Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.23 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 6914 123274 122983 2026-10-13T20:54:25Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123274 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in the Horn of Africa}} {{About|the country|other uses}} {{distinguish|Ethopia (moth)}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Pp-move|small=yes}} {{Patronymic names||Naming conventions in Ethiopia and Eritrea}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}<!-- Please DO NOT enlarge the lede further by adding additional detail to it since it is already too long. Instead, add additional detail to the appropriate sub-section much further below! --> {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Etiyopiya | common_name = Ethiopia | native_name = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:85%; |title = Name in national languages |{{Infobox | subbox = yes | bodystyle = font-size:78%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Amharic]]: | data1 = {{lang|am|የኢትዮጵያ ፌዴራላዊ ዴሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ}}<br />{{lang|am-Latn|Ye-Ītyōṗṗyā Fēdēralawī Dēmokirasīyawī Rīpebilīk}} | rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3 = [[Oromo language|Oromo]]: | data3 = {{lang|om|Rippabliikii Federaalawaa Dimokraatawaa Itiyoophiyaa}} | rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = [[Somali language|Somali]]: | data4 = {{lang|so|Jamhuuriyadda Dimuqraadiga Federaalka Itoobiya}} | rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = [[Wolaitta language|Wolayta]]: | data5 = {{lang|wal|Toophphiyaa Federaale Demokiraase Ripaablike}} | rowclass6 = mergedrow | label6 = [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]: | data6 = {{lang|ti|ፌዴራላዊ ዴሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ ኢትዮጵያ}}<br />{{lang|ti-Latn| Fēdēralawī Dēmokirasīyawī Rīpebilīki Ítiyop'iya}} | rowclass7 = mergedrow | label7 = [[Afar language|Afar]]: | data7 = {{lang|aa|Itiyoppiya Federaalak Demokraatik Rippeblikih}} }} }} | image_flag = Flag of Ethiopia.svg | image_coat = Emblem of Ethiopia.svg | symbol_type = Emblem | national_anthem = <br />{{lang|am|ወደፊት ገስግሺ ፣ ውድ እናት ኢትዮጵያ|bold=yes}}<br />({{Lang-en|"[[March Forward, Dear Mother Ethiopia]]"}})<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:Wedefit Gesgeshi Widd Innat Ittyoppya.ogg]]}}</div> | image_map = Ethiopia (Africa orthographic projection).svg | capital = [[Addis Ababa]] | coordinates = {{Coord|9|1|N|38|45|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[Afar language|Afar]] <br /> [[Amharic]] <br /> [[Oromo language|Oromo]] <br /> [[Somali language|Somali]] <br /> [[Tigrinya]]<ref name="Ventures"/><ref name="Nazret"/><ref name="africanews.com">{{cite news |last1=Shaban |first1=Abdurahman |title=One to five: Ethiopia gets four new federal working languages |url=https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |agency=Africa News |access-date=23 October 2020 |archive-date=15 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215231030/https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |url-status=dead}}</ref> | languages_type = {{nowrap|'''[[Regional language]]s'''}}<ref name="africa.upenn.edu">{{Cite web | url=https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Hornet/Ethiopian_Constitution.html | title=Ethiopian Constitution}}</ref> | ethnic_groups = {{plainlist| * 34.5% [[Oromo people|Oromo]] * 26.9% [[Amhara people|Amhara]] * 6.2% [[Somalis in Ethiopia|Somali]] * 6.1% [[Tigrayans|Tigrayan]] * 4.0% [[Sidama people|Sidama]] * 2.5% [[Gurage people|Gurage]] * 2.3% [[Welayta people|Welayta]] * 1.7% [[Hadiya people|Hadiya]] * 1.7% [[Afar people|Afar]] * 1.5% [[Gamo people|Gamo]] * 12.6% [[List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia|Others]]}} | languages_sub = yes | languages = {{Flatlist| * [[Harari language|Harari]] * [[Sidamo language|Sidama]] * [[Languages of Ethiopia]] <!-- includes only languages officially recognized by a region as the working language --> }} | languages2_type = Foreign languages | languages2 = | ethnic_groups_year = 2007<ref name="CSA">{{cite web|title=Table 2.2 Percentage distribution of major ethnic groups: 2007|page=16|url=http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf|work=Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007 Population and Housing Census Results|publisher=Population Census Commission|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325050115/http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf|archive-date=25 March 2009}}</ref><ref name=2007Census /> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space; |{{Tree list}} * 67.3% [[Christianity in Ethiopia|Christianity]] ** 43.8% [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopian Orthodoxy]] ** 22.8% [[P'ent'ay]] ** 0.7% Other [[Christians|Christian]] {{Tree list/end}} |31.3% [[Islam in Ethiopia|Islam]] |0.6% [[Traditional African religion|Traditional faiths]] |0.8% [[Religion in Ethiopia|Others]] / [[Irreligion|None]] }} | religion_year = 2016<ref>{{cite web |title=Ethiopia- The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/#people-and-society |website=www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/ |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421154941/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/#people-and-society |archive-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> | demonym = [[Ethiopians|Ethiopian]] | government_type = [[Federal parliamentary republic]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalafrica.isp.msu.edu/files/5015/5916/5319/TedVestal.pdf|title=Zenawism as ethnic-federalism}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[President of Ethiopia|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Sahle-Work Zewde]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Abiy Ahmed]] | legislature = [[Federal Parliamentary Assembly]] | upper_house = [[House of Federation]] | lower_house = [[House of Peoples' Representatives]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Ethiopia|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Ethiopian Empire]] | established_date1 = 1270 | established_event2 = ''[[Zemene Mesafint]]'' | established_date2 = 7 May 1769 | established_event3 = [[Zemene Mesafint#End of Zemene Mesafint era|Reunification]] | established_date3 = 11 February 1855 | established_event4 = [[Menelik II#Centralisation|Centralisation]] | established_date4 = 1904 | established_event5 = [[Italian Ethiopia|Occupied and annexed]] into [[Italian East Africa]] | established_date5 = 9 May 1936 | established_event6 = [[Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement]] | established_date6 = 31 January 1942 | established_event7 = [[Derg]] | established_date7 = 12 September 1974 | established_event8 = [[Transitional Government of Ethiopia|Transitional government]] | established_date8 = 28 May 1991 | established_event9 = [[Constitution of Ethiopia|Current constitution]] | established_date9 = 21 August 1995 | area_km2 = 1,104,300<ref name="CIA World Factbook"/> | area_rank = 26th <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 426,371 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | percent_water = 0.7 | population_estimate = 116,462,712<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Ethiopia|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 13th | population_census = 73,750,932<ref name=2007Census>{{cite web |title=Country Level |url=http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php/census-report/census-tables/category/301-census-tables?download=655:countrylevel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208061518/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php/census-report/census-tables/category/301-census-tables?download=655:countrylevel |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 February 2019 |work=2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia |publisher=[[Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)|CSA]] |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref> | population_census_year = 2007 | population_density_km2 = 92.7 | population_density_sq_mi = 240.1 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 123rd | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $394 billion<ref name="IMFWEOET">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=644,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2021&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023|date=April 2023|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date=21 April 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 55th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $3,724<ref name="IMFWEOET"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 159th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $156 billion<ref name="IMFWEOET"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 59th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,475<ref name="IMFWEOET"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 159th | Gini = 35.0 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |title=Gini Index coefficient |publisher=CIA World Factbook |access-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717071854/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison |archive-date=17 July 2021}}</ref> | HDI = 0.498 <!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> | HDI_change = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=September 8, 2022|access-date=September 8, 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 175th | currency = [[Ethiopian birr|Birr]] | currency_code = ETB | time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] | utc_offset = +3 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+251]] | cctld = [[.et]] }} '''Ethiopia''',{{efn|{{lang-am|ኢትዮጵያ|Ītyōṗṗyā}} {{IPA-am|i.tjo.p’ja|pron}}, {{lang-om|Itiyoophiyaa}}, {{lang-so|Itoobiya}}, {{lang-ti|ኢትዮጵያ|Ítiyop'iya}}, {{lang-aa|Itiyoppiya}}}} panji kuti '''Charu cha Etiyopiya''', panji kuti '''Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia''', chili ku mpoto kwa [[Africa]]. Charu ichi chili kumpoto na Eritrea, kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Djibouti]], kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Somalia]], kumwera na [[Kenya]], kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[South Sudan]], kweniso kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[Sudan]]. Charu cha Etiyopiya chili na malo ghakukwana 1,100,000 square kilometres. Kufika mu chaka cha 2022, charu ichi chili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 113.5 miliyoni, ndipo ni charu cha nambara 13 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi.<ref name="csa2">{{cite web |title=Population Projections for Ethiopia 2007–2037 |url=http://www.csa.gov.et/census-report/population-projections/category/368-population-projection-2007-2037?download=936:population-projection-2007-2037 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803052731/http://www.csa.gov.et/census-report/population-projections/category/368-population-projection-2007-2037?download=936:population-projection-2007-2037 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |access-date=25 September 2020 |website=www.csa.gov.et}}</ref>{{UN_Population|ref}}Msumba ukuru wa [[Addis Ababa]], uli pa mtunda wa makilomita ghanandi kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa [[East African Rift]] iyo yikupatura charu ichi kuŵa vigaŵa viŵiri.<ref name="CIA2">{{cite web |title=Ethiopia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ |access-date=5 April 2021 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421154941/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ |archive-date=21 April 2021}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakafuma mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Ethiopia ndipo ŵakaluta ku [[Near East]] na kunyake mu nyengo ya Middle Paleolithic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kessler |first=David F. |title=The Falashas : a Short History of the Ethiopian Jews |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-283-70872-2 |oclc=819506475}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hopkin |first=Michael |date=16 February 2005 |title=Ethiopia is top choice for cradle of ''Homo sapiens'' |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |doi=10.1038/news050214-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=J.Z. |last2=Absher |first2=D.M. |last3=Tang |first3=H. |last4=Southwick |first4=A.M. |last5=Casto |first5=A.M. |last6=Ramachandran |first6=S. |last7=Cann |first7=H.M. |last8=Barsh |first8=G.S. |last9=Feldman |first9=M. |last10=Cavalli-Sforza |first10=L.L. |last11=Myers |first11=R.M. |year=2008 |title=Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2008-02-22_319_5866/page/1100 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=319 |issue=5866 |pages=1100–04 |bibcode=2008Sci...319.1100L |doi=10.1126/science.1153717 |pmid=18292342 |s2cid=53541133}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=21 February 2008 |title=Humans Moved From Africa Across Globe, DNA Study Says |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=awJVkvnk8KjM |url-status=dead |access-date=16 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629125652/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=awJVkvnk8KjM |archive-date=29 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kaplan |first=Karen |date=21 February 2008 |title=Around the world from Addis Ababa |url=http://www.startribune.com/world/15860017.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603122801/http://www.startribune.com/world/15860017.html |archive-date=3 June 2013 |access-date=16 March 2009 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref> Kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ethiopia ndiko ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya ku Afroasiatic. Mu 980 B.C.E., [[Ufumu wa D'mt]] ukathandazga ufumu wake pa charu cha [[Eritrea]] na kumpoto kwa Ethiopia, apo Ufumu wa Aksum ukalutilira kulamulira charu ichi vyaka 900. Ufumu uwu ukazomera Chikhristu mu 330, ndipo Chisilamu chikafika mu 615.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abbink |first=Jon |date=1998 |title=An Historical-Anthropological Approach to Islam in Ethiopia: Issues of Identity and Politics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1771876 |journal=Journal of African Cultural Studies |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=109–124 |doi=10.1080/13696819808717830 |jstor=1771876 |hdl=1887/9486 |issn=1369-6815|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti msumba wa [[Aksum]] wabwangandulika mu 960, maufumu ghakupambanapambana ghakaŵa mu charu cha Etiyopiya. Ufumu wa Zagwe ukalamuliranga kumpoto na pakati m'paka apo ukawuskikira na Yekuno Amlak mu 1270, ndipo ukayambiska ufumu wa Ethiopia na ufumu wa [[Solomonic]]. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 C.E., ufumu uwu ukakura chomene chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa vigaŵa vyawo na kulimbana na vigaŵa vinyake. Nkhondo ya Adal (1529-1543) ndiyo yikawovwira kuti ufumu uwu uŵe wakupambana. Themba [[Tewodros II]] likamalizga [[Zemene Mesafint]] mu 1855, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Etiyopiya wakolerane na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2022 |title=Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/id/1299/Vaughanphd.pdf}}</ref> Kwambira mu 1878, Themba Menelik II likapoka vigaŵa vinandi vya charu cha Ethiopia. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, charu cha Ethiopia chikajivikilira ku ŵalwani awo ŵakachitanga nkhondo na charu cha Egypt na Italy. Mu 1935, boma la [[Fascist Italy]] likapoka charu cha Ethiopia na kuwunjika pamoza na vyaru vya [[Eritrea]] na [[Somaliland]]. Mu 1941, pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ŵasilikari ŵa ku [[Britain]] ŵakamba kuwukira msumba uwu. Gulu la [[Derg]], ilo likawovwirika na Soviet Union, likamba kuwusa mu 1974 pamanyuma pa kuwuskapo Themba [[Haile Selassie]] na [[muwuso wa Solomoni]]. Pati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo Derg yikamara mu 1991, gulu la [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF)]] likamba kulamulira charu ichi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakwambana kwa nyengo yitali, ndipo ndyali zilije mtende. Kufuma mu 2018, magulu gha vigaŵa na gha mafuko ghakapanga nkhondo zinandi mu Ethiopia.<ref name=BBC1120>{{Cite news|author=BBC Staff|date=3 November 2020|title=Ethiopia attack: Dozens 'rounded up and killed' in Oromia state|language=en|work=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54787034|access-date=25 May 2021}}</ref> Charu cha Ethiopia chili na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana yakujumpha 80. Chikhristu ndicho ntchisopa chikuru chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Chisilamu. Boma ili ndilo likambiska Wupu wa United Nations, Gulu la Ŵamitundu 24, Gulu la Ŵambura Kujibatika, Gulu la Ŵamitundu 77, na Wupu wa Umoza wa ku Africa. Ku Addis Ababa ndiko kuli wupu wa African Union, Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, African Standby Force na mawupu ghanandi gha pa charu chose agho ghakuwona vya Africa. Charu cha Ethiopia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikukura comene yayi, kweni nyengo zinyake chikucemeka kuti ni caru ico cikukura comene. Ndipouli, kuyana na ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakuguliska na fundo ya Human Development Index, caru ici nchikavu comene, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi mbakavu, kweni ŵakuchindika yayi wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba ni 49%. Ntchito za ulimi ndizo zikuluzikulu kwambiri ku Ethiopia, zomwe zikuyimira 36% ya GDP ya dzikolo kuyambira 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopia: Share of economic sectors in the gross domestic product (GDP) from 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/455149/share-of-economic-sectors-in-the-gdp-in-ethiopia/#:~:text=This%20statistic%20shows%20the%20share%20of%20economic%20sectors,and%20the%20services%20sector%20contributed%20about%2036.81%20percent. |website=Statista}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Agriculture in Ethiopia: data shows for a large part Agriculture still retained its majority share of the economy. |url=https://lekreports.com/agriculture-in-ethiopia-data-shows-for-a-large-part-agriculture-still-retained-its-majority-share-of-the-economy/ |website=The Low Ethiopian Reports |date=16 June 2022 |access-date=9 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606083227/https://lekreports.com/agriculture-in-ethiopia-data-shows-for-a-large-part-agriculture-still-retained-its-majority-share-of-the-economy/ |archive-date=6 June 2023 }}</ref> ==Zina== {{see also|Aethiopia}} Zina la Chigiriki lakuti Αἰθιοπία (kufuma ku Αἰθίοψ, Aithiops, "munthu wa ku Etiyopiya") ni lizgu ilo lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chigiriki lakuti α??θω na ??ψ. Kuyana na buku la Liddell-Scott Jones Greek-English Lexicon, lizgu ili likung'anamulika kuti chisko chawotcheka mu zina, ndipo mu zina la chigaŵa, chisko chawotcheka. Munthu munyake wakulemba mdauko zina lake Herodotus, wakazunuranga vigaŵa vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara. Pakuti Ŵagiriki ŵakamanyanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakaŵa "ŵabulumembe", ŵakaŵagaŵa mu vigaŵa viŵiri, ŵa ku Africa na ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kufuma ku Turkey m'paka ku India.<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 1.22–4.</ref> Zina la Chigiriki ili likalembeka mu Chiamharic kuti ኢትዮጵያ, ʾĪtyō?? yā. Panyake lizgu lakuti Αἰθιοπία likafuma ku lizgu lakuti ዕጣን (ʿəṭan, lubani), ilo ku Etiyopiya likafuma. Mu malemba gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma, zina lakuti Etiyopiya likaŵa zina la ku Nubia wakale. Mu malemba ghanyake gha mu Baibolo, zina lakuti Etiyopiya likusangikaso mu Mabaibolo ghanandi gha mu Baibolo. Malemba ghakale gha Cihebere ghakuyowoya kuti Nubia ni Kush. Ndipouli, mu Cipangano Ciphya, lizgu la Cigiriki lakuti Aithiops likuzunulika, pakuyowoya za muteŵeti wa Kandake, fumukazi ya Kush. Pakulondezga mitheto ya Ŵagiriki na Baibolo, buku la Monumentum Adulitanum, ilo lili kulembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., likulongora kuti themba la Aksum likalamuliranga chigaŵa icho chikaŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ethiopia na Sasu. Themba Ezana la ku Aksum likathereska Nubia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Mu ciyowoyero ca Ge'ez, lizgu lakuti Aἰθίοπες likuyana waka na lizgu lakuti Ḥbšt na Ḥbśt (Ḥabashat). Pamanyuma, zina liphya ili likang'anamulika kuti ḥbs ('Aḥbāsh) mu Cisaba na Ḥabasha mu Cirabu. Mu buku la Ge'ez Book of Axum ilo likalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, zina ili likulongora kuti munthu uyu wakaŵa Ityopp'is. Iyo wakaŵa mwana wa Kushi, mwana wa Hamu, uyo ŵanthu ŵakuti ndiyo wakazenga msumba wa Axum. Mu Cingelezi, na kuwaro kwa Ethiopia, caru ici cikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Abyssinia. Zina ili lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachilatini lakuti Habash.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schoff|first1=Wilfred Harvey|title=The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: travel and trade in the Indian Ocean|date=1912|publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co.|page=62|url=https://archive.org/stream/periplusoferythr00schouoft#page/62/mode/2up|access-date=28 September 2016}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Ethiopia}} {{further|Ethiopian historiography}} === Mbili yakwambilia === {{Main article|Prehistoric Ethiopia}} [[File:Homo Sapiens Idaltu.JPG|thumb|A ''[[Herto Man|Homo sapiens idaltu]]'' hominid skull]] Vinthu vinandi vyakuzirwa ivyo ŵasanga vyawovwira kuti charu cha Ethiopia na vigaŵa vyakuzingilizga viŵe pa malo ghakwamba pa nkhani ya vyamoyo. Munthu uyo wakukhala vyaka vinandi chomene uyo wasangika ku Ethiopia ni Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardi) wa vyaka 4.2 miliyoni. Wakaŵa Muzungu mu 1994. Munthu uyo wakumanyikwa chomene ni Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy). Mu 1974 Donald Johanson wakasanga chinyama ichi mu Dambo la Awash mu chigaŵa cha Afar. Zina lakuti Lucy likuyowoya za malo agho ŵakasangako vinthu ivi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti munthu uyu wakaŵako vyaka 3.2 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/human/human_evolution/mother_of_man1.shtml|title=Mother of man – 3.2&nbsp;million years ago|publisher=Bbc.co.uk|access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref><ref name="Dinkinesh">{{cite book|title=Lucy's Legacy: The Quest for Human Origins|last2=Wong|first2=Kate|date=2010|publisher=Crown Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-39640-2|pages=8–9|last1=Johanson|first1=Donald C.}}</ref><ref name="iho1">{{cite web|url=https://iho.asu.edu/about/lucys-story|title=Institute of Human Origins: Lucy's Story|date=15 June 2016|access-date=23 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312130802/https://iho.asu.edu/about/lucys-story|archive-date=12 March 2015}}</ref> Charu cha Etiyopiya ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano, awo ŵakuchemeka Homo sapiens, ŵambe kuŵako. Vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo vikusangika pa malo agha ni ivyo vikakhalako vya Omo. Vinthu ivi vikazengeka kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Omo. Kweniso ŵakasanga viwangwa vya munthu munyake wakuchemeka Homo sapiens idaltu mu dambo la Awash. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 160,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo vingaŵa kuti vikaŵa vyamoyo vya mtundu wa Homo sapiens, panji ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano. Vinthu vyakale vya Homo sapiens ivyo vikusangika pa malo gha Jebel Irhoud ku Morocco vikulongora kuti vikaŵako vyaka 300,000 ivyo vyajumpha, apo vya Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) vya kumwera kwa Ethiopia ni viswaswa vyakale chomene vya Homo sapiens ivyo vikumanyikwa mu nyengo yasono (196 ± 5 ka). Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakafika mu chigaŵa ichi mu nyengo ya Neolithic kufuma ku malo agho ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu Dambo la Nayelo. Ŵasayansi ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Afroasiatic ŵakafuma ku kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa chifukwa chakuti mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakasanga malo ghakubisamamo malibwe agho ghakaŵako vyaka 30,000 kumanyuma pa malo gha Fincha Habera mu mapiri gha Bale. Malo agha ghali pachanya pa nyanja mamita 3,469. Para munthu wali pachanya nthena, wakuŵa na nthenda ya hypoxia kweniso nyengo yiheni. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakalembeka mu magazini ya Science, wakulongora kuti malo agha ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba pa malo ghose agho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga. Ŵakasanga viwangwa vikuruvikuru vya vinyama, vyakuyegheramo malibwe vinandi, na vyoto vyakale.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/08/science/humans-high-altitude-ethiopia.html|title=In the Ethiopian Mountains, Ancient Humans Were Living the High Life|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|date=8 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=16 August 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/found-earliest-evidence-high-altitude-home-humans-180972878/|title=Archaeologists Uncover Evidence of an Ancient High-Altitude Human Dwelling|last=Katz|first=Brigit|website=Smithsonian|language=en|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/08/ethiopia-provides-the-earliest-evidence-of-people-living-at-altitude/|title=The first people to live at high elevations snacked on giant mole rats|last=Smith|first=Kiona N.|date=9 August 2019|website=Ars Technica|language=en-us|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/earliest-evidence-human-mountaineers.html|title=Earliest Evidence of Human Mountaineers Found in Ethiopia|last=History|first=Charles Q. Choi 2019-08-09T12:59:10Z|website=livescience.com|date=9 August 2019|language=en|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/this-rock-shelter-in-ethiopia-may-be-the-earliest-evide-1837104167|title=This Rock Shelter in Ethiopia May Be the Earliest Evidence of Humans Living in the Mountains|last=Dvorsky|first=George|website=Gizmodo|date=9 August 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2019/08/09/Earliest-evidence-of-high-altitude-living-found-in-Ethiopia/9561565318908/|title=Earliest evidence of high-altitude living found in Ethiopia|website=UPI|language=en|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Miehe|first1=Georg|last2=Opgenoorth|first2=Lars|last3=Zech|first3=Wolfgang|last4=Woldu|first4=Zerihun|last5=Vogelsang|first5=Ralf|last6=Veit|first6=Heinz|last7=Nemomissa|first7=Sileshi|last8=Negash|first8=Agazi|last9=Nauss|first9=Thomas|date=9 August 2019|title=Middle Stone Age foragers resided in high elevations of the glaciated Bale Mountains, Ethiopia|url=https://archive.org/details/science_2019-08-09_365_6453/page/583|journal=Science|language=en|volume=365|issue=6453|pages=583–587|doi=10.1126/science.aaw8942|issn=0036-8075|pmid=31395781|bibcode=2019Sci...365..583O|s2cid=199505803}}</ref> Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya malibwe (vinthu ivyo vikamanyikwanga na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens) vikawoneka mu 2013 pa malo gha Gademotta ku Ethiopia. Mu 2019, ku Aduma ŵakasangaso vilwero vinyake vya mu nyengo ya malibwe, ivyo vikaŵa vyaka 100,000 na 80,000 ivyo vikaŵa nga ni mivi iyo ŵanthu ŵakuponya mikondo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="Sahle">{{Cite journal|title=Assessment of complex projectiles in the early Late Pleistocene at Aduma, Ethiopia|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=5|pages=e0216716|year=2018|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0216716|pmid=31071181|pmc=6508696|vauthors=Sahle Y, Brooks AS|doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Antiquity=== {{Main|Dʿmt|Kingdom of Aksum}} [[File:Men from Punt Carrying Gifts, Tomb of Rekhmire MET 30.4.152 EGDP013029.jpg|thumb|Men from [[Land of Punt|Punt]] carrying Gifts, Tomb of [[Rekhmire]]. Punt being located in the Northern Ethiopian, Eritrean regions.]] [[File:KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg|thumb|[[Aksumite currency]] of the [[Axumite kings|Aksumite king]] called [[Endubis]], 227–35, at the [[British Museum]]. The inscriptions in [[Ancient Greek]] read "ΑΧΩΜΙΤΩ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King of Axum") and "ΕΝΔΥΒΙΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King Endubis"), the Greek language was the [[lingua franca]] by that time so its use in coins simplified foreign trade.]] {{multiple image | align left | total_width =280 | image1 = 'The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon', oil on canvas painting by Edward Poynter, 1890, Art Gallery of New South Wales.jpg| image2 = Adulis.jpg |footer = [[King Solomon]] and the [[Queen Sheba]] are central figures in Ethiopian traditional history, as the central figures of forming the [[Solomonic dynasty]] and the Imperial line of Ethiopia (left) Ancient ruins in [[Adulis]] pertaining to Ethiopian and modern-day Eritrean civilization near the [[Red Sea]] thousands of years ago }} [[File:Contenitore di simulacro con rilievo e iscrizioni, V secolo ac ca. 06.jpg|thumb|An Axumite [[Stele|stela]]]] Mu 980 B.C.E., Dʿmt yikakhazikiskika mu Eritrea na Tigray mu Ethiopia ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ndiyo yikenda m'malo mwa Punt. Msumba uwu ukaŵa ku Yeha, kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ndiwo ŵakambiska ŵanthu aŵa, nangauli kale ŵanandi ŵakatenge ŵanthu ŵa ku Saba ndiwo ŵakambiska. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti Dʿmt ntchigaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha ku Asia awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya Cushitic na Semitic. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ciyowoyero ca Ge'ez, ico cikayowoyeka kale na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Semite ku Ethiopia, cikafuma ku Cibeya. Kale mu 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakayowoyanga ChiSemiti ŵakakhalanga mu Ethiopia na Eritrea uko chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez chikakura. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Saba ŵakakhalanga mu malo ghachoko waka, ndipo ŵakamara mu vyaka 10 panji 100. Panyake yikaŵa malo gha malonda panji gha nkhondo agho ghakaŵa pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵa Dʿmt panji ŵa mu mtundu unyake. Pamanyuma pakuti ufumu wa Dʿmt wabwangandulika mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., chigaŵa cha Ethiopia chikamba kulamulirika na maufumu ghachoko. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., Ufumu wa Aksum ukaŵa mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Tigray na Eritrea. Buku linyake likuti msumba wakwamba wa ufumu uwu ukazengeka na Itiyopis, mwana wa Kush. Pamanyuma pake, ufumu wa Aksum ukafika mu Yemen, sirya linyake la Nyanja Yiswesi. Ntchimi ya ku Peresiya, Mani, yikazunura msumba wa Axum pamoza na ufumu wa Roma, Peresiya, na China, kuti ukaŵa umoza wa maufumu ghanayi ghakuru gha mu nyengo yake, mu vyaka vya m'ma 300. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti matchalitchi gha ku Eguputo na Ethiopia ghakakolerananga. Pali ukaboni unyake wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakakolerananga na Fumukazi ya ku Sheba. Pafupifupi mu 316 C.E., Frumentius na munung'una wake Edesius ŵa ku Ture ŵakaluta na asibweni ŵawo ku Ethiopia. Apo ngaraŵa yikimilira pa dowoko la ku Nyanja Yiswesi, ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakakoma wose padera pa ŵabali ŵaŵiri awo ŵakatolekera ku nyumba ya themba nga mbazga. Ŵakapika maudindo ghakuzirwa na fumu, ndipo ŵakang'anamuska ŵanthu ŵa mu nyumba yake kuŵa Ŵakhristu. Frumentius wakaŵa bishopu wakwamba wa ku Aksum. Ndalama yinyake ya mu 324 C.E. yikulongora kuti charu cha Etiyopiya ndicho chikaŵa chachiŵiri kuzomera Chikhristu (panyuma pa Armenia mu 301). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakamanyanga makora umo charu cha Greece na Roma chikachitiranga vinthu, kweni ŵakamba kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku India na Ufumu wa Roma pa msewu wa Silk Road.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Solomonic Descent in Ethiopian History|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1875/solomonic-descent-in-ethiopian-history/|access-date=20 December 2021|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref><ref name="britishmuseum.org">{{cite web |last1=The British Museum |last2=The CarAf Centre |title=The wealth of Africa – The kingdom of Aksum – Teachers' notes |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf |website=BritishMuseum.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104191259/https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2019}}</ref>[[File:South Arabian - Fragment of a Frieze with an Ibex and Oryxes - Walters 2138.jpg|thumb|A stela with an [[Nubian ibex|ibex]] and three [[Arabian oryx]], associated with [[Astar (god)|Astar]] (ዐስተር), Semetic god of the [[Venus in culture|Morning and Evening Star]], found at Axum]] ===Middle Ages=== {{Main|Ethiopia in the Middle Ages}} [[File:Kingdom of Axum blue.png|thumb|The [[Kingdom of Aksum]] at its peak in the 6th century]] [[File:Hijra Abyssinia (Rashid ad-Din).jpg|thumb|300x300px|14th century Islamic depiction of the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]:The King of Aksum declines the [[Quraysh|Qurayshi]] request to send the Muslims back to Mecca]] Ufumu uwu ukachemekanga "Ethiopia" mu nyengo ya Ezana mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E. Ufumu wa Kush ukati wapokeka mu 330, ufumu wa Aksum ukafika paheni chomene pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 600. Nyengo iyi yikadumulizgika na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakanjira mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Arabia, kusazgapo Ŵayuda ŵa Dhu Nuwas ŵa Ufumu wa Himyarite na Nkhondo za Ŵaperesiya. Mu 575, Ŵaaksumu ŵakazingilizga na kuwuskaso Sana'a pamanyuma pakuti Sayf ibn Dhī Yazan uyo wakaŵa kazembe wa msumba uwu wakomeka. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., Ŵasilamu Ŵachiarabu ŵakapoka msumba wa Adulis, ndipo chifukwa cha kunangika kwa malo, kusintha kwa nyengo, kweniso vula izo zikalokwa pakati pa 730 na 760, ufumu uwu ukamba kuchepa nkhongono. Ufumu wa Aksum ukamara mu 960 C.E. apo Fumukazi Gudit yikathereska themba laumaliro la Aksum. Mu muwuso wa Gudit, uwo ukatora vyaka 40, wakakhumbanga kumazga Chikhristu (chisopa icho Themba Ezana la ufumu wa Axumite likazomera pakwamba) mwa kotcha matchalitchi na kukhomera ŵanthu awo ŵakalutilira kugomezgeka ku Tchalitchi la Orthodox la Tewahedo, ilo pa nyengo iyo likawonekanga nga ni chisopa cha boma. Gudit wakayezga kuchichizga ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵasinthe chisopa chawo ndipo wakaparanya vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵako mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Axumite. Chifukwa chakuti Gudit wakaparanya ŵanthu ŵanandi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakachimbilira kumwera kwa charu ichi na kukhazikiska ufumu wa Zagwe. Ufumu uwu ukawusikanga na ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Agaw kwambira mu 912, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakayowoya kuti ukaŵa mu 1137 apo Mara Takla Haymanot wakathereska themba laumaliro la Ŵaaksumite, Dil Na'od, na kutora mwana wake msungwana. Ufumu wa Zagwe ndiwo ukawovwira kuti Chikhristu chiwelerepo, ndipo m'ma 1200 C.E., Chikhristu chikafika mu chigaŵa cha Shewan. Chithunzi cha Emperor Yekuno Amlak chomwe akuti chinalembedwa m'zaka za m'ma 1700 Muwuso wa Zagwe ukamara apo Yekuno Amlak, mwanalume wa ku Amhara, wakawukira Themba Yetbarak na kukhazikiska ufumu wa Ethiopia. Iyo wakazenga nyumba ya ufumu ya Solomoni iyo yikwenera kuti yikamba na Solomoni na Fumukazi ya ku Sheba. Kuyana na buku la mdauko la ku Ethiopia lakuti Kebra Nagast, ilo likang'anamulika mu Chigez mu 1321, zina lake likaŵa Bäynä Ləḥkəm (kufuma ku Chiarabic: ابن الحكيم, Ibn Al-Hakim, "Mwana wa Wavinjeru"). Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Etiyopiya wakayezga kukolerana na maufumu gha ku Europe. Kalata iyo Henry IV wa ku England wakalembera fumu ya ku Etiyopiya yilipo. Mu 1428, Yeshaq I wakatuma mathenga ghaŵiri kwa Alfonso V wa ku Aragon, uyo wakatuma mathenga ghake agho ghakatondeka kumalizga ulendo wakuwelera ku Aragon. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukolerana na Portugal mu 1508 mu nyengo ya Dawit II.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah]], p. 25.</ref> ====Abyssinian–Adal War (1529–1543)==== {{main article|Ethiopian–Adal War}} [[File:YagbeaSionBattlingAdaSultan.JPG|thumb|The Sultan of Adal (right) and his troops battling Emperor [[Yagbea-Sion]] and his men.]] Ufumu wa Etiyopiya ukayamba kuthandazgika kufuma kwa Amda Seyon I, uyo wakathereska ufumu wakwambilira wa Chisilamu mu chigaŵa ichi, Ifat Sultanate, mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 pamanyuma pa kupoka Ufumu wa Damot mu 1317, ndipo Themba Zara Yaqob ndilo likathereska Masawa na Dahlak mu 1465. Ufumu wa Adal, uwo ukakhala pamanyuma pa Ifat, ukaŵako mu 1415 ndipo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Zelia, ku Somalia. Ŵana ŵa Adal, awo ŵakakhozgekanga na Ŵaturuki ŵa ku Ottoman, ŵakayezga kuti ŵanjire mu ufumu wa Ethiopia mu 1529, ndipo ŵakamba nkhondo ya ku Ethiopia. Al-Ghazi wakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Etiyopiya mu nkhondo ya ku Amba Sel mu 1531. Cristóvão da Gama wakawovwira comene pa nkhondo iyi, wakawovwira Ŵaetiyopiya na ŵasilikari 400 ku Massawa. Ivyo wakacita vikamovwira kuti wafwe pa nkhondo ya ku Wofla mu 1542. Mu 1543, ŵasilikari ŵa Abyssinia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Fumu Gelawdewos ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Adal pa Nkhondo ya Wayna Daga. Pamanyuma, mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Etiyopiya zina lake Azmach Calite, wakachimbizga Imam uyo wakapwetekeka. Ŵasilikari ŵa Adal ŵakati ŵamanya kuti wafwa, ŵakafumapo mwaluŵiro. Mu 1559, Gelawdewos wakadumulika mutu pa Nkhondo ya Fatagar. Pakuzgora, Ras Hamalmal wa ku Abyssinia wakapoka msumba ukuru wa Harar na kukoma Sultan Barakat ibn Umar Din. Nkhondo izi zikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ŵalute ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto mu ma 1500.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aga|first=Mark T.|title=Abyssinian-Adal War — allaboutETHIO|url=https://allaboutethio.com/hwadal.html|access-date=9 January 2022|website=allaboutethio.com|language=en}}</ref> ==== Oromo migrations (16th century) ==== {{main article|Oromo migrations}} Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ŵakaluta ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Ŵakati ŵafuma ku Guji na Borena Zone, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga. Pakwamba, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakizanga mwaluŵiro kuzakapoka viŵeto vinandi na vinthu vinyake na kuwelera kukwawo. Nthowa iyi yikalutilira m'paka pa gada wa Meslé. Abba Bahrey wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuthandazgika chomene mu nyengo ya Themba Dawit II (luba Melbah), apo ŵakanjira mu msumba wa Bale pambere ŵandanjire mu Ufumu wa Adal. Themba Sarsa Dengel likayezga kuti limare nkhondo ya kumwera, kweni likatondeka.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=287}} ==== Jesuit influence (1555–1632) ==== Kufuma mu ma 1700, charu cha Ethiopia chikamba kuyowoyeskana na charu cha Portugal, chomenechomene pa nkhani za chisopa. Kwambira mu 1555, ŵa Jesuit ŵa ku Portugal ŵakayezga kuti Cikatolika ciŵe cisopa ca boma. Ŵakati ŵatondeka kanandi waka, mu 1603 ŵakatuma ŵamishonale ŵanandi, kusazgapo Pedro Paez, uyo wakaŵa Mujeremani. Paez wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi comene pa nkhani za ndyali. Ŵasambiri ŵa Yesu, kusazgapo Manoel de Almeida, Manoel Barradas, na Jerónimo Lobo, ŵakalemba nkhani zakukhwaskana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakakumananga na ŵanthu ŵakwambilira. Ndipouli, buku lawo likamanyikwa yayi m'paka mu ma 1900, apo likalembeka. Mu 1622, Fumu Susenyos I yikati yaŵa themba, yikazomerezga kuti cisopa ca Katolika ciŵe cisopa ca boma mu Ethiopia. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox ŵakagaluka cifukwa ca ivyo ŵakacita.<ref name="berndl2005">{{Cite book|last=Berndl|first=Klaus|url=https://archive.org/details/nationalgeograph0000unse_m8x7/page/333/mode/2up|title=National Geographic Visual History of the World|publisher=National Geographic Society|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7922-3695-5|pages=333|language=en}}</ref> ===Gondarine period (1632–1769)=== {{Main article|Gondarine period}} Mu 1632, Fumu Fasilides yikamazga boma la Katolika na kuwezgerapo cisopa ca Orthodox Tewahedo. Muwuso wa Fasilides ukapangiska kuti ufumu wake ukhazikike ndipo mu 1636 wakasamuskira msumba ukuru ku Gondar. Wakacimbizga ŵa Jesuiti mwa kuwombora malo agho ŵakaŵa nagho na kuŵatuma ku Fremona. Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwake, wakazenga nyumba yikuru ya ufumu, Fasil Ghebbi. Kweniso wakazenga vipata vinkhondi na viŵiri vya malibwe pa mlonga wa Blue Nile. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Agaw awo ŵakakhalanga ku Lasta ŵakalutilira kugaluka. Fasilides wakaluta ku Lasta na kuwukira msumba uwu, ndipo wakamalizga nkhondo iyi, nga umo wakalongosolera James Bruce wa ku Scotland. Pakati pa 1642 na 1647, Fasilides wakayezga kukolerana na Imam Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il wa ku Yemen kuti ŵadumbiskane za nthowa yakwendamo malonda mu tawuni ya Massawa iyo yikaŵa mu mawoko gha Ŵaotomu. Nkhongono na lumbiri lwa Gondar vikamara mu 1706 apo Iyasu I wakafwa cifukwa mafumu ghanandi ghakatemwanga umoyo wa usambazi kuluska vya ndyali. Iyasu II wakati wafwa mu 1755, Mfumukazi Mentewab wakiza na munung'una wake Ras Wolde Leul ku Gondar ndipo wakamuzgora Ras Bitwaded. Mu 1767, Ras Mikael Sehul, uyo wakaŵa muwusi wa chigaŵa cha Tigray, wakapoka charu cha Gondar na kukoma Iyoas I mu 1769, uyo wakaŵa themba pa nyengo iyo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gondar Period |url=https://ethiopianhistory.com/Gondar_Period/ |access-date=2022-06-05 |website=ethiopianhistory.com}}</ref> ===Zemene Mesafint (1769–1889)=== {{Main|Zemene Mesafint}} Pakati pa 1769 na 1855, charu cha Etiyopiya chikaŵa mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga ŵekha. Mafumu agha ghakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene, ndipo ŵakalongozgekanga na mafumu na ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa nga ni Ras Mikael Sehul, Ras Wolde Selassie wa ku Tigray, kweniso ŵa fuko la Yejju Oromo la Wara Sheh, nga ni Ras Gugsa wa ku Yejju. Pambere Zemene Mesafint wandambe kuwusa, Themba Iyoas I likamba kuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Oromo (Afaan Oromo). Charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa kutali chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, kweni mu 1855 maufumu gha Amhara gha kumpoto kwa Ethiopia (Gondar, Gojjam, na Shewa) ghakakolerana. Tewodros II wakambiska ndondomeko ya kukolerana, kuŵika vinthu pakatikati, na kuzenga boma. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵamazaza ŵa vigaŵa ivi ŵaleke kuŵa na mazaza, ŵambeso kwendeska vinthu mu ufumu wawo, kweniso kuti paŵe ŵasilikari. Ivi vikapangiska kuti boma la Ethiopia liŵe na mazaza pa charu chose. Kweni Tewodros wakasuzgika na viwawa vinandi mu ufumu wake. Ŵasilikari ŵa kumpoto kwa charu cha Oromo, ŵakugaluka ŵa mtundu wa Tigrayan, na ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Ottoman na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Eguputo awo ŵakizanga pafupi na Nyanja Yiswesi, ŵakapangiska kuti Tewodros II waleke nkhongono. Wakajikoma mu 1868 apo wakarwa nkhondo yaumaliro na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ku Abyssinia pa Nkhondo ya Magdala. Tewodros wakati wafwa, Tekle Giyorgis II wakapharazgika kuŵa themba kweni wakatimbika ku Zulawu (21 June 1871) na Adwa (11 July 1871). Mercha Kassai uyo wakathereska ŵasilikari ŵakamuphalira kuti ni Yohannes IV pa Janyuwale 21, 1872. Mu 1875 na 1876, ŵasilikari ŵa Ottoman/Egypt, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe na America, ŵakanjira mu Abyssinia kaŵiri kose kweni pakwamba ŵakathereskeka. Pa ungano wa ku Boru Meda mu 1878, Yohannes wakapeleka dango lakuti Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakwenera kuzomera Cikristu panji ŵakanizgikenge. Awo ŵakakana ŵakakomekanga nyengo yeneyiyo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka ndipo ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵakaleka minda na katundu wawo na kuchimbilira ku Harar, Bale, Arsi, Jimma, na ku Sudan wuwo. Kufuma mu 1885 m'paka 1889, Ethiopia wakajibatika ku Nkhondo ya Mahdist iyo yikaŵa na Britain, Turkey, na Egypt kwimikana na boma la Sudan. Mu 1887, Menelik II, fumu ya Shewa, yikawukira Harar pamanyuma pa kutonda nkhondo ya Chelenqo. Pa Malichi 10, 1889, Yohannes IV wakakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Khalifa Abdullah wa ku Sudan apo wakalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵake pa Nkhondo ya Gallabat.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of African historical biography|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofafri0000mark|last=Lipschutz|first= Mark|date=1986|publisher=University of California Press|others=Rasmussen, R. Kent|isbn=978-0-520-06611-3|edition=2nd ed., expanded and updated|location=Berkeley|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofafri0000mark/page/1 1]|oclc=14069361}}</ref>[[File:Téwodros_II_-_2.jpg|thumb|upright|Emperor [[Tewodros II]] ({{reign|1855|1868}}) brought an end of ''Zemene Mesafint'']] ===From Menelik II to Adwa (1889–1913)=== {{main article|First Italo-Ethiopian War|Menelik's Expansions}} [[File:Menelik campaign map 1 3.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|The conquests of Emperor [[Yohannes IV]], ''[[Negus]]'' [[Menelik II|Menelik]] and general [[Ras Alula]] in 1879–1889]] Charu cha Etiyopiya chikamba kuwusa mu nyengo ya Menelik II, uyo wakaŵa themba kufuma mu 1889 m'paka apo wakafwira mu 1913. Kufuma ku malo ghake mu chigaŵa cha Shewa, Menelik wakamba kupoka vigaŵa vya kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi, na kumanjiliro gha dazi uko kukakhalanga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Welayta, na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Wakacita nthena na wovwiri wa gulu la Shewan Oromo la Ras Gobana Dacche, ilo likapoka malo agho ghakaŵavya kufuma pa nkhondo ya Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, kweniso malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵavya muwuso wa Ethiopia. Pa nyengo iyo ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo, ŵakawukira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakakomeka. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Dizi na ŵa mu Ufumu wa Kaffa ŵakaŵachitira nkhaza zinandi. Menelik wakathereska ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo awo ŵakakhalanga kuwaro kwa ŵasilikari ŵake chifukwa cha kugaluka kwa mtundu uwu kwa vyaka vinandi. Mu muwuso uwu mukaŵa muwuso wa fuko la Yejju, uwo ukaŵa na Aligaz wa ku Yejju na mukuru wake Ali I wa ku Yejju. Ŵakazenga tawuni ya Debre Tabor mu chigaŵa cha Amhara, iyo yikazgoka msumba ukuru wa ufumu uwu. Menelik II wakaŵa mwana wa Haile Melekot, Negus wa ku Shewa, na Ejegayehu Lema Adeyamo, muteŵeti wa nyumba yacifumu. Wakababikira ku Angolala mu chigaŵa cha Oromo ndipo wakakhala vyaka 12 na Shewan Oromos. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Menelik, mulimo wa kuzenga misewu, magesi, na masambiro ukalutilira kukura, ndipo boma likambiska msonkho. Msumba wa Finfinne ukazengekaso ndipo ukachemeka Addis Ababa; mu 1889-1891 ukazgoka msumba ukuru wa Ufumu wa Ethiopia.[[File:Menelik II in coronation garb, Emperor of Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|Menelik II in Coronation Garms and Tunic after the battle of Adwa]] Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamususkanga, kweni Menelik II wakaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose. Mu Meyi 1889, wakalembeska phangano la wuchale na Italy. Phangano ili likayowoya kuti charu cha Italy chizomerezge kuti Ethiopia ndiyo yili na mazaza pa charu chose. Pakuwezgera, caru ca Italy cikeneranga kumupa vilwero Menelik na kumovwira pakuŵa fumu. Ŵaitaliya ŵakagwiliskira nchito nyengo iyo yikajumphapo kufuma apo phangano ili likalembekera m'paka apo boma la Italy likakolerana nalo. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikamara pa Nkhondo ya ku Adwa pa 1 Malichi 1896, apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakathereskeka na Ŵaetiyopiya. Mu 1896, pakalembeka phangano la Addis Ababa, ilo likasintha phangano la Wuchale. Ŵanthu pafupifupi hafu ŵakafwa na njara yikuru ya ku Ethiopia (1888-1892).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090211211756/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,966291-3,00.html "Famine Hunger stalks Ethiopia once again – and aid groups fear the worst"]. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. 21 December 1987.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/jhmas/XXI.2.95| title = The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888–1892: A New Assessment| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-medicine-and-allied-sciences_1966-04_21_2/page/95| journal = Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences| issue = 2| pages = 95–124| year = 1966| last1 = Pankhurst | first1 = R. | volume = 21| pmid = 5326887}}</ref> ===Haile Selassie I era (1916–1974)=== {{Main|Haile Selassie|Modernization under Haile Selassie}} [[File:Addis Ababa-8e00855u.jpg|thumb|Emperor [[Haile Selassie|Haile Selassie I]] at his study in [[National Palace, Addis Ababa|Jubilee Palace]] (1942)]] Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Themba Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari) ndilo likawusa. Haile Selassie I wakababika na ŵapapi awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vitatu vya ku Ethiopia. Wakafika pa mazaza pamanyuma pakuti Lij Iyasu wakathereskeka, ndipo wakambiska kampeni ya kusinthiska vinthu mu charu chose kufuma mu 1916 apo wakapika udindo wa Ras and Regent (Inderase) kwa Empress Regnant Zewditu, ndipo wakazgoka muwusi wa Ufumu wa Ethiopia. Zewditu wakati wafwa, pa Novembala 2, 1930, iyo wakaŵa themba. Mu 1931, Haile Selassie wakapeleka dango lakwamba ku Ethiopia ilo likayananga na dango la ku Japan ilo likaŵako mu 1890.<ref>Asnake Kefale, [[Tomasz Kamusella]] and Christopher Van der Beken. 2021. ''Eurasian Empires as Blueprints for Ethiopia: From Ethnolinguistic Nation-State to Multiethnic Federation''. London: Routledge, pp 23–34.</ref> ====Fascist Italy occupation (1936–1941)==== {{main article|Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Italian Ethiopia|Italian East Africa|Arbegnoch|Black Lions}} [[File:Abyssinian-soldiers-1936-142348340618.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian cavalry during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] in 1936]] Nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikananga wanangwa wa Ethiopia. Nkhondo iyi yikamba apo caru ca Italy cikapokelereka na ŵasilikari ŵa Fascist mu Okutobala 1935, ndipo pamanyuma pake caru ca Italy cikamba kuwusa caru ici (1936-1941), pamanyuma pakuti Italy yikatonda nkhondo iyi. Pa nyengo iyi, Haile Selassie wakaluta ku caru cinyake ndipo wakapempha wupu wa League of Nations mu 1935, ndipo wakayowoya nkhani iyo yikapangiska kuti waŵe wakumanyikwa pa caru cose. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni gha ku mizi, Italy wakakumananga na ŵanthu ŵakususka na kuŵawukira mu misumba. Haile Selassie wakacimbilira ku Fairfield House, ku Bath, England. Mussolini wakamanya kuphalira ufumu wa Italy kuti ni Etiyopiya, ndipo Themba la Italy, Vittorio Emanuele III, likamba kulamulira ufumu uwu. Mu 1937, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakakomeka ku Yekatit 12, ndipo pakati pa ŵanthu 1,400 na 30,000 ŵakakomeka. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakomeka cifukwa cakuti ŵakayezga kukoma Rodolfo Graziani, muwusi wa ku Italy ku East Africa. Ŵataliyana ŵakagwiliskira nchito vilwero vyakofya vya makemikali pakunjira mu Ethiopia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakaponya mabomba mu caru cose ca Ethiopia agho ghakaŵanga na mphepo yakucemeka mustard gas, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵaleke nkhongono. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakaponya pasi matani pafupifupi 300 gha gasi kweniso futi zinandi. Kugwiliskira nchito vilwero ivi kukaŵa kwananga kukuru comene. Ŵa Italiya ŵakaŵika ndalama zinandi pa vinthu vya ku Ethiopia apo ŵakalamuliranga charu ichi. Ŵakapanga msewu wakucemeka "msewu wa ufumu" pakati pa Addis Ababa na Massaua. Ŵakazengaso misewu ya njanji ya mtunda wa makilomita ghakujumpha 900, ŵakazenga madamu na magesi, kweniso ŵakazenga makampani ghanandi gha boma na ghapadera. Boma la Italy likawuskapo wuzga, uwo ukaŵako kwa vyaka vinandi. Pamanyuma pakuti Italy wanjira mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Britain pamoza na Arbegnoch ŵakathaska Ethiopia mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku East Africa mu 1941. Nkhondo ya ŵasilikari ŵa Italy yikalutilira mpaka mu 1943. Charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Ivi vikalondezgana na kuzomerezgeka kwa ufumu wa Britain kuti charu cha Ethiopia chiŵe na mazaza ghose, kwambura wanangwa wa Britain, apo phangano la Anglo-Ethiopia likasazgikira mu Disembala 1944, nangauli vigaŵa vinyake vikalutilira kulamulirika na Britain kwa vyaka vinandi. Kuyana na phangano la mtende ilo likaŵako mu 1947, Italy yikazomera mazaza gha Ethiopia. Pa Ogasiti 26, 1942, Haile Selassie wakafumiska dango ilo likawuskapo ŵazga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, mu Ethiopia mukaŵa ŵazga pakati pa 2 na 4 miliyoni.{{sfn|Campbell|Miers|Miller|2007|p=219}} ====Post-World War II (1941–1974)==== {{main article|1960 Ethiopian coup d'état attempt|Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea|Eritrean War of Independence}} Mu 1952, Haile Selassie wakapangiska kuti charu cha Eritrea chiŵe pamoza. Mu 1962, wakawuskapo boma ili na kunjizga charu cha Eritrea. {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 280 | image1 = General-Mengistu-Neway-1919-1961.jpg | image2 = Germame Neway.jpg | footer = General [[Mengistu Neway|Mengistu]] (left) and [[Germame Neway]] (right) were the two perpetrators of the failed [[1960 Ethiopian coup d'état attempt|1960 coup d'état attempt]] against Emperor Haile Selassie | footer_align = center }} Haile Selassie wakaŵa pafupi kuwuskika pa udindo mu 1960 mu chiŵembu cha gulu lakususkana ilo likalongozgekanga na ŵabali Germame na Mengistu Neway apo Selassie wakaŵa pa ulendo wa boma ku Brazil. Pa Ciŵiri mise, pa Disembala 13, gulu linyake likapusika ŵalaŵiliri ŵa Ufumu na ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa kuti ŵanjire mu Nyumba ya Ufumu. Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, nkhondo yikamba pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain (Kebur Zebegna) na ŵakugaluka awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Jenerale Tsege na Koloneli Warqenah. Apo nkhondo iyi yikambanga, Germame na ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵakakoma ŵanthu 15 awo ŵakaŵa mu nyumba ya Genetta Leul. Pa ŵanthu aŵa pakaŵa ŵalara ŵa boma nga ni Ras Abebe Aregai, Makonnen Habte-Wolde na Major General Mulugeta.<ref>Henze, ''Layers of Time'', p. 255</ref> [[File:Elizabeth II and Haile Selassie.jpg|thumb|left|London, England [[Emperor Haile Selassie I]] seated with [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1954 while on an official state visit]] Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, Mubali Tsege wakakomeka, Col. Warqenah wakajikoma, ndipo ŵabali Mengistu na Germame Neway ŵakaŵa pafupi na Mojo pa Disembala 24. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yakofya comene kwa Haile Selassie m'paka apo kukacitikira Nkhondo ya ku Ethiopia mu 1974. Mu 1963, Haile Selassie wakawovwira chomene pakukhazikiska wupu wakuchemeka Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Ŵanthu mu Ethiopia ŵakasuska Haile Selassie cifukwa ca suzgo la mafuta ilo likacitika pa caru cose mu 1973. Mtengo wapachanya wa mafuta ukapangiska kuti ŵadokotala na ŵasambizgi ŵambe kunjira mu sitiroko pa Febuluwale 18, 1974, ndipo ŵana ŵa sukulu na ŵantchito mu Addis Ababa ŵakamba kulongora kuti ŵakususka boma pa Febuluwale 20, 1974. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe njara ya vyakurya, kusuzgika pa nkhani ya muwuso, nkhondo za pa mphaka, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakondwa yayi na vinthu ivyo vikachitika. Boma la Aklilu Habte-Wold likathereskeka, ndipo boma liphya likapangika ndipo Endelkachew Makonnen wakaŵa nduna yikuru.<ref>[[#Valdes Vivo|Valdes Vivo]], p. 21.</ref> ===The Derg era (1974–1991)=== {{see also|Ethiopian Revolution|Derg|People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia|Ethiopian Civil War|Eritrean War of Independence|1983–85 famine in Ethiopia}} [[File:EPRP.