene kukukolerana na ''anterior talofibular ligament'' (ATFL). ===Retinacula, tendon na thumba lazo, misambizi, na mizirwe=== Ma tendon ghanandi ghakujumphira mu cigaŵa ca kalundi. Mathako gha ''connective tissue'' ghakuchemeka ''retinacula'' ghakuzomerezga ma tendon kupeleka nkhongono kuluta mu ngodya pakati pa lundi na phazi kwambura kufuma pa ngodya iyo.<ref name="muscolino"/> ''Superior extensor retinaculum'' yikwendera pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' pafupi na maumaliro ghawo ghapasi; mkati mwake muli msambizi wa ''anterior tibial artery'', mzirwe wake, na tendon ya ''tibialis anterior''. ''Inferior extensor retinaculum'' njakuwoneka nga cilembo "Y". ''Flexor retinaculum'' yikwendera kufuma ku ''medial malleolus'' kuluta ku ''calcaneus'', ndipo mkati mwake muli tendon ya ''tibialis posterior'', tendon ya ''flexor digitorum longus'', msambizi wa ''posterior tibial artery'', mzirwe wake, ''tibial nerve'', na tendon ya ''flexor hallucis longus''. Ma ''fibular retinacula'' ghakukhozgera ma tendon gha ''fibularis longus'' na ''fibularis brevis'' mumphepete wakuwaro wa kalundi.<ref name="standring"/> ===Mizirwe yakumanya muwoneskero (mechanoreceptors)=== Mizirwe yakumanya muwoneskero (''mechanoreceptors'') ya kalundi yikutuma uthenga wa muwoneskero wa thupi (''proprioception'') kuluta ku ubongo.<ref name="michelson"/> Kafukufuku wasangapo kuti kalundi likukolerana comene na nkhongono ya kwimilira makola (balance).<ref name="goble"/> ==Ntchito== Kwenda kwa vyaka vinandi, nchito ya kalundi pakwenda yikaghanaghanikwa na Aristotle na Leonardo da Vinci. Nkhongono ya kalundi pa nyengo ya kutulukira mtwendo (''ankle push-off'') ni yakuzirwa comene mu kwenda kwa munthu.<ref name="zelik"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== ===Kupwetekeka kwa nyengo yeneyiyo=== Pa mphambano zose zikuru za thupi, kalundi ndilo lakuzomerezgeka comene kupwetekeka. Usange khungu lakuwaro la phazi lapendeka mumusinjiro wa lundi apo munthu wimilira, ''lateral ligament'', comenecomene cigaŵa ca ''anterior talofibular'', chingapendeka (''sprain''), chifukwa nchakupepuka kuluska ligament ya mkati.<ref name="moore2"/> ====Kutimbanyika kwa fupa==== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la kalundi kungachitika, comenecomene chifukwa cha ngozi. ===Kujura vithuzi=== Kusanda kwakwamba kwa suzgo la kalundi kukucitika kwizira mu X-ray. Kupinduka kwa kalundi (varus panji valgus) kungapimika na ngodya ya ''tibiotalar surface''.<ref name="nosewicz"/> ===Kuipa kwa muwoneskero=== [[Clubfoot]] (''talipes equinovarus''), iyo yikusangika mwa mwana m'yumoza panji ŵaŵiri mwa ŵana 1,000 ŵakubabika, njakusazgapo kuipa kwa phazi kwakupambanapambana.<ref name="gore"/> ''Equinus'' likung'anamura kupendeka kwa kalundi kuya pasi, ndipo zina lake likufuma ku kwenda pa vyala nga umo hachi yikwendera.<ref name="kallen"/> ''Ankle joint equinus'', mwa ŵanthu ŵakuru, likukolerana na kucepa kwa muwendero wa mphambano ya kalundi. Masuzo gha kutandalika minofu ya khongono ghakovwira kuwonjezga ''dorsiflexion'' ya kalundi. Nyengo zinyake, kalundi la munthu lingaŵa na mphambano ya mtundu wa "ball-and-socket" na kukolerana kwa ''talo-navicular joint''.<ref name="ono"/> ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Kwaghanaghanikwa kuti nkhongono ya kulongozga vyala mwaluso yatayika mu vinyama vinandi, m'malo mwake vikakura nkhongono yikuru comene ya kulongozga mphambano ya kalundi.<ref name="brouwer"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Khongono]] *[[Munkhoza]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="moore">{{Cite book|last1=Moore|first1=Keith L.|last2=Dalley|first2=Arthur F.|last3=Agur|first3=A.M.R.|chapter=Lower Limb|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|edition=7th|pages=508–669|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4511-1945-9}}</ref> <ref name="milner">{{Cite book|last=Milner|first=Brent K.|chapter=Musculoskeletal Imaging|title=Radiology Recall|pages=258–383|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=1999|isbn=978-0-683-30663-7}}</ref> <ref name="moore2">{{Cite book|last=Moore|first=Keith|title=Clinically oriented anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicallyorient0000moor_t4j3|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=Philadelphia|year=2018|page=[https://archive.org/details/clinicallyorient0000moor_t4j3/page/825 825]|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="standring">{{Cite book|last=Standring|first=Susan|title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2015|pages=1418–1419|isbn=978-0-7020-6851-5}}</ref> <ref name="muscolino">{{Cite book|last=Muscolino|first=Joseph E.|title=Kinesiology: The Skeletal System and Muscle Function|pages=284–292|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2016|isbn=978-0-323-39935-7}}</ref> <ref name="earthslab">{{Cite web|last=Volker|first=Joseph H.|title=Ankle Joint|publisher=Earth's Lab|date=2018-08-08}}</ref> <ref name="gatt">{{Cite journal|last1=Gatt|first1=Alfred|last2=Chockalingam|first2=Nachiappan|title=Clinical Assessment of Ankle Joint Dorsiflexion|journal=Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association|volume=101|issue=1|pages=59–69|year=2011|doi=10.7547/1010059|pmid=21242472}}</ref> <ref name="michelson">{{Cite journal|last1=Michelson|first1=J.D.|last2=Hutchins|first2=C.|title=Mechanoreceptors in human ankle ligaments|journal=The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British Volume|volume=77|issue=2|pages=219–224|year=1995|pmid=7706334}}</ref> <ref name="goble">{{Cite journal|last1=Goble|first1=D.J.|last2=Coxon|first2=J.P.|last3=Van Impe|first3=A.|last4=Geurts|first4=M.|last5=Doumas|first5=M.|last6=Wenderoth|first6=N.|last7=Swinnen|first7=S.P.|title=Brain Activity during Ankle Proprioceptive Stimulation Predicts Balance Performance in Young and Older Adults|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=45|pages=16344–16352|year=2011|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4159-11.2011|pmid=22072686}}</ref> <ref name="zelik">{{Cite journal|last1=Zelik|first1=Karl E.|last2=Adamczyk|first2=Peter G.|title=A unified perspective on ankle push-off in human walking|journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=219|issue=23|pages=3676–3683|year=2016|doi=10.1242/jeb.140376|pmid=27903626}}</ref> <ref name="nosewicz">{{Cite journal|last1=Nosewicz|first1=Tomasz L.|last2=Knupp|first2=Markus|last3=Bolliger|first3=Lilianna|last4=Hintermann|first4=Beat|title=The reliability and validity of radiographic measurements for determining the three-dimensional position of the talus in varus and valgus osteoarthritic ankles|journal=Skeletal Radiology|volume=41|issue=12|pages=1567–1573|year=2012|doi=10.1007/s00256-012-1421-6|pmid=22609967}}</ref> <ref name="gore">{{Cite journal|last1=Gore|first1=A.I.|last2=Spencer|first2=J.P.|title=The newborn foot|journal=American Family Physician|volume=69|issue=4|pages=865–872|year=2004|pmid=14989573}}</ref> <ref name="kallen">{{Cite book|last=Källén|first=Bengt|chapter=Pes Equinovarus|title=Epidemiology of Human Congenital Malformations|pages=111–113|year=2014|isbn=978-3-319-01471-5}}</ref> <ref name="ono">{{Cite journal|last1=Ono|first1=K.|last2=Nakamura|first2=M.|last3=Kurata|first3=Y.|last4=Hiroshima|first4=K.|title=Ball-and-socket ankle joint: Anatomical and kinematic analysis of the hindfoot|journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics|volume=4|issue=5|pages=564–568|year=1984|pmid=6490876}}</ref> <ref name="brouwer">{{Cite journal|last1=Brouwer|first1=B.|last2=Ashby|first2=P.|title=Corticospinal projections to lower limb motoneurons in man|journal=Experimental Brain Research|volume=89|issue=3|pages=649–654|year=1992|pmid=1644127}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] rt7x4h8mu2a226tr0u8htpyw74vjc5z 0 49747 123147 122316 2026-10-08T16:26:47Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123147 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca umaliro wa lundi icho chikutolera uzito wa thupi na kwendeska munthu}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Phazi |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Foot on white background.jpg|220px|Phazi la munthu]]<br/><small>Phazi la munthu</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''pes'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Msambizi | class="infobox-data" |''Dorsalis pedis'', ''medial plantar'', ''lateral plantar'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Mzirwe | class="infobox-data" |''Medial plantar'', ''lateral plantar'', ''deep fibular'', ''superficial fibular'' |} '''Phazi''' (mawuza: ''maphazi'') ni cigaŵa ca thupi icho chikusangika mwa vinyama vinandi ivyo vili na muwongo. Ni cigaŵa ca umaliro wa lundi ico chikutolera uzito wa thupi na kuzomerezga kwenda. Mwa vinyama vinandi ivyo vili na maphazi, phazi ni cigaŵa ca umaliro wa lundi ico chili na fupa limoza panji ghanandi, kanandi kusazgapo nswawi na/panji misomali. ==Mazgu ghakwamba== Lizgu "phazi" mu Chingelezi (''foot'') likufuma ku Old English ''fot'', kufuma ku Proto-Germanic *''fot''.<ref name="etymonline"/> ==Muundo== Phazi la munthu ni cigaŵa cakukhora na cakusazgika comene, chili na mafupa 26, mphambano 33 (20 mwa izi zikusuzumira), na minofu, tendon, na ligament vinandi vyakujumphapo 100.<ref name="podiatry"/> Mphambano za phazi ni kalundi, ''subtalar joint'', na mphambano za pakati pa vinjiri vya vyala (''interphalangeal joints''). Phazi lingagaŵikika mu vigaŵa vitatu: cigaŵa ca kunyuma (''hindfoot''), cigaŵa capakati (''midfoot''), na cigaŵa cakunthazi (''forefoot''). Cigaŵa ca kunyuma cili na fupa la ''talus'' (fupa la kalundi) na ''calcaneus'' (fupa la cidende). Mafupa ghatali ghaŵiri gha lundi lapasi, fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'', ghakukolerana pachanya pa ''talus'' kupanga kalundi. ''Calcaneus'', ilo ndifupa likuru comene la phazi, likukolerana na ''talus'' pa ''subtalar joint'', ndipo pasi pake pali thako la mafuta lakuzingilira.<ref name="podiatry"/> Mafupa ghasanu ghambura kuyana muwoneskero gha cigaŵa capakati — ''cuboid'', ''navicular'', na mafupa ghatatu gha ''cuneiform'' — ndigho ghakupanga kupindika kwa phazi (''arches of the foot''), ico chikovwira nga chakuzikizga apo phazi likuzuzumira. Cigaŵa capakati chikukolerana na vigaŵa vya kunyuma na kunthazi kwizira mu minofu na ''plantar fascia''.<ref name="podiatry"/> Cigaŵa cakunthazi cili na vyala vinkhonde na mafupa ghatali ghakuyana ghankhonde ghakupanga ''metatarsus''. Nga umo viliri mu vyala vya woko, mafupa gha vyala gha phazi ghakuchemeka ''phalanges''; chala cikuru chili na ''phalanges'' ziŵiri, apo vyala vinyake vinayi vili na ''phalanges'' zitatu cilicose. Mphambano za pakati pa ''phalanges'' zikuchemeka ''interphalangeal'', apo izo zili pakati pa ''metatarsus'' na ''phalanges'' zikuchemeka ''metatarsophalangeal'' (MTP).<ref name="podiatry"/> Cigaŵa capakati na cakunthazi pamoza vikupanga ''dorsum'' (cigaŵa cakulaŵiska kuchanya munthu wimilira) na cigaŵa cakulaŵiska pasi. ===Mafupa=== * Fupa la munkhoza, ''fibula'' * ''Tarsus'' (7): ''talus'', ''calcaneus'', ''cuneiformes'' (zitatu), ''cuboid'', na ''navicular'' * ''Metatarsus'' (5): fupa lakwamba, lachiŵiri, lacitatu, lacinayi, na lacinkhonde * ''Phalanges'' (14) Muli soso mafupa ghachoko ghakuchemeka ''sesamoid bones'' pafupi na mphambano za ''metatarsophalangeal'', comenecomene pa cigaŵa cakupasi ca ''metatarsal'' yakwamba.<ref name="platzer"/> ===Kupindika kwa phazi=== {{Main|Arches of the foot}} Phazi la munthu lili na kupindika kuŵiri kwakutandalika na kupindika kamoza kakwezga, ivyo vikukhozgeka na muwoneskero wa mafupa, ligament zakukhora, na minofu iyo yikukoka pa nyengo ya kwenda. Kupendezgeka kucoko kwa kupindika uku, apo uzito wa thupi ukusazgika na kuwuskika pa phazi, kukupangiska kwenda na kucimbira kuŵa kwakupepuka comene mu mphamvu.<ref name="marieb"/> Kupendekera na kuzunura kwa kupindika uku kungapangiska "flat feet" (maphazi ghakuzingoka).<ref name="marieb"/> ===Minofu=== Minofu izo zikukolerapo pa phazi zingapatulika mu izo zikufuma ku lundi lapasi (''extrinsic'') na izo zikufuma ku phazi lekha (''intrinsic'').<ref name="platzer2"/> Mnofu wa ''tibialis anterior'' ukufuma ku fupa la munkhoza ndipo ukukolerana pafupi na mphambano ya cigaŵa cakwamba ca ''metatarsus''; ukukolerapo pakuti phazi lipinde kuya kuchanya (''dorsiflexion'') na kukweza mumphepete wa mkati. Mnofu wa ''extensor digitorum longus'' ukukolerapo pa vyala vyachiŵiri mpaka vyacinkhonde, apo ''extensor hallucis longus'' ukukolerapo pa chala cikuru. Minofu ya ''peroneus longus'' na ''peroneus brevis'' yikwenda kunyuma kwa ''lateral malleolus'' na kukovwira pakukhozgera kupindika kwa mumphepete wa phazi.<ref name="platzer3"/> Kunyuma, ''triceps surae'' (yikupangika na ''soleus'' na ''gastrocnemius'') na ''plantaris'' ndizo zikukolerana pa ''calcaneus'' kwizira mu tendon ya ''Achilles''; ndimo minofu yikuru ya kupinda phazi kuya pasi (''plantar flexion''), iyo yikuwoneka comene pa masewera gha ballet.<ref name="platzer4"/> Mu thako lakuya mkati, ''tibialis posterior'' na ''flexor hallucis longus'' vikovwiraso kupinda phazi na kukhozgera kupindika kwake.<ref name="platzer5"/> Pasi pa phazi (''sole''), muli minofu yicoko yinandi iyo yikovwira kunyoloka na kupinda vyala, kukhozgera kupindika kwa phazi, na kupatura panji kukolezga vyala.<ref name="platzer6"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Chifukwa cha malo na nchito yake, maphazi ghakuŵa pacoko pa masuzgo ghanandi, kusazgapo ''athlete's foot'', ''bunions'', misomali yakunjilira mu nyama (''ingrown toenails''), ''Morton's neuroma'', ''plantar fasciitis'', na kutimbanyika kwa fupa kwakufuma ku nkhongono yakuwerezgeka (''stress fractures''). Muliso masuzgo ghanyake ghakupokerana ghangakhwaska muwoneskero na nchito ya phazi, kusazgapo ''clubfoot'' na "flat feet". Kuvwara vilyato ivyo vikukanizga phazi kunyoloka makola vingakhwaska muwoneskero wa kalundi na phazi. Kutimbanyika kwa phazi kukusazgapo: ''Lisfranc injury'' (apo mafupa gha ''metatarsus'' ghakusonkhezgeka kufuma ku ''tarsus''), ''Jones fracture'' (kutimbanyika kwa ''metatarsal'' yacinkhonde), ''March fracture'' (kutimbanyika chifukwa cha nkhongono yakuwerezgeka), kutimbanyika kwa ''calcaneus'', na kutimbanyika kwa chala (''broken toe'').<ref name="lisfranc"/> ==Kuzungusika kwa phazi pakwenda== {{Main|Pronation of the foot}} Pa nyengo ya kwenda, phazi likuzungusika mu vinjila vitatu: kuzungusika kwakwenelera (''neutral pronation''), kucoko-kuzungusika (''underpronation''/''supination''), na kuzungusika kukuru comene (''overpronation''). Kuzungusika kwakwenelera ndiko kukukhumbikwa comene kuti thupi lipulikizge cifukwa ca msambazi para lundi lapindika pasi.<ref name="runnersworld"/> Kuzungusika kukuru comene panji kucoko-kuzungusika kungapangiska kupwetekeka kwa phazi, kalundi, panji khongono kwa nyengo yitali.<ref name="runnersworld2"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Ŵanthu ŵakuvwara vilyato kuti vireke kuŵavikilira ku ngozi apo ŵakwenda kuwaro. Mu vikhalidwe vinandi, nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi kunjira mu nyumba panji malo ghakupatulika (nga ni ''marae'' za Māori) na vilyato; munthu wakukhumbikwa kufumiska vilyato pakunjira. Kukondwa na phazi (''foot fetishism'') ndiko kukuzomerezgeka comene pa vigaŵa vya thupi ivyo mbambura kuŵa vya kukolerana kwa thupi.<ref name="abc"/> ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Phazi lakupepuka lakuŵa na nswawi mwa vinyama nga ni chimbwe panji galu likuchemeka ''paw''. Phazi lakukhora likuchemeka ''hoof'' (nga umo ili mwa hachi na ng'ombe). Kuyana na muwendero, vinyama vingapambanikizgika kuŵa vyakwenda na pasi pa phazi lose (''plantigrade''), vyakwenda na vyala pera (''digitigrade''), panji vyakwenda na misomali pera (''unguligrade'').<ref name="france"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Kalundi]] *[[Munkhoza]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="etymonline">{{Cite web|title=Foot|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/foot|access-date=2017-05-20}}</ref> <ref name="podiatry">{{Cite web|title=Anatomy of the foot and ankle|publisher=Podiatry Channel|access-date=2009-08-21}}</ref> <ref name="platzer">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|page=220|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="marieb">{{Cite book|last1=Marieb|first1=Elaine Nicpon|last2=Hoehn|first2=Katja|title=Human anatomy & physiology|url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomyphys0000mari_r3o8|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2007|pages=244–245|isbn=978-0-321-37294-9}}</ref> <ref name="platzer2">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|page=256|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="platzer3">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|pages=258–260|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="platzer4">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|page=262|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="platzer5">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|page=264|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="platzer6">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|pages=268–274|isbn=3-13-533305-1}}</ref> <ref name="lisfranc">{{Cite web|title=Lisfranc's fracture|publisher=Mosby's Medical Dictionary|edition=8th|year=2009}}</ref> <ref name="runnersworld">{{Cite web|title=Overpronation, Explained|publisher=Runner's World|date=2001-09-21}}</ref> <ref name="runnersworld2">{{Cite web|title=Supination, Explained|publisher=Runner's World|date=2001-09-21}}</ref> <ref name="abc">{{Cite web|title=Rex Ryan's Apparent Foot Fetish Not Necessarily Unhealthy|publisher=ABC News|date=2010-12-23}}</ref> <ref name="france">{{Cite book|last=France|first=Diane L.|title=Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification: A Color Atlas|publisher=CRC Press|year=2008|page=537|isbn=978-1-4200-6286-1}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] t2ea2qxusetzdlxpr11m6ls23v8knbe 0 49748 123146 122317 2026-10-08T16:26:24Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123146 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mtundu wa munthu panji cinyama uwo ukupanga mbeŵu za mwanalume}} [[File:Male symbol (bold, color).svg|thumb|150px|Chimanyikwiro ca lezi la Mars, ilo likugwiliskikira ntchito kulongora mwanarume mu sayansi ya umoyo.]] [[File:Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png|thumb|220px|Muwoneskero wa mwanarume mzimu, uwo wakuyaniswa na mwanakazi.]] '''Mwanarume''' (chimanyikwiro: ♂) ni mtundu wa cakuzoŵa umo icho chikupanga, panji chanozgeka kupanga, mbeŵu iyo yikuchemeka ''sperm'', iyo yikukolerana na mbeŵu yikuru comene ya mwanakazi (zira) pa nyengo ya kubabira.<ref name="lehtonen"/> Mwanarume wangababa yayi kwambura zira kufuma ku mwanakazi, kweni vinyama vinyake vingababa vyose viŵiri, kubabira kwakukolerana na kwakujipanga pera.<ref name="curtis"/> Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu mwanarume, vili na ''Y chromosome'', iyo yikupangiska kupangika kwa testosterone yinandi kuti viŵalo vya kubabira vya mwanarume vikure.<ref name="ychrom"/> Mwa ŵanthu, lizgu "mwanarume" lingagwiliskikiraso kung'anamura muwoneskero wa munthu mu chikhalidwe (''gender''), nga umo mwanalume wakujiwona panji ŵanyake ŵakumuwona.<ref name="palazzani"/> ==Kuwoneka pakati pa viwumba== Kuŵako kwa mwanarume na mwanakazi vyakupambana kwakwiza pa nyengo zakupambana pakati pa mitundu yakupambana ya viwumba, nchito iyo yikuchemeka ''convergent evolution''.<ref name="berrill"/> Kunozgeka uku kukwamba na viwumba ivyo mbeŵu zawo zilije kupambana (''isogamy''), kuluta ku ivyo mbeŵu za mwanarume na za mwanakazi zapambana pang'ono (''anisogamy''), kufika ku ivyo mbeŵu ya mwanakazi njikuru comene na njambura kwenda payekha (''oogamy'').<ref name="dusenbery"/> Muvinyama vinyake, mwanarume wangababa payekha, mwaciyelezgero kwizira mu ''androgenesis''.<ref name="hedtke"/> Ntheura, kupambana kwa jinsi mu viwumba kukumanyikwa na mtundu wa mbeŵu iyo chiwumba chikupanga (sperm panji zira), ndipo kupambana pakati pa mwanarume na mwanakazi mu mtundu umoza kukhwaskana yayi comene na kupambana uku mu mtundu unyake.<ref name="klymkowsky"/> ==Kukura kwa jinsi== Kunozgeka kwa ''anisogamy'' ndiko kukapangiska kukura kwa nchito za mwanarume na za mwanakazi.<ref name="bachtrog"/> Pambere ''anisogamy'' yindanozgeke, mbeŵu za viwumba zikaŵa zambura kupambana comene mu ukuru na kwenda (''isogamy''). Mu ''anisogamy'', mbeŵu ya mwanarume njichoko kuluska ya mwanakazi, ndipo njakwenda comene.<ref name="kumar"/> Sayansi yikuchali kusuzgika kumanya bwino umo ''anisogamy'' yikanozgekera, chifukwa mbiri yake mu mafupa ghakale nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi. Maghanoghano ghanandi ghakuti mbeŵu zikuru za mwanakazi njakuzomerezgeka comene kukhalilira umoyo, apo mbeŵu zichoko za mwanarume njakwenda comene kufuma ndipo zingasangika mbeŵu zinyake luŵiro.<ref name="togashi"/> ==Chimanyikwiro na kayowoyero== Chimanyikwiro cakuzomerezgeka kulongora mwanarume ni ♂, cizungu na muvi wakulongozga cikwatikwati (northeast). Chimanyikwiro ici nchiyana na cimanyikwiro ca planeti ya Mars, ndipo chikagwiliskikira ntchito pakwamba na Carl Linnaeus mu 1751.<ref name="stearn"/> Lizgu "male" mu Chingelezi likufuma ku Old French ''masle'', kufuma ku Chilatini ''masculus'' ("wamwanarume, wakwenelera mwanalume").<ref name="etymonline"/> ==Kumanyikwa kwa jinsi== Jinsi ya cakuzoŵa cimoza yingamanyikwa na vinthu vinandi — vyakupokerana panji vya vyakuzingilira, panji vingasintha pa nyengo ya umoyo wa cakuzoŵa. Nangauli mitundu yinandi yili na jinsi ziŵiri pera (mwanarume panji mwanakazi),<ref name="berrill"/> vibawo vinyake nga ni njoka za mu mtunda (''worms'') vili na viŵalo vyakubabira vya mwanarume na vya mwanakazi pamoza (''hermaphrodite'').<ref name="britannica_herm"/> ===Kumanyikwa na mahara=== Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu, jinsi yawo yikumanyikwa na mahara kwizira mu mtundu wakuchemeka ''XY sex-determination system'', apo mwanarume wali na ''X chromosome'' yimoza na ''Y chromosome'' yimoza (apo mwanakazi wali na ''X chromosome'' ziŵiri).<ref name="xy"/> Pa nyengo ya kubabira, mwanarume wangapeleka mbeŵu ya ''X'' panji ya ''Y'', apo mwanakazi wangapeleka zira la ''X'' pera. Mbeŵu ya ''Y'' na zira la ''X'' vikupanga mwana mwanarume; mbeŵu ya ''X'' na zira la ''X'' vikupanga mwana mwanakazi.<ref name="determination"/> Cigaŵa ca ''Y chromosome'' ico chikwenderezga umwanarume chikuchemeka ''SRY''.<ref name="sry"/> Mu tuyuni na vibawo vinyake, jinsi yikumanyikwa na mtundu wakuchemeka ''ZW sex-determination system'', apo mwanarume wali na ''ZZ chromosomes''.<ref name="bachtrog"/> ===Kumanyikwa na vyakuzingilira=== Mu vibawo vinyake, nga ni ma alligator, jinsi yikumanyikwa na mzuzu uwo zira likukhozgeka. Vinyama vinyake, nga ni nkhona zinyake (''snails''), vikusintha jinsi: vikwamba kuŵa vyanarume, ndipo pambere vikusintha kuŵa vyanakazi.<ref name="cahill"/> ==Vimanyikwiro vyachiŵiri== Viwumba vya mwanarume vikanozgeka kugwiliskira vimanyikwiro vyachiŵiri kuti vilongore kuti ni vyakukhwima na kwenelera pakubabira. Kusankha kwa mbeŵu za mwanakazi (''sexual selection'') nkhwakughanaghanikwa kuŵa ndikho kukovwira comene pakukura kwa vimanyikwiro ivi.<ref name="campbell"/> Mwa vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu, ŵanarume kanandi ŵakuŵa ŵakuru kuluska ŵanakazi, ndipo mwa munthu comenecomene, ŵanarume ŵali na tsitsi linandi na minofu yinandi kuluska ŵanakazi.<ref name="ellis"/> Mu tuyuni, ŵanarume ŵanandi ŵali na masiskha ghakuwoneka comene (''plumage'') agho ghakukwezga ŵanakazi.<ref name="switze"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Mwanakazi]] *[[Viŵalo vyakubabira]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="lehtonen">{{Cite journal|last1=Lehtonen|first1=Jussi|last2=Parker|first2=Geoff A.|title=Gamete competition, gamete limitation, and the evolution of the two sexes|journal=Molecular Human Reproduction|volume=20|issue=12|pages=1161–1168|year=2014|doi=10.1093/molehr/gau068|pmid=25323972}}</ref> <ref name="curtis">{{Cite journal|last=Lively|first=Curtis M.|title=A Review of Red Queen Models for the Persistence of Obligate Sexual Reproduction|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=101|issue=suppl_1|pages=S13–S20|year=2010|doi=10.1093/jhered/esq010|pmid=20421322}}</ref> <ref name="ychrom">{{Cite web|title=Y chromosome|publisher=Genetics Home Reference, MedlinePlus|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="palazzani">{{Cite book|last1=Palazzani|first1=Laura|last2=Bailes|first2=Victoria|last3=Fella|first3=Marina|title=Gender in Philosophy and Law|url=https://archive.org/details/genderinphilosop0000pala|publisher=Springer|year=2012|isbn=978-94-007-4991-7}}</ref> <ref name="berrill">{{Cite web|last=Berrill|first=N.J.|title=Sex|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="dusenbery">{{Cite book|last=Dusenbery|first=David B.|title=Living at Micro Scale|url=https://archive.org/details/livingatmicrosca0000duse|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-674-03116-6}}</ref> <ref name="hedtke">{{Cite journal|last1=Hedtke|first1=Shannon M.|last2=Stanger-Hall|first2=Kathrin|last3=Baker|first3=Robert J.|last4=Hillis|first4=David M.|title=All-Male Asexuality: Origin and Maintenance of Androgenesis in the Asian Clam Corbicula|journal=Evolution|volume=62|issue=5|pages=1119–1136|year=2008|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00344.x|pmid=18266987}}</ref> <ref name="klymkowsky">{{Cite web|last1=Klymkowsky|first1=Michael W.|last2=Cooper|first2=Melanie M.|title=Sexual dimorphism|publisher=Biology LibreTexts|date=2016-06-04}}</ref> <ref name="bachtrog">{{Cite journal|last1=Bachtrog|first1=D.|last2=Mank|first2=J.E.|last3=Peichel|first3=C.L.|last4=Kirkpatrick|first4=M.|last5=Otto|first5=S.P.|title=Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=12|issue=7|pages=e1001899|year=2014|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899|pmid=24983465}}</ref> <ref name="kumar">{{Cite encyclopedia|last1=Kumar|first1=R.|last2=Meena|first2=M.|last3=Swapnil|first3=P.|title=Anisogamy|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior|publisher=Springer International|year=2019}}</ref> <ref name="togashi">{{Cite book|last1=Togashi|first1=Tatsuya|last2=Cox|first2=Paul Alan|title=The Evolution of Anisogamy: A Fundamental Phenomenon Underlying Sexual Selection|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-50082-1}}</ref> <ref name="stearn">{{Cite journal|last=Stearn|first=William T.|title=The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology|journal=Taxon|volume=11|issue=4|pages=109–113|year=1962|doi=10.2307/1217734}}</ref> <ref name="etymonline">{{Cite web|title=male|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=2023-07-23}}</ref> <ref name="britannica_herm">{{Cite web|title=hermaphroditism|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="xy">{{Cite web|title=43.1C: Sex Determination|publisher=Biology LibreTexts|date=2018-07-17}}</ref> <ref name="determination">{{Cite web|title=43.1C: Sex Determination|publisher=Biology LibreTexts|date=2018-07-17}}</ref> <ref name="sry">{{Cite web|title=SRY gene|publisher=Genetics Home Reference, MedlinePlus|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="cahill">{{Cite journal|last1=Cahill|first1=Abigail E.|last2=Juman|first2=Alia Rehana|last3=Pellman-Isaacs|first3=Aaron|last4=Bruno|first4=William T.|title=Physical and Chemical Interactions with Conspecifics Mediate Sex Change in a Protandrous Gastropod Crepidula fornicata|journal=The Biological Bulletin|volume=229|issue=3|pages=276–281|year=2015|doi=10.1086/bblv229n3p276|pmid=26695826}}</ref> <ref name="campbell">{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=B.|title=Human Evolution: An Introduction to Man's Adaptations|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|pages=392–393|isbn=978-1-351-51441-5}}</ref> <ref name="ellis">{{Cite book|last1=Ellis|first1=Lee|last2=Hershberger|first2=Scott|last3=Field|first3=Evelyn|title=Sex Differences: Summarizing More than a Century of Scientific Research|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-87493-2}}</ref> <ref name="switze">{{Cite book|title=The Differences Between the Sexes|url=https://archive.org/details/differencesbetwe0000unse_z3o0|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-521-44878-9}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] lyvqgtmfykqxnsn33415mv75spscktg 0 49749 123148 122318 2026-10-08T16:28:01Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123148 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mtundu wa munthu panji cinyama uwo ukupanga zira}} [[File:Female symbol (bold, color).svg|thumb|150px|Chimanyikwiro ca lezi la Venus, ilo likugwiliskikira ntchito kulongora mwanakazi mu sayansi ya umoyo.]] [[File:Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png|thumb|220px|Muwoneskero wa mwanakazi mzimu, uwo wakuyaniswa na mwanarume.]] Jinsi ya cakuzoŵa yikuchemeka '''mwanakazi''' (chimanyikwiro: ♀) usange chikupanga zira (''ovum''), mtundu wa mbeŵu iyo yikukolerana na mbeŵu ya mwanarume (sperm) pa nyengo ya kubabira.