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party]] (EPRP) clashed with the [[Derg]] during the [[Red Terror (Ethiopia)|Red Terror]]]] Ufumu wa Haile Selassie ukamara pa Seputembala 12, 1974, apo wakathereskeka na Derg, komiti ya ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi iyo yikalongozgekanga na Aman Andom. Pamanyuma pa kukomeka kwa ŵalara ŵa boma na ŵasilikari ŵakwambilira 60 kusazgapo Aman mu Novembala 1974, wupu uphya wa Provisional Military Administrative Council uwo sono ukulongozgeka na Jenerale Tafari Benti ukalekeska muwuso wa ufumu mu Malichi 1975 ndipo ukakhazikiska Ethiopia kuŵa boma la Marxist-Leninist ilo likaŵa chipani chakulongozga mu boma la nyengo yeneyiyo. Kuwuskapo muwuso wa ŵasilikari, kusazgirako luso lwa kuŵazga na kulemba, kuzengaso charu, na kunozga malo ghanandi, kusazgapo kusamukira ku malo ghanyake na kuzgoka mizi kufuma ku vigaŵa vya mapiri vya Ethiopia, ndivyo vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa chomene. Pamanyuma pa kulimbana kwa mukati uko kukapangiska kuti Tafari Benti uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakamukhozganga ŵakomeke mu Febuluwale 1977, kweniso Atnafu Abate uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri wa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi mu Novembala 1977, Mengistu Halie Mariam ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi. Pa nyengo iyi, boma la Derg likawuskapo ŵanthu ŵanandi, kukaŵa chilangalanga, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachimbira kwawo. Mu 1977, Somalia, iyo pakwamba yikapokeranga wovwiri na vilwero kufuma ku USSR, yikawukira Ethiopia mu Nkhondo ya Ogaden, na kupoka cigaŵa ca Ogaden. Ethiopia wakaweleramo mu caru ici pamanyuma pakuti wambira kupokera wovwiri ukuru wa ŵasilikari kufuma ku vyaru vya Soviet Union, Cuba, South Yemen, East Germany, na North Korea. Pa ŵasilikari aŵa pakaŵa ŵasilikari 15,000 ŵa ku Cuba.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mengistu Regime and Its Impact|url=https://memory.loc.gov/frd/etsave/et_01_08.html|website=Library of Congress}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Oberdorfer|first=Don|date=March 1978|title=The Superpowers and the Ogaden War|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/03/05/the-superpowers-and-the-ogaden-war/00f60ef2-01b4-4cd3-8c5f-e545df388def/}}</ref>[[File:Derg.gif|thumb|left|Mulongozgi wa Ethiopia Mengistu Haile Mariam (kumazere) pamoza na ŵa Derg ŵanyake Tafari Benti (pakati) na Atnafu Abate (kumalyero). Mengistu wakakomeka ku Ethiopia cifukwa ca milandu iyo wakacita mu nyengo ya boma lake, iyo yikakoma ŵanthu 500,000; wakakhala mu caru ca Zimbabwe mu 2018.<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|date=22 December 1999|title=US admits helping Mengistu escape|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/575405.stm|access-date=13 December 2017|website=BBC}}</ref>]] Mu 1976-78, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 500,000 ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca wofipa, kampeni ya nkhaza ya Derg kwimikana na magulu ghakupambanapambana gha ŵakususka, comenecomene Marxist-Leninist Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP). Chitenthe ciŵisi cikacitika cifukwa ca ivyo Derg wakacema kuti 'Citenthe Cituŵa,' cinthu ico cikaŵa na nkhaza zinandi, kukoma ŵanthu, na kukoma ŵanthu. Mu 1987, Derg wakajilekeska yekha na kukhazikiska People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) pamanyuma pa kukhazikiska Constitution ya 1987 ya Ethiopia yakuyana na Constitution ya 1977 ya Soviet Union na malango ghakusintha. Njara iyo yikacitika mu Ethiopia mu 1983-85 yikasuzga ŵanthu pafupifupi 8 miliyoni, ndipo ŵanthu 1 miliyoni ŵakafwa. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kugalukira boma, chomenechomene kumpoto kwa Eritrea na Tigray. Gulu la Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) likasazgikana na magulu ghanyake ghakwimikana na boma mu 1989, ndipo likapangiska gulu lakuchemeka Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, mu nyengo ya Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet Union yikamba kuwelera nyuma kufuma ku kuzenga cikomyunizimu ca pa caru cose kuya ku visambizgo vya glasnost na perestroika, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti wovwiri wa vyaru vya Socialist Bloc ku Ethiopia ukhale ucoko comene. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe masuzgo ghanyake gha vya cuma ndiposo kuti ŵasilikari ŵathere cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku mpoto ŵakamba kuwukira. Kuwa kwa Marxism-Leninism mu vyaru vinyake, ndiposo ku Eastern Europe mu nyengo ya kusintha kwa vinthu mu 1989, kukakolerana na umo Soviet Union yikamazgira wovwiri ku Ethiopia mu 1990. Kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵamuteŵetere, Mengistu wakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu caru na kumazga muwuso wa chipani cimoza. Kweni pakaŵa kuti pajumpha nyengo kuti boma lake lipone. Mu Meyi 1991, ŵasilikari ŵa EPRDF ŵakaluta ku Addis Ababa, ndipo Soviet Union yikatondeka kuponoska boma. Mengistu wakacimbira mu caru ici ndipo wakapika wanangwa wa kuwelera ku Zimbabwe, uko wachali kukhala. Mu 2006, Khoti Likuru la ku Addis Ababa, ku Ethiopia, likati lazenga mulandu uwu vyaka 12, likasanga Mengistu na mulandu wa kukoma ŵanthu. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa boma lake nawo ŵakasangika na mulandu wa nkhondo. Mengistu na ŵanji awo ŵakacimbira mu caru ŵakeruzgika na kweruzgika kwambura kuŵapo. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵanandi ŵa boma ŵakapika cilango ca nyifwa, ndipo ŵanji ŵanandi ŵakakhala mu jere vilimika 20 pambere ŵandagowokereke cilango ca umoyo wawo wose.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 2006|title=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor 2005|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61569.htm|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2006|title=Mengistu Haile Mariam|url=https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/mengistu-haile-mariam/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022232516/https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/mengistu-haile-mariam/|archive-date=22 October 2018|access-date=22 October 2018|website=Trial International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=January 2018|title=Eshetu Alemu|url=https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/eshetu-alemu/|website=Trial International|access-date=19 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022232452/https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/eshetu-alemu/|archive-date=22 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Alemu Aneme|first=Girmachew|date=2001|title=Apology and trials: The case of the Red Terror trials in Ethiopia|url=http://www.ahrlj.up.ac.za/aneme-g-a|website=African Human Rights Law Journal}}</ref> ===<span id="AnchorFederal">Federal Democratic Republic (1991–present)</span>=== {{main article|Ethiopia under federal republic}} {{See also|Eritrean independence referendum, 1993}} Mu Julayi 1991, EPRDF yikacemera ungano wa vyaru vyose kuti uŵike boma lakwendera lumoza la Ethiopia ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu 87. Mu Juni 1992, gulu la Oromo Liberation Front likafumamo mu boma; mu Malichi 1993, ŵanthu ŵa Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition nawo ŵakafumamo mu boma. Mu Epulero 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Ethiopia. Mu 1994, ŵakalemba dango liphya ilo likapangiska kuti paŵe nyumba za malango ziŵiri na makhoti.<ref name="Constitution2">{{cite web|title=Article 5|url=http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/et/et007en.pdf|access-date=2 July 2015|work=Ethiopian Constitution|publisher=WIPO}}</ref>[[File:Meles Zenawi - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|Former Prime Minister [[Meles Zenawi]] at the 2012 [[World Economic Forum]] annual meeting]] Chisankho chakwamba cha vyaru vinandi chikachitika mu Meyi 1995, ndipo chipani cha EPRDF ndicho chikapambana. Mulongozgi wa boma la nyengo yachilendo, Meles Zenawi, ndiyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru yakwamba ya boma la Ethiopia, ndipo Negasso Gidada ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa boma ili. Mu Dango la ku Ethiopia ilo likapelekeka mu 1995, EPRDF yikapokelera waka yayi layizgo la Soviet la Derg lakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakujumpha 80 ŵa mu charu ichi ŵaŵe na wanangwa wa kusama. Mu nthowa iyi, mtundu wa Ethiopia ukaŵa na boma ilo likaŵa na vigaŵa vya ŵanthu. Mu Meyi 1998, pa mphindano iyo yikaŵa pakati pa Eritrea na Ethiopia, pakawuka Nkhondo ya ku Eritrea na Ethiopia. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu Juni 2000. Ici cikakhwaska comene cuma ca Ethiopia, kweni cikakhozga muwuso wa boma. Chisankho chachitatu cha chipani cha Ethiopia pa 15 Meyi 2005 chikaŵa chakususkana chomene, ndipo magulu ghanandi ghakwimikana nagho ghakati pakaŵa upusikizgi. Nangauli wupu wa Carter Center ukazomerezga ivyo vikachitika pambere maungano ghandambe, kweni ukakondwa yayi na ivyo vikachitika pamanyuma pa maungano. Awo ŵakulaŵilira ivyo vikuchitika pa mavoti mu vyaru vya Europe ŵakayowoya kuti boma likovwira pa kampeni ya EPRDF, kweniso kuti pakaŵa vinthu vinyake ivyo vikachitika mwambura kwenelera pakuŵerenga mavoti na kufumiska mavoti. Maphwando a chipani chakususkana nagho ghakasanga vithuzithuzi vyakujumpha 200 mu Nyumba ya Malamulo, pakuyaniska na vithuzithuzi 12 pera mu 2000 apo pakaŵa mavoti. Nangauli ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa chipani cha CUD ŵakakana kukhala mu nyumba ya malango, kweni ŵakakakika cifukwa ca kususka vivulupi ivyo vikacitika. Wupu wa Amnesty International ukaŵawona kuti ni "ŵakayidi ŵa njuŵi" ndipo pamasinda ŵakaŵafumiska. Wupu wakukolerana wa vyaru vyakususka boma na ŵanthu ŵanyake ukapangika mu 2009 kuti ufumiske boma la EPRDF mu mavoti gha 2010. Chipani cha Meles, icho chili na mazaza kwambira mu 1991, chikapharazga manifesto yake ya mapeji 65 mu Addis Ababa pa 10 Okutobala 2009. Chipani chakususka chikapokera mavoti ghanandi mu Addis Ababa, kweni EPRDF yikayimiska kupenda mavoti kwa mazuŵa ghanandi. Pamanyuma pake, likapoka mazaza pa maungano agha, uku likuyuzgika na milandu ya upusikizgi. Mu 2011, mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa mukaŵa chilangalanga chikuru chomene mu vyaka 60. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora yayi chifukwa cha chilangalanga m'paka mu 2012, ndipo boma la Japan likagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na umoyo uwemi.<ref name="Twdisyihoa">{{cite web|title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership |access-date=2 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011}}</ref>[[File:Deputy Secretary of Defense Ashton B. Carter, left, is greeted by Ethiopian Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn at his office in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on July 24, 2013 130724-M-EV637-339.jpg|thumb|Former Prime Minister of Ethiopia [[Hailemariam Desalegn]] meeting with former US Deputy Secretary of Defense [[Ash Carter]] in Addis Ababa.]] Meles wakafwa pa 20 August 2012 ku Brussels, uko wakalerekanga nthenda yambura kumanyikwa. Mubali Hailemariam Desalegn, uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa nduna yikuru, wakasankhika kuŵa nduna yikuru m'paka pa chisankho cha mu 2015, ndipo wakalutilira kuŵa nduna yikuru. Pa Ogasiti 5, 2016, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kususka ivyo boma likachita. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaleke kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kufwatura ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali, kugaŵira makora usambazi uwo ukasangika chifukwa cha kukura kwa chuma kwa vyaka 10, kweniso kuti chigaŵa cha Wolqayt chiwelere ku chigaŵa cha Amhara. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyakofya chomene pa ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga mu vigaŵa vya ku Africa kufuma apo boma la Ethiopia likakoma ŵanthu 75 pa nyengo ya viphikiro mu chigaŵa cha Oromia mu Novembala na Disembala 2015. Pa 6 Okutobala, 2016, boma la Ethiopia likapharazga kuti kuli suzgo. Mu Ogasiti 2017, boma likawuskapo dango la vyakofya. Pa 16 February, 2018, boma la Ethiopia likapharazga nyengo ya suzgo ya myezi sikisi pa charu chose pamanyuma pa kufumiska nduna yikuru Hailemariam Desalegn. Hailemariam ni fumu yakwamba mu mbiri ya Ethiopia ya mazuŵa ghano kufumapo; ŵalongozgi ŵakwambilira ŵali kufwa panji kuwuskika. Iyo wakati wakukhumba kuti vinthu visinthe. ===Abiy Ahmed and the Prosperity Party (2018–present)=== {{Anchor|Government reforms (2018–present)}} {{see also|Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present){{!}}Ethiopian civil conflict|Tigray War}} [[File:Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo 2019.jpg|thumb|Prime Minister [[Abiy Ahmed]] receiving the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in Oslo in 2019]] Nduna yikuru yiphya yikaŵa Abiy Ahmed, uyo wakaluta ku Eritrea mu 2018, ndipo wakamalizga nkhondo pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi. Chifukwa cha kuyezgayezga kwake kumazga nkhondo ya vyaka 20 pakati pa Ethiopia na Eritrea, Abiy Ahmed wakapokera chawanangwa cha Nobel cha mtende mu 2019. Pamanyuma pa kuwusa mu Epulero 2018, Abiy, wa vyaka 46, wakafwatura ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali, wakalayizga kuti mu 2019 paŵenge mavoti ghakwenelera ndipo wakapharazga vyakusintha pa vyachuma. Pa 6 June 2019, mawebusayiti ghose agho ghakaŵa kuti ghakaŵa pasi pa censure ghakazgoreka, ndipo ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali ŵakujumpha 13,000 ŵakafwatulika.<ref>{{cite news |title=Abiy's Ethiopia pardons 13,000 accused of treason or terrorism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-politics-idUSKCN1PG1IZ |work=Reuters |date=22 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ooni.torproject.org/post/ethiopia-unblocking/|title=OONI – Ethiopia: Verifying the unblocking of websites|website=ooni.torproject.org|date=29 June 2018|access-date=14 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://newbusinessethiopia.com/ethiopia-prison-administration-fires-103-individuals/|title=Ethiopia prison administration fires 103 individuals – New Business Ethiopia|language=en-US|access-date=14 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113175528/https://newbusinessethiopia.com/ethiopia-prison-administration-fires-103-individuals/|archive-date=13 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cyberethiopia.com/2013/?p=2012|title=Reflections on the Rule of Law and Ethiopia's Transition to Democratic Rule (Part I)|date=12 January 2019|website=Cyber Ethiopia|language=en-US|access-date=14 January 2019}}</ref> Nkhondo ya mitundu yikasazgikira cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali. Pakaŵa nkhondo pakati pa mtundu wa Oromo, uwo ni fuko likuru chomene mu charu ichi, na fuko la Somalia. Kuyambira mu 2019, mu nkhondo ya Metekel, nkhondo mu chigawo cha Metekel cha chigawo cha Benishangul-Gumuz ku Ethiopia zikunenedwa kuti zikuphatikizapo zigawenga kuchokera ku anthu a Gumuz motsutsana ndi Amhara ndi Agaws. Mu Malichi 2020, mulongozgi wa gulu la Amhara lakuchemeka Fano, Solomon Atanaw, wakayowoya kuti ŵafumengepo yayi vilwero m'paka apo chigaŵa cha Metekel na vigaŵa vya Welkait na Raya mu chigaŵa cha Tigray viwelerenge ku chigaŵa cha Amhara. Mu mwezi wa Seputembala 2018, ŵanthu 23 ŵakakomeka pa nkhaza za ŵanthu ŵachoko waka mu chigaŵa cha Oromia kufupi na Addis Ababa, msumba ukuru wa Ethiopia. Ŵanthu 35 ŵakakomeka pamanyuma mu Addis Ababa na mu chigaŵa chakuzingilizga cha Oromia pa nyengo ya viwawa ivyo ŵanandi ŵakawonanga kuti boma likuchitapo kanthu yayi pa nkhaza izi. Ŵanyake ŵakakomeka na ŵapolisi..<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/24/world/africa/ethiopia-ethnic-violence-arrests.html|title=Thousands Are Arrested in Ethiopia After Ethnic Violence|newspaper=The New York Times|date=24 September 2018|access-date=27 April 2019|last1=Ahmed|first1=Hadra|last2=Goldstein|first2=Joseph}}</ref> [[File:Ethiopia overall conflcit map 2020s.png|left|thumb|Map illustrating the [[Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)|Ethiopian civil conflict]] as of 2022; included are [[2022 al-Shabaab invasion of Ethiopia|al-Shabaab attacks]], the [[Tigray War]] zone, and the redeployment of federal troops from the southeast to the north. ]] Pa 22 June 2019, magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵa chigaŵa ichi ŵakayezga kutimbanizga boma la chigaŵa ichi, ndipo mu nyengo iyi, pulezidenti wa chigaŵa cha Amhara, Ambachew Mekonnen, wakakomeka. Mulinda wa boma uyo wakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha ŵasilikari ŵakususka boma wakakoma Jenerale Se'are Mekonnen   Mukuru wa ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia National Defense Force    kweniso movwiri wake, Major General Gizae Aberra. Ofesi ya Prime Minister yikaphalira Brigadier General Asaminew Tsige, mulongozgi wa mawupu ghakuvikilira chigaŵa cha Amhara, kuti ndiyo wakalongozganga chiŵembu ichi, ndipo Tsige wakakomeka na ŵapolisi kufupi na Bahir Dar pa 24 June. Gulu la Fano ni gulu la ŵawukirano la Amhara mu Ethiopia, ilo likuwoneka nga ni gulu lakususka panji gulu la ŵasilikari. Mgwirizano pakati pa Fano na Qeerroo, mtundu wawo wa Oromo, ukagwira ntchito yayikulu pakubweretsa kusintha kwa ndale ndi kayendetsedwe kogwirizana ndi utsogoleri wa Abiy Ahmed. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Tigray, Fano wakawovwira ŵasilikari ŵa boma na ŵa chigaŵa kukarwa na ŵakugaluka awo ŵakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Tigray People's Liberation Front panji TPLF. Mabungwe a Fano akuimbidwa mlandu wogwira nawo ntchito yakupha anthu, kuphatikiza 58 ya anthu a Qemant ku Metemma pa 10-11 Januware 2019, komanso zochita zankhondo ku Humera mu Novembala 2020.<ref>{{cite news | last1= Akinwotu | first1= Emmanuel | title= 'I saw people dying on the road': Tigray's traumatised war refugees | date= 2 December 2020 |newspaper= [[The Guardian]] | url= https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/02/tigray-war-refugees-ethiopia-sudan |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20201202185821/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/02/tigray-war-refugees-ethiopia-sudan |archive-date= 2 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Ethiopian Civil War (2020-present).svg|thumb|Territorial control as of March 2023:<br />{{resize|85%|(For a more detailed, up-to-date, interactive map, see [[Template:Ethiopian wars and insurgencies detailed map|here]])}}.<br /> '''Pro-federal government troops'''{{leftlegend|#fcadad|[[Government of Ethiopia|Ethiopian federal government]] and regional allies}} '''Anti-federal government rebels''' {{leftlegend|#ffff44|[[Oromo Liberation Army]]}}]] Chiwonetsero cha chionetsero chinabuka ku Ethiopia pambuyo pa kuphedwa kwa woimba wa Oromo Hachalu Hundessa pa 29 June 2020, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti anthu osachepera 239 aphedwe. Boma la feduro, pasi pa chipani cha Prosperity Party, likapempha kuti National Election Board ya Ethiopia yisinthe mavoti gha 2020 chifukwa cha umoyo na chivikiliro chifukwa cha COVID-19. Pa nyengo iyi pakaŵavya deti ilo likayowoyekerathu kuti mavoti ghaŵengepo, kweni boma likati para katemera wa COVID-19 wafika, mavoti ghaŵengepo. Chipani cha Tigrayan, cha TPLF, chikakanira kuti mavoti ghalekeske ndipo, apo pempho lawo ku boma la federal kuti mavoti ghachitike likakanika, TPLF yikalutizga mavoti pa 9 September 2020. Ŵakacitanga vinthu pamoza na magulu ghakwimikana na boma mu vigaŵa vyawo ndipo ŵakaŵapo na ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2.7 miliyoni ŵakavota. Ubwezi pakati pa boma la federal na boma la chigaŵa cha Tigray ukasuzga chomene pamanyuma pa chisankho, ndipo pa 4 November 2020, Abiy wakayamba nkhondo ya nkhondo mu chigaŵa cha Tigray pakuzgora ku vilwero vya ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhalanga mwenemumo, ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachimbire ku Sudan na kwamba nkhondo ya Tigray. Pa Novembala 9, 2020, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 600 ŵakakomeka mu tawuni ya Mai Kadra. Mu Epulero 2021, Eritrea yikati ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakurwa nkhondo mu Ethiopia. Kufika mu Malichi 2022, ŵanthu 500,000 ŵakafwa chifukwa cha vivulupi na njara mu Nkhondo ya Tigray, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakuti chiŵelengero ichi chikukwana 700,000-800,000 paumaliro wa 2022. Pamanyuma pa kufumiska malango ghanandi gha mtende na kuwoneseska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora, Ethiopia na ŵasilikari ŵa Tigrayan ŵakazomerezga kuti nkhondo yimare pa Novembala 2, 2022; kweni pakuti Eritrea yikaŵa chigaŵa cha phangano ili yayi, malo ghawo ghakaŵa ghambura kupulikikwa.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Winning |first1=Alexander |last2=Cocks |first2=Tim |date=2022-11-02 |title=Parties in Ethiopia conflict agree to cease hostilities |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/african-union-parties-ethiopia-conflict-have-agreed-cease-hostilities-2022-11-02/ |access-date=}}</ref> ==Boma na ndale== {{Main|Politics of Ethiopia|Law of Ethiopia|Judiciary of Ethiopia}}<!-- Please add new information to relevant articles of the series, not here --> {{see also|Rulers and Heads of State of Ethiopia}} [[File:Ethiopian Parliament.jpg|thumb|[[House of People's Representatives]] is the lower house of the Ethiopian [[Federal Parliamentary Assembly]]]] Charu cha Ethiopia chili na boma laparamende, ndipo nduna yikuru ndiyo ni mutu wa boma. Boma ndilo lili na mazaza ghakulongozga ndipo boma na nyumba ziŵiri za boma ndizo zili na mazaza ghakulongozga. Nyumba ya Federation ni nyumba yakudumura ya wupu wakulongozga wa vyalo viŵiri na vithuzithuzi 108, ndipo nyumba yakudumura ni Nyumba ya Wimiliri ya Ŵanthu (HoPR) na vithuzi 547. Nyumba ya Federation yikusankhika na maboma gha vigaŵa, apo ŵimiliri ŵa HoPR ŵakusankhika mwakudunjika. Makhoti gha ku Ethiopia ghali na makhoti ghaŵiri: makhoti gha boma na gha boma. Dango la FDRE likapeleka mazaza ku Khoti Likuru Chomene ilo likwenera kuwuskapo na kuwona ivyo makhoti ghanyake gha boma ghachita. Kweniso, Khoti Likuru Chomene lingeruzga milandu mu vigaŵa vinkhondi mu vigaŵa vyose vya boma panji "mu vigaŵa ivyo vili pasi pake" usange likuwona kuti "ntchakukhumbikwa kuti urunji ufiskike makora".<ref>{{Cite book |title=See Federal High Court Establishment Proclamation No.322/2003. Federal High Courts have been placed in the following states: Afar, Benshngul/Gumuz, Gambela, Somali, and SNNPR.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Federal Courts Proclamation 25/1996,as amended by Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 138/1998, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 254/2001, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 321/2003, and Federal Courts Proclamation (Reamendment) Proclamation 454/2005 (Federal Courts Proclamation), Article 24(3).}}</ref> Phangano la Wupu Wakulongozga likapeleka fundo zitatu: malango, vyaru na malo agho khoti likweruzgirenge. Kuyana na ndime 78 mu Dango la 1994, wupu wa vyeruzgo ngwakujiyimira wekha pa nkhani ya malango. Kuti ivi vicitike, ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakwimika mulaŵiliri wa khoti lakulongozga. Para munthu wasankhika, wupu wakulongozga ulije mazaza ghakuwuskirapo. Ŵeruzgi ŵanyake ŵakusoleka na Federal Judicial Administration Council (FJAC) mwakuyana na fundo zakupulikikwa makora ndiposo ulongozgi wa nduna yikuru. Mu vigaŵa vyose, ŵeruzgi ŵangafumiskika yayi pa udindo wawo pekha usange ŵafumapo, ŵaswa malango gha ndyali, ŵakukolerana yayi, panji ŵakutondeka kuchita makora milimo yawo chifukwa cha ulwari. Ŵalara ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakuzomerezga kuti ŵeruzgi ŵa boma ŵafumiskike mu maofesi ghawo. Mu 2015, lipoti la Freedom House likati fundo iyi njautesi. Mwakuyana na Democracy Index iyo yikalembeka na Economist Intelligence Unit ku United Kingdom kuumaliro wa 2010, Ethiopia ni "maufumu ghakutemwera ŵanthu", ndipo ni charu cha 118 pa vyaru 167. Charu cha Ethiopia chikakhira pa malo 13 kufuma mu 2008, ndipo lipoti la mu 2010 likati boma likakanizga ŵanthu awo ŵakususka boma, ŵapharazgi, na wupu wa ŵanthu wose pambere ŵandalute ku mavoti mu 2010.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180606141853/http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf The Economist Intelligence Unit's Index of Democracy 2010]. (PDF). p.17. Retrieved on 3 March 2012.</ref> ===Kwendeska boma=== {{Main|Government of Ethiopia}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = Abiy Ahmed with LI Yong 2018 (cropped).jpeg | width1 = 125 | caption1 = [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] [[Abiy Ahmed]] | image2 = Sahle-Work Zewde in 2016.jpg | width2 = 125 | caption2 = [[President of Ethiopia|President]] [[Sahle-Work Zewde]] }} Mu nyengo ya boma la ku Ethiopia, ndyali za mu charu ichi zikasintha chomene. Mazuŵa ghano, chuma chake chikwendera fundo zakupambanapambana. Mu Juni 1994, pakaŵa maungano ghakwamba gha vyaru 547. Ungano uwu ukazomera dango la fuko la Ethiopia mu Disembala 1994. Mu Meyi na Juni 1995, ku Ethiopia kukachitika maungano gha boma na gha chigaŵa. Maphwando ambiri a chipani chotsutsa anasankha kulekerera chisankhochi. Chipani cha Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) chikatonda chomene. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru na ŵaboma ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵa chipani cha visopa vinyake mphanyi ŵakanjilirapo. Boma lakwamba la Ethiopia ilo likalongozgeka na dango liphya likakhazikiskika mu Ogasiti 1995. Boma la Prime Minister Meles Zenawi ilo likalongozgekanga na EPRDF likakhozga fundo ya federalism ya mafuko, ndipo likapeleka mazaza ghakuru ku maboma gha vigaŵa. Mazuŵa ghano, mu Ethiopia muli vigaŵa 11 ivyo vikujiyimira vyekha. Mu nyengo ya maboma agho ghakaŵako kale, wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo wanangwa wa kupharazga, ukaŵa na mphaka. Ŵanthu ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wa kuŵazga nkhani zinyake padera pa nyuzipepara za boma. Kwambira waka pa nyengo ya maungano gha mu 2005, ŵapharazgi 18 awo ŵakalemba nkhani zakususka boma ŵakakakika chifukwa cha kusopa vikozgo. Boma likagwiliskiranga ntchito malango ghakukhwaskana na kusesa kuti liwofye ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga ivyo likakhumbanga. Boma la Meles likasankhika mu 2000 mu mavoti ghakwamba gha vyaru vinandi; kweni, mavoti agha ghakasuskika comene na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa vyaru na vyaru vinyake. Gulu la EPRDF nalo likathereska pa chisankho cha 2005 ndipo Meles wakawelera ku mazaza. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomera kuti paŵe mavoti, kweni ŵakususka na awo ŵakulaŵilira vinthu mu vyaru vya ku Europe na vyaru vinyake ŵakayowoya kuti mavoti agha ghakaŵa ghambura kukolerana na malango gha pa caru cose ghakukhwaskana na mavoti ghakwenelera ndiposo ghakufwatuka. Wapolisi wa ku Ethiopia wapha ŵanthu ŵakukwana 193, comenecomene mu msumba wa Addis Ababa, mu nkhaza izo zikacitika pamanyuma pa mavoti gha mu Meyi 2005.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ethiopian probe team criticises judge over report. |url=http://www.kilil5.com/node/4419 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120907072116/http://www.kilil5.com/node/4419 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 September 2012 |agency=Reuters |date=11 September 2006 |access-date=21 July 2007}}</ref>[[File:Secretary Kerry and Ethiopian Foreign Minister Adhanom Hold a News Conference in Addis Ababa (3).jpg|thumb|Former Foreign Minister of Ethiopia [[Tedros Adhanom]] with former U.S. Secretary of State [[John Kerry]]]] Boma likambaso kuyuzga ŵanthu mu vigaŵa; mu chigaŵa cha Oromia, boma likagwiliskira ntchito nthambuzgo, kukaka ŵanthu na nthowa zinyake kuti liŵaleke kuyowoyapo na ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga chisankho, chomenechomene awo ŵakakolerananga na chipani cha Oromo National Congress (ONC). Boma likulimbana na ŵakugaluka mu chigaŵa cha Ogaden kwamba mu 2007. Chipani chikuru chomene mu 2005 chikaŵa cha Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD). Pamanyuma pa kugaŵikana kwa mukati, ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa chipani cha CUD ŵakambiska chipani chiphya cha Unity for Democracy and Justice chakulongozgeka na Mweruzgi Birtukan Mideksa. Birtukan Mideksa, wa mtundu wa Oromo, ni mwanakazi wakwamba kulongozga chipani mu Ethiopia. Mu chaka cha 2008, maboma ghankhondi ghakwimikana nagho ghakaŵa United for Democracy and Justice (Unity for Democracy and Justice) yakulongozgeka na Judge Birtukan Mideksa, United Ethiopian Democratic Forces (United Ethiopian Democratic Forces) yakulongozgeka na Beyene Petros, Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement (Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement) yakulongozgeka na Bulcha Demeksa, Oromo People's Congress (Oromo People's Congress) yakulongozgeka na Merera Gudina, na United Ethiopian Democratic Party (Medhin Party) yakulongozgeka na Lidetu Ayalew. Pambuyo pa chisankho cha 2015, Ethiopia yataya MP yake yokhayo yotsutsa; pofika 2015 kunalibe aphungu otsutsa mu nyumba yamalamulo ya Ethiopia.<ref name = "BBC Obama trip">{{Cite news | title = Obama in Ethiopia for key talks with regional leaders | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-33671340 | website = BBC News | date = 27 July 2015 | access-date = 27 July 2015}}</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{main article|Foreign relations of Ethiopia}} [[File:The state visit of Reuven Rivlin to Ethiopia, May 2018 (4382).jpg|thumb|Ethiopian [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] [[Abiy Ahmed]] with Israeli [[President of Israel|President]] [[Reuven Rivlin]] in May 2018]] Kwambira ku Punt, Etiyopiya ni caru ico cikaguliskanga comene vinthu nga ni golide, mino gha zovu, vinyama vyakupambanapambana, na vyakununkhira. Ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakaghanaghana kuti vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pakati pa Ethiopia na ufumu wa Themba Tewodros II. Kufuma nyengo yira, vyaru ivi vikawonekanga kuti ni vyambura ntchito m'paka apo Suez Canal yikajulikira cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya Mahdist.<ref>Although Bahru Zewde, ''A History of Modern Ethiopia'', second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), believes that the Suez Canal brought strategic value to the Red Sea region (p. 73), Sven Rubenson, ''The Survival of Ethiopian Independence'' (Hollywood: Tsehai,1991) argues that only with the Mahdi War did the United Kingdom interest themselves once again in Ethiopia (pp. 283ff).</ref> [[File:Sergio Mattarella and Abiy Ahmed Ali (2).jpg|thumb|Ethiopian [[Abiy Ahmed|Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed]] with the President of Italy [[Sergio Mattarella]]]] Mazuŵa ghano, Ethiopia wali na ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru nga ni China, Israel, Mexico, Turkey, na India. Ubwezi na Sudan na Egypt uli pa mphindano chifukwa cha ntchito ya Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam iyo yikakwera mu 2020. Nangauli vyaru vinkhondi na cimoza (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, na Tanzania) vikasaina Nile Basin Initiative mu 2010, kweni Eguputo na Sudan ŵakakana phangano la kugaŵikana maji cifukwa ca kuchepeskeka kwa maji mu Nile Basin. Mu 2020, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed wakachenjezga kuti "Palije nkhongono izo zingalekeska Ethiopia kuzenga damu. Usange tingakhumbikwira kuluta ku nkhondo, tinganozga ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi". Ethiopia ni munyake wa Global War on Terrorism and African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Ku United States. Purezidenti wakale Barack Obama ndiye anali woyamba kugwira ntchito kukachezera Ethiopia mu Julayi 2015, pomwe amalankhula ku African Union, adawunikira kulimbana ndi uchigawenga wachisilamu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakuluta ku vyaru vya ku Europe, comenecomene ku Italy, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom, Canada, Sweden, na Australia. Ku Ethiopia kuli Ŵayuda pafupifupi 155,300 awo ŵali kusamira ku Israel. Ŵakucemeka kuti Beta Israel. Charu cha Ethiopia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili mu Gulu la 24 (G-24), gulu la vyaru vyambura kukolerana na G77. Mu 1963, wupu wa African Unity (OAU) uwo pamasinda ukachemeka kuti African Union, ukapangika mu Addis Ababa. Kweniso ni munthazi wa wupu wa Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, African Standby Force na mawupu ghanandi gha pa caru cose agho ghakuwona vya Africa. Ethiopia njimoza mwa vyaru vya mu Africa ndipo yikaŵa yumoza wa ŵimiliri ŵa wupu wa League of Nations (uno ni United Nations) kwamba waka mu 1923. Ntchito za UN mu Ethiopia ni za wovwiri wa ŵanthu na vya kuzenga. Mwaciyelezgero, gulu la UNCT ku Ethiopia lili na ŵimiliri ŵa mawupu 28 gha UN. Maofesi ghanyake gha wupu uwu ghakukolerana na wupu wa United Nations Economic Commission for Africa na African Union. Wupu wa UN ukuŵika mtima pa vinthu vyose vya mu Ethiopia, ukupeleka vilato viŵiri: Vilato vya Kukula kwa Vinthu Vyakukhalilira (SDGs) na vya Kukula kwa Charu. Ivi vikusazgapo kulimbana na ukavu, kukura kwa cuma, kusintha kwa nyengo, masambiro na wovwiri wa munkhwala, kusazgirako nchito na kuvikilira cilengiwa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The United Nations in Ethiopia {{!}} United Nations in Ethiopia|url=https://ethiopia.un.org/en/about/about-the-un|access-date=3 January 2022|website=ethiopia.un.org|language=en}}</ref> === Ŵankhondo === {{main|Military history of Ethiopia|Ethiopian National Defense Force}} [[File:2014 01 22 Ethiopia Welcome Ceremony 001.jpg (12086805304).jpg|thumb|Ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia National Defense Force pa chiphikiro ku Baidoa, Somalia pakukumbuka umo Ethiopia wali kunjilira mu gulu la African Union pa 22 January 2014]] Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakamba kuwusa mu nyengo yakale chomene. Cifukwa cakuti Ethiopia wali pakati pa vyaru vya ku Middle East na Africa, kwa nyengo yitali wakhala pakati pa vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu 1579, Ufumu wa Ottoman ukayezga kusazgikira kufuma ku malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja ku Massawa. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Etiyopiya ŵakathereska Ŵaeguputo mu 1876 ku Gura. Nkhondo ya ku Adwa ndiyo yikumanyikwa comene cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakathereska ŵalwani ŵawo. Chikawovwira kuti Etiyopiya walutilire kuŵa charu chakujiyimira. Nkhondo iyi yikacitika pa 1 Malichi 1896 pafupi na tawuni ya Adwa. Ŵasilikari ŵa Etiyopiya ŵakamba kuzgoka ŵaphya mu nyengo ya Tafari Mekonnen, uyo pamasinda wakaŵa Themba Haile Selassie I. Mu 1917, wakapanga gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakuvikilira ŵanthu ŵa Ufumu, la Kebur Zabagna. Gulu la ŵasilikari aŵa likasambizgika pa sukulu ya ŵasilikari ya ku France ku Saint-Cyr. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ilo likalongozgekanga na Kagnew Battalion, likachitako nkhondo ya ku Korea kwambira mu 1950. Mabuku ghanyake ghakayowoya kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakakhalako vyaka 15, kweni ghanyake ghakuti ŵakafumapo mu 1975, nga ni gulu la UN. Gulu ili likaŵa na ŵasilikari 6,037 pa nyengo ya nkhondo.<ref name="autob">{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201204260161.html |title=Ethiopia: Association to Commemorate 61st of Korean War |work=AllAfrica |date=25 April 2012 |agency=Ethiopian News Agency |access-date=5 December 2022 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>[[File:Ethiopian Soldiers Korean War.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian [[Kebur Zabagna]] soldiers seen at [[Korean War|Korean war]] siding with [[South Korea]] against [[Korean War|North Korean and communist]] backed forces in 1953]] Wupu wakuvikilira chalo cha Ethiopia (Ethiopian National Defence Force) ni wupu wakuvikilira chalo cha Ethiopia. Wupu wa ENDF uli na magulu ghaŵiri: Wupu wa Ethiopian Ground Forces na wa Ethiopian Air Force. Kufuma waka mu 1996, charu cha Ethiopia icho chilije nyanja, chilije ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo, kweni mu 2018 Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed wakayowoya pa TV ya boma kuti: "Tili kuzenga ŵasilikari ŵankhongono chomene ŵa pasi na ŵa mu mlengalenga mu Africa... tikwenera kuzenga ŵasilikari ŵithu ŵa nkhondo munthazi".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44369382|title=Why landlocked Ethiopia wants to launch a navy|last=Olewe|first=Dickens|date=14 June 2018|access-date=7 July 2019|work=BBC News}}</ref> ===Malango=== {{main article|Law enforcement in Ethiopia|Crime in Ethiopia}} {{See also|Police brutality in Ethiopia}} Ndondomeko ya chalo yikuphalira ŵapolisi ŵa boma la Ethiopia (EFP). Wupu uwu ndiwo ukuvikilira umoyo wa ŵanthu pa charu chose. Wapolisi wa boma wakapangika mu chaka cha 1995, ndipo wapolisi wa boma wakwendeskeka na kazembe wa boma kufuma mu Okutobala 2000; kazembe wa boma wakupeleka lipoti ku Unduna wa vya Mtende, kweni wakasinthika pamanyuma pa kusintha kwa ndyali mu chaka cha 2018, ndipo wakuluta ku nyumba ya malango. Mu vyaka vyakumasinda, ŵapolisi ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakapharazganga mwakudunjika. Kweniso, ŵapolisi ŵa boma ŵali na wanangwa wa kuphalira ŵapolisi ŵa vigaŵa kuti ŵaŵawovwire. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakujiyimira pawekha ŵakuvikilira ŵanthu. Mazuŵa ghano, kupeleka vimbundi nchinthu cakuzirwa comene, comenecomene ŵapolisi ŵa msewu. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵapolisi ŵacitaso nkhaza zinandi. Pa Ogasiti 26, 2019, vidiyo ya mwanalume uyo wali na nkhonyo uyo ŵapolisi ŵaŵiri ŵakamutimba apo mwanakazi munyake mulara wakanjiranga mu msumba wa Addis Ababa, yikathandazgika chomene. Ŵapolisi ŵakuti para ŵapolisi ŵacita vinthu viheni, ndikuti ŵakulondezga yayi fundo ya mu ndime 52 ya malango gha boma, iyo yikuti ŵapolisi awo ŵacita viheni ŵafumiskike pa nchito. Malango gha African Union gha Luanda na Robben Island panji chikalata cha United Nations cha Justice for Victims of Abuse of Power and their Basic Principles on the Use of Force & Firearms, chikukhumba kuti komiti ya Ethiopian Government Disciplinary Committee yikomane na nkhaza za ŵapolisi pa munthu yumoza na wose.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Woubshet|first=Ayele|date=14 August 2020|title=Our 'protectors' in blue: Police brutality and misconduct in Ethiopia|url=https://www.ethiopia-insight.com/2020/08/14/our-protectors-in-blue-police-brutality-and-misconduct-in-ethiopia/|access-date=6 January 2022|website=Ethiopia Insight|language=en-US}}</ref> === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{Main|Human rights in Ethiopia}} {{Further|War crimes in the Tigray War}} Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu chifukwa cha nkhaza izo zikuchitika pakati pa mafuko. Mu 2016, ŵanthu 100 ŵakakomeka na boma mu chigaŵa cha Oromia na Amhara. Wupu wa United Nations (UN) wapempha kuti ŵalaŵiliri ŵa wupu uwu ŵafike ku Ethiopia kuti ŵamanye ivyo vyachitika, kweni boma la Ethiopia ilo likulongozgeka na EPRDF likakana. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakususka kuti ŵanthu ŵakuwukira malo ghawo na kuŵavya wanangwa wakusankha awo ŵakuŵawimira. Gulu la EPRDF ilo likulongozgeka na TPLF ndilo likapokera 100% pa mavoti agho ghakaŵa na upusikizgi. Merera Gudina, mulongozgi wa bungwe la Oromo People's Congress, wakati caru ca East Africa cili pa "mphepete mwa nthowa". Iyo wakasazgirapo kuti: "Ŵanthu ŵakukhumba wanangwa wawo". "Ŵanthu ŵakukhuta na ivyo boma likucita kwa vilimika 25. Ŵakulimbana na vinthu nga ni kupoka malo, kuwezgera nduzga, mavoti ghakubisika, kukwera kwa mtengo wa vinthu, na vinyake vinandi. "Usange boma likulutilira kukanizga ŵanthu apo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakukhumba wanangwa wawo, (nkhondo ya pawenenawene) yingacitika".<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-landrights-violence-idUSKCN10M12X|title=Ethiopia's battle for land reforms could lead to civil war: opposition leader|date=11 August 2016|access-date=8 May 2017|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref>[[File:Omo River Valley IMG 0463.jpg|thumb|Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Karo mu vigaŵa vya kumwera]] Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2003 na wupu wa National Committee on Traditional Practices ku Ethiopia, nthengwa izo zikuchitika chifukwa cha kukora ŵanthu ni 69% ya nthengwa izo zikuchitika mu charu ichi. Ŵapharazgi na ŵanthu awo ŵakuchitapo kanthu ŵakawopeka panji kukakika chifukwa cha nkhani izo ŵakalemba za nthenda ya COVID-19 mu Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Omotic Karo na Hamer awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa Etiyopiya, ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵalara na ŵana awo ŵali na suzgo la thupi ŵakuchemeka bangi, kung'anamura "ŵambura kutowa". Ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti ŵana ŵambura kupendera ŵakukhwaska ŵanji. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Karo ŵakazomerezga yayi nkharo iyi mu Julayi 2012. Mu 2013, wupu wa Oakland Institute ukalemba lipoti ilo likati boma la Ethiopia likuchichizga "ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵa ku Gambela kuti ŵafumemo mu malo ghawo". Lipoti linyake likuti awo ŵakakana, ŵakaŵachitiranga nkhaza zakupambanapambana. Lipoti lakuyana waka la mu 2012 la wupu wa Human Rights Watch likulongosoraso ivyo boma la Ethiopia likacita mu 2010 na 2011 pa nkhani ya kuzenga mizi mu Gambela. Boma la Ethiopia likukana ivyo boma likuyowoya kuti likupoka malo gha ŵanthu ndipo likuwona kuti vinthu vikwenda makora mu charu ichi. Pa 23 Okutobala, 2019, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusuzgika chomene mu chigaŵa cha Oromia, chifukwa cha ivyo munthu munyake uyo wakugwira ntchito pa nkhani za wanangwa wa ŵanthu zina lake Jawar Mohammed wakayowoya. Kuyana na lipoti la boma, ŵanthu 86 ŵakafwa. Pa Meyi 29, 2020, wupu wa Amnesty International ukafumiska lipoti ilo likususka ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia kuti ŵakukaka ŵanthu ŵanandi na kuŵakoma kwambura mulandu. Lipoti ili likati mu 2019, ŵanthu 25 awo ŵakaghanaghanika kuti ŵakovwira gulu la Oromo Liberation Army, ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Oromia. Kweniso, pakati pa Janyuwale na Seputembala 2019, ŵanthu 10,000 ŵakakakika chifukwa cha kukayikira, ndipo ŵanandi "ŵakakomeka mwankhaza".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/78d1d784e9c7c441df4ee9632557a900|title=New report alleges killings, mass detentions in Ethiopia|access-date=29 May 2020|website=Associated Press}}</ref> ==== Wanangwa wa ŵa LGBT ==== {{Main article|LGBT rights in Ethiopia}} Ku Ethiopia, kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhukanizgika. Mwakuyana na ndime 629 ya Criminal Code, munthu uyo wakuchita vinthu vya kugonana kwa ŵanthu ŵaviŵaro vyakuyana wakulangika vyaka 15 panji umoyo wake wose. Charu cha Ethiopia nchakusuzga comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutinkha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa LGBT ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuŵatambuzga chifukwa cha chisopa chawo. Ŵanthu ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵakamba kumanyikwa mu charu ichi kufuma waka apo boma likadandawura ku wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu 2008, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu ŵakamba kukura mu misumba yikuruyikuru nga ni Addis Ababa. Mahoteli ghanyake ghakuzirwa nga ni Sheraton Addis na Hilton Hotel ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵakwendera fundo za boma. Tchalitchi la Orthodox la ku Ethiopia ndilo likususka chomene. Mwachiyelezgero, Dereje Negash, uyo ni munthu wakulimbikira ntchito za wanangwa wa ŵanthu, wakambiska gulu lakuti "Zim Anlem" mu 2014. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu 2007, ŵanthu 97 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Ethiopia ŵakugomezga kuti kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi. Pa vyaru 45 ivyo vikafumbika, ici cikaŵa cigaŵa caciŵiri pa vyaru vyose ico ŵanthu ŵakukana kusambira Baibolo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pewglobal.org/reports/pdf/258.pdf |title="Pew Global Attitudes Project", (pages 35, 81, and 117) |access-date=3 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214225525/http://pewglobal.org/reports/pdf/258.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Subdivisions of Ethiopia|Regions of Ethiopia|List of zones of Ethiopia|Districts of Ethiopia}} [[File:Map of zones of Ethiopia.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.6|Map of [[Regions of Ethiopia|regions]] and [[list of zones of Ethiopia|zones]] of Ethiopia]] Pambere chaka cha 1996 chindafike, charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa na vigaŵa 13, ndipo vinandi vikafuma ku vigaŵa vyakale. Pasono charu ichi chili na maboma gha vigaŵa vinandi, ndipo maboma agha ghakulaŵilira vigaŵa, vigaŵa, na vigaŵa. Charu cha Ethiopia chili kugaŵika mu vyaru 11 ivyo vili na mafuko (kililoch, singular kilil) na misumba yiŵiri (astedader akababiwoch, singular astedader akababi), ndipo yaumaliro ni Addis Ababa na Dire Dawa. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa 68, na vigaŵa 550 na vigaŵa vinyake. Ndondomeko iyi yikupeleka mazaza ghakuru ku vigaŵa ivyo vili na boma lawo na demokilase, kweni vikukolerana na malango gha boma. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na wupu wa chigaŵa uwo ŵanthu ŵake ŵakusankhika mwakudunjika kuti ŵimilire vigaŵa. Wupu uwu uli na mazaza gha malango na gha kuwusa. Kweniso, ndime 39 ya Dango la Ethiopia yikupereka wanangwa ku vigaŵa vyose kuti vijipature ku Ethiopia. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya umo boma likupelekera mazaza ku boma. Makonsili ghakufiska milimo yawo kwizira mu komiti yikuru na maofesi gha vigaŵa. Ndondomeko iyi yikulongosoreka makora chomene mu wupu, wupu wakulongozga na wupu wa boma. ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Ethiopia}} [[File:Wonchi Lake of Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nyanja ya Wonchi]] pa mphambano pakati pa Ambo na Waliso mu chigaŵa cha Oromia]] Charu cha Etiyopiya chili pa nambara 28 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa charu chapasi. Malo agha ghali pakati pa dera lakwamba la kumpoto na lakwamba lakwamba la kumpoto, kweniso pakati pa dera lakwamba la kumafumiro gha dazi na lakwamba la kumafumiro gha dazi. Cigaŵa cikuru ca Ethiopia cili ku mphanji ya Africa, iyo ni cigaŵa ca kumafumiro gha dazi comene ca caru ici. Vyaru ivyo vili na mphaka na Ethiopia ni Eritrea kumpoto, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan na Sudan. Mu charu cha Ethiopia muli mapiri ghanandi na malo ghakupambanapambana agho ghakupatukana na Great Rift Valley. Malo ghakupambanapambana, nyengo, dongo, vyakumera, na malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Charu cha Etiyopiya chili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Nyanja ya Tana, iyo yili kumpoto, ndiyo yikupangiska Mlonga wa Blue Nile. Kweniso kuli mitundu yinandi ya viyuni ivyo vikusangika mu charu ichi, chomenechomene chiyuni cha gelada, walia ibex, na chinkhara cha ku Ethiopia. Pakuti charu ichi chili pa mtunda utali, chili na malo ghanandi ghakupambanapambana. Charu ichi chili na vyaru vyakupambanapambana, kufuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi uko kuli nkhorongo na milonga yinandi, m'paka ku malo ghakucemeka Dallol kumpoto. Mapiri gha ku Ethiopia ndigho ni ghakuru comene pa mapiri ghose gha mu Africa, ndipo mu mphanji ya Sof Omar muli mphanji yikuru comene pa caru cose. Charu cha Ethiopia ndicho chili na malo ghaŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vili pa chiharo cha UNESCO mu Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/&search=&searchSites=&search_by_country=&search_yearinscribed=&themes=&criteria_restrication=&media=&description=&order=region|title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre – World Heritage List |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> ===Nyengo=== {{Main|Climate of Ethiopia|Climate change in Ethiopia}} {{See also|Beautifying Sheger}} [[File:Köppen climate types of Ethiopia.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Köppen climate classification]] of Ethiopia]] Nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala ni nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima iyo yikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe. Malo ghatali gha ku Etiyopiya ghakukwana chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi ndipo nyengo yake njakukhoma chomene kuluska vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vili pafupi na Ekitoriya. Misumba yinandi yikuru-yikuru ya mu caru ici yili pa mtunda wa mamita 2,500 (6,562), kusazgapo misumba yikuru ya Gondar na Axum. Msumba ukuru wa Addis Ababa uli musi mwa Phiri la Entoto, ndipo uli pa mtunda wa mamita 2400. Cikaŵa na mphepo yiwemi caka cose. Pakuti nyengo ya mu Addis Ababa njimoza caka cose, nyengo za mu msumba uwu zikuthemba pa vula. Nyengo ya chiwuvi yikwamba mu Okutobala m'paka Febuluwale, nyengo ya vula yichoko yikwamba mu Malichi m'paka Meyi, ndipo nyengo ya vula yinandi yikwamba mu Juni m'paka Seputembala. Pa avereji, pa chaka kukulokwa maji pafupifupi 1,200 millimeters. {{multiple image|align left | total_width = 360 | image1 = View on Mt Chokwe.jpg | image2 = Volcano eruption at the Danakil depression, Ethiopia..jpg | footer = Mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mapiri vyakujumpha mamita 4,000 nga ni mapiri gha Bale na Simien, chiwuvi chikuwoneka nyengo yiliyose ya chiwuvi mu Ethiopia (kumazere) Ethiopia yili na chigaŵa chimoza cha vigaŵa vyakuzizima chomene pa charu chose, chigaŵa cha Afar chili na vula yikuru chaka chose }} Pa zuŵa, zuŵa likuŵala pafupifupi maora 7. Nyengo ya chilangalanga ndiyo njakutowa comene pa caka, nangauli nyengo ya vula yikuru comene mu Julayi na Ogasiti, zuŵa likuŵala kwa maora ghanandi. Kutentha kwapakati pa chaka ku Addis Ababa ndi 16 ° C (60.8 ° F), ndipo kutentha kwa tsiku ndi tsiku kumakhala pafupifupi 20 ° C (68.0 ° F) chaka chonse, ndipo usiku wonse kumakhala 5 ° C (41.0 ° F). Misumba yinandi yikuruyikuru na malo ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakuluta kukawona vyalo ku Ethiopia ghali pachanya chomene nga ni Addis Ababa. Mu vigaŵa vyambura kukwera chomene, chomenechomene mu vigaŵa vya pasi chomene vya Ethiopia, nyengo yingaŵa yakuzizima chomene. Dallol, mu Danakil Depression mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ni malo agho kukotcha comene pa caru cose.<ref name=":0" /> Charu cha Ethiopia chili pangozi chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni kuthukira kwa maji na kusintha kwa vula. Kusintha kwa nyengo mu nthowa izi kukupangiska kuti vyakurya vileke kuŵa vyakukhumbikwa kweniso kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora mu charu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakacicizgika kuleka nyumba zawo na kuluta ku vyaru vya ku Gulf, kumwera kwa Africa na ku Europe. Kufuma mu April 2019, Prime Minister wa Ethiopia Abiy Ahmed wakwendeska ntchito ya Beautifying Sheger, iyo yikukhumba kuchepeska masuzgo gha kusintha kwa nyengo mu Addis Ababa. Mu Meyi wakulondezgapo, boma likacita "Chiphikiro ca Sheger", kuti liwovwire ŵanthu kusanga ndalama zakukwana madola 1 biliyoni. Makampani gha njanji ghaŵiri gha ku China ghakapeleka ndalama zakwendeskera misewu 12 ya makilomita 56 mu chigaŵa cha China na Ethiopia.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://addisstandard.com/news-chinas-reprieve-on-interest-free-loan-only/|title=News: China's reprieve on interest-free loan only|last=Addisstandard|date=25 April 2019|website=Addis Standard|language=en-US|access-date=23 May 2019}}</ref> ===Vyamoyo=== {{Main|Wildlife of Ethiopia}}{{see also|Environmental issues in Ethiopia|Deforestation in Ethiopia}} [[File:Mountain Nyala (M), Bale,Ethiopia (14496349688).jpg|thumb|[[Mountain nyala]]s in [[Bale Mountains National Park]], one of several wildlife reserves in Ethiopia]] Ku Ethiopia kuli vyamoyo vyakukhalapo 31. Mu nyengo yakale, ntcheŵe za ku Africa zikaŵa zakupambanapambana. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca ivyo ŵakawona ku Finicha'a, ŵakughanaghana kuti nyama iyi yili kufwa. Nkhumba ya ku Ethiopia ndiyo ŵanthu ŵakuyifufuza comene pa vinyama vyose ivyo vili pa ngozi mu Ethiopia. Charu cha Ethiopia chili na viyuni vinandi chomene. Kufika sono, mu Ethiopia muli viyuni vyakujumpha 856, ndipo 20 mwa vyuni ivi ni vyekha ivyo vikukhala mu charu ichi. Viyuni 16 vili pa ngozi panji vili pa ngozi yikuru. Viyuni vinandi vikurya viyuni vyamuthengere nga ni Bicyclus anynana. Kwamba kale, vyamoyo vyamuthengere vikumara mwaluŵiro mu Africa chifukwa cha kudumulika kwa makuni, nkhondo, kunangika kwa vinthu, kupenja nyama, na vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Nkhondo iyo yikatora vyaka 17, pamoza na chilangalanga, vikakhwaska makora yayi malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukhala makora ni kunanga malo agho ŵakukhala. Para vinthu vyasintha mwaluŵiro, vinyama vikuŵavya nyengo yakukhazikika. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita vikupangiska kuti vinyama na vinyama vinandi visuzgike. Mu 2010, charu cha Ethiopia chikapanga matani 6,494,000 gha carbon dioxide.<ref>United Nations Statistics Division, [http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/SeriesDetail.aspx?srid=749&crid= Millennium Development Goals indicators]: Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), thousand tonnes of CO2 (collected by CDIAC) Human-produced, direct emissions of carbon dioxide only. Excludes other greenhouse gases; [[land use, land-use change, and forestry]] (LULUCF); and natural background flows of CO2 (See also: Carbon cycle)</ref> Mu Ethiopia muli vyamoyo vinandi ivyo vili pangozi ya kumara. Viyuni ivyo vili pa ngozi ku Ethiopia vingagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu (kuyana na umo IUCN yikuviwonera): vyamoyo ivyo vili pa ngozi yikuru, vyamoyo ivyo vili pa ngozi, na vyamoyo ivyo vingaŵa na suzgo.<ref name="Massicot">Massicot, Paul (2005). [http://www.animalinfo.org/country/ethiopia.htm Animal Info-Ethiopia].</ref> [[File:TroupeDeGeladaSimien.JPG|thumb|right|Grazing [[gelada]]s in the [[Simien Mountains National Park|Semien Mountains]]]] Charu cha Ethiopia ntchimoza mwa vyaru vinkhondi na vitatu ivyo vyakumera vikupangika kufuma ku vyakumera vinyake.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Khoury|first1=Colin K.|last2=Achicanoy|first2=Harold A.|last3=Bjorkman|first3=Anne D.|last4=Navarro-Racines|first4=Carlos|last5=Guarino|first5=Luigi|last6=Flores-Palacios|first6=Ximena|last7=Engels|first7=Johannes M.M.|last8=Wiersema|first8=John H.|last9=Dempewolf|first9=Hannes|date=15 June 2016|title=Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide|journal=Proc. R. Soc. B|volume=283|issue=1832|pages=20160792|doi=10.1098/rspb.2016.0792|pmc=4920324}}</ref> Ndipouli, kupasura makuni ni suzgo likuru comene ku Ethiopia, cifukwa kafukufuku wakulongora kuti makuni ghakututuka ghakupangiska dongo kunangika, vyakurya vikumara, vinyama vikumara, kweniso vyamoyo vikumara. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, makilomita pafupifupi 420,000 (panji 35%) gha charu cha Ethiopia ghakaŵa na makuni, kweni kafukufuku wasono wakulongora kuti makuni ghakukwana pafupifupi 11.9% ya charu ichi. Charu ichi chikaŵa pa malo gha 50. Charu cha Ethiopia chikutaya makilomita 1,410 gha nkhorongo chaka chilichose chifukwa cha kunozga nkhuni, kuzgoka malo ghakuliskako viŵeto, kulima chomene, na kugwiliskira ntchito nkhuni za nkhorongo pakuzenga. Pakati pa 1990 na 2005, caru ici cikasoŵa makuni pafupifupi 21,000 km2. Ndondomeko za boma izo zikuchitika sono kuti zileke kuparanya makuni ni izi: kusambizga ŵanthu, kovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵambeso kukhalamo makuni, na kupeleka vinthu vinyake vyakukhumbikwa m'malo mwa makuni. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, boma likupeleka vyakurya vyambura makuni na malo ghambura makuni kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kulima kwambura kuparanya makuni. Magulu nga ni SOS na Farm Africa ghakugwira ntchito na boma na maboma gha mu vigaŵa kuti ghaŵe na ndondomeko ya kunozga nkhorongo. Boma la Ethiopia lili kupeleka ndalama zakukwana 2.3 miliyoni Euro, ndipo sonosono apa lakwamba kusambizga ŵanthu umo ŵangachepeskera kunangika kwa makuni na umo ŵangachitira kuti ŵaleke kumazga makuni. Ntchito iyi yikovwira ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 80. ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Ethiopia|Industrial sector in Ethiopia}} [[File:GDP_per_capita_development_of_Ethiopia.svg|thumb|Development of GDP per capita]] [[File:Ethiopia Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.6|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Ethiopia exports, 2019]] Charu cha Ethiopia chikakura chomene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Meles Zenawi. Kuyana na IMF, charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa na chuma icho chikukura luŵiro chomene pa charu chose, ndipo chikakura chomene pa chaka cha 2004 m'paka 2009. Mu 2007 na 2008, charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa na ndalama zinandi chomene mu Africa. Mu 2015, Banki ya Charu Chose yikayowoya kuti Ethiopia yikukura luŵiro chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma, ndipo pakati pa 2004 na 2014, chiŵelengero cha vinthu mu charu ichi chikakura na 10.9%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ethiopia/publication/ethiopia-great-run-growth-acceleration-how-to-pace-it|title=With Continued Rapid Growth, Ethiopia is Poised to Become a Middle Income Country by 2025|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> Mu 2008 na 2011, vinthu vikasintha chomene mu Ethiopia chifukwa cha kukwera kwa ndalama na suzgo la ndalama. Mu Ogasiti 2011, unandi wa ndalama ukakwera kufika pa 40 peresenti chifukwa cha ndalama zambura kujikora, malipiro gha ŵateŵeti ŵa boma ghakakwera chomene kukwambilira kwa 2011, kweniso mitengo ya vyakurya yikakwera chomene. Pa 2011 ¥12, unandi wa ndalama uwo ukaŵa paumaliro wa chaka ukaŵa wa 22%, ndipo unandi wa ndalama uwo ukaŵa pa chiŵerengero chimoza ukaŵa wa 2012 ¥13 chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya ndalama. Nangauli mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, caru cikukura comene, kweni GDP pa munthu yumoza njimoza mwa vinthu vyacoko comene pa caru cose, ndipo caru cili na masuzgo ghanandi. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca kuŵika mtima comene pa vinthu vya boma na vyakumera, ndyali ya Ethiopia yikumazga masuzgo ghake kuti yiŵe malo ghakwendeskera vinthu mu Africa. Mu chaka cha 2019 dango likapika ilo likapeleka wanangwa ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia kuti ŵagwiliskire nchito ndalama mu vyalo vya Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://w7news.com/ethiopia-to-open-banks-for-ethiopian-investors-in-the-diaspora/|title=Ethiopia to Open Banks for Ethiopian Investors in the Diaspora|last=Sze|first=Mari|website=W7 News|date=12 August 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref>[[File:Ethiopian cargo ship at Port of Djibouti.jpg|thumb|left|An Ethiopian logistics shipping cargo docked at the red sea]] Ndondomeko ya chalo ya Ethiopia yikulongosora kuti wanangwa wakuŵa na malo ngwakuti "mboma na ŵanthu", kweni ŵanthu ŵangagura malo kwa vyaka 99, kweni ŵangaguliska yayi. Kupeleka malo kwa munthu munyake nga ni renti kwa vyaka 20, kukovwira kuti munthu uyo wakugwiliskira nchito makora malo agha ndiyo wapokere. Kugaŵira na kwendeska malo kukuwoneka nga ni malo agho vimbundi vilipo, ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakukhumba kupokera vimbundi para ŵakudumbiskana nkhani zakukhwaskana na malo. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵalije malo ghakukhalamo, kanandi vinthu ivi vikuchitika kwambura kufumba awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito malo agha. Nyengo zinyake ukali na kuleka kugomezgeka vikupangiska ŵanthu kugaluka. Kweniso, vyakurya vikulutilira kuchepa mu caru ici, ndipo cichali na chilangalanga, ico cikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafumemo mu vyaru vyawo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Six_million_children_threatened_by_Ethiopia_drought_UN_999.html |title=Six million children threatened by Ethiopia drought: UN |publisher=Terradaily.com |access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref> ===Magesi=== {{see also|Energy in Ethiopia|List of power stations in Ethiopia}} Ku Ethiopia kuli milonga yikuruyikuru 14, kusazgapo Nile. Ili lili na maji ghanandi comene mu Africa. Mu 2012, maofesi gha maji ghakapanga pafupifupi 88,2% ya nkhongono zose zakupangira magesi. Magesi ghanyake ghakafuma ku mafuta (8.3%) na vyakununkhira (3.6%). Pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhalanga mu tawuni iyi, mu 2016 ŵanthu 42 ŵakaŵa na magesi. Kufumira mu 2016, magesi ghose agho ghakapangika ghakaŵa 11.15 TW⋅h ndipo ghakaŵa 9.062 TW⋅h. Magesi agho ghakafuma ku vyaru vinyake ghakaŵa 0.166 TW⋅h, ndipo ghakafuma 0 kW⋅h.<ref name="CIA2"/>[[File:Cement never sleeps (8756743123).jpg|thumb|left|A factory in [[Dire Dawa]], Ethiopia: one of Ethiopia's biggest economic cities]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira nchito mu vyaru vinyake ŵalipo pafupifupi 85 peresenti. Ndipouli, nchito ya mauteŵeti yikupangiska kuti GDP yiŵe yikuru comene. Vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo vikuchitika pa charu vikuthemba pa ulimi, kusazgapo malonda, kunozga, na kutumizga vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵalimi ŵachoko na mabungwe ndiwo ŵakupanga vyakurya ivi, ndipo vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Vyakumera vikuruvikuru ni khofi, vipasi, mafuta, tirigu, mbuto, makuni, na mphangwe. Ethiopia nayo ni malo ghakupambanapambana gha vyakumera nga ni enset, khofi na teff. Vinthu vyose ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake ni vyakurya (kupaturako golide) ndipo khofi ndilo likusangika ndalama zinandi. Ethiopia ndiyo ni caru caciŵiri pa vyakurya vikuru comene mu Africa. Kuyana na umo wupu wa United Nations ukuyowoyera, GDP ya Ethiopia pa munthu yumoza yili kufika pa $357 mu 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2015/10/power-generation-begins-at-1-870-mw-gibe-iii-hydroelectric-project-in-ethiopia.html|title=Power generation begins at 1,870-MW Gibe III hydroelectric project in Ethiopia|website=www.hydroworld.com|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> ===Ulimi=== {{Main article|Agriculture in Ethiopia}} [[File:Tef in Ethiopia 01.jpg|thumb|[[Eragrostis tef|Tef]] field near [[Mojo, Ethiopia|Mojo]]]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira nchito mu vyaru vinyake ŵalipo pafupifupi 85 peresenti. Ndipouli, nchito ya mauteŵeti yikupangiska kuti GDP yiŵe yikuru comene. Vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo vikuchitika pa charu vikuthemba pa ulimi, kusazgapo malonda, kunozga, na kutumizga vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵalimi ŵachoko na mabungwe ndiwo ŵakupanga vyakurya ivi, ndipo vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Vyakumera vikuruvikuru ni khofi, vipasi, mafuta, tirigu, mbuto, makuni, na mphangwe. Ethiopia nayo ni malo ghakupambanapambana gha vyakumera nga ni enset, khofi na teff. Vinthu vyose ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake ni vyakurya (kupaturako golide) ndipo khofi ndilo likusangika ndalama zinandi. Ethiopia ndiyo ni caru caciŵiri pa vyakurya vikuru comene mu Africa. Kuyana na umo wupu wa United Nations ukuyowoyera, GDP ya Ethiopia pa munthu yumoza yili kufika pa $357 mu 2011.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news| title = National Accounts Estimates of Main Aggregates | publisher = The United Nations Statistics Division | url = http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=SNAAMA&f=grID%3a101%3bcurrID%3aUSD%3bpcFlag%3a1 | access-date = 12 November 2013}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakulima chomene. Ŵakulimbikira chomene kulima na kuliska viyuni na vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vindazgokepo chifukwa cha chisopa na mitheto yawo. Ndipouli, vyakurya ndivyo vichali kukolerana na GDP ya charu ichi. Vyaru vya ku Ethiopia vyaŵa na nkhongono zinandi kwa vyaka vinandi, kweni sono vikumara. Charu ichi chikumanyikwa na njara iyo yikuŵapo chifukwa cha chilangalanga, masoka ghacilengiwa, vinyama vyakofya, kusoŵa kwa vula, ndiposo kupeleŵera kwa vinthu vya tekinoloje. ===Katundu wakutuma kuwalo=== {{Main|Coffee production in Ethiopia}} [[File:Treemap on exports of Ethiopia 2014 (mid detail).png|thumb|upright=1.6|Ethiopia Export Treemap from [[MIT]]–[[Harvard]] [[The Observatory of Economic Complexity|Economic Complexity Observatory]] {{As of|2014|1|17|alt=(2014)}}]] Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuti mu charu cha Ethiopia ndimo mukababikira khofi. Vinthu ivyo vyatumizgika kufuma ku Ethiopia mu caka ca ndalama ca 2009-2010 vikaŵa USD 1.4 biliyoni. Mu charu cha Ethiopia, khofi wakusangika chomene kuluska mu charu chilichose. "Khofi ndiyo yikovwira ŵanthu pafupifupi 15 miliyoni ŵa ku Ethiopia, awo ni 16 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose. Ŵalimi ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici, awo ŵakusuzgika cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mphepo, ŵakusuzgika comene mu vilimika vyasonosono apa. Ethiopia ndiyo yili na viŵeto vikuru comene vya ng'ombe pa caru cose. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska ni khat, golide, vinthu vya vikumba, na mafuta. Kukula kwa msika wa maluŵa kwa sonosono apa kukung'anamura kuti Ethiopia wali pafupi kuŵa yumoza wa vyakumera na maluŵa agho ghakwendeskeka chomene pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ethiopia's flower trade in full bloom |url=http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=264689&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__business/ |quote=Floriculture has become a flourishing business in Ethiopia in the past five years, with the industry's exports earnings set to grow to $100-million by 2007, a five-fold increase on the $20-million earned in 2005. Ethiopian flower exports could generate an estimated $300-million within two to three years, according to the head of the government export-promotion department, Melaku Legesse. |work=[[Mail & Guardian]] |date=19 February 2006 |access-date=21 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418195017/http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=264689&area=%2Fbreaking_news%2Fbreaking_news__business%2F |archive-date=18 April 2007}}</ref>[[File:Blessed Coffee brand bags.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian ''Blessed Coffee'' branded bags in the United States. Coffee is one of main exports of Ethiopia.]] Kanandi ŵaliska ŵakuchita malonda ghambura kuzomerezgeka na boma. Mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, malonda ghakujumpha 95 peresenti ghakwendera mu nthowa zinyake. Kuguliska ng'ombe, ngamila, mberere, na mbuzi za ku Ethiopia ku Somalia, Djibouti, na Kenya, pa chaka kukukwana madola 250 m'paka 300 miliyoni. Kuguliska vyakurya kukuchepeska mtengo wa vyakurya, kukovwira kuti vyakurya viŵe vyakukhora, kuchepeska mphindano pa mphaka, na kukhozga umoza wa vyaru. Kweni chifukwa chakuti malonda agha ghalije malango ndiposo maukaboni, pangaŵa ngozi, nga ni para matenda ghakuthandazgika luŵiro chomene. Kweniso boma la Ethiopia likukondwa yayi na ndalama izo likusanga chifukwa cha misonkho na ndalama izo likupeleka ku vyaru vinyake. Mu vilimika vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵayezga kulemba na kulongozga malonda agha. Chifukwa chakuti makampani ghapachekha ghakukura pachokopachoko, vyakuvwara vya makuni nga ni matumba vikuŵa vyakurya vikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Vinyake ivyo ŵakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ni vyakurya, vipasi, katoni, mkaka, mbuto, na vikumba. Pakuzenga madamu ghaphya na mapulojekiti ghakupanga magesi gha maji, Ethiopia nayo wakukhumba kutumizga magesi ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti maji ghanandi gha mu Ethiopia ni "mafuta ghatuŵa" ndipo khofi ni "golide lifipa". Kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala viŵi yayi, mu charu cha Ethiopia muli vinthu vinandi vyakututuŵa. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali mu vigaŵa ivi, vinthu vikwenda makora yayi. Mu 2008, ŵasayansi ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakasangika na mulandu wa kusaska golide. Ŵanthu ŵanayi awo ŵakumanya vya sayansi ya vinthu vya pasi na charu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakakakika cifukwa ca kuguliska golide. Ŵapolisi ŵakasanga kuti golide uyo wakatoleka ku banki ya ku Ethiopia wakaŵa wa golide, ndipo ndalama izo boma likaguliskanga zikaŵa pafupifupi madola 17 miliyoni. Mu 2011, ntchito ya kuzenga damu la Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam yikamba. Para lamara, lizamupanga nkhongono zinandi ku Ethiopia izo zingapelekeka ku vyaru vinyake. ===Mayendelo=== {{Main|Transport in Ethiopia}} [[File:Addis Ababa Light Rail vehicle, March 2015.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa Light Rail|Light rail]] in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia]] Ethiopia yili na makilomita 926 gha njanji za magetsi za 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in), makilomita 656 gha njanji ya Addis Ababa-Djibouti pakati pa Addis Ababa na Port of Djibouti (kujumpha Awash) na makilomita 270 gha njanji ya Awash-Hara Gebeya pakati pa Addis Ababa na matawuni gha Dessie/Kombolcha (nawo kujumpha Awash). Pa Ogasiti 2017, misewu yose yiŵiri iyi yikaŵa pa ntchito yakuyezgelera panji yikaŵa mu mulimo wa kuzenga. Para njanji zose ziŵiri izi zazakayamba kugwira ntchito mu 2018 na 2019, zizamovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵendenge pa mtunda wa makilomita 120 pa ora. Pakughanaghana kuti ulendo wa ŵanthu kufuma ku Addis Ababa kuluta ku Djibouti City uŵenge wa maora ghachoko waka 12 ndipo kufuma ku Addis Ababa kuya ku Dessie/Kombolcha uŵenge wa maora 6. Pamanyuma pa mtunda wakudumura wa makilomita 270 wa msewu wa Awash/Hara Gebeya Railway, mulimo waciŵiri wa kuzenga mtunda wa makilomita 120 ukukhumba kusazgirako msewu uwu kufuma ku Dessie/Kombolcha kuya ku Hara Gebeya/Woldiya. Tikumanya yayi apo chigaŵa ichi chizamupangikira na kujura. Njanji yacitatu, ya makilomita 216 ya kumpoto nayo yikuzengeka pakati pa Mek'ele na Woldiya, kweni nchambura macitiko kuti njanji iyi yizgoke pa nyengo wuli. Misewu yose ya njanji yili mu cigaŵa ca misewu ya njanji iyo yizamuŵa na mtunda wa makilomita ghakujumpha 5,000.[[File:Ethiopian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_ET-AOS_FRA_2012-10-28.png|thumb|A [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-8]] of [[Ethiopian Airlines]]]] Pakuŵa cigaŵa cakwamba ca pulogiramu ya vilimika 10 ya kuzenga misewu, pakati pa 1997 na 2002, boma la Ethiopia likamba kuyezgayezga comene kuti liŵe na misewu yiwemi. Ntheura, kwambira mu 2015, mu Ethiopia mukaŵa misewu ya makilomita 100,000 (Federal na Regional), yose yikaŵa yakwenda pa malibwe kweniso ya malibwe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ethiopia's Road Sector Dev't Becoming Proportionate to Rapid Economic Growth: WB |url=http://www.ena.gov.et/en/index.php/economy/item/386-ethiopia-s-road-sector-dev-t-becoming-proportionate-to-rapid-economic-growth-wb |website=www.ena.gov.et |access-date=23 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224055826/http://www.ena.gov.et/en/index.php/economy/item/386-ethiopia-s-road-sector-dev-t-becoming-proportionate-to-rapid-economic-growth-wb |archive-date=24 December 2015}}</ref> [[File:Ethiopia - Lake Assale.jpg|thumb|[[Afar Region|Afar]] is a tourist attraction since it has an open salt field stretching kilometers on end]] Ku Ethiopia kukaŵa ma eyapoti 58 mu 2012, ndipo 61 mu 2016. Pa malo agha, pali Bole International Airport mu Addis Ababa na Aba Tenna Dejazmach Yilma International Airport mu Dire Dawa. Ethiopian Airlines, chiŵaro cha Star Alliance, ndiyo yikwendeska ndege mu charu ichi, ndipo yikukolerana na boma la Ethiopia. Kufuma ku Bole International Airport, ndege iyi yikwendeska ndege 102 za pa charu chose, 20 za mu charu chose, na katundu 44. Kweniso ni yimoza mwa vyamaseŵera ivyo vikukura luŵiro comene mu vyaru ivi.<ref name="Ceabtdta">{{cite news |title=Ethiopian Airlines – Bringing the Dreamliner to Africa |publisher=CNN |date=3 September 2012 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/03/world/africa/ethiopian-airlines-ceo/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904002135/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/03/world/africa/ethiopian-airlines-ceo/index.html |archive-date=4 September 2012 |access-date=21 September 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Wupu wakukopa '''ŵalendo''' === {{Main article|Tourism in Ethiopia}} Charu cha Ethiopia chikutemwa chomene vyamalonda, ndipo mu 2006, vyalo ivi vikapanga 5.5% ya GDP. Mu 2015, wupu wa European Council ukati Ethiopia ni "malo ghakutowa chomene pa charu chose". Mu 2020 pera, ŵanthu 518 000 ŵakaluta ku Ethiopia, ndipo ŵakaŵa pa nambara 126 pa charu chose. Ku Ethiopia kuli malo 9 agho ghali kulembeka na UNESCO kuti ni malo ghakukumbukika na ŵanthu wose:<ref>{{cite web |title=Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List: Ethiopia |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/et/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=11 August 2021}}</ref> *[[Axum#Main sites of Axum|Ruins of Aksum]] *[[Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela]] *[[Fasil Ghebbi]], Gondar Region *[[Harar#Attractions|Harar Jugol]], the Fortified Historic Town *[[Konso|Konso Cultural Landscape]] *Lower Valley of the [[Awash River|Awash]] *Lower Valley of the [[Omo River|Omo]] *[[Tiya]] *[[Simien Mountains National Park]] == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Ethiopia}} {{see also|Ethiopians|List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia}} Charu cha Ethiopia ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakakwera kufuma pa 38.1 miliyoni mu 1983 kufika pa 109.5 miliyoni mu 2018. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa 9 miliyoni. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti pakati pa 1994 na 2007, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ku Ethiopia chikakuranga pa 2.6% pa chaka. Pasono, caru ici nchimoza mwa vyaru 10 ivyo vikukura comene pa caru cose. Kuzakafika mu 2060, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu pa charu chose chapasi chizamukwera kufika pa 210 miliyoni. Kuyana na umo wupu wa UN ukuyowoyera, mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka vinandi, ndipo vyaka ivyo ŵanalume ŵakukhala ni vyaka 56 ndipo vyaka ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakukhala ni vyaka 60.<ref name="auto"/> {{bar box |width=340px|float=right|titlebar=#ddd |title=[[Ethnic groups in Ethiopia]] |left1=Ethnic group |right1=Population |bars = {{bar percent|[[Oromo people|Oromo]]|Green|100|{{nowrap|25.4 (34.4%)}}}} {{bar percent|[[Amhara people|Amhara]]|Yellow|78.37|19.9 (27.0%)}} {{bar percent|[[Somalis in Ethiopia|Somali]] |Red|18.08|4.59 (6.2%)}} {{bar percent|[[Tigrayans]] |Blue|17.67|4.49 (6.1%)}} {{bar percent|[[Sidama people|Sidama]]|Purple|11.63|2.95 (4.0%)}} {{bar percent|[[Gurage people|Gurage]]|Brown|7.32|1.86 (2.5%)}} {{bar percent|[[Welayta people|Welayta]]|Black|6.60|1.68 (2.3%)}} {{bar percent|[[Afar people|Afar]]|Orange|5.03|1.28 (1.7%)}} {{bar percent|[[Hadiya people|Hadiya]]|Teal|5.00|1.27 (1.7%)}} {{bar percent|[[Gamo people|Gamo]]|Gray|4.33|1.10 (1.5%)}} {{bar percent|[[List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia|Others]]|Silver|36.67|9.30 (12.6%)}} |caption=Population in millions according to 2007 Census<ref name=2007Census /> }} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵali na mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ŵanthu, ndipo mitundu yinandi chomene njakuti: Oromo, Amhara, Somali, na Tigray. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2007, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ndiwo mbanandi chomene mu Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Amhara ŵalipo 27.0% pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi, apo ŵa mtundu wa Somali na Tigray ŵalipo 6.2% na 6.1% pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi. Mtundu unyake uwo ukuzunulika ni: Sidama 4.0%, Gurage 2.5%, Welayta 2.3%, Afar 1.7%, Hadiya 1.7%, Gamo 1.5% na Others 12.6%. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ca ciarabu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya ChiSemiti ŵakujichema kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Habesha. Mu Chiarabu, lizgu ili (al-Ḥabasha) ndilo lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti "Abyssinia". Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi, chomenechomene mu chigaŵa cha Gambela icho chili pafupi na South Sudan. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu iyi mbanandi chomene, chomenechomene ŵa Nuer na Anuak. Kweniso, ku Ethiopia kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 75,000 ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakakhalako kwa vyaka vinandi pamanyuma pakuti Themba Selassie laŵagowokera. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca nkhondo ya mukati mu caru ca Ethiopia mu 1974, ŵanthu pafupifupi 22,000 ŵa ku Italy na Ethiopia ŵakafumamo mu caru ici. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, makampani ghanyake gha ku Italy ghakawelera ku Ethiopia, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakugwira ntchito za mawoko na ŵantchito ŵakiza na mbumba zawo. Chigaŵa cha Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region chili na mitundu yakujumpha 56. Mu 2009, ŵanthu 135,200 awo ŵakachimbilira ku Ethiopia ŵakaŵapo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku Somalia (ŵanthu pafupifupi 64,300), Eritrea (41,700) na Sudan (25,900). Boma la Ethiopia likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu wose awo ŵachimbira kwawo ŵakhalenge mu misasa.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2009">{{cite news|title=World Refugee Survey 2008 |publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants |date=19 June 2008 |url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/ethiopia.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502073801/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/ethiopia.html |archive-date=2 May 2012}}</ref> ===Viyowoyelo=== {{Main|Languages of Ethiopia}} {{Pie chart | thumb = right | caption=[[Languages of Ethiopia]] {{As of|2007|lc=y}} Census<ref name=2007Census /> | label1 = [[Oromo language|Oromo]] | value1 = 33.8 | color1 = Green | label2 = [[Amharic]] | value2 = 29.3 | color2 = Yellow | label3 = [[Somali language|Somali]] | value3 = 6.2 | color3 = Red | label4 = [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] | value4 = 5.9 | color4 = Blue | label5 = [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] | value5 = 4.0 | color5 = Purple | label6 = [[Wolaytta language|Wolaytta]] | value6 = 2.2 | color6 = Black | label7 = [[Gurage languages|Gurage]] | value7 = 2.0 | color7 = Brown | label8 = [[Afar language|Afar]] | value8 = 1.7 | color8 = Orange | label9 = [[Hadiyya language|Hadiyya]] | value9 = 1.7 | color9 = Teal | label10 = [[Gamo-Gofa-Dawro language|Gamo]] | value10 = 1.5 | color10 = Gray | label11 = [[Languages of Ethiopia#Overview|others]] | value11 = 11.6 | color11 = white }} Buku linyake likuti ku Ethiopia kuli viyowoyero 90. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Ŵaasiriya. Chiyowoyero ichi chikusazgapo chiyowoyero cha Oromo, icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Oromo, na ChiSomali, icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia. Wose pamoza, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakukwana vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Ethiopia. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Afroasiatic ivyo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi ni Cushitic Sidamo, Afar, Hadiyya, na Agaw, kweniso viyowoyero vya ChiSemite vya Gurage, Harari, Silt'e, na Argobba. Mu vigaŵa vinyake ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Ciarabic, ico nchigaŵa ca ciyowoyero ca ku Africa na Asia. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Omotic ndiwo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero ivi. Viyowoyero ivi ni Aari, Bench, Dime, Dizin, Gamo-Gofa-Dawro, Maale, Hamer, na Wolaytta. Viyowoyero vya mu mbumba ya Nilo-Sahara vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi. Viyowoyero ivi ni Nuer, Anuak, Nyangatom, Majang, Suri, Me'en, na Mursi. Cingelezi ndico cikuyowoyeka comene pa caru cose, ndipo ndico cikusambizgika mu masukulu gha sekondare na masukulu ghose ghapacanya. Chiyowoyero cha Amharic ndicho chikasambizgikanga mu masukulu gha pulayimale, kweni mu vigaŵa vinandi chiyowoyero ichi chafumiskikapo ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake nga ni Oromo, Somali, na Tigrinya. Nangauli viyowoyero vyose vikuzomerezgeka mwakuyana waka na dango la mu 1995 la Ethiopia ndipo chiyowoyero cha Oromo ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene, kweni chiyowoyero cha Amharic ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene.[[File:Aksum, iscrizione di re ezana, in greco, sabeo e ge'ez, 330-350 dc ca. 10.jpg|thumb|[[Ezana of Axum|King Ezana]] of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Axum's]] rock inscription in the [[Geʽez|Ge'ez]] language dating back to 330-350 AD]] Vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya Ethiopia na misumba iyo yili na malango, vili na wanangwa wa kusankha viyowoyero vyawo. ChiAmharic chikumanyikwa nga chiyowoyelo cha boma mu chigaŵa cha Amhara, Benishangul-Gumuz, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, Gambela Region, Addis Ababa na Dire Dawa. Chilankhulo cha Oromo chikugwira ntchito ngati chilankhulo cha ntchito ndi chilankhulo chachikulu cha maphunziro ku Oromia, Harar ndi Dire Dawa komanso ku Oromia Zone ku Amhara Region. ChiSomali ndi chiyankhulo cha boma cha chigawo cha Somali ndi Dire Dawa, pamene Afar, Harari, ndi Tigrinya zimadziwika ngati chilankhulo cha boma m'madera awo. Sonosono apa boma la Ethiopia likapharazga kuti viyowoyero vya Afar, Amharic, Oromo, Somali, na Tigrinya ni viyowoyero vya boma vya Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachali kuyowoya Chiitaliya, chomenechomene ŵachekuru. Chiyowoyero cha Amharic na Tigrinya vili na mazgu ghanyake agho ghali kufuma ku Chiitaliya.<ref name="Yaqob">{{cite web|url=https://totalitarismo.altervista.org/italianismi-nel-somalo-e-nell-amarico/|title=Italianismi nel somalo e nell'amarico|first=Mister|last=Totalitarismo|date=2 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="altervista">''I prestiti italiani in amarico e tigrino'', Yaqob Beyene</ref> ====Malemba==== Ciyowoyero cikuru comene ca ku Ethiopia ni cilembo ca [[Ge'ez]]. Chiyowoyero ichi chikamba kugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 500 B.C.E. pakulemba chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez. Mazuŵa ghano, chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez ndicho chikuyowoyeka mu matchalitchi gha Orthodox gha ku Ethiopia na Eritrea. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya ku Ethiopia mu kompyuta. Mazuŵa ghano ntchigaŵa cha Unicode nga ni Ethiopic, Ethiopic Extended, Ethiopic Supplement na Ethiopic Extended-A. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakugwiliskiraso ntchito vilembo vinyake. Vinthu ivi ni vilembo ivyo Bakri Sapalo wakalemba vya Chi Oromo.<ref name="HH-551">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1017/S0041977X00144209|jstor=616613| title = The Oromo orthography of Shaykh Bakri Saṗalō| journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies| volume = 44| issue = 3| pages = 550| year = 2009| last1 = Hayward | first1 = R.J.| last2 = Hassan | first2 = M. |s2cid=162289324}}</ref> ===Chisopa=== {{Main|Religion in Ethiopia}} {{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Religion in Ethiopia (2016 estimate)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/#:~:text=Religions,%2C%20Catholic%200.7%25%2C%20traditional%20.|title=Ethiopia - the World Factbook|date=7 September 2022|access-date=19 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421154941/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/#:~:text=Religions,%2C%20Catholic%200.7%25%2C%20traditional%20.|archive-date=21 April 2021 }}</ref> |label1 = [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopian Orthodoxy]] |value1 = 43.8 |color1 = Orchid |label4 = [[Islam in Ethiopia|Islam]] |value4 = 31.3 |color4 = Green |label2 = [[P'ent'ay]] |value2 = 22.8 |color2 = Blue |label3 = Other [[Christian]] |value3 = 0.7 |color3 = Purple |label5 = [[Traditional African religion|Traditional faiths]] |value5 = 0.6 |color5 = Yellow |label6 = Other |value6 = 0.8 |color6 = Red }} Charu cha Etiyopiya chili paubwezi wakukhora na visopa vikuruvikuru vitatu vya Abrahamu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., ufumu wa Etiyopiya ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kuzomerezga Chikhristu kuŵa chisopa cha boma. Chifukwa cha ivyo likadumura pa ungano wa ku Chalcedon, mu 451 Ŵamiyaphysites, awo ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu ŵanandi chomene mu Eguputo na Etiyopiya, ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakasopanga ŵaciuta ŵamoza pera. Nangauli pasono chisopa ichi ntcha boma yayi, kweni tchalitchi la Orthodox la Tewahedo ndilo likulamulira chomene. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Ciarabu ŵakukhala mu caru ici. Charu cha Etiyopiya ndicho chikaŵa malo ghakwamba uko ŵanthu ŵakasamukira mu nyengo ya Chisilamu. Negash ni tawuni iyo yili mu chigaŵa cha Tigray, ndipo ni malo ghakale chomene agho Ŵasilamu ŵakakhalanga mu Africa.. [[File:Lalibela, san giorgio, esterno 24.jpg|thumb|upright|The subterranean rock-hewn [[Church of Saint George, Lalibela|Church of Saint George]] in [[Lalibela]] is a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]] Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2007, Ŵakhristu ŵalipo 62.8% (43.5% ŵa Ethiopia Orthodox, 19.3% ŵa visopa vinyake), Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 33.9%, awo ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo ŵalipo 2.6%, ndipo visopa vinyake vilipo 0.6%. Chiŵelengero cha Ŵakristu na Ŵasilamu chikukhalilira mwakuyana waka pakuyaniska na unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵali mu chisopa cha Sunni, ndipo Ŵasilamu awo ŵali mu chisopa chinyake ndiwo ni gulu lachiŵiri likuru chomene la Ŵasilamu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Sunni mba Shafi'i panji Salafi, ndipo ku malo agha kuli Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Sufi. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Afar ŵali kupanga gulu lakujipatura lakucemeka "Islamic State of Afaria". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakasuskanga fundo yakuti boma la Haile Selassie likapanga ndondomeko ya kupenda ŵanthu kuti charu cha Ethiopia chiwoneke nga ni charu cha Ŵakhristu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuwona vya Chisilamu na kulemba mabulogu ŵakuti Ŵasilamu mbanandi chomene ndipo ŵakukolerana yayi na maukaboni agho ghali pachanya apa. Ufumu wa Axum ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kuzomera Chikhristu, apo Frumentius wa ku Turo, uyo wakachemekanga Fremnatos panji Abba Selama ("Wiske wa Mtende") ku Ethiopia, wakang'anamuska Themba Ezana mu vyaka vya m'ma 400. Mwakuyana na Baibolo, Cikristu cikanjira mu Etiyopiya nyengo yitali comene pambere ivi vindacitike.<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+8 "Acts 8"]. ''Bible Gateway''.</ref>[[File:01 - Priests dancing for Timkat.jpg|thumb|Orthodox priests dancing during the celebration of ''[[Timkat]]'']] [[File:307771234 612238670404451 4282782264089827086okay.webm|thumb|[[Haile Selassie|Emperor Haile Selassie I]] seen celebrating the finding of the cross at [[Meskel Square]] (1971)]] Tchalitchi la Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo lili mu tchalitchi la Eastern Orthodox. Ni cisopa cikuru comene pa visopa vyose vya Cikhristu, nangauli sonosono apa matchalitchi ghanyake gha P'ent'ay (Chipulotesitanti) ghazara comene. Kwambira mu 1930, Tchalitchi la Katolika ku Ethiopia lili na ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ndipo likugwirizana comene na boma la Roma.<ref name="bx">{{Cite web |last=Abegaz |first=Berhanu |date=1 June 2005 |title=Ethiopia: A Model Nation of Minorities |url=http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf |access-date=27 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist.html |title=The History of Ethiopian Jews |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref> [[File:Mešita v Bahir Daru.jpg|thumb|A mosque in [[Bahir Dar]]]] Chisilamu mu Ethiopia chikamba mu 622 C.E. apo Muhammad wakaphalira gulu la Ŵasilamu kuti ŵaleke kutambuzgika ku Mecca. Pamanyuma ŵasambiri ŵakaluta ku Abyssinia kwizira ku Eritrea, uko pa nyengo iyo kukaŵa Ashama ibn-Abjar, themba la Ŵakhristu. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene awo ŵakaŵa Ŵasahaba ŵakaŵa Ŵaetiyopiya. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2007, ŵanthu 1,957,944 mu Ethiopia ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake 471,861 ŵali mu visopa vinyake. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa visopa vyose ŵakusangika mu vigaŵa vyose, kweni ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake vya caru ici. Ŵakhristu ŵanandi ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Amhara na Tigray, ndipo ŵanandi mwa iwo mba tchalitchi la Orthodox la Tewahedo. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa P'ent'ay ndiwo ŵakukhala chomene mu vigaŵa vya Oromia na SNNP (Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region). Ŵasilamu ku Ethiopia ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Sunni ndipo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyakutali kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, mu vigaŵa vya SNNP, Benishangul-Gumuz na Gambela.<ref name=2007Census/><ref name="Ofcansky">{{cite book |last=Thomas P. Ofcansky |first=LaVerle Berry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3M0V0VfgiMC |title=Ethiopia: A Country Study |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4191-1857-9 |pages=130–41}}</ref> M'paka m'ma 1980, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Beta Israel ŵakakhalanga ku Ethiopia. Ŵayuda pafupifupi 4,000, awo ŵakuti ni fuko lakuzgeŵa la Israyeli, ŵakukhala mu Ethiopia, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mafuko ghaŵiri, Falash Mura na Beta Abraham. Falash Mura ni Beta Israel awo, nangauli ŵakumanyikwa kuti Mbayuda, ŵakamba kugomezga Cikhristu cifukwa ca mulimo wa umishonale. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Beta Abraham ŵakuwoneka kuti mbanthu ŵa mtundu wa Beta Israyeli awo ŵali kufuma mu nyengo ya ŵapositole. Nangauli wose ŵaŵiri ŵacali kucemeka kuti Beta Israel, kweni ŵali kutali na gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mu Israyeli. Ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu la Beta Israel ŵakuzomerezga ŵanthu ŵa Falash Mura, ndipo ŵapempha kuti ŵaŵaleke kuluta ku Israel. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Beta Abraham ŵakutemweka yayi na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu matawuni na mizi yinyake ya ku Ethiopia nga ni Wolleka, kufupi na msumba wa Gondar, Ŵayuda ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵachali ŵanandi, kweni sono ku United States kuli Ŵayuda ŵanandi ŵa ku Ethiopia. Magulu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakususka boma kuti likukora ŵanthu ŵakuchitapo kanthu, ŵamutolamakani, na ŵalembi ŵa nkhani kuti ŵaleke kususka visopa vinyake. Pa Ogasiti 3, 2015, ŵanthu 17 awo ŵakachitanga vinthu vya chisopa cha Ciislamu ŵakakakika. Ŵakaŵa na mulandu wakuti ŵakakhumbanga kupanga boma la Cisilamu mu caru ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu. Ŵanthu wose awo ŵakayuzgika ŵakakana ivyo ŵakayowoya ndipo ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakachitanga viheni pera pakuvikilira wanangwa wawo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailysabah.com/africa/2015/08/04/ethiopia-hands-lengthy-prison-terms-to-muslim-activists|title=Ethiopia hands lengthy prison terms to Muslim activists|date=4 August 2015|work=DailySabah|access-date=24 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-arrests-idUSKCN0Q82AC20150803|title=Ethiopia hands lengthy prison terms to Muslim activists|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=24 October 2015|date=3 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33759946|title=Ethiopia jails Muslims convicted of terror plot|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=24 October 2015|date=3 August 2015}}</ref> ===Kukhala mu tauni=== {{Main|List of cities and towns in Ethiopia}} [[File:Addis Ababa Railway Megenagna Area.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa|Railway in Addis Ababa]] is one of the main transports people use in the city in their day-to-day activities]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo vinthu vikusintha chomene mu misumba. Mu Ethiopia, ŵanthu ŵakuluta mu misumba yinandi, ndipo nyengo ziŵiri zikulutilira kukura. Cakwamba, mu 1936-1941 mu nyengo iyo caru ca Italy cikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Mussolini, ndipo kufuma mu 1967 m'paka mu 1975 apo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni ŵakasazgikira katatu. Mu 1936, charu cha Italy chikapoka charu cha Ethiopia, ndipo chikazenga vinthu vyakovwira kuti misumba yikuruyikuru yikolerane. Ici pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy na ŵantchito ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti vinthu visinthe mwaluŵiro mu nyengo iyi. Nyengo yachiŵiri ya kukura yikaŵa kwamba mu 1967 m'paka mu 1975, apo ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakasamukira mu matawuni kupenja nchito na umoyo uwemi. Mulimo uwu ukakhora chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya boma ya kusintha malo mu 1975, iyo yikawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵakhalenge ku mizi. Ŵanthu ŵakati ŵafumako ku mizi na kuluta ku misumba, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa chomene. Dango la kunozga malo likakhumbanga kusazgirako ulimi cifukwa cakuti vyakurya vikakuranga yayi pamoza na unandi wa ŵanthu mu nyengo ya 1970-1983. Ndondomeko iyi yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na mipingo yikuruyikuru ya ŵalimi. Dango ili likapangiska kuti vyakurya vyasazgikire, nangauli pali kukwesana pa cifukwa cake. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu matawuni ŵakulutilira kukura ndipo kufuma mu 1975 m'paka mu 2000, ŵakasazgikira na 8.1%.<ref name="Accessed 5-10-08">[https://web.archive.org/web/20180313170039/http://worldbank.org/ Worldbank.org]. Retrieved 5 October 2008 {{nonspecific|date=November 2010}}</ref> {{Largest cities or towns of Ethiopia}} ====Rural and urban life==== {{Main article|Rural flight in Ethiopia}} [[File:Gonder from the Goha hotel.jpg|thumb|[[Gondar]] skyline]] Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuluta ku misumba cifukwa ca kukhumba umoyo uwemi. Mu vyaru ivyo muli ŵanthu ŵanandi, umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa ukuyana waka na kulimbana kuti munthu wapone. Pafupifupi 16% ya ŵanthu mu Ethiopia ŵakukhala na ndalama zakukwana dola limoza pa zuŵa (2008). Ŵana ŵa vyaka 5 kukhilira pasi ŵakukwana 42%. Mbumba zinandi zakusuzgika (75%) zikugona pamoza na viŵeto, ndipo 40% ya ŵana ŵakugona pasi. Mbumba ya ŵanthu 6 panji 7 yikukhala mu nyumba ya mathipa ya mamita 30, ndipo muli vigaŵa viŵiri vyambura kukura.<ref name="Crawley">Crawley, Mike. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120625131910/http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Resources/Publications/Pages/ArticleDetails.aspx?PublicationID=587 "Breaking the Cycle of Poverty in Ethiopia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625131910/http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Resources/Publications/Pages/ArticleDetails.aspx?PublicationID=587|date=25 June 2012}}. April 2003. International Development Research Centre. Retrieved on 24 May 2008</ref>[[File:On The Road To Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia (2446794591).jpg|thumb|left|Rural area in the [[Simien Mountains National Park]]]] Wupu wa ŵalimi ukusuzgika na ukavu. Pakuti malo agha ngachoko chomene, ŵalimi ŵangazomerezga yayi kuti ghaleke kupambika makora. Chifukwa cha kunangika kwa malo agha, viŵeto vikuleka kupambika vyakurya, ndipo mkaka ukuchepa. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵakotcha vyakumera m'malo mwa kuviwezgera mu dongo, mbwenu vyakurya vikumara. Kuchepa kwa vyakurya kukupangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵaleke kusanga ndalama zinandi, njara, kusoŵa chakurya na matenda. Ŵalimi ŵambura kupwelelera makora ŵakusuzgika kugwira nchito mu minda yawo ndipo vyakurya vikumara. Nangauli mu misumba vinthu vili makora comene, kweni mu Ethiopia mose muli ukavu na ukotoli uheni. Ndipouli, ukavu ku Ethiopia ukakhira kufuma pa 44% kufika pa 29.6% mu 2000-2011, kuyana na World Bank. Mu Addis Ababa, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi, ŵanthu 55% ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya vya ŵanthu ŵachoko. Kweni sono, cifukwa cakuti nchito ya kuzenga yikukura comene mu misumba yikuruyikuru, comenecomene mu Addis Ababa. Mu tawuni iyi muli nyumba zinandi za boma izo ŵanthu pafupifupi 600,000 ŵakukhala. Mu tawuni iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhumbikwira nadi maji ghawemi, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵalije malo ghakutozgera viswaswa. Ici cikupangiska kuti matenda ghasazgikire cifukwa ca maji ghaheni.<ref name="Accessed 15 May 2008">Shivley, K. "Addis Ababa, Ethiopia" [https://web.archive.org/web/20170211101151/https://www.macalester.edu/courses/geog61/kshively/index.html Macalester.edu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211101151/https://www.macalester.edu/courses/geog61/kshively/index.html|date=11 February 2017}}. Retrieved 15 May 2008.</ref>[[File:Any Day, Adigrat (12582724894).jpg|thumb|Street scene in [[Adigrat]]]] Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakukhala makora mu misumba, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Addis Ababa ŵakukhala makora kuluska ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵa viŵeto. Mwakupambana na ŵana ŵa ku mizi, ŵana 69% ŵa mu matawuni ŵakusambira pulayimale, ndipo 35 peresenti ya ŵana aŵa ŵakusambira sekondare. Msumba wa Addis Ababa uli na yunivesite yake kweniso masukulu ghanyake ghanandi gha sekondare. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ŵalipo 82%. Mabungwe ghanandi ghambura kwendera boma ghakovwira kuti suzgo ili limare. Kweni ghanandi mwa mabungwe agha ghali kutali chomene, ghakuchita vinthu mwambura kukolerana, ndipo ghakugwira ntchito mwakupambana. Wupu wa mawupu ghambura vya boma ku sub-Saharan Africa ukuyezga kwendera lumoza.<ref name="Accessed 5-10-08"/> ===Umoyo=== {{Main|Health in Ethiopia}}{{Further|Child marriage in Ethiopia|Polygamy in Ethiopia}} [[File:Child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa and Ethiopia.svg|thumb|Declining child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa and Ethiopia since 1950]] Lipoti la Wupu wa vya Umoyo pa Caru Cose la mu 2006 likulongora kuti mu 2003, kukaŵa ŵadokotala 1,936 ndipo pa ŵanthu 100,000, pakaŵa ŵadokotala 2.6 pera. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti charu cha Ethiopia chili mu suzgo chifukwa cha kusintha kwa vinthu pa charu. Vinthu vikuru ivyo vikuchitika mu charu cha Ethiopia ni matenda agho ghakuthandazgika na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 44 miliyoni (pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu wose) ŵalije maji ghawemi. Vinthu ivi vikusazgikira cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa ŵadokotala na manesi ndiposo malo gha cipatala. Umoyo wa ŵanthu mu misumba ni uwemi comene. Ŵana awo ŵakubabika, ŵana awo ŵakufwa, na awo ŵakufwa ni ŵachoko chomene mu matawuni kuluska mu mizi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu misumba kuluska ku mizi, kweni mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vinthu vyamba kwenda makora mu charu chose. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika na maji, kweni ŵakugwiliskira nchito maji ghanandi. Mu misumba, ŵanthu 81% ŵakugwiliskira nchito maji agha. Nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku misumba kuti ŵakakhalenge makora. Kukwambilira kwa 2005, wupu wa WHO ukati ku Ethiopia kukaŵa vipatala 119 (12 ku Addis Ababa) na maofesi gha munkhwala 412. Ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵababa mbachoko chomene, ndipo pa ŵanthu 1,000 awo ŵakubabika, 41 ŵakufwa. Kufuma mu 1990 m'paka mu 2012, charu cha Ethiopia chikakwaniska kuchepeska chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵandafike vyaka 5. Nangauli chiŵelengero ichi chachepa chomene, kweni ŵanakazi ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵakusuzgika na masuzgo agho ghakuŵapo para ŵababa. HIV/AIDS mu Ethiopia yikaŵa pa 1.1% mu 2014, ndipo yikakhira chomene kufuma pa 4.5% vyaka 15 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika comene ni ŵanthu ŵakavu na ŵanakazi, cifukwa ca kupeleŵera kwa masambiro gha vyaumoyo, kuŵawovwira, kuŵamanya makora ŵanthu, ndiposo kuleka kuŵa na umoyo uwemi. Boma la Ethiopia na mawupu gha vyaru vinandi nga ni World Health Organization (WHO), na United Nations, ŵakwambiska kampeni ndipo ŵakugwira nchito mwakukwana kuti ŵawovwire kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu ku Ethiopia uŵe uwemi kweniso kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora za matenda gha AIDS na matenda ghanyake agho ghakuthandazgika.<ref>(Dugassa, 2005).</ref>[[File:Bracing for a short, sharp jab.jpg|thumb|An Ethiopian girl about to receive her [[measles]] vaccine]] Charu cha Ethiopia chili na ŵana ŵanandi awo ŵakufwa pa nthumbo. Nangauli Ethiopia wakakwaniska yayi kufiska chilato cha MDG cha kuchepeska nyifwa ya ŵamama na vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu mu 2015, kweni vinthu vikwenda makora. Mwachiyelezgero, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana pambere ŵandababike chikakwera kufuma pa 8.1% mu 2000 kufika pa 41.8% mu 2014, ndipo chiŵelengero cha awo ŵakugonana pambere ŵandababike chikakwera kufuma pa 29% kufika pa 98.1% mu nyengo yeneyiyi. Mazuŵa ghano, pa ŵana 100,000, ŵanakazi 420 ndiwo ŵakufwa. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ku Ethiopia ndiwo ŵakubabikira mu vipatala, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakubabikira mu vikaya. Ŵanakazi ŵacekuru awo ŵakulindizgika kuti ŵababe pa nyumba ndiwo ŵakuŵawovwira. "Wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose ukuti para ŵanakazi ŵangababika mu maofesi gha munkhwala agho ghali na wovwiri wakukwana ndiposo awo ŵali kusambizgika makora, ŵangaleka kufwa na kulwara".<ref>(Dorman et al., 2009, p.&nbsp;622).</ref> [[File:Community Health Workers (5762479865).jpg|thumb|Community health care workers]] Cifukwa cakuti palije ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa munkhwala awo ŵakumanya vya munkhwala, kweniso palije ndalama zakovwilira ŵantchito aŵa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga yayi ŵanthu awo ŵakuchizga matenda. Chinthu chimoza icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita, kwali ŵali mu chisopa wuli panji ŵali na ndalama zinandi, nkhuswa viŵaro vya ŵanakazi (Female Genital Mutilation, panji FGM). Mu 2004, boma la Ethiopia likakanizga kugwiliskira ntchito munkhwala uwu. Kuguliska ŵanakazi ni kaluso ako kakuchitika pambere ŵandatorane ndipo kakusangika mu vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Middle East.<ref name="Rohayes">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030| title = Female genital mutilation, fertility control, women's roles, and the patrilineage in modern Sudan: A functional analysis1| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-ethnologist_1975-11_2_4/page/617| journal = American Ethnologist| volume = 2| issue = 4| pages = 617–33| year = 1975| last1 = Hayes | first1 = R.O. | doi-access = free}}</ref><ref name="Bodman">Bodman, Herbert L. and Tohidi, Nayereh Esfahlani (1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=PFzdA2Hini4C Women in Muslim societies: diversity within unity], Lynne Rienner Publishers, p. 41. {{ISBN|1-55587-578-5}}</ref>Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakuchiska ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo.<ref name="Frayser">Frayser, Suzanne G. and Whitby, Thomas J. (1995) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZArPH0nFGo0C Studies in human sexuality: a selected guide], Libraries Unlimited, p. 257 {{ISBN|1-56308-131-8}}.</ref>[[File:Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital - from Flickr 159817756.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital]]]] Ku Ethiopia, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakukomeka, kweni ku ŵasungwana yayi. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na ŵanthu na umoyo wa ku Ethiopia (Ethiopia's 2005 Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS)) wakalongora kuti pa ŵanakazi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakulwara matenda agha chili pa 74%. Mu vigaŵa vya Dire Dawa, Somalia, na Afar, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita nthena. Mu vigaŵa vya Oromo na Harari, ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana ŵakujumpha 80 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakuchita opareshoni iyi. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakusuzgika na nthenda iyi mbachoko chomene mu vigaŵa vya Tigray na Gambela. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2010, ku Ethiopia, ŵanakazi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 35 na 39 ŵali na nthenda iyi pa ŵanthu 81 peresenti. Lipoti linyake la UNICEF la mu 2014 likulongora kuti pa ŵasungwana wose ŵa vyaka 14 kukhilira pasi, 24 pera ndiwo ŵakatoleka. Kweniso mu charu ichi ŵanthu ŵakukotora ŵanalume, ndipo pafupifupi 76% ya ŵanalume ŵa mu Ethiopia ŵakukotoreka. Boma la Ethiopia lili kusaina mapangano ghakupambanapambana agho ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanakazi na ŵana. Dango la caru ici likupeleka wanangwa wa ŵanakazi. Ŵakuyezga kukhozga umoyo wa ŵanakazi mwa kumazga malango na maluso ghose agho ghakutondeska ŵanakazi kuti ŵachitenge vinthu mwakuyana na wanangwa wawo. Ndondomeko ya Umoyo wa Maghanoghano iyo yikalembeka mu 2012, yikalongozga kuti paŵe ndondomeko yakovwira kuti umoyo wa maghanoghano uŵe makora mu Ethiopia. Ndondomeko iyi yikayowoya kuti umoyo wa maghanoghano ukwenera kuŵa mu ndyali. Ndipouli, ndondomeko ya umoyo wa maghanoghano ya ku caru cose yikwenda makora yayi. Mwachiyelezgero, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika maghanoghano chikasazgikira na 34.2% kufuma mu 2007 m'paka 2017. Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera, ŵakulongozga makora yayi, kweniso ŵakukolerana yayi pa nkhani ya umoyo wa maghanoghano.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Health system governance to support scale up of mental health care in Ethiopia: a qualitative study|first1=Charlotte|last1=Hanlon|first2=Tigist|last2=Eshetu|first3=Daniel|last3=Alemayehu|first4=Abebaw|last4=Fekadu|first5=Maya|last5=Semrau|first6=Graham|last6=Thornicroft|first7=Fred|last7=Kigozi|first8=Debra Leigh|last8=Marais|first9=Inge|last9=Petersen|first10=Atalay|last10=Alem|date=8 June 2017|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=11|pages = 38|doi=10.1186/s13033-017-0144-4|pmid=28603550|pmc=5465569}}</ref> ===Masambilo=== {{Main|Education in Ethiopia}} {{See also|Higher education in Ethiopia}} [[File:Addis Abeba University (Sam Effron).jpg|thumb|Entrance of [[Addis Ababa University]]]] Charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa na chisopa cha Orthodox cha Tewahedo kufuma mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Axum mu 330 C.E. Ŵaliska ndiwo ŵakasambizganga Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Etiyopiya visambizgo vyaunenesko. Para ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵamalizga masambiro ghawo, ŵakuŵa ŵasofi kweniso ŵakusambira chomene. Masambiro gha mazuŵa ghano ghakamba mu 1908 apo Fumu Menelik II yikajura sukulu yakwamba mu Addis Ababa. Kweniso, Themba Haile Selassie I likawovwira kuti paŵe yunivesite yakwamba, yunivesite ya Addis Ababa, iyo yikazengeka mu 1950. Sonosono apa, boma likunozga masukulu ghapachanya gha vigaŵa vinandi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Education in Ethiopia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ethiopia/Education |website=Britannica |access-date=5 February 2022}}</ref> [[File:Plants in a Laboratory for High School Science, Addis Ababa.jpg|thumb|Plants in a laboratory of [[Ethio-Parents' School]] in Addis Ababa]] Ndondomeko iyo yilipo sono yikukolerana na ndondomeko ya kusazgirako masukulu, iyo yikuyana comene na umo vikaŵira mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ndipo yikusazgapo kuti ŵanthu ŵa vigaŵa ivi ŵalutilire kusambizgika mu viyowoyero vyawo. Masambiro gha ku pulayimale ngambura kulipira ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira para ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 7 na 12. Masambiro gha ku sekondare mu Ethiopia ghakukhala vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza, kufuma apo vyaka vinayi vya masambiro gha ku sekondare.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Teferra|first1=Damtew|last2=Altbach|first2=Philip G.|title=African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RROdAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34186-0|pages= 316–25}}</ref> [[File:Top floor of the first science museum in Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|The [[Ethiopia Museum of Art and Science|Addis Ababa Science Museum of Art and Science]] serves as the country's biggest hub which showcases the country's newest innovations]] Masambiro gha ku Ethiopia ghakulongozgeka na Unduna wa vya masambiro ndipo ndondomeko yake ni 4+4+2+2 system; masambiro gha ku pulayimale ghakukhala vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri, ndipo gha vyaka vinayi gha masambiro gha ku sekondare ghakukhala vyaka viŵiri. Wupu wakuwona vya masambiro (National Education Assessment and Examination Agency) ndiwo ukuchita viyezgelero vya boma. Kuyambira chaka cha 2018, pali mayeso awiri a boma: Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE), omwe amadziwikanso kuti Grade 10 national exam ndi Grade 12 national exam. Mazuŵa ghano, pali masukulu gha boma 30. Pambere chaka cha 1991 chindafike, ku Ethiopia kukaŵavya masukulu gha masukulu ghapachanya, kweni sono kuli masukulu ghapachanya ghapachanya 61. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa masukulu ghapachanya na ghapachanya chikakwera chomene, kufuma pa 34,000 mu 1991 kufika pa 757,000 mu 2014. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Ethiopia ŵasambira makora. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 miliyoni ŵakasambiranga masukulu gha pulayimale mu 1994-95, kweni mu 2008-09, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakasambiranga masukulu gha pulayimale chikakwera kufika pa 15.5 miliyoni. Mu 2013-14, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga sukulu ku Ethiopia chikakwera chomene mu vigaŵa vyose. Pa caru cose, ciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵaciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵaciŵelengero ca ŵanalume cikaŵa 104.8%, ca ŵasungwana 97.8%, na 101.3%. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikakwera chomene. Mu 2007, chiŵelengero ichi chikaŵa 39% (ŵanalume 49.1% na ŵanakazi 28.9%). Lipoti la UNDP mu 2011 likulongora kuti ŵanthu 46.7% mu Ethiopia ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Lipoti lenelili likayowoyaso kuti chiŵelengero cha ŵanakazi awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikakwera kufuma pa 27 kufika pa 39 peresenti kufuma mu 2004 m'paka mu 2011, ndipo cha ŵanalume kufuma pa 49 kufika pa 59 peresenti. Mu 2015, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikakwera chomene, chikafika pa 49.1% (57.2% ŵanalume na 41.1% ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en|title=Education|last=UIS|website=data.uis.unesco.org}}</ref> ==Mwambo== {{Main|Culture of Ethiopia}} [[File:Roasting Ethiopian coffee ceremony.jpg|thumb|170px|An Ethiopian woman roasting coffee beans in a [[coffee house]]. The coffee serving ceremony is the most important course in Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 October 2019|title=Ethiopian Coffee Guide: Buying and Brewing Tips|url=https://www.homegrounds.co/ethiopian-coffee/|access-date=11 February 2022|language=en-US}}</ref>]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakakhalanga ku chigaŵa ichi, ndipo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha ChiSemiti, Chicushiti, na chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tigray na Amhara, awo ŵakalongozganga ndyali kumasinda, ŵakupambana na ŵanthu ŵanyake chifukwa cha ndondomeko yawo na umo ŵakakhalanga. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali kufuma ku Kaffa, Sidamo, na Afar.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=27 August 1976|title=The peoples and cultures of Ethiopia|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.1976.0061|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=194|issue=1114|pages=7–16|doi=10.1098/rspb.1976.0061|pmid=11482|issn=0080-4649|last1=Lewis|first1=I. M.|bibcode=1976RSPSB.194....7L|s2cid=46723065}}</ref> Cinthu ico cikumanyikwa comene pa vyakucitika vya khofi. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinandi, khofi wakupelekeka pa ungano wa mbumba, wa ŵabwezi, panji wa mu muzi. Pali mitundu yitatu ya kumwa khofi: yimoza yakuchemeka "awol", yachiŵiri "tona" (ቶና) na yachitatu "baraka" (ባርካ). Nthano ya khofi yikamba na Kaldi, muliska wa mbuzi wa ku Keffa Zone uyo wakawona kuti mbuzi yake yikamba kuŵa na nthenda ya nthenda ya kutenthema cifukwa ca kurya vivwati ivyo vikapangiska kuti yimbenge mwambura kujikora. Wakati waŵa na vipasi, ŵakamuphalira kuti wavipeleke ku ŵasembe ŵa ku nyumba ya ŵasofi. Wasembe munyake wakati Kaldi ni "muzga wa Dyabulosi". Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Kaldi wakaŵako mu 850 C.E., ndipo ŵakugomezga kuti ndiyo wakamba kulima khofi ku Ethiopia mu vyaka vya m'ma 900.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Ethiopian Coffee Culture – Legend, History and Customs|url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/ethiopian-coffee-culture-765829|access-date=25 December 2021|website=The Spruce Eats|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203175842/https://www.thespruceeats.com/ethiopian-coffee-culture-765829|archive-date=3 February 2023}}</ref> ===Maluso=== {{main article|Ethiopian art}} [[File:Ethiopian scribes.jpg|thumb|Illustration showing two [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] scribes]] Vinthu vya ku Ethiopia vikakhwaskika chomene na vithuzithuzi vya Ŵakhristu. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa mipukutu, vithuzithuzi, mphinjika, vikozgo, na vinthu vinyake vya visulo nga ni mphumphu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakalembako mabuku agha ŵakaŵa ŵa tchalitchi la Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo, ilo likaŵa la boma kwa vyaka vinandi. Mu nyengo ya Aksumite, ŵanthu ŵakaŵikangamo vinthu vyakuŵaja mu malibwe, nangauli palije vinthu vya Chikhristu ivyo vikusangika mu nyengo iyi. Apo Chikhristu chikambanga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Byzantium ndiwo ŵakambiska visambizgo vyake. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵako pambere nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano yindize vikabwanganduka chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa ufumu wa Adal mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya ku Ethiopia, kweni ŵakatumizgika na ŵapositole ŵa Katolika. Ŵanji ŵakamba kunjilirapo pa luso lwa ku Ethiopia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. ===Kuzenga=== {{main article|Architecture of Ethiopia}} [[File:ET Gondar asv2018-02 img03 Fasil Ghebbi.jpg|thumb|The Royal Enclosure at [[Fasil Ghebbi]], [[Gondar]]]] Panji nyumba zakutowa comene izo zikazengeka mu nyengo yakale zikazengeka mu nyengo ya Dʿmt. Kuzenga kwa Ashlar kukaŵa kwa mtundu unyake wa ku South Arabia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakalutilira kuzenga mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E. Pa malibwe agha ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito libwe limoza. Dindi la Chijaro chautesi ilo likazengera mafumu gha ku Aksumite, likaŵa la mtundu umoza. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Lalibela ŵakakhalanga ku malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum, kweni malo ghanyake ghakaŵa na malibwe panji makuni ghakupambana. Mu nyengo ya Gondarine, vyakuzengeka vya ku Ethiopia vikaŵa vya Baroque, Arabic, Turkish na Gujarati. Chiyelezgero ni linga la ufumu la Fasil Ghebbi, ilo lili na vyakuvwara viŵiri ivi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchema nyumba izi kuti Nyumba za Ufumu.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Andreu Martínez |last1=Alòs-Moner |title=Gondarine Art and Architecture (HaAh 523) – Course Syllabus |url=https://www.academia.edu/11314717}}</ref> ===Visambizgo=== {{main article|Ethiopian philosophy}} Visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya vikaŵa vyakukondweska comene mu Africa kwamba kale comene, nangauli vikaŵa vyakupambana na visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece na ku Patristic. Ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha vinjeru vya ŵanthu ŵakaŵa nga ni Zera Yacob (1599-1692) na Walda Heywat, uyo wakalemba buku lakuti Hatata mu 1667. ===Kulemba mabuku=== {{main article|Ethiopian literature}} [[File:Giyorgis MET DP367372.jpg|thumb|[[Giyorgis of Segla]], prolific religious author in the [[Late Middle Ages]]]] Mabuku gha mu Ethiopia ghakalembeka mu nyengo ya Ŵaakshumi mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E. Ghanandi mwa mabuku agha ghakulongosora vya cisopa. Mu malemba ghacifumu, ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ciyowoyero ca Ge'ez na Cigiriki. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinandi vya ku Africa, mu Ethiopia muli chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez, icho chikayowoyeka chomene pa nkhani za ndyali na masambiro. Nangauli pasono vinthu vikwenda makora yayi mu caru ici, kweni mulimo wa kuvikilira vinthu uwu wafika paheni comene. Mabuku ghanandi gha ku Ethiopia ghakalembeka na mawoko (branna, panji ብራና mu Ciamharic). Pakunozga khuni ili, ŵakuwunjika mapepara gha vikumba na kughaphaka kuti ghaŵe ghakukolerana. Utali wa mupukutu uwu ukuthemba pa umo ukalembekera. Mwachiyelezgero, buku lapakompyuta ilo likusangika mu thumba lili na utali wa masentimita 45, ndipo ndilo lizito chomene. Ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakughanaghana kuti mu Ethiopia mukaŵa mipukutu yakale. Mazuŵa ghano napo, malemba ghakale agho ghakaŵa nga ni codex ghachalipo, ndipo ghakusangika pa mapepara gha vikumba.<ref name=":4" /> Buku linyake lakumanyikwa ilo ŵanthu ŵakulemba ni mupukutu uwo ukuŵavikilira. Vinyake mwa vyakurya ivi vikaŵa vya masalamusi. Mipukutu iyo yikulembeka na ŵaliska ŵambura kusankhika awo ŵakumanya vya kufumiska viŵanda na kuchizga. Para munthu wakunyamura mpukutu wa masentimita 30, kanandi wakuwupinda na kukhomeka pa chiliŵa cha nyumba. Ŵanthu ŵakususkana chomene na mipukutu iyo yikuyana na mabuku gha ku Ethiopia. Mu viyowoyero vinyake, ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mabuku ghakulembeka pa vilembo (ghakuchemeka sensul) agho ghakalembeka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 panji 1600. Mabuku agha kanandi ghakulongosora umoyo na nyifwa ya ŵanthu ŵa chisopa..<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Nosnitsin|first=Denis|date=2012|title=Ethiopian Manuscripts and Ethiopian Manuscript Studies. A brief Overview and Evaluation|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/galim_0753-5015_2012_num_58_1_1993|journal=Gazette du livre médiéval|volume=58|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.3406/galim.2012.1993}}</ref> ====Poetry==== [[File:Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin 2.jpg|thumb|150px|Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin in 1980s]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuyowoya vya Ethiopia. Ŵaluso ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya za vinthu ivyo vikacitika kale, kusuzgika kwa ŵanthu, ukavu na njara. Qene ni cigaŵa ico cikugwiliskirika nchito comene mu sumu za ku Ethiopia. Kuti munthu waŵe na vinjeru vyaunenesko wakwenera kuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Para munthu wakuyowoya mazgu ghaŵiri ghakupambanapambana, limoza likuŵa na fundo zakupulikikwa makora ndipo linyake ndakusuzga chomene kulipulikiska. Ntheura, ici cikucemeka semena work (golide na sera).<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Aga|first=Mark T.|title=20 Of The Best Poets And Poems of Ethiopia (Qene included) — allaboutETHIO|url=https://allaboutethio.com/20-must-read-poems-of-ethiopia-best-ethiopian-poetry.html|access-date=18 December 2021|website=allaboutethio.com|language=en}}</ref> Ŵaluso ŵakumanyikwa chomene ni Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin, Kebede Michael na Mengistu Lemma. ===Calendar=== {{Main|Ethiopian calendar|Oromo calendar}} [[File:Celebrate The Return of Axum Obelisk (Detail) (3172365788).jpg|thumb|Model commemorating the [[Obelisk of Axum|Obelisk of Aksum]]'s return to Ethiopia from Italy, showing the date of its departure and return according to the [[Ethiopian calendar]]]] Ku Ethiopia kuli makalendala ghanandi. Kalendala yakumanyikwa comene ni ya ku Etiyopiya, iyo yikucemekaso Ge'ez calendar, ndipo yikulembeka na cilembo ca Ge'ez, ico nchimoza mwa vilembo vyakale comene pa caru cose. Likuthemba pa kalendara yakale ya ku Alexandria panji ya ku Coptic, iyo nayo yikafuma ku kalendara ya ku Eguputo. Nga ni kalendara ya Ŵacoptic, kalendara ya Ŵaetiyopiya nayo yili na myezi 12 ya mazuŵa 30 na mazuŵa 5 panji 6. Miyezi ya ku Ethiopia yikwamba pa zuŵa limoza na ya ku Coptic, kweni mazina ghawo ghali kulembeka mu Chigeez Nga umo vikaŵira na kalendara ya Julian, zuŵa la nambara sikisi la epagomenal, ilo ni zuŵa lakwamba, likuŵikika pa 29 Ogasiti, myezi 6 pambere zuŵa lakwamba la Julian lindafike. Ntheura, zuŵa lakwamba la chaka cha Ethiopia, 1 Mäskäräm, kwa vyaka vya pakati pa 1901 na 2099 (kuphatikizapo), kanandi ni Seputembala 11 (Gregorian), kweni likuŵa pa Seputembala 12 mu vyaka ivyo vyajumpha chaka cha Gregorian. Pa kalendara ya Gregorian, nyengo iyi yili kunthazi kwa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri na myezi yitatu cifukwa ca umo ŵanthu ŵakupima zuŵa ilo Yesu wakababikira. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ndiwo ŵakambiska kalendara yinyake cha m'ma 300 B.C.E. Kalendala iyi yikuthemba pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona pa mwezi. Miyezi ya Oromo (nyenyezi/miyezi ya mwezi) ni Bittottessa (Iangulum), Camsa (Pleiades), Bufa (Aldebarran), Waxabajjii (Belletrix), Obora Gudda (Central Orion-Saiph), Obora Dikka (Sirius), Birra (mwezi wakuzura), Cikawa (gibbous moon), Sadasaa (quarter moon), Abrasa (large crescent), Ammaji (medium crescent), and Gurrandala (small crescent).<ref>{{cite web|first=Lawrence R |last=Doyle |url=http://www.tusker.com/Archaeo/art.currentanthro.htm |title=The Borana Calendar Reinterpreted |work=tusker.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029073246/http://www.tusker.com/Archaeo/art.currentanthro.htm |archive-date=29 October 2008}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|Ethiopian cuisine}} {{multiple image | align =right | total_width = 280 | image1 = Coffee ceremony of Ethiopia and Eritrea 1.jpg | image2 = Alicha 1.jpg | image3 = Kitfo with Ayibe..JPG |footer = [[Coffee]] which was found in Ethiopia is the country's most drank beverage (left) [[Injera]] with a mix of wot's or a bayinatu is one of the country's famous foods (center) [[kitfo]] meat diced whether cooked or raw is usually presented with injera, and other foods, it its one of the country's most iconic foods (right) }} {{see also|List of Ethiopian dishes and foods}} The best-known [[Ethiopian cuisine]] consists of various types of thick meat [[stew]]s, known as ''[[wat (food)|wat]]'' in Ethiopian culture, and vegetable side dishes served on top of [[injera]], a large [[sourdough]] [[flatbread]] made of [[teff]] flour. This is not eaten with utensils, but instead the injera is used to scoop up the entrées and side dishes. Almost universally in Ethiopia, it is common to eat from the same dish in the middle of the table with a group of people. It is also a common custom to feed others within a group or own hands—a tradition referred to as "[[Ethiopian cuisine#Gursha|gursha]]".Mu vyakurya vya ku Ethiopia mulije nyama ya nkhumba panji viŵeto vya mtundu uliwose, pakuti vyose ivi ni vyakukanizgika mu visopa vya Orthodox, Chikhristu, Chisilamu na Chiyuda. Chechebsa, Marqa, Chukko, Michirra na Dhanga ni vyakurya vyakumanyikwa chomene ku Oromo. Kitfo ni cakurya ico ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Gurage ŵakutemwa comene. Kweniso, Doro Wot (ዶሮ ወጥ mu chiAmharic) na Tsebehi Derho (ጽብሒ ድርሆ mu chiTigrinya), ni vyakurya vinyake vyakumanyikwa chomene, ivyo vikufuma kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Tihlo (ጥሕሎ) ni mtundu wa cakurya ico cikupangika na ufu wa balere wakukaŵa. Tihlo sono yikumanyikwa chomene mu Amhara ndipo yikupharazgika kumwera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Culture of the people of Tigrai|url=http://www.tigraionline.com/bahlina.html|publisher=Tigrai Online|access-date=3 January 2013}}</ref> ===Holidays=== {{main article|Public holidays in Ethiopia}} [[File:Meskel-festival-in-Ethiopia 01.jpg|thumb|[[Meskel]] commemorates the discovery of [[True Cross]] by Roman queen [[Helena, mother of Constantine I|Helena]] in 326 CE]] Most holidays are belonged to the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo]], and secondly of [[Islam in Ethiopia|Islam]]. Secular holidays espouse national or historical chronicles. Secular holidays are follows with date of celebration: * [[Adwa Victory Day]] (2 March) * International Workers' Day (1 May) * [[Ethiopian Patriots' Victory Day]] (5 May) * [[Downfall of the Derg (holiday)|Downfall of the Derg]] (28 May) * [[Enkutatash]] (11 September or 12 September (leap year)) * [[Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Day]] (8 December) Ethiopian Orthodox holidays are: * [[Ethiopian Christmas]] (7 January) * [[Timkat]] (19 January) * [[Good Friday]] * [[Easter]] * [[Meskel]] (27 September or 28 September (leap year)) Islamic holidays are: * [[Ramadan]] * [[Mawlid]] * [[Eid al-Fitr]] * [[Eid al-Adha]] ===Media=== {{main|Communications in Ethiopia|Media in Ethiopia}} {{multiple image | align = left | total_width = 280 | image1 =| image2 =| image3 = Teddy Afro.jpg |footer = Actress Mekdes Tsegaye (left), [[Tilahun Gessesse]] (center) and [[Teddy Afro]] (right) are three influential Ethiopians in the music and movie industries in Ethiopia}} [[File:Ethiopian Television.JPG|thumb|The [[Ethiopian Broadcasting Corporation]] headquarter in Addis Ababa]]The [[Ethiopian Broadcasting Corporation]] (EBC), formerly known as ETV, is the [[state media]]. Radio broadcasting was commenced earlier in 1935 before the television service began in 1962 with assistance of British firm Thomson and Emperor Haile Selassie.<ref name="africanews.com"/> Since 2015, EBC has upgraded its studios with modernized transmission. [[Kana TV]] is the most popular TV channel in Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2017/12/ethiopias-new-addiction-says-media-freedom/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CKana%E2%80%9D%20translates%20as%20something%20between,of%20the%20prime%20time%20market |title=Ethiopia's New Addiction – And What It Says About Media Freedom |last=Jeffrey |first=James |work=Inter Press Service News Agency |date=21 December 2017 |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> It is mainly known for [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbing]] foreign content into [[Amharic]]. Over several decades, the state television has served as the major mass media until in the late 2000s, when [[EBS TV (Ethiopia)|EBS TV]] launched as the first private television channel. Moreover, numerous private channels were commenced in 2016, culminating in the growth of privately owned media companies in the country. As an example, [[Fana TV]] has been the largest TV network since its launch in 2017. The most widely circulated newspapers in Ethiopia are [[Addis Fortune]], [[Capital Ethiopia]], [[Ethiopian Reporter]], Addis Zemen{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} (''Amharic'') and [[Ethiopian Herald]].{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} The sole internet service provider is the national telecommunications firm [[Ethio telecom]]. A large portion of users in the country access the internet through mobile devices.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/ethiopia-internet-blocked-618806|title=Why has Ethiopia pulled its mobile internet access again?|last=Gaffey|first=Conor|date=1 June 2017|work=Newsweek|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> {{as of|2016|July}}, there are around 4.29&nbsp;million people who have internet access at their home as compared to a quarter of a million users a decade before that.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.internetlivestats.com/internet-users/ethiopia/|title=Ethiopia Internet Users|date=1 July 2016|website=Internet Live Stats|publisher=Internet Live Stats}}</ref> The Ethiopian government has at times intentionally shut down internet service in the country or restricted access to certain social media sites during periods of political unrest. In August 2016, following protest and demonstration in the Oromia Region, all access to the internet was shut down for a period of two days.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36940906|title=What is behind Ethiopia's wave of protests?|date=22 August 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> In June 2017, the government shut down access to the internet for mobile users during a period that coincided with the administration of university entrance examination. Although the reason for the restriction was not confirmed by the government,<ref name=":3" /> the move was similar to a measure taken during the same period in 2016, after a leak of test questions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/07/ethiopia-blocks-social-media-sites-exam-leak-160711183939642.html|title=Ethiopia blocks social media sites over exam leak|date=11 July 2016|website=Al Jazeera|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/ethiopia-blocks-social-media-facebook-twitter-instagram-scandal-479581|title=Ethiopia has shut down social media and here's why|last=Sharkov|first=Damien|date=12 July 2016|work=Newsweek|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> ===Science and technology=== {{Main article|Science and technology in Ethiopia}} {{see also|List of Ethiopian scientists}} {{multiple image | align =right | image1 = Portrait-aklilu-lemma-11.jpg | width1 = 125 | caption1 = Pathobiologist [[Aklilu Lemma]]. In 1964, he discovered an [[Alternative medicine|alternative]] treatment for [[schistosomiasis]], known as snail fever.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Aklilu Lemma|url=https://rightlivelihood.org/the-change-makers/find-a-laureate/aklilu-lemma/|access-date=9 January 2022|website=Right Livelihood|language=en}}</ref> | image2 = Zeresenay Alemseged (2013-01).JPG | width2 = 125 | caption2 = Paleoanthropologist [[Zeresenay Alemseged]] in 2013. He was best known for discovering fossilized [[hominin]] called ''[[Selam (Australopithecus)|Selam]]'' or "Lucy's baby" in December 2000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zeresenay Alemseged – National Geographic Society|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/find-explorers/zeresenay-alemseged|access-date=9 January 2022|website=www.nationalgeographic.org|language=en}}</ref> }} Science and technology in Ethiopia emerging as progressive due to lack of organized institutions. Manufacturing and service providers often place themselves in [[competitive programming]] in order to advance innovative and technological solutions through in-house arenas. The [[Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute|Ethiopian Space Science and Technology]] is responsible for conducting multifaceted tasks regarding space and technology. In addition, Ethiopia also launched 70&nbsp;kg ET-RSS1 multi-spectral remote sensing satellite in December 2019. The President Sahle-Work Zewde told prior in October 2019 that "the satellite will provide all the necessary data on changes in climate and weather-related phenomena that would be used for the country's key targets in agriculture, forestry as well as natural resources protection initiatives." By January 2020, satellite manufacturing, assembling, integrating and testing began. This would also incremented facility built by French company funded by European Investment Bank (EIB). The main observatory Entoto Observatory and Space Science Research Center (EORC) allocated space programmes. The Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute is a part of Scientific Research & Development Services Industry, responsible for environmental and climate conservation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Science And Technology|url=https://www.miceethiopia.com/science-and-technology/|access-date=23 December 2021|website=MICE Ethiopia|language=en-US}}</ref> Numerous profound scientists have contributed degree of honours and reputations. Some are [[Kitaw Ejigu]], [[Mulugeta Bekele]], [[Aklilu Lemma]], [[Gebisa Ejeta]] and [[Melaku Worede]]. Ethiopia is known for use of [[traditional medicine]] since millennia. The first epidemic occurred in Ethiopia was in 849, causing the Aksumite Emperor Abba Yohannes evicted from place due to "God's punishment for misdeeds". The first traditional medicine was claimed to be derived from this catastrophe, but the exact source is debated. Though differ from ethnic groups, traditional medicine often implements herbs, spiritual healing, bone-setting and minor surgical procedures in treating disease.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ethiopian Traditional Medications and their Interactions with Conventional Drugs|url=https://ethnomed.org/resource/ethiopian-traditional-and-herbal-medications-and-their-interactions-with-conventional-drugs/|access-date=31 January 2022|website=EthnoMed|language=en-US}}</ref> Others fields include conventional [[Mathematics in Ethiopia|mathematics]] used to measure astrology, calendar and unit of measurement. Ethiopia was ranked 126th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=5 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ===Music=== {{Main|Music of Ethiopia}} {{See also|Ethiopian Golden Age of music}} The [[music of Ethiopia]] is extremely diverse, with each of the country's 80 ethnic groups being associated with unique sounds. Ethiopian music uses a distinct [[Musical mode|modal system]] that is [[Pentatonic scale|pentatonic]], with characteristically long intervals between some notes. As with many other aspects of Ethiopian culture and tradition, tastes in music and lyrics are strongly linked with those in neighbouring Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, and Sudan.<ref name="Abdullahi">{{cite book |last=Abdullahi |first=Mohamed Diriye |title=Culture and Customs of Somalia |year=2001 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-31333-2 |page=170 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nu918tYMB8C&pg=PA170 |quote=Somali music, a unique kind of music that might be mistaken at first for music from nearby countries such as Ethiopia, the Sudan, or even Arabia, can be recognized by its own tunes and styles.}}</ref><ref name="Tekle">{{cite book |last=Tekle |first=Amare |title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: from conflict to cooperation |year=1994 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=978-0-932415-97-4 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC&pg=PA197 |quote=Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan have significant similarities emanating not only from culture, religion, traditions, history and aspirations&nbsp;... They appreciate similar foods and spices, beverages and sweets, fabrics and tapestry, lyrics and music, and jewellery and fragrances.}}</ref> Traditional singing in Ethiopia presents diverse styles of [[polyphony]], ([[heterophony]], [[drone (music)|drone]], imitation, and [[counterpoint]]). Traditionally, lyricism in Ethiopian song writing is strongly associated with views of patriotism or national pride, romance, friendship, and a unique type of memoire known as ''[[tizita]]''. Saint [[Yared]], a 6th-century Aksumite composer, is widely regarded as the forerunner of traditional music of Eritrea and Ethiopia, creating liturgical music of the Ethiopian and [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]. He also composed ''[[Zema]]'', subdivided into three chants: Ge'ez, Ezel and Araray. Yared life thought to have been "failure and success" where his was poor performance in education. Yared then fired from the school and went to his uncle birthplace Murade Qal. There his saw caterpillar endeavours to reach a tree's peak. He epitomized to his real life and returned to the school with good spirit, later became prominent to political sphere. During the remaining of his lifetime, he was a friend of Aksumite Emperor Gebre Meskel and the exiled [[Nine Saints]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=About St. Yared – St. Yared Ethiopian Cuisine & Coffeehaus – Indianapolis IN|url=https://www.styaredcuisine.com/about.html|access-date=25 December 2021|website=www.styaredcuisine.com}}</ref> Modern music traced back to the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, where 40 Armenian orphans called [[Arba Lijoch]] arrived from [[Jerusalem]] to Addis Ababa. By 1924, the band was almost established as orchestral; but after World War II, several similar bands emerged such as Imperial Bodyguard Band, Army Band, and Police Band.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aga|first=Mark T.|title=Music in Ethiopia — allaboutETHIO|url=https://allaboutethio.com/tmusic.html|access-date=9 January 2022|website=allaboutethio.com|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Mahmoudahmedfeature.jpg|thumb|[[Mahmoud Ahmed]] performing in 2005]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 na 1970, sumu za ku Ethiopia zikamba kwambaso. Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa ŵakafuma, nga ni Tilahun Gessesse, Alemayehu Eshete, Bizunesh Bekele, Muluken Melesse na Mahmoud Ahmed. Kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kaluso ako ŵakachemanga tizita. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Derg, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵakanizga kuchita maseŵero mu caru ici ndipo kanandi ŵakasuzgikanga kuluta ku caru ca North America na Europe, ndipo ŵakasangananga na sumu za jazz na za funk. Mwaciyelezgero, Roha Band, Walias Band, na Ethio Stars. Pa nyengo iyi, Neway Debebe wakasuskanga boma la Derg.<ref name=":9" /> Sumu za mazuŵa ghano zikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 na 2000. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga chomene ŵakaŵa Aster Aweke, Gigi na Teddy Afro. Sumu za ku Etiyopiya zikamba kuwoneka makora mu vyaka 10 vyakulondezgapo. DJ Rophnan wakaŵa wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha kupanga EDM pamanyuma pa kufumiska album yake yakwamba Reflection mu 2018.<ref name=":9" /> ===Vyakuonelela=== {{main article|Cinema of Ethiopia}} [[File:HagerFikirTheatre.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hager Fikir Theatre]] in April 2006]] Sinema yakwamba yikalongoreka mu 1898, pati pajumpha vyaka vitatu kufuma apo sinema yakwamba yikayowoyekera. Vinthu vya pa sinema ivyo vikalembeka na Federico Ciccodicola [it] uyo wakaŵa nduna ya ku Italy. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwonelera mafilimu gha nkhani za ŵanthu mu 1909. Au de Menilek ndiyo yikaŵa filimu yakwamba iyo yikalongozgeka na Charles Martel. Filimu yakwamba ya 16mm yakufipa na yituŵa yakuyowoya vya kuwuskika kwa Themba Zewditu, ndipo pamanyuma kuwuskika kwa Themba Haile Selassie. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, mafilimu gha ku Ethiopia ghakathandazgika chomene pa charu chose. Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene mu nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa Haile Gerima, Salem Mekuria, Yemane Demissie, na Teshome Gabriel. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, mafilimu ghakamba kusinthika ndipo ghakaŵa na chiyowoyero cha Chiamhari. Mafilimu agho ghakapanga ndalama zinandi pa caru cose ni Selanchi, Difret, Lamb, Prince of Love na Lambadina. Mu nyengo yasono, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakwimba, kusazgapo Selam Tesfaye, Fryat Yemane, Hanan Tarik, Mahder Assefa, Amleset Muchie na Ruth Negga.[[File:Abebe Bikila triumphant 1960.jpg|thumb|[[Abebe Bikila]] winning the [[1960 Summer Olympics|summer Olympics]] Italy, Rome in 1960: winning [[Ethiopia at the Olympics|Ethiopia's]] and Africa's first gold metal]] Yimoza mwa masambiro gha mafilimu ghakuzirwa chomene ni Gumma Film Awards agho ghakuchitikira mu Addis Ababa. Mphoto iyi yikamba kupelekeka mu 2014. Pa viphikiro vinyake, nga ni Addis International Film Festival na Ethiopian International Film Festival, ŵakuwoneska mafilimu gha ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita maseŵero ghakusanguluska. Iwo ŵakakhazikiskika mu 2007 na 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopian International Film Festival |url=https://ethiopianfilminitiative.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=470:the-ethiopian-international-film-festival&catid=68&Itemid=113 |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=ethiopianfilminitiative.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705210553/https://ethiopianfilminitiative.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=470:the-ethiopian-international-film-festival&catid=68&Itemid=113 |archive-date=5 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Addis International Film Festival {{!}} Human Rights Film Network |url=https://www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org/filmfestival/addis-international-film-festival |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524004651/https://www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org/filmfestival/addis-international-film-festival |archive-date=24 May 2022}}</ref> === Maseŵera === {{Main|Sport in Ethiopia}} [[File:Genzebe_Dibaba_Istanbul_2012.jpg|thumb|left|[[Genzebe Dibaba]] wakuchimbira mtunda utali na pakati. Wakawina mendulo ya golide mu mpikisano wa mita 1500 pa mpikisano wa Olimpiki wa 2016 ku Rio.]] Maseŵero ghakurughakuru mu Ethiopia ni maseŵero gha kuthamanga (makamaka kuthamanga mtunda utali) na bola. Ŵaseŵera ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵali kutora mendulo zinandi za golide pa maseŵero gha maseŵero gha ku malo ghakutali. Abebe Bikila wakazgoka wamaseŵera wakwamba kufuma ku chalo cha Sub-Saharan uyo wakatora mendulo ya golide pa maseŵero gha Olympic apo wakatchova marathon pa maseŵero gha Olympic mu 1960 ku Rome mu nyengo ya 2:15:16.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/gallery/2012/apr/25/athletics-olympics-2012|title=50 stunning Olympic moments: Abebe Bikila's 1960 marathon victory – in pictures|last=Bloor|first=Steven|date=25 April 2012|work=The Guardian|access-date=14 October 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.olympic.org/news/barefooted-bikila-steps-in-for-heroic-marathon-triumph|title=Athletics – Abebe Bikila (ETH)|date=13 October 2019|website=International Olympic Committee|language=en|access-date=14 October 2019}}</ref>[[Haile Gebrselassie,]] Kenenisa Bekele, na Tirunesh Dibaba, wose mbalwani ŵakumanyikwa pa charu chose. Letesenbet Gidey ndiyo wali na mbiri ya pa caru cose pa kuthamanga mamita 5,000 na mamita 10,000. Ŵalendo ŵanyake ŵakuzirwa ŵa ku Ethiopia ni Mamo Wolde, Miruts Yifter, Derartu Tulu, Meseret Defar, Birhane Adere, Tiki Gelana, Genzebe Dibaba, Tariku Bekele, Gelete Burka, na Yomif Kejelcha. Mu chaka cha 2012 na 2013, timu ya mpira ya ku Ethiopia (iyo yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti Walayia Antelopes) yikalemba mbiri pakunjira mu Africa Cup of Nations ya 2012 ndipo yikafika mu timu 10 zakumalizira za mpira wa ku Africa mu chigaŵa chaumaliro cha FIFA World Cup ya 2014. Ŵaseŵera ŵakumanyikwa chomene ni Adane Girma uyo wakaŵa kapitawo wa timu iyi na Saladin Said uyo wakaŵa na vilato vinandi. Charu cha Ethiopia chili na mitheto yitali chomene ya mpira wa basketball mu vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa.{{clear}} ==Wonaniso== * [[Index of Ethiopia-related articles]] * [[Outline of Ethiopia]] * [[Music and politics in Ethiopia]] ==Vyakulemba== {{notelist}} ==Ukaboni== ===Citations=== {{Reflist |refs = <!-- Not in use <ref name="Mengistu_2018_Zimb">{{cite news |title = Why a photo of Mengistu has proved so controversial |date= 2 August 2018 |website = [[BBC News]] |publisher = BBC | url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45043811 |access-date = 29 June 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190629092237/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45043811 |archive-date = 29 June 2019 |url-status = live}}</ref> --> }} === General sources=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=Abir |author=Abir, Mordechai |title = Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire (1769–1855) |location = London, England |publisher=Longmans |year= 1968}} * {{cite book |ref=Beshah |author1=Beshah, Girma |author2=Aregay, Merid Wolde |title=The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632) |location = Lisbon |publisher= Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos |year=1964}} *{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000conn |last1=Connel |first1=Dan |last2=Killion |first2=Tom |year=2011 |publisher=The Scarecrow |isbn=978-081085952-4}} * {{cite journal |last=Lyons |first=Terrence |year=1996 |title=Closing the Transition: the May 1995 Elections in Ethiopia |url=https://www.academia.edu/9622394 |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=121–42 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00055233|s2cid=155079488 }} * {{cite book |ref=Munro-Hay |author=Munro-Hay, Stuart |year=1991 |url=http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-0106-6 |access-date=3 March 2012 |archive-date=23 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |url-status=dead}} * {{Cite book |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=9780932415196 |language=en}} * {{cite book |ref=Valdes Vivo|author=Valdes Vivo, Raul |title=Ethiopia's Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/ethiopiasrevolut0000vald|publisher=International Publishers |location = New York, NY |year= 1977|isbn=978-0-7178-0556-3}} {{refend}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=Gwyn|last2=Miers|first2=Suzanne|last3=Miller|first3=Joseph|title=Women and Slavery: Africa, the Indian Ocean world, and the medieval north Atlantic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgm69dJt4DcC&pg=PA219|year=2007|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-1723-2}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Abyssinia | volume= 1 |last2= Gleichen |first2= Albert Edward Wilfred |author2-link= Lord Edward Gleichen |last1= Cana |first1= Frank Richardson |author1-link= | pages = 82&ndash;95 |short= 1 }} * Deguefé, Taffara (2006). ''Minutes of an Ethiopian Century'', Shama Books, Addis Ababa, {{ISBN|99944-0-003-7}}. * Hugues Fontaine, ''Un Train en Afrique. African Train'', Centre Français des Études Éthiopiennes / Shama Books. Édition bilingue français / anglais. Traduction : Yves-Marie Stranger. Postface : Jean-Christophe Belliard. Avec des photographies de Matthieu Germain Lambert et Pierre Javelot. Addis Abeba, 2012, {{ISBN|978-99944-867-1-7}}. English and French. [http://www.africantrain.org/ UN TRAIN EN AFRIQUE] * {{Cite book|last=Henze |first=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |year=2004 |publisher=Shama Books|isbn=978-1-931253-28-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Keller |first1=Edmond |title=Revolutionary Ethiopia From Empire to People's Republic |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryeth00edmo |date=1991 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=9780253206466}} * {{Cite book|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913 |year=1975 |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford}} Reprint, Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1995. {{ISBN|1-56902-009-4}}. * {{Cite book|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=A History of Ethiopia |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofethiopi0000marc |edition=updated |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-22479-7}} * Mauri, Arnaldo (2010). ''Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia'', Acta Universitatis Danubius Œconomica, VI, n. 1/2010, pp.&nbsp;5–16. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180844/http://journals.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/oeconomica/article/view/337-319 Monetary Developments and Decolonization in Ethiopia] and WP [http://ideas.repec.org./p/mil/wpdepa/2010-15.html Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia] * {{Cite book|last=Mockler |first=Anthony |title=Haile Selassie's War |url=https://archive.org/details/haileselassieswa0000mock |year=1984 |publisher=Random House |location=New York}} Reprint, New York: Olive Branch, 2003. {{ISBN|0-902669-53-2}}. * [[Dervla Murphy|Murphy, Dervla]] (1968). ''[[In Ethiopia with a Mule]]''. London: Century, 1984, cop. 1968. ''N.B''.: An account of the author's travels in Ethiopia. 280 p., ill. with a b&w map. {{ISBN|0-7126-3044-9}} * {{Cite book|last=Rubenson|first=Sven|title=The Survival of Ethiopian Independence|edition=4th|year=2003|publisher=Tsehai|location=Hollywood, CA |isbn=978-0-9723172-7-6}} * {{Cite book|last=Selassie I. |first=Haile |title=My Life and Ethiopia's Progress: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I |author-link=Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia |others=Translated by Edward Ullendorff |year=1999 |publisher=Frontline |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-948390-40-1}} * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2003). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 1: A–C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2005). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 2: D–Ha. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2007). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 3: He–N. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig & Alessandro Bausi, et al. (eds.) (2010). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 4: O–X. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Alessandro Bausi & S. Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2014). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 5: Y–Z and addenda, corrigenda, overview tables, maps and general index. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * {{Cite book |last=Zewde |first=Bahru |title=A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991 |edition=2nd |year=2001 |publisher=Ohio University Press |location=Athens, OH |isbn=978-0-8214-1440-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00bahr}} * {{Country study}} * {{CIA World Factbook}} {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|n=Category:Ethiopia|s=Category:Ethiopia|v=no|voy=Ethiopia|species=no|m=no|mw=no|collapsible=collapsed}} {{Scholia|topic}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210421154941/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ Ethiopia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13349398 BBC Ethiopia Profile] * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ETH/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Ethiopia Summary Trade Statistics] * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Ethiopia}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ET Key Development Forecasts for Ethiopia] from [[International Futures]]. * [https://www.state.gov/countries-areas/ethiopia Ethiopia pages – U.S. Dept. of State] (which includes current State Dept. press releases and reports on Ethiopia) {{Ethiopia topics}} {{Navboxes |list= {{World Heritage Sites in Ethiopia}} {{Ethnic groups in Ethiopia}} {{Ethiopian diaspora}} {{Medieval Horn of Africa}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|9|N|38.7|E|display=title}} [[Category:Ethiopia| ]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Federal republics]] [[Category:Horn African countries]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] 1v6qo0pjhhufvoxxr4mwqjo2l4mz5nt 0 11678 123275 122712 2026-10-13T20:56:31Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123275 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country primarily located in North America}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Redirect-several|America|US|USA|The United States of America|United States}} {{pp-30-500|small=yes}} {{Use American English|date=September 2019}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = United States of America | common_name = United States | image_flag = Flag of the United States (DoS ECA Color Standard).svg | alt_flag = {{nbsp}} <!--Used to denote purely decorative images--> | flag_type_article = Flag of the United States | image_coat = Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg | coat_alt = {{nbsp}} <!--Used to denote purely decorative images--> | symbol_type_article = Great Seal of the United States#Obverse | national_motto = "[[In God We Trust]]"<ref>{{USC|36|302}}</ref>{{collapsible list |title={{nowrap|Other traditional mottos:<ref name="de facto Motto">{{cite web|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]], [[Bureau of Public Affairs]]|year=2003|url= https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/27807.pdf|title=The Great Seal of the United States|access-date=February 12, 2020}}</ref>}} |titlestyle=background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.15em; |liststyle=text-align:center;white-space:nowrap; |{{native phrase|la|"[[E pluribus unum]]"|italics=off}}<br />"Out of many, one" |{{native phrase|la|"[[Annuit cœptis]]"|italics=off}}<br />"Providence favors our undertakings" |{{native phrase|la|"[[Novus ordo seclorum]]"|italics=off}}<br />"New order of the ages" }} | national_anthem = "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]"<ref>{{cite act|date=March 3, 1931|article=14|article-type=H.R.|legislature=[[71st United States Congress]]|title=An Act To make The Star-Spangled Banner the national anthem of the United States of America|url=https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=46&page=1508}}</ref><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Star_Spangled_Banner_instrumental.ogg]]</div> <!-- Commented out, as not [[WP:DUE]] for lead. | march = "[[The Stars and Stripes Forever]]"{{sfn|Kidder|Oppenheim|2007|p=91}}<ref name="urluscode.house.gov">{{cite web|url=https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=112&page=1263|title=uscode.house.gov|date=August 12, 1999|website=Public Law 105-225|publisher=uscode.house.gov|pages=112 Stat. 1263|quote=Section 304. "The composition by John Philip Sousa entitled 'The Stars and Stripes Forever' is the national march."|access-date=September 10, 2017}}</ref><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:March, "The Stars and Stripes Forever" · Colonel John R. Bourgeois, Director · John Philip Sousa · United States Marine Band.ogg]]</div> --> <!-- Consensus map, see talk page. -->| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:USA orthographic.svg|frameless|alt=Orthographic map of the U.S. in North America]]|Show globe ([[U.S. state|states]] and [[Washington, D.C.|D.C.]] only)|[[File:US insular areas SVG.svg|upright=1.15|frameless|alt=World map showing the U.S. and its territories]]|Show the U.S. and [[Territories of the United States|its territories]]|[[File:NOAA Map of the US EEZ.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show territories with [[Exclusive economic zone of the United States|EEZ]]|default=1}} | map_width = | capital = [[Washington, D.C.]]<br />{{coord|38|53|N|77|01|W|display=inline}} | largest_city = [[New York City]]<br />{{coord|40|43|N|74|00|W|display=inline}} | official_languages = None at the [[Federal government of the United States|federal level]]{{efn|name=officiallanguage|30 of 50 states recognize only English as an official language. The state of [[Hawaii]] recognizes both [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and English as official languages, and the state of [[Alaska]] officially recognizes 20 [[Alaska Native languages]] alongside English.}} | languages_type = [[National language]] | languages = [[English language|English]] (''[[de facto]]'') <!-- NOTE: For English, don't add "American English" -->| ethnic_groups = {{plainlist| * 57.8% [[White Americans|White]] * 18.7% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latino]] * 12.1% [[African Americans|Black]] * 5.9% [[Asian Americans|Asian]] * 0.7% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] * 0.2% [[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islander]] * 4.1% [[Multiracial Americans|multiracial]] * 0.5% [[Race and ethnicity in the United States census|other]]}} | ethnic_groups_year = 2020 | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="2020CensusData">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html|title=2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=August 13, 2021}}</ref><ref name="2020InteractiveCensusData">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html?linkId=100000060666476|title=Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=August 13, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2021/08/13/1014710483/2020-census-data-us-race-ethnicity-diversity|title=A Breakdown of 2020 Census Demographic Data|author=|date=August 13, 2021|website=NPR|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}</ref> | demonym = [[Americans|American]]{{efn|name=demonym|The historical and informal demonym [[Yankee]] has been applied to Americans, New Englanders, or northeasterners since the 18th century.}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia and Fact-index: Ohio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uV5tvKPO684C&q=%22national+nicknames%22+Yankee|year=1963|page=336}}</ref> | government_type = [[Federalism in the United States|Federal]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic|constitutional republic]] and a [[liberal democracy|liberal]] [[representative democracy]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Elving |first1=Ron |title=Is America a democracy or a republic? Yes, it is |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/09/10/1122089076/is-america-a-democracy-or-a-republic-yes-it-is |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |date=September 10, 2022}}</ref> <!-- Consensus is to list President, Vice President, Chief Justice, and House Speaker -->| leader_title1 = [[President of the United States|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Donald Trump]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[JD Vance]] | leader_title3 = [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]] | leader_name3 = [[Kevin McCarthy]] | leader_title4 = [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] | leader_name4 = [[John Roberts]] | legislature = [[United States Congress|Congress]] | upper_house = [[United States Senate|Senate]] | lower_house = [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of the United States|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] | established_event1 = [[American Revolution|Revolution]] | established_date1 = {{Start date|1765|3|22}} | established_event2 = [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]] | established_date2 = {{Start date|1776|7|4}} | established_event3 = [[Confederation Period|Confederation]] | established_date3 = {{Start date|1781|3|1}} | established_event4 = [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Recognized]] | established_date4 = {{Start date|1783|9|3}} | established_event5 = [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]] | established_date5 = {{Start date|1788|6|21}} | established_event6 = [[Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Last Amendment]] | established_date6 = {{Start date|1992|5|5}} | area_link = Geography of the United States | area_label = Total area | area_footnote = <ref>Areas of the 50 states and the District of Columbia but not Puerto Rico nor other island territories per {{cite web| date = August 2010| title = State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates| work = [[Census.gov]]| url = https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html| access-date = March 31, 2020| quote = reflect base feature updates made in the MAF/TIGER database through August, 2010.}}</ref> | area_rank = 3rd{{efn|name=largestcountry}} | area_sq_mi = 3,796,742 | percent_water = 4.66<ref>{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=October 11, 2020|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER#|date=2015}}</ref> (2015) | area_label2 = Land area | area_data2 = {{convert|3,531,905|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} (3rd) | population_census = 331,449,281{{efn|name="pop"}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2020-census-apportionment-results.htmlpid=2020CENSUS&src=pt|title=Census Bureau's 2020 Population Count|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=April 26, 2021}} The 2020 census is as of April 1, 2020.</ref> | population_census_year = 2020 | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 333,287,557<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bureau |first=US Census |title=Growth in U.S. Population Shows Early Indication of Recovery Amid COVID-19 Pandemic |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2022/2022-population-estimates.html |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=Census.gov}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_census_rank = 3rd | population_density_sq_mi = 87<!-- Figure uses (population/land + water area) as of July 2019. --> | population_density_rank = 185th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $26.855&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMF.WEO.US">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2020&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |date=April 10, 2023 |website=IMF.org |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |access-date=April 10, 2023 |archive-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011140637/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2020&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 2nd | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $80,035<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 8th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $26.855&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 1st | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $80,035<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 7th | Gini = 39.4<!-- Number only. --> | Gini_year = 2020 | Gini_change = increase | Gini_ref = {{efn|After adjustment for taxes and transfers}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2021/demo/income-poverty/p60-273.html|title=Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020|first=US Census|last=Bureau|newspaper=Census.gov |page=48|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.921<!-- Number only. --> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year. --> | HDI_change = increase<!-- Increase/decrease/steady. --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=September 8, 2022|access-date=September 8, 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 21st | currency = [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] ($) | currency_code = USD | utc_offset = −4 to −12, +10, +11 | utc_offset_DST = −4 to −10{{efn|name="time"}} | date_format = mm/dd/yyyy{{efn|See [[Date and time notation in the United States]].}} | drives_on = Right{{efn|name="drive"}} | calling_code = [[North American Numbering Plan|+1]] | iso3166code = US | cctld = [[.com]], [[.us]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cozab.com/the-difference-between-us-vs-com/|title=The Difference Between .us vs .com|date=January 3, 2022|website=Cozab|access-date=June 1, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416200528/https://cozab.com/the-difference-between-us-vs-com/|archive-date=April 16, 2023}}</ref> | area_km2 = | today = | religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap; |{{Tree list}} * 63% [[Christianity in the United States|Christianity]] ** 40% [[Protestantism in the United States|Protestantism]] ** 21% [[Catholic Church in the United States|Catholicism]] ** 2% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] {{Tree list/end}} |29% [[Irreligion in the United States|no religion]] |1% [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]] |1% [[Hinduism in the United States|Hinduism]] |1% [[Islam in the United States|Islam]] |1% [[American Jews|Judaism]] |2% [[Religion in the United States|other]] |2% unanswered }} | religion_year = 2021 | religion_ref = <ref name="Pew2021">{{cite web|title=About Three-in-Ten U.S. Adults Are Now Religiously Unaffiliated|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2021/12/14/about-three-in-ten-u-s-adults-are-now-religiously-unaffiliated/|website=Measuring Religion in Pew Research Center's American Trends Panel|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=December 21, 2021|date=December 14, 2021}}</ref> |latm=|latNS=|longd=|longm=|longEW=|languages2_type=|leader_name5=|leader_name6=|leader_name7=|leader_name8=|leader_name9=|FR_total_population_estimate_year=|FR_foot=|FR_total_population_estimate=|FR_total_population_estimate_rank=|FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank=}} '''United States of America''' ('''U.S.A.''' panji '''USA'''), panji '''United States''' (U.S. panji US) panji '''America''', ni chalo icho chili ku [[Amelika wa Kumpoto|North America]]. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa 50, chigaŵa chimoza, vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vinkhondi, virwa vinkhondi na viŵiri, na malo 326 gha ŵanthu ŵa ku [[India]]. United States ni caru cacitatu pa vyaru vyose pa caru capasi. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[Canada]] kumpoto na [[Mexico]] kumwera, kweniso chili na mphaka na [[Bahamas]], [[Cuba]], [[Russia]], na vyaru vinyake. Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 333 miliyoni. [[Washington, D.C.|Washington, D.C]]., ni msumba ukuru wa United States, ndipo [[New York City]] ndiyo ni msumba ukuru chomene. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vya ku [[America]] vyaka vinandi chomene. Kwamba mu 1607, ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Britain]] ŵakambiska vyaru 13 ivyo sono vili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa United States. Ŵakaŵa na mphindano na boma la [[Great Britain|Britain]] pa nkhani ya msonkho na ndyali, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ku America kuŵe [[Nkhondo ya ku America]]. Pa Julayi 4, 1776, charu cha United States chikapharazga kuti chajiyimira paŵekha. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinjeru vya ndyali vya ku United States vikakhwaskika na fundo yakuti vinthu vyose vili kulengeka kuti vichitike. Kugawikana kwa vigaŵa ivyo vikazingilizga wuzga ku [[Southern United States]] kukapangiska kuti [[Confederate States of America]] yipatuke, iyo yikarwa nkhondo na vyaru vinyake vya ku America mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku America (1861-1865). Pakuwona kuti wupu wa United States watonda, ŵazga ŵakalekeskeka pa caru cose. Kuzakafika mu 1900, caru ca United States cikaŵa kuti cazgoka ufumu wankhongono comene pa caru cose. Mu 1941, charu cha Japan chikati chawukira msumba wa [[Pearl Harbor]], charu cha United States chikamba kurwa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti charu cha United States na [[Soviet Union]] viŵe na mazaza pa charu chose. Pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima]], vyaru vyose viŵiri vikayezgayezga kuti viŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera, kweni vikagega nkhondo. Kweniso ŵakathereskeka pa mpikisano wa mu mlengalenga, uwo ukafika pachanya mu 1969 apo ndege ya Apollo 11 yikakhira pa charu chapasi. [[Nkhondo ya Cigaŵa Ciphya]] yikati yamara mu 1991, caru ca United States cikazgoka ufumu wankhongono comene pa caru cose.<!-- Government and citizens --> Boma la United States ni boma la wupu wakulongozga ndipo muli maboma ghatatu. Boma ili lili na nyumba ziŵiri za malango, Nyumba ya Wupu Wakulongozga, iyo ni nyumba yakudikanya, na Senate, iyo ni nyumba yakudikanya. Nkhani zinandi za ndyali ni zakupambana, ndipo malango ghakupambana mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu vyaru vinyake, charu cha United States chili pa malo ghapacanya pa nkhani ya umoyo, ndalama, usambazi, kusalana pa nkhani za ndalama, wanangwa wa ŵanthu, luso, na masambiro. Mu caru ici muli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu jele kweniso palije urunji. Ku United States kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma mu vyaru vinyake. Charu icho chili na ndalama zinandi chomene pa charu chose, ndipo chuma cha ku America chikupanga pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vinayi vya GDP pa charu chose. United States ndiyo yikuru comene pa caru cose pa kunjizga vyakurya mu vyaru vinyake ndipo ndiyo yikuru comene pa vyakurya vinyake. Boma la United States ndilo likambiska wupu wa United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, NATO, World Health Organization, ndipo lili na wanangwa wakuŵa mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council. Boma la United States ndilo lili na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose, ndipo ndilo likulamulira pa nkhani za ndyali, vya maluso, na sayansi. ==Kwiza kwa zina== <!-- linked --> {{Further|Mazina gha United States|Mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa ku United States}} Ukaboni wakwamba wakulongora kuti mazgu ghakuti "United States of America" ghakalembeka mu kalata iyo Stephen Moylan wakalembera Joseph Reed, uyo wakaŵa movwiri wa George Washington. Moylan wakayowoya kuti wakukhumba kuluta "ku Spain na mazaza ghose kufuma ku United States of America" kukapempha wovwiri pa nkhondo ya kuwukira boma.<ref>DeLear, Byron (July 4, 2013) [https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2013/0704/Who-coined-United-States-of-America-Mystery-might-have-intriguing-answer Who coined 'United States of America'? Mystery might have intriguing answer.] "Historians have long tried to pinpoint exactly when the name 'United States of America' was first used and by whom&nbsp;... This latest find comes in a letter that Stephen Moylan, Esq., wrote to Col. Joseph Reed from the Continental Army Headquarters in Cambridge, Mass., during the siege of Boston. The two men lived with Washington in Cambridge, with Reed serving as Washington's favorite military secretary and Moylan fulfilling the role during Reed's absence." ''Christian Science Monitor'' (Boston, MA).</ref><ref>Touba, Mariam (November 5, 2014) [https://blog.nyhistory.org/coined-phrase-united-states-america-may-never-guess/ Who Coined the Phrase 'United States of America'? You May Never Guess] "Here, on January 2, 1776, seven months before the Declaration of Independence and a week before the publication of Paine's ''Common Sense'', Stephen Moylan, an acting secretary to General George Washington, spells it out, 'I should like vastly to go with full and ample powers from the United States of America to Spain' to seek foreign assistance for the cause." ''New-York Historical Society Museum & Library''</ref><ref>Fay, John (July 15, 2016) [https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/The-forgotten-Irishman-who-named-the-United-States-of-America.html The forgotten Irishman who named the 'United States of America'] "According to the NY Historical Society, Stephen Moylan was the man responsible for the earliest documented use of the phrase 'United States of America'. But who was Stephen Moylan?" ''IrishCentral.com''</ref> Mazgu ghakuti "United States of America" ghakalembeka kakwamba mu nyuzipepara ya The Virginia Gazette ku Williamsburg pa Epulero 6, 1776. Kuzakafika mu Juni 1776, zina lakuti "United States of America" likaŵa kuti lalembeka kale mu chikalata chakuchemeka Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, icho chikalembeka na John Dickinson, kweniso mu chikalata chakuchemeka Declaration of Independence, icho chikalembeka na Thomas Jefferson.{{sfn|Safire|2003|p=199}} Mazgu ghakuti "United States" ghakafuma ku lizgu lakuti "United States". Likayowoyanga za vyaru vinandi nga ni "United States of America". Mazgu agha ghakatchuka chomene pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya pa Mbumba. Munthu uyo ni mwenekaya wa United States wakucemeka "Mamerika". "United States", "American", na "U.S". vikuyowoya vya charu ("American values", "U.S. forces"). Mu Cingelezi, lizgu lakuti "America" likuyowoya viŵi yayi za vinthu ivyo vikukolerana yayi na United States.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Kenneth G.|title=The Columbia guide to standard American English|url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetos00wils_0|url-access=registration|date=1993|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-231-06989-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetos00wils_0/page/27 27–28]}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|Mbili ya United States}} {{For outline|Outline of United States history}} === Nyengo ya Columbian (pambere 1492) === {{Further|Native Americans in the United States|Pre-Columbian era}} [[File:Extreme_Makeover,_Mesa_Verde_Edition_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Nyumba iyi yili ku Colorado, ndipo yikazengeka na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ancestral Puebloans pakati pa 1190 na 1260.|alt=Aerial view of the Cliff Palace]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku North America ŵakafuma ku Siberia na kuluta pa Bering land bridge ndipo ŵakafika vyaka 12,000 ivyo vyajumpha.{{sfn|Erlandson|Rick|Vellanoweth|2008|p=19}}{{sfn|Savage|2011|page= 55}}{{sfn|Haviland|Walrath|Prins|2013|page=219}} Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Clovis ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya ku America.{{sfn|Waters|Stafford|2007|pages=1122–1126}}{{sfn|Flannery|2015|pages=173–185}} Ichi chikwenera kuti chikaŵa chakwamba pa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaluta ku North America. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku North America ŵakamba kuŵa na maluso ghanandi, ndipo ŵanyake, nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Mississippian kumwera kwa charu ichi, ŵakamba kulima, kuzenga, na kupanga vinthu vinandi. Msumba wa Cahokia ndiwo ni malo ghakuru comene na ghakupambanapambana agho ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakuwona mu United States. Mu chigaŵa cha Four Corners, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Puebloan ŵakamba kuchita ulimi kwa vyaka vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Algonquian ndiwo mbanandi chomene mu North America. Gulu ili lili na ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Algonquian. Kale ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Atlantic na mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Saint Lawrence na kuzingilizga Nyanja Yikuru. Pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kukumana nawo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Algonquian ŵakakhalanga mwa kuvina na kuloŵa somba, nangauli ŵanandi ŵakakuranga chomene vyakurya nga ni chimanga, nyungu, na ma squash. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ojibwe ŵakaliskanga mpunga. Gulu la Haudenosaunee la ŵanthu ŵa ku Iroquois, ilo lili kumwera kwa chigaŵa cha Great Lakes, likaŵako pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1500. Ntchakusuzga kumanya unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku North America pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakalutanga ku charu ichi.{{sfn|Perdue|Green|2005|page=40}}{{sfn|Haines|Haines|Steckel|2000|page=12}} Douglas H. Ubelaker wa ku Smithsonian Institution wakati ŵanthu 93,000 ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Atlantic na 473,000 mu vyaru vya ku Gulf, kweni ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti ciŵerengero ici nchicoko comene. Henry F. Dobyns wakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene, ndipo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 1.1 miliyoni ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Gulf of Mexico, ŵanthu 2.2 miliyoni ŵakakhalanga pakati pa Florida na Massachusetts, 5.2 miliyoni ŵakakhalanga mu dambo la Mississippi na milonga yinyake, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 700,000 ŵakakhalanga mu Florida.{{sfn|Perdue|Green|2005|page=40}}{{sfn|Haines|Haines|Steckel|2000|page= 12}} === Nyengo ya Ŵakoloni (1492-1763) === {{Further|Colonial history of the United States|European colonization of the Americas|Slavery in the colonial history of the United States}}[[File:The_Mayflower_Compact_1620_cph.3g07155.jpg|thumb|Phangano la Mayflower ilo likalembeka mu 1620, likaŵa lakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵajilamulire ŵekha.]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Scandinavia ndiwo ŵakambiska charu cha New England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The New England Colonies and the Native Americans {{!}} National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/new-england-colonies-and-native-americans |access-date=2023-01-07 |website=[[History (American TV network)|History]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508091505/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/new-england-colonies-and-native-americans/ |archive-date=May 8, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-06-21 |title=Forgotten History: How The New England Colonists Embraced The Slave Trade |language=en |work=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/06/21/482874478/forgotten-history-how-the-new-england-colonists-embraced-the-slave-trade |access-date=2023-01-07}}</ref> Christopher Columbus wakaluta ku Puerto Rico mu 1493, ndipo pakati pajumpha vyaka 10, ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakamba kukhala ku San Juan. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakafika ku United States ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Spain nga ni Juan Ponce de León, uyo wakaluta kakwamba ku Florida mu 1513. Munthu munyake wa ku Italy, zina lake Giovanni da Verrazzano, uyo wakatumika na France ku New World mu 1525, wakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agho sono ghakuchemeka New York Bay. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ndiwo ŵakambiska malo ghakwamba ku Florida na New Mexico, nga ni Saint Augustine, msumba wakale chomene mu charu ichi, na Santa Fe. Ŵafarisi ŵakakhazikiska mizi yawo mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Mississippi na Gulf of Mexico, chomenechomene ku New Orleans na Mobile. Ŵanthu ŵa ku England ŵakamba kukhazikika mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa North America mu 1607 apo ŵakazenga malo gha Virginia Colony ku Jamestown. Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Virginia ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba mu charu ichi. Ku Massachusetts Bay Colony ndiko kukakhazikiskikira koleji ya Harvard mu 1636. Phangano la Mayflower Compact na malango gha Connecticut ghakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵajilamulirenge ŵekha mu America. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku England awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu awo ŵakakhumbanga wanangwa wa kusopa. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku America ŵakamba kuchepa chifukwa cha vifukwa vyakupambanapambana, chomenechomene matenda nga ni nthomba na nthomba.<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205 The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208032805/https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205|date=February 8, 2016}}''". Arthur C. Aufderheide, Conrado Rodríguez-Martín, Odin Langsjoen (1998). [[Cambridge University Press]]. p. 205. {{ISBN|978-0-521-55203-5}}</ref><ref>[[#Bianchine|Bianchine, Russo, 1992]] pp. 225–232</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1670, Ŵanandi ŵakathereska na kupoka malo gha Ŵadachi ku New Netherland, mu chigaŵa chapakati pa nyanja ya Atlantic.[[File:Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg|alt=Map of the U.S. showing the original Thirteen Colonies along the eastern seaboard|thumb|The [[United Colonies]] in 1775: * Dark Red = [[New England Colonies|New England colonies]]. * Bright Red = [[Middle Colonies|Middle Atlantic colonies]]. * Red-brown = [[Southern Colonies|Southern colonies]]|left]] Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakasuzgikanga na njara, matenda, kweniso nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa ku America. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku America ŵakakumananga na mafuko ghanyake agho ghakaŵa pafupi na kwawo kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakathembanga ŵanyawo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaguliskanga vyakurya na vikumba vya nyama. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga ku America ŵakasambira kulima mbuto, nyungu, na vyakurya vinyake. Ŵamishonale ŵa ku Europe na ŵanji ŵakawona kuti nchakuzirwa comene "kusambizga" ŵanthu ŵa ku America kuti ŵaŵe na nkharo yiwemi.<ref>[[#Ripper2008|Ripper, 2008]] p. 5</ref><ref>[[#Calloway1998|Calloway, 1998]], p. 55</ref> Kweni chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukhazikika ku North America, ŵanthu ŵa ku America ŵakachimbizgika mu vikaya vyawo ndipo kanandi ŵakakomekanga pa nkhondo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe nawo ŵakamba kuguliska ŵazga ŵa ku Africa mu vyaru vya ku America. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵazga ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa America. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakagaŵikana pa nkhani ya kusopa na nkharo ya ŵazga. Vyaru 13 ivyo vikazgoka United States of America vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Britain. Ndipouli, wose ŵakaŵa na maboma gha mu vigaŵa vyawo, ndipo ŵanalume ŵatuŵa awo ŵakaŵa na malo ŵakasankhikanga.<ref name="Wood1998">{{cite book |author=Wood |first=Gordon S. |url=https://archive.org/details/creationofameric0000wood_r7v4 |title=The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 |publisher=UNC Press Books |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8078-4723-7 |page=263}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ratcliff|2013|p=220}}Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakababikanga, ŵanandi ŵakafwanga, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake. Mu ma 1730 na ma 1740, gulu la Ŵakhristu ilo likamanyikwanga kuti Great Awakening, likawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kutemwa chisopa kweniso wanangwa wawo. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri (1756-1763), iyo ku United States yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti Nkhondo ya ku France na ku India, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakapoka Canada. Phangano la Paris (1763) likapangiska chigaŵa chichoko chomene cha Quebec, icho chikasazgapo chipalamba cha Ohio na chipalamba cha Mississippi, mwantheura ŵanthu ŵa ku Canada awo ŵakayowoyanga Cifurenci ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wakuyowoya Cingelezi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakakwana 2.1 miliyoni mu 1770. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakizanga, kweni ŵakasazgikiranga comene mwakuti mu 1770 ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku America ndiwo ŵakababikira ku vyaru vinyake. Pakuti malo agha ghakaŵa kutali na Britain, ghakaŵa na wanangwa wakujiwusa ŵekha, kweni cifukwa ca umo vinthu vikaŵira makora, mafumu gha ku Britain ghakambaso kuwusa.<ref>{{cite book |author=Otis |first=James |url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_52678 |title=The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved |year=1763 |isbn=9780665526787}}</ref> ===Revolutionary period (1763–1789)=== {{Main|History of the United States (1776–1789)|History of the United States (1789–1849)|l2 = 1789–1849}} {{further|American Revolution|American Revolutionary War|Confederation period|}} [[File:Declaration independence.jpg|thumb|''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'', a painting by [[John Trumbull]], depicts the [[Committee of Five]]{{efn|John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston}} presenting the draft of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]] to the [[Second Continental Congress|Continental Congress]], June 28, 1776, in [[Philadelphia]].|alt=See caption]] Nkhondo ya ku America yikapatura vyaru 13 ku ufumu wa Britain, ndipo yikaŵa nkhondo yakwamba ya kujithemba iyo yikacitika na boma la ku Europe yayi. Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku America na visambizgo vya ndyali vya wanangwa vikazara chomene pakati pa ŵalongozgi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku America ŵakamba kulondezga fundo yakuti boma likuthemba pa kuzomerezgeka na ŵanthu. Iwo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaŵe na "wenelero wakuŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku England" kweniso kuti "ŵaleke kupeleka msonkho kwambura munthu wakuŵawimira". Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵachitenge vinthu mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pawo kwizira mu Nyumba ya Malamulo iyo yikaŵavya mwimiliri yumoza, ndipo nkhondo yikakura.<ref name="Humphrey2003">{{cite book|author=Humphrey, Carol Sue|title=The Revolutionary Era: Primary Documents on Events from 1776 To 1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19NWMZ6Ec_sC&pg=PA8|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|isbn=978-0-313-32083-5|pages=8–10}}</ref> Mu 1774, ungano wakwamba wa ŵasilikari ŵa charu ichi ukazomerezga kuti maboma gha Britain ghaleke kuguliska vinthu vyawo. Nkhondo ya ku America yikamba mu chaka chakulondezgapo, ndipo yikakhwaskika na vinthu nga ni Stamp Act na Boston Tea Party. Pa Julayi 4, 1776, pa ungano unyake uwo ukachitikira ku United Colonies, ŵakalemba chikalata chakuyowoya za wanangwa wa charu. Mu chikalata ichi pakalembeka kuti: "Tikuwona kuti unenesko ngwakuti ŵanthu wose ŵali kulengeka ŵakuyana waka, ndipo Mlengi wawo wali kuŵapa wanangwa unyake, uwo ngwakuti umoyo, wanangwa, na cimwemwe". Stephen Lucas wakati ni "mazgu agho ghakumanyikwa comene mu Cingelezi", ndipo Joseph Ellis, wakulemba mdauko, wakalemba kuti mu buku ili muli "mazgu agho ghakaŵa ghankhongono comene mu mdauko wa ku America". Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain, ŵazga ŵakaŵa na wanangwa mu vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa America. Ndipouli, mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kukayikira ivyo ŵakacitanga. Mu 1781, mabuku gha Confederation and Perpetual Union ghakaŵa na boma lakugaŵikana ilo likagwira ntchito m'paka mu 1789. Mu 1777, ŵasilikari ŵa ku America ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain mu nkhondo ya ku Saratoga. Nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ŵasilikari ŵa Britain yikati yamara mu 1781, Britain yikacita phangano la mtende. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinandi ŵakazomera kuti charu cha America ndicho chili na mazaza pa charu chose, ndipo charu chiphya ichi chikamba kulamulira chigaŵa chikuru cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Mississippi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/paris.asp |title=British-American Diplomacy: The Paris Peace Treaty of September 30, 1783 |editor-first=Hunter |editor-last=Miller |publisher=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School}}</ref> As it became increasingly apparent that the Confederation was insufficient to govern the new country, [[American nationalism|nationalists]] advocated for and led the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Philadelphia Convention]] of 1787 in writing the [[Constitution of the United States|United States Constitution]] to replace it, [[Ratification of the United States Constitution|ratified]] in state conventions in 1788. === Early national period (1789–1849) === {{Main|History of the United States (1789–1849)}} U.S. Ndondomeko iyi ndiyo njakukhora comene pa vyose ivyo vili kulembeka mu malango gha caru cose.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180105011354/http://www.politifact.com/virginia/statements/2014/sep/22/bob-goodlatte/goodlatte-says-us-has-oldest-working-national-cons/ Goodlatte says U.S. has the oldest working national constitution], Politifact Virginia website, September 22, 2014.</ref>Mu 1789, dango ili likamba kugwira ntchito, ndipo likapangiska kuti boma liŵe na maofesi ghatatu (ghawemi, ghaulamuliri, na ghakusora malango). George Washington, uyo wakalongozga ŵasilikari ŵa ku America kuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari ŵa ku America ndipo pamanyuma wakaleka mazaza ghake, ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba uyo wakasankhika mwakuyana na dango liphya. Mu 1791, ŵakalemba chikalata chakuyowoya za wanangwa wa ŵanthu, icho chikakanizga boma kukanizga wanangwa wa munthu waliyose. Mu 1803 apo boma la Louisiana likagura charu ichi, chigaŵa chake chikakwera pafupifupi kaŵiri. Nkhondo ya ku Britain yikalutilira, ndipo yikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo ya 1812, iyo yikaŵa yambura umaliro. Spain wakapeleka Florida na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Gulf Coast mu 1819.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Klose, Nelson |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstateshist00klos_0/page/150 |title=United States History to 1877 |author2=Jones, Robert F. |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8120-1834-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstateshist00klos_0/page/150 150]}}</ref> [[File:Cotton gin harpers.jpg|thumb|William L. Sheppard "First Use of a [[Cotton Gin]]" (1790–1800), ''Harper's weekly'', Dec. 18, 1869]] Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kupambana maghanoghano pa nkhani ya wuzga. Ku North, ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene nga ni John Adams, Roger Sherman, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, na Benjamin Franklin, ŵakazomerezga kuti ŵazga ŵaleke kugwira ntchito, ndipo mu 1810 boma lililose mu chigaŵa ichi likazomerezga. Mu 1820 Missouri Compromise yikazomerezga Missouri kuŵa boma la ŵazga na Maine kuŵa boma lakufwatuka ndipo yikayowoya kuti ŵazga ŵaleke kuŵa ŵazga mu vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa kumpoto kwa 36°30′. Ivyo vikachitika vikapangiska kuti charu chigaŵike vigaŵa viŵiri: vyaru vya wanangwa, ivyo vikakanizganga wuzga; na vyaru vya ŵazga, ivyo vikavikiliranga wuzga.{{sfn|Walker Howe|2007|p=153-157}} In [[Southern United States|the South]], the invention of the [[cotton gin]] spurred entrenchment of slavery, with regional elites and intellectuals increasingly viewing [[Slavery as a positive good in the United States|the institution as a positive good]] instead of a [[necessary evil]].{{sfn|Walker Howe|2007|p=478, 481-482, 587-588}} Although the federal government [[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves|outlawed]] American participation in the [[Atlantic slave trade]] in 1807, after 1820, cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the [[Deep South]], and along with it, the use of [[Slavery in the United States|slave labor]].<ref name="Cogliano2008">{{cite book|author=Cogliano, Francis D.|title=Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1f-wAfE0mpsC&pg=PA219|year=2008|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-2733-6|page=219}}</ref><ref>[[#Walton|Walton, 2009]], p. 43</ref><ref>[[#Gordon|Gordon, 2004]], pp. 27,29</ref> The [[Second Great Awakening]], especially in the period 1800–1840, converted millions to [[Evangelicalism in the United States|evangelical]] Protestantism. In the North, it energized multiple social reform movements, including [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]];<ref name="Clark2012iu">{{cite book|author=Clark, Mary Ann|title=Then We'll Sing a New Song: African Influences on America's Religious Landscape|url=https://archive.org/details/thenwellsingnews0000clar/page/47|date=May 2012|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-0881-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/thenwellsingnews0000clar/page/47 47] }}</ref> in the South, [[History of Methodism in the United States|Methodists]] and [[Baptists in the United States|Baptists]] proselytized among slave populations.<ref>Heinemann, Ronald L., et al., Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: a history of Virginia 1607–2007, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-8139-2609-4}}, p. 197</ref> {{anchor|Independence and expansion}} [[File:United_States_evolution.gif|thumb|An animation of US [[Territorial evolution of the United States|territorial expansion]] over time.]] Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku America ŵakamba kusamira kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu 1803 boma la Spain likagura malo ghaŵiri gha charu ichi. Mu 1819, charu cha Spain chikapeleka Florida na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Gulf Coast. Mu 1845, boma la Texas likapokeka na boma la United States.<ref name="Kemp2010">{{cite book|author=Kemp, Roger L.|title=Documents of American Democracy: A Collection of Essential Works|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHawgM-WnlUC&pg=PA180|year=2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-4210-2|page=180|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> Apo boma likalutiliranga kuthandazga mu vyaru ivyo mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku America, kanandi likaŵachimbizganga panji kuŵawuskamo mu charu chawo. Mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵakakanizgika kuluta ku malo ghanyake. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kurwa nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa ku America kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Mississippi. Nkhondo zinandi zikamara para Ŵandyali ŵa ku America ŵafumako ku malo ghawo na kuluta ku malo gha Ŵandyali. Nkhondo ya ku Mexico na America yikati yamara, mu 1848, charu cha Mexico chikapoka chigaŵa cha California na chigaŵa chikuru cha kumwera kwa America. Nkhondo ya ku California iyo yikachitika mu 1848-1849 yikapangiska ŵanthu ŵanandi kusamira ku Pacific Coast, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ku California kuŵe nkhondo.<ref name="Rawls1999">{{cite book|author=Rawls, James J.|title=A Golden State: Mining and Economic Development in Gold Rush California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPUsIaHZTm0C&pg=PA20|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-21771-3|page=20}}</ref> Pakuti ku United States kukaŵa vyakurya vinandi, malo ghakurya ghakaŵa ghanandi ndipo vyakurya vyakukwana ku vyaru vinyake vikakura. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakapika malo ghanandi, pafupifupi 10 peresenti ya malo ghose gha ku United States.<ref>Paul Frymer, "Building an American Empire: The Era of Territorial and Political Expansion," (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017)</ref> Pambere nkhondo ya pawenenawene yindambe, ŵanthu ŵakamba kukayikira usange ŵazga ŵangaŵako mu vyaru ivi. ===Civil War and Reconstruction (1849–1877)=== {{main|History of the United States (1849–1865)}} {{Further|Slave states and free states|American Civil War|Reconstruction era}} {{see also|Lost Cause of the Confederacy}} [[File:US Secession map 1861.svg|thumb|{{center|'''Status of the states, 1861'''}} {{legend|#A40000| Slave states that seceded before April 15, 1861}} {{legend|#EF2929| Slave states that seceded after April 15, 1861}} {{legend|#FCE94F| Union states that permitted slavery (border states)}} {{legend|#204A87| Union states that banned slavery}} {{legend|#D3D7CF| Territories}}|alt=Map of U.S. showing two kinds of Union states, two phases of secession and territories]] Irreconcilable sectional conflict regarding the [[Slavery in the United States|enslavement of those of black African descent]]<ref>{{cite book|first=Stuart|last=Murray|title=Atlas of American Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_sy7mmmxQC&pg=PA76|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-3025-5|page=76|access-date=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite book|first=Harold T.|last=Lewis|title=Christian Social Witness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kr-xNru5vZkC&pg=PA53|year=2001|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-56101-188-9|page=53}}</ref> was the [[Origins of the American Civil War|primary cause of the American Civil War]].<ref name="Woods 2012 pp. 415–439">{{cite journal | last=Woods | first=Michael E. | title=What Twenty-First-Century Historians Have Said about the Causes of Disunion: A Civil War Sesquicentennial Review of the Recent Literature | journal=The Journal of American History | publisher=[Oxford University Press, Organization of American Historians] | volume=99 | issue=2 | year=2012 | issn=0021-8723 | jstor=44306803 | pages=415–439 | doi=10.1093/jahist/jas272 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44306803 | access-date=2023-04-29}}</ref> With the [[1860 United States presidential election|1860 election]] of Republican [[Abraham Lincoln]], conventions in eleven slave states—all in the [[Southern United States]]—declared [[secession]] and formed the [[Confederate States of America]], while the federal government (the "[[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]") maintained that [[Perpetual Union|secession was unconstitutional and illegitimate]].<ref name="Silkenat 2019 p. 25">{{cite book | last=Silkenat | first=D. | title=Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | series=Civil War America | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-4696-4973-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHWKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 | access-date=2023-04-29 | page=25}}</ref> On April 12, 1861, the Confederacy initiated military conflict by [[Battle of Fort Sumter|bombarding Fort Sumter]], a federal garrison in [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston harbor]], South Carolina. The ensuing Civil War (1861–1865) was the deadliest military conflict in American history resulting in the deaths of approximately 620,000 soldiers from both sides and upwards of 50,000 civilians, almost all of them in the South.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vinovskis|first=Maris|date=1990|title=Toward A Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays|url=https://archive.org/details/towardsocialhist0000unse|page=[https://archive.org/details/towardsocialhist0000unse/page/4 4]|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge; New York|isbn=978-0-521-39559-5}}</ref> [[Reconstruction (United States)|Reconstruction]] began in earnest following the defeat of the Confederates. While President Lincoln attempted to foster cooperation and reconciliation between the Union and the former Confederacy, [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|his assassination]] on April&nbsp;14, 1865 drove a wedge between North and South again.{{fact|date=April 2023}} Republicans in the federal government made it their goal to oversee the rebuilding of the South and to [[Civil rights movement (1865–1896)|ensure the rights of African Americans]], and the so-called [[Reconstruction Amendments]] to the Constitution guaranteed the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|abolishment of slavery]], [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|full citizenship to Americans of African descent]], and [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|suffrage for adult Black males]]. They persisted until the [[Compromise of 1877]], when the Republicans agreed to cease enforcing the rights of African Americans in the South in order for Democrats to concede the [[1876 United States presidential election|presidential election of 1876]].{{fact|date=April 2023}} Influential Southern whites, calling themselves "[[Redeemers]]", took local control of the South after the end of Reconstruction, beginning the [[nadir of American race relations]]. From 1890 to 1910, the Redeemers established so-called [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|disenfranchising]] almost all blacks and some impoverished whites throughout the region. Blacks would face [[Racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] nationwide, especially in the South.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shearer Davis Bowman|title=Masters and Lords: Mid-19th-Century U.S. Planters and Prussian Junkers|url=https://archive.org/details/masterslordsmid10000bowm|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Oxford UP|page=[https://archive.org/details/masterslordsmid10000bowm/page/221 221]|isbn=978-0-19-536394-4 }}</ref> They also lived under constant threat of vigilante violence, including [[Lynching in the United States|lynching]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Jason E.|last=Pierce|title=Making the White Man's West: Whiteness and the Creation of the American West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJPgCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT256|year=2016|publisher=University Press of Colorado|page=256|isbn=978-1-60732-396-9 }}</ref> ===Gilded Age, Progressive Era, and World War I (1877–1929)=== {{Main|History of the United States (1865–1918)}} {{further|United States in World War I|Economic history of the United States|Immigration to the United States|Technological and industrial history of the United States|Gilded Age|Progressive Era}} [[File:Emigrants (i.e. immigrants) landing at Ellis Island -.webm|thumb|left|Film by [[Edison Studios]] showing immigrants at [[Ellis Island]] in [[New York Harbor]], that was a major entry point for European [[Immigration to the United States|immigration into the U.S.]]<ref name="PriceBenton-Short2008">{{cite book|first1=Marie|last1=Price|first2=Lisa|last2=Benton-Short|title=Migrants to the Metropolis: The Rise of Immigrant Gateway Cities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Tb5HMB63xAC&pg=PA51|year=2008|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-3186-6|page=51}}</ref>]] National infrastructure, including [[First Transcontinental Telegraph|telegraph]] and [[First transcontinental railroad|transcontinental railroads]], spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the [[American frontier|American Old West]]. After the [[American Civil War]], new transcontinental [[Rail transportation in the United States#History|railways]] made relocation easier for settlers, expanded internal trade, and increased conflicts with Native Americans.<ref name="Black2011kj">{{cite book|last=Black|first=Jeremy|author-link=Jeremy Black (historian)|title=Fighting for America: The Struggle for Mastery in North America, 1519–1871|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIst_CSWOqIC&pg=PA275|year=2011|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-35660-4|page=275}}</ref> Mainland expansion also included the [[Alaska Purchase|purchase of Alaska]] from [[Russian Empire|Russia]] in 1867.<ref>{{cite web|title=Purchase of Alaska, 1867|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/alaska-purchase|publisher=U.S. Department of State|website=Office of the Historian|access-date=December 23, 2014}}</ref> In 1893, pro-American elements in Hawaii [[Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|overthrew]] the [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Hawaiian monarchy]] and formed the [[Republic of Hawaii]], which the U.S. [[Newlands Resolution|annexed]] in 1898. Puerto Rico, [[Guam]], and the [[Philippines]] were ceded by Spain in the same year, by the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)]] following the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Spanish–American War, 1898|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/spanish-american-war|publisher=U.S. Department of State|website=Office of the Historian|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> Neither the [[Foraker Act]] (1900), nor the [[Insular Cases]] (1901) accorded US citizenship to Puerto Ricans. One month prior to [[American entry into World War I]], citizenship was extended to Puerto Ricans via the [[Jones–Shafroth Act]] (1917).<ref name=HoE>{{Cite book | title = Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America | url = https://archive.org/details/harvestofempireh0000gonz | first = Juan | last = Gonzalez | publisher = Penguin | date = 2011 }}</ref>{{rp|60–63}} In November 1903, the US acquired a perpetual lease of the [[Panama Canal Zone]] via the [[Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty]] after providing naval aid preventing [[Colombia]] from putting down the [[Separation of Panama from Colombia|rebellion]] which led to the creation of an independent Panama. The logistics of the November uprising were prepared in New York.<ref name=HoE />{{rp|67}} [[American Samoa]] was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the [[Second Samoan Civil War]].<ref>Ryden, George Herbert. ''The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa''. New York: Octagon Books, 1975.</ref> The [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]] were purchased from [[Denmark]] in 1917.<ref>{{cite web|title=Virgin Islands History|url=https://www.vinow.com/general_usvi/history/|publisher=Vinow.com|access-date=January 5, 2018}}</ref> [[File:Ford Motor Company assembly line.jpg|thumb|Workers [[Mass production|mass producing]] [[Automotive industry in the United States|automobiles]] on an [[assembly line]] in Chicago in 1913.<ref>Rubin, A. (2021). Postindustrial America. In S. P. Holland (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of American studies''. Johns Hopkins University Press. </ref>]] [[Gilded Age|Rapid economic development]] during the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered the rise of [[Robber baron (industrialist)|many prominent industrialists]]. [[Tycoon|Tycoons]] like [[Cornelius Vanderbilt]], [[John D. Rockefeller]], and [[Andrew Carnegie]] led the nation's progress in the [[Railways|railroad]], [[Petroleum industry|petroleum]], and [[History of the steel industry (1850–1970)|steel]] industries. Banking became a major part of the economy, with [[J. P. Morgan]] playing a notable role. The United States also emerged as a pioneer of the [[Automotive industry in the United States|automotive industry]] in the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite web |author1=The Pit Boss |title=The Pit Stop: The American Automotive Industry Is Packed With History |url=https://pitstop.rumbleon.com/american-automotive-history |website=Rumble On |access-date=5 December 2021 |date=26 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425053945/https://pitstop.rumbleon.com/american-automotive-history |archive-date=April 25, 2021}}</ref> In the North, [[urbanization]] and an unprecedented [[History of immigration to the United States|influx of immigrants]] from [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Eastern Europe]] supplied a surplus of labor for the country's industrialization.<ref name="Powell2009qwet">{{cite book|first=John|last=Powell|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA74|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=74|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> [[Incandescent light bulb|Electric light]] and the [[telephone]] drastically changed communication and urban life.{{sfn|Winchester|2013|pp=351, 385}} The American economy boomed, becoming the world's largest.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kirkland|first1=Edward|title=Industry Comes of Age: Business, Labor, and Public Policy|pages=400–405|edition=1961}}</ref> These dramatic changes were accompanied by significant increases in [[economic inequality]], [[Effects of immigration to the United States|immigration]], and [[List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States|social unrest]], which prompted the rise of [[Labor history of the United States|organized labor]] along with [[Populism in the United States|populist]], [[History of the socialist movement in the United States|socialist]], and [[Anarchism in the United States|anarchist]] movements.<ref>Tindall, George Brown and Shi, David E. (2012). ''America: A Narrative History (Brief Ninth Edition) (Vol. 2).'' [[W. W. Norton & Company]]. {{ISBN|978-0-393-91267-8}} p. 589</ref><ref>[[#Zinn|Zinn, 2005]], pp. 321–357</ref><ref name="Fraser">{{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Steve |title=The Age of Acquiescence: The Life and Death of American Resistance to Organized Wealth and Power |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofacquiescenc0000fras |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-316-18543-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ageofacquiescenc0000fras/page/66 66]}}</ref> This period eventually ended with the advent of the [[Progressive Era]], which saw significant reforms including [[Consumer protection|health and safety regulation]] of consumer goods, the rise of [[Labor unions in the United States|labor unions]], and greater [[United States antitrust law|antitrust measures]] to ensure competition among businesses and attention to worker conditions. The [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] beginning around 1910 also brought millions of African Americans to Northern urban centers from the rural South.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/migrations/great-migration|title=The Great Migration (1910-1970)|date=May 20, 2021}}</ref> [[File:The center of New York 1932.jpg|thumb|The newly constructed [[Empire State Building]] in [[midtown Manhattan]], 1932]] The last vestiges of the Progressive Era resulted in [[women's suffrage]] and [[Prohibition in the United States|alcohol prohibition]].<ref>Paige Meltzer, "The Pulse and Conscience of America" The General Federation and Women's Citizenship, 1945–1960,"&nbsp;''Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies''&nbsp;(2009), Vol. 30 Issue 3, pp. 52–76.</ref><ref>James Timberlake,&nbsp;''Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900–1920''&nbsp;(Harvard UP, 1963)</ref><ref>George B. Tindall, "Business Progressivism: Southern Politics in the Twenties,"&nbsp;''South Atlantic Quarterly''&nbsp;62 (Winter 1963): 92–106.</ref> The first state to grant women the right to vote was Wyoming, in 1869, followed by some other states<ref>{{cite web | title=Timeline and Map of Woman Suffrage Legislation|website=Mapping American Social Movements Project|url=https://depts.washington.edu/moves/WomanSuffrage_map.shtml|publisher=University of Washington|access-date=25 September 2022}}</ref> before the women's rights movement won passage of a [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|constitutional amendment]] granting nationwide [[Women's suffrage in the United States|women's suffrage]] in 1920.<ref name="voris">{{cite book|last1=Voris|first1=Jacqueline Van|title=Carrie Chapman Catt: A Public Life|url=https://archive.org/details/carriechapmancat0000vanv|series=Women and Peace Series|year=1996|publisher=Feminist Press at CUNY|location=New York City|isbn=978-1-55861-139-9|page=vii|quote=Carrie Chapmann Catt led an army of voteless women in 1919 to pressure Congress to pass the constitutional amendment giving them the right to vote and convinced state legislatures to ratify it in 1920.&nbsp;... Catt was one of the best-known women in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century and was on all lists of famous American women.}}</ref> The United States remained neutral from the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914 until 1917 when it joined the war as an "associated power" alongside the [[Allies of World War I]], helping to turn the tide against the [[Central Powers]]. In 1919, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] took a leading diplomatic role at the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]] and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the [[League of Nations]]. However, the Senate refused to approve this and did not ratify the [[Treaty of Versailles]] that established the League of Nations.<ref name="autogenerated418">McDuffie, Jerome; Piggrem, Gary Wayne; Woodworth, Steven E. (2005). ''U.S. History Super Review''. Piscataway, NJ: Research & Education Association. p. 418. {{ISBN|978-0-7386-0070-3}}.</ref> === Great Depression, New Deal, and World War II (1929–1945) === {{main|History of the United States (1918–1945)}} {{Further|Roaring Twenties|Great Depression in the United States|United States home front during World War II|Military history of the United States during World War II}} The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of [[radio]] for [[mass communication]] and the invention of early [[television]].{{sfn|Winchester|2013|pp=410–411}} The prosperity of the [[Roaring Twenties]] ended with the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]] and the onset of the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]]. After his election as President in 1932, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] responded with the [[New Deal]] economic policies.<ref>{{cite book|title=Social Welfare: A History of the American Response to Need|url=https://archive.org/details/socialwelfarehis0000axin_i6r5|first1=June|last1=Axinn|first2=Mark J.|last2=Stern|isbn=978-0-205-52215-6|edition=7th|publisher=Allyn & Bacon|location=Boston|year=2007}}</ref> The [[Dust Bowl]] of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.<ref>{{cite book|author=James Noble Gregory|title=American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNdtGwnXYrIC|year=1991|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507136-8|access-date=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/dustbowl-mass-exodus-plains/|title=Mass Exodus From the Plains|author=<!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. -->|year=2013|website=American Experience|publisher=WGBH Educational Foundation|access-date=October 5, 2014}}<br />{{cite web|url=https://memory.loc.gov/ammem/afctshtml/tsme.html|title=The Migrant Experience|last1=Fanslow|first1=Robin A.|date=April 6, 1997|website=American Folklore Center|publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=October 5, 2014}}<br />{{cite book|first=Walter J.|last=Stein|title=California and the Dust Bowl Migration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGuGAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-8371-6267-6|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> [[File:Trinity_Detonation_T&B_(cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Mushroom cloud]] formed by the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity Experiment]] in [[New Mexico]], part of the [[Manhattan Project]], the first detonation of a [[nuclear weapon]] in history, July 1945]] At first [[United States non-interventionism before entering World War II|neutral during World War II]], the United States began supplying [[Lend-Lease|war material]] to the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in March 1941. A total of [[United States dollar|$]]50.1 billion (equivalent to ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|50100000000|1941|r=-8}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) worth of supplies was shipped in 1941–1945, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.<ref name="McNeill 778">{{cite book|author= McNeill| title=America, Britain and Russia|page= 778}}</ref> On December&nbsp;7, 1941, the [[Empire of Japan]] launched a surprise [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], prompting the United States to militarily join the Allies against the [[Axis powers]], and in the following year, to [[Internment of Japanese Americans|intern]] about 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans.<ref>The official WRA record from 1946 state it was 120,000 people. See {{cite book |author=[[War Relocation Authority]] |url=https://ddr.densho.org/ddr-densho-282-5/ |title=The Evacuated People: A Quantitative Study |year=1946 |page=8}} This number does not include people held in other camps such as those run by the DoJ or U.S. Army. Other sources may give numbers slightly more or less than 120,000.</ref><ref name="Pearl Harbor">{{cite web|last1=Yamasaki|first1=Mitch|title=Pearl Harbor and America's Entry into World War II: A Documentary History|url=https://www.hawaiiinternment.org/static/ush_yamasaki_documentary_history.pdf|publisher=World War II Internment in Hawaii|access-date=January 14, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213122046/https://www.hawaiiinternment.org/static/ush_yamasaki_documentary_history.pdf|archive-date=December 13, 2014}}</ref> The U.S. pursued a "[[Europe first]]" defense policy,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Stoler|first1=Mark A.|title=George C. Marshall and the "Europe-First" Strategy, 1939–1951: A Study in Diplomatic as well as Military History|url=https://marshallfoundation.org/marshall/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2014/04/EDStoler.pdf|access-date=April 4, 2016}}</ref> with the Philippines being [[Philippines campaign (1941–42)|invaded]] and [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|occupied by Japan]] until the country's [[Philippines campaign (1944–45)|liberation]] by the U.S.-led forces in 1944–1945. During the war, the United States was one of the "[[Four Policemen]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681|title=The Four Policemen and. Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and. Idealist Perspectives|last=Kelly|first=Brian|access-date=June 21, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022125442/https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681|archive-date=October 22, 2015}}</ref> who met to plan the postwar world, along with Britain, the Soviet Union, and China.{{sfn|Hoopes|Brinkley|1997|p=100}}{{sfn|Gaddis|1972|p=25}} The United States emerged [[World War II casualties#Human losses by country|relatively unscathed]] from the war, and with even greater economic and military influence.<ref>Kennedy, Paul (1989). ''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers''. New York: Vintage. p. 358. {{ISBN|978-0-679-72019-5}}</ref> The United States played a leading role in the [[Bretton Woods Conference|Bretton Woods]] and [[Yalta Conference|Yalta]] conferences, which signed agreements on new international financial institutions and Europe's postwar reorganization. As an [[Victory in Europe Day|Allied victory was achieved in Europe]], a 1945 [[United Nations Conference on International Organization|international conference]] held in [[San Francisco]] produced the [[United Nations Charter]], which became active after the war.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/55407.htm|title=The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 – October 1945|date=October 2005|access-date=June 11, 2007|publisher=U.S. Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of the Historian}}</ref> The United States developed the [[Manhattan Project|first nuclear weapons]] and used them on Japan [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] in August 1945; the Japanese subsequently [[Surrender of Japan|surrendered]] on September 2, ending [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2016/08/06/commentary/japan-surrender-world-war-ii/|title=Why did Japan surrender in World War II? {{!}} The Japan Times|newspaper=The Japan Times|access-date=February 8, 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>Pacific War Research Society (2006). ''Japan's Longest Day''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-4-7700-2887-7}}.</ref> ===Cold War (1945–1990)=== {{Main|History of the United States (1945–1964)|History of the United States (1964–1980)|History of the United States (1980–1991)|l2 = 1964–1980|l3 = 1980–1991|History of the United States (1991–2008)|l4 = 1991–2008}} [[File:LevittownPA.jpg|thumb|[[Post–World War II economic expansion]] in the U.S. led to [[Suburbanization|suburban development]] and [[urban sprawl]], as shown in this aerial photograph of [[Levittown, Pennsylvania]], {{Circa|1959}}.]] After World War II, the United States financed and implemented the [[Marshall Plan]] to help rebuild and economically revive war-torn Europe; disbursements paid between 1948 and 1952 would total $13 billion ($115 billion in 2021).<ref>See {{cite journal |last=Frankenfeld |first=Peter |title=A Marshall Plan for Greece? The European Union and the Financial Crisis in Greece. A Theoretical and Political Analysis in the Global World Against a Background of Regional Integration: Table 1. European Recovery Programme – Marshall Plan ($ million) |date=2012 |pages=69 |url=http://bazekon.icm.edu.pl/bazekon/element/bwmeta1.element.ekon-element-000171238489 |journal=Prace i Materiały Instytutu Handlu Zagranicznego Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego |language=EN |issue=31/1 |issn=2300-6153}}</ref> Also at this time, [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] tensions between the United States and Soviet Russia led to the [[Cold War]], driven by an ideological divide between [[capitalism]] and [[communism]].<ref name="WaggAndrews2012">{{cite book|last1=Wagg|first1=Stephen|last2=Andrews|first2=David|title=East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmjLR5YyUhEC&pg=PR11|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-24167-5|page=11}}</ref> The two countries dominated the military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its [[NATO]] allies on one side and the Soviet Union and its [[Warsaw Pact]] [[Satellite state#Soviet satellite states|satellite states]] on the other.<ref name="Blakemore-2019">{{cite web|last=Blakemore|first=Erin|date=March 22, 2019|title=What was the Cold War?|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/topics/reference/cold-war/|access-date=August 28, 2020|website=National Geographic|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401192349/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/topics/reference/cold-war/|archive-date=April 1, 2019}}</ref> Unlike the US, the USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted [[World War II reparations|war reparations]] from its [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet Bloc]] satellites using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises.{{efn|[The Soviet Union] instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan."}}<ref>Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe," in {{Cite book |editor-first=Klaus | editor-last=Larresm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 |title=A Companion to Europe Since 1945 |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-89024-0 |page=79}}</ref> The U.S. sometimes opposed [[Third World]] movements that it viewed as Soviet-sponsored, occasionally pursuing direct action for [[United States involvement in regime change|regime change]] against [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] governments.<ref>[[#Blakeley|Blakeley, 2009]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 p. 92]</ref> American troops fought the communist forces in the [[Korean War]] of 1950–1953,<ref name="Proxy">{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/liftoff00coll |title=Liftoff: The Story of America's Adventure in Space |publisher=Grove Press |year=1988 |isbn=9780802110114 |location=New York |author-link=Michael Collins (astronaut) |url-access=registration}}</ref> and the U.S. became increasingly involved in the [[Vietnam War]] (1955–1975), introducing combat forces in 1965.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Chapman |first=Jessica M. |title=Origins of the Vietnam War |date=August 5, 2016 |url=https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-353 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.353 |isbn=978-0-19-932917-5 |access-date=August 28, 2020}}</ref> Their competition to achieve superior [[spaceflight]] capability led to the [[Space Race]], which culminated in the U.S. becoming the first and only nation to [[Apollo 11|land people on the Moon]] in 1969.<ref name="Proxy" /> While both countries engaged in [[proxy war]]s and developed powerful [[nuclear weapon]]s, they avoided direct military conflict.<ref name="Blakemore-2019" /> At home, the United States experienced [[Post–World War II economic expansion|sustained economic expansion]], [[Urbanization in the United States|urbanization]], and a [[Post–World War II baby boom|rapid growth of its population]] and [[American middle class|middle class]] following World War II. Construction of an [[Interstate Highway System]] transformed the nation's transportation infrastructure in decades to come.{{sfn|Winchester|2013|pp=305–308}}<ref name="IntHighways">{{cite web|last1=Blas|first1=Elisheva|title=The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways|url=https://www.societyforhistoryeducation.org/pdfs/N10_NHD_Blas_Junior.pdf|website=societyforhistoryeducation.org|publisher=Society for History Education|access-date=January 19, 2015}}</ref> In 1959, the United States admitted [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]] to become the 49th and 50th states, formally expanding beyond the [[contiguous United States]].<ref name="Lightner2004">{{cite book|first=Richard|last=Lightner|title=Hawaiian History: An Annotated Bibliography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yei4fDrecWsC&pg=PA141|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-28233-1|page=141}}</ref> [[File:Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington_colorized_photo.jpg|thumb|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]] gives his famous "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] during the [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom|March on Washington]], 1963.|alt=See caption]]The growing [[civil rights movement]] used [[nonviolence]] to confront [[Racism in the United States|racism]], with [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] becoming a prominent leader.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/johngardner/chapters/4b.html|title=The Civil Rights Movement|website=PBS.org|access-date=January 5, 2019}}</ref> President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] initiated legislation that led to a series of policies addressing poverty and racial inequalities, in what he termed the "[[Great Society]]". The launch of a "[[War on Poverty]]" expanded [[Social programs in the United States|entitlements and welfare]] spending, leading to the creation of the [[Food Stamp Program]], [[Aid to Families with Dependent Children]], along with national [[health insurance]] programs [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]] and [[Medicaid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ssa.gov/history/lbjsm.html|title=Social Security|website=ssa.gov|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> A combination of court decisions and legislation, culminating in the [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]], made significant improvements.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dallek|first=Robert|year=2004|title=Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President|page=[https://archive.org/details/lyndonbjohnsonpo00dall/page/169 169]|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-515920-2|url=https://archive.org/details/lyndonbjohnsonpo00dall/page/169 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=old&doc=97|title=Our Documents—Civil Rights Act (1964)|publisher=United States Department of Justice|access-date=July 28, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/Johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/651003.asp|title=Remarks at the Signing of the Immigration Bill, Liberty Island, New York|date=October 3, 1965|access-date=January 1, 2012|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516063650/https://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/Johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/651003.asp|archive-date=May 16, 2016|url-status=live }}</ref> Meanwhile, a [[counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture movement]] grew, which was fueled by [[Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|opposition to the Vietnam War]], mainstream [[Philosophy of psychedelics|experimentation with psychedelics]] and [[Cannabis culture|cannabis]], the [[Black Power movement]], and the [[sexual revolution]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/5106608/protest-1968/?amp=true|title=Behind the Protests Against the Vietnam War in 1968|last=Levy|first=Daniel|date=January 19, 2018|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=May 5, 2021}}</ref> The [[Women's Movement in the United States (1963-1982)|women's movement]] in the U.S. broadened the debate on women's rights and made [[gender equality]] a major social goal. The [[Sexual revolution in 1960s United States|1960s Sexual Revolution]] liberalized American attitudes to sexuality and eventually spread to the rest of the developed world,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://study.com/learn/lesson/sexual-liberation-movement-origin-timeline-impact-revolution.html |title=The Sexual Revolution Origins and Impact |website=study.com |author=Svetlana Ter-Grigoryan |date=February 12, 2022 |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 25, 2022 |title=Playboy: American Magazine |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Playboy |access-date=February 2, 2023 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |quote=...the so-called sexual revolution in the United States in the 1960s, marked by greatly more permissive attitudes toward sexual interest and activity than had been prevalent in earlier generations.}}</ref> and the 1969 [[Stonewall riots]] in New York City marked the beginning of the modern [[gay liberation|gay rights]] movement in the [[Western world|West]].<ref name="StonewallNYC1">{{cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/new-york/articles/why-new-york-city-is-a-major-destination-for-lgbt-travelers/|title=Why New York City Is a Major Destination for LGBT Travelers|first=Julia|last=Goicichea|publisher=The Culture Trip|date=August 16, 2017|access-date=July 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102084000/https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/new-york/articles/why-new-york-city-is-a-major-destination-for-lgbt-travelers/|archive-date=January 2, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uky.edu/~lbarr2/gws250spring11_files/Page1186.htm|title=Brief History of the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement in the U.S|publisher=University of Kentucky|access-date=July 15, 2022}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/06/28/feature-how-the-stonewall-riots-started-the-gay-rights-movement/|title=Feature: How the Stonewall riots started the LGBT rights movement|first=Nell|last=Frizzell|publisher=Pink News UK|date=June 28, 2013|access-date=July 15, 2022}}; {{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Stonewall-riots|title=Stonewall riots|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> The United States supported [[Israel]] during the [[Yom Kippur War]]; in response, the country faced an oil [[embargo]] from [[OPEC]] nations, sparking the [[1973 oil crisis]]. The presidency of [[Richard Nixon]] saw the American withdrawal from Vietnam but also the [[Watergate scandal]], which led to [[Nixon resignation|his resignation]] and a decline in public trust of government that expanded for decades.<ref name="watergate_committee_final_report">[[Sam Ervin|Ervin, Sam]], et al., ''Final Report of the Watergate Committee''.</ref> After a surge in female labor participation around the 1970s, by 1985, the majority of women aged 16 and over were employed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Women in the Labor Force: A Databook|url=https://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook-2012.pdf|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=March 21, 2014|page=11|year=2013}}</ref> The 1970s and early 1980s also saw the onset of [[stagflation]]. [[File:President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev at The First Summit in Geneva Switzerland - DPLA - b534f3d00bb05c3cc293789b180d2116.jpg|thumb|U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] (left) and Soviet general secretary [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] at the [[Geneva Summit (1985)|Geneva Summit]] in 1985]] After his election in 1980, President [[Ronald Reagan]] responded to economic stagnation with [[Reaganomics|neoliberal reforms]] and accelerated the [[Rollback|rollback strategy]] towards the Soviet Union after its [[Soviet–Afghan War|invasion of Afghanistan]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=Robert C.