<ref name="grzimek"/> Mwanakazi wali na mbeŵu yikuru kuluska ya mwanarume. Mwanarume na mwanakazi ni vyakufuma mu nchito yakuchemeka ''anisogamy'', apo mbeŵu za jinsi ziŵiri zili na ukuru wakupambana (kupambana na ''isogamy'', apo mbeŵu zose zili na ukuru wakuyana). Mu viwumba ivyo vili na mwanarume na mwanakazi, kumanyikwa kwa jinsi kungatolera pa ''chromosomes'' panji pa vyakuzingilira. Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu mwanakazi, vili na ''X chromosomes'' ziŵiri. Vimanyikwiro vya viwumba ivyo vili mwanakazi vikupambana pa mtundu na mtundu, ndipo vinyake vili na vimanyikwiro vyachiŵiri ivyo vikukolerana na kubabira, nga ni mabere mu vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana. Mwa ŵanthu, lizgu "mwanakazi" lingagwiliskikiraso kung'anamura muwoneskero wa munthu mu chikhalidwe (''gender'').<ref name="palazzani"/> ==Vimanyikwiro vyakumanyikwira== Ŵanakazi ŵakupanga mazira, mbeŵu izo nyengo zinandi njikuru kuluska sperm, mu mtundu wa kubabira uwo ukuchemeka ''heterogamous''.<ref name="martin2015"/> Kanandi mwanakazi wangababa yayi kwambura mbeŵu za mwanarume, kweni vinyama vinyake vingababa payekha, kwizira mu ''parthenogenesis''.<ref name="engelmann"/> ==Ŵanakazi mu mitundu yakupambana== Mitundu iyo yili na mwanarume na mwanakazi yikuchemeka ''gonochoric'' mu vinyama, ''dioecious'' mu vimera ivyo vikupanga mbeŵu (''seed plants''), na ''dioicous'' mu ''cryptogams''.<ref name="fusco"/> Mu vinyama vinyake, mwanakazi wangakhalirana na ''hermaphrodite'' (''gynodioecy''), panji na mwanarume na ''hermaphrodite'' pamoza (''trioecy'').<ref name="bachtrog"/> ===Ŵanakazi mwa vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana=== Vimanyikwiro vyakupambaniska mtundu wa ''Mammalia'' ni ''mammary glands'', izo zili viwuni vyakuti vyasinthapo, ivyo vikupanga mkaka wakulereska mwana pamanyuma pa kubabika kwake. Ni vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana pera ivyo vikupanga mkaka.<ref name="swaminathan"/> Mwa munthu, mabere ghakuwoneka comene chifukwa thupi la mwanakazi likusungirira mafuta ghanandi pafupi na ndomo. Ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵa vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana ŵali na ''X chromosomes'' ziŵiri, apo ŵanarume ŵali na ''X chromosome'' yimoza na ''Y chromosome'' yimoza; vinyama vinyake, nga ni platypus, vili na muwoneskero wakupambana.<ref name="sumner"/> Ŵanakazi ŵa vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana ŵakubaba ŵana ŵamoyo, kupatula ŵanakazi ŵa ''monotremes'', awo ŵakutumbuka mazira.<ref name="vaughan"/> ==Kumanyikwa kwa jinsi== Jinsi ya cakuzoŵa yingamanyikwa na mahara panji na vyakuzingilira, panji yingasintha pa nyengo ya umoyo wa cakuzoŵa.<ref name="bachtrog"/> ===Kumanyikwa na mahara=== Jinsi ya vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu, yikumanyikwa na mahara kwizira mu mtundu wakuchemeka ''XY sex-determination system'', apo mwanakazi wali na ''X chromosomes'' ziŵiri (apo mwanarume wali na ''X'' yimoza na ''Y'' yimoza). Pa nyengo ya kubabira, mwanarume wangapeleka mbeŵu ya ''X'' panji ya ''Y'', apo mwanakazi wangapeleka zira la ''X'' pera. Mtundu wakuchemeka ''ZW sex-determination system'', apo mwanakazi wali na ''Z'' na ''W'', ukusangika mu tuyuni, vibawo, na tuyuni tunyake.<ref name="bachtrog"/> ===Kumanyikwa na vyakuzingilira=== Ŵana ŵa vibawo vinyake, nga ni ma alligator, ŵakusintha kuŵa ŵanarume panji ŵanakazi kuyana na mzuzu uwo zira likukhozgeka. Somba zinyake, nga ni ''goby'', zingasintha jinsi zili zikuru, kuyana na masuzgo gha kubabira.<ref name="gemmell"/> ==Kukura kwa jinsi== Fumbo la umo ŵanakazi ŵakanozgekera nkhwakukolerana comene na fumbo la umo ŵanarume ŵakanozgekera. Viwumba vyakwamba vikaŵabanga payekha, kanandi kwizira mu ''binary fission'', apo ''cell'' yimoza yikujigaŵa kuŵa ziŵiri. Mtundu uwo uli hafu mwanarume na hafu mwanakazi ungapanga waka hafu ya ŵana awo mtundu wambura mwanarume ungapanga, chifukwa mbeŵu za mwanakazi pera ndizo zikupanga ŵana.<ref name="togashi"/> Nkhongono za ''anisogamy'' ndizo zikung'anamulika na kukura kwa nchito za mwanarume na za mwanakazi.<ref name="bachtrog"/> Viŵalo vya mwanakazi vyakubabira (''female genitalia'') vili na kupambana kukuru comene pakati pa mitundu, ndipo pakuchali kusuzgika kuvimanya makora kuluska viŵalo vya mwanarume.<ref name="sloan"/> ==Chimanyikwiro== Chimanyikwiro ♀ chikugwiliskikira ntchito kulongora mwanakazi. Maghanoghano gha sono ghakuti chimanyikwiro ici na cimanyikwiro ca mwanarume vikafuma mu vilembo vya Chigiriki ivyo vikwimira mazina gha planeti Mars (Thouros) na Venus (Phosphoros).<ref name="stearn"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Mwanarume]] *[[Viŵalo vyakubabira]] *[[Bere]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="grzimek">{{Cite book|last=Grzimek|first=Bernhard|title=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia|volume=1|publisher=Gale|year=2003|pages=16–17|isbn=978-0-7876-5362-0}}</ref> <ref name="palazzani">{{Cite book|last1=Palazzani|first1=Laura|last2=Bailes|first2=Victoria|last3=Fella|first3=Marina|title=Gender in Philosophy and Law|url=https://archive.org/details/genderinphilosop0000pala|publisher=Springer|year=2012|isbn=978-94-007-4991-7}}</ref> <ref name="martin2015">{{Cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Elizabeth|last2=Hine|first2=Robert|title=A Dictionary of Biology|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbiol0000unse_f6k5|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbiol0000unse_f6k5/page/222 222]|isbn=978-0-19-871437-8}}</ref> <ref name="engelmann">{{Cite book|last=Engelmann|first=Franz|last2=Kerkut|first2=G.A.|title=The Physiology of Insect Reproduction|publisher=Elsevier|year=2015|page=29}}</ref> <ref name="fusco">{{Cite book|last1=Fusco|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Minelli|first2=Alessandro|title=The Biology of Reproduction|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2019|pages=115–116|isbn=978-1-108-49985-9}}</ref> <ref name="bachtrog">{{Cite journal|last1=Bachtrog|first1=D.|last2=Mank|first2=J.E.|last3=Peichel|first3=C.L.|title=Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=12|issue=7|pages=e1001899|year=2014|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899|pmid=24983465}}</ref> <ref name="swaminathan">{{Cite web|last=Swaminathan|first=Nikhil|title=Strange but True: Males Can Lactate|publisher=Scientific American|access-date=2017-10-06}}</ref> <ref name="sumner">{{Cite book|last=Sumner|first=Adrian T.|title=Chromosomes: Organization and Function|year=2008|pages=97–98}}</ref> <ref name="vaughan">{{Cite book|last1=Vaughan|first1=Terry|last2=Ryan|first2=James|last3=Czaplewski|first3=Nicholas|title=Mammalogy|url=https://archive.org/details/mammalogy0005vaug|year=2011|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mammalogy0005vaug/page/391 391], 412}}</ref> <ref name="gemmell">{{Cite journal|last1=Gemmell|first1=Neil J.|last2=Muncaster|first2=Simon|last3=Liu|first3=Hui|last4=Todd|first4=Erica V.|title=Bending Genders: The Biology of Natural Sex Change in Fish|journal=Sexual Development|volume=10|issue=5–6|pages=223–241|year=2016|doi=10.1159/000449297|pmid=27820936}}</ref> <ref name="togashi">{{Cite book|last1=Togashi|first1=Tatsuya|last2=Cox|first2=Paul Alan|title=The Evolution of Anisogamy: A Fundamental Phenomenon Underlying Sexual Selection|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-50082-1}}</ref> <ref name="sloan">{{Cite journal|last1=Sloan|first1=Nadia S.|last2=Simmons|first2=Leigh W.|title=The evolution of female genitalia|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology|volume=32|issue=9|pages=882–899|year=2019|doi=10.1111/jeb.13503|pmid=31267594}}</ref> <ref name="stearn">{{Cite journal|last=Stearn|first=William T.|title=The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology|journal=Taxon|volume=11|issue=4|pages=109–113|year=1962|doi=10.2307/1217734}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] asy9kipiagaug9oh2o432r37b4aioru 0 49750 123154 122321 2026-10-08T16:34:41Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123154 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Msana wa singo}} [[File:Geisha-kyoto-2004-11-21.jpg|thumb|Nkhonyoro wakuwoneka wa msungwana wa ki-Japan (''maiko'')]] [[File:Cat carrying kitten (cropped).jpg|thumb|Phaka likunyamula mwana wake pa nkhonyoro, malo agho mu Chingelezi ghakuchemeka ''scruff'']] '''Nkhonyoro''' ni msana wa [[singo]]. Mu mazgu ghakupwelelera gha uganga, nkhonyoro likuchemekaso ''nucha'' (kufuma mu Chiarabu icho chikung'anamura "msuma wa nkhongono").<ref name="etim"/> Lizgu lakukolerana nalo ni ''nuchal'', umo mukusangika mu mazgu nga ''nuchal rigidity'' ghakung'anamura kukhora kwa singo. Mu vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, nkhonyoro uli na khungu lakusinyilira ilo lindambura kupimika comene, ilo likuchemeka ''scruff''. Nyina wa nyama wangatola mwana wake pa khungu ili na meno kuti wamunyamule kwambura kumupweteka. Mu kutandana kwa mabvuci, mwanarume wangakoleka nkhonyoro wa mwanakazi na meno kuti wamukolerezge pa nyengo ya kutandana.<ref name="morris"/> ==Mu miko na chikhalidwe== Mu chikhalidwe cha ku Japan chakale, nkhonyoro ukachemeka ''unaji'', ndipo ukaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa vichoko vya thupi ivyo vikaleka kuvundikika na malaya gha ŵanakazi (kupatula chisko na mawoko). Nkhonyoro wa mwanakazi ukakolelezganga comene ŵanarume ŵanandi ŵa ku Japan.<ref name="cherry"/> Mu chikhalidwe cha ku Egypt na ku Lebanon, kutimba nkhonyoro wa munthu chikuwoneka nga nchito ya soni yikuru.<ref name="khalifa"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Singo]] *[[Msana]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="etim">Lizgu ili likufuma mu Chilatini cha Middle Ages, ico chikang'anamulika kufuma mu Chiarabu نُخَاع, icho chikung'anamura "msuma wa nkhongono" (spinal marrow).</ref> <ref name="morris">{{Cite book |title=Illustrated Catwatching |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedcatwa00unse |first=Desmond |last=Morris |publisher=Crescent Books |year=1994 |isbn=0-517-12065-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedcatwa00unse/page/n97 94], 108}}</ref> <ref name="cherry">{{Cite book |title=Womansword: What Japanese Words Say about Women |first=Kittredge |last=Cherry |publisher=Kodansha |year=1987 |isbn=4-7700-1655-7 |page=21}}</ref> <ref name="khalifa">{{Cite book|title=Terminal Rage|last=Khalifa|first=A. M.|date=2014-04-28|publisher=Mavenhill|isbn=9781940387000}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] s92nxr8d1u8trgqi0g4455484cl3y6d 0 49751 123172 122322 2026-10-08T17:31:22Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123172 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Msana | Latin = dorsum | Image = Posterior view of human female and male backs (cropped).jpg | Caption = Msana wa mwanakazi (kumaso) na wa mwanarume (kuwaro) }} '''Msana''' ni cigaŵa cikuru ca thupi la munthu ico chili kunyuma, kwamba ku tako mpaka ku singo.<ref name="dorland"/> Ni cigaŵa ca kunyuma icho chikung'anamulika na chifuwa na nthumbo ivyo vili kunthazi. Viwangwa vya msana (''vertebral column'') vikwenda mu utali wose wa msana ndipo vikupanga malo ghakukondeka pakati. Uzito wa msana ukupangika na chiŵegha kuchanya na mbombo pasi. Kupweteka kwa msana (''back pain'') ni nthenda yakusanga comene, ndipo mu vinandi yikuŵa yambura suzgo likuru. ==Muundo== Cigaŵa cikuru ca msana ni viwangwa vya msana, comenecomene kufuma kuchanya kwa viwangwa vya chifuwa (''thoracic vertebrae'') mpaka pasi kwa viwangwa vya luwunda (''lumbar vertebrae''), ivyo vikukwaska mzirwe waukuru (''spinal cord'') mu nthowa yake. Mafupa gha nthumbo ghakufuma ku msana kuchanya, ghakwenda mafupa ghanandi kuya pasi, ndikusiya malo ghambura kunga chomene pakati pa nthumbo na mbombo. Utali wa msana kuchanya ukumanyikwa na scapula, mafupa ghakuzarabuka gha chiŵegha. ===Minofu=== Minofu ya msana yingagaŵikika mu magulu ghatatu: gulu lakuchanya (lakukolerana na kusinthasintha kwa woko na chiŵegha), gulu lapakati (lakukolerana na kupumira), na gulu lakunsi (ilo ndakukolerana comene na viwangwa, ndipo likukhozgera msana na kupinda kwake). ===Viŵalo vyakufupi na msana=== Mapapu ghalinjira mu nthumbo ya chifuwa ndipo ghakufika ku cigaŵa ca kunyuma ca nthumbo ya chifuwa, ndikuchitiska kuti mungapulika ntchito yawo pakuvwalira msana. Mafinso ghali pasi pa minofu mu cigaŵa capasi pa nthumbo ya chifuwa. Kutimba comene msana wapasi kungapweteka mafinso. ===Khungu la msana=== Khungu la msana ndakukhora comene, ndipo lili na mizirwe yicoko kuluska khungu la vigaŵa vinyake vya thupi. Malo gha pakati na kuchanya kwa msana ni ghamoza waka gha thupi agho munthu wanjipulika kwambura kufika nawo mwenecara. ===Kusinthasintha=== Msana ukovwira kunyamula mutu na thupi lose, ukupeleka nkhongono kweniso kusinthasintha. Msana wakuchanya uli na chikhozgo chikuru, apo msana wapasi (luwunda) ukuzomerezga kupinda kunyuma na kunthazi, kweni ukukanizga kuzungusika. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kupweteka kwa msana ni nthenda yaciŵiri yakusanga comene mwa ŵanthu ŵakukura (kulondezga waka kupweteka kwa mutu). Chifukwa chakusanga comene ni kupwetekeka kwa minofu, ico chikupola pa majuma ghaŵiri, kwenekweni kupweteka kwake kungaŵa nkhongono. Vyakuzirwa vinyake vikusazgamo masuzgo gha disc, kutimbanyika kwa fupa, panji osteoarthritis. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Msana wa mwanakazi ni nkhani yakuzoŵa mu vithuzi vyakupendekera, chifukwa vikhalidwe vinandi vikuzomerezga kulongora msana kwambura nguwo. Nguwo zinyake, nga ni malaya ghakuvundikira waka msana wakuchanya, ghakupangika kuti ghalongore msana. Msana ndiwo malo ghakuru ghakuluska pa thupi agho ŵanthu ŵakujurira thupi (''tattoo''). Mazgu ghanandi mu Chingelezi ghakuyowoya vya msana kulongora malo gha kupwetekeka, nga umo munthu wakwenera "kuwoneseska msana wake" panji "kukoleka msana ku khoma". Mu mbiri, kutimba munthu pa msana na simbo chikaŵa nthowa yakupeleka chilango ku ŵanangwa panji kukakamizga ŵazga kuti ŵagwire ntchito. ==Wonaniso== *[[Singo]] *[[Nkhonyoro]] *[[Chiŵegha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="dorland">{{Cite book |title=Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/dorlandsillustra0000unse_s1g5 |date=2012 |publisher=Saunders/Elsevier |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-1-4160-6257-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dorlandsillustra0000unse_s1g5/page/191 191] |edition=32nd}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] j3q09o1z2u9ptmsoek4935uvf2n7lxj 0 49752 123163 122498 2026-10-08T17:19:48Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123163 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi capakati pa woko na msana}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Chiŵegha | Latin = articulatio humeri | Image = Left shoulder.jpg | Caption = Chiŵegha ca munthu | Image2 = Gray327.png | Caption2 = Thumba la mphambano ya chiŵegha, kulaŵiska kunthazi }} '''Chiŵegha''' ca munthu chikupangika na mafupa ghatatu: fupa la nkhungu (''clavicle''), scapula (fupa la chiŵegha ilo lili nga bawo), na fupa la woko lyapachanya (''humerus''), pamoza na minofu, ligament, na misambizi ya minofu iyo yikuvikolerezga.<ref name="freedict"/> Mphambano wa chiŵegha, uwo ukuchemekaso ''glenohumeral joint'', ndiwo mphambano ukuru wa chiŵegha, ndipo ni mphambano wa mpira na thumba uwo ukuzomerezga woko kuzungusika mu nthowa yakuzingilira panji kufumiska kutali na thupi.<ref name="oxford"/> ==Muundo== Chiŵegha chikupangika na mphambano wa mpira na thumba wapakati pa fupa la woko na scapula, wakukolelezgeka na ligament, minofu, na misambizi.<ref name="freedict"/> Cartilage yituŵa (''hyaline cartilage'') pa maumaliro gha mafupa yikuzomerezga mafupa kusinthasintha, ndipo malo gha mphambano ghakuzingilirika na khungu lakupwelelera (''synovial membrane''). Vithuŵa viŵiri vyakuchemeka ''bursae'' vikuzomerezga kusinthasintha kwambura kukolerana pakati pa fupa, minofu, na msambizi, ndikuvikilira minofu ya chiŵegha ku fupa la scapula.<ref name="wexler"/> Cartilage yinyake, ''glenoid labrum'', yikuzingilira thumba la scapula ndikulikuzgirapo utali. ===Minofu ya kuzingilira chiŵegha (rotator cuff)=== Minofu yinayi — ''supraspinatus'', ''infraspinatus'', ''teres minor'', na ''subscapularis'' — yikuzingilira chiŵegha ndikukhozga mutu wa fupa la woko kuti ukhalirenge mu thumba la scapula pakusinthasintha.<ref name="bogart"/> Misambizi yawo yikukolerana pamoza kupanga msambizi wa ''rotator cuff''.<ref name="favard"/> ===Minofu yinyake=== Kuwonjezgapo minofu ya rotator cuff, minofu ya ''deltoid'' na ''teres major'' yikufuma mu chiŵegha chene. ''Deltoid'' yikuvundikira chiŵegha mbali zitatu ndipo yikovwira mu kupinda, kufumiska, na kunyoloka kwa woko. Minofu yinyake yakufuma ku chifuwa (''serratus anterior'', ''subclavius'', ''pectoralis minor'') na ku msana (''trapezius'', ''rhomboid major na minor'', ''latissimus dorsi'', ''levator scapulae'') yikovwiraso kukhazikika na kusinthasintha kwa scapula.<ref name="bogart"/> ===Nkhwapa=== {{main|Nkhwapa}} Nkhwapa yikupangika na malo pakati pa minofu ya chiŵegha. Mizirwe na misambizi ya woko vikwendamo, ndipo muli ma lymph node ghanandi.<ref name="bogart"/> ===Mizirwe na ndopa=== Khungu la kuzingilira chiŵegha likupokera visinthiro kufuma ku mizirwe C2 mpaka T2. Mtolo wa mizirwe wakuchemeka ''brachial plexus'' ukufuma ku viwangwa vya C5 mpaka T1 ndikupeleka visinthiro ku minofu yinandi ya chiŵegha.<ref name="bogart"/> Ndopa yikwiza kwizira mu msambizi wa ''subclavian'', uwo ukusintha zina kuŵa ''axillary artery''. ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Chifukwa thumba la scapula ndakusaninkha kweniso ntchafu za chiŵegha kuŵa zakumasuka, chiŵegha ndico mphambano icho chikufumira comene pa thupi la munthu kuluska mphambano zinyake. ==Wonaniso== *[[Woko]] *[[Msana]] *[[Nkhwapa]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="freedict">{{Cite journal|title=shoulder|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/shoulder|journal=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> <ref name="oxford">{{Cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/shoulder|title=shoulder - definition of shoulder in English|website=Oxford Dictionaries|access-date=2026-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160929172657/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/shoulder|archive-date=2016-09-29}}</ref> <ref name="bogart">{{Cite book|title=Elsevier's Integrated Anatomy and Embryology|url=https://archive.org/details/elseviersintegra0000boga|last=Bogart|first=Bruce|publisher=Elsevier|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4160-3165-9|pages=246–260}}</ref> <ref name="wexler">{{cite book |last1=Wexler |first1=Barbara |title=Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health Vol. 1 |date=2006 |publisher=Gale |location=Farmington Hills, MI |isbn=978-1-4144-0374-8 |pages=414–416 |edition=2nd}}</ref> <ref name="favard">{{cite journal|last1=Favard|first1=Luc|last2=Bacle|first2=Guillaume|last3=Berhouet|first3=Julien|year=2007|title=Rotator cuff repair|journal=Joint Bone Spine|volume=74|issue=6|pages=551–7|doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2007.08.003|pmid=17993287}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] le9grltktpi9zbxbkfhvbg35013ien4 0 49753 123145 122660 2026-10-08T16:25:34Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123145 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Malo pasi pa mphambano ya chiŵegha na woko}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Nkhwapa | Latin = axilla | Image2 = ArmpitHair2.jpg | Caption2 = Nkhwapa ya munthu | Artery = Msambizi wa axillary | Vein = Mtsinje wa ndopa wa axillary | Nerve = Mzirwe wa axillary | Lymph = Ma lymph node gha axillary }} '''Nkhwapa''' (mu Chilatini ''axilla''; mu Chingelezi likuchemekaso ''armpit'' panji ''underarm'') ni malo agho pa thupi la munthu ghali pasi pa mphambano ya chiŵegha. Nkhwapa yili pakati pa woko na nthumbo ya chifuwa, ndipo yikuzingilirika kuchanya na fupa la ntanda, nkhungu, na scapula; mumphepete na minofu ya ''serratus anterior''; kunthazi na minofu ya chifuwa (''pectoral muscles''); na kunyuma na minofu ya ''subscapularis'', ''teres major'', na ''latissimus dorsi''.<ref name="anaesthesiauk"/> Khungu la nkhwapa lili na sisi zinandi na tiwiwuni twakutuluska thukuta. Kunyilira kwa thupi (''body odor'') kukusangika comene mu nkhwapa,<ref name="turkington"/> ndipo vinthu ivyo vikupanga kunyilira uku vyakuwoneka kuti vingaŵa vyakukolerana na kupanga kutemwa (''pheromone''), nangauli mfundo iyi njakususkika mwa asayansi.<ref name="drea"/> ==Muundo== Mkati mwa nkhwapa muli msambizi wa ndopa wa axillary na mtsinje wake, cigaŵa ca mtolo wa mizirwe wakuchemeka ''brachial plexus'', mizirwe ya ''thoracic'' na ''intercostobrachial'', magulu ghankhondi gha ma lymph node, na mafuta ghakuzingilira ivi vyose.<ref name="anaesthesiauk"/> Cigaŵa ca pasi ca kunyuma cha nkhwapa chikuchemeka ''posterior axillary fold'', apo cigaŵa ca kunthazi chikuchemeka ''anterior axillary fold''.<ref name="norman"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe== Nkhwapa ni malo ghakukwenya comene chifukwa cha mizirwe yinandi iyo yili mwenemumo. Sisi za nkhwapa zikumela kwa ŵanakazi na ŵanarume kwamba mu unyamata. Mu vikhalidwe vinyake vyamakono, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakugweta sisi za nkhwapa, kwizira mu maghanoghano gha kutowa panji gha thanzi, kweni mu vikhalidwe vinyake ŵanakazi ŵakusunga sisi izi.<ref name="lanzalaco"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Nga umo viliri mu malo ghanyake agho ghakupinda pakati pa viŵalo vikuru (nga ni ntangararo panji kasukusuku), nkhwapa ni malo agho misambizi na mizirwe vikwendamo pafupi na khungu, ndipo vikuŵa vyakuzirwa comene pakuwona ma lymph node pakuchekura nthenda. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiŵegha]] *[[Woko]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="anaesthesiauk">{{cite web|url=http://www.anaesthesiauk.com/article.aspx?articleid=100359|title=Applied anatomy for upper limb blocks|access-date=2007-12-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906140808/http://www.anaesthesiauk.com/article.aspx?articleid=100359|archive-date=2015-09-06}}</ref> <ref name="turkington">{{cite book|last1=Turkington|first1=Carol|last2=Dover|first2=Jeffrey S.|title=The encyclopedia of skin and skin disorders|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsk0000turk|year=2007|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8160-6403-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsk0000turk/page/363 363]|edition=3rd}}</ref> <ref name="drea">{{Cite journal|last=Drea|first=Christine M.|date=February 2015|title=D'scent of man|journal=Hormones and Behavior|volume=68|pages=117–133|doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.08.001|pmid=25118943}}</ref> <ref name="norman">Norman Anatomy, lesson 3: axilla.</ref> <ref name="lanzalaco">{{cite journal|last1=Lanzalaco|first1=Anthony|display-authors=1|title=A comparative clinical study of different hair removal procedures and their impact on axillary odor reduction in men|journal=Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology|year=2016|volume=5|issue=1|pages=58–65|doi=10.1111/jocd.12197|pmid=26663394}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 3m1d0qggopi8afyu27wl2hdmf2l04zx 0 49756 123160 122328 2026-10-08T16:44:37Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 9 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123160 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi capakati pa nkhongono ya woko na woko}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Nkhumano ya woko | Latin = articulatio radiocarpalis | Image = Nadgarstek (ubt).jpeg | Caption = Munthu wakulongora nkhumano ya woko pakati | Image2 = 3D Medical Animation Human Wrist.jpg | Caption2 = Mafupa gha ''carpus'', ghanyake ghakusazgikamo mu ng'anamuro la nkhumano ya woko }} Mu sayansi ya thupi la munthu, '''nkhumano ya woko''' (mu Chingelezi: ''wrist'') yikung'anamulika mu nthowa zitatu: (1) ''carpus'' panji mafupa gha ''carpus'', mafupa ghankonde ghaŵiri agho ghakupanga cigaŵa cakwamba ca [[woko]];<ref name="behnke"/><ref name="moore"/> (2) '''mphambano wa nkhumano''' panji ''radiocarpal joint'', mphambano uwo uli pakati pa [[radius]] na ''carpus'';<ref name="moore"/> na (3) cigaŵa cose ca thupi cakuzingilira ''carpus'', kusazgamo vigaŵa vyakutali vya mafupa gha nkhongono ya woko na vigaŵa vyakwamba vya mafupa gha ''metacarpal'', pamoza na mphambano zose izo zikusangika mwenemura. Cigaŵa ici cikusazgangamo [[carpal tunnel|chitowo ca ''carpus'']], ''anatomical snuff box'' (thumba lakusonda tumbaku, ling'anamuro la Chingelezi), na ma ''retinacula'' ghakukhorera minofu.<ref name="behnke2"/><ref name="baratz"/> Chifukwa ca kupambana uku mu ng'anamuro, kutimbanyika kwa mafupa gha ''carpus'' kukuchemeka ''carpal fracture'', apo kutimbanyika nga ni [[distal radius fracture]] kukuwonekanga kutimbanyika kwa nkhumano. ==Muundo== ===Mphambano wa radioulnar wakutali=== Mphambano wa radioulnar wakutali (''DRUJ'') ni mphambano wakuzungusika (''pivot joint'') uwo uli pakati pa vigaŵa vyakutali vya [[radius]] na [[ulna]], mafupa agho ghakupanga nkhongono ya woko. Ukupangika na mutu wa ''ulna'' (khoswe la fupa ilo likuwoneka kunyuma kwa nkhumano) na ''ulnar notch'' ya radius, ndipo mphambano uwu ukupatukana na mphambano wa ''radiocarpal'' na cibvunda cakuzingilira (''articular disk'') ico chili pakati pa radius na ''styloid process'' ya ulna. Thumba la mphambano ndakuzingilira, ndipo likufika ku ''sacciform recess''. Mphambano uwu ukugwira ntchito pamoza na mphambano wakufupi wa radioulnar (uwo uli pa [[kasukusuku]]) pa nchito ya ''pronation'' na ''supination''.<ref name="platzer1"/> ===Mphambano wa radiocarpal=== Mphambano wa ''radiocarpal'' ni mphambano wa ''ellipsoid'' uwo ukupangika na radius na cibvunda cakuzingilira kuchanya, na mzere wakwamba wa mafupa gha ''carpus'' kusi. Mafupa gha ''carpus'' ku mphepete la ''ulna'' ghakukhwaskana waka pang'ono na cigaŵa cakuchanya, ndipo fupa la ''triquetrum'' likukhwaskana pekha pa nyengo ya kwandamana kwa ''ulna''. Thumba la mphambano likukhozgeka na ma ''ligament'' ghanandi, kusazgamo ''ligament'' za ''palmar'' na ''dorsal radiocarpal'', na ''ligament'' za ''ulnar'' na ''radial collateral''.<ref name="platzer2"/> Vigaŵa ivyo vikupanga mphambano wa ''radiocarpal'' ni mphepete lakusi la radius na cigaŵa cakusi ca cibvunda cakuzingilira kuchanya; na mafupa gha ''scaphoid'', ''lunate'', na ''triquetrum'' kusi. Vigaŵa vyakuchanya vya mafupa aya vikupanga pamoza cifukira cakuzingilira (''condyle'') ico chikwiliskikira mu thumba lakuzingilira la radius.<ref name="lecturio"/> ===Mafupa gha ''carpus''=== Mu woko wenecho, mafupa 13 ghakupanga cigaŵa ca nkhumano: mafupa ghankonde gha ''carpus'' — ''scaphoid'', ''lunate'', ''triquetrum'', ''pisiform'', ''trapezium'', ''trapezoid'', ''capitate'', na ''hamate'' — na mafupa nkonde gha ''metacarpal'', ndiko kuti lyakwamba, laciŵiri, lacitatu, lacinayi, na lacinkhondi.<ref name="platzer3"/> Mafupa ghakwamba kutandaŵaŵuka (''ossify'') ni ''capitate'' na ''hamate'', mu myezi yitatu na cikwenimoza ya umoyo wa mwana.<ref name="alkhater"/> ====Mphambano zakukolerana==== Mphambano za ''radiocarpal'', ''intercarpal'', ''midcarpal'', ''carpometacarpal'', na ''intermetacarpal'' nyengo zinandi zikukolerana kwizira mu thumba limoza la ''synovial''.<ref name="isenberg"/> ==Ntchito== ===Kusinthasintha=== Minofu yikuru ya woko yili mu nkhongono ya woko, apo vinofu vyake vikupanga uzito wa nkhongono. Nyengo zinandi, ''tendon'' za minofu izi zikukhorereka kuti zileke kunyamuka nga singo za uta pakuzingilira nkhumano, kwizira mu ''flexor retinaculum'' ku mphepete la mkono, na ''extensor retinaculum'' ku mphepete la kunyuma. Ku mphepete la mkono, mafupa gha ''carpus'' ghakupanga [[carpal tunnel|chitowo ca ''carpus'']],<ref name="rea"/> umo ''tendon'' zinyake za ''flexor'' zikwendera mu vibvunda ivyo vikuzomerezga kuti zisunthe pambere na kunyuma mu chitowo cicoko (wonani ''carpal tunnel syndrome'').