|date=November 2001|title=The rise and decline of the Soviet economy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-economics_2001-11_34_4/page/859|journal=Canadian Journal of Economics|volume=34|issue=4|pages=859–881|doi=10.1111/0008-4085.00103|issn=0008-4085}}</ref>{{sfn|Gerstle|2022|pp=106–108, 121-128}}<ref>[[#Soss|Soss, 2010]], p. 277</ref><ref>[[#Fraser|Fraser, 1989]]</ref> During Reagan's presidency, the federal debt held by the public nearly tripled in nominal terms, from $738 billion to $2.1 trillion.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=k977|title=Federal Debt Held by the Public|publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis |date=May 31, 2018|access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> This led to the United States moving from the world's largest international creditor to the world's largest debtor nation.<ref name="U.S. Debt">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26402-2004Jun8.html |title=Reagan Policies Gave Green Light to Red Ink |access-date= May 25, 2007 |newspaper= The Washington Post | date=June 9, 2004}}</ref> The [[Revolutions of 1989|collapse]] of the USSR's [[Eastern Bloc|network of satellite states]] in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the subsequent [[dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolution of the country itself]] in 1991 ended the Cold War with American victory,<ref name="Gaidar">{{cite book|last=Gaĭdar|first=E.T.|year=2007|title=Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia|url={{GBUrl|bDSfnxYjVwAC|pg=PA102}}|pages=190–205|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[Brookings Institution#Publications|Brookings Institution Press]]|isbn=978-0-815-73114-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Howell|first=Buddy Wayne|title=The Rhetoric of Presidential Summit Diplomacy: Ronald Reagan and the U.S.-Soviet Summits, 1985–1988|year=2006|publisher=Texas A&M University|isbn=978-0-549-41658-6|page=352 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kissinger|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Kissinger|title=Diplomacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IZboamhb5EC&pg=PA731|year=2011|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-1-4391-2631-8|pages=781–784|access-date=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite book|last=Mann|first=James|title=The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BgZyXNIrvB4C&pg=PT12|year=2009|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-4406-8639-9|page=432}}<br /></ref><ref>[[#Hayes|Hayes, 2009]]</ref> ensuring a global [[unipolarity]]<ref>[[Charles Krauthammer]], "The Unipolar Moment", ''Foreign Affairs'', 70/1, (Winter 1990/1), 23–33.</ref> in which the U.S. was unchallenged as the world's sole [[superpower]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Judt|first1=Tony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVDHAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|title=With Us Or Against Us: Studies in Global Anti-Americanism|last2=Lacorne|first2=Denis|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2005|isbn=978-1-4039-8085-4|page=61}}<br />{{cite book|first=Richard J.|last=Samuels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K751AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT666|title=Encyclopedia of United States National Security|publisher=Sage Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-1-4522-6535-3|page=666}}<br />{{cite book|first=Paul R.|last=Pillar|url=https://archive.org/details/terrorismusforei00pill|title=Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8157-0004-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/terrorismusforei00pill/page/57 57]|url-access=registration}}<br />{{cite book|first=Gabe T.|last=Wang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CbPJ7KZ9FvIC&pg=PA179|title=China and the Taiwan Issue: Impending War at Taiwan Strait|publisher=University Press of America|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7618-3434-2|page=179}}<br />{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgdmiw4VUHsC&pg=PA1|title=Understanding the "Victory Disease", From the Little Bighorn to Mogadishu and Beyond|publisher=Diane Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4289-1052-2|page=1}}<br />{{cite book|first1=Akis|last1=Kalaitzidis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzwYzL9KcwEC&pg=PA313|title=U.S. Foreign Policy: A Documentary and Reference Guide|first2=Gregory W.|last2=Streich|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2011|isbn=978-0-313-38375-5|page=313}}<br />[[#Cohen|Cohen, 2004: History and the Hyperpower]]</ref> ===Contemporary period (1990–present)=== {{Main|History of the United States (1991–2008)|History of the United States (2008–present)|l2 = 2008–present}} Fearing the spread of [[Middle East|regional]] international instability from the [[Iraqi invasion of Kuwait]], in August 1991, President [[George H. W. Bush]] launched and led the [[Gulf War]] against Iraq, expelling Iraqi forces and dissolving the [[Republic of Kuwait|Iraqi-backed puppet state]] in Kuwait.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Fred|title=The Gulf War and Its Aftermath: First Reflections|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-affairs_1991-04_67_2/page/223|volume=67|number=2|pages=223–234|date=April 1991|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]]|doi=10.2307/2620827|jstor=2620827|s2cid=154565052 }}</ref> During the administration of President [[Bill Clinton]] in 1994, the U.S. signed the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), causing trade among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to soar.<ref>{{cite web|title=North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) {{!}} United States Trade Representative|url=https://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta|website=www.ustr.gov|access-date=January 11, 2015|archive-date=March 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317011855/https://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta|url-status=dead }}<br />{{cite book|author1=Thakur|author2=Manab Thakur Gene E Burton B N Srivastava|title=International Management: Concepts and Cases|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2SbAuVzHBMC&pg=PA334|year=1997|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-463395-3|pages=334–335|access-date=October 25, 2015 }}<br />{{cite book|first1=Akis|last1=Kalaitzidis|first2=Gregory W.|last2=Streich|title=U.S. Foreign Policy: A Documentary and Reference Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9rhlt2Ke3gC&pg=PA201|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-38376-2|page=201 }}</ref> Due to the [[dot-com bubble|dot-com boom]], stable monetary policy, and [[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act|reduced social welfare spending]], the 1990s saw the [[1990s United States boom|longest economic expansion]] in modern U.S. history.<ref>{{cite news|title=Did Clinton Do It, or Was He Lucky?|author=Dale, Reginald|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/18/business/worldbusiness/18iht-think.2.t_2.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 18, 2000|access-date=March 6, 2013}}<br />{{cite book|last=Mankiw|first=N. Gregory|title=Macroeconomics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58KxPNa0hF4C&pg=PA463|year=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-324-58999-3|page=559|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> On [[September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001]], [[al-Qaeda]] terrorist hijackers flew passenger planes into the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City and [[the Pentagon]] near Washington, D.C., killing nearly 3,000 people.<ref>{{cite AV media|date=September 9, 2011|title=Flashback 9/11: As It Happened|url=https://video.foxnews.com/v/1151859712001/flashback-911-as-it-happened/|access-date=March 6, 2013|work=Fox News}}<br />{{cite news|title=America remembers Sept. 11 attacks 11 years later|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57510234/america-remembers-sept-11-attacks-11-years-later/|work=CBS News|date=September 11, 2012|access-date=March 6, 2013|archive-date=October 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017215138/https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57510234/america-remembers-sept-11-attacks-11-years-later/|url-status=dead }}<br />{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/multimedia.day.html|title=Day of Terror Video Archive|year=2005|work=CNN|access-date=March 6, 2013 }}</ref> In response, President [[George W. Bush]] launched the [[war on terror]], which included a nearly 20-year [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]] from 2001 to 2021 and the 2003–2011 [[Iraq War]].<ref>{{cite news|title=The 'War on Terror' Is Critical to President George W. Bush's Legacy|author=Walsh, Kenneth T.|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/12/09/the-war-on-terror-is-critical-to-president-george-w-bushs-legacy|newspaper=U.S. News & World Report|date=December 9, 2008|access-date=March 6, 2013}}<br />{{cite book|last=Atkins|first=Stephen E.|title=The 9/11 Encyclopedia: Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDDIgWRN_HQC&pg=PA210|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-921-9|page=872|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Overview: The Iraq War|last=Wong|first=Edward|url=https://www.nytimes.com/ref/timestopics/topics_iraq.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 15, 2008|access-date=March 7, 2013 }}<br />{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=James Turner|title=The War to Oust Saddam Hussein: Just War and the New Face of Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SF7U27JsLC4C&q=iraq+invasion+removes+hussein|year=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-4956-2|page=159|access-date=October 25, 2015 }}<br />{{cite news|title=Timeline: Key moments in the Iraq War|author=Durando, Jessica|author2=Green, Shannon Rae|agency=Associated Press|url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/story/2011-12-21/iraq-war-timeline/52147680/1|newspaper=USA Today|date=December 21, 2011|access-date=March 7, 2013|archive-date=September 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904084312/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/story/2011-12-21/iraq-war-timeline/52147680/1|url-status=dead }}</ref> Government policy designed to promote affordable housing,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hidden in Plain Sight: What Really Caused the World's Worst Financial Crisis and Why It Could Happen Again|url=https://archive.org/details/hiddeninplainsig0000wall|last=Wallison|first=Peter|publisher=Encounter Books|year=2015|isbn=978-978-59407-7-0|author-link=Peter J. Wallison}}</ref> widespread failures in corporate and regulatory governance,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-FCIC/pdf/GPO-FCIC.pdf|title=Financial Crisis Inquiry Report|year=2011|author=Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission|isbn=978-1-60796-348-6|author-link=Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission }}</ref> and historically low interest rates set by the [[Federal Reserve]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=John B.|author-link=John B. Taylor|access-date=January 21, 2017|title=The Financial Crisis and the Policy Responses: An Empirical Analysis of What Went Wrong|url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w14631.pdf|journal=Hoover Institution Economics Paper Series|date=January 2009}}</ref> led to a [[United States housing bubble|housing bubble]] in 2006. This culminated in the [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]] and the [[Great Recession]], the nation's largest economic contraction since the Great Depression.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122169431617549947|title=Worst Crisis Since '30s, With No End Yet in Sight|last1=Hilsenrath|first1=Jon|last2=Ng|first2=Serena|last3=Paletta|first3=Damian|date=September 18, 2008|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]| url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Barack Obama]], the first [[Multiracial American|multiracial]]<ref>{{cite news|author=<!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. -->|title=Barack Obama: Face Of New Multiracial Movement?|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=96916824| work=[[NPR]]|date=November 12, 2008}}</ref> President with [[African-American]] ancestry, [[2008 United States presidential election|was elected in 2008]] amid the financial crisis.<ref name="Washington-2011">{{cite news|title=African-American Economic Gains Reversed By Great Recession|agency=[[Associated Press]]| last1=Washington| first1=Jesse| last2=Rugaber| first2=Chris|url=https://www.oklahoman.com/article/3584442/economic-gains-for-blacks-reversed-in-great-recession|date=July 10, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616183529/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/10/black-recession-economy-african-americans_n_894046.html|archive-date=June 16, 2013}}</ref> By the end of his second term, the stock market, median household income and net worth, and the number of persons with jobs were all at record levels, while the unemployment rate was well below the historical average.<ref name=RSKrugman1>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/in-defense-of-obama-20141008|title=In Defense of Obama|magazine=Rolling Stone|access-date=November 19, 2016|date=October 8, 2014|archive-date=November 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119140244/http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/in-defense-of-obama-20141008|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Obama_Inequality">{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/docs/chapter_1-eight_years_of_recovery_reinvestment_2017.pdf|title=CEA 2017 Economic Report of the President-Chapter One-Eight Years of Recovery and Reinvestment|website=Whitehouse.gov|access-date=March 12, 2017}}</ref><ref name=Politico_Awesome>{{cite web|url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/12/everything-is-still-awesome-214554|title=Everything is Awesome|website=Politico.com|date=December 29, 2016 |access-date=December 30, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Factcheck_Inherits">{{cite news|url=https://www.factcheck.org/2017/01/what-president-trump-inherits/|title=What President Trump Inherits|first=Brooks|last=Jackson|date=January 20, 2017|via=Factcheck.org}}</ref><ref name="Factcheck_Obama#">{{cite news|url=https://www.factcheck.org/2017/09/obamas-final-numbers/|title=Obama's Final Numbers|first=Brooks|last=Jackson|date=September 29, 2017|via=Factcheck.org}}</ref> His signature legislative accomplishment was the [[Affordable Care Act]] (ACA), popularly known as "Obamacare". It represented the [[U.S. healthcare system|U.S. health care system]]'s most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since Medicare in 1965. As a result, the uninsured share of the population was cut in half, while the number of newly insured Americans was estimated to be between 20 and 24 million.<ref name="HHS_ASPE16">{{Cite web |url=https://aspe.hhs.gov/pdf-report/health-insurance-coverage-and-affordable-care-act-2010-2016 |first1 = Namrata| first2 = Kenneth |first3 =Emily | last1= Uberoi |last2 =Finegold| last3=Gee |title=Health Insurance Coverage and the Affordable Care Act, 2010–2016|publisher = U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |department= Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation |access-date=December 7, 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211205091604/https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/migrated_legacy_files//142146/ACA2010-2016.pdf | archive-date = December 5, 2011|date=March 2, 2016}}</ref> After Obama served two terms, Republican [[Donald Trump]] was elected as the [[List of Presidents of the United States|45th president]] in 2016. [[2016 United States presidential election|His election]] is viewed as one of the biggest political upsets in American and world history.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Harrison|title=Donald Trump is elected president of the United States|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/donald-trump-is-elected-president-of-the-united-states/2016/11/09/58046db4-a684-11e6-ba59-a7d93165c6d4_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=October 27, 2020|date=November 9, 2016}}</ref> Trump held office through [[Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|the first waves]] of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and the resulting [[COVID-19 recession]] starting in 2020 that exceeded even the Great Recession earlier in the century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kochhar |first=Rakesh |title=Unemployment rose higher in three months of COVID-19 than it did in two years of the Great Recession |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/06/11/unemployment-rose-higher-in-three-months-of-covid-19-than-it-did-in-two-years-of-the-great-recession/ |access-date=October 1, 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Political polarization in the United States|Political polarization]] increased beginning in the 2010s, with [[Abortion in the United States|abortion access]], [[Same-sex marriage in the United States|same-sex marriage]], the [[transgender rights movement]], [[Institutional racism|lingering systemic racism]], [[Police brutality in the United States|police brutality]], [[Illegal immigration to the United States|undocumented immigration]], [[Mass shootings in the United States|mass shootings]] and [[Legalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States|recreational marijuana use]] becoming central topics of debate. [[List of protests and demonstrations in the United States by size|Several protests have since become among the largest]] in U.S. history.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hamid |first=Shadi |date=January 8, 2022 |title=The Forever Culture War |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/01/republicans-democrats-forever-culture-war/621184/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hammond |first=Michael |date=2018 |title=Chapter 30: The Recent Past |url=https://www.americanyawp.com/text/30-the-recent-past/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=[[Stanford University Press]] |language=en-US}}</ref> On January 6, 2021, supporters of the outgoing President Trump [[2021 United States Capitol attack|stormed the U.S. Capitol]] in an unsuccessful effort to disrupt the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]] vote count that would confirm Democrat [[Joe Biden]] as the 46th president.<ref>{{cite web |last=Peñaloza |first=Marisa |date=January 6, 2021 |title=Trump Supporters Storm U.S. Capitol, Clash with Police |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/congress-electoral-college-tally-live-updates/2021/01/06/953616207/diehard-trump-supporters-gather-in-the-nations-capital-to-protest-election-resul |access-date=January 16, 2021 |website=NPR |publisher=[[NPR]]}}</ref> In 2022, the Supreme Court [[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization|ruled that there is no constitutional right to an abortion]], causing [[2022 abortion protests|another wave of protests]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Protests erupt in D.C., around the country as Roe v. Wade falls |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2022/06/24/supreme-court-abortion-protests-roe/ |access-date=September 28, 2022 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> The United States responded to Russia and Belarus after their [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion of Ukraine]], with the country applying [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War|harsh sanctions]] on Russia and [[United States and the Russian invasion of Ukraine|sending tens of billions of dollars of military and humanitarian aid]] to Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Senate has approved roughly $40 billion in aid to Ukraine |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/05/19/1100228289/the-senate-has-approved-roughly-40-billion-in-aid-to-ukraine |access-date=September 28, 2022}}</ref> ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of the United States}} [[File:Uspaintedrelief.png|thumb|[[Topographic map]] of the United States]] The [[List of states and territories of the United States|48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia]] occupy a combined area of {{convert|3,119,885|sqmi|km2|abbr=}}. Of this area, {{convert|2,959,064|sqmi|km2|abbr=}} is contiguous land, composing 83.65% of total U.S. land area.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/279.html#as|work=The World Factbook|publisher=cia.gov|title=Field Listing: Area|access-date=April 21, 2020|archive-date=July 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707180005/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/279.html#as|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="urlState Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates—Geography—U.S. Census Bureau">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html|title=State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates—Geography—U.S. Census Bureau|website=State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce|access-date=September 11, 2017}}</ref> About 15% is occupied by [[Alaska]], a state in northwestern North America, with the remainder in [[Hawaii]], a state and [[archipelago]] in the central [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], and the five populated but [[Unincorporated area|unincorporated]] insular territories of [[Puerto Rico]], [[American Samoa]], [[Guam]], the [[Northern Mariana Islands]], and the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]].<ref>{{cite web|title=2010 Census Area|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-1.pdf|website=census.gov|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|page=41|access-date=January 18, 2015}}</ref> Measured by only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, and just ahead of Canada.<ref name="CIA Factbook Area">{{cite web|title=Area|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html|website=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=January 15, 2015|archive-date=January 31, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html|url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Wonder Lake and Denali.jpg|thumb|[[Denali]], or Mount McKinley, in [[Alaska]], the highest [[mountain]] peak in [[North America]]]] The United States is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|third- or fourth-largest]] nation by total area (land and water), ranking behind Russia and Canada and nearly equal to China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are counted, and how the total size of the United States is measured.{{efn|name=largestcountry}}<ref name="WF">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|title=United States|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|website=The World Factbook|date=January 3, 2018|access-date=January 8, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316043011/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|archive-date=March 16, 2025}}</ref> The [[Atlantic coastal plain|coastal plain]] of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] seaboard gives way further inland to [[deciduous]] forests and the rolling hills of the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Geographic Regions of Georgia|url=https://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/geography/article/geographic-regions-of-georgia|website=Georgia Info|publisher=Digital Library of Georgia|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> The [[Appalachian Mountains]] and the [[Adirondack Mountains|Adirondack]] [[massif]] divide the eastern seaboard from the [[Great Lakes]] and the grasslands of the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]].<ref name="NAU">{{cite web|last=Lew|first=Alan|title=PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE US|url=https://www.geog.nau.edu/courses/alew/gsp220/text/chapters/ch2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409112252/https://www.geog.nau.edu/courses/alew/gsp220/text/chapters/ch2.html|archive-date=April 9, 2016|website=GSP 220—Geography of the United States|publisher=North Arizona University|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> The [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]]–[[Missouri River]], the world's [[List of rivers by length|fourth longest river system]], runs mainly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile [[prairie]] of the [[Great Plains]] stretches to the west, interrupted by [[U.S. Interior Highlands|a highland region]] in the southeast.<ref name="NAU" /> The [[Rocky Mountains]], west of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, peaking at over {{convert|14000|ft}} in [[Colorado]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Harms|first=Nicole|title=Facts About the Rocky Mountain Range|url=https://traveltips.usatoday.com/rocky-mountain-range-11967.html|website=Travel Tips|publisher=USA Today|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> Farther west are the rocky [[Great Basin]] and deserts such as the [[Chihuahuan Desert|Chihuahua]], [[Sonoran Desert|Sonoran]], and [[Mojave Desert|Mojave]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tinkham|first=Ernest R.|title=Biological, Taxonomic and Faunistic Studies on the Shield-Back Katydids of the North American Deserts|jstor=2421073|doi=10.2307/2421073|journal=[[The American Midland Naturalist]]|volume=31|number=2|date=March 1944|pages=257–328|publisher=The [[University of Notre Dame]]}}</ref> The [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] and [[Cascade Range|Cascade]] mountain ranges run close to the [[West Coast of the United States|Pacific coast]], both ranges also reaching altitudes higher than {{convert|14000|ft}}. The [[Extreme points of the United States|lowest and highest points]] in the contiguous United States are in the state of California,<ref>{{cite web|title=Mount Whitney, California|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=2829|publisher=Peakbagger|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> and only about {{convert|84|mi|km}} apart.<ref>{{cite web|title=Find Distance and Azimuths Between 2 Sets of Coordinates (Badwater 36-15-01-N, 116-49-33-W and Mount Whitney 36-34-43-N, 118-17-31-W)|url=https://transition.fcc.gov/fcc-bin/distance?dlat=36&mlat=15&slat=01&ns=1&dlon=116&mlon=49&slon=33&ew=1&dlat2=36&mlat2=34&slat2=43&sn=1&dlon2=118&mlon2=17&slon2=31&we=1&iselec=1|publisher=Federal Communications Commission|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> At an elevation of {{convert|20310|ft|1}}, Alaska's [[Denali]] is the highest peak in the country and in North America.<ref>{{cite web|last=Poppick|first=Laura|title=US Tallest Mountain's Surprising Location Explained|date=August 28, 2013|url=https://www.livescience.com/39245-us-tallest-mountain-location-explained.html|publisher=LiveScience|access-date=May 2, 2015}}</ref> Active [[volcano]]es are common throughout Alaska's [[Alexander Archipelago|Alexander]] and [[Aleutian Islands]], and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The [[supervolcano]] underlying [[Yellowstone National Park]] in the [[Rockies]] is the continent's largest volcanic feature.<ref>{{cite web|last=O'Hanlon|first=Larry|title=America's Explosive Park|url=https://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/under/under.html|date=March 14, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050314034001/https://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/under/under.html|archive-date=March 14, 2005|publisher=Discovery Channel|access-date=April 5, 2016}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of the United States|Climate change in the United States}} [[File:Köppen Climate Types US 50.png|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of the U.S.]] The United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most climate types. To the east of the [[100th meridian west|100th meridian]], the climate ranges from [[humid continental climate|humid continental]] in the north to [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] in the south.<ref>{{cite web|last=Boyden|first=Jennifer|title=Climate Regions of the United States|url=https://traveltips.usatoday.com/climate-regions-united-states-21570.html|website=Travel Tips|publisher=USA Today|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]]. Many mountainous areas of the American West have an [[alpine climate]]. The climate is [[Desert climate|arid]] in the Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] in [[coastal California]], and [[oceanic climate|oceanic]] in coastal [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] or [[Polar climate|polar]]. Hawaii and the southern tip of [[Florida]] are [[Tropical climate|tropical]], as well as its territories in the [[Caribbean]] and the Pacific.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Map of Köppen–Geiger Climate Classification|url=https://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/kottek_et_al_2006_A4.pdf|access-date=August 19, 2015|archive-date=January 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126115149/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/kottek_et_al_2006_A4.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> States bordering the [[Gulf of Mexico]] are prone to [[Tropical cyclone|hurricanes]], and most of the world's [[tornado]]es occur in the country, mainly in [[Tornado Alley]] areas in the Midwest and South.<ref>{{cite news|author=Perkins, Sid|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701131631/https://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp|archive-date=July 1, 2007|title=Tornado Alley, USA|access-date=September 20, 2006|date=May 11, 2002|work=Science News}}</ref> Overall, the United States receives more high-impact extreme weather incidents than any other country in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=USA has the world's most extreme weather|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/weather/2013/05/16/extreme-weather-north-america/2162501/|last=Rice|first=Doyle|website=USA Today|language=en|access-date=May 17, 2020}}</ref> Extreme weather has become more frequent in the U.S., with three times the number of reported [[heat waves]] as in the 1960s. Of the ten warmest years ever recorded in the 48 contiguous states, eight have occurred since 1998. In the [[Southwestern United States|American Southwest]], droughts have become more persistent and more severe.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OAR|date=June 27, 2016|title=Climate Change Indicators: Weather and Climate|url=https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/weather-climate|access-date=June 19, 2022|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref> ===Biodiversity and conservation=== {{Anchor|Wildlife and conservation}} {{Main|Fauna of the United States|Flora of the United States}} [[File:Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in Kachemak Bay, Alaska.jpg|alt=A bald eagle|thumb|The [[bald eagle]] has been the [[National bird of the United States|national bird]] of the United States since 1782.<ref name="McDougall2004">{{cite book|first=Len|last=McDougall|title=The Encyclopedia of Tracks and Scats: A Comprehensive Guide to the Trackable Animals of the United States and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XOc2_u7z6cC&pg=PA325|year=2004|publisher=Lyons Press|isbn=978-1-59228-070-4|page=325}}</ref>]] The U.S. is one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]] containing large numbers of [[List of endangered species in North America|endemic species]]: about 17,000 species of [[vascular plant]]s occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and more than 1,800 species of [[flowering plant]]s are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland.<ref>{{cite web|author=Morin, Nancy|url=https://www.fungaljungal.org/papers/National_Biological_Service.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724222726/https://www.fungaljungal.org/papers/National_Biological_Service.pdf|title=Vascular Plants of the United States|publisher=National Biological Service|website=Plants|access-date=October 27, 2008|archive-date=July 24, 2013}}</ref> The United States is home to 428 [[mammal]] species, 784 [[bird]]s, 311 [[reptile]]s, and 295 [[amphibian]]s,<ref name="Current Results # of native species in the US">{{cite web|last1=Osborn|first1=Liz|title=Number of Native Species in United States|url=https://www.currentresults.com/Environment-Facts/Plants-Animals/number-of-native-species-in-united-states.php|publisher=Current Results Nexus|access-date=January 15, 2015}}</ref> and 91,000 [[insect]] species.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/buginfo/bugnos.htm|title=Numbers of Insects (Species and Individuals)|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|access-date=January 20, 2009}}</ref> There are 63 [[List of national parks of the United States|national parks]] which are managed by the [[National Park Service]], and [[Federal lands|hundreds of other federally managed]] parks, forests, and [[National Wilderness Preservation System|wilderness areas]] managed by it and other agencies.<ref>{{cite web|title= National Park FAQ|url=https://www.nps.gov/aboutus/national-park-system.htm/|last1=Park|first1=National|website=nps|access-date=May 8, 2015}}</ref> Altogether, the government owns about 28% of the country's land area,<ref name="NYTimes Federal Land">{{cite news|last1=Lipton|first1=Eric|last2=Krauss|first2=Clifford|title=Giving Reins to the States Over Drilling|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/us/romney-would-give-reins-to-states-on-drilling-on-federal-lands.html?pagewanted=2&_r=0|access-date=January 18, 2015|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 23, 2012}}</ref> mostly in the [[Western United States|western states]].<ref name="AKLeg CRS Federal Land">{{Cite report|url=https://www.akleg.gov/basis/get_documents.asp?session=31&docid=47224|title=Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=March 3, 2017|access-date=June 18, 2020|last1=Vincent|first1=Carol H.|last2=Hanson|first2=Laura A.|last3=Argueta|first3=Carla N.|page=2}}</ref> Most of this land is [[Protected areas of the United States|protected]], though some is [[Bureau of Land Management|leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching]], and about .86% is used for military purposes.<ref name="Federal Land Ownership">{{cite web|last1=Gorte|first1=Ross W.|last2=Vincent|first2=Carol Hardy.|last3=Hanson|first3=Laura A.|last4=Marc R.|first4=Rosenblum|title=Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42346.pdf|website=fas.org|publisher=Congressional Research Service|access-date=January 18, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Fed Land Uses">{{cite web|title=Chapter 6: Federal Programs to Promote Resource Use, Extraction, and Development|url=https://www.doi.gov/pmb/oepc/wetlands2/v2ch6.cfm|website=doi.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318005744/https://www.doi.gov/pmb/oepc/wetlands2/v2ch6.cfm|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior|access-date=January 19, 2015|archive-date=March 18, 2015}}</ref> [[Environmental issues in the United States|Environmental issues]] include debates on oil and [[nuclear binding energy|nuclear energy]], dealing with air and water pollution, the economic costs of protecting [[wildlife]],{{explain|date=March 2023}} logging and [[deforestation]],<ref>{{cite web|author=The National Atlas of the United States of America|url=https://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/biology/a_forest.html|title=Forest Resources of the United States|publisher=Nationalatlas.gov|date=January 14, 2013|access-date=January 13, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507195541/https://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/biology/a_forest.html|archive-date=May 7, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/gtr587.pdf|title=Land Use Changes Involving Forestry in the United States: 1952 to 1997, With Projections to 2050|year=2003|access-date=January 13, 2014}}</ref> and [[Climate change in the United States|climate change]].<ref>[[#Daynes|Daynes & Sussman, 2010]], pp. 3, 72, 74–76, 78</ref><ref>Hays, Samuel P. (2000). ''A History of Environmental Politics since 1945''.</ref> The most prominent environmental agency is the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA), created by presidential order in 1970.<ref name="Collin2006">{{cite book|last=Collin|first=Robert W.|title=The Environmental Protection Agency: Cleaning Up America's Act|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVPoqXeTYTwC&pg=PA1|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33341-5|page=1|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the [[Wilderness Act]].<ref>Turner, James Morton (2012). ''The Promise of Wilderness''</ref> The [[Endangered Species Act]] of 1973 is intended to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]].<ref name="Office">{{cite book|title=Endangered species Fish and Wildlife Service|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a8BEuUPJb58C&pg=PA1|publisher=General Accounting Office, Diane Publishing|isbn=978-1-4289-3997-4|page=1|access-date=October 25, 2015|year=2003 }}</ref> As of 2020, the U.S. ranked 24th among 180 nations in the [[Environmental Performance Index]].<ref>{{cite web|title=What Is the Greenest Country in the World?|url=https://www.atlasandboots.com/greenest-country-in-the-world/|website=Atlas & Boots|date=June 6, 2020|publisher=Environmental Performance Index|access-date=November 18, 2020}}</ref> The country joined the [[Paris Agreement]] on climate change in 2016, and has many other environmental commitments.<ref>{{cite web|title=United States of America|url=https://climateaction.unfccc.int/views/country.html?country=US|website=Global Climate Action – NAZCA|publisher=United Nations|access-date=November 18, 2020}}</ref> It [[United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement|withdrew]] from the Paris Agreement in 2020<ref>{{cite news|last1=Nugent|first1=Ciara|title=The U.S. Just Officially Left the Paris Agreement. Can it Be a Leader in the Climate Fight Again?|url=https://time.com/5907210/us-leaves-paris-agreement-2020-election/|access-date=November 18, 2020|agency=Times|date=November 4, 2020}}</ref> but rejoined it in 2021.<ref>{{cite news|title=Biden announces return to global climate accord, new curbs on U.S. oil industry|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-biden-climate-idINKBN29P12S|date=January 20, 2021|work=Reuters|department=Money News|access-date=February 9, 2021}}</ref> ==Government and politics== {{Main|Politics of the United States}} {{Further|Political parties in the United States|Elections in the United States|Political ideologies in the United States|American patriotism|American civil religion}} [[Image:US Capitol west side.JPG|thumb|The [[United States Capitol]], where [[United States Congress|Congress]] meets: the [[United States Senate|Senate]], left; the [[United States House of Representatives|House]], right]] [[File:White House lawn (long tightly cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[White House]], residence and workplace of the [[President of the United States|U.S. President]]]] [[Image:Panorama of United States Supreme Court Building at Dusk.jpg|thumb|The [[United States Supreme Court Building|Supreme Court Building]], where the [[Supreme Court of the United States|nation's highest court]] sits]] The United States is a [[federal republic]] of 50 [[U.S. state|states]], a [[District of Columbia|federal district]], [[Territories of the United States|five territories]] and several uninhabited [[United States Minor Outlying Islands|island possessions]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Common Core Document of the United States of America|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/179780.htm|date=December 30, 2011|publisher=[[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]]|access-date=July 10, 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|The New York Times|2007|p=670}}{{sfn|Onuf|2010|p=xvii}} It is the world's oldest surviving [[federation]], and, according to the [[World Economic Forum]], the oldest [[democracy]] as well.<ref>Desjardins, Jeff (August 8, 2019) [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/08/countries-are-the-worlds-oldest-democracies/ "Mapped: The world's oldest democracies"] [[World Economic Forum]]</ref> It is a [[Liberal democracy|liberal]] [[representative democracy]] "in which [[majority rule]] is tempered by [[minority rights]] protected by [[Law of the United States|law]]."<ref name="Scheb">Scheb, John M.; Scheb, John M. II (2002). ''An Introduction to the American Legal System''. Florence, KY: Delmar, p. 6. {{ISBN|978-0-7668-2759-2}}.</ref> [[List of democracy indices|Major democracy indexes]] uniformly classify the country as a liberal democracy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Greenwood |first=Shannon |date=2022-12-06 |title=Appendix A: Classifying democracies |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/12/06/online-civic-engagement-spring-2022-appendix-a-classifying-democracies/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |language=en-US}}</ref> The 2022 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] and [[Global Corruption Barometer]] rank the United States as having low levels of both actual and perceived [[corruption]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Corruption Barometer |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/gcb |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=[[Transparency International]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 Corruption Perceptions Index |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=[[Transparency International]] |date=January 31, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]] serves as the country's supreme legal document, establishing the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. The Constitution has been amended 27 times;<ref>[[#Feldstein|Feldstein, Fabozzi, 2011]], p. 9</ref> the first ten amendments ([[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]]) and the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] form the central basis of Americans' individual rights. All laws and governmental procedures are subject to [[judicial review]], and any law can be voided if the courts determine that it violates the Constitution. The principle of [[Judicial review in the United States|judicial review]], not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was established by the Supreme Court in ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'' (1803).<ref>[[#Schultz|Schultz, 2009]], pp. 164, 453, 503</ref> In the American [[federalism|federal]] system, sovereignty is shared between [[Political divisions of the United States|two levels of government]]: federal and state. Citizens of the states are also governed by local governments, which are administrative divisions of the states. The territories are administrative divisions of the federal government. Governance on many issues is [[Decentralization|decentralized]], with [[Political ideology of states in the United States|widely differing state laws]] on [[Abortion in the United States|abortion]], [[Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction|cannabis]], the [[Capital punishment in the United States|death penalty]],{{efn|Capital punishment is a ''de jure'' legal penalty throughout the country at the federal level, in 27 states, and [[capital punishment in American Samoa|in American Samoa]]. The death penalty is sanctioned for certain federal and military crimes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Death Penalty States [2022] |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-and-federal-info/state-by-state |access-date=September 8, 2022 |publisher=Death Penalty Info}}</ref> The country had a high ''per capita'' execution rate between the 1960s and 1990s, but execution rates and public support have fallen sharply since. According to [[Ian Millhiser]] of ''[[Vox Media|Vox]]'', "only five states — Texas, Alabama, Georgia, Missouri, and Tennessee — conducted executions in 2020. And of these five states, only one, Texas, killed more than one person on death row."<ref>[https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/news/dpic-adds-eleven-cases-to-innocence-list-bringing-national-death-row-exoneration-total-to-185 DPIC adds Eleven cases to the Innocence List bringing national death-row exonerations to 185], ''[[Death Penalty Information Center]]'', Robert Durham, February 18, 2021. Retrieved November 9, 2021.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Millhiser |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Millhiser |date=2020-12-30 |title=The decline and fall of the American death penalty |url=https://www.vox.com/2020/12/30/22187578/death-penalty-united-states-executions-decline-gregg-georgia-bucklew-precythe |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref>}} [[Gun law in the United States|guns]], economic policy, and other issues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feldstein |first=Martin |date=March 2017 |title=Why is Growth Better in the United States Than in Other Industrial Countries? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w23221 |journal=[[National Bureau of Economic Research]] |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w23221 }}</ref> States have increasingly restricted so-called "[[List of U.S. jurisdictions banning conversion therapy|conversion therapy]]".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Migdon |first=Brooke |date=2023-02-17 |title=Utah Senate votes to ban conversion therapy from health care providers |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/3863652-utah-senate-votes-to-ban-conversion-therapy-from-health-care-providers/ |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=The Hill |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Drescher">{{cite journal |last1=Drescher |first1=Jack |last2=Schwartz |first2=Alan |last3=Casoy |first3=Flávio |last4=McIntosh |first4=Christopher A. |last5=Hurley |first5=Brian |last6=Ashley |first6=Kenneth |last7=Barber |first7=Mary |last8=Goldenberg |first8=David |last9=Herbert |first9=Sarah E. |last10=Lothwell |first10=Lorraine E. |last11=Mattson |first11=Marlin R. |last12=McAfee |first12=Scot G. |last13=Pula |first13=Jack |last14=Rosario |first14=Vernon |last15=Tompkins |first15=D. Andrew |date=2016 |title=The Growing Regulation of Conversion Therapy |journal=Journal of Medical Regulation |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=7–12 |doi=10.30770/2572-1852-102.2.7 |pmc=5040471 |pmid=27754500}}</ref> [[Prostitution]] is only [[Prostitution in the United States|legal]] in [[Prostitution in Nevada|several counties of Nevada]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rodriguez |first=Barbara |date=2021-07-29 |title=What is the future of prostitution and sex work? Two states preview diverging paths |url=https://19thnews.org/2021/07/future-of-prostitution-and-sex-work-two-states-preview-diverging-paths/ |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=The 19th |language=en-us}}</ref> The United States has operated under an uncodified informal [[two-party system]] for most of its history, although [[List of political parties in the United States|other parties have run candidates]].<ref name="twsNovGe">{{cite news|author1=Etheridge, Eric|author2=Deleith, Asger|title=A Republic or a Democracy?|newspaper=The New York Times blogs|quote=The US system seems essentially a two-party system.&nbsp;...|date=August 19, 2009|url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/a-republic-or-a-democracy/|access-date=November 7, 2010}}</ref> What the two [[Major party|major parties]] are has changed over time: the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] presently are, and the country is currently in either the [[Fifth Party System|Fifth]] or [[Sixth Party System]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Mosler|first2=Robert|last2=Catley|title=America and Americans in Australia|date=1998|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YungugjvIaQC&pg=PA83|access-date=April 11, 2016|isbn=978-0-275-96252-4 }}</ref> Both parties have no formal central organization at the national level that controls membership, elected officials or political policies; thus, each party has traditionally had factions and individuals that deviated from party positions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shmoop.com/political-parties/founding-fathers-political-parties.html |title=Political Parties - The Founding Fathers & Political Parties |website=Shmoop |date= |access-date=2022-02-25}}</ref> Since the 2000s, the country has [[Political polarization in the United States|suffered from significant political polarization]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=McCoy |first1=Jennifer |last2=Press |first2=Benjamin |date=January 18, 2022 |title=What Happens When Democracies Become Perniciously Polarized? |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/01/18/what-happens-when-democracies-become-perniciously-polarized-pub-86190 |access-date=April 2, 2023 |website=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]}}</ref> ===Federal government=== {{Main|Government of the United States}} The federal government comprises three branches, which are headquartered in Washington, D.C. and regulated by a system of [[separation of powers|checks and balances]] defined by the Constitution.<ref>{{cite web |author=Killian, Johnny H. |title=Constitution of the United States |url=https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm |access-date=February 11, 2012 |publisher=The Office of the Secretary of the Senate}}</ref> * [[Legislature|Legislative]]: The [[United States Congress|bicameral Congress]], made up of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] and the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], makes [[federal law]], [[declaration of war|declares war]], approves treaties, has the [[power of the purse]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Legislative Branch|publisher=United States Diplomatic Mission to Germany|url=https://usa.usembassy.de/government-legislative.htm|access-date=August 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115122604/https://usa.usembassy.de/government-legislative.htm|archive-date=November 15, 2021}}</ref> and has the power of [[impeachment]], by which it can remove sitting members of the federal government.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Process for impeachment|publisher=ThinkQuest|url=https://library.thinkquest.org/25673/process.htm|access-date=August 20, 2012|archive-date=April 8, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408102119/https://library.thinkquest.org/25673/process.htm|url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Executive (government)|Executive]]: [[President of the United States|The president]] is the [[commander-in-chief]] of the military, can veto [[bill (law)|legislative bills]] before they become law (subject to congressional override), and appoints the [[Cabinet of the United States|members of the Cabinet]] (subject to Senate approval) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies through their respective [[List of federal agencies in the United States|agencies]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Executive Branch|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-executive-branch/|website=The White House|access-date=February 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120171257/https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-executive-branch/|archive-date=January 20, 2021}}</ref> * [[Judiciary|Judicial]]: The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] and lower [[Federal judiciary of the United States|federal courts]], whose judges are appointed by the President with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find [[constitutionality|unconstitutional]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Kermit L.|last1=Hall|first2=Kevin T.|last2=McGuire|title=Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rWCaMAdUzgC|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-988374-5}}<br />{{cite book|author=U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|title=Learn about the United States: Quick Civics Lessons for the Naturalization Test|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8X1CzvBXHksC&pg=PA4|date=2013|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=978-0-16-091708-0|page=4}}<br />{{cite book|first=Bryon|last=Giddens-White|title=The Supreme Court and the Judicial Branch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mbZw3bJsWtUC|year=2005|publisher=Heinemann Library|isbn=978-1-4034-6608-2}}<br />{{cite book|first=Charles L.|last=Zelden|title=The Judicial Branch of Federal Government: People, Process, and Politics|url=https://archive.org/details/judicialbranchof0000zeld|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-702-9|access-date=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite web|url=https://www.uscourts.gov/FederalCourts.aspx|title=Federal Courts|author=<!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. -->|publisher=United States Courts|access-date=October 19, 2014}}</ref> The [[lower house]], the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], has 435 voting members, each representing a [[congressional district]] for a two-year term. House seats are [[United States congressional apportionment|apportioned]] among the states by population. Each state then draws single-member districts to conform with the census apportionment. The District of Columbia and the five major U.S. territories each have [[Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives|one member of Congress]]—these members are not allowed to vote.<ref name="Territories1" /> The [[upper house]], the [[United States Senate|Senate]], has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected [[at-large|at large]] to six-year terms; one-third of Senate seats are up for election every two years. The District of Columbia and the five major U.S. territories do not have senators.<ref name="Territories1" /> The Senate is unique among upper houses in being the most prestigious and powerful portion of the country's [[Bicameralism|bicameral system]]; political scientists have frequently labeled it the "most powerful upper house" of any government.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shell |first1=Donald |title=Second Chambers |last2=Baldwin |first2=Nicholas |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2013 |isbn=9781136337000 |pages=43 |quote=The United States Senate is frequently characterised as the most powerful upper house in the world.}}</ref> The President serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office [[Term limits in the United States|no more than twice]]. The President is [[United States presidential election|not elected by direct vote]], but by an indirect [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral college]] system in which the determining votes are apportioned to the states and the District of Columbia.<ref name="Avaliktos2004">{{cite book |last=Avaliktos |first=Neal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XR21acqXy28C&pg=PA111 |title=The Election Process Revisited |publisher=Nova Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-59454-054-7 |page=111}}</ref> The Supreme Court, led by the [[Chief Justice of the United States|chief justice of the United States]], has nine members, who serve for life. They are appointed by the sitting President when a vacancy becomes available.<ref>{{cite news|title=Beyond politics: Why Supreme Court justices are appointed for life|first=Roger|last=Cossack|url=https://archives.cnn.com/2000/LAW/07/columns/cossack.scotus.07.12/|work=CNN|date=July 13, 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712085825/https://archives.cnn.com/2000/LAW/07/columns/cossack.scotus.07.12|archive-date=July 12, 2012 }}</ref> ===Political subdivisions=== {{Main|Political divisions of the United States|State government in the United States|Local government in the United States|U.S. state}} {{Further|List of states and territories of the United States|Indian reservation|Territories of the United States}} {{see also|Territorial evolution of the United States}} Each of the 50 states holds jurisdiction over a geographic territory, where it shares [[sovereignty]] with the federal government. They are subdivided into [[List of United States counties and county equivalents|counties or county equivalents]], and further divided into [[Municipality|municipalities]]. The District of Columbia is a [[federal district]] that contains the capital of the United States, the [[Washington, D.C.|city of Washington]].<ref>{{usc|8|1101}}(a)(36) and {{usc|8|1101}}(a)(38) U.S. Federal Code, Immigration and Nationality Act. {{USC|8|1101a}}</ref> Each state has an amount of [[presidential electors]] equal to the number of their representatives plus senators in Congress, and the District of Columbia has three electors.<ref>{{cite web|title=Electoral College Fast Facts {{!}} U.S. House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives|url=https://history.house.gov/Institution/Electoral-College/Electoral-College/|website=history.house.gov|access-date=August 21, 2015}}</ref> Territories of the United States do not have presidential electors, therefore people there cannot vote for the president.