<ref name="saladin"/> Kufuma pa malo ghakati-kati gha woko, kusinthasintha uko kukuzomerezgeka pa nkhumano wenecho ni: kufumiska na kwandamana kwa mphepete (kwandamana kwa ''radial'' na kwandamana kwa ''ulnar''), kupinda na kunyoloka (''flexion'' na ''extension''), na kusinthasintha kwakukwana. Kupinda ku mphepete la mkono (''palmar flexion'') nkhukukuru comene mwa masinthasintha ghose, chifukwa minofu yakupinda njankhongono comene kuluska minofu yakunyoloka.<ref name="platzer4"/> Kweniso, kusinthasintha pa nkhumano nkhukwambura kwenelera kulongosoreka kwambura kusazgamo kusinthasintha pa mphambano wa radioulnar wakutali, umo kukucitika ''pronation'' na ''supination'' — lekani mphambano uwu ukuwonekaso nga cigaŵa ca nkhumano.<ref name="kingston"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kupweteka kwa nkhumano kungiza chifukwa cha vinthu vinandi, kusazgamo nthenda ya ''carpal tunnel'',<ref name="rea2"/> ''ganglion cyst'',<ref name="stretanski"/> ''tendinitis'',<ref name="waldman"/> na [[osteoarthritis]]. Kuyezga nga ni ''Phalen's test'' kukusazgamo kupinda kwa mkono pa nkhumano. Woko ungasintha maluŵiro pa nkhumano mu nthenda zinyake, nga ni [[rheumatoid arthritis]]. Kutandaŵaŵuka (''ossification'') kwa mafupa ghakuzingilira nkhumano ni cimanyikwiro cimoza ico chikugwiliskikira ntchito pakumanya vyaka vya mafupa (''bone age''). Kutimbanyika kwa nkhumano kanandi kukung'anamura [[distal radius fracture]]. Nkhukusangika comene mwa ŵanakazi ŵambura kuŵa Hispanic, ndipo nkhukolerana na vinthu nga ni kumwa vyakukolerwa, kusuta fodya, kuŵa na ''phosphate'' yinandi mu ndopa, [[osteoporosis]], na kunenepa comene.<ref name="ye"/> ==Umoza wa zgu== Zgu la Chingelezi "''wrist''" likufuma ku zgu lakale la Proto-Germanic ''wristiz'', ilo ndiwo lyafumiramo mazgu ghamakono gha Chijeremani ''Rist'' na Chisweden ''vrist'' (ghaŵiri ghakung'anamura "kasukusuku ka phazi" panji "nkhumano"). Ukuwoneka kuti muzu wa zgu ili, ''writh-'', ukukolerana na kuzungazunga panji kupilinganya.<ref name="eatonhand"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Woko]] *[[Kasukusuku]] *[[Chiŵegha]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="behnke">{{Cite book|last=Behnke|first=Robert S.|title=Kinetic Anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/kineticanatomy0000behn|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2006|isbn=0-7360-5909-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/kineticanatomy0000behn/page/76 76]}}</ref> <ref name="moore">{{Cite book|last1=Moore|first1=K. L.|last2=Agur|first2=A. M.|title=Essential Clinical Anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialclinica0000moor_c2o8|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2006|isbn=0-7817-6274-X|page=[https://archive.org/details/essentialclinica0000moor_c2o8/page/485 485]}}</ref> <ref name="behnke2">{{Cite book|last=Behnke|first=Robert S.|title=Kinetic Anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/kineticanatomy0000behn|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2006|isbn=0-7360-5909-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/kineticanatomy0000behn/page/77 77]}}</ref> <ref name="baratz">{{Cite book|last1=Baratz|first1=M.|last2=Watson|first2=A. D.|last3=Imbriglia|first3=J. E.|title=Orthopaedic Surgery: The Essentials|publisher=Thieme|year=1999|isbn=0-86577-779-9|page=391}}</ref> <ref name="platzer1">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|publisher=Thieme|isbn=3-13-533305-1|year=2004|edition=5th|page=122}}</ref> <ref name="platzer2">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|publisher=Thieme|isbn=3-13-533305-1|year=2004|edition=5th|page=130}}</ref> <ref name="lecturio">{{Cite web|url=https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/wrist-joint/|title=Wrist Joint|website=The Lecturio Medical Concept Library|access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> <ref name="platzer3">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|publisher=Thieme|isbn=3-13-533305-1|year=2004|edition=5th|pages=126–129}}</ref> <ref name="alkhater">{{Cite journal|last1=Al-Khater|first1=K. M.|display-authors=etal|title=Time of appearance of ossification centers in carpal bones|journal=Saudi Medical Journal|volume=41|issue=9|pages=938–946|year=2020|pmid=32893275}}</ref> <ref name="isenberg">{{Cite book|last1=Isenberg|first1=D. A.|last2=Maddison|first2=P.|last3=Woo|first3=P.|title=Oxford Textbook of Rheumatology|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordtextbookof0000unse_i1y7|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-850948-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordtextbookof0000unse_i1y7/page/87 87]}}</ref> <ref name="rea">{{Cite book|last=Rea|first=P.|title=Essential Clinically Applied Anatomy of the Peripheral Nervous System in the Head and Neck|publisher=Academic Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-12-803633-4}}</ref> <ref name="saladin">{{Cite book|last=Saladin|first=K. S.|title=Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function|url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyphysiolog0000sala_x7c2|publisher=McGraw-Hill|edition=3rd|year=2003|pages=[https://archive.org/details/anatomyphysiolog0000sala_x7c2/page/361 361], 365}}</ref> <ref name="platzer4">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|publisher=Thieme|isbn=3-13-533305-1|year=2004|edition=5th|page=132}}</ref> <ref name="kingston">{{Cite book|last=Kingston|first=B.|title=Understanding Joints: A Practical Guide to Their Structure and Function|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingjoi0000king|publisher=Nelson Thornes|year=2000|isbn=0-7487-5399-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/understandingjoi0000king/page/126 126]–127}}</ref> <ref name="rea2">{{Cite book|last1=Lalani|first1=I.|last2=Argoff|first2=C. E.|title=Raj's Practical Management of Pain|url=https://archive.org/details/rajspracticalman04edunse|edition=4th|publisher=Mosby|year=2008|isbn=978-0-323-04184-3}}</ref> <ref name="stretanski">{{Cite book|last=Stretanski|first=M. F.|title=Essentials of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofphys0004walt|edition=4th|publisher=Content Repository Only|year=2020|isbn=978-0-323-54947-9}}</ref> <ref name="waldman">{{Cite book|last=Waldman|first=S. D.|title=Atlas of Uncommon Pain Syndromes|url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofuncommonp0000wald_y0s9_3rdedi|edition=3rd|publisher=W.B. Saunders|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4557-0999-1}}</ref> <ref name="ye">{{Cite journal|last1=Ye|first1=Juncai|last2=Li|first2=Qiao|last3=Nie|first3=Jing|title=Prevalence, Characteristics, and Associated Risk Factors of Wrist Fractures in Americans Above 50: The Cross-Sectional NHANES Study|journal=Frontiers in Endocrinology|volume=13|year=2022|doi=10.3389/fendo.2022.800129|pmid=35547001}}</ref> <ref name="eatonhand">{{Cite web|title=Hand Etymology|url=http://www.eatonhand.com/clf/clf522.htm|publisher=American Society for Surgery of the Hand}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] jncolnalyx3dtze90q36e15peq2l4g9 0 49786 123157 122435 2026-10-08T16:37:22Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123157 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi capacisi pa mbombo}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Tako | Latin = clunis | Image = Human buttocks.jpg | Caption = Tako la mwanakazi (kuchanya) na la mwanarume (kusi) | Artery = [[Superior gluteal artery|Msambizi wa gluteal wakuchanya]], [[inferior gluteal artery|msambizi wa gluteal wakusi]] | Nerve = [[Superior gluteal nerve|Mzirwe wa gluteal wakuchanya]], [[inferior gluteal nerve|mzirwe wa gluteal wakusi]], [[superior cluneal nerves|mizirwe ya cluneal yakuchanya]], [[medial cluneal nerves|yakati-kati]], na [[inferior cluneal nerves|yakusi]] }} '''Tako''' (mu Chingelezi: ''buttocks''; libo: ''buttock'') ni vigaŵa viŵiri vyakuzingilira vya thupi la munthu, ivyo vili kunyuma kwa mbombo. Tako lili pakati pa msana wa pasi na [[perineum]]. Likupangika na khungu la kuwaro na fyuta lakukhorera (''subcutaneous fat'') ilo lili pachanya pa minofu ya kumanzi na kumalyero ya ''gluteus maximus'' na ''gluteus medius''. Minofu ya ''gluteus maximus'' njiyikuru comene mu thupi la munthu. Yikugwira ntchito pakunyoloska thupi kuti liwimilire likaŵa lajintha pa cifuwa; pakukhozgera thupi kuwimilira na kukhazikika kwa mphambano za ntchafu; ndiposo pakusundizga thupi kwenda panji kucimbira kwizira mu kunyoloska ntchafu.<ref name="eizenberg"/> Mu vikhaliro vinandi, tako likugwira nawo ntchito mu vinthu vyakukhumba mwakugonana.<ref name="hennig"/> Vikhaliro vinandi navyoso vikugwiliskira ntchito tako pakupeleka cilango (''corporal punishment''), chifukwa fyuta ilo lili mkati mwa khungu la tako likovwira kujiskana na kupwetekeka apo cikwenera kucitika.<ref name="times"/> ==Muundo== Tako likupangika na unyinji wa minofu ya ''gluteal'' (''gluteus maximus'' na ''gluteus medius'') ivyo vili pasi pa fyuta. Cigaŵa cakuchanya ca tako cikufika pa [[iliac crest]], apo cigaŵa cakusi cikulongosoreka na mzere wa pasi wa tako (''horizontal gluteal crease''). ''Gluteus maximus'' yikukolerana pa vyaka viŵiri: cigaŵa cakuchanya ca ''linea aspera'' ya [[femur|fupa la chigha]], na cigaŵa cakuchanya ca ''iliotibial tractus''. Minofu ya ''gluteus maximus'' yikupatukana na mkati mwa cikwazga (''intergluteal cleft''), umo [[anus|mwaziko]] ukusangika. Viwumba vinyake vya anyani (''primates'') vili na vigaŵa vyakuwoneka nga vithupi vyakukhoma (''ischial callosities'') ivyo vikuvipulikiska kukhala pasi kwambura kunyamula uzito wawo pa malundi, nga umo viŵumba vya maundi ghanayi vikucitira. Vithupi ivi vikovwira anyani kugona pakukhala pasi pa nthambi zicoko, kutali na vyakuvirwiska, kwambura kugwa. Ŵanthu ŵakuŵavya vithupi ivi chifukwa minofu ya ''gluteal'' njikuru comene mwakuti yikupeleka kujiskana kwakwenelera.<ref name="montagu"/> Ŵanakazi ŵa mafuko ghanyake gha ''baboon'' ŵakuŵa na vithupi vyakusesa ivyo vikusesa comene kukopa ŵanalume. Kwa ŵanthu, ŵanakazi ŵakuŵa na tako lifupi na likuru comene chifukwa cha fyuta linandi la mkati mwa khungu na mbombo yakufupika comene. Mwa ŵanthu, tako likovwiraso pakusundizga thupi kwenda, na pakovwira munthu kunya mavi kwakwenelera.<ref name="chila"/><ref name="gupte"/> Ŵanyani ŵanyake ŵa mafuko gha ''baboon'' na vinyani vyose vya mtundu wa ''gibbon'', nangauli vikuvikika na vibudi, vikuŵa na vithupi vya ''ischial callosities'' ivyo vikuwoneka pa cigaŵa cakunyuma. Ŵana ŵaŵanandi ŵakuŵa na tako lakuzingilira lambura vibudi, kweni ŵanthu ŵakukhwima ŵakuŵa na vibudi kwakupambanapambana, nga umo viŵoneka pa vigaŵa vinyake vya thupi. Ŵanakazi ŵangaŵa na vibudi mu cikwazga ca tako (kusazgamo kuzingilira mwaziko), apo pena vikufikira kunthazi kwa masasi gha tako. Ŵanalume ŵangaŵa na vibudi pa cigaŵa cinandi panji cose ca tako. ==Mazina== Zina la Chilatini la tako ni ''nates'' (kuwerengeka kwiskana), apo zina la mwene ''natis'' likugwiliskikira comene panandi. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiuno]] *[[Kalundi]] *[[Mbombo]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="eizenberg">{{Cite book|last=Eizenberg|first=Norman|display-authors=etal|title=General Anatomy: Principles and Applications|url=https://archive.org/details/generalanatomypr0000norm|year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/generalanatomypr0000norm/page/17 17]}}</ref> <ref name="hennig">{{Cite book|last=Hennig|first=Jean-Luc|title=The Rear View: A Brief and Elegant History of Bottoms Through the Ages|url=https://archive.org/details/rearviewbriefele0000henn_h8c3|publisher=Souvenir|location=London|year=1995|isbn=0-285-63303-1}}</ref> <ref name="times">{{Cite news|newspaper=The Times|location=London|date=1894-03-22|title=Police}}</ref> <ref name="montagu">{{Cite journal|last=Montagu|first=Ashley|title=The Buttocks and Natural Selection|journal=JAMA|volume=198|issue=1|pages=51|year=1966|doi=10.1001/jama.1966.03110140101027|pmid=5953162}}</ref> <ref name="chila">{{Cite book|title=Foundations of Osteopathic Medicine|last=Chila|first=Anthony G.|page=586|year=2010}}</ref> <ref name="gupte">{{Cite book|title=Recent Advances in Pediatrics|last=Gupte|first=Suraj|page=141|year=2013}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] jt8iiqaa1yl50mxdcob2l3ylsa06a22 0 49787 123168 122438 2026-10-08T17:28:03Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123168 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Chiŵiŵi cha kalundi | Latin = sura | Greek = acfle | Image = Sb calf.png | Caption = Chiŵiŵi cha kalundi ni cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi | Image2 = Braus 1921 293.png | Caption2 = Cithuzi ca kudumura nkhongono ya pasi ya kulyero, kulongora vigaŵa vinayi vyake }} '''Chiŵiŵi cha kalundi''' (mu Chingelezi: ''calf''; libo: ''calves''; Chilatini: ''sura'') ni cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi mu thupi la munthu.<ref name="oed"/> Minofu iyo yili mkati mwa chiŵiŵi ici yikukolerana na cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi (''posterior compartment of the leg''). Minofu yiŵiri yikuru mu cigaŵa ici yikuchemeka pamoza ''calf muscle'', ndipo yikukolerana na [[chitende]] kwizira mu [[Achilles tendon|tendon la Achilles]]. Minofu yinyake yicoko yikukolerana na majoint gha nkhongono ya pasi, kusazgamo [[kalundi]], na kwizira mu ma tendon ghatali ghakufika ku vala vya malundi. ==Umoza wa zgu== Kufuma ku Middle English ''calf'', ''kalf'', kufuma ku Old Norse ''kalfi'', panyake kufuma ku muzu wa Chijeremani umoza na zgu la Chingelezi ''calf'' (ng'ombe yicoko). Likukolerana na Icelandic ''kálfi'' (chiŵiŵi cha kalundi).<ref name="wiktionary"/> Mazgu ''calf'' na ''calf of the leg'' ghakasangika kale mu Middle English kwambira mu vyaka 1350 na 1425.<ref name="kurath"/> Mu nyengo yakale, ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakawonanga kuŵavya kwa chiŵiŵi ici (ndiko kuti nkhongono ya pasi yambura minofu yakuwoneka comene) kuŵa cimanyikwiro ca kwananga: ''vikumanyikwa kuti mbira zilije chiŵiŵi ici, kweniso viŵumba vinyake vicoko vyakuyezgeka navyo navyo vilije.''<ref name="montessori"/> ==Muundo== Chiŵiŵi cha kalundi cikupangika na minofu ya cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi: ''gastrocnemius'' na ''soleus'' (izo pamoza zikuchemeka ''triceps surae''), na ''tibialis posterior''. [[Mzirwe wa sural]] ndiwo ukupeleka mzirwe (''innervation'') mu cigaŵa ici. Kutali, ''gastrocnemius'' na ''soleus'' zikukolelezgeka pamoza kuŵa [[Achilles tendon|tendon la Achilles]] (panji ''calcaneal tendon''), ilo likukolerana pa cigaŵa cakunyuma ca [[chitende|fupa la chitende]] (''calcaneus'').<ref name="statpearls"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Nthenda izo zikwiza na kutupa kwa chiŵiŵi cha kalundi kusazgamo [[deep vein thrombosis]],<ref name="simel"/> [[compartment syndrome]],<ref name="drey"/><ref name="hartgens"/> kudumuka kwa [[Achilles tendon|tendon la Achilles]], na [[varicose veins]]. Vikatikati vya usiku, minofu ya chiŵiŵi yikukoma kanandi kwambura kumanyikwa cifukwa (''idiopathic leg cramps'').<ref name="young"/> Kutupa (''edema'') nakoso nkhwakusangika comene, kanandi kwambura kumanyikwa cifukwa cake. Mu kafukufuku wicoko wa ŵanchito ŵa m'malo ghakupangira vinthu ŵaŵakukhala makola, kuvwara vyakuvwalira vyakukhorera (''compression garments'') vikawovwira kucepeska kutupa na kupweteka.<ref name="blattler"/> Kafukufuku wicoko wa ŵakucimbira wakasanga kuti kuvwara masokosi ghakukhorera (''compression stockings'') mpaka pa bondo, apo ŵakucimbira, kukawovwira comene pakuwezga makola kucimbira kwawo.<ref name="kemmler"/> Umulu (''circumference'') wa chiŵiŵi wagwiliskikira ntchito pakuyezga masuzgo ghanyake gha thupi. Ku Spain, kafukufuku wa ŵanthu 22,000 ŵakukwana vyaka 65 panji kujumpha wakasanga kuti chiŵiŵi cicoko chikukolerana na ngozi yikuru ya kuperekeka kwa chakulya (''undernutrition'').<ref name="cuervo"/> Ku France, kafukufuku wa ŵanthu 6,265 ŵa vyaka 65 panji kujumpha wakasanga kukolerana kwakususka pakati pa umulu wa chiŵiŵi na vyakwiliskika mu msambizi wa singo (''carotid plaques'').<ref name="debette"/> Kukurizga panji kuwezgera chiŵiŵi kukupangika, kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupangika (''prosthesis'') na majidu ghakupambanapambana gha opaleshoni. ==Kwezga na masuzgo== Chiŵiŵi cingapangika kuŵa cikhwakhwa kwizira mu masunthiro agho ghakukoleska minyendo pasi (''plantarflexion''). Vinthu viŵiri vikuru vya masunthiro gha chiŵiŵi ni agho ghakusunga bondo mwakunyoloka, na agho ghakusunga bondo mwakupinda. Cigaŵa cakwamba cikusazgamo masunthiro nga ni kunyamuka kwa chiŵiŵi kwimilira (''standing calf raises''), ''donkey calf raises'', na kukwera pa masitepe. Cigaŵa cacaŵiri cikusazgamo masunthiro agho bondo likupinda, nga ni kunyamuka kwa chiŵiŵi kukhala pasi (''seated calf raises''). Masunthiro gha bondo lakunyoloka ghakukoleska comene minofu ya ''gastrocnemius'', apo gha bondo lakupinda ghakukoleska comene ''soleus''. Nangauli, masunthiro ghose ghaŵiri ghakukoleska minofu yiŵiri iyi comene. ==Wonaniso== *[[Kalundi]] *[[Chitende]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="oed">{{Cite web|title=calf, n.2|website=Oxford English Dictionary}}</ref> <ref name="wiktionary">{{Cite web|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/calf|title=calf - Wiktionary|website=en.wiktionary.org|access-date=2020-03-22}}</ref> <ref name="kurath">{{Cite book|last=Kurath|first=Hans|title=Middle English Dictionary|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=1959|isbn=978-0-472-01031-8|page=128}}</ref> <ref name="montessori">{{Cite book|last=Montessori|first=Maria|title=Pedagogical Anthropology|url=https://archive.org/details/pedagogicalanthr00mont|publisher=Frederick A. Stokes Company|year=1913|page=[https://archive.org/details/pedagogicalanthr00mont/page/n571 508]}}</ref> <ref name="statpearls">{{Cite web|last1=Binstead|first1=Justin T.|last2=Munjal|first2=Akul|last3=Varacallo|first3=Matthew A.|title=Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Calf|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2025|pmid=29083629}}</ref> <ref name="simel">{{Cite book|last1=Simel|first1=David|last2=Rennie|first2=Drummond|last3=Hayward|first3=Robert|last4=Keitz|first4=Sheri A.|title=The Rational Clinical Examination: Evidence-Based Clinical Diagnosis|url=https://archive.org/details/rationalclinical0000unse|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|year=2008|isbn=978-0-07-159030-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/rationalclinical0000unse/page/229 229]}}</ref> <ref name="drey">{{Cite journal|last1=Drey|first1=I. A.|last2=Baruch|first2=H.|title=Acute compartment syndrome of the calf presenting after prolonged decubitus position|journal=Orthopedics|volume=31|issue=2|page=184|year=2008|pmid=19292184}}</ref> <ref name="hartgens">{{Cite journal|last1=Hartgens|first1=F.|last2=Hoogeveen|first2=A. R.|last3=Brink|first3=P. R.|title=Athletes with exercise-related pain at the medial side of the lower leg|journal=Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde|volume=152|issue=33|pages=1839–1843|year=2008|pmid=18783163}}</ref> <ref name="young">{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=G.|title=Leg cramps|journal=Clinical Evidence|volume=2009|year=2009|pmid=19445755}}</ref> <ref name="blattler">{{Cite journal|last1=Blättler|first1=W.|last2=Kreis|first2=N.|last3=Lun|first3=B.|last4=Winiger|first4=J.|last5=Amsler|first5=F.|title=Leg symptoms of healthy people and their treatment with compression hosiery|journal=Phlebology|volume=23|issue=5|pages=214–221|year=2008|pmid=18806203}}</ref> <ref name="kemmler">{{Cite journal|last1=Kemmler|first1=W.|last2=von Stengel|first2=S.|last3=Köckritz|first3=C.|last4=Mayhew|first4=J.|last5=Wassermann|first5=A.|last6=Zapf|first6=J.|title=Effect of compression stockings on running performance in men runners|journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research|volume=23|issue=1|pages=101–105|year=2009|pmid=19057400}}</ref> <ref name="cuervo">{{Cite journal|last1=Cuervo|first1=M.|last2=Ansorena|first2=D.|last3=García|first3=A.|last4=González Martínez|first4=M. A.|last5=Astiasarán|first5=I.|last6=Martínez|first6=J. A.|title=Assessment of calf circumference as an indicator of the risk for hyponutrition in the elderly|journal=Nutrición Hospitalaria|volume=24|issue=1|pages=63–67|year=2009|pmid=19266115}}</ref> <ref name="debette">{{Cite journal|last1=Debette|first1=S.|display-authors=etal|title=Calf circumference is inversely associated with carotid plaques|journal=Stroke|volume=39|issue=11|pages=2958–2965|year=2008|pmid=18703804}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] d44056bsid5e7jm4vu4p5192uhb9o8y 0 49794 123169 122752 2026-10-08T17:29:56Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123169 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca kemistri cakupatura, kumanya, na kuŵelengera vinthu}} '''Kemistri Yakusanda''' (panji ''chemical analysis'') ni cigaŵa ca [[kemistri]] ico cikukhwaskana na kusanguka na kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za kumanya muwiro wa kemistri wa vinthu na kuŵelengera unandi wa vigaŵa mu ''mixtures'' (vinthu vyakusazgika).<ref name="kellner"/> Cikujizinga pa nthowa za kumanya ''compounds'' zambura kumanyikwa, panyake mu ''mixture'' panji ''solution'', na kuŵelengera kuŵapo kwa ''compound'' kwakuyana na munandi wa cinthu (mu muwiro uliwose), ''concentration'' (mu ''solution''), pacenti ya uzito panji unandi wa ''moles'' mu ''mixture'' ya ma ''compound'' (panji ''pressure'' yigaŵa mu nkhani ya muwiro wa mphepo). Cikusazgamo nthowa zakale (nga ''titration'', ''gravimetric analysis'') na nthowa za sono izo zikugwiliskira ntchito vyakupimira (nga ''spectroscopy'', ''chromatography'', ''mass spectrometry'', nthowa za ''electrochemistry''). Kemistri Yakusanda ya sono yikukolerana comene na kusanda vyakumanyikwa (''data analysis'') na ''chemometrics'', ndipo yikukolerana comene na kusintha kwa vinthu nga ''automation'', kucepeska ukuru wa vyakugwiliskira ntchito (''miniaturization''), na kupima mwaluŵiro (''real-time sensing''), na kugwiliskikira ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana nga ''biochemistry'', kemistri ya mankhwala, kasandiro ka uzimuzi (''forensic science''), ku sanda vya kale (''archaeology''), kasandiro ka vyakulya, kemistri ya ulimi, kupangika kwa ma ''compound'' (''chemical synthesis''), ''metallurgy'', uinjiniya wa kemistri, na kasandiro ka vinthu vyakupanga (''materials science''). Mu nyengo ya "''big data''", Kemistri Yakusanda, pamoza na ''chemometrics'' na ''bioinformatics'', yaŵa yakuzirwa comene pakupulikiska masuzgo ghakusuzga kufuma mu nthowa zakupima luŵiro na kwenelera nga ''gas chromatography-mass spectrometry'' (GCMS), ''high-performance liquid chromatography'', ''inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry'', na ''mass spectrometry'' yakukwezgeka.<ref name="kellner2"/> Paliposo kutemwereka kukuru ku ''miniaturization'', ''automation'', na kusanguka kwa vyakupimira vyaluŵiro, ivyo vikuchemeka ''point-of-care diagnostic sensors''.<ref name="murray"/> ==Mbiri== Kemistri Yakusanda yaŵa yakuzirwa kwambira mazuŵa ghakwamba gha kemistri, kupeleka nthowa za kudziŵa vigaŵa (''elements'') na mankhwala agho ghali mu cinthu ico cikusandika. Mu nyengo iyi, vyakovwira vikuru ku Kemistri Yakusanda vikasazgamo kusanguka kwa ''systematic elemental analysis'' na [[Justus von Liebig]] na kunozgeka kwa kusanda kwa ''organic'' kwakuzenga pa masinjizgo gha ''functional groups''.<ref name="liebig"/> Kupima kwakwamba kwa vyakupimira kukaŵa ''flame emissive spectrometry'', kukasangika na [[Robert Bunsen]] na [[Gustav Kirchhoff]], awo ŵakasanga [[rubidium]] (Rb) na [[caesium]] (Cs) mu 1860.<ref name="arikawa"/> Vinandi mwa vyakusanguka vikuru mu Kemistri Yakusanda vikacitika pamanyuma pa 1900. Mu nyengo iyi, kusanda kwizira mu vyakupimira kukamba kuzirwa comene mu cigaŵa ici. Comenecomene, nthowa zinandi za ''spectroscopic'' na ''spectrometric'' zikasangika kwamba kwa vyaka 900 ndipo zikakhozgeka pa umaliro wa vyaka 900.<ref name="miller"/> Tusandiro twa kupatura (''separation sciences'') zikalondezgaso ndondomeko yakuyana ya kusanguka ndipo nazoso zikasinthika kuŵa vyakupimira vyakukwezgeka.<ref name="bartle"/> Mu vyaka 1970, nthowa zinandi izi zikamba kugwiliskikira ntchito pamoza kuŵa nthowa zakusazgika (''hybrid techniques'') kukwaniriska kumanyikwa kwakukwana kwa vipimo. Kwamba mu vyaka 1970, Kemistri Yakusanda yikamba kusazgamoso mafumbo gha vinthu vyamoyo (''bioanalytical chemistry''), apo pambere yikajizingira comene pa vinthu vyambura umoyo panji ma ''molecule'' ghacoko. ''Lasers'' zikamba kugwiliskikira ntchito comene nga vyakusanda na nanga kwamba na kukhwaska masinjizgo ghakupambanapambana. Umaliro wa vyaka 900 wakawoneskaso kuwonjeka kwa kugwiliskira ntchito Kemistri Yakusanda kufuma ku mafumbo gha kemistri gha ku sukulu kuya ku mafumbo gha uzimuzi, malo ghakuzingilira, makampani, na uganga, nga mu ''histology''.<ref name="laitinen"/> Kemistri Yakusanda ya sono yikwendeskeka na kusanda kwizira mu vyakupimira. Ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵa Kemistri Yakusanda ŵakujizinga pa mtundu umoza wa cakupimira. Ŵakusambizga ŵakutemwa kujizinga pa vyakugwiliskira ntchito viphya na vyakusanguka viphya panji pa nthowa ziphya za kusanda. Kusanguka kwa mankhwala agho ghali mu ndopa agho ghakuwonjezga ngozi ya kansa nkhwakuti msandi wa Kemistri Yakusanda wangaŵamo. Kuyezga kusangura nthowa yiphya kungasazgamo kugwiliskira ntchito ''tunable laser'' kuwonjezga kudziŵikwa na kupulikika kwa nthowa ya ''spectrometric''. Nthowa zinandi, zamara kusangika, zikusungika kwambura kusintha mwakukhumbika mwakuti vyakumanyikwa vyangayaniskika pa nyengo yitali. Ici nchanadi comene mu ''quality assurance'' (QA) ya makampani, uzimuzi, na malo ghakuzingilira. Kemistri Yakusanda yikucita nchito yakuzirwa comene mu makampani gha mankhwala ghakukhozga (''pharmaceutical industry''), apo, kupatulako QA, yikugwiliskikira ntchito pakusanguka kwa mankhwala ghaphya na mu vyakugwiliskira ntchito vya uganga apo kupulikiska kukolerana pakati pa mankhwala na mulwari nkhwakuzirwa.<ref name="kellner3"/> Vyaka 2000 vyalongoreka na kusintha kwa Kemistri Yakusanda kuya ku ''digital'' (''digitalization''). Kusunga vyakumanyikwa vikuru (''"big data"'') kufuma mu vyakupimira nga ''Orbitrap mass spectrometers'' vyapangiska kuti kusanda kwakukwezgeka kwa vyakumanyikwa, kusazgamo ''machine learning'', kuŵe luso lakukhumbikwa.<ref name="watson"/> Nyengo iyiyi yikujizingaso comene pa ''sustainability'' (kusungika kwa malo ghakuzingilira), kupangiska kusanguka kwa cigaŵa ca ''green chemistry'' cakuti ''Green Analytical Chemistry'', ico cikukhumba kucepeska kuwonongeka kwa malo ghakuzingilira kufuma mu vyakusanda vya kemistri.<ref name="galuszka"/> ==Nthowa Zakale== Nangauli Kemistri Yakusanda ya sono yikwendeskeka na vyakupimira vyakusuzga, muzu wa Kemistri Yakusanda na malango ghanyake agho ghakugwiliskikira ntchito mu vyakupimira vya sono ghakufuma ku nthowa zakale, izo zinandi zikugwiliskikirabe ntchito muhanya uno. Nthowa izi nazoso zikutemwa kuŵa muzu wa masukulu ghanandi gha ''undergraduate'' gha Kemistri Yakusanda. ===Kusanda Kwakumanya Mtundu (''Qualitative Analysis'')=== Pali masuzgo ghanandi gha ''qualitative chemical tests''; viyelezgero vikusazgamo ''acid test'' ya golide na ''Kastle-Meyer test'' ya kuŵapo kwa ndopa.<ref name="acidtest"/><ref name="kastlemeyer"/> ''Flame test'' yikukolerana na nthowa yakulondezgeka ya kumanya kuŵapo kwa ma ''ions'' panji ''elements'' ghanyake mu ''solution'' kwizira mu kucita masinjizgo ghanandi ghakufumiskapo vyakukayikizgika na kukhozgera vya ma ''ions'' vyakukayikizgika. Nyengo zinyake ma ''ions'' ghacoko agho ghali na ''carbon'' ghakusazgikamo mu masinjizgo agha. Na vyakupimira vya sono, masuzgo agha ghakugwiliskikira ntchito kanandi comene, kweni ghangaŵa ghakuzirwa pa maphunziro na pa nchito za kumunda panji apo palije vyakupimira vyakusuzga. ===Kusanda Kwakuŵelengera (''Quantitative Analysis'')=== Kusanda kwakuŵelengera ni kuyezga kwa unandi wa vigaŵa vipadera vya kemistri ivyo vili mu cinthu. Unandi ungayezgeka na uzito (''gravimetric analysis'') panji na ukuru (''volumetric analysis'').<ref name="skoog"/> ====''Gravimetric Analysis''==== ''Gravimetric analysis'' yikusazgamo kudziŵa unandi wa cinthu ico cili kwizira mu kupima uzito wa ''sample'' pambere na/panji pamanyuma pa kusintha kunyake. Ciyelezgero cakugwiliskikira ntchito comene mu maphunziro gha ''undergraduate'' ni kudziŵa unandi wa maji mu ''hydrate'' kwizira mu kutentha ''sample'' kufumiskamo maji mwakuti kupambana kwa uzito nkhwakufuma ku kutayika kwa maji.<ref name="harris"/> ====Kusanda kwa Ukuru (''Volumetric Analysis'')==== ''Titration'' yikusazgamo kuwonjezgapo pang'ono pang'ono cinthu icho cingayezgeka (''reactant'') ku ukuru wakumanyikwa wa ''solution'' iyo yikusandika m'paka apo ''equivalence point'' yakwana. ''Titration'' ni muwungano wa nthowa izo zikugwiliskikira ntchito kudziŵa ''concentration'' ya ''analyte''.<ref name="skoog2"/> Kucita ''titration'' mwakukhwenerera comene m'paka ku ''half-equivalence point'' panji ku ''endpoint'' ya ''titration'' kukupangiska msandi kudziŵa unandi wa ''moles'' izo zagwiliskikira ntchito, izo zingagwiliskikira ntchito kudziŵa ''concentration'' panji muwiro wa ''titrant''. Cakumanyikwa comene ku ŵanthu awo ŵasambira kemistri pa maphunziro gha sekondale ni ''titration'' ya ''acid-base'' iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito ''pH indicator'' iyo yikusintha mtundu, nga ''phenolphthalein''. Pali mitundu yinyake yinandi ya ''titration'', kusazgamo ''potentiometric titrations'' na ''precipitation titrations''. Ŵasandi ŵangapangaso ''titration curves'' kwizira mu kuyezga ''pH'' pamanyuma pa cidonthi ciliconse kuti ŵapulikiske vimanyikwiro vyakupambanapambana vya ''titrant''. ==Nthowa za Vyakupimira== ===''Spectroscopy''=== ''Spectroscopy'' yikuyezga kukolerana kwa ma ''molecule'' na ''electromagnetic radiation''. ''Spectroscopy'' yikusazgamo vyakugwiliskira ntchito vyakupambanapambana nga ''time-resolved raman spectroscopy'', ''atomic absorption spectroscopy'', ''atomic emission spectroscopy'', ''ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy'', ''X-ray spectroscopy'', ''fluorescence spectroscopy'', ''infrared spectroscopy'', ''Raman spectroscopy'', ''dual polarization interferometry'', ''nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy'', ''photoemission spectroscopy'', ''Mössbauer spectroscopy'' na vinyake. ===''Mass Spectrometry''=== ''Mass spectrometry'' yikuyezga ''mass-to-charge ratio'' ya ma ''molecule'' kugwiliskira ntchito minda ya ''electric'' na ''magnetic''. Mu ''mass spectrometer'', ''sample'' yicoko yikusandulika kuŵa ''ions'' za mphepo, apo zikupatulika na kusandika kwakuyana na ma ''mass-to-charge ratio'' ghazo.<ref name="skoog2"/> Pali nthowa zinandi za ''ionization'': ''electron ionization'', ''chemical ionization'', ''electrospray ionization'', ''fast atom bombardment'', ''matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization'', na zinyake. Nakoso, ''mass spectrometry'' yikupatulika kwakuyana na nthowa za ''mass analyzer'': ''magnetic-sector'', ''quadrupole mass analyzer'', ''quadrupole ion trap'', ''time-of-flight'', ''Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance'', na vinyake.<ref name="haag"/> ===Kusanda kwa ''Electrochemistry''=== Nthowa za ''electroanalytical'' zikuyezga ''potential'' (''volts'') na/panji ''current'' (''amps'') mu ''electrochemical cell'' iyo yili na ''analyte''.<ref name="sun"/> Nthowa izi zingapatulika kwakuyana na vigaŵa vya ''cell'' ivyo vikuwendeskeka na ivyo vikuyezgeka. Mitundu ĵinayi yikuru ni ''potentiometry'' (kupambana kwa ''electrode potentials'' kukuyezgeka), ''coulometry'' (''charge'' iyo yatolekapo yikuyezgeka pa nyengo), ''amperometry'' (''current'' ya ''cell'' yikuyezgeka pa nyengo), na ''voltammetry'' (''current'' ya ''cell'' yikuyezgeka apo ''potential'' ya ''cell'' yikusinthika mwakukhumbika).<ref name="skoog3"/> ===Kusanda kwa Kutentha (''Thermal Analysis'')=== ''Calorimetry'' na ''thermogravimetric analysis'' zikuyezga kukolerana pakati pa cinthu na kutentha.<ref name="rotaru"/> ===Kupatura (''Separation'')=== Nthowa za kupatura zikugwiliskikira ntchito kucepeska kusuzga kwa ''mixtures'' za vinthu. ''Chromatography'', ''electrophoresis'', na ''field flow fractionation'' ni viyelezgero vya cigaŵa ici.<ref name="coskun"/> ====Masuzgo gha ''Chromatography''==== ''Chromatography'' yingagwiliskikira ntchito kudziŵa kuŵapo kwa vinthu mu ''sample'', chifukwa vigaŵa vyakupambana mu ''mixture'' vili na kutemwa kwakupambana kukolelezgeka ku ''stationary phase'' panji kusungunuka mu ''mobile phase''. Ntheura, vigaŵa vyakupambana vya ''mixture'' vikwenda na luŵiro lyakupambana. Vigaŵa vyakupambana vya ''mixture'' vingamanyikwa kwizira mu mavalura ghawo gha R_''ƒ'', iyo ni ''ratio'' pakati pa utali uwo cinthu cafumapo na utali uwo ''solvent front'' yafumapo mu nyengo ya ''chromatography''. Pamoza na nthowa za vyakupimira, ''chromatography'' yingagwiliskikira ntchito pakuŵelengera vinthu. Pali mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ''chromatography'' iyo yikupambana kwakuyana na vyakugwiliskira ntchito kupatura ''analyte'' na ''sample''. Mu ''thin-layer chromatography'', ''mixture'' ya ''analyte'' yikukwera na kupatuka pa peji ilo lili na ''coating'' pasi pa ''mobile phase'' iyo yikupwilipwiza. Mu ''gas chromatography'', mphepo yikupatura ma ''analyte'' agho ghakupwilipwiza. Nthowa yakumanyikwa comene ya ''chromatography'' iyo yikugwiliskira ntchito maji kuŵa ''mobile phase'' ni ''high-performance liquid chromatography''.<ref name="poole"/> ===Nthowa Zakusazgika (''Hybrid Techniques'')=== Kukolelezga nthowa zapacanya apo kukupanga nthowa ya "kusazgika" panji "kukolezgeka" (''hyphenated'').<ref name="wilkins"/> Viyelezgero vinandi vikugwiliskikira ntchito muhanya uno ndipo nthowa ziphya za kusazgika zikusanguka. Mwaciyelezgero, ''gas chromatography-mass spectrometry'', ''gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy'', ''liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry'', ''liquid chromatography-NMR spectroscopy'', ''liquid chromatography-infrared spectroscopy'', na ''capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry''.<ref name="patel"/> Nthowa za kupatura izo zikukolezgeka zikukolerana na kukolelezga nthowa ziŵiri (panji zinandi) kumanya na kupatura mankhwala mu ''solutions''. Kanandi comene nthowa yinyake njiyo mtundu wa ''chromatography''. Nthowa izi zikugwiliskikira ntchito comene mu kemistri na ''biochemistry''. ===''Microscopy''=== Kulongora (''visualization'') kwa ma ''molecule'' ghamoza, maselo ghamoza, vigaŵa vya thupi, na ''nanomaterials'' ni nthowa yakuzirwa comene mu Kemistri Yakusanda. ''Microscopy'' yingapatulika mu vigaŵa vitatu: ''optical microscopy'', ''electron microscopy'', na ''scanning probe microscopy''. Sono, cigaŵa ici cikusanguka mwaluŵiro chifukwa ca kusanguka mwaluŵiro kwa makampani gha ''computer'' na kamera.<ref name="turkowyd"/> ===''Lab-on-a-chip''=== Vyakugwiliskira ntchito ivyo vikukolelezga ntchito zinandi za laboratori pa ''chip'' yimoza yicoko, na iyo yikukwaniska kugwira ntchito na vinthu vya majimaji vyacoko comene.<ref name="surappa"/> ==Kusanda Vyakumanyikwa na ''Chemometrics''== Unandi ukuru wa vyakumanyikwa vyakupangika na vyakupimira vya sono vyapangiska kuti kusanda vyakumanyikwa kwizira mu ''computer'' kuŵe cigaŵa cakuzirwa ca kusanda uku. Cigaŵa ca ''chemometrics'' cikugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za ''statistics'' na masamu kupanga vinjazga vyakukhwenerera vya ''experiments'' na kufumiskamo vyakumanyikwa vyakuzirwa kufuma mu vyakumanyikwa vya kemistri.<ref name="brereton"/> Vigaŵa vikuru vikusazgamo: kunozgeka kwa ''multivariate calibration'' (kupanga vithuzi ivyo vikukolelezga masuzgo gha vyakupimira ku ''concentration'' ya ''analyte''); kumanya vithuzi (''pattern recognition'', kupatulira ''samples'' kwakuyana na ''analytical profile'' yawo); ndiposo ''machine learning'' na ''artificial intelligence'' (nthowa izi zikugwiliskikira ntchito comene mu kupanga vithuzi vyakumanyira panthazi, kukhwenerera nthowa za kusanda, na kucita mwaluŵiro kupulikiska kwa vyakumanyikwa).<ref name="wei"/> ==Vilongo (''Errors'')== Vilongo vingalongosoreka kuŵa kupambana pakati pa mvalura uwo wawoneka na mvalura wanadi.<ref name="glr"/> Kilongo ka mayezgo (''experimental error'') kangapatulika kuŵa mitundu yiŵiri, kilongo kakulondezgeka (''systematic error'') na kilongo kambura kulondezgeka (''random error''). Kilongo kakulondezgeka nkhukufuma ku suzgo la vyakugwiliskira ntchito panji kanozgeko ka mayezgo apo kilongo kambura kulondezgeka nkhukufuma ku vinthu ivyo vindawendeskeke mu mayezgo.<ref name="harris2"/> Pa kilongo, mvalura wanadi na mvalura uwo wawoneka mu kusanda kwa kemistri ŵangakoleranako kwizira mu equation : <math> \varepsilon_{\rm a} = |x - \bar{x}| </math> apo * <math>\varepsilon_{\rm a}</math> ni kilongo kakukwana (''absolute error''). * <math>x</math> ni mvalura wanadi. * <math>\bar{x}</math> ni mvalura uwo wawoneka. Kilongo ka kuyezga ni cimanyikwiro cakupilibuka ca kuyezga kwakunenesko (ndiko kuti, kilongo kacoko kukulongora kunenesko kukuru kwa kuyezga). Vilongo vingalongosoreka mwakuyaniska. Pakupelekeka kilongo ka kuyaniska (<math>\varepsilon_{\rm r}</math>): : <math>\varepsilon_{\rm r} = \frac{\varepsilon_{\rm a}}{|x|} = \left | \frac{x - \bar{x}}{x} \right |</math> Kilongo ka pacenti kangawelengekaso: : <math>\varepsilon_{\rm r} \times 100\% </math> Kugwiliskira ntchito mavalura agha mu msinjizgo, cingaŵa cakuzirwa kuŵelengera kilongo ka msinjizgo. Usange <math>f</math> ni msinjizgo uwo uli na vinthu vyakusintha-sintha <math>N</math>, ''propagation of uncertainty'' yikwenera kuŵelengeka kuti kilongo ka <math>f</math> kamanyikwe: : <math>\varepsilon_{\rm a} (f) \approx \sum_{i = 1}^N \left | \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i} \right | \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_i) = \left | \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_1} \right | \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_1) + \left | \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_2} \right | \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_2) + \ldots + \left | \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_N} \right | \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_N)</math> ==Vipimo Vyakuyaniska (''Standards'')== ===Mzere wa Kuyezga (''Standard Curve'')=== Nthowa yakuzirwa ya kusanda ''concentration'' yikusazgamo kupanga ''calibration curve''. Ici cikupangiska kuŵa kwakwenelera kudziŵa unandi wa mankhwala mu cinthu kwizira mu kuyaniska masuzgo gha ''sample'' yambura kumanyikwa na agho gha vipimo vyakumanyikwa. Usange ''concentration'' ya ''element'' panji ''compound'' mu ''sample'' yikujumpha vipimo ivyo nthowa yingamanya, yingasazgikamo pera ''solvent'' yakutowa. Usange unandi mu ''sample'' uli pasi pa vipimo ivyo cakupimira cingamanya, nthowa ya kuwonjezgapo (''method of addition'') yingagwiliskikira ntchito. Mu nthowa iyi, unandi wakumanyikwa wa ''element'' panji ''compound'' iyo yikusandika yikuwonjezgekapo, ndipo kupambana pakati pa ''concentration'' iyo yawonjezgeka na iyo yawoneka ni unandi wanadi uwo uli mu ''sample''.<ref name="calibration"/> ===Vipimo Vyamkati (''Internal Standards'')=== Nyengo zinyake ''internal standard'' yikuwonjezgekapo pa ''concentration'' yakumanyikwa mwaunenesko ku ''sample'' ya kusanda kovwira mu kuŵelengera. Unandi wa ''analyte'' uwo uliko ukudziŵika kwakuyaniska na ''internal standard'' kuŵa ciyezgero. ''Internal standard'' yakukwenerera ni ''analyte'' iyo yili na ''isotopes'' zakuwonjezgeka, iyo yikupangiska nthowa ya ''isotope dilution''.<ref name="isotope"/> ===Kuwonjezgapo Vipimo (''Standard Addition'')=== Nthowa ya ''standard addition'' yikugwiliskikira ntchito mu kusanda kwizira mu vyakupimira kudziŵa ''concentration'' ya cinthu (''analyte'') mu ''sample'' yambura kumanyikwa kwizira mu kuyaniska na muwungano wa ''samples'' za ''concentration'' yakumanyikwa, kwakuyana na kugwiliskira ntchito ''calibration curve''. ''Standard addition'' yingagwiliskikira ntchito ku nthowa zinandi za kusanda ndipo yikugwiliskikira ntchito m'malo mwa ''calibration curve'' kunozga suzgo la ''matrix effect''.<ref name="standardaddition"/> ==Viswekero na Vyakusuzga (''Signals and Noise'')== Cimoza mwa vigaŵa vyakuzirwa comene mu Kemistri Yakusanda ni kukuzga ''signal'' iyo yikukhumbikwa apo kucepeska ''noise'' iyo yikuyana nayo.<ref name="crouch"/> Ciyelezgero ca kupulikiska ici nchakuchemeka ''signal-to-noise ratio'' (S/N panji SNR). ''Noise'' yingafuma ku vinthu vya malo ghakuzingilira ndiposo ku masinjizgo ghakwamba gha fiziki. ===''Thermal Noise''=== ''Thermal noise'' yikufuma ku kusunthasuntha kwa ''charge carriers'' (kanandi ''electrons'') mu ''electrical circuit'' iyo yipangika na kusunthasuntha kwawo kwa kutentha. ''Thermal noise'' ni ''white noise'', kung'anamura kuti ''power spectral density'' njakukhazikika mwakujumpha ''frequency spectrum'' yose. Mvalura wa ''root mean square'' wa ''thermal noise'' mu ''resistor'' ukupelekeka na : <math>v_{\rm RMS} = \sqrt { 4 k_{\rm B} T R \Delta f },</math> apo ''k''_B ni ''Boltzmann constant'', ''T'' ni kutentha, ''R'' ni ''resistance'', na <math>\Delta f</math> ni ''bandwidth'' ya ''frequency'' <math> f</math>. ===''Shot Noise''=== ''Shot noise'' ni mtundu wa ''electronic noise'' uwo ukucitika apo unandi wamalire wa tuviŵelengeka (nga ''electrons'' mu ''electronic circuit'' panji ''photons'' mu cakugwiliskira ntchito ca kuwala) ntucoko mwakuti tikupangiska kusinthasintha kwa ''statistics'' mu ''signal''. ===''Flicker Noise''=== ''Flicker noise'' ni ''electronic noise'' iyo yili na ''frequency spectrum'' ya 1/''ƒ''; apo ''f'' yikuwonjeka, ''noise'' yikucepa. ''Flicker noise'' yikufuma ku vinthu vyakupambanapambana, nga vyakusazgikamo mu ''conductive channel'', ndiposo ''noise'' ya ''generation'' na ''recombination'' mu ''transistor'' cifukwa ca ''base current'', na vinyake. ''Noise'' iyi yingakanizgika kwizira mu ''modulation'' ya ''signal'' pa ''frequency'' yikuru, mwaciyelezgero, kugwiliskira ntchito ''lock-in amplifier''. ===''Environmental Noise''=== ''Environmental noise'' yikufuma ku vinthu vyakuzingilira cakupimira. Vyakufuma vya ''electromagnetic noise'' ni ''power lines'', masiteshoni gha ''radio'' na ''television'', vyakugwiliskira ntchito vyambura ma ''wires'' (''wireless devices''), ''compact fluorescent lamps'', na ''electric motors''. Vinandi mwa vyakufuma ivi vya ''noise'' vili ''narrow bandwidth'' ndipo, chifukwa ca ici, vingakanizgika. Kutentha na kukanizga kusunthasuntha vingakhumbikwa pa vyakupimira vinyake.<ref name="skoog4"/> ===Kucepeska ''Noise''=== Kucepeska ''noise'' kungacitika mu ''computer hardware'' panji ''software''. Viyelezgero vya kucepeska ''noise'' kwizira mu ''hardware'' ni kugwiliskira ntchito ''shielded cable'', ''analog filtering'', na ''signal modulation''. Viyelezgero vya kucepeska ''noise'' kwizira mu ''software'' ni ''digital filtering'', ''ensemble average'', ''boxcar average'', na nthowa za ''correlation''. ==Kugwiliskira Ntchito== Kemistri Yakusanda yili na vyakugwiliskira ntchito mkati mwa kasandiro na makampani. Njakuzirwa ku kasandiro ka uzimuzi (mwaciyelezgero, ''DNA fingerprinting'' na ''toxicology''), ''bioanalysis'' (mwaciyelezgero, kuyezga ''concentration'' za mankhwala mu kafukufuku wa ''pharmacokinetics''), kusanda kwa uganga (mwaciyelezgero, kuyezga ''blood glucose'' na kuyezga COVID-19 kwizira mu ''PCR''), kusanda kwa malo ghakuzingilira (mwaciyelezgero, kuyezga vyakuwononga mu maji na mphepo), na kasandiro ka vinthu vyakupanga (mwaciyelezgero, kupenja kwenelero ka ''semiconductors'' na ''nanomaterials'').<ref name="szymanska"/> Nchito yikuru yikucitika kucepeska ukuru wa nthowa za kusanda kuya pa ukuru wa ''chip''. Nangauli viyelezgero vicoko vya ''systems'' izi vikususkana na nthowa zakale za kusanda, vyakukhumbika vyakuwoneka vikusazgamo ukuru/kunyamulika luŵiro, luŵiro, na ndalama. ''Micro total analysis system'' (μTAS) panji ''lab-on-a-chip''. ''Microscale chemistry'' yikucepeska unandi wa mankhwala agho ghakugwiliskikira ntchito.<ref name="jayamohan"/> Kusanguka kwanandi kukusuzgirapo kusanda kwa vinjazga vyamoyo. Viyelezgero vya vigaŵa vikusanguka mwaluŵiro mu upharu uwu ni ''genomics'', ''DNA sequencing'' na kafukufuku wakukolerana mu ''genetic fingerprinting'' na ''DNA microarray''; ''proteomics'', kusanda kwa ''concentration'' za ''protein'' na kusinthika kwake, comenecomene apo thupi likukumana na vinthu vyakupwetekeska, pa vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya kukura, panji mu vigaŵa vyakupambana vya thupi; ''metabolomics'', iyo yikukhwaskana na ''metabolites''; ''transcriptomics'', kusazgamo ''mRNA'' na vigaŵa vyakukolerana; ''lipidomics'', iyo yikukhwaskana na ''lipids''; ''peptidomics'', iyo yikukhwaskana na ''peptides''; na ''metallomics'', iyo yikukhwaskana na ''concentration'' za ''metal'', comenecomene kukolelezgeka kwawo ku ''proteins'' na ma ''molecule'' ghanyake.<ref name="aebersold"/> Kemistri Yakusanda yacita nchito yakuzirwa mu kupulikiska tusandiro twa muzu na kufika ku vyakugwiliskira ntchito vinandi vyakukhumbikwa, nga vyakugwiliskira ntchito vya uganga, kusanda kwa malo ghakuzingilira, kwenelero ka makampani, na kasandiro ka uzimuzi.<ref name="acs"/> Kusanguka kwa sono mu ''computer automation'' na maluso gha vyakumanyikwa vyawonjezgera Kemistri Yakusanda ku vigaŵa viphya vyanandi vya vinthu vyamoyo. Mwaciyelezgero, makina gha ''automated DNA sequencing'' ghakaŵa muzu wa kumalizga vinjazga vya ''human genome'', kupangiska kusanguka kwa ''genomics''. Kumanya ma ''protein'' na kulondezga vigaŵa vya ''peptide'' kwizira mu ''mass spectrometry'' kukajura cigaŵa ciphya ca ''proteomics''. Kupatulako kucita ''automation'' ya ndondomeko zipadera, pali nchito yakucita ''automation'' ya vigaŵa vikuru vya kuyezga mu laboratori, nga mu makampani nga ''Emerald Cloud Lab'' na ''Transcriptic''.<ref name="groth"/> Kemistri Yakusanda yaŵa yakukhumbikwa comene mu kusanguka kwa ''nanotechnology''. 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R.|title=Principles of Instrumental Analysis|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2018|edition=7th}}</ref> <ref name="rotaru">{{Cite journal|last1=Rotaru|first1=Andrei|last2=Pérez-Maqueda|first2=Luis A.|title=Thermal analysis and calorimetry: Two tightly linked groups of methods|journal=Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry|volume=150|year=2025}}</ref> <ref name="coskun">{{Cite journal|last=Coskun|first=O.|title=Chromatography: An important biophysical technique for separation, identification and purification of mixture components|journal=Analytical Biochemistry|volume=502|year=2016}}</ref> <ref name="poole">{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Poole|first=C. F.|title=Chromatography|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Separation Science|publisher=Academic Press|year=2000}}</ref> <ref name="wilkins">{{Cite journal|last=Wilkins|first=C.|title=Hyphenated techniques for analysis of complex organic mixtures|journal=Science|volume=222|year=1983}}</ref> <ref name="patel">{{Cite journal|last1=Patel|first1=K. N.|title=Introduction to hyphenated techniques and their applications in pharmacy|journal=Pharmaceutical Methods|volume=1|year=2010}}</ref> <ref name="turkowyd">{{Cite journal|last1=Turkowyd|first1=Boris|last2=Virant|first2=Daniel|last3=Endesfelder|first3=Ulrike|title=From single molecules to life: microscopy at the nanoscale|journal=Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry|volume=408|year=2016}}</ref> <ref name="surappa">{{Cite journal|last1=Surappa|first1=Sushruta|title=Integrated "Lab-on-a-Chip" Microfluidic Systems for Isolation, Enrichment, and Analysis of Cancer Biomarkers|journal=Lab on a Chip|volume=23|year=2023}}</ref> <ref name="brereton">{{Cite book|last=Brereton|first=Richard G.|title=Chemometrics: Data Analysis for the Laboratory and Chemical Plant|url=https://archive.org/details/chemometricsdata0000brer|publisher=Wiley|year=2003}}</ref> <ref name="wei">{{Cite journal|last=Wei|first=Jie|title=Artificial Intelligence in Chemistry|journal=Nature Reviews Chemistry|volume=2|year=2018}}</ref> <ref name="glr">{{Cite book|last=David|first=G. L.|title=Analytical Chemistry}}</ref> <ref name="harris2">{{Cite book|last1=Harris|first1=Daniel C.|last2=Lucy|first2=Charles A.|title=Quantitative chemical analysis|publisher=W.H. Freeman|year=2015|edition=9th}}</ref> <ref name="calibration">{{Cite web|title=3.4: Calibration Methods|website=Chemistry LibreTexts|publisher=University of California, Davis|year=2022}}</ref> <ref name="isotope">{{Cite web|title=Standard Addition, Internal Standardization and Isotope Dilution|website=Inorganic Ventures Technical Library|publisher=Inorganic Ventures}}</ref> <ref name="standardaddition">{{Cite report|title=Standard additions: myth and reality|publisher=Analytical Methods Committee, Royal Society of Chemistry|series=Technical Brief No. 37|year=2009}}</ref> <ref name="crouch">{{Cite book|last1=Crouch|first1=Stanley|last2=Skoog|first2=Douglas A.|title=Principles of instrumental analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofinst0006skoo|publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole|year=2007}}</ref> <ref name="skoog4">{{Cite book|last1=Skoog|first1=D. A.|last2=Holler|first2=F. J.|last3=Crouch|first3=S. R.|title=Principles of Instrumental Analysis|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2018|edition=7th}}</ref> <ref name="szymanska">{{Cite journal|last=Szymańska|first=Ewa|title=Modern data science for analytical chemical data – A comprehensive review|journal=Analytica Chimica Acta|volume=1028|year=2018}}</ref> <ref name="jayamohan">{{Cite book|last1=Jayamohan|first1=H.|title=Molecular Diagnostics: Advances in Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-Chip Technologies|year=2017}}</ref> <ref name="aebersold">{{Cite journal|last1=Aebersold|first1=R.|last2=Mann|first2=M.|title=Mass-spectrometric exploration of proteome structure and function|journal=Nature|volume=537|year=2016}}</ref> <ref name="acs">{{Cite web|title=Analytical Chemistry|website=American Chemical Society|access-date=2017-05-26}}</ref> <ref name="groth">{{Cite journal|last1=Groth|first1=P.|last2=Cox|first2=J.|title=Indicators for the use of robotic labs in basic biomedical research: A literature analysis|journal=PeerJ|volume=5|year=2017}}</ref> <ref name="eustis">{{Cite journal|last1=Eustis|first1=S.|last2=El-Sayed|first2=M. A.|title=Why gold nanoparticles are more precious than pretty gold|journal=Chemical Society Reviews|volume=35|year=2006}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Kemistri]] [[Mtundu:Kasandiro]] 869kue4qlxu1jvh7v8h0xl754jlan2l 0 49858 123151 122997 2026-10-08T16:31:21Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261008)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123151 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Reference to a source}} {{hatnote group| {{distinguish-redirect|Cite|Site}}{{for-multi|"&lt;cite>"|HTML element}} {{other uses|Citation (disambiguation)|Cité (disambiguation)|CITE (disambiguation)}} {{for|citations related to Wikipedia|Wikipedia:Citing sources|Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia|selfref=yes|Wikipedia:Citation templates}} }} [[File:Webcomic_xkcd_-_Wikipedian_protester_-_Tumbuka.png|thumb|''xkcd'' webusayiti ya mutu wakuti "Wakususka wa Wikipedia". Chimanyikwiro ichi chikuti: "<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Citation needed|UKABONI UKUKHUMBIKA APA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Munroe |first=Randall |title=Wikipedian Protester |url=https://xkcd.com/285/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225215024/https://www.xkcd.com/285/ |archive-date=25 December 2011 |access-date=25 May 2020 |website=xkcd}}</ref>]] '''Ukaboni''' panji '''chiphara''' ni chibekero cha chinthu malo agho ghakulembeka. Kuyowoya mwakudunjika, ukaboni ni mazgu ghakufupikizgika gha afanumeriki agho ghali kuŵikika mu thupi la buku la vinjeru ilo likulongora kuti pali kulembeka mu chigaŵa cha vimanyikwiro vya mabuku gha buku ili na chilato cha kuzomerezga kuti milimo ya ŵanji yikukhwaskana na mutu wakudumbiskana pa malo agho ukaboni yikuyowoyeka. Kanandi, kuphatikizapo vyose viŵiri, ivyo vikulembeka mu thupi na ivyo vikulembeka mu mabuku, vikupanga ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti ni ukaboni (apo ivyo vikulembeka mu mabuku ghakulembeka paŵekha vikupangiska yayi). Mazgu ghakuzunurapo ghali na vilato vinandi vyakuzirwa. Nangauli kugwiriskira nchito kwawo pakukhozgera unenesko wa vinjeru na kukhozga ivyo ŵakuyowoya vikuwoneka comene mu vyakusambizga na vilongozgo vya mtundu (mwaciyelezgero,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://integrity.mit.edu/handbook/citing-your-sources/avoiding-plagiarism-cite-your-source |title=What Does it Mean to Cite? |publisher=MIT Academic Integrity |access-date=2015-09-28 |archive-date=2017-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710203103/http://integrity.mit.edu/handbook/citing-your-sources/avoiding-plagiarism-cite-your-source |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Association of Legal Writing Directors & Darby Dickerson, ''ALWD Citation Manual: A Professional System of Citation,'' 4th ed. (New York: Aspen, 2010), 3.</ref>), kupereka makora fundo zakumanyikwa ku magwero ghakale nchimoza mwa vifukwa ivi.<ref>Mansourizadeh, Kobra, and Ummul K. Ahmad. "Citation practices among non-native expert and novice scientific writers." ''Journal of English for Academic Purposes'' 10, no. 3 (2011): 152–161.</ref> Kusanda kwa chiyowoyero kwa ndondomeko ya kuzunura kwalongora kuti nawo ŵakugwira ntchito zikuru pakunozga umo chimanyisko chikuŵira pa mutu unyake, kusanga ivyo vikusoŵa mu chimanyisko icho chilipo ivyo vikwenera kuzuzgika panji kulongosora malo agho mafumbo ghakwenera kulutilira panji kuzgoŵezgeka.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Swales |first=John M. |orig-date=2004 |title=Research genres: Explorations and applications |journal= [[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139524827 |publication-date=October 2012 |isbn=978-1-139-52482-7}}</ref> Citation nayo yamanyikwa kuti ni nthowa yikuru iyo ŵakusanda ŵakuŵikirapo fundo: kujikolera panji kulimbana na magulu ghachokoghachoko gha ŵanyawo ŵakusanda awo ŵakugwira ntchito pa mapulojekiti ghakuyana waka na kuŵika mwaŵi wakuti ŵapange chimanyisko chiphya.<ref>Hyland, K., & Jiang, F. (2019). Points of reference: Changing patterns of academic citation. Applied Linguistics, 40(1), 64–85.</ref> [[File:Citations on p. 44 of The Byzantine empire by Finlay.png|thumb|right|Mazgu agho ghali mu ukaboni la ŵasambiri]] Mazgu ghakuzunulika (mwachiyelezgero, kuŵika mazuŵa mu vibokosi, mazgu ghakumalira ghakulembeka pachanya na mazgu ghapasi, makoloni panji makoma pa manambara gha masamba, na vinyake) ghakupambana na ndondomeko yakuzunulira ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito (mwachiyelezgero, Oxford,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/refbib.html |title=Oxford Referencing System |access-date=18 January 2011 |archive-date=30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630023831/http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/refbib.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Harvard, MLA, NLM, Bungwe la Ŵanthu ŵa ku America (ASA), Bungwe la Ŵanthu ŵa ku America (APA), na vinyake). Nthowa yiliyose yikukolerana na visambizgo vyakupambanapambana vya masambiro, ndipo magazini gha masambiro agho ghakukolerana na visambizgo ivi ghakusunga mtundu wakukhumbikwa wa citational style mwa kukhozgera na kulondezga ndondomeko zakwenelera za mtundu. == Ghanoghano == A ''bibliographic citation'' is a reference to a book, [[article (publishing)|article]], [[web page]], or other published item. Citations should supply sufficient detail to identify the item uniquely.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ben.edu/library/help/glossary.htm |title=Library glossary |date=August 22, 2008 |publisher=[[Benedictine University]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430220849/http://www.ben.edu/library/help/glossary.htm |archive-date=April 30, 2008 |access-date=2009-02-27}}</ref> Different citation systems and styles are used in [[scientific citation]], [[legal citation]], [[prior art]], [[the arts]], and the [[humanities]]. Regarding the use of citations in the scientific literature, some scholars also put forward "the right to refuse unwanted citations" in certain situations deemed inappropriate.