<ref name="Territories1">{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/3736845/john-oliver-last-week-tonight-voting-rights/|title=Watch John Oliver Cast His Ballot for Voting Rights for U.S. Territories|last=Locker|first=Melissa|date=March 9, 2015|magazine=Time|access-date=November 11, 2019}}</ref> [[Citizenship of the United States|Citizenship is granted at birth in all states]], the District of Columbia, and all major U.S. territories except American Samoa.{{efn|People born in American Samoa are non-citizen U.S. nationals unless one of their parents is a U.S. citizen.<ref name="AS_citizenship"/> In 2019, a court ruled that American Samoans are U.S. citizens, but the litigation is ongoing.<ref>{{cite news|last=Alvarez|first=Priscilla|title=Federal judge rules American Samoans are US citizens by birth|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/12/12/politics/american-samoa-citizenship/index.html|date=December 12, 2019|website=CNN|access-date=October 6, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Romboy|first=Dennis|title=Judge puts citizenship ruling for American Samoans on hold|url=https://www.ksl.com/article/46690822|date=December 13, 2019|website=KSL.com|access-date=October 6, 2020}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Keating |first=Joshua |date=June 5, 2015 |title=How Come American Samoans Still Don't Have U.S. Citizenship at Birth? |url=https://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/06/05/american_samoa_the_only_place_in_the_u_s_where_citizenship_isn_t_granted.html |journal=Slate}}</ref><ref name="AS_citizenship">{{cite web |title=American Samoa and the Citizenship Clause: A Study in Insular Cases Revisionism |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/2017/04/american-samoa-and-the-citizenship-clause/ |access-date=January 5, 2018 |website=harvardlawreview.org|date=April 10, 2017 }}</ref> The United States observes limited [[Tribal sovereignty in the United States|tribal sovereignty]] of the American Indian nations, like states' sovereignty. American Indians are U.S. citizens and tribal lands are subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S. Congress and the federal courts. Like the states, tribes have some autonomy restrictions. They are prohibited from making war, engaging in their own foreign relations, and printing or issuing independent currency.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=https://www.bia.gov/FAQs/|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs|access-date=January 16, 2016}}</ref> [[Indian reservation]]s are usually contained within one state, but there are 12 reservations that cross state boundaries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/tribal/tribes-organizations-health/tribes/geography.html|title=Tribal Geography in Relation to State Boundaries}}</ref> {{USA image map}} ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of the United States|Foreign policy of the United States}} [[File:Midtown Manhattan Skyline 004.jpg|thumb|The [[Headquarters of the United Nations|United Nations headquarters]] has been situated along the [[East River]] in [[Midtown Manhattan]] since 1952. The United States is a founding member of the UN.|alt=see caption]] The United States has an established structure of foreign relations, and it had the world's second-largest diplomatic corps in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_rank.html|title=Global Diplomacy Index&nbsp;– Country Rank|publisher=[[Lowy Institute]]|access-date=July 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201012801/http://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_rank.html|archive-date=February 1, 2019}}</ref> It is a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/current-members|title=Current Members|work=[[United Nations Security Council]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> and home to the [[Headquarters of the United Nations|United Nations headquarters]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=United Nations Headquarters Agreement|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-international-law_1948-04_42_2/page/445|journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=42|number=2|date=April 1948|pages=445–447|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.2307/2193692|jstor=2193692|s2cid=246008694 }}</ref> The United States is also a member of the [[G7]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/where-g7-headed|title=Where is the G7 Headed?|work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|location=New York City|date=June 28, 2022|access-date=June 1, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718145403/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/where-g7-headed|archive-date=July 18, 2022}}</ref> [[G-20 major economies|G20]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/the-united-states-and-g20-building-a-more-peaceful-stable-and-prosperous-world-together/|title=The United States and G20: Building a More Peaceful, Stable, and Prosperous World Together|date=July 6, 2022|work=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> and [[OECD]] intergovernmental organizations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/about/members-and-partners/|title=Our global reach|work=[[OECD]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> Almost all countries have [[List of diplomatic missions in the United States|embassies]] and many have [[consul (representative)|consulates]] (official representatives) in the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host formal [[diplomatic mission]]s with United States, except [[Iran–United States relations|Iran]],<ref>{{cite report |last1=Fialho |first1=Livia Pontes |last2=Wallin |first2=Matthew |title=Reaching for an Audience: U.S. Public Diplomacy Towards Iran |date=August 1, 2013 |publisher=American Security Project |jstor=resrep06070}}</ref> [[North Korea–United States relations|North Korea]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42351336|title=Which are the countries still talking to North Korea?|newspaper=[[BBC News]]|location=London|date=December 19, 2017|access-date=July 15, 2022|last1=Oliver|first1=Alex|last2=Graham|first2=Euan|quote=The United States has never established diplomatic relations with North Korea.}}</ref> and [[Foreign relations of Bhutan#Other countries|Bhutan]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/12/the-case-for-a-stronger-bhutanese-american-relationship/|title=The Case for Stronger Bhutanese-American Ties|newspaper=[[The Diplomat]]|date=December 22, 2014|last=Ferraro|first=Matthew F.|quote=While Bhutan joined the United Nations in 1971, it does not have diplomatic relations with any of the permanent members of the UN Security Council, including the United States and China.|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> Though [[Taiwan–United States relations|Taiwan]] does not have formal diplomatic relations with the U.S., it maintains close, if unofficial, relations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 28, 2022 |title=US will continue to strengthen 'unofficial ties' with Taiwan, says Harris |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3194126/us-will-continue-strengthen-unofficial-ties-taiwan-vice |access-date=September 28, 2022 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref> The United States also regularly supplies Taiwan with [[Six Assurances|military equipment]] to deter potential Chinese aggression.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/09/22/915818283/formal-ties-with-u-s-not-for-now-says-taiwan-foreign-minister|title=Formal Ties With U.S.? Not For Now, Says Taiwan Foreign Minister|newspaper=[[NPR]]|date=September 22, 2020|last=Ruwitch|first=John|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> The United States has a "[[Special Relationship]]" with the [[United Kingdom–United States relations|United Kingdom]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLy-NKnQitIC&q=uk+us+special+relationship&pg=PA45|title=America's 'Special Relationships': Foreign and Domestic Aspects of the Politics of Alliance|page=45|first1=John|first2=Axel|last2=Schäfer|last1=Dumbrell|year=2009|isbn=978-0-203-87270-3|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> and strong ties with [[Canada–United States relations|Canada]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/96-397.pdf|title=Canada–U.S. Relations|author1=Ek, Carl|first2=Ian F.|last2=Fergusson|name-list-style=amp|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=September 3, 2010|access-date=August 28, 2011}}</ref> [[Australia–United States relations|Australia]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Australia: Background and U.S. Relations|author=Vaughn, Bruce|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=August 8, 2008|oclc = 70208969}}</ref> [[New Zealand–United States relations|New Zealand]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32876.pdf|title=New Zealand: Background and Bilateral Relations with the United States|author=Vaughn, Bruce|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=May 27, 2011|access-date=August 28, 2011}}</ref> the [[Philippines]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33233.pdf|title=The Republic of the Philippines and U.S. Interests|author=Lum, Thomas|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=January 3, 2011|access-date=August 3, 2011}}</ref> [[Japan–United States relations|Japan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33436.pdf|title=Japan-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress|author=Chanlett-Avery, Emma|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=June 8, 2011|access-date=August 28, 2011|display-authors=etal}}</ref> [[South Korea–United States relations|South Korea]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R41481.pdf|title=U.S.–South Korea Relations: Issues for Congress|first1=Mark E.|last1=Manyin|first2=Emma|last2=Chanlett-Avery|first3=Mary Beth|last3=Nikitin|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=July 8, 2011|access-date=August 28, 2011}}</ref> [[Israel–United States relations|Israel]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33476.pdf|title=Israel: Background and U.S. Relations|author=Zanotti, Jim|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=July 31, 2014|access-date=September 12, 2014}}</ref> and several [[European Union]] countries ([[France–United States relations|France]], [[Italy–United States relations|Italy]], [[Germany–United States relations|Germany]], [[Spain–United States relations|Spain]], and [[Poland–United States relations|Poland]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-poland/|title=U.S. Relations With Poland}}</ref> The U.S. works closely with its [[NATO]] allies on military and [[national security]] issues, and with nations in the Americas through the [[Organization of American States]] and the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement|United States–Mexico–Canada Free Trade Agreement]]. In [[South America]], [[Colombia]] is traditionally considered to be the closest ally of the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Untapped Potential of the US-Colombia Partnership|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/untapped-potential-us-colombia-partnership/|date=September 26, 2019|website=Atlantic Council|language=en|access-date=May 30, 2020|last1=Kimer |first1=James }}</ref> The U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for [[Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia]], the [[Marshall Islands]], and [[Palau]] through the [[Compact of Free Association]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Charles L. |last=Zelden |url=https://archive.org/details/judicialbranchof0000zeld |title=The Judicial Branch of Federal Government: People, Process, and Politics |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85109-702-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/judicialbranchof0000zeld/page/217 217] |access-date=October 25, 2015 |url-access=registration}}<br />{{cite book |first1=Loren |last1=Yager |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfoBd7_KsZMC&pg=PA7 |title=Foreign Relations: Migration from Micronesian Nations Has Had Significant Impact on Guam, Hawaii, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands |first2=Emil |last2=Friberg |first3=Leslie |last3=Holen |date=2003 |publisher=Diane Publishing |isbn=978-0-7567-3394-0 |page=7}}</ref> It has increasingly conducted strategic cooperation [[India–United States relations|with India]],<ref>{{cite web |title=INDO- PACIFIC STRATEGY OF THE UNITED STATES |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/U.S.-Indo-Pacific-Strategy.pdf |publisher=White House |access-date=3 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211202105/https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/U.S.-Indo-Pacific-Strategy.pdf |archive-date=February 11, 2022}}</ref> and its [[China–United States relations|ties with China]] have steadily deteriorated.<ref>{{cite report |last=Meidan |first=Michal |title=US-China: The Great Decoupling |date=July 1, 2019 |publisher=[[Oxford Institute for Energy Studies]] |jstor=resrep33982}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bala |first=Sumathi |title=U.S.-China relations are going downhill with 'no trust' on either side, Stephen Roach says |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/03/28/us-china-ties-on-dangerous-path-with-no-trust-on-both-sides-roach-cohen.html |access-date=2023-05-07 |website=CNBC |date=March 28, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. has become a key ally of [[Ukraine]] since Russia [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed Crimea in 2014]] and began an [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion of Ukraine in 2022]], significantly deteriorating relations with Russia in the process.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rumer|first1=Eugene|last2=Sokolsky|first2=Richard|url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/06/20/thirty-years-of-u.s.-policy-toward-russia-can-vicious-circle-be-broken-pub-79323|title=Thirty Years of U.S. Policy Toward Russia: Can the Vicious Circle Be Broken?|newspaper=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]|location=Washington, D.C.|date=June 20, 2019|access-date=July 14, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Macias |first=Amanda |title=Here's a look at the $5.6 billion in firepower the U.S. has committed to Ukraine in its fight against Russia |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/06/17/russia-ukraine-war-summary-of-weapons-us-has-given-to-ukraine.html |access-date=September 28, 2022 |website=CNBC |date=June 17, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ===Military=== {{Main|United States Armed Forces|Military history of the United States}} [[File:B-2 Spirit.jpg|thumb|[[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2 Spirit]], the [[Stealth technology|stealth]] [[Heavy bomber|heavy]] [[strategic bomber]] of the [[United States Air Force|USAF]]]] [[File:Aerial view of the Pentagon, Arlington, VA (38285035892).jpg|thumb|[[The Pentagon]], near Washington, D.C., is home to the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]].]] The President is the [[Commander-in-Chief of the United States|commander-in-chief]] of the United States Armed Forces and appoints its leaders, the [[United States Secretary of Defense|secretary of defense]] and the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. The [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], which is headquartered at [[the Pentagon]] near Washington, D.C., administers five of the six service branches, which are made up of the [[United States Army|Army]], [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]], [[United States Navy|Navy]], [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], and [[United States Space Force|Space Force]]. The [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] is administered by the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] in peacetime and can be transferred to the [[United States Department of the Navy|Department of the Navy]] in wartime.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/happy-231st-birthday-united-states-coast-guard|title=Happy 231st Birthday to the United States Coast Guard!|last=Lindsay|first=James M.|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|location=New York City|date=August 4, 2021|access-date=July 16, 2022|quote=During peacetime it is part of the Department of Homeland Security. During wartime, or when the president or Congress so direct, it becomes part of the Department of Defense and is included in the Department of the Navy.}}</ref> The United States spent $877 billion on its military in 2022, 39% of global military spending, accounting for 3.5% of the country's GDP.'''''<ref name="SIPRI-20202">{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=29 April 2023 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]}}</ref>'''''<ref>{{cite web| url=https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all%20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20in%20constant%20%282019%29%20USD%20%28pdf%29.pdf| title=Data for all countries from 1988–2020 in constant (2019) USD (pdf)| publisher=SIPRI| access-date=28 April 2021| archive-date=28 April 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428180002/https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all%20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20in%20constant%20(2019)%20USD%20(pdf).pdf| url-status=live}}</ref> The U.S. has [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|more than 40% of the world's nuclear weapons]], the second-largest amount after Russia.<ref>{{cite web|last=Reichmann|first=Kelsey|date=June 16, 2019|title=Here's how many nuclear warheads exist, and which countries own them|url=https://www.defensenews.com/global/2019/06/16/heres-how-many-nuclear-warheads-exist-and-which-countries-own-them/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://conifer.rhizome.org/mossypiglet/wikipedia-citations/20200923183006/https://www.defensenews.com/global/2019/06/16/heres-how-many-nuclear-warheads-exist-and-which-countries-own-them/|archive-date=September 23, 2020|access-date=September 23, 2020|website=defensenews.com|publisher=Sightline Media Group}}</ref> In 2019, all six branches of the U.S. Armed Forces reported 1.4&nbsp;million personnel on active duty.<ref name="IISS">{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=The Military Balance 2019|url=https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/the-military-balance-2019|location=London|publisher=International Institute for Strategic Studies|page=47|date=2019|isbn=978-1-85743-988-5|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 22, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922054426/https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/the-military-balance-2019|access-date=September 23, 2020}}</ref> The [[Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces|Reserves]] and [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] brought the total number of troops to 2.3&nbsp;million.<ref name="IISS" /> The Department of Defense also employed about 700,000 civilians, not including [[Military-industrial complex|contractors]].<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/20/politics/james-mattis-resignation-letter-doc/index.html| title=Read: James Mattis' resignation letter| date=December 21, 2018| work=[[CNN]]| access-date=January 8, 2020| url-status=dead| archive-date=December 4, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204140006/https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/20/politics/james-mattis-resignation-letter-doc/index.html}}</ref> Military service in the United States is voluntary, although [[Conscription in the United States|conscription]] may occur in wartime through the [[Selective Service System]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sss.gov/what.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915102215/https://www.sss.gov/what.htm|title=What does Selective Service provide for America?|publisher=Selective Service System|access-date=February 11, 2012|archive-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref> The United States has the third-largest combined armed forces in the world, behind the [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese People's Liberation Army]] and [[Indian Armed Forces]].<ref>[[#IISS2020|IISS 2020]], pp. 46</ref> Today, American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of [[transport aircraft]], the Navy's 11 active [[aircraft carrier]]s, and [[Marine expeditionary unit]]s at sea with the Navy, and Army's [[XVIII Airborne Corps]] and [[75th Ranger Regiment]] deployed by Air Force transport aircraft. The Air Force can strike targets across the globe through its fleet of [[strategic bomber]]s, maintains the [[air defense]] across the United States, and provides [[close air support]] to Army and Marine Corps ground forces.<ref>{{cite web|title=Noble Eagle Without End|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/0205eagle/|access-date=February 1, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Ups and Downs of Close Air Support|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/the-ups-and-downs-of-close-air-support/|access-date=December 1, 2019}}</ref> The Space Force operates the [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS, also widespread in civilian use worldwide), the [[Eastern Range|Eastern]] and [[Western Range (USSF)|Western Range]]s for all space launches, and the United States's [[United States Space Surveillance Network|Space Surveillance]] and [[United States national missile defense|Missile Warning]] networks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/building-the-space-range-of-the-future/|title=Building the Space Range of the Future|access-date=May 1, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.schriever.spaceforce.mil/GPS/#:~:text=The+GPS-dedicated+ground+system+consists+of+six+U.S.,passively+track+the+navigation+signals+on+all+satellites|title=Global Positioning System|website=www.schriever.spaceforce.mil|access-date=June 1, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814040436/https://www.schriever.spaceforce.mil/GPS/#:~:text=The+GPS-dedicated+ground+system+consists+of+six+U.S.,passively+track+the+navigation+signals+on+all+satellites|archive-date=August 14, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Space surveillance technologies a top need for U.S. military|date=November 22, 2020|url=https://spacenews.com/space-surveillance-technologies-a-top-need-for-u-s-military/|access-date=November 22, 2020}}</ref> The military operates about 800 bases and facilities abroad,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/5/18/8600659/military-bases-united-states|title=Why does the US have 800 military bases around the world?|last=Harris|first=Johnny|date=May 18, 2015|website=Vox|access-date=September 23, 2020|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924114313/https://www.vox.com/2015/5/18/8600659/military-bases-united-states}}</ref> and maintains [[United States military deployments|deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel]] in 25 foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/MILITARY/history/hst1003.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724211511/https://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/MILITARY/history/hst1003.pdf|title=Active Duty Military Personnel Strengths by Regional Area and by Country (309A)|publisher=Department of Defense|date=March 31, 2010|access-date=October 7, 2010|archive-date=July 24, 2013}}</ref> ===Law enforcement and crime=== {{Main|Law enforcement in the United States|Crime in the United States}} There are about 18,000 U.S. police agencies from local to federal level in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Duren |last2=Hendrix |first2=Joshua |last3=Hickman |first3=Mathhew |date=October 4, 2016 |title=National Sources of Law Enforcement Employment Data |url=https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/nsleed.pdf |journal=[[U.S. Department of Justice]] |pages=1}}</ref> Law in the United States is mainly [[Law enforcement in the United States|enforced]] by local police departments and [[sheriff]]'s offices. The [[state police]] provides broader services, and [[Federal law enforcement in the United States|federal agencies]] such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and the [[United States Marshals Service|U.S. Marshals Service]] have specialized duties, such as protecting [[civil rights]], [[National Security of the United States|national security]] and enforcing [[U.S. federal courts]]' rulings and federal laws.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Federal Law Enforcement Agencies, Who Governs & What They Do|publisher=Chiff.com|url=https://www.chiff.com/police/federal-police-agencies.htm|access-date=November 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210040432/https://www.chiff.com/police/federal-police-agencies.htm|archive-date=February 10, 2014|url-status= }}</ref> [[State court (United States)|State court]]s conduct most civil and criminal trials,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Manweller|first1=Mathew|editor1-last=Hogan|editor1-first=Sean O.|title=The Judicial Branch of State Government: People, Process, and Politics|date=2006|publisher=[[ABC-Clio]]|location=[[Santa Barbara, California]]|isbn=978-1-851-09751-7|pages=37–96|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ong5k8n97P4C&pg=PA55|access-date=October 5, 2020|chapter=Chapter 2, The Roles, Functions, and Powers of State Courts}}</ref> and federal courts handle designated crimes and appeals from the state criminal courts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.justice.gov/usao/justice-101/federal-courts|title=Introduction To The Federal Court System|work=[[United States Attorney]]|date=November 7, 2014 |publisher=[[United States Department of Justice]]|access-date=July 14, 2022|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> {{as of|2020}}, the United States has an [[List of countries by intentional homicide rate|intentional homicide rate]] of 7 per 100,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/VC.IHR.PSRC.P5?locations=US|title=Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) - United States|work=[[World Bank]]|access-date=July 14, 2022}}</ref> A cross-sectional analysis of the [[World Health Organization]] Mortality Database from 2010 showed that United States homicide rates "were 7.0 times higher than in other high-income countries, driven by a gun homicide rate that was 25.2 times higher."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grinshteyn|first1=Erin|last2=Hemenway|first2=David|date=March 2016|title=Violent Death Rates: The US Compared with Other High-income OECD Countries, 2010|url=https://www.amjmed.com/article/S0002-9343(15)01030-X/fulltext|journal=[[The American Journal of Medicine]]|volume=129|issue=3|pages=226–273|doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.10.025|pmid=26551975|access-date=June 18, 2017|doi-access=free}}</ref> As of January 2023, the United States has the [[List of countries by incarceration rate|sixth highest per-capita incarceration rate]] in the world, at 531 people per 100,000; and the largest [[Incarceration in the United States|prison and jail population]] in the world at 1,767,200.<ref>[http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/united-states-america United States of America]. [[World Prison Brief]].</ref><ref name="WorldPrisonBrief">[https://web.archive.org/web/20231118142542/https://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison-population-total Highest to Lowest]. [[World Prison Brief]] (WPB). Use the dropdown menu to choose lists of countries by region or the whole world. Use the menu to select highest-to-lowest lists of prison population totals, prison population rates, percentage of pre-trial detainees/remand prisoners, percentage of female prisoners, percentage of foreign prisoners, and occupancy rate. Column headings in WPB tables can be clicked to reorder columns lowest to highest, or alphabetically. For detailed information for each country click on any country name in lists. See also the [http://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief-data WPB main data page] and click on the map links and/or the sidebar links to get to the region and country desired.</ref> In 2019, the total prison population for those sentenced to more than a year was 1,430,800, corresponding to a ratio of 419 per 100,000 residents and the lowest since 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/p19_pr.pdf|title=US Department of Justice, Oct. 22, 2020}}</ref> Some [[think tank]]s place that number higher, such as [[Prison Policy Initiative]]'s estimate of 1.9 million.<ref name="WholePie2023">{{cite report|url=https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2023.html|title=Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2023|last1=Sawyer|first1=Wendy|last2=Wagner|first2=Peter|date=March 14, 2023|publisher=Prison Policy Initiative|issue=|doi=|volume=|pmid=|access-date=May 13, 2023}}</ref> Various states have attempted to [[Decarceration in the United States|reduce their prison populations]] via government policies and grassroots initiatives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/decarceration-strategies-5-states-achieved-substantial-prison-population-reductions/|title=Decarceration Strategies: How 5 States Achieved Substantial Prison Population Reductions|date=September 5, 2018|access-date=July 16, 2022|last1=Schrantz|first1=Dennis|last2=DeBor|first2=Stephen|last3=Mauer|first3=Marc|publisher=[[The Sentencing Project]]|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of the United States}} {{Further|Economic history of the United States|Taxation in the United States|United States federal budget|Federal Reserve}} [[File:US one dollar bill, obverse, series 2009.jpg|thumb|alt=see caption|The [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] (featuring [[George Washington]]) is the currency most used in [[international trade|international transactions]] and is the world's foremost [[reserve currency]].<ref name="federalreserve.gov"/>]] [[File:Gaming-Wall-Street_BTS_Prodigium-266.jpg|thumb|The [[New York Stock Exchange]] on [[Wall Street]], the world's largest stock exchange by [[market capitalization]] of its listed companies<ref name=NYSEhighestcap>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/advisor/investing/nyse-new-york-stock-exchange/|title=NYSE: What Is The New York Stock Exchange|author= Kat Tretina and Benjamin Curry|work=Forbes|date=April 9, 2021|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref>]] [[File:West side of Manhattan from Hudson Commons (95103p).jpg|thumb|[[Midtown Manhattan]], the world's largest [[central business district]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/new-york-widens-lead-over-london-top-finance-centres-index-2022-03-24/ |title=New York widens lead over London in top finance centres index |website=www.reuters.com |date= March 24, 2022|access-date=June 25, 2022|last1= Jones|first1= Huw}}</ref>]] According to the [[International Monetary Fund]], the U.S. [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) of $25.5&nbsp;trillion constitutes over 25% of the [[gross world product]] at market exchange rates and over 15% of the gross world product at [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref name="IMF-2023">{{cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,NGAP_NPGDP,PPPSH,PPPEX,NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,FLIBOR6,TM_RPCH,TMG_RPCH,TX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LUR,LE,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGSB,GGSB_NPGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDN,GGXWDN_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2021&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |website=www.imf.org}}</ref><ref name="IMF.WEO.US" /> From 1983 to 2008, U.S. real compounded annual GDP growth was 3.3%, compared to a 2.3% weighted average for the rest of the G7.<ref name="Hagopian">{{cite journal |author=Hagopian |first=Kip |last2=Ohanian |first2=Lee |date=August 1, 2012 |title=The Mismeasure of Inequality |url=https://www.hoover.org/publications/policy-review/article/123566 |url-status=dead |journal=Policy Review |volume= |issue=174 |pages= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203012353/https://www.hoover.org/publications/policy-review/article/123566 |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |access-date=January 23, 2020 |via=}}</ref> The country ranks first in the world by [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|nominal GDP]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bea.gov/news/2023/gross-domestic-product-fourth-quarter-and-year-2022-third-estimate-gdp-industry-and|title=Gross Domestic Product, Fourth Quarter and Year 2022 (Third Estimate), GDP by Industry, and Corporate Profits|publisher=[[United States Department of Commerce|U.S. Department of Commerce]]}}</ref> second by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|GDP (PPP)]],<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> seventh by [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|nominal GDP per capita]],<ref name="IMF-2023"/> and eighth by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP (PPP) per capita]].<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> As of 2022, the United States was ranked 25th out of 169 countries on the [[Social Progress Index]], which measures "the extent to which countries provide for the social and environmental needs of their citizens."<ref>{{cite web |title=Explore the 2022 Social Progress Index Map: United States |url=https://www.socialprogress.org/?tab=2&code=USA |website=Social Progress Imperative |access-date=April 18, 2023}}</ref> The U.S. has been the world's largest economy since at least 1900.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fordham |first=Benjamin |date=October 2017 |title=Protectionist Empire: Trade, Tariffs, and United States Foreign Policy, 1890–1914 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0898588x17000116 |journal=Studies in American Political Development |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=170–192 |doi=10.1017/s0898588x17000116 |s2cid=148917255 |issn=0898-588X}}</ref> The United States is at or near the forefront of [[Science and technology in the United States|technological advancement]] and [[innovation]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2023-02-25 |website=www.wipo.int |series=Global Innovation Index |year=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=9789280534320 |language=en}}</ref> in many economic fields, especially in [[artificial intelligence]]; [[computers]]; [[pharmaceuticals]]; and [[medical]], [[aerospace]] and [[military equipment]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/ |title=United States reference resource |work=[[The World Factbook]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=May 31, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316043011/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/ |archive-date=March 16, 2025}}</ref> The nation's economy is fueled by abundant [[natural resource]]s, a well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity.<ref name="Wright, Gavin 2007 p. 185">Wright, Gavin, and Jesse Czelusta, "Resource-Based Growth Past and Present", in ''Natural Resources: Neither Curse Nor Destiny'', ed. Daniel Lederman and William Maloney (World Bank, 2007), p. 185. {{ISBN|0821365452}}.</ref> It has the second-highest total-estimated value of natural resources, valued at [[United States dollar|US$]]44.98{{spaces}}trillion in 2019, although sources differ on their estimates. Americans have the highest average [[Household income|household]] and [[List of countries by average wage|employee]] income among [[OECD]] member states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/income/|title=Income|work=Better Life Index|publisher=OECD|access-date=September 28, 2019|quote=In the United States, the average household net adjusted disposable income per capita is USD 45 284 a year, much higher than the OECD average of USD 33 604 and the highest figure in the OECD.}}</ref> In 2013, they had the sixth-highest [[median household income]], down from fourth-highest in 2010.<ref name="Household Income">{{cite journal|title=Household Income|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/society-at-a-glance-2014_soc_glance-2014-en|journal=Society at a Glance 2014: OECD Social Indicators|publisher=OECD Publishing|access-date=May 29, 2014|doi=10.1787/soc_glance-2014-en |date=March 18, 2014|series=Society at a Glance|isbn=9789264200722|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite web |title=OECD Better Life Index |url= http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111 |publisher=OECD |access-date=November 25, 2012}}</ref> The [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] is the currency most used in [[international trade|international transactions]] and is the world's foremost [[reserve currency]], backed by the country's dominant economy, [[United States Armed Forces|its military]], the [[petrodollar|petrodollar system]], and its linked [[eurodollar]] and large [[U.S. Treasury|U.S. treasuries market]].<ref name="federalreserve.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pdf/pf_4.pdf |title=The Implementation of Monetary Policy – The Federal Reserve in the International Sphere|access-date=August 24, 2010}}</ref> Several countries [[International use of the US dollar|use it as their official currency]] and in others it is the [[de facto currency|''de facto'' currency]].<ref name="Benjamin J. Cohen 2006, p. 17">Benjamin J. Cohen, ''The Future of Money'', Princeton University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0691116660}}; ''cf.'' "the dollar is the de facto currency in Cambodia", Charles Agar, ''[[Frommer's]] Vietnam'', 2006, {{ISBN|0471798169}}, p. 17</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.multpl.com/us-gdp-growth-rate/table/by-year|title = US GDP Growth Rate by Year |date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=June 18, 2014 |website = multpl.com|publisher = US Bureau of Economic Analysis}}</ref> [[New York City]] is the world's principal [[financial center]], with the [[List of cities by GDP|largest]] economic output, and the epicenter of the principal American metropolitan economy.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/new-york-widens-lead-over-london-top-finance-centres-index-2022-03-24/|title=New York widens lead over London in top finance centres index |website=www.reuters.com |date=March 24, 2022 |access-date=July 29, 2022|last1=Jones |first1=Huw }}{{SemiBareRefNeedsTitle|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-32-explore-the-data/gfci-32-rank/|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 32|date=September 22, 2022|publisher=Long Finance|access-date=September 22, 2022}}</ref><ref name=NYCEpicenterUSMetroEconomy>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/09/united-states-america-economic-output-new-york-la/|title=This 3D map shows the U.S. cities with the highest economic output|author=Iman Ghosh|publisher=World Economic Forum|date=September 24, 2020|access-date=March 5, 2023|quote=The New York metro area dwarfs all other cities for economic output by a large margin.}}</ref> The [[New York Stock Exchange]] and [[Nasdaq]] are the world's [[List of stock exchanges|largest stock exchanges]] by [[market capitalization]] and [[trade volume]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics|title=Monthly Reports - World Federation of Exchanges|publisher=WFE}}</ref><ref name="sfc.hk">[http://www.sfc.hk/web/doc/EN/research/stat/a01.pdf Table A – Market Capitalization of the World's Top Stock Exchanges (As at end of June 2012)]. Securities and Exchange Commission (China).</ref> The [[List of the largest trading partners of the United States|largest U.S. trading partners]] are the [[European Union]], [[Mexico]], [[Canada]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Vietnam]], [[India]], and [[Taiwan]].<ref name="auto">{{cite web |date=October 2022 |title=Top Trading Partners - October 2022 |url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/highlights/top/top1612yr.html |access-date=12 May 2023 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> The United States is the world's [[List of countries by imports|largest]] importer and the [[List of countries by exports|second-largest]] exporter after China.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2019_e/wts2019_e.pdf |title=World Trade Statistical Review 2019 |work=[[World Trade Organization]] |page=100 |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> It has [[free trade agreements]] with [[Free trade agreements of the United States|several countries]], including the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement|USMCA]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements |title=United States free trade agreements |work=[[Office of the United States Trade Representative]] |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> The U.S. ranked second in the [[Global Competitiveness Report]] in 2019, after [[Singapore]].<ref name="World Economic Forum">{{cite web |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2013-14/GCR_Rankings_2013-14.pdf |title=Rankings: Global Competitiveness Report 2013–2014 |publisher=World Economic Forum |access-date=June 1, 2014}}</ref> Many of the world's [[List of largest companies by revenue|largest]] companies, such as [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]] ([[Google]]), [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[AT&T]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[General Motors]], [[McDonald's]], [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], [[Meta Platforms|Meta]], [[Microsoft]], [[PepsiCo|Pepsi]], and [[Walmart]], were founded and are headquartered in the United States.<ref name="Fortune-2022">{{Cite web |title=Global 500 |url=https://fortune.com/global500/2022/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=Fortune |language=en}}</ref> Of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest companies]], 124 are headquartered in the U.S.<ref name="Fortune-2022"/> While its economy has reached a [[post-industrial society|post-industrial]] level of development, the United States remains an industrial power.<ref name="Econ">{{cite web|title=USA Economy in Brief|url=https://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/economy-in-brief/page3.html|publisher=U.S. Dept. of State, International Information Programs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312123609/https://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/economy-in-brief/page3.html|archive-date=March 12, 2008}}</ref> As of 2018, the U.S. is the [[List of countries by manufacturing output|second-largest]] manufacturing nation after China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-25 |title=These are the top 10 manufacturing countries in the world |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/countries-manufacturing-trade-exports-economics/ |access-date=2023-04-03 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref> In 2013, the [[National debt of the United States|U.S. national debt]] to GDP ratio surpassed 100% when both debt and GDP were approximately $16.7 trillion; in 2022, U.S. national debt was $30.93 trillion, while debt to GDP ratio was 124%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/americas-finance-guide/national-debt/|title=What is the national debt?|publisher=[[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Department of Treasury]]}}</ref> ===Income and poverty=== {{Main|Income in the United States|Poverty in the United States}} {{Further|Affluence in the United States|Income inequality in the United States}}At US$69,392 in 2020, the United States was ranked first in the world by [[List of countries by average wage|average yearly wage]] based on the [[OECD]] data, and it had the world's highest [[median income]] at US$46,625 in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Labour > Earnings > Average annual wages |publisher=[[OECD]] |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=AV_AN_WAGE}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Income Distribution: Median equivalised disposable income |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=IDD |access-date=January 21, 2023 |website=OECD}}</ref> Despite the fact that the U.S. only accounted for 4.24% of the [[World population|global population]], residents of the U.S. collectively [[List of countries by total wealth|possessed 30.2%]] of the world's total wealth as of 2021, the largest percentage of any country.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Shorrocks|first1=Anthony|url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2021.pdf|title=Global wealth databook 2021|last2=Davies|first2=James|last3=Lluberas|first3=Rodrigo|publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] Research Institute|year=2021}}</ref> The U.S. also ranks first in the number of dollar [[List of countries by number of billionaires|billionaires]] and [[List of countries by number of millionaires|millionaires]], with 724 billionaires (as of 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jackson |first=Sarah |title=These 20 countries and territories are home to most of the world's 2,755 billionaires |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/these-20-countries-are-home-to-the-most-billionaires-forbes-2021-10 |access-date=July 15, 2022 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref> and nearly 22 million millionaires (2021).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/22/heres-how-22-million-americans-became-millionaires.html|title=Nearly 22 million Americans are millionaires. Here's how they got wealthy|last=Exley|first=Robert Jr.|date=December 22, 2021|access-date=July 16, 2022|work=[[CNBC]]}}</ref> The United States has a smaller [[welfare state]] and redistributes less income through government action than most other [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income]] countries.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Isabelle|last1=Joumard|first2=Mauro|last2=Pisu|first3=Debbie|last3=Bloch|title=Tackling income inequality The role of taxes and transfers|url=https://www.oecd.org/eco/public-finance/TacklingincomeinequalityTheroleoftaxesandtransfers.pdf|publisher=OECD|access-date=May 21, 2015|date=2012}}</ref> The U.S. ranked the 52nd highest in [[List of countries by income equality|income inequality]] among 167 countries in 2014,<ref name="Data for urban households only">{{Cite book |last1=Monino |first1=Jean-Louis |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119285199.ch3 |title=Data Development Mechanisms |last2=Sedkaoui |first2=Soraya |date=2016-03-11 |work=Big Data, Open Data and Data Development |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-1-119-28519-9 |place=Hoboken, N.J. |pages=43–72 |doi=10.1002/9781119285199.ch3 |access-date=2021-06-26}}</ref> and the highest compared to the rest of the [[Developed country|developed world]] in 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gray |first=Sarah |date=June 4, 2018 |title=Trump Policies Highlighted in Scathing U.N. Report On U.S. Poverty|url=http://fortune.com/2018/06/04/trump-policies-u-n-report-u-s-poverty/|work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]|access-date=September 13, 2018|quote="The United States has the highest rate of income inequality among Western countries", the report states.}}</ref><ref name="OHCHR">{{cite news|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/06/contempt-poor-us-drives-cruel-policies-says-un-expert|title="Contempt for the poor in US drives cruel policies," says UN expert|date=June 4, 2018|work=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|OHCHR]]|access-date=June 5, 2018}}</ref> Wealth in the United States is [[Wealth inequality in the United States|highly concentrated]]; the richest 10% of the adult population own 72% of the country's household wealth, while the bottom 50% own just 2%.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Piketty|first1=Thomas|title=Capital in the Twenty-First Century|title-link=Capital in the Twenty-First Century|date=2014|publisher=Belknap Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674430006/page/257 257]|author-link1=Thomas Piketty}} {{ISBN|978-0-674-43000-6}}</ref> Income inequality in the U.S. remains at record highs,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/09/26/income-inequality-america-highest-its-been-since-census-started-tracking-it-data-show/ |title=Income inequality in America is the highest it's been since Census Bureau started tracking it, data shows |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=July 27, 2020}}</ref> with the top fifth of earners taking home more than half of all income<ref>{{Cite news|last=Long|first=Heather|date=September 12, 2017|title=U.S. middle-class incomes reached highest-ever level in 2016, Census Bureau says|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/us-middle-class-incomes-reached-highest-ever-level-in-2016-census-bureau-says/2017/09/12/7226905e-97de-11e7-b569-3360011663b4_story.html|access-date=November 11, 2019}}</ref> and giving the U.S. one of the widest income distributions among [[OECD]] members.<ref name="Sme">{{cite journal|last1=Smeeding|first1=T.M.|year=2005|title=Public Policy: Economic Inequality and Poverty: The United States in Comparative Perspective|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/81b4d972c7a40d051d9ee3ced2ab2ddfc221fbf9|journal=Social Science Quarterly|volume=86|pages=955–983|doi=10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00331.x|s2cid=154642286}}</ref> The United States is the only [[advanced economy]] that does not [[List of statutory minimum employment leave by country|guarantee its workers paid vacation]] nationally<ref>{{cite news |last=Min |first=Sarah |date=May 24, 2019 |title=1 in 4 workers in U.S. don't get any paid vacation time or holidays|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/one-in-four-workers-in-us-dont-get-any-paid-vacation-time-or-holidays/|work=CBS News |location= |access-date=July 15, 2022|quote=The United States is the only advanced economy that does not federally mandate any paid vacation days or holidays. }}</ref> and is one of a few countries in the world without federal [[paid family leave]] as a legal right.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bernard |first=Tara Siegel |date=February 22, 2013 |title=In Paid Family Leave, U.S. Trails Most of the Globe |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/23/your-money/us-trails-much-of-the-world-in-providing-paid-family-leave.html |access-date=August 27, 2013}}</ref> The United States also has a higher percentage of low-income workers than almost any other developed nation, largely because of a weak [[collective bargaining]] system and lack of government support for at-risk workers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Van Dam|first=Andrew|date=July 4, 2018|title=Is it great to be a worker in the U.S.? Not compared with the rest of the developed world.|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/07/04/is-it-great-to-be-a-worker-in-the-u-s-not-compared-to-the-rest-of-the-developed-world/?noredirect=on|access-date=July 12, 2018}}</ref> There were about 567,715 sheltered and unsheltered [[Homelessness in the United States|homeless persons in the U.S.]] in January 2019, with almost two-thirds staying in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program.<ref name="Culp2013">{{cite book| editor = Anne McDonald Culp| date = June 25, 2013| title = Child and Family Advocacy: Bridging the Gaps Between Research, Practice, and Policy| publisher = Springer Science & Business Media| pages = 77–| isbn = 978-1-4614-7456-2| oclc = 1026456872| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GZBDAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77}}</ref> Attempts to combat homelessness include the [[Section 8 (housing)|Section 8]] housing voucher program and implementation of the [[Housing First]] strategy across all levels of government.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Solving Homelessness from a Complex Systems Perspective: Insights for Prevention Responses|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|date=2019|volume=40|pmid=30601718|last1=Fowler|first1=P. J.|last2=Hovmand|first2=P. S.|last3=Marcal|first3=K. E.|last4=Das|first4=S.|pages=465–486|doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013553|pmc=6445694 }}</ref> In 2011, [[Hunger in the United States#Children|16.7&nbsp;million children lived in food-insecure households]], about 35% more than 2007 levels, though only 845,000 U.S. children (1.1%) saw reduced food intake or disrupted eating patterns at some point during the year, and most cases were not chronic.<ref>{{cite web|title=Household Food Security in the United States in 2011|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/884525/err141.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007231515/https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/884525/err141.pdf|archive-date=October 7, 2012|publisher=USDA|access-date=April 8, 2013|date=September 2012}}</ref> {{as of|2018|June|post=,}} 40&nbsp;million people, roughly 12.7% of the U.S. population, were living in poverty, including 13.3&nbsp;million children;<ref name="OHCHR"/> the [[poverty threshold]] in the United States was at $12,880 for a single-person household and $26,246 for a family of four in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2015/07/22/what-it-means-to-be-poor-by-global-standards/ |title=What it means to be poor by global standards |author=Rakesh Kochhar |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |date=July 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://aspe.hhs.gov/2021-poverty-guidelines |title=2021 Poverty Guidelines |website=aspe.hhs.gov |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> As of 2019, 2% of the U.S. population earned less than $10 per day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poverty and Inequality Forum |url=https://pip.worldbank.org/poverty-calculator?src=EAP,SAS,SSA,LAC,MNA,ECA,OHI,WLD&pv=2.15&oc=pop_in_poverty&on=Population%20living%20in%20poverty&os=millions&od=Population%20living%20below%20the%20poverty%20line%20(2011%20PPP)&tab=table&ppp=2017 |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> 0.25% of the U.S. population lived below the international poverty line of $2.15 per day in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fact Sheet: An Adjustment to Global Poverty Lines |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/factsheet/2022/05/02/fact-sheet-an-adjustment-to-global-poverty-lines#:~:text=The%20new%20international%20poverty%20line,be%20living%20in%20extreme%20poverty. |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Profile: United States |url=https://pip.worldbank.org/country-profiles/USA |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref> ===Science, technology, and energy=== {{Main|Science and technology in the United States|Science policy of the United States|Energy in the United States}} [[File:Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag-crop.jpg|thumb|U.S. astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]] saluting the [[United States flag|flag]] on the [[lunar surface|Moon]] during the [[Apollo 11]], 1969. The United States is the only country that has sent [[Moon landing|crewed missions to the lunar surface]].]] The United States has been a leader in technological [[innovation]] since the late 19th century and scientific research since the mid-20th century. Methods for producing [[interchangeable parts]] and the establishment of a [[machine tool]] industry enabled the [[American system of manufacturing|U.S. to have large-scale manufacturing]] of sewing machines, bicycles, and other items in the late 19th century. In the early 20th century, factory [[electrification]], the introduction of the [[assembly line]], and other labor-saving techniques created the system of [[mass production]].<ref>{{Hounshell1984}}</ref> In the 21st century, approximately two-thirds of research and development funding comes from the private sector.<ref>{{cite web|title=Research and Development (R&D) Expenditures by Source and Objective: 1970 to 2004|url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2008/tables/08s0775.xls|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120210170338/https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2008/tables/08s0775.xls|archive-date=February 10, 2012|access-date=June 19, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2022, the United States was the country with the [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|second-highest]] number of published scientific papers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SJR - International Science Ranking|url=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?order=itp&ord=desc&year=2020|access-date=2022-02-05|website=www.scimagojr.com|language=en-uk}}</ref> As of 2021, the U.S. ranked second by the number of [[World Intellectual Property Indicators|patent applications]], and third by trademark and industrial design applications.<ref>{{cite book |title=World Intellectual Property Indicators 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4571&plang=EN |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.wipo.int | doi=10.34667/tind.44461 |language=en | author1=World Intellectual Property Organization. | series=World IP Indicators (WIPI) | year=2021 | publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) | isbn=9789280533293 }}</ref> In 2021, the United States launched a total of 51 [[spaceflights]] (China reported 55).