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva|author2= Quan-Hoang Vuong|date=2021|title=The right to refuse unwanted citations: rethinking the culture of science around the citation | journal=Scientometrics |volume=126|issue=6|pages=5355–5360|doi=10.1007/s11192-021-03960-9|pmid= 33994602|pmc= 8105147|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Vyamukati == Citation content can vary depending on the type of source and may include: * ''Book:'' authors, book title, place of publication, publisher, date of publication, and page numbers if appropriate.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workbook/evaluate.htm#citing |title=Anatomy of a Citation |website=LIU.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905125227/http://www2.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workbook/evaluate.htm#citing |archive-date=2015-09-05 |access-date=2015-09-28 |ref=refLongIslandUni}}</ref> * ''Journal:'' authors, article title, journal title, date of publication, and page numbers. * ''Newspaper:'' authors, article title, name of newspaper, section title and page numbers if desired, date of publication. * ''Web site:'' authors, article, and publication title where appropriate, as well as a [[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]], and a date when the site was accessed. * ''Play:'' inline citations offer part, scene, and line numbers, the latter separated by periods: 4.452 refers to scene 4, line 452. For example, "In Eugene Onegin, Onegin rejects Tanya when she is free to be his, and only decides he wants her when she is already married" (Pushkin 4.452–53).<ref name="Brigham">{{Cite web |url=http://www.byui.edu/english/mlaguide/MLA_intext_citation.htm |title=How to cite sources in the body of your paper |year=2008 |website=BYUI.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113174823/http://www.byui.edu/english/mlaguide/MLA_intext_citation.htm |archive-date=November 13, 2011 |access-date=2008-02-08 |ref=refBrigham}}</ref> * ''Poem:'' spaced [[Slash (punctuation)#In English text|slashes]] are normally used to indicate separate lines of a poem, and [[Parenthetical referencing|parenthetical citations]] usually include the line numbers. For example: "For I must love because I live&nbsp;/ And life in me is what you give." (Brennan, lines 15–16).<ref name=Brigham/> * ''Interview:'' name of interviewer, interview descriptor (ex. personal interview), and date of interview. * ''Data:'' authors, dataset title, date of publication, and publisher. === Unique identifiers === Along with information such as authors, date of publication, title and page numbers, citations may also include [[unique identifier]]s depending on the type of work being referred to. * Citations of books may include an [[International Standard Book Number]] (ISBN). * Specific volumes, articles, or other identifiable parts of a periodical, may have an associated [[Serial Item and Contribution Identifier]] (SICI) or an [[International Standard Serial Number]] (ISSN). * Electronic documents may have a [[digital object identifier]] (DOI). * Biomedical research articles may have a PubMed Identifier ([[PMID]]). == Nthowa == Broadly speaking, there are two types of citation systems, the Vancouver system and parenthetical referencing.<ref name="ELhelpdesk">{{cite web |last=Pantcheva |first=Marina |date=nd |title=Citation styles: Vancouver and Harvard systems |url=https://site.uit.no/english/writing-style/citationstyles/ |website=site.uit.no |access-date=July 2, 2020 |archive-date=July 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701114257/https://site.uit.no/english/writing-style/citationstyles/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the [[Council of Science Editors]] (CSE) adds a third, the'' citation-name system''.<ref name="council2006scientific">Council of Science Editors, Style Manual Committee (2007). Scientific style and format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers.</ref> === Vancouver system === {{main|Vancouver system}} The Vancouver system uses sequential numbers in the text, either bracketed or superscript or both.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vancouver (Numbering) |url=https://intranet.birmingham.ac.uk/as/libraryservices/library/referencing/icite/vancouver/index.aspx |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=University of Birmingham |language=en-GB |archive-date=2022-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103130115/https://intranet.birmingham.ac.uk/as/libraryservices/library/referencing/icite/vancouver/index.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> The numbers refer to either footnotes (notes at the end of the page) or endnotes (notes on a page at the end of the paper) that provide source detail. The notes system may or may not require a full bibliography, depending on whether the writer has used a full-note form or a shortened-note form. The organizational logic of the bibliography is that sources are listed in their order of appearance in-text, rather than alphabetically by author last name. For example, an excerpt from the text of a paper using a notes system ''without'' a full bibliography could look like: :"The five stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance."¹ The note, located either at the foot of the page (footnote) or at the end of the paper (endnote) would look like this: :1. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, ''On Death and Dying'' (New York: Macmillan, 1969) 45–60. In a paper with a full bibliography, the shortened note might look like: :1. Kübler-Ross, ''On Death and Dying'' 45–60. The bibliography entry, which is required with a shortened note, would look like this: :Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth. ''On Death and Dying''. New York: Macmillan, 1969. In the humanities, many authors also use footnotes or endnotes to supply anecdotal information. In this way, what looks like a citation is actually supplementary material, or suggestions for further reading.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.studenthandouts.com/citations.htm |title=How to Write Research Papers with Citations: MLA, APA, Footnotes, Endnotes |access-date=2010-01-31 |archive-date=2010-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616071855/http://www.studenthandouts.com/citations.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Parenthetical referencing === {{main|Parenthetical referencing}} Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing, has full or partial, in-text, citations enclosed in circular brackets and embedded in the paragraph.<ref>{{cite web|last1=libguides|first1=liu.cwp|title=Parenthetical Referencing|url=https://liu.cwp.libguides.com/APAstyle/parenthetical#:~:text=Parenthetical%20references%20are%20used%20within,the%20article%20you%20are%20citing.|access-date=26 July 2020|website=liu.cwp.libguides.com|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726214158/https://liu.cwp.libguides.com/APAstyle/parenthetical#:~:text=Parenthetical%20references%20are%20used%20within,the%20article%20you%20are%20citing.|url-status=live}}</ref> An example of a parenthetical reference: :"The five stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance" (Kübler-Ross, 1969, pp. 45–60). Depending on the choice of style, fully cited parenthetical references may require no end section. Other styles include a list of the citations, with complete bibliographical references, in an end section, sorted alphabetically by author. This section is often called "References", "Bibliography", "Works cited" or "Works consulted". In-text references for online publications may differ from conventional parenthetical referencing. A full reference can be hidden, only displayed when wanted by the reader, in the form of a [[tooltip]].<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210428140433/https://livereference.org/ Live Reference Initiative]}}. Retrieved 2012-04-28.</ref> This style makes citing easier and improves the reader's experience. == Masitayilo == {{Styles}} {{Further|APA style|The Chicago Manual of Style|Bluebook|MLA style|ASA style}} {{For|citation templates on Wikipedia|Wikipedia:Citation templates|selfref=yes}} Citation styles can be broadly divided into styles common to the humanities and the sciences, though there is considerable overlap. Some style guides, such as [[the Chicago Manual of Style]], are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation systems. Others, such as [[MLA style manual|MLA]] and [[APA style|APA]] styles, specify formats within the context of a single citation system. These may be referred to as citation formats as well as citation styles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.csuchico.edu/lref/newciting.html |title=Citation Formats & Style Manuals |year=2007 |website=CSUChico.edu |access-date=2008-02-11 |ref=refCaliforniaStateUni |archive-date=2008-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225232139/http://www.csuchico.edu/lref/newciting.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lesley.edu/library/guides/citation/apa.html |title=APA Citation Format |year=2005 |website=Lesley.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228053242/http://www.lesley.edu/library/guides/citation/apa.html |archive-date=December 28, 2007 |access-date=2008-02-11 |ref=refLesleyUni}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://wally.rit.edu/pubs/guides/apa.html |title=APA Citation Format |year=2003 |website=RIT.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203115324/http://wally.rit.edu/pubs/guides/apa.html |archive-date=February 3, 2008 |access-date=2008-02-11 |ref=refRIT}}</ref> The various guides thus specify order of appearance, for example, of publication date, title, and page numbers following the author name, in addition to conventions of punctuation, use of italics, emphasis, parenthesis, quotation marks, etc., particular to their style. A number of organizations have created styles to fit their needs; consequently, a number of different guides exist. Individual publishers often have their own in-house variations as well, and some works are so long-established as to have their own citation methods too: [[Stephanus pagination]] for [[Plato]]; [[Bekker numbers]] for [[Aristotle]]; citing the Bible by book, chapter and verse; or [[Shakespeare]] notation by play. The [[Citation Style Language]] (CSL) is an open XML-based language to describe the formatting of citations and bibliographies. === Humanities === * The [[The Chicago Manual of Style|Chicago style]] (CMOS) was developed and its guide is ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]''. It is most widely used in history and economics as well as some social sciences. The closely related [[Turabian]] style—which derives from it—is for student references, and is distinguished from the CMOS by omission of quotation marks in reference lists, and mandatory access date citation. * The Columbia style was created by Janice R. Walker and Todd Taylor to give detailed guidelines for citing internet sources. Columbia style offers models for both the humanities and the sciences. * ''Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace'' by Elizabeth Shown Mills covers primary sources not included in CMOS, such as censuses, court, land, government, business, and church records. Includes sources in electronic format. Used by genealogists and historians.<ref name="evidence">Elizabeth Shown Mills. ''Evidence Explained : Citing History Sources from Artifacts to cyberspace.'' 2d ed. Baltimore:Genealogical Pub. Co., 2009.</ref> * [[Harvard referencing]] (or author-date system) is a specific kind of [[parenthetical referencing]]. Parenthetical referencing is recommended by both the [[BSI Group|British Standards Institution]] and the [[Modern Language Association]]. Harvard referencing involves a short author-date reference, e.g., "(Smith, 2000)", being inserted after the cited text within parentheses and the full reference to the source being listed at the end of the article. * [[The MLA Style Manual|MLA style]] was developed by the Modern Language Association and is most often used in [[the arts]] and the [[humanities]], particularly in [[English studies]], other [[Literary criticism|literary studies]], including [[comparative literature]] and [[literary criticism]] in languages other than English ("foreign languages"), and some interdisciplinary studies, such as [[cultural studies]], [[drama]] and [[theatre]], film, and other [[Mass media|media]], including television. This style of citations and bibliographical format uses parenthetical referencing with author-page (Smith 395) or author-[short] title-page (Smith, ''Contingencies'' 42) in the case of more than one work by the same author within parentheses in the text, keyed to an alphabetical list of sources on a "works cited" page at the end of the paper, as well as notes (footnotes or endnotes).{{efn|The field of [[communication]] (or communications) overlaps with some of the disciplines also covered by the MLA and has its own disciplinary style recommendations for documentation format; the style guide recommended for use in student papers in such departments in American colleges and universities is often ''[[APA style|The Publication Manual of the APA]]'' ([[American Psychological Association]]); designated for short as "[[APA style]]".}} * The [[MHRA Style Guide]] is published by the [[Modern Humanities Research Association]] (MHRA) and most widely used in the arts and humanities in the United Kingdom, where the MHRA is based. It is available for sale both in the UK and in the United States. It is similar to MLA style, but has some differences. For example, MHRA style uses footnotes that reference a citation fully while also providing a bibliography. Some readers find it advantageous that the footnotes provide full citations, instead of shortened references, so that they do not need to consult the bibliography while reading for the rest of the publication details.<ref>The 2nd edition (updated April 2008) of the ''[[MHRA Style Guide]]'' is downloadable for free from the [[Modern Humanities Research Association]] official website. {{Cite web |url=http://www.mhra.org.uk/Publications/Books/StyleGuide/ |title=MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses |year=2008 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |access-date=2009-02-05 |archive-date=2005-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050910055050/http://www.mhra.org.uk/Publications/Books/StyleGuide/ }} (2nd ed.)</ref> In some areas of the humanities, footnotes are used exclusively for references, and their use for conventional [[footnotes]] (explanations or examples) is avoided. In these areas, the term ''footnote'' is actually used as a synonym for ''reference'', and care must be taken by editors and typesetters to ensure that they understand how the term is being used by their authors. === Law === {{Main|Legal citation}} * The [[Bluebook]] is a citation system traditionally used in American academic legal writing, and the Bluebook (or similar systems derived from it) are used by many courts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/ |title=Introduction to Basic Legal Citation (LII 2007 ed.) |last=Martin |first=Peter W |date=May 2007 |website=Cornell.edu |orig-date=1993 |access-date=2008-02-03 |ref=refMartin2007 |archive-date=2018-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004233927/https://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> At present, academic legal articles are always footnoted, but motions submitted to courts and court opinions traditionally use inline citations, which are either separate sentences or separate clauses. Inline citations allow readers to quickly determine the strength of a source based on, for example, the court a case was decided in and the year it was decided. * The legal citation style used almost universally in Canada is based on the ''[[Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation]]'' (AKA ''McGill Guide''), published by ''McGill Law Journal''.<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210184155/http://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/citeguide.php|url=http://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/citeguide.php|title=Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation (Cite Guide)|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-02-10|access-date=2009-02-05|website=McGill Law Journal}}<!--Updated October 2008.--></ref> * British legal citation almost universally follows the ''[[Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities]]'' (OSCOLA). === Sciences, mathematics, engineering, physiology, and medicine === * The [[American Chemical Society]] style, or [[ACS style]], is often used in chemistry and some of the [[physical sciences]]. In ACS style references are numbered in the text and in the reference list, and numbers are repeated throughout the text as needed. * In the style of the [[American Institute of Physics]] ([[AIP style]]), references are also numbered in the text and in the reference list, with numbers repeated throughout the text as needed. * Styles developed for the [[American Mathematical Society]] (AMS), or AMS styles, such as [[AMS-LaTeX]], are typically implemented using the [[BibTeX]] tool in the [[LaTeX]] typesetting environment. Brackets with the author's initials and year are inserted in the text and at the beginning of the reference. Typical citations are listed in line with alphabetic-label format, e.g. [AB90]. This type of style is also called an "authorship trigraph". * The [[Vancouver system]], recommended by the [[Council of Science Editors]] (CSE), is used in medical and scientific papers and research. ** In one major variant, that used by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), citation numbers are included in the text in square brackets rather than as superscripts. All bibliographical information is exclusively included in the list of references at the end of the document, next to the respective citation number. ** The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) is reportedly the original kernel of this biomedical style, which evolved from the Vancouver 1978 editors' meeting.<ref>[http://www.icmje.org "Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191005051625/http://www.icmje.org/ |date=2019-10-05 }}.</ref> The [[MEDLINE]]/[[PubMed]] database uses this citation style and the [[National Library of Medicine]] provides "ICMJE [[Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals]] – Sample References".<ref>International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html "ICMJE Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals – Sample References"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061221120314/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html |date=2006-12-21 }}.</ref> * The American Medical Association has its own variant of Vancouver style with only minor differences. See [[AMA Manual of Style]]. * The style of the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE), or [[IEEE style]], encloses citation numbers within square brackets and numbers them consecutively, with numbers repeated throughout the text as needed.<ref>[http://www.ieee.org/documents/style_manual.pdf IEEE Style Manual] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924043706/http://www.ieee.org/documents/style_manual.pdf |date=2015-09-24 }}. Retrieved 2015-02-16.</ref> * In areas of biology that falls within the [[ICNafp]] (which itself uses this citation style throughout), a variant form of author-title citation is the primary method used when making nomenclatural citations and sometimes general citations (for example in code-related proposals published in ''[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]]''), with the works in question not cited in the bibliography unless also cited in the text. Titles use standardized abbreviations following ''Botanico-Periodicum-Huntianum'' for periodicals and ''Taxonomic Literature 2'' (later [[IPNI]]) for books. * Pechenik citation style is a style described in ''A Short Guide to Writing about Biology'', 6th ed. (2007), by [[Jan Pechenik|Jan A. Pechenik]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150929032143/http://www.gonzaga.edu/academics/colleges-and-schools/college-of-arts-and-sciences/majors-programs/Biology/Undergraduate_Research/Forms/citation_guide.pdf "Pechenik Citation Style QuickGuide"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929032143/http://www.gonzaga.edu/academics/colleges-and-schools/college-of-arts-and-sciences/majors-programs/Biology/Undergraduate_Research/Forms/citation_guide.pdf |date=2015-09-29 }} ([[PDF]]). [[University of Alberta]], Augustana Campus, Canada. [[World Wide Web|Web]]. November 2007.</ref> * In 1955, Eugene Garfield proposed a [[citation index|bibliographic system for scientific literature]], to consolidate the integrity of [[scientific publishing|scientific publications]].<ref name="cisn">{{Cite journal |last=Garfield |first=Eugene |year=2006 |title=Citation indexes for science. A new dimension in documentation through association of ideas |journal=International Journal of Epidemiology |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1123–1127 |doi=10.1093/ije/dyl189 |pmid=16987841 |doi-access=}}</ref> === Social sciences === * The style of the [[American Psychological Association]], or [[APA style]], published in the [[Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association]], is most often used in [[social sciences]]. APA citation style is similar to [[Harvard referencing]], listing the author's name and year of publication, although these can take two forms: ''name citations'' in which the surnames of the authors appear in the text and the year of publication then appears in parentheses, and ''author-date citations'', in which the surnames of the authors and the year of publication all appear in parentheses. In both cases, in-text citations point to an alphabetical list of sources at the end of the paper in a "references" section. * The [[American Political Science Association]] publishes both a style manual and a style guide for publications in this field.<ref name="APSA">Stephen Yoder, ed. (2008). ''The APSA Guide to Writing and Publishing'' and ''Style Manual for Political Science''. Rev. ed. August 2006. [http://www.apsanet.org/PUBLICATIONS/Online-Store APSAnet.org Publications] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929073143/http://www.apsanet.org/PUBLICATIONS/Online-Store |date=2015-09-29 }}. Retrieved 2015-09-28.</ref> The style is close to the CMOS. * The [[American Anthropological Association]] utilizes a modified form of the Chicago style laid out in their publishing style guide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aaanet.org/publications/guidelines.cfm|title=Publishing Style Guide - Stay Informed|website=www.aaanet.org|access-date=Apr 28, 2020|archive-date=October 9, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009061048/http://aaanet.org/publications/guidelines.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref> * The [[ASA style]] of the [[American Sociological Association]] is one of the main styles used in [[sociological]] publications. == Mavuto == {{see also|Impact factor#Editorial policies that affect the impact factor}}In their research on footnotes in scholarly journals in the field of communication, Michael Bugeja and Daniela V. Dimitrova have found that citations to online sources have a rate of decay (as cited pages are taken down), which they call a "half-life", that renders footnotes in those journals less useful for scholarship over time.<ref>Bugeja, Michael and Daniela V. Dimitrova (2010). ''Vanishing Act: The Erosion of Online Footnotes and Implications for Scholarship in the Digital Age''. Duluth, Minnesota: Litwin Books. {{ISBN|978-1-936117-14-7}}</ref> Other experts have found that published replications do not have as many citations as original publications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Raymond Hubbard and J. Scott Armstrong |year=1994 |title=Replications and Extensions in Marketing: Rarely Published But Quite Contrary |url=http://cogprints.org/5199/1/Replications-and-Extensions-in-Marketing.pdf |journal=International Journal of Research in Marketing |s2cid-access=free |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=233–248 |doi=10.1016/0167-8116(94)90003-5 |s2cid=18205635 |access-date=2017-11-01 |archive-date=2017-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922010807/http://cogprints.org/5199/1/Replications%2Dand%2DExtensions%2Din%2DMarketing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Another important issue is citation errors, which often occur due to carelessness on either the researcher or journal editor's part in the publication procedure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Peoples | first1=Nicholas | last2=Østbye | first2=Truls | last3=Yan | first3=Lijing L. | title=Burden of proof: Combating inaccurate citation in biomedical literature | journal=BMJ | date=2023 | volume=383 | article-number=e076441 | doi=10.1136/bmj-2023-076441 | pmid=37931929 }}</ref> For example, a study that analyzed 1,200 randomly selected citations from three major business ethics journals concluded that an average article contains at least three plagiarized citations when authors copy and paste a citation entry from another publication without consulting the original source.<ref name="Serenko2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Serenko |first1=A. |last2=Dumay |first2=J. |last3=Hsiao |first3=P-C.K. |last4=Choo |first4=C.W. |date=2021 |title=Do They Practice What They Preach? The Presence of Problematic Citations in Business Ethics Research |url=http://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Do_They_Practice.pdf |journal=Journal of Documentation |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=1304–1320 |doi=10.1108/JD-01-2021-0018 |s2cid=237823862 |access-date=2021-10-19 |archive-date=2021-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023193000/http://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Do_They_Practice.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Experts have found that simple precautions, such as consulting the author of a cited source about proper citations, reduce the likelihood of citation errors and thus increase the quality of research.<ref name="Wright2008">{{Cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=Malcolm |last2=Armstrong |first2=J.&nbsp;Scott |author-link2=J. Scott Armstrong |date=2008 |title=The Ombudsman: Verification of Citations: Fawlty Towers of Knowledge? |journal=Interfaces |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=125–139 |doi=10.1287/inte.1070.0317 |issn=0092-2102 |eissn=1526-551X |jstor=25062982 |oclc=5582131729 |ssrn=1941335 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Another study noted that approximately 25% citations do not support the claims made, a finding that affects many disciplines, including history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cumberledge |first1=Aaron |last2=Smith |first2=Neal |last3=Riley |first3=Benjamin W. |date=2023-08-01 |title=Unverified history: an analysis of quotation accuracy in leading history journals |journal=Scientometrics |language=en |volume=128 |issue=8 |pages=4677–4687 |doi=10.1007/s11192-023-04755-w |s2cid=259519993 |issn=1588-2861}}</ref> Research suggests the impact of an article can be, partly, explained by superficial factors and not only by the scientific merits of an article.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Bornmann | first1=Lutz | last2=Daniel | first2=Hans-Dieter | title=What do citation counts measure? A review of studies on citing behavior | journal=Journal of Documentation | date=2008 | volume=64 | pages=45–80 | doi=10.1108/00220410810844150 | hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-7A94-3 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> Field-dependent factors are usually listed as an issue to be tackled not only when comparisons across disciplines are made, but also when different fields of research of one discipline are being compared.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anauati |first1=Maria Victoria |last2=Galiani |first2=Sebastian |last3=Gálvez |first3=Ramiro H. |date=November 4, 2015 |title=Quantifying the Life Cycle of Scholarly Articles Across Fields of Economic Research |ssrn=2523078 |journal=Economic Inquiry |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=1339–1355}}</ref> For example, in medicine, among other factors, the number of authors, the number of references, the article length, and the presence of a colon in the title influence the impact; while in sociology the number of references, the article length, and title length are among the factors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Wesel |first1=M. |last2=Wyatt |first2=S. |last3=ten Haaf |first3=J. |year=2014 |title=What a difference a colon makes: how superficial factors influence subsequent citation |url=https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/894334/art_3A10.1007_2Fs11192_013_1154_x.pdf |journal=Scientometrics |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=1601–1615 |doi=10.1007/s11192-013-1154-x |s2cid=18553863 |hdl=20.500.11755/2fd7fc12-1766-4ddd-8f19-1d2603d2e11d |hdl-access=free |access-date=2019-07-11 |archive-date=2021-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126035317/https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/894334/art_3A10.1007_2Fs11192_013_1154_x.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Studies of methodological quality and reliability have found that "reliability of published research works in several fields may be decreasing with increasing journal rank".<ref name="Brembs2018">{{cite journal |last1=Brembs|first1=Björn|title=Prestigious Science Journals Struggle to Reach Even Average Reliability |journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience |volume=12 |article-number=37 |year=2018 |pmid=29515380 |pmc=5826185 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2018.00037 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Nature Index]] recognizes that citations remain a controversial and yet important metric for academics.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://go.nature.com/2TdWoM6 |title=Studies suggest 5 ways to increase citation counts |last=Crew |first=Bec |date=7 August 2019 |website=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] Index |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=18 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218015207/https://www.natureindex.com/news-blog/studies-research-five-ways-increase-citation-counts |url-status=live }}</ref> They report five ways to increase citation counts: (1) watch the title length and punctuation;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hudson |first=John |year=2016 |title=An analysis of the titles of papers submitted to the UK REF in 2014: authors, disciplines, and stylistic details |journal=[[Scientometrics]] |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=871–889 |doi=10.1007/s11192-016-2081-4 |pmc=5065898 |pmid=27795594}}</ref> (2) release the results early as preprints;<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fraser |first1=Nicholas |last2=Momeni |first2=Fakhri |last3=Mayr |first3=Philipp |last4=Peters |first4=Isabella |title=The relationship between bioRxiv preprints, citations and altmetrics |journal=Quantitative Science Studies |date=2020 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=618–638 |biorxiv=10.1101/673665 |doi=10.1162/qss_a_00043 |doi-access=free|hdl=11108/455 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> (3) avoid referring to a country in the title, abstract, or keywords;<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abramo |first1=Giovanni |last2=D'Angelo |first2=Ciriaco Andrea |last3=Di Costa |first3=Flavia |year=2016 |title=The effect of a country's name in the title of a publication on its visibility and citability |journal=[[Scientometrics]] |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=1895–1909 |arxiv=1810.12657 |doi=10.1007/s11192-016-2120-1|s2cid=4354082 }}</ref> (4) link the article to supporting data in a repository;<ref>{{Cite journal|arxiv=1907.02565 |first1=Giovanni |last1=Colavizza |first2=Iain |last2=Hrynaszkiewicz |title=The citation advantage of linking publications to research data |first3=Isla |last3=Staden |first4=Kirstie |last4=Whitaker |first5=Barbara |last5=McGillivray |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2019|volume=15 |issue=4 |article-number=e0230416 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0230416 |pmid=32320428 |pmc=7176083 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1530416C |doi-access=free }}</ref> and (5) avoid hyphens in the titles of research articles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Zhi Quan |last2=Tse |first2=T.H. |last3=Witheridge |first3=Matt |year=2021 |title=Metamorphic robustness testing: Exposing hidden defects in citation statistics and journal impact factors |journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering]] |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=1164–1183 |doi=10.1109/TSE.2019.2915065|bibcode=2021ITSEn..47.1164Z |doi-access=free }}</ref> Citation patterns are also known to be affected by unethical behavior of both the authors and journal staff. Such behavior is called impact factor boosting and was reported to involve even the top-tier journals. Specifically the high-ranking journals of medical science, including ''The Lancet'', ''JAMA'' and ''The New England Journal of Medicine'', are thought to be associated with such behavior, with up to 30% of citations to these journals being generated by commissioned opinion articles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heneberg |first=P. |year=2014 |title=Parallel Worlds of Citable Documents and Others: Inflated Commissioned Opinion Articles Enhance Scientometric Indicators |journal=Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology |volume=65 |issue=3 |page=635 |doi=10.1002/asi.22997 |s2cid=3165853 |url=https://asistdl.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/asi.22997 |url-access=subscription |access-date=2021-06-20 |archive-date=2021-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202227/https://asistdl.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/asi.22997 |url-status=live }}</ref> On the other hand, the phenomenon of citation cartels is rising. Citation cartels are defined as groups of authors that cite each other disproportionately more than they do other groups of authors who work on the same subject.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fister |first1=I. Jr. |last2=Fister |first2=I. |last3=Perc |first3=M. |year=2016 |title=Toward the Discovery of Citation Cartels in Citation Networks |journal=Frontiers in Physics |volume=4 |page=49 |bibcode=2016FrP.....4...49F |doi=10.3389/fphy.2016.00049 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Citation politics=== Another issue is citation politics, which describes how citation shapes power structures by dictating the legitimacy of published authors and their work.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perkins-White |first=Amy |title=Library Guides: Citation politics: Getting Started |url=https://unimelb.libguides.com/citation-politics |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=unimelb.libguides.com |language=en |archive-date=2025-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250216223059/https://unimelb.libguides.com/citation-politics |url-status=live }}</ref> As ideas are frequently reproduced through citation, they accrue increasing intellectual value.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Annabel L. |date=2020 |title=The Politics of Citation |journal=Diacritics |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=4–9 |doi=10.1353/dia.2020.0016 |issn=1080-6539}}</ref> Research suggests that the number of times that an academic article gets cited has a direct impact on the author's academic prestige and recognition, promotion opportunities, and potential impact in their respective fields.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Christen A. |last2=Garrett-Scott |first2=Dominique |date=2021-04-05 |title="We are not named": Black women and the politics of citation in anthropology |journal=Feminist Anthropology |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=18–37 |doi=10.1002/fea2.12038 |issn=2643-7961}}</ref> The [[Matthew effect|Matthew Effect]], [[Matilda effect|Matilda Effect]] and [[Reporting bias#Citation bias|citation bias]] describe phenomena to this effect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ray |first1=Keisha S. |last2=Zurn |first2=Perry |last3=Dworkin |first3=Jordan D. |last4=Bassett |first4=Dani S. |last5=Resnik |first5=David B. |date=2022-08-18 |title=Citation bias, diversity, and ethics |journal=Accountability in Research |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=158–172 |doi=10.1080/08989621.2022.2111257 |pmid=35938378 |pmc=9938084 |issn=0898-9621}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Kwon |first=Diana |date=2022-03-22 |title=The rise of citational justice: how scholars are making references fairer |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00793-1 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=603 |issue=7902 |pages=568–571 |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-00793-1 |pmid=35318470 |bibcode=2022Natur.603..568K }}</ref> However, evidence indicates that external factors may influence the likelihood of a paper getting cited.<ref name=":1" /> For example, citation counts have been shown to favor researchers from the Global North and thus can undervalue researchers from the Global South and from minority communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lazarus |first=Suleman |date=2024-12-05 |title=An Autoethnographic Perspective on Scholarly Impact, Citation Politics, and North–South Power Dynamics |journal=Life Writing |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=603–629 |doi=10.1080/14484528.2024.2430666 |issn=1448-4528|doi-access=free }}</ref> In addition, male names tend to get cited disproportionately more frequently than female names.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rosa |first1=Fernanda R. |last2=Anastácio |first2=Kimberly |last3=Pereira de Jesus |first3=Maria Vitoria |last4=Veras |first4=Hemanuel Jhosé A. |date=June 2024 |title=Citation politics: The gender gap in internet governance |journal=Telecommunications Policy |volume=48 |issue=5 |article-number=102734 |doi=10.1016/j.telpol.2024.102734 |issn=0308-5961|doi-access=free |hdl=10919/124563 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Smith and Garrett-Scott have also argued that black women in the anthropological field are rarely ever cited by non-black women.<ref name=":0" /> Researchers have suggested combating inequality in citation politics with the use of a Citation Diversity Statement, a statement that would include the proportions of citations used in a scholarly article in terms of gender, race, and/or ethnicity.<ref name=":1" /> Another option is the formation of campaigns like #CiteBlackWomen that promote awareness of citational disparity.<ref name=":1" /> == Kafukufuku na kupanga == There is research about citations and development of related tools and systems, mainly relating to scientific citations. [[Citation analysis]] is a method widely used in [[metascience]]. ===Citation analysis=== {{Excerpt|Citation analysis|only=paragraphs|paragraphs=1-2}} ===Citation frequency=== {{See also|Metascience#Evaluation and incentives}} {{Excerpt|Scientific citation|Citation frequency|hat=no}} ===Progress and citation consolidation=== {{Excerpt|Scientific citation|Progress and citation consolidation|hat=no}} ===IT systems=== {{Excerpt|Scientific citation|IT systems|subsections=yes|hat=no}} == Wonaniso == <!-- New links in alpphabetial order please --> {{columns-list|colwidth=30em| * [[Acknowledgment (creative arts)]] * [[Bible citation]] * [[Case citation]] * [[Citation creator]] * [[Citation index]] * [[Citation signal]] * [[Citationality]] * [[Coercive citation]] * [[Credit (creative arts)]] * [[Cross-reference]] * [[Drive-by citation]] * [[San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment]] * [[Scholarly method]] * [[Source evaluation]] * [[Style guide]] }} == Manotisi == {{Notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Kuŵerenga kwakusazgikira == * {{Wiktionary-inline}} * {{Wikiquote-inline}} *{{commonscatinline}} <!-- This list needs to be ordered alphabetically. --> {{refbegin}} * {{Cite journal |last=Armstrong |first=J Scott |date=July 1996 |title=The Ombudsman: Management Folklore and Management Science{{snd}}On Portfolio Planning, Escalation Bias, and Such |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1111&context=marketing_papers |journal=Interfaces |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=28–42 |doi=10.1287/inte.26.4.25 |oclc=210941768 |ref=refArmstrong 2007 |access-date=2019-07-11 |archive-date=2018-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720064706/https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1111&context=marketing_papers |url-status=live }} * <cite id=refPechenik2004>{{Cite book |last=Pechenik |first=Jan A |title=A Short Guide to Writing About Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/shortguidetowrit0000pech_j5p3 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-321-15981-6 |edition=5th |location=[[New York City|New York]] |oclc=52166026 |ref=refMHRA}}</cite> * {{Cite web |url=https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/undergraduates/using-sources/principles-citing-sources/why-are-there-different-citation-styles |title=Why Are There Different Citation Styles? |website=Yale.edu |access-date=2025-01-23 |ref=refYaleUni |author=Yale Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning |date=25 June 2015 |archive-date=2025-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250123155948/https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/undergraduates/using-sources/principles-citing-sources/why-are-there-different-citation-styles |url-status=dead }} * {{cite web |title=Why Cite Sources in Your Academic Writing? |url=https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/undergraduates/using-sources/principles-citing-sources/why-cite |author=Yale Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning |website=Yale.edu |access-date=2025-01-23 |archive-date=2025-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250123160020/https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/undergraduates/using-sources/principles-citing-sources/why-cite |url-status=live }} {{refend}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Bibliography]] [[Category:Intellectual history]] [[Category:Reference]] [[Category:Sources]] [[Category:Elements of documents]] bo4iannz9m14t418zkrppi5niot89ck 0 49869 123184 123017 2026-10-09T04:59:08Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Mavidiyo gha sumu */ 123184 wikitext text/x-wiki {{good article}} {{Databox}} '''Vikram Barn''', wakumanyikwa chomene kuti '''Vikkstar123''' panji kuti '''Vikkstar''' waka, ni [[munthu]] wakufuma ku [[Ufumu Ubanyi]]. Iyo ni [[YouTube|YouTuber]] na [[DJ]]. Iyo ni membala wa gulu la [[Sidemen]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sidemen |first=The |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=m1A-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21&dq=vikkstar123&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwir0Y-S4fmTAxXoUWwGHQbgD98Q6AF6BAgJEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Sidemen: The Book: The subject of the hit new Netflix documentary |date=2016-10-18 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |isbn=978-1-4736-4819-7 |language=en}}</ref> Ntchito ya Barn pa YouTube yikamba mu 2010. Kufuma mu Juni 2025, nthowa yake yikuru ya pa YouTube yili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 7.58 miliyoni awo ŵakulembeska ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2.18 biliyoni ŵakuwona.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vikkstar123 |url=https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCvwgF_0NOZe2vN4Q3g1bY-A |access-date=2025-06-13 |language=en |via=YouTube}}</ref> == Umoyo wakwamba na masambiro == Barn ni wa mtundu wa ku [[India]]<ref>{{cite tweet|title=... Ethnicity and Nationality are two completely separate things, I've lived in England for all my life. My ethnic background is Indian.|date=10 May 2013|user=Vikkstar123|number=332869254871408642}}</ref> ndipo wakababika pa 2 Ogasiti 1995<ref name="birthday tweet">{{Cite tweet |number=1290025072539779072 |user=Vikkstar123 |title=25 years on this big rock. Super happy & grateful. Thanks for all the Birthday wishes! |date=2 August 2020 |access-date=23 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802204243/https://twitter.com/Vikkstar123/status/1290025072539779072 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |url-status=live |last=Barn |first=Vikram}}</ref> mu [[Guildford]], Surrey, England,<ref name="Sidemen Quiz">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rFz7xy-UkVo |title=Which of the Sidemen knows Vik the best? |date=23 July 2019 |type=video |publisher=MoreSidemen |time=14:44 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211024144652/rFz7xy-UkVo |archive-date=24 October 2021 |accessdate=4 April 2021 |via=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> uko wakakhalanga m'paka apo wakaŵa na vilimika 8.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=590545266308227072 |user=Vikkstar123 |title=It's always nostalgic coming back to Guildford. I lived here until I was 8 |date=21 April 2015 |access-date=6 April 2021 |last=Barn |first=Vikram}}</ref> Wakasamira ku [[Sheffield]] uko wakasambira ku Sukulu ya Silverdale.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Roberts |first=Alana |date=20 December 2019 |title=YouTube star encourages students to work hard during visit to his old school in Sheffield |work=[[Sheffield Star|The Star]] |publisher=Sheffield Newspapers Ltd |url=https://www.thestar.co.uk/education/youtube-star-encourages-students-work-hard-during-visit-his-old-school-sheffield-1346565 |url-status=live |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723150002/https://www.thestar.co.uk/education/youtube-star-encourages-students-work-hard-during-visit-his-old-school-sheffield-1346565 |archive-date=23 July 2020}}</ref> Barn wakapika malo ghakuti wakasambire sayansi ya ku [[University College London]], kweni paumaliro wakakana malo agha kuti walutilire nchito yake ya pa [[YouTube]] nyengo zose.<ref>{{Cite news|date=5 November 2016 |title=Sheffield YouTube star explains why he could retire - aged just 21 |work=[[Sheffield Star|The Star]] |publisher=Sheffield Newspapers Ltd |url=https://www.thestar.co.uk/news/sheffield-youtube-star-explains-why-he-could-retire-aged-just-21-454425 |access-date=3 August 2021 |archive-date=3 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803052031/https://www.thestar.co.uk/news/sheffield-youtube-star-explains-why-he-could-retire-aged-just-21-454425 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ni mwana waumaliro pa ŵana ŵatatu.<ref name="SidemenBook">{{Cite book |last=Sidemen |first=The |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1A-DAAAQBAJ |title=Sidemen: The Book |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4736-4819-7 |access-date=23 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327052928/https://books.google.com/books?id=m1A-DAAAQBAJ |archive-date=27 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Umoyo wa munthu payekha == Barn payekha wakamba chibwezi na mwanakazi munyake zina lake Ellie Harlow mu 2019, nangauli pamanyuma wakawoneka mu vyakulemba vya Barn kwamba mu 2020.<ref name="ES Barn marriage">{{cite web |last1=Brahma |first1=Nilendu |title=Sidemen Member Vikkstar Starts New Journey With His Long Time Girlfriend Ellie Harlow |url=https://www.essentiallysports.com/esports-news-sidemen-member-vikkstar-starts-new-journey-with-his-long-time-girlfriend-ellie-harlow/ |website=EssentiallySports |access-date=2025-02-28 |date=2023-09-27|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Ŵakapangana ku [[Burj Al Arab]] mu Disembala 2021, ndipo ŵakatorana mu Seputembala 2023.<ref name="ES Barn marriage"/><ref>{{cite AV media|title=WE'RE MARRIED!|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O413-LjM30g|date= 26 September 2023|access-date= 25 January 2025|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mr & Mrs 🤍 |url=https://www.instagram.com/p/CxqUxSsIOTf/ |website=Instagram |access-date=25 January 2025}}</ref> Mu vidiyo ya [[Sidemen]] iyo yikafumiskika mu Malichi 2024, Barn wakavumbura kuti wali na [[nthenda ya Crohn]].<ref>{{cite AV media|date=10 March 2024|title=SIDEMEN HOW FAR CAN YOU GET IN 24 HOURS|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqIpDyrJndw|access-date=10 March 2024|time=1:20:20|publisher=Sidemen|via=YouTube}}</ref> == Mafilimu == {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" |+ Filimu ! scope="col" | Chaka ! scope="col" | Mutu ! scope="col" | Ntchito ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Manotisi ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ukaboni |- ! scope="row" | 2022 | scope="row" | ''[[Talk to Me (2022 film)|Talk to Me]]'' |rowspan="2"| Himself | [[Uncredited role|Uncredited]]; [[archival footage]] |style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite web |title=Talk to Me Summary, Latest News, Trailer, Cast, Where to Watch and More |url=https://screenrant.com/db/movie/talk-to-me/ |website=Screen Rant |date=23 March 2023 |access-date=30 December 2024}}</ref> |- ! rowspan="2" scope="row" | 2023 | scope="row" |''[[KSI: In Real Life]]'' | [[Documentary film|Documentary]] | style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web |title=KSI: In Real Life to Launch Exclusively on Prime Video on 26th January |url=https://press.amazonmgmstudios.com/us/en/press-release/iksi-in-real-lifei-to-launch-exclusively-on-prime- |website=Amazon MGM Studios |access-date=29 December 2024}}</ref> |- | scope="row" |''The Naughty List'' | The Baker | [[Short film]] | style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite web|title=The World's Best Christmas Movie: The Naughty List| date=24 December 2023 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5I1Gmbw6BLk|access-date=25 July 2024|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| 2024 | scope="row" |''[[The Sidemen Story]]'' | Himself | Documentary | style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Sidemen Doc">{{cite web |last1=Shah |first1=Furvah |title=Sidemen's Netflix documentary: Release date, trailer, cast and more |url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/entertainment/a46623709/sidemen-netflix-documentary-release-date-trailer-cast/ |website=Cosmopolitan |date=2 February 2024 |access-date=6 February 2024}}</ref> |} {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" |+ Webu |- ! scope="col" | Chaka ! scope="col" | Mutu ! scope="col" | Ntchito ! scope="col" | Netiweki ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Manotisi ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ukaboni |- | 2014 ! scope="row" data-sort-value="Sidemen Experience, The" | ''The Sidemen Experience'' | rowspan="4"| Himself | [[Comedy Central (British TV channel)|Comedy Central UK]] | Main role; 5 episodes | style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2014 |title=Who Are The Sidemen? {{!}} The Sidemen Experience |url=https://www.comedycentral.co.uk/the-sidemen-experience/videos/who-are-the-sidemen |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119023349/https://www.comedycentral.co.uk/the-sidemen-experience/videos/who-are-the-sidemen |archive-date=19 January 2019 |access-date=18 November 2019 |website=[[Comedy Central (British TV channel)|CCUK]]}}</ref> |- | 2016–2017 ! scope="row" | ''[[YouTube Rewind]]'' | [[YouTube]] | Episode: "The Ultimate 2016 Challenge"<br>Episode: "The Shape of 2017" | style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite web |title=YouTube Rewind: The Ultimate 2016 Challenge| date=7 December 2016 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GuOjXYl5ew |access-date=3 April 2024 |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=YouTube Rewind: The Shape of 2017| date=6 December 2017 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FlsCjmMhFmw |access-date=26 March 2024 |via=YouTube}}</ref> |- | 2018 ! scope="row" data-sort-value="Sidemen Show, The" | ''[[The Sidemen Show]]'' | [[YouTube Premium]] | Main role; 7 episodes | style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite web |last=White |first=Peter |date=2 June 2018 |title='The Sidemen Show': YouTube Debuts First Trailer & Dates Premium Reality Challenge Format |url=https://deadline.com/2018/06/the-sidemen-show-youtube-debuts-first-trailer-dates-premium-reality-challenge-format-1202401935/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120042324/https://deadline.com/2018/06/the-sidemen-show-youtube-debuts-first-trailer-dates-premium-reality-challenge-format-1202401935/ |archive-date=20 November 2019 |access-date=20 November 2019 |website=[[Deadline Hollywood|Deadline]]}}</ref> |- | 2020 ! scope="row" | ''[[How to Be Behzinga]]'' | rowspan="2"| YouTube | 1 episode | style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite web|date=October 2020|title=How To Be Behzinga|url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLBHuR7fUesrsFp3OhJ1jbknGl7b2W9j4S|access-date=29 June 2021|website=YouTube|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629201510/https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLBHuR7fUesrsFp3OhJ1jbknGl7b2W9j4S|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> |- | 2024 ! scope="row" | ''[[The Chase (British game show)|The Chase: Sidemen Edition]]'' | The Chaser | Special spin-off episode | style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite web|title=ITV's The Chase to face major format shake-up for epic special episode|url=https://www.express.co.uk/showbiz/tv-radio/1865358/the-chase-format-shake-up-sidemen-youtube-special|access-date=10 February 2024|website=EXPRESS.co.uk|date=10 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref> |} {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" |+ Televishoni |- ! scope="col" | Chaka ! scope="col" | Mutu ! scope="col" | Ntchito ! scope="col" | Netiweki ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Manotisi ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ukaboni |- | 2021 ! scope="row" data-sort-value="Wheel, The" | ''[[The Wheel (game show)|The Wheel]]'' | Himself / Celebrity expert (Gaming) | [[BBC One]] | Series 1, episode 6 | style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Cite web |date=2 January 2021 |title=Michael McIntyre's The Wheel – Series 1: Episode 6 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m000r0dw |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210103113539/https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m000r0dw/michael-mcintyres-the-wheel-series-1-episode-6 |archive-date=3 January 2021 |access-date=23 February 2021 |website=[[BBC iPlayer]]}}</ref> |- | 2023 !scope="row"| ''Untold'' | Himself | [[Channel 4]] | Episode: The Cost of Being A YouTuber |style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|title=The Cost of Being a YouTuber UNTOLD Channel 4| date=February 2025 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cjhO4kzYEUs|access-date= 14 March 2025|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |- | 2024–present !scope="row"| ''[[Inside (reality show)|Inside]]'' | rowspan="2"| Host | [[YouTube]], [[Side+]],{{efn|group=upper-alpha|Mndandanda 1 ukalongosoreka pa nthowa za Sidemen na Moresidemen za YouTube na vyakusazgikira na nyengo zambura kuwoneka zikulongosoreka pa Side+. Mndandanda 2 kuya panthazi uzamuŵa pa Netflix pera na vithuzithuzi vya ŵanyake ivyo vikulongoreka pa Side+}} [[Netflix]] | [[Reality show]] created by the [[Sidemen]] | <ref name="Inside">{{cite web |last1=Copson |first1=Josie |title=YouTube gameshow with staggering £1,000,000 prize fund rivals traditional TV |url=https://metro.co.uk/2024/05/27/youtube-gameshow-staggering-1-000-000-prize-fund-rivals-traditional-tv-20917431/ |website=Metro |date=27 May 2024 |access-date=3 June 2024}}</ref> |- | 2025–present !scope="row"|''[[Inside USA]]'' |Netflix |American reality show created by the Sidemen | style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hudspeth |first=Christopher |date=13 September 2025 |title=Inside: USA's Cast Will Vie for $1M, but First They Have to Pay for the Basics |url=https://www.netflix.com/tudum/articles/inside-usa-season-1-cast |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250910163644/https://www.netflix.com/tudum/articles/inside-usa-season-1-cast |archive-date=10 September 2025 |access-date=10 October 2025 |website=Tudum}}</ref> |- | 2026 ! scope="row"| ''[[Sidemen|SideMenu]]'' | Contestant | YouTube, [[Amazon Prime Video]] | Cooking show created by the Sidemen | style="text-align:center;"| <ref name="Sidemenu">{{cite web |last1=Whittock |first1=Jesse |title=Prime Video & YouTube To Share Release Of The Sidemen’s Culinary Series ‘Sidemen Present: SideMenu’ |url=https://deadline.com/2026/05/sidemen-presents-sidemenu-prime-video-youtube-release-plan-1236927613/ |website=DeadLine |publisher=DeadLine |access-date=29 July 2026}}</ref> |- |scope="row"| 2026-present ! scope="row"| ''[[Inside (TV series)|Outside]]'' | Host | Netflix | Spin off series of [[Inside (TV series)|Inside]], created by the Sidemen | style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{cite web |title=THE SIDEMEN TAKE INSIDE 'OUTSIDE' FOR NEXT SERIES OF REALITY FORMAT ON NETFLIX |url=https://www.tvzoneuk.com/post/thesidement-inside-outside |website=TV Zone UK |access-date=23 August 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Let’s take this Outside 🏕 |url=https://www.instagram.com/reel/DcWL90rsI9f/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsi=MzRlODBiNWFlZA== |website=Instagram |access-date=23 August 2026}}</ref> |} {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="margin-right: 0;" |+ Mavidiyo gha sumu |- ! scope="col"| Chaka ! scope="col"| Mutu ! scope="col"| Waluso !Ntchito ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ukaboni |- ! scope="row" |2018 | "Manchild" | Randolph | rowspan="3"| Himself | style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Randolph - MANCHILD (Deji Diss Track) Official Video | date=24 November 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5YgfMRfMxzY |access-date=17 March 2024 |via=YouTube}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |2022 | "Don't Lie" | [[A1 x J1]] featuring [[Nemzzz]] | style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{Cite web |title=A1 x J1 - Don't Lie (Official Video) ft. Nemzzz | date=14 October 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7T91yz8kMy8 |access-date=17 March 2024 |via=YouTube}}</ref> |- !scope="row"| 2025 |"365" | [[Talia Mar]] | style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Talia Mar - 365 (Official Video)| date=24 January 2025 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xqdUBkO-zjo|access-date= 24 January 2025|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |} ==Masumu== === Ŵambura kutora === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center" |+Mndandanda wa ŵambura kutora, na malo ghakusankhika ghapachanya ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Mutu ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Chaka ! scope="col" colspan="3"| Peak chart positions ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| [[List of music recording certifications|Certifications]] ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| [[Association of Hungarian Record Companies|HUN]]<br><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://slagerlistak.hu/radios-top-40-jatszasi-lista/2024/4|title=Rádiós Top 40 slágerlista|website=slagerlistak.hu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202074900/https://slagerlistak.hu/radios-top-40-jatszasi-lista/2024/4|archive-date=2 February 2024|access-date=2 February 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| [[BMAT Music Company|MLT<br>Dom.