<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hines |first1=R. Lincoln |last2=Ben-Itzhak |first2=Svetla |title=NASA's head warned that China may try to claim the Moon – two space scholars explain why that's unlikely to happen |url=http://theconversation.com/nasas-head-warned-that-china-may-try-to-claim-the-moon-two-space-scholars-explain-why-thats-unlikely-to-happen-186614 |access-date=July 11, 2022 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. had 2,944 active [[satellites]] in space in December 2021, the highest number of any country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Satellite Database|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database|access-date=July 14, 2022|website=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]]}}</ref> In 1876, [[Alexander Graham Bell]] was awarded the first U.S. [[Invention of the telephone|patent for the telephone]]. [[Thomas Edison]]'s [[Research institute|research laboratory]] developed the [[phonograph]], the first [[Incandescent light bulb|long-lasting light bulb]], and the first viable [[Kinetoscope|movie camera]].<ref name="Edison">{{cite web|title=Thomas Edison's Most Famous Inventions|url=https://www.thomasedison.org/index.php/education/inventions/|website=Thomas A Edison Innovation Foundation|access-date=January 21, 2015|archive-date=March 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316154517/https://www.thomasedison.org/index.php/education/inventions/|url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Wright brothers]] in 1903 made the [[Wright Flyer|first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight]], and the automobile companies of [[Ransom E. Olds]] ([[Oldsmobile]]) and [[Henry Ford]] ([[Ford Motor Company]]) popularized the assembly line in the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|author=Benedetti, François|url=https://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912065254/https://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp|archive-date=September 12, 2007|title=100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality|publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)|date=December 17, 2003|access-date=August 15, 2007}}</ref> The rise of [[fascism]] and [[Nazism]] in the 1920s and 30s led many European scientists, such as [[Albert Einstein]], [[Enrico Fermi]], and [[John von Neumann]], to immigrate to the United States.<ref name="fraser">{{cite book|last1=Fraser|first1=Gordon|title=The Quantum Exodus: Jewish Fugitives, the Atomic Bomb, and the Holocaust|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-959215-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NYknwEACAAJ}}</ref> During World War II, the [[Manhattan Project]]. developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the [[Atomic Age]]. During the Cold War, competition for superior missile capability led to the [[Space Race]] between the United States and Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYZmj7Us3m8C&q=Space+Race++rapid+advances+in+rocketry,+materials+science,+and+computers&pg=PA68|title=10 Little Americans|via=Google Books|access-date=September 15, 2014|isbn=978-0-615-14052-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2525898/app-development/nasa-s-apollo-technology-has-changed-history.html|title=NASA's Apollo technology has changed the history|date=July 20, 2009|publisher=Sharon Gaudin|access-date=September 15, 2014}}</ref> The great American technological breakthroughs of the 20th century stem from the invention of the [[transistor]] in the 1950s, a key component in almost all modern [[electronics]], which led to the development of [[microprocessor]]s, [[software]], [[personal computer]]s, and the [[Internet]].<ref name="Sawyer2012">{{cite book|last=Sawyer|first=Robert Keith|title=Explaining Creativity: The Science of Human Innovation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyJjyZ_YBAkC&pg=PA256|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973757-4|page=256}}</ref> In 2022, the United States ranked 2nd in the [[Global Innovation Index]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=www.wipo.int |series=Global Innovation Index |year=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=9789280534320 |language=en}}</ref> The United States also developed the [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS), the world's pre-eminent [[satellite navigation]] system.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/made-in-the-usa-american-tech-inventions/|first=Chenda|last=Ngak|publisher=[[CBS News]]|title=Made in the USA: American tech inventions|date=July 4, 2012}}</ref> {{as of|2021}}, the United States receives approximately 79.1% of its energy from fossil fuels.<ref name="visu">{{cite web |date= |title=Energy Flow Charts: Charting the Complex Relationships among Energy, Water, and Carbon |url=https://flowcharts.llnl.gov/ |access-date=16 May 2023 |publisher=Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory}}</ref> In 2021, the largest source of the country's energy came from [[petroleum]] (36.1%), followed by [[natural gas]] (32.2%), [[coal]] (10.8%), renewable sources (12.5%), and [[nuclear power]] (8.4%).<ref name="visu" /><!--Numbers do not add up to 100 due to rounding errors. --> The United States constitutes less than 5% of the [[world population|world's population]], but consumes 17% of the [[Energy use in the United States|world's energy]].<ref>{{cite news |date=November 5, 2021 |title=What is the United States' share of world energy consumption? |work=[[Energy Information Administration|U.S. Energy Information Administration]] |url=https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=87&t=1}}</ref> It accounts for about 25% of the world's [[Oil consumption|petroleum consumption]], while producing only 6% of the world's annual petroleum supply.<ref name="EIA">{{cite web |title=EIA – Petroleum Basic Data |url=https://www.eia.doe.gov/basics/quickoil.html |access-date=March 30, 2012 |publisher=Eia.doe.gov}}</ref> The U.S. ranks as second-highest emitter of greenhouse gases, exceeded only by China.<ref>{{cite web |last=US EPA |first=OAR |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks |url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks |access-date=December 3, 2020 |website=US EPA |language=en}}</ref> ===Transportation=== {{Main|Transportation in the United States}} [[File:Atlanta Airport Aerial Angle (31435634003) (2) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport]] is the world's busiest by [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|passenger traffic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/worlds-busiest-airports-2021/index.html|title=This US airport has reclaimed its title as the world's busiest|website=CNN.com|first=Marnie|last=Hunter|date=April 11, 2022}}</ref>]] The United States's [[Rail transport in the United States|rail network]], nearly all [[Standard-gauge railway|standard gauge]], is the [[List of countries by rail transport network size|longest in the world]], and exceeds {{convert|293564|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/railways/country-comparison|title=Railways – The World Factbook|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=July 14, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124012056/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2121rank.html|archive-date=November 24, 2018}}</ref> It handles mostly [[Freight transport|freight]], with intercity passenger service primarily provided by [[Amtrak]], a government-managed company that took over services previously run by private companies, to all but four states.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.transtats.bts.gov/osea/seasonaladjustment/?PageVar=RAIL_PM|title=Seasonally Adjusted Transportation Data|publisher=Bureau of Transportation Statistics|location=Washington, D.C.|date=2021|access-date=February 16, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Fitzsimmons |first=Emma G. |date=April 24, 2017 |title=Amtrak at a Junction: Invest in Improvements, or Risk Worsening Problems |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/24/nyregion/amtrak-infrastructure-crisis.html |work=The New York Times |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}</ref> Personal transportation is [[Car dependency|dominated by automobiles]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-19 |title=Cars still dominate the American commute |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/05/commute-america-sustainability-cars/ |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref> which operate on a network of {{convert|4|e6mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} of public roads, making it the [[List of countries by road network size|longest network]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roadways - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/roadways/country-comparison |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712201909/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/roadways/country-comparison |archive-date=2021-07-12 |access-date=2021-07-15 |website=www.cia.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Public Road and Street Mileage in the United States by Type of Surface|url=https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|website=United States Department of Transportation|access-date=January 13, 2015|archive-date=January 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102141414/https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|url-status=dead }}</ref> The United States became the first country in the world to have a mass market for vehicle production and sales, and mass market production process.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=automotive industry |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |last=Rae |first=John Bell |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/automotive-industry |access-date=5 December 2021}}</ref> As of 2022, the United States is the [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|second-largest]] manufacturer of motor vehicles<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 production statistics |url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2022-statistics/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408125523/https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2022-statistics/ |archive-date=April 8, 2023}}</ref> and is home to [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]], the world's most valuable car company.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Klebnikov |first=Sergei |title=Tesla Is Now The World's Most Valuable Car Company With A $208 Billion Valuation |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/sergeiklebnikov/2020/07/01/tesla-is-now-the-worlds-most-valuable-car-company-with-a-valuation-of-208-billion/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> [[General Motors]] held the title of the world's best-selling automaker from 1931 to 2008.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bunkley |first=Nick |date=2009-01-21 |title=Toyota Ahead of G.M. in 2008 Sales |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/business/22auto.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Currently, the U.S. has the world's second-largest automobile market by sales<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/jan/08/china-us-car-sales-overtakes|title=China overtakes US in car sales|newspaper=The Guardian|date=January 8, 2010|access-date=July 10, 2011|location=London}}</ref> and the [[List of countries by vehicles per capita|highest]] vehicle ownership per capita in the world, with 816.4 vehicles per 1,000 Americans (2014).<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=January 30, 2017|title=Fact #962: Vehicles per Capita: Other Regions/Countries Compared to the United States|url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/fact-962-january-30-2017-vehicles-capita-other-regionscountries-compared-united-states|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=Energy.gov|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013023547/https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/fact-962-january-30-2017-vehicles-capita-other-regionscountries-compared-united-states|archive-date=October 13, 2021}}</ref> In 2017, there were 255 million non-two wheel motor vehicles, or about 910 vehicles per 1,000 people.<ref name="USBTS">{{cite web|url=https://capitol-tires.com/how-many-cars-per-capita-in-the-us.html|title=Vehicle Statistics: Cars Per Capita|date=August 2017 |publisher=Capitol Tires}}</ref> The [[List of airlines of the United States|civil airline industry]] is entirely privately owned and has been largely [[Airline Deregulation Act|deregulated since 1978]], while [[List of airports in the United States|most major airports]] are publicly owned.<ref>{{cite web|last=Edwards|first=Chris|date=July 12, 2020|title=Privatization|url=https://www.downsizinggovernment.org/privatization|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=Downsizing the Federal Government|publisher=Cato Institute|language=en}}</ref> The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; [[American Airlines]] is number one after its 2013 acquisition by [[US Airways]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|title=Scheduled Passengers Carried|publisher=International Air Transport Association (IATA)|year=2011|access-date=February 17, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102034843/https://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|archive-date=January 2, 2015}}</ref> Of the [[List of the world's busiest airports by passenger traffic|world's 50 busiest passenger airports]], 16 are in the United States, including the top five and the busiest, [[Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport]].<ref name="PANYNJ 2021 report">{{cite web|url=https://www.panynj.gov/content/dam/airports/statistics/statistics-general-info/annual-atr/ATR_2021.pdf|title=2021 Airport Traffic Report|work=Port Authority of New York and New Jersey|date=April 2022|page=32}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-|title=Preliminary World Airport Traffic and Rankings 2013—High Growth Dubai Moves Up to 7th Busiest Airport|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401052319/https://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-|archive-date=April 1, 2014|date=March 31, 2014|access-date=May 17, 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, there are 19,919 airports in the United States, of which 5,217 are designated as "public use", including for [[general aviation]] and other activities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Number of U.S. Airports |url=https://www.bts.gov/content/number-us-airportsa |publisher=Bureau of Transportation Statistics |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}</ref> Of the [[List of busiest container ports|fifty busiest container ports]], four are located in the United States, of which the busiest is the [[Port of Los Angeles]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldshipping.org/top-50-ports|title=The Top 50 Container Ports|work=[[World Shipping Council]]|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|access-date=July 14, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813193707/https://www.worldshipping.org/top-50-ports|archive-date=August 13, 2021}}</ref> The country's [[Inland waterways of the United States|inland waterways]] are the world's [[List of countries by waterways length|fifth-longest]], and total {{convert|41009|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison |title=Waterways – The World Factbook |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=July 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005407/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison |archive-date=April 12, 2022}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Americans|Demographics of the United States|Race and ethnicity in the United States|Religion in the United States|Family structure in the United States}} ===Population=== {{See also|List of U.S. states by population}} <!--As prose text is preferred, overly detailed statistical charts and diagrams such as economic trends, weather boxes, historical population charts, past elections results, etc. should be reserved for main sub articles on the topic as per WP:DETAIL as outlined at WP:NOTSTATS.--> {{US Census population |1790= 3929326 |1800= 5308483 |1810= 7239881 |1820= 9638453 |1830= 12866020 |1840= 17069453 |1850= 23191876 |1860= 31443321 |1870= 38925598 |1880= 50189209 |1890= 62979766 |1900= 76212168 |1910= 92228496 |1920= 106021537 |1930= 122775046 |1940= 132164569 |1950= 150697361 |1960= 179323175 |1970= 203392031 |1980= 226545805 |1990= 248709873 |2000= 281421906 |2010= 308745538 |2020= 331449281 |estimate= 333287557 |estyear= 2022 |estref= <ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045222#PST045222|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States|publisher= United States Census Bureau|access-date= March 13, 2023}}</ref> |footnote= U.S. Decennial Census }} The [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]] reported 331,449,281 residents as of April 1, 2020,{{efn|This figure, like most official data for the United States as a whole, excludes the five unincorporated territories ([[Puerto Rico]], [[Guam]], the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], [[American Samoa]], and the [[Northern Mariana Islands]]) and minor island possessions.}}<ref name=2020CENSUS>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2020-census-apportionment-results.htmlpid=2020CENSUS&src=pt|title=Census Bureau's 2020 Population Count|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=April 26, 2021}}</ref> making the United States the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|third most populous]] nation in the world, after China and India.<ref name="CIA-2018">{{cite web|title=The World Factbook: United States|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|access-date=November 10, 2018|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316043011/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|archive-date=March 16, 2025}}</ref> According to the Bureau's [[U.S. and World Population Clock|U.S. Population Clock]], on January&nbsp;28, 2021, the U.S. population had a net gain of one person every 100 seconds, or about 864 people per day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Population Clock|url=https://www.census.gov/popclock/|website=www.census.gov}}</ref> In 2018, 52% of Americans age 15 and over were married, 6% were widowed, 10% were divorced, and 32% had never been married.<ref>{{cite web|title=Table MS-1. Marital Status of the Population 15 Years Old and Over, by Sex, Race and Hispanic Origin: 1950 to Present|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/families/marital.html|access-date=September 11, 2019|website=Historical Marital Status Tables|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> In 2021, the [[total fertility rate]] for the U.S. stood at 1.7 children per woman,<ref>{{Cite web |last=McPhillips |first=Deidre |date=2023-01-31 |title=Covid-19 'baby bump' brought an increased US fertility rate in 2021 -- but also record high preterm births |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/01/31/health/us-birth-rate-fertility-trends-2021/index.html |access-date=2023-04-16 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> and it had the world's highest rate of children (23%) living in [[Single parents in the United States|single-parent]] households in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. has world's highest rate of children living in single-parent households|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/12/12/u-s-children-more-likely-than-children-in-other-countries-to-live-with-just-one-parent/|access-date=March 17, 2020|website=Pew Research Center|language=en}}</ref> The United States has a diverse population; 37 [[American ancestries|ancestry groups]] have more than one million members.<ref name="An2000">{{cite web|title=Ancestry 2000|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|date=June 2004|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|url-status=live|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20041204015245/https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|archive-date=December 4, 2004|access-date=December 2, 2016}}</ref> [[Non-Hispanic whites|White Americans]] with ancestry from Europe, the Middle East or North Africa, form the largest [[race (human classification)|racial]] and [[ethnic group]] at 57.8% of the United States population.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/2020-united-states-population-more-racially-ethnically-diverse-than-2010.html | title=The Chance That Two People Chosen at Random Are of Different Race or Ethnicity Groups Has Increased Since 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Table 52. Population by Selected Ancestry Group and Region: 2009|url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0052.pdf|date=2009|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225031832/https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0052.pdf|archive-date=December 25, 2012|access-date=February 11, 2017}}</ref> [[Hispanic and Latino Americans]] form the second-largest group and are 18.7% of the United States population. [[African Americans]] constitute the nation's third-largest ancestry group and are 12.1% of the total United States population.<ref name="An2000" /> [[Asian Americans]] are the country's fourth-largest group, composing 5.9% of the United States population, while the country's 3.7 million [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] account for about 1%.<ref name="An2000" /> In 2020, the [[median age]] of the United States population was 38.5 years.<ref name="CIA-2018" /> ===Immigration=== {{main|Immigration to the United States}} The United States has by far the highest [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population|number of immigrant population]] in the world, with 50,661,149 people.<ref name="UNdef">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/docs/MigrationStockDocumentation_2019.pdf|title=INTERNATIONAL MIGRANT STOCK 2019 DOCUMENTATION}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStockTotal_2019.xlsx|title=UN_MigrantStockTotal_2019}}</ref> In 2018, there were almost 90 million immigrants and [[Second-generation immigrants in the United States|U.S.-born children of immigrants]] in the United States, accounting for 28% of the overall U.S. population.<ref>{{cite news|date=March 14, 2019|title=Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States|work=[[Migration Policy Institute]]|url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-united-states}}</ref> In 2017, out of the U.S. foreign-born population, some 45% (20.7&nbsp;million) were naturalized citizens, 27% (12.3&nbsp;million) were lawful permanent residents, 6% (2.2&nbsp;million) were temporary lawful residents, and 23% (10.5&nbsp;million) were unauthorized immigrants.<ref name="KeyFindings">{{cite web|date=June 17, 2019|title=Key findings about U.S. immigrants|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/17/key-findings-about-u-s-immigrants/|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> The United States led the world in [[refugee resettlement]] for decades, admitting more refugees than the rest of the world combined.<ref name="PewRefugees">{{cite web|title=Key facts about refugees to the U.S.|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/10/07/key-facts-about-refugees-to-the-u-s/|author=Jens Manuel Krogstad|date=October 7, 2019|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> ===Language=== {{Main|Languages of the United States}} While many languages are spoken in the United States, English is the most common.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kaur |first=Harmeet |date=2018-05-20 |title=FYI: English isn't the official language of the United States |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/20/us/english-us-official-language-trnd/index.html |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Although there is no [[official language]] at the federal level, some laws—such as [[Naturalized citizen of the United States|U.S. naturalization requirements]]—standardize English, and most states have declared English as the official language.<ref>{{cite news|date=August 12, 2014|title=States Where English Is the Official Language|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2014/08/12/states-where-english-is-the-official-language/|access-date=September 12, 2020|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> Three states and four U.S. territories have recognized local or indigenous languages in addition to English, including Hawaii ([[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]),<ref>{{cite web|date=November 7, 1978|title=The Constitution of the State of Hawaii, Article XV, Section 4|url=https://www.hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart15.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724231656/https://hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart15.html|archive-date=July 24, 2013|access-date=June 19, 2007|publisher=Hawaii Legislative Reference Bureau}}</ref> Alaska ([[Alaska Native languages|twenty Native languages]]),{{efn|[[Inupiaq language|Inupiaq]], [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]], [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]], [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]], [[Aleut language|Unanga]] (Aleut), [[Denaʼina language|Denaʼina]], [[Deg Xinag language|Deg Xinag]], [[Holikachuk language|Holikachuk]], [[Koyukon language|Koyukon]], [[Upper Kuskokwim language|Upper Kuskokwim]], [[Gwichʼin language|Gwichʼin]], [[Lower Tanana language|Tanana]], [[Upper Tanana language|Upper Tanana]], [[Tanacross language|Tanacross]], [[Hän language|Hän]], [[Ahtna language|Ahtna]], [[Eyak language|Eyak]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], [[Haida language|Haida]], and [[Coast Tsimshian dialect|Tsimshian]]}}<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chapel|first1=Bill|date=April 21, 2014|title=Alaska OKs Bill Making Native Languages Official|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2014/04/21/305688602/alaska-oks-bill-making-native-languages-official|newspaper=NPR}}</ref> South Dakota ([[Sioux language|Sioux]]),<ref name="LakotaCommon">{{cite web|title=South Dakota recognizes official indigenous language|url=https://eu.argusleader.com/story/news/politics/2019/03/22/south-dakota-recognizes-official-indigenous-language-governor-noem/3245113002/|access-date=March 26, 2019|publisher=[[Argus Leader]]}}</ref> American Samoa ([[Samoan language|Samoan]]), Puerto Rico ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]), Guam ([[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]), and the Northern Mariana Islands ([[Carolinian language|Carolinian]] and Chamorro). In Puerto Rico, Spanish is more widely spoken than English.<ref name="PuertoRicoTranslation">{{cite web|title=Translation in Puerto Rico|url=https://www.puertorico.com/translation/|access-date=December 29, 2013|website=Puerto Rico Channel|archive-date=December 30, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233259/http://www.puertorico.com/translation/|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the [[American Community Survey]], in 2010 some 229 million people (out of the total U.S. population of 308 million) spoke only English at home. More than 37 million spoke [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish]] at home, making it the second most commonly used language in the United States. Other languages spoken at home by one million people or more include [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (2.8 million), [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (1.6 million), [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (1.4 million), [[French language|French]] (1.3 million), [[Korean language|Korean]] (1.1 million), and [[German language|German]] (1 million).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_B16001&prodType=table|title=American FactFinder—Results|first=U.S. Census|last=Bureau|access-date=May 29, 2017|archive-date=February 12, 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212213140/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_B16001&prodType=table|url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[List of most commonly learned foreign languages in the United States|most widely taught foreign languages]] in the United States, in terms of enrollment numbers from kindergarten through university [[undergraduate education]], are Spanish, French, and [[German language in the United States|German]]. Other commonly taught languages include [[Latin]], [[Japanese language education in the United States|Japanese]], [[American Sign Language]], [[Italian language in the United States|Italian]], and [[Chinese language in the United States|Chinese]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf|title=Foreign Language Enrollments in K–12 Public Schools|date=February 2011|publisher=American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL)|access-date=October 17, 2015|archive-date=April 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408184754/https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mla.org/pdf/2013_enrollment_survey.pdf|title=Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2013|last1=Goldberg|first1=David|last2=Looney|first2=Dennis|last3=Lusin|first3=Natalia|date=February 2015|publisher=Modern Language Association|access-date=May 20, 2015}}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in the United States}} {{See also|List of religious movements that began in the United States}} {{Pie chart | thumb = right | caption = Self-identified religious affiliation in the United States (2023 ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]-[[Associated Press|NORC]]'' poll):<ref name="WSJ-2022">{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=March 2023 NORC/AP poll |url=https://s.wsj.net/public/resources/documents/WSJ_NORC_ToplineMarc_2023.pdf |access-date=March 27, 2023 |website=[[Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> | label1 = [[Protestantism in the United States|Protestantism]] | value1 = 26 | color1 = DarkBlue | label2 = [[Catholicism in the United States|Catholicism]] | value2 = 21 | color2 = Purple | label3 = "Just [[Christians|Christian]]" | value3 = 20 | color3 = Lightblue | label4 = [[Mormonism]] | value4 = 2 | color4 = Teal | label5 = [[Unitarianism]] | value5 = 1 | color5 = Red | label6 = [[Judaism in the United States|Judaism]] | value6 = 2 | color6 = Pink | label7 = [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]] | value7 = 2 | color7 = Yellow | label8 = Other religious affilation | value8 = 2 | color8 = Salmon | label9 = [[Islam in the United States|Islam]] | value9 = 1 | color9 = Green | label10 = [[Irreligion in the United States|Nothing in particular]] | value10 = 12 | color10 = White | label11 = [[Agnosticism]] | value11 = 8 | color11 = LightGrey | label12 = [[Atheism]] | value12 = 4 | color12 = Black }} Religious affiliation in the United States is among the [[List of countries ranked by ethnic and cultural diversity level|most diverse in the world]]<ref name="alesina1">{{cite journal |first=Alberto |last=Alesina |display-authors=etal |year=2003 |title=Fractionalization |url=http://www.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/alesina/files/fractionalization.pdf |journal=Journal of Economic Growth |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=155–194 |doi=10.1023/a:1024471506938 |access-date=September 13, 2012}}</ref> and varies significantly [[List of regions of the United States|by region]]<ref name="Williams-2023">{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Daniel |date=March 1, 2023 |title='Christian America' Isn't Dying. It's Dividing. |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2023/february-web-only/christianity-america-pew-research-statistics-minority.html |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=[[Christianity Today]] |language=en}}</ref> and age.<ref name="Burge-2023">{{Cite web |last=Burge |first=Ryan |author-link=Ryan Burge (political scientist) |date=2023-04-03 |title=Gen Z and Religion in 2022 |url=https://religioninpublic.blog/2023/04/03/gen-z-and-religion-in-2022/ |access-date=2023-04-04 |website=Religion in Public |language=en}}</ref> The [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] guarantees the [[Free Exercise Clause|free exercise]] of religion and forbids Congress from passing laws respecting its [[Establishment Clause|establishment]].<ref name="Donadio-2021">{{Cite web |last=Donadio |first=Rachel |date=2021-11-22 |title=Why Is France So Afraid of God? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2021/12/france-god-religion-secularism/620528/ |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= |title=First Amendment |url=https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/#:~:text=Congress%20shall%20make%20no%20law,for%20a%20redress%20of%20grievances. |work=Constitution Annotated |publisher=[[United States Congress]]}}</ref> The country has the world's [[Christianity by country|largest Christian population]]<ref name="Global Christianity">{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS|url=https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx|title=Global Christianity|publisher=Pewforum.org|date=December 19, 2011|access-date=August 17, 2012|archive-date=July 30, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730062627/http://www.pewforum.org/christian/global-christianity-exec.aspx|url-status=dead }}</ref> and a majority of Americans identify as [[Christians|Christian]], predominately [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[mainline Protestant]], or [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]]. According to Gallup, 58% and 17% reporting [[Prayer|praying]] often or sometimes, respectively, and 46% and 26% reporting that religion plays a very important or fairly important role, respectively, in their lives.<ref name="Gallup Poll">{{cite web |date=2022 |title=Religion Historical Trends |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/1690/religion.aspx |website=Gallup}}</ref> Most do not regularly attend religious services<ref name="WSJ-2022" /> and have low confidence in religious institutions.<ref name="McCarthy-2019">{{Cite web |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |date=2019-07-08 |title=U.S. Confidence in Organized Religion Remains Low |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/259964/confidence-organized-religion-remains-low.aspx |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Gallup.com |language=en}}</ref> Until the 1990s, the country was a [[outlier|significant outlier]] among [[Developed country|highly developed]] countries, notably having [[Wealth and religion|a high level of religiosity and wealth]], although this has lessened since.<ref name="Nadeem-2022">{{Cite web |last=Nadeem |first=Reem |date=2022-09-13 |title=Modeling the Future of Religion in America |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/09/13/modeling-the-future-of-religion-in-america/ |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Thompson-2019">{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Derek |date=2019-09-26 |title=Three Decades Ago, America Lost Its Religion. Why? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/09/atheism-fastest-growing-religion-us/598843/ |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=The Atlantic |language=en |quote=}}</ref> According to Gallup and Pew 81%-90% of Americans believe in a [[Higher Power|higher power]]<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Jeffrey |date=2022-06-17 |title=Belief in God in U.S. Dips to 81%, a New Low |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/393737/belief-god-dips-new-low.aspx |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Gallup |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Key findings about Americans' belief in God |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/04/25/key-findings-about-americans-belief-in-god/ |website=Pew Research Center |date=April 25, 2018 |quote= The vast majority of Americans (90%) believe in some kind of higher power, with 56% professing faith in God as described in the Bible and another 33% saying they believe in another type of higher power or spiritual force. Only one-in-ten Americans say they don’t believe in God or a higher power of any kind.}}</ref> while "31% report attending a church, synagogue, mosque or temple weekly or nearly weekly today."<ref name="Jones-2022">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Jeffrey |date=2022-12-21 |title=In U.S., Childhood Churchgoing Habits Fade in Adulthood |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/467354/childhood-churchgoing-habits-fade-adulthood.aspx |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Gallup.com |language=en}}</ref> In the "[[Bible Belt]]", located within the [[Southern United States]], evangelical Protestantism plays a significant role culturally. [[New England]] and the [[Western United States]] tend [[Unchurched Belt|to be less religious]].<ref name="Williams-2023" /> Around 6% of Americans claim a non-Christian faith;<ref name="Nadeem-2022" /> the largest of which are [[Judaism]], [[Islam in the United States|Islam]], [[Hinduism in the United States|Hinduism]], and [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]].<ref name="pew2015">{{cite web |date=May 12, 2015 |title=America's Changing Religious Landscape |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/ |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]: Religion & Public Life}}</ref> The United States either has the [[American Jews|first or second-largest Jewish population]] in the world, the largest outside of [[Israel]].<ref name="JDB">{{cite report |editor1-last=Dashefsky |editor1-first=Arnold |editor-link1=Arnold Dashefsky |editor2-last=Della Pergola |editor2-first=Sergio |editor-link2=Sergio Della Pergola |editor3-last=Sheskin |editor3-first=Ira |date=2018 |title=World Jewish Population|url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2018-World_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_DellaPergola)_DB_Final.pdf|publisher=[[Berman Jewish DataBank]]|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> "[[Ceremonial deism]]" is common in American culture.<ref name="Donadio-2021" /><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Merriam |first1=Jesse |last2=Lupu |first2=Ira |last3=Elwood |first3=F |last4=Davis |first4=Eleanor |date=August 28, 2008 |title=On Ceremonial Occasions, May the Government Invoke a Deity? |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2008/08/28/on-ceremonial-occasions-may-the-government-invoke-a-deity/ |access-date=March 31, 2023 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US}}</ref> Around 30% of Americans describe themselves as having [[irreligion|no religion]].<ref name="Nadeem-2022" /> Membership in a house of worship fell from 70% in 1999 to 47% in 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Jeffrey M. |date=March 29, 2021 |title=U.S. Church Membership Falls Below Majority for First Time |language=en |work=[[Gallup Inc.]] |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/341963/church-membership-falls-below-majority-first-time.aspx |access-date=April 5, 2021}}</ref> ===Urbanization=== {{Main|Urbanization in the United States|List of United States cities by population}} About 82% of Americans live in [[United States urban area|urban areas]], including suburbs;<ref name="WF" /> about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-state=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-_box_head_nbr=GCT-P1&-mt_name=&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=&-format=US-1&-_lang=en|title=United States—Urban/Rural and Inside/Outside Metropolitan Area|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090403024532/https://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-state=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-_box_head_nbr=GCT-P1&-mt_name=&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=&-format=US-1&-_lang=en|archive-date=April 3, 2009|access-date=September 23, 2008|url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2008, 273 [[List of United States cities by population|incorporated municipalities]] had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than one million residents, and four cities ([[New York City]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Chicago]], and [[Houston]]) had populations exceeding two million.<ref name="PopEstBigCities">{{cite web|url=https://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/census/popestimate/copy_of_2008-subcounty-population-hawaii/SUB_EST2008_01.pdf|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5lpvuJk99?url=https://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/census/popestimate/copy_of_2008-subcounty-population-hawaii/SUB_EST2008_01.pdf|archive-date=December 7, 2009|title=Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places Over 100,000, Ranked by July 1, 2008 Population: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008|website=2008 Population Estimates|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division|date=July 1, 2009 }}</ref> Many U.S. metropolitan populations are growing rapidly, particularly in the South and West.<ref>{{cite web|date=April 18, 2019|title=Counties in South and West Lead Nation in Population Growth|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2019/estimates-county-metro.html|access-date=August 29, 2020|website=The United States Census Bureau|language=en}}</ref> {{Largest metropolitan areas of the United States}} ===Education=== {{Main|Education in the United States|Higher education in the United States}} [[File:University-of-Virginia-Rotunda.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Virginia]], founded by [[Thomas Jefferson]], is one of the many public colleges and universities in the United States.|alt=Photograph of the University of Virginia]] American [[state school|public education]] is operated by state and local governments and regulated by the [[United States Department of Education]] through restrictions on federal grants. In most states, children are required to attend school from the age of five or six (beginning with [[kindergarten]] or [[first grade]]) until they turn 18 (generally bringing them through [[twelfth grade]], the end of [[high school]]); some states allow students to leave school at 16 or 17.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d02/dt150.asp|title=Ages for Compulsory School Attendance ...|access-date=June 10, 2007|publisher=U.S. Dept. of Education, National Center for Education Statistics}}</ref> Of Americans 25 and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a [[bachelor's degree]], and 9.6% earned graduate degrees.<ref>{{cite web|title=Educational Attainment in the United States: 2003|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-550.pdf|access-date=August 1, 2006|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> The basic [[literacy]] rate is approximately 99%.<ref name="WF" /><ref>For more detail on U.S. literacy, see [https://nces.ed.gov/NAAL/PDF/2006470.PDF A First Look at the Literacy of America's Adults in the 21st century], U.S. Department of Education (2003).</ref> The United States has many private and public [[Lists of American institutions of higher education|institutions of higher education]]. There are also local [[community college]]s with generally more open admission policies, shorter academic programs, and lower tuition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Pannoni|first1=Alexandra|last2=Kerr|first2=Emma|url=https://www.usnews.com/education/community-colleges/articles/2015/02/06/frequently-asked-questions-community-college|title=Everything You Need to Know About Community Colleges: FAQ|work=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|date=July 14, 2020|access-date=July 9, 2022}}</ref> The U.S. spends more on education per student than any nation in the world,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rushe|first=Dominic|date=September 7, 2018|title=The US spends more on education than other countries. Why is it falling behind?|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/sep/07/us-education-spending-finland-south-korea|access-date=August 29, 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> spending an average of $12,794 per year on public elementary and secondary school students in the 2016–2017 school year.<ref>{{cite web|date=April 2020|title=Fast Facts: Expenditures|url=https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=66|access-date=August 29, 2020|website=nces.ed.gov|language=EN}}</ref> As for [[public expenditure]]s on higher education, the U.S. spends more per student than the [[OECD]] average, and more than all nations in combined public and private spending.<ref name="education spending">{{cite news|date=June 25, 2013|title=U.S. education spending tops global list, study shows|publisher=CBS|agency=AP|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57590921/u.s-education-spending-tops-global-list-study-shows/|access-date=October 5, 2013}}</ref> Despite some student [[loan forgiveness]] programs in place,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Biden administration cancelled $9.5B in student loan debt. Here's who it affects. |url=https://usafacts.org/articles/the-biden-administration-cancelled-95b-in-student-loan-debt-heres-who-it-affects/ |access-date=July 15, 2022 |website=USAFacts |language=en}}</ref> [[Student debt|student loan debt]] has increased by 102% in the last decade,<ref>{{cite news|last=Hess|first=Abigail Johnson|date=December 22, 2020|title=U.S. student debt has increased by more than 100% over the past 10 years|work=CNBC|location=|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/22/us-student-debt-has-increased-by-more-than-100percent-over-past-10-years.html|access-date=January 8, 2022}}</ref> and exceeded 1.7&nbsp;trillion dollars as of 2022.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dickler|first1=Jessica|last2=Nova|first2=Annie|date=May 6, 2022|title=This is how student loan debt became a $1.7 trillion crisis|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/06/this-is-how-student-loan-debt-became-a-1point7-trillion-crisis.html|work=CNBC|location=|access-date=July 8, 2022}}</ref> The large majority of the world's top universities, as listed by various ranking organizations, are in the United States, including 19 of the top 25, and the most prestigious{{ww|date=May 2023}}{{or|date=May 2023}} – the [[Harvard University]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fink |first=Jenni |date=2019-10-22 |title=U.S. Schools Take 8 of 10 Top Spots on U.S. News' Best Global Universities |url=https://www.newsweek.com/us-news-best-global-universities-american-schools-dominate-top-10-1466768 |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nietzel |first=Michael T. |date=March 22, 2023 |title=U.S. Universities Dominate Latest QS World Rankings By Academic Field |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeltnietzel/2023/03/22/us-universities-dominate-latest-qs-world-rankings-by-academic-field/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/best-countries-for-education |title=Best Countries for Education: North American and European countries are seen as offering the best opportunities for education. |website=U.S. News & World Report |date=April 19, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/rankings |title=2022-2023 Best Global Universities Rankings |website=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> The country also has by far the most [[List of Nobel laureates by country|Nobel Prize winners]] in history, with 403 (having won 406 awards).<ref>{{Cite web |title=All Nobel Prizes |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-prizes |website=NobelPrize.org}}</ref> ===Health=== {{See also|Health care in the United States|Health care reform in the United States|Health insurance in the United States}} [[File:Texas medical center.jpg|thumb|The [[Texas Medical Center]] in downtown [[Houston]] is the largest medical complex in the world.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newsweek.com/texas-medical-center-largest-medical-complex-world-reaches-98-percent-icu-capacity-1526180 | title=Texas Medical Center, largest medical complex in the world, reaches 98 percent ICU capacity | website=[[Newsweek]] | date=August 19, 2020 }}</ref> |alt=The Texas Medical Center, a cluster of contemporary skyscrapers, at night]] In a preliminary report, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) announced that U.S. [[life expectancy]] at birth had dropped to 76.4 years in 2021 (73.2 years for men and 79.1 years for women), down 0.9 years from 2020. This was the second year of overall decline, and the chief causes listed were the [[COVID-19]] pandemic, accidents, drug overdoses, heart and liver disease, and suicides.<ref>{{cite web|title=Life Expectancy in the United States Declines, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/nchs_press_releases/2022/20220831.htm|website=www.cdc.gov|access-date=September 3, 2022|date=August 31, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Noguchi|first=Yuki |date=December 22, 2022 |title=American life expectancy is now at its lowest in nearly two decades|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2022/12/22/1144864971/american-life-expectancy-is-now-at-its-lowest-in-nearly-two-decades|work=[[NPR]] |location= |access-date=December 27, 2022}}</ref> Life expectancy was highest among Asians and Hispanics and lowest among Blacks and American Indian–Alaskan Native ([[AIAN (U.S. Census)|AIAN]]) peoples.<ref>{{cite web|date=November 29, 2018|title=Mortality in the United States, 2017|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db328.htm|access-date=December 27, 2018|website=www.cdc.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Bernstein|first1=Lenny|date=November 29, 2018|title=U.S. life expectancy declines again, a dismal trend not seen since World War I|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/us-life-expectancy-declines-again-a-dismal-trend-not-seen-since-world-war-i/2018/11/28/ae58bc8c-f28c-11e8-bc79-68604ed88993_story.html|access-date=December 27, 2018}}</ref> Starting in 1998, the average life expectancy in the U.S. fell behind that of other wealthy industrialized countries, and Americans' "health disadvantage" gap has been increasing ever since.<ref>{{cite news|last=Achenbach|first=Joel|date=November 26, 2019|title='There's something terribly wrong': Americans are dying young at alarming rates|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/theres-something-terribly-wrong-americans-are-dying-young-at-alarming-rates/2019/11/25/d88b28ec-0d6a-11ea-8397-a955cd542d00_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=December 19, 2019}}</ref> The U.S. also has one of the highest [[Suicide in the United States|suicide]] rates among [[high-income countries]],<ref>{{cite web|date=January 30, 2020|title=New International Report on Health Care: U.S. Suicide Rate Highest Among Wealthy Nations {{!}} Commonwealth Fund|url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/press-release/2020/new-international-report-health-care-us-suicide-rate-highest-among-wealthy|access-date=March 17, 2020|website=www.commonwealthfund.org|language=en}}</ref> and approximately one-third of the U.S. adult population is obese and another third is overweight.<ref>{{cite web|title=Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity Among Adults: United States, 2003–2004|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/overweight/overwght_adult_03.htm|access-date=June 5, 2007|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics}}</ref> In 2010, [[coronary artery disease]], [[lung cancer]], [[stroke]], [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]s, and traffic collisions caused the most years of life lost in the U.S. [[Low back pain]], [[major depressive disorder|depression]], [[musculoskeletal disorder]]s, [[neck pain]], and [[anxiety]] caused the most years lost to disability. The most harmful [[risk factor]]s were poor diet, [[tobacco smoking]], obesity, [[Hypertension|high blood pressure]], [[Hyperglycemia|high blood sugar]], [[physical inactivity]], and [[Alcohol consumption and health|alcohol consumption]]. [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[substance use disorder]]s, [[kidney disease]], [[cancer]], and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age-adjusted 1990 per-capita rates.<ref name="Murray2013">{{cite journal|first=Christopher J.L.|last=Murray|title=The State of US Health, 1990–2010: Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|doi=10.1001/jama.2013.13805|date=July 10, 2013|volume=310|issue=6|pages=591–608|pmid=23842577|pmc=5436627 }}</ref> [[Teenage pregnancy in the United States|Teenage pregnancy]] and [[Abortion in the United States|abortion]] rates in the U.S. are substantially higher than in other Western nations, especially among blacks and Hispanics.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Teen Pregnancy|url=https://www.cdc.gov/TeenPregnancy/AboutTeenPreg.htm|publisher=Center for Disease Control|access-date=January 24, 2015}}</ref> The U.S. health care system far [[List of countries by total health expenditure (PPP) per capita|outspends]] that of any other nation, measured both in per capita spending and as a percentage of GDP but attains worse health care outcomes when compared to peer nations.<ref>{{cite web|year=2001|title=The U.S. Healthcare System: The Best in the World or Just the Most Expensive?|url=https://dll.umaine.edu/ble/U.S.+HCweb.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/20070309142240/https://dll.umaine.edu:80/ble/U.S.%20HCweb.pdf|archive-date=March 9, 2007|access-date=November 29, 2006|publisher=University of Maine}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The United States is the only developed nation [[Healthcare reform in the United States|without a system of universal health care]], and a [[Health insurance coverage in the United States|significant proportion of the population that does not carry health insurance]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vladeck|first=Bruce|title=Universal Health Insurance in the United States: Reflections on the Past, the Present, and the Future|date=January 2003|volume=93|number=1|pages=16–19|pmid=12511377|doi=10.2105/ajph.93.1.16|journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]]|pmc=1447684 }}</ref> The U.S., however, is a global leader in medical innovation, measured either in terms of revenue or the number of new drugs and devices introduced.<ref name="EFPIA">{{cite web|url=http://www.efpia.org/content/Default.asp?PageID=388|title=Improving Europe's competitiveness|publisher=[[European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations|EFPIA]]|access-date=November 6, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823030103/http://www.efpia.org/content/Default.asp?PageID=388|archive-date=August 23, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Europe">Stats from 2007 Europ.Fed.of Pharm.Indust.and Assoc. Retrieved June 17, 2009, from [http://212.3.246.100/Objects/2/Files/infigures2007.pdf]{{dead link|date=October 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> The Foundation for Research on Equal Opportunity ranked the United States 11th in its World Index of Healthcare Innovation; it concluded that the U.S. dominates science & technology, which "was on full display during the COVID-19 pandemic, as the U.S. government [delivered] coronavirus vaccines far faster than anyone had ever done before," but lags behind in fiscal sustainability, with "[government] spending [...] growing at an unsustainable rate."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://freopp.org/united-states-11-in-the-2022-world-index-of-healthcare-innovation-7175b47ab5d7|title=United States: #11 in the 2022 World Index of Healthcare Innovation. America's runaway leadership in science & technology is marred by a fiscally unsustainable system of costly health care.|website=freopp.org|author=Grant Rigney|date=March 3, 2023|access-date=April 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229005307/https://freopp.org/united-states-11-in-the-2022-world-index-of-healthcare-innovation-7175b47ab5d7|archive-date=February 29, 2024}}</ref> Government-funded health care coverage for the poor ([[Medicaid]], established in 1965) and for those age 65 and older ([[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], begun in 1966) is available to Americans who meet the programs' income or age qualifications. In 2010, former President Obama passed the [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act]] or ACA,{{efn|Also known less formally as Obamacare}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberlander|first=Jonathan|date=June 1, 2010| title=Long Time Coming: Why Health Reform Finally Passed|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_health-affairs_2010-06_29_6/page/1112|journal=Health Affairs|language=en|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1112–1116|doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0447| pmid=20530339|issn=0278-2715|doi-access=free}}</ref> with the law roughly halving the uninsured share of the population according to the CDC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/earlyrelease201611_01.pdf|title=National Health Interview Survey, January to June 2016|website=CDC.gov|access-date=November 23, 2016}}</ref> Multiple studies have concluded that ACA had reduced the mortality of enrollees.<ref name="NYT20200323GoodnoughAbelsonetAl">{{cite news|first1=Abby|last1=Goodnough|first2=Reed|last2=Abelson|first3=Margot|last3=Sanger-Katz|first4=Sarah|last4=Kliff|title=Obamacare Turns 10. Here's a Look at What Works and Doesn't.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/health/obamacare-aca-coverage-cost-history.html|access-date=March 31, 2020|date=March 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330105840/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/health/obamacare-aca-coverage-cost-history.html|archive-date=March 30, 2020|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Sarah|last2=Altekruse|first2=Sean|last3=Johnson|first3=Norman|last4=Wherry|first4=