<br>Air.]]<br><ref>{{Cite web|title=PRS Malta on Facebook: BMAT PRS Malta Top 10 Airplay Chart {{ndash}} 14 January 2024|url=https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=791852216289274|access-date=14 January 2024|publisher=[[The Malta Independent]]|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240114145423/https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=791852216289274|archive-date=14 January 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| [[VG-lista|NOR]]<br><ref>{{cite web|url=https://topplista.no/charts/singles/2023-w40/|title=Singel 2023 uke 40|publisher=[[VG-lista]]|access-date=7 October 2023}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" | "[[Better Off (Alone, Pt. III)]]"<ref>{{cite web |title=Better Off (Alone, Pt. III) – Single by Alan Walker, Bash Berlin & Vikkstar |url=https://music.apple.com/gb/album/better-off-alone-pt-iii-single/1706858191 |access-date=27 September 2023 |publisher=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Alan Walker]] and [[Dash Berlin]])</span> | rowspan="2"| 2023 | 1 || — || 30 | * [[Music Canada|MC]]: Gold{{Certification Cite Ref|region=Canada|type=single|title=Better Off Alone|artist=Vikkstar}} | ''[[Walkerworld]]''<ref>{{cite web |title=Walkerworld – Album by Alan Walker |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/walkerworld/1719118752 |access-date=10 November 2023 |publisher=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" | "[[Humans (song)|Humans]]"<ref>{{cite web |title=Humans – Single by Vikkstar |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/humans-single/1716329682 |access-date=1 December 2023 |publisher=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(featuring Shaun Farrugia)</span> | — || 1 || — | | rowspan="7" {{Non-album singles}} |- ! scope="row" | "Know Me Better"<ref>{{cite web |title=Know Me Better (feat. Jme) – Single by Vikkstar & Masked Wolf featuring Jme |url=https://music.apple.com/gb/album/know-me-better-feat-jme-single/1740619433 |access-date=25 April 2024 |publisher=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Masked Wolf]] featuring [[Jme]])</span> | rowspan="3"| 2024 | — || — || — | |- ! scope="row" | "Have It All"<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with RetroVision and Dyson)</span> | — || — || — | |- ! scope="row"| "Where Do I Go"<ref>{{cite web |title=Where Do I Go – Single by Nicky Romero, Vikkstar, Alpharock, and Oaks |url=https://music.apple.com/gb/album/where-do-i-go-single/1774566167 |access-date=8 November 2024 |publisher=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Nicky Romero]], Alpharock, and [[Winona Oak|Oaks]])</span> | — || — || — | |- ! scope="row" | "Another Way"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/another-way-feat-joe-jury-single/1796157672 |access-date=23 March 2025 |publisher=[[Apple Music]] |title=Another Way (Feat. Joe Jury) - Single by Vikkstar, Syn Cole & KDH on Apple Music }}</ref><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Syn Cole]] and KDH featuring Joe Jury)</span> | rowspan="6" | 2025 | — || — || — | |- !scope="row"| "Chemical"<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(featuring Adalaide Adams)</span> | — || — || — | |- !scope="row"| "Hole in the Head"<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Sick Individuals]])</span> | — || — || — | |- ! scope="row" | "All This Time"<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Steve Aoki]] featuring Ekko)</span> | — || — || — | | ''Hiroquest 3: Paragon'' |- ! scope="row" | "Lonely Together"<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with Sickick and [[Aloe Blacc]])</span> | — || — || — | | rowspan="7" {{Non-album singles}} |- ! scope="row" | "Before We Say Goodbye" <br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with Madism and Wukong)</span> | — || — || — | |- ! scope="row" | "Where Have You Been"<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Arty (musician)|ARTY]] featuring Annie Schindel)</span> | rowspan="5" | 2026 | — || — || — | |- ! scope="row" | "Bigger Than Dreams"<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with Matt Pridgyn and Jex)</span> | — || — || — | |- ! scope="row" | "Your Mind" | — || — || — | |- ! scope="row" | "Call My Bluff"<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Brooks (DJ)|Brooks]] and Jex)</span> | — || — || — | |- !scope="row"| "Back To Me"<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Afrojack]] featuring [[Laura White (singer)|Laura White]])</span> |_ |_ |_ | |- | colspan="10" style="font-size:90%" | "—" yikung’anamura sumu yimoza iyo yikaŵa kuti yindalembeke pa chati panji iyo yikafumiskika yayi mu chigaŵa chira. |} === Nyimbo zachisungusungu === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ Mndandanda wa sumu za lusungu, na malo ghakusankhika gha pa chati ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Mutu ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Chaka ! scope="col" colspan="4"| Peak chart positions ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Notes |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[UK Singles Chart|UK]]<br /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/56873/sidemen/ |title=UK Singles Chart |date=26 December 2019 |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220192010/https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/56873/sidemen/ |archive-date=20 December 2019 |access-date=4 January 2020}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[UK Independent Singles and Albums Charts|UK<br />Ind.]]<br /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/independent-singles-chart/20221209/130 |title=UK Independent Singles Chart (09 December 2022 – 15 December 2022) |date=9 December 2022 |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209192815/https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/independent-singles-chart/ |archive-date=9 December 2022 |access-date=9 December 2022}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[Irish Singles Chart|IRE]]<br /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://irma.ie/index.cfm?page=irish-charts&chart=Singles|title=IRMA – Irish Charts|publisher=[[Irish Recorded Music Association]]|access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[Official New Zealand Music Chart|NZ<br />Hot]]<br /><ref>Peaks on the NZ Hot Singles Chart: * "Christmas Drillings": {{Cite web |url=https://aotearoamusiccharts.co.nz/archive/hot-singles/2022-12-09 |title=New Zealand Hot Singles Chart |date=12 December 2022 |publisher=Recorded Music NZ |access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> |- |- ! scope="row"| "[[Christmas Drillings]]"<ref>{{cite web |title=Christmas Drillings – Single by the Sidemen |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/christmas-drillings/1660098764?i=1660099096 |access-date=5 December 2022 |publisher=[[Apple Music]] |archive-date=20 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220061527/https://music.apple.com/us/album/christmas-drillings/1660098764?i=1660099096 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />{{small|(as part of [[Sidemen (YouTube group)|Sidemen]] featuring [[Jme (rapper)|Jme]])}} | 2022 | 3 || 2 || 25 || 7 | * Produced for a Sidemen Sunday video and raised money for [[FareShare]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Carl |date=7 December 2022 |title=Christmas Number 1 2022 contenders revealed: LadBaby, Sidemen, Stormzy, Mariah Carey and more |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/christmas-number-1-2022-contenders-revealed-ladbaby-sidemen-stormzy-mariah-carey-and-more__37932/ |website=[[Official Charts Company]]}}</ref> |} === Kusakanizga === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ Mndandanda wa vyakusazgapo ! scope="col" | Mutu ! scope="col" | Chaka ! scope="col" | Album |- !scope="row"| "Barcelona" (Vikkstar Remix)<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Alan Walker]] and [[Ina Wroldsen]])</span> | 2024 | ''Barcelona (Remixes)'' |- !scope="row"| "[[Man Don't Care]]" (Vikkstar Remix)<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Jme]])</span> | rowspan="2"| 2026 | rowspan="2" {{Non-album singles}} |- ! scope="row" | "Where Have You Been" (Vikkstar Remix) <br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(with [[Arty (musician)|Arty]] featuring Annie Schindel)</span> |} === Mavidiyo gha sumu === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ Mndandanda wa mavidiyo gha sumu ! scope="col" | Mutu ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Chaka ! scope="col" style="width:16em;"| Director(s) ! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Ukaboni |- ! scope="col" colspan="4"| As lead artist |- !scope="row"| "The End" | 2017 | PimpJuiceK | |- ! scope="row"| "Better Off (Alone, Pt. III)" <br>{{small|(with [[Alan Walker]] and [[Dash Berlin]])}} | rowspan="2"| 2023 | Mads Neset | <ref>{{cite web|title=Alan Walker, Dash Berlin & Vikkstar - Better Off (Alone, Pt. III) - Official Music Video | date=28 September 2023 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouEl3qTLc0M|access-date=28 September 2023|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| "Humans" <br>{{small|(with Shaun Farrugia)}} | Troy Roscoe | <ref>{{cite web|title=Vikkstar - Humans (feat. Shaun Farrugia) [Official Music Video] | date=December 2023 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q9XJV8CQjQ0|access-date=1 December 2023|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |- !scope="row"| "Know Me Better"<br>{{small|(with [[Masked Wolf]] featuring [[Jme]])}} | rowspan="2"| 2024 | Guy Davies |<ref>{{cite web|title=Vikkstar & Masked Wolf - Know Me Better (feat. Jme) [Official Music Video] | date=25 April 2024 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bKLHR7UdLbs|access-date=27 April 2024|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |- !scope="row"| "Where Do I Go"<br>{{small|(with [[Nicky Romero]], Alpharock and Oaks)}} | rowspan="2" {{N/A|Unknown}} | <ref>{{cite web|title=Vikkstar x Nicky Romero x Alpharock x Oaks - Where Do I Go [Music Video]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kvUrKWPMQYc|access-date=7 May 2025|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |- !scope="row"| "Chemical" (AI Video)<br>{{small|(with Adalaide Adams)}} |rowspan="2"| 2025 | <ref>{{cite web|title=Vikkstar - Chemical (feat. Adalaide Adams) [AI Music Video]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZfjrhUKAMis|access-date=7 May 2025|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |- !scope="row"| "Chemical"<br>{{small|(with Adalaide Adams)}} | [[Tobi Brown]] |<ref>{{cite web|title=Vikkstar - Chemical (feat. Adalaide Adams) [Music Video]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAKU_WAkBvM|access-date=7 May 2025|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |- ! scope="col" colspan="4"| As featured artist |- !scope="row"| "Merry Merry Christmas"<br>{{small|(as part of [[Sidemen]] featuring [[Jme]] and LayZ)}} | 2019 | rowspan="2"| Konstantin | <ref name="Merry Christmas">{{cite web|title=Sidemen - Merry Merry Christmas Ft. Jme & LayZ (Official Music Video)|date=15 December 2019|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1JKzHPCGso&list=RDh1JKzHPCGso&start_radio=1|access-date=28 August 2025|via=[[YouTube]]|archive-date=7 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207142203/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1JKzHPCGso&list=RDh1JKzHPCGso&start_radio=1|url-status=live}}</ref> |- !scope="row"| "Christmas Drillings"<br>{{small|(as part of Sidemen featuring Jme)}} | 2022 | <ref>{{cite web|access-date=5 December 2022|title=Sidemen - Christmas Drillings Ft. JME (Official Music Video)|date=4 December 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sXDBXVjKbp8|via=YouTube}}</ref> |- !scope="row"| "Barcelona"<br>{{small|([[Alan Walker]] and [[Ina Wroldsen]] featuring Vikkstar)}} | 2024 | {{N/A|Unknown}} | <ref>{{cite web|title=Alan Walker & Ina Wroldsen - Barcelona (Vikkstar Remix)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZsCJcX_R7kM|access-date=7 May 2025|via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref> |} ==Mabuku== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Chaka !Mutu !Mupharazgi ![[ISBN]] chimanyikwiro !Ukaboni |- |2016 |''[[Sidemen: The Book]]'' |Coronet Books |{{ISBN|978-1473648166}} |<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2016 |title=YouTube stars the Sidemen are frontrunners in race for Christmas books No 1 |url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/oct/26/youtube-stars-the-sidemen-are-frontrunners-in-race-for-books-christmas-no-1 |access-date=29 June 2021 |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref> |} == Manotisi == <references group="lower-alpha"></references> {{notelist-ua}} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{Commons category}} * {{YouTube|user=Vikkstar123|Vikkstar123}} * {{IMDb name|7158704|name=Vikkstar123}} {{Sidemen}} [[Category:Ŵanthu ŵamoyo]] [[Category:Sidemen]] kk26aypmt82ue5asvx9i0wbdm64tgow 10 49907 123133 123126 2026-10-08T13:08:47Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 123133 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navbox | name = Pasita | title = [[Pasita]] | state = {{{state|collapsed}}} | bodyclass = hlist | above = * [[Mndandanda wa pasita]] | group1 = Mitundu | list1 = {{Navbox|child | group1 = Mapasita yitali | list1 = * [[Bigoli]] * [[Bucatini]] * [[Busiate]] * [[Capellini]] * [[Fettuccine]] * [[Fileja]] * [[Lasagnette]] * [[Lasagnotte]] * [[Linguettine]] * [[Linguine]] * [[Mafaldine]] * [[Pappardelle]] * [[Pici]] * [[Spaghetti]] ** ''[[Spaghetti alla chitarra|alla chitarra]]'' * [[Stringozzi]] * [[Stroncatura]] * [[Tagliatelle]] * [[Taglierini]] * [[Tagliolini]] * [[Trenette]] * [[Troccoli]] * [[Vermicelli]] | group2 = Mapasita ghafupi | list2 = * [[Calamarata]] * [[Campanelle]] * [[Casarecce]] * [[Cascatelli]] * [[Cavatappi]] * [[Cavatelli]] * [[Cencioni]] * [[Conchiglie]] * [[Corzetti]] * [[Crozets de Savoie]] * [[Farfalle]] * [[Fiori (pasta)|Fiori]] * [[Foglie d'ulivo]] * [[Fusi (pasta)|Fusi]] * [[Fusilli |Fusilli (Rotini)]] * [[Garganelli]] * [[Gemelli (pasta)|Gemelli]] * [[Lanterne (pasta)|Lanterne]] * [[Lorighittas]] * [[Makaroni]] * [[Malloreddus]] * [[Orecchiette]] * [[Paccheri]] * [[Passatelli]] * [[Penne]] * [[Pillus]] * [[Pizzoccheri]] * [[Radiatori]] * [[Rigatoni]] * [[Rotelle]] * [[Sagnarelli]] * [[Scialatelli]] * [[Sedani]] * [[Su Filindeu]] * [[Testaroli]] * [[Tortiglioni]] * [[Trofie]] * [[Ziti]] | group3 = [[Pastina]] | list3 = * [[Acini di pepe]] * [[Alphabet pasta]] * [[Anelli]] * [[Ditalini]] * [[Fregula]] * [[Orzo]] * [[Stelline]] | group4 = Mapasita wakuzura | list4 = * [[Agnolini]] * Agnolotti ** [[Agnolotti pavesi|Pavese]] ** [[Agnolotti|Piedmontese]] * [[Cappelletti (pasta)|Cappelletti]] * [[Casoncelli]] * [[Casunziei]] * [[Cjarsons]] * [[Culurgiones]] * [[Fagottini]] * [[Schlutzkrapfen|Mezzelune]] * [[Ravioli]] ** [[Raviole du Dauphiné]] * [[Sacchettoni]] * [[Sorrentinos]] * [[Tortellini]] * [[Tortelli]] * [[Tortelloni]] | group5 = Vinyake panji vyakusintha | list5 = * [[Cannelloni]] * [[Lasagna]] * [[Occhi di lupo]] * [[Strozzapreti]] * [[Vincisgrassi]] }} | group2 = Kuphika | list2 = * [[Al dente]] * [[Al forno]] | group3 = Ŵakupanga | list3 = {{Navbox|child | group1 = Italiya | list1 = * [[Agnesi|Agnesi]] * [[Bertagni]] * [[Barilla|Barilla]] * [[Buitoni]] * [[De Cecco]] * [[Pastifico Lucio Garofalo|Garofalo]] * [[La Molisana]] * [[Pasta Di Martino|Pastificio G. Di Martino]] * [[Poiatti]] * [[Giovanni Rana|Rana]] * [[Pasta Rigo|Rigo]] * [[Voiello]] * [[Rummo|Rummo]] * [[Delverde]] | group2 = America | list2 = * [[National Pasta Association]] * [[A. Zerega's Sons, Inc.]] * [[C.F. Mueller Company]] * [[New World Pasta]] * [[American Italian Pasta Company]] * [[V. La Rosa and Sons Makaroni Company]] | group3 = Australia | list3 = * [[San Remo|San Remo]] }} | group5 = Ŵanthu awo ŵakupanga vipangizo | list5 = * [[Demaco]] * [[VillaWare]] | group6 = Wonaniso | list6 = * [[Kupanga pasita]] * [[Noodle|Manoodle]] ** [[Spätzle]] ** [[Israeli couscous]] | below = * {{category-inline|Pasita}} }}<noinclude> {{documentation|content= {{collapsible option}} ==Wonaniso== * {{tl|noodle}} {{Cuisine sidebars}} [[Category:Food navigational boxes]] [[Category:Italian cuisine templates]] }}</noinclude> dn4ud3n3sevsytnn1cgkgtxtxp9k0r5 123134 123133 2026-10-08T13:09:09Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 123134 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navbox | name = Pasita | title = [[Pasita]] | state = {{{state|collapsed}}} | bodyclass = hlist | above = * [[Mndandanda wa pasita]] | group1 = Mitundu | list1 = {{Navbox|child | group1 = Mapasita yitali | list1 = * [[Bigoli]] * [[Bucatini]] * [[Busiate]] * [[Capellini]] * [[Fettuccine]] * [[Fileja]] * [[Lasagnette]] * [[Lasagnotte]] * [[Linguettine]] * [[Linguine]] * [[Mafaldine]] * [[Pappardelle]] * [[Pici]] * [[Spaghetti]] ** ''[[Spaghetti alla chitarra|alla chitarra]]'' * [[Stringozzi]] * [[Stroncatura]] * [[Tagliatelle]] * [[Taglierini]] * [[Tagliolini]] * [[Trenette]] * [[Troccoli]] * [[Vermicelli]] | group2 = Mapasita ghafupi | list2 = * [[Calamarata]] * [[Campanelle]] * [[Casarecce]] * [[Cascatelli]] * [[Cavatappi]] * [[Cavatelli]] * [[Cencioni]] * [[Conchiglie]] * [[Corzetti]] * [[Crozets de Savoie]] * [[Farfalle]] * [[Fiori (pasta)|Fiori]] * [[Foglie d'ulivo]] * [[Fusi (pasta)|Fusi]] * [[Fusilli |Fusilli (Rotini)]] * [[Garganelli]] * [[Gemelli (pasta)|Gemelli]] * [[Lanterne (pasta)|Lanterne]] * [[Lorighittas]] * [[Makaroni]] * [[Malloreddus]] * [[Orecchiette]] * [[Paccheri]] * [[Passatelli]] * [[Penne]] * [[Pillus]] * [[Pizzoccheri]] * [[Radiatori]] * [[Rigatoni]] * [[Rotelle]] * [[Sagnarelli]] * [[Scialatelli]] * [[Sedani]] * [[Su Filindeu]] * [[Testaroli]] * [[Tortiglioni]] * [[Trofie]] * [[Ziti]] | group3 = [[Pastina]] | list3 = * [[Acini di pepe]] * [[Alphabet pasta]] * [[Anelli]] * [[Ditalini]] * [[Fregula]] * [[Orzo]] * [[Stelline]] | group4 = Mapasita wakuzura | list4 = * [[Agnolini]] * Agnolotti ** [[Agnolotti pavesi|Pavese]] ** [[Agnolotti|Piedmontese]] * [[Cappelletti (pasta)|Cappelletti]] * [[Casoncelli]] * [[Casunziei]] * [[Cjarsons]] * [[Culurgiones]] * [[Fagottini]] * [[Schlutzkrapfen|Mezzelune]] * [[Ravioli]] ** [[Raviole du Dauphiné]] * [[Sacchettoni]] * [[Sorrentinos]] * [[Tortellini]] * [[Tortelli]] * [[Tortelloni]] | group5 = Vinyake panji vyakusintha | list5 = * [[Cannelloni]] * [[Lasagna]] * [[Occhi di lupo]] * [[Strozzapreti]] * [[Vincisgrassi]] }} | group2 = Kuphika | list2 = * [[Al dente]] * [[Al forno]] | group3 = Ŵakupanga | list3 = {{Navbox|child | group1 = Italiya | list1 = * [[Agnesi|Agnesi]] * [[Bertagni]] * [[Barilla|Barilla]] * [[Buitoni]] * [[De Cecco]] * [[Pastifico Lucio Garofalo|Garofalo]] * [[La Molisana]] * [[Pasta Di Martino|Pastificio G. Di Martino]] * [[Poiatti]] * [[Giovanni Rana|Rana]] * [[Pasta Rigo|Rigo]] * [[Voiello]] * [[Rummo|Rummo]] * [[Delverde]] | group2 = America | list2 = * [[National Pasta Association]] * [[A. Zerega's Sons, Inc.]] * [[C.F. Mueller Company]] * [[New World Pasta]] * [[American Italian Pasta Company]] * [[V. La Rosa and Sons Macaroni Company]] | group3 = Australia | list3 = * [[San Remo|San Remo]] }} | group5 = Ŵanthu awo ŵakupanga vipangizo | list5 = * [[Demaco]] * [[VillaWare]] | group6 = Wonaniso | list6 = * [[Kupanga pasita]] * [[Noodle|Manoodle]] ** [[Spätzle]] ** [[Israeli couscous]] | below = * {{category-inline|Pasita}} }}<noinclude> {{documentation|content= {{collapsible option}} ==Wonaniso== * {{tl|noodle}} {{Cuisine sidebars}} [[Category:Food navigational boxes]] [[Category:Italian cuisine templates]] }}</noinclude> f2iw36px3ebseskgq5701k2nv4ov479 2 49912 123136 123128 2026-10-08T13:11:14Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 123136 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{databox}} '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' ni mtundu wa [[pasita]]. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{Commons category-inline|{{PAGENAME}}}} {{Pasita}} <!-- [[Category:Pasita]] --> s1glddyrnfyox9mnk5vum28hed6yrwo 0 49914 123130 2026-10-08T12:54:54Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Languages using Ethnologue.com 123130 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ChiMadura''' (''Bhâsa Madhurâ'') ni chiyowoyero cha ku [[Indonesia]] chakukhazikika. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesia. Chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na wose mu mtundu. Likusambizgika nga ni nkhani yakusambizga mu masukulu ghanyake. ==Banja== Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Austronesia. {{InterWiki|code=mad}} [[Category:Viyowoyelo]] ic2wp15owy8vewkrerr6tx3lpllmhs1 0 49915 123131 2026-10-08T12:58:33Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Languages using Ethnologue.com 123131 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ChiInupiat''' (''Iñupiatun'') ntchiyowoyero cha ku [[Alaska]] mu charu cha [[United States]] icho chili pangozi. Chiyowoyero ichi chili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Eskimo-Aleut. Chiyowoyero ichi chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chakwamba na ŵalara pera. Likumanyikwa yayi kuti likusambizgika mu masukulu. ==Banja== Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Eskimo-Aleut. {{InterWiki|code=ik}} [[Category:Viyowoyelo]] checqn8t3x8f7hzvwns79p15gzjqsee 0 49916 123132 2026-10-08T13:07:44Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{italic title}} {{databox}} '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' panji '''''macaroni''''' ni mtundu wa [[pasita]]. Likuwoneka nga ni machubu ghakupapatiza.<ref name="oxdict">{{cite dictionary | title = macaroni | dictionary = Oxford Dictionaries Online | url = http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/macaroni | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718222959/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/macaroni | archive-date = 18 July 2012 | access-date =..." 123132 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{databox}} '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' panji '''''macaroni''''' ni mtundu wa [[pasita]]. Likuwoneka nga ni machubu ghakupapatiza.<ref name="oxdict">{{cite dictionary | title = macaroni | dictionary = Oxford Dictionaries Online | url = http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/macaroni | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718222959/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/macaroni | archive-date = 18 July 2012 | access-date = 5 February 2026 }}</ref> Makaroni wakupangika na tirigu wa durum, kanandi ŵakumudumura mu utali wafupi; makaroni wakukhota wangachemeka kuti "makaroni wa chiŵegha". Makina ghanyake gha kunyumba ghangapanga mawonekero gha makaroni kweni, nga ni pasita yinandi, makaroni kanandi wakupangika kuti ŵaguliskenge mwa kuŵika vinthu vinandi pa mlingo ukuru. Mawonekero ghakukhota ghakumanyikwa ghakupangika na liwiro lakupambanapambana la kufumiska pa vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya chubu cha pasita apo chikufuma mu makina. Lizgu lakuti ''makaroni'' kanandi likugwiriskirika nchito mwakuyana waka na makaroni wakuwoneka nga ni chiŵegha, chifukwa ni mtundu uwo kanandi ŵakugwiliskira nchito chomene pa maphikiro gha [[makaroni na tchizi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sharethepasta.org/pasta-shapes/|title=Pasta Shapes|access-date=2023-08-14|archive-date=2023-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814055749/https://sharethepasta.org/pasta-shapes/|url-status=live}}</ref> Ku [[Italy]] na vyaru vinyake, zina lakuti ''maccheroni'' lingayowoya za ''pasta corta'' wakunyoloka, wakuwoneka nga ni tubulo, wakuwoneka nga ni square panji ku vyakurya vya pasita vitali, nga umo vikuŵira na ''[[Spaghetti alla chitarra|maccheroni alla chitarra]]'', ivyo vikupangika na pasita vitali nga ni [[spaghetti]]. Ku United States, malango gha boma ghakulongosora mitundu yitatu ya pasita wakuwuma (makaroni, spaghetti, na [[vermicelli]]) kuti yikuwira pasi pa chimanyikwiro cha "makaroni chinthu".<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 Section 139.110: "Macaroni Products."|url=https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-21/chapter-I/subchapter-B/part-139/subpart-B/section-139.110|access-date=2021-12-02|archive-date=2021-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207035726/https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-21/chapter-I/subchapter-B/part-139/subpart-B/section-139.110|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{Commons category-inline}} {{Pasita}} [[Category:Pasita]] 9ospz7ckzte7gnttlbhk1a4b58ua0kz 123135 123132 2026-10-08T13:10:58Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 123135 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{databox}} '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' panji '''''macaroni''''' ni mtundu wa [[pasita]]. Likuwoneka nga ni machubu ghakupapatiza.<ref name="oxdict">{{cite dictionary | title = macaroni | dictionary = Oxford Dictionaries Online | url = http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/macaroni | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718222959/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/macaroni | archive-date = 18 July 2012 | access-date = 5 February 2026 }}</ref> Makaroni wakupangika na tirigu wa durum, kanandi ŵakumudumura mu utali wafupi; makaroni wakukhota wangachemeka kuti "makaroni wa chiŵegha". Makina ghanyake gha kunyumba ghangapanga mawonekero gha makaroni kweni, nga ni pasita yinandi, makaroni kanandi wakupangika kuti ŵaguliskenge mwa kuŵika vinthu vinandi pa mlingo ukuru. Mawonekero ghakukhota ghakumanyikwa ghakupangika na liwiro lakupambanapambana la kufumiska pa vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya chubu cha pasita apo chikufuma mu makina. Lizgu lakuti ''makaroni'' kanandi likugwiriskirika nchito mwakuyana waka na makaroni wakuwoneka nga ni chiŵegha, chifukwa ni mtundu uwo kanandi ŵakugwiliskira nchito chomene pa maphikiro gha [[makaroni na tchizi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sharethepasta.org/pasta-shapes/|title=Pasta Shapes|access-date=2023-08-14|archive-date=2023-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814055749/https://sharethepasta.org/pasta-shapes/|url-status=live}}</ref> Ku [[Italy]] na vyaru vinyake, zina lakuti ''maccheroni'' lingayowoya za ''pasta corta'' wakunyoloka, wakuwoneka nga ni tubulo, wakuwoneka nga ni square panji ku vyakurya vya pasita vitali, nga umo vikuŵira na ''[[Spaghetti alla chitarra|maccheroni alla chitarra]]'', ivyo vikupangika na pasita vitali nga ni [[spaghetti]]. Ku United States, malango gha boma ghakulongosora mitundu yitatu ya pasita wakuwuma (makaroni, spaghetti, na [[vermicelli]]) kuti yikuwira pasi pa chimanyikwiro cha "makaroni chinthu".<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 Section 139.110: "Macaroni Products."|url=https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-21/chapter-I/subchapter-B/part-139/subpart-B/section-139.110|access-date=2021-12-02|archive-date=2021-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207035726/https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-21/chapter-I/subchapter-B/part-139/subpart-B/section-139.110|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{Commons category-inline|Macaroni}} {{Pasita}} [[Category:Pasita]] fluhxnxcpm7yvlmxzjmbo7nknvefn3n 0 49917 123137 2026-10-08T13:13:18Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{italic title}} {{databox}} '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' ni mtundu wa [[pasita]].<ref>https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20161014-the-secret-behind-italys-rarest-pasta</ref> Ŵakupanga mwa kukoka na kupindika ufu wa semolina kuŵa ulusi wakuwonda comene, uwo ŵawuŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu pa thireyi yakuchemeka ''fundu ''na kuwumiska kuti uŵe nga ni malaya. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{Commons category-inline}} {{Pasita}} [[Category:Pasita]]" 123137 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{databox}} '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' ni mtundu wa [[pasita]].<ref>https://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20161014-the-secret-behind-italys-rarest-pasta</ref> Ŵakupanga mwa kukoka na kupindika ufu wa semolina kuŵa ulusi wakuwonda comene, uwo ŵawuŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu pa thireyi yakuchemeka ''fundu ''na kuwumiska kuti uŵe nga ni malaya. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{Commons category-inline}} {{Pasita}} [[Category:Pasita]] gqcjdewro3m8njzimsiwiv0crtixzjc 0 49918 123138 2026-10-08T13:15:34Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{italic title}} {{databox}} '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' ni mtundu wa [[pasita]].<ref name="ZaniniDeVita">{{cite book |last=Zanini De Vita |first=Oretta |year=2009 |title=Encyclopedia of Pasta |translator-last=Fant |translator-first=Maureen B. |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25522-7 |pages=188–190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D5nXAbSifIgC&pg=PA188}}</ref><ref name="Schwartz">{{cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Arthur |yea..." 123138 wikitext text/x-wiki {{italic title}} {{databox}} '''''{{PAGENAME}}''''' ni mtundu wa [[pasita]].<ref name="ZaniniDeVita">{{cite book |last=Zanini De Vita |first=Oretta |year=2009 |title=Encyclopedia of Pasta |translator-last=Fant |translator-first=Maureen B. |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25522-7 |pages=188–190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D5nXAbSifIgC&pg=PA188}}</ref><ref name="Schwartz">{{cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Arthur |year=1998 |title=Naples at Table: Cooking in Campania |location=New York |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-06-018261-X |url=https://archive.org/details/naplesattablecoo0000schw/page/136/ |page=136}}</ref> Zina lawo likufumira ku lizgu la [[ChiItaliya]] lakuti "khutu," ilo likuyowoya za kawonekero kawo. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{Commons category-inline|{{PAGENAME}}}} {{Pasita}} [[Category:Pasita]] i2c7gutboa9qekn7jd58u1qfavaoodm 0 49919 123139 2026-10-08T13:25:48Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Databox}} '''Pasita''' ([[ChiNgelezi]]: ''pasta'') ni mtundu wa chakurya cha ku [[Italy]] icho kanandi ŵakupanga na ufu wambura nthukumusi wa ufu wa tirigu wakusazgana na maji panji mazira, na kupanga ma pepala panji mawonekero ghanyake, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakuphika mwa kuphika. Pakwamba pasita wakapangikanga na [[durum]] pera, nangauli ng’anamuro lake lasazgikirapo kuti liŵe na vyakurya vinyake vyambura gluten, nga ni ufu wa mpunga, panji vyakurya vya mtundu wa mtun..." 123139 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pasita''' ([[ChiNgelezi]]: ''pasta'') ni mtundu wa chakurya cha ku [[Italy]] icho kanandi ŵakupanga na ufu wambura nthukumusi wa ufu wa tirigu wakusazgana na maji panji mazira, na kupanga ma pepala panji mawonekero ghanyake, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakuphika mwa kuphika. Pakwamba pasita wakapangikanga na [[durum]] pera, nangauli ng’anamuro lake lasazgikirapo kuti liŵe na vyakurya vinyake vyambura gluten, nga ni ufu wa mpunga, panji vyakurya vya mtundu wa mtundu nga ni nyemba panji lentil. Pasita ni chakurya chikuru chomene cha ku Italy,<ref name="padalino">{{cite journal |vauthors=Padalino L, Conte A, Del Nobile MA |year=2016 |title=Overview on the General Approaches to Improve Gluten-Free Pasta and Bread |journal=Foods |type=Review |volume=5 |issue=4 |page=87 |doi=10.3390/foods5040087 |pmc=5302439 |pmid=28231182 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="LalegCassan20162">{{cite journal|vauthors=Laleg K, Cassan D, Barron C, Prabhasankar P, Micard V|year=2016|title=Structural, Culinary, Nutritional and Anti-Nutritional Properties of High Protein, Gluten Free, 100% Legume Pasta. |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=9 |article-number=e0160721 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0160721 |pmc=5014310 |pmid=27603917 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1160721L |doi-access=free}}</ref> ndipo ŵalembi ŵanandi ŵa mdauko ŵakugomezga kuti pasita mu mtundu uwo ukumanyikwa mazuŵa ghano wakanjira mu Italy kwizira mu [[Sicily]] mu vilimika vyapakati chifukwa cha malonda gha ku Meditereniyani.<ref name=":0" /><!-- Kapangilo --> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== *{{Commons category-inline}} *{{Wiktionary inline}} {{Pasta}} [[Category:Pasita]] 4sc1kw3hhte2hpgha74oh25lfr8z9bh 123141 123139 2026-10-08T13:26:24Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 123141 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pasita''' ([[ChiNgelezi]]: ''pasta'') ni mtundu wa chakurya cha ku [[Italy]] icho kanandi ŵakupanga na ufu wambura nthukumusi wa ufu wa tirigu wakusazgana na maji panji mazira, na kupanga ma pepala panji mawonekero ghanyake, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakuphika mwa kuphika. Pakwamba pasita wakapangikanga na [[durum]] pera, nangauli ng’anamuro lake lasazgikirapo kuti liŵe na vyakurya vinyake vyambura gluten, nga ni ufu wa mpunga, panji vyakurya vya mtundu wa mtundu nga ni nyemba panji lentil. Pasita ni chakurya chikuru chomene cha ku Italy,<ref name="padalino">{{cite journal |vauthors=Padalino L, Conte A, Del Nobile MA |year=2016 |title=Overview on the General Approaches to Improve Gluten-Free Pasta and Bread |journal=Foods |type=Review |volume=5 |issue=4 |page=87 |doi=10.3390/foods5040087 |pmc=5302439 |pmid=28231182 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="LalegCassan20162">{{cite journal|vauthors=Laleg K, Cassan D, Barron C, Prabhasankar P, Micard V|year=2016|title=Structural, Culinary, Nutritional and Anti-Nutritional Properties of High Protein, Gluten Free, 100% Legume Pasta. |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=9 |article-number=e0160721 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0160721 |pmc=5014310 |pmid=27603917 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1160721L |doi-access=free}}</ref> ndipo ŵalembi ŵanandi ŵa mdauko ŵakugomezga kuti pasita mu mtundu uwo ukumanyikwa mazuŵa ghano wakanjira mu Italy kwizira mu [[Sicily]] mu vilimika vyapakati chifukwa cha malonda gha ku Meditereniyani.<!-- Kapangilo --> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== *{{Commons category-inline}} *{{Wiktionary inline}} {{Pasta}} [[Category:Pasita]] hwp7kfmy1esbnb8h7vjgjid7xuu6ede 123142 123141 2026-10-08T13:28:49Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Malinki gha kuwaro */ 123142 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Pasita''' ([[ChiNgelezi]]: ''pasta'') ni mtundu wa chakurya cha ku [[Italy]] icho kanandi ŵakupanga na ufu wambura nthukumusi wa ufu wa tirigu wakusazgana na maji panji mazira, na kupanga ma pepala panji mawonekero ghanyake, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakuphika mwa kuphika. Pakwamba pasita wakapangikanga na [[durum]] pera, nangauli ng’anamuro lake lasazgikirapo kuti liŵe na vyakurya vinyake vyambura gluten, nga ni ufu wa mpunga, panji vyakurya vya mtundu wa mtundu nga ni nyemba panji lentil. Pasita ni chakurya chikuru chomene cha ku Italy,<ref name="padalino">{{cite journal |vauthors=Padalino L, Conte A, Del Nobile MA |year=2016 |title=Overview on the General Approaches to Improve Gluten-Free Pasta and Bread |journal=Foods |type=Review |volume=5 |issue=4 |page=87 |doi=10.3390/foods5040087 |pmc=5302439 |pmid=28231182 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="LalegCassan20162">{{cite journal|vauthors=Laleg K, Cassan D, Barron C, Prabhasankar P, Micard V|year=2016|title=Structural, Culinary, Nutritional and Anti-Nutritional Properties of High Protein, Gluten Free, 100% Legume Pasta. |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=9 |article-number=e0160721 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0160721 |pmc=5014310 |pmid=27603917 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1160721L |doi-access=free}}</ref> ndipo ŵalembi ŵanandi ŵa mdauko ŵakugomezga kuti pasita mu mtundu uwo ukumanyikwa mazuŵa ghano wakanjira mu Italy kwizira mu [[Sicily]] mu vilimika vyapakati chifukwa cha malonda gha ku Meditereniyani.<!-- Kapangilo --> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== *{{Commons category-inline}} *{{Wiktionary inline}} {{Pasita}} [[Category:Pasita]] 3ny707sy0rx7x76bok98cpbqczub26l 1 49920 123140 2026-10-08T13:26:08Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{talk header}}" 123140 wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk header}} frwy0ondkbaajki04xjgq9mnxpg47li 0 49921 123143 2026-10-08T13:36:09Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Redirect until proper page is created 123143 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Pasita]] r8o6nhuv7slvq1ucc98m5rqxwxo0hcs 0 49922 123144 2026-10-08T14:29:20Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Languages using Ethnologue.com 123144 wikitext text/x-wiki '''ChiPali''' ni chiyowoyero cha ku [[India]] icho chikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni chiyowoyero chachiŵiri pera ndipo chilije mtundu uliwose. Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Indo-European. Likumanyikwa yayi kuti likusambizgika mu masukulu. ==Banja== Lili mu banja la chiyowoyero cha Indo-European. {{InterWiki|code=pi}} [[Category:Viyowoyelo]] 5lvhnwpzkqvygqwmd322zr8sm1z96l4 3 49923 123173 2026-10-09T00:14:42Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --~~~~" 123173 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --'''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:14, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) ldqu5jcrrrkhfp4i9la6ibmm1gauko8 123176 123173 2026-10-09T00:19:42Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 123176 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --'''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:14, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) == Join Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi == Hello @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]], You have edited here over the course of 3 years, so this is being sent to you. '''Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi''' welcomes Wikimedia contributors from Malawi and contributors interested in Malawi-related knowledge to participate in building a stronger Wikimedia community. We invite contributors from Tumbuka, English and Chewa Wikipedias, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and other Wikimedia projects to become participating members of the community. If you would like to participate: # Visit the [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating|Founding and Participating Members]] page. # Open the '''Participating members''' section directly: [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating#List_of_participants]] # Add your Wikimedia username under the list of participating members. # Sign your entry by adding <nowiki>#~~~~</nowiki> after your username. Your participation will help strengthen Wikimedia projects in Malawi, including Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and Malawian language content. Participants may contribute to community discussions, outreach activities, edit-a-thons, language projects, cultural documentation, and other free knowledge initiatives. Everyone interested in creating, improving, and sharing free knowledge is welcome to participate. Thank you. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:19, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) 33bxtv0yoiexcpin188hvejocqrq592 123177 123176 2026-10-09T00:21:15Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Join Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi */ 123177 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --'''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:14, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) == Join Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi == Hello @[[User:Grufo|Grufo]], You have edited here over the course of 3 years, so this is being sent to you. '''Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi''' welcomes Wikimedia contributors from Malawi and contributors interested in Malawi-related knowledge to participate in building a stronger Wikimedia community. We invite contributors from Tumbuka, English and Chewa Wikipedias, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and other Wikimedia projects to become participating members of the community. If you would like to participate: # Visit the [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating|Founding and Participating Members]] page. # Open the '''Participating members''' section directly: [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating#List_of_participants]] # Add your Wikimedia username under the list of participating members. # Sign your entry by adding <nowiki>#~~~~</nowiki> after your username. Your participation will help strengthen Wikimedia projects in Malawi, including Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and Malawian language content. Participants may contribute to community discussions, outreach activities, edit-a-thons, language projects, cultural documentation, and other free knowledge initiatives. Everyone interested in creating, improving, and sharing free knowledge is welcome to participate. Thank you. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:19, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) qsrlgcdqet8w2km48c57j34rkxc9xep 123180 123177 2026-10-09T01:17:36Z Grufo 8824 /* Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka */ Re 123180 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --'''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:14, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]: Thank you for the welcome! Unfortunately, I don't speak Tumbuka, but I'm always happy to help with technical improvements! --[[User:Grufo|Grufo]] ([[User talk:Grufo|pakuchezgela]]) 01:17, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) == Join Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi == Hello @[[User:Grufo|Grufo]], You have edited here over the course of 3 years, so this is being sent to you. '''Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi''' welcomes Wikimedia contributors from Malawi and contributors interested in Malawi-related knowledge to participate in building a stronger Wikimedia community. We invite contributors from Tumbuka, English and Chewa Wikipedias, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and other Wikimedia projects to become participating members of the community. If you would like to participate: # Visit the [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating|Founding and Participating Members]] page. # Open the '''Participating members''' section directly: [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating#List_of_participants]] # Add your Wikimedia username under the list of participating members. # Sign your entry by adding <nowiki>#~~~~</nowiki> after your username. Your participation will help strengthen Wikimedia projects in Malawi, including Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and Malawian language content. Participants may contribute to community discussions, outreach activities, edit-a-thons, language projects, cultural documentation, and other free knowledge initiatives. Everyone interested in creating, improving, and sharing free knowledge is welcome to participate. Thank you. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:19, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) ft3xsw2u6veram0a3majjzlchq5lah9 123183 123180 2026-10-09T01:21:48Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka */ Zgolo 123183 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --'''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:14, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]: Thank you for the welcome! Unfortunately, I don't speak Tumbuka, but I'm always happy to help with technical improvements! --[[User:Grufo|Grufo]] ([[User talk:Grufo|pakuchezgela]]) 01:17, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Grufo|Grufo]] Oh, that's okay! Thanks for helping anyway. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 01:21, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) == Join Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi == Hello @[[User:Grufo|Grufo]], You have edited here over the course of 3 years, so this is being sent to you. '''Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi''' welcomes Wikimedia contributors from Malawi and contributors interested in Malawi-related knowledge to participate in building a stronger Wikimedia community. We invite contributors from Tumbuka, English and Chewa Wikipedias, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and other Wikimedia projects to become participating members of the community. If you would like to participate: # Visit the [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating|Founding and Participating Members]] page. # Open the '''Participating members''' section directly: [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating#List_of_participants]] # Add your Wikimedia username under the list of participating members. # Sign your entry by adding <nowiki>#~~~~</nowiki> after your username. Your participation will help strengthen Wikimedia projects in Malawi, including Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and Malawian language content. Participants may contribute to community discussions, outreach activities, edit-a-thons, language projects, cultural documentation, and other free knowledge initiatives. Everyone interested in creating, improving, and sharing free knowledge is welcome to participate. Thank you. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:19, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) mpdmbtrhk0wthxzctm679mlohambds3 3 49924 123174 2026-10-09T00:15:55Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --~~~~" 123174 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --'''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:15, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) 83s4nhsnjbc6ouzjm3ui0dix6mexna4 3 49925 123175 2026-10-09T00:16:09Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --~~~~" 123175 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Tamupokelelani pa Wikipediya ya ChiTumbuka== {{Welcome}} --'''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:16, 9 Zimya 2026 (UTC) ds9nbnj8uexmb1yidbr26x5w7agqirg 0 49926 123179 2026-10-09T01:07:55Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni muzi mu [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] mu charu cha {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P17}}.<ref>https://geonames.org</ref> Muli ŵanthu 1,023 (2021).<ref>https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/SAL21878</ref> ==Mbiri== Nar Nar Goon ili mu charu cha Kulin icho chikukhala ŵanthu ŵa ku Aborigine. Ŵanthu ŵa Boon wurrung mbakusunga malo mukati mwa mtundu wa Kulin.<ref>https://collection.aiatsis.gov.au/aus..." 123179 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni muzi mu [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] mu charu cha {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P17}}.<ref>https://geonames.org</ref> Muli ŵanthu 1,023 (2021).<ref>https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/SAL21878</ref> ==Mbiri== Nar Nar Goon ili mu charu cha Kulin icho chikukhala ŵanthu ŵa ku Aborigine. Ŵanthu ŵa Boon wurrung mbakusunga malo mukati mwa mtundu wa Kulin.<ref>https://collection.aiatsis.gov.au/austlang/language/s35</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Australia]] 6z57he3ibckmmq0gtojpjz0eyv5hfqr 0 49927 123181 2026-10-09T01:20:28Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Databox}} '''Malo 51''' panji '''Area 51''' ni malo ghakumanyikwa chomene gha [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) mukati mwa Nevada Kuyezgeka na Masambiro kumwera kwa [[Nevada]], 83 mamailosi (134 km) kumpoto-kumpoto chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa [[Las Vegas]]. Vinthu ivyo vikuchitika vikumanyikwa yayi, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa USAF ŵakuti ni malo ghakusambizgirako ŵanthu wose,<ref name="McAndrewsWaPo">{{cite news |last1=Brice-Saddler |first1=Michael |title=Half a million..." 123181 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Malo 51''' panji '''Area 51''' ni malo ghakumanyikwa chomene gha [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) mukati mwa Nevada Kuyezgeka na Masambiro kumwera kwa [[Nevada]], 83 mamailosi (134 km) kumpoto-kumpoto chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa [[Las Vegas]]. Vinthu ivyo vikuchitika vikumanyikwa yayi, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa USAF ŵakuti ni malo ghakusambizgirako ŵanthu wose,<ref name="McAndrewsWaPo">{{cite news |last1=Brice-Saddler |first1=Michael |title=Half a million people signed up to storm Area 51. What happens if they actually show? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2019/07/13/half-million-people-signed-up-storm-area-what-happens-if-they-actually-show-up/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=12 July 2019 |language=en |access-date=13 July 2019}}</ref> ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti vikovwira pakupanga na kuyezga ndege na vilwero vyakuyezgayezga.<ref name="McAndrewsWaPo" /><ref name="BBC">{{cite news |title=Area 51 'declassified' in U-2 spy plane history |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-23731759 |access-date=25 September 2014 |work=BBC News |date=16 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015153938/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-23731759 |archive-date=15 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{Commons category-inline|Area 51}} [[Category:Malo 51| ]] [[Category:United States of Amelika]] 914tv4q5bqjc3nnvlf1tqpk0k0wc6r8 0 49928 123182 2026-10-09T01:21:42Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Redirected page to [[Malo 51]] 123182 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Malo 51]] kfs6hb03rkzqsolkp8prm8ex35dyk45 14 49929 123185 2026-10-09T04:59:45Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Paste from English category 123185 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tracking category}} This is a temporary maintenance used for listing articles which use {{tl|Certification Cite Ref}} directly rather than through {{tl|Certification Table Entry}}, which is discouraged. It was created in order to estimate how prevalent this usage is. Articles are automatically placed in this category by {{tl|Certification Cite Ref}}. Do not add this category to an article manually. ki2i8h5cwd5g0x7ekexxcs7disuwx8t 0 49930 123186 2026-10-09T06:12:54Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni msumba mu [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] mu charu cha {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P17}}.<ref>https://geonames.org</ref> Muli ŵanthu 4,047 (2021).<ref>https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/SAL21380</ref> ==Mbiri== Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950, mbumba za [[Netherlands|ŴaDatchi]] na [[Italy|ŴaItaly]] zikiza mu tawuni iyi. Pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kukhazikika mu chigaŵa ichi, ŵanthu..." 123186 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni msumba mu [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] mu charu cha {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P17}}.<ref>https://geonames.org</ref> Muli ŵanthu 4,047 (2021).<ref>https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/SAL21380</ref> ==Mbiri== Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950, mbumba za [[Netherlands|ŴaDatchi]] na [[Italy|ŴaItaly]] zikiza mu tawuni iyi. Pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kukhazikika mu chigaŵa ichi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Bunurong ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Australia]] f3lhtbwr5xiodgcvgv63eh5w9rjwgqh 123187 123186 2026-10-09T06:13:07Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 123187 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni msumba mu [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] mu charu cha {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P17}}.<ref>https://geonames.org</ref> Muli ŵanthu 4,047 (2021).<ref>https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/SAL21380</ref> ==Mbiri== Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950, mbumba za [[Netherlands|ŴaDatchi]] na [[Italy|ŴaItaly]] zikiza mu msumba iyi. Pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kukhazikika mu chigaŵa ichi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Bunurong ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Australia]] ayrxpiuka5aqkg6tazin9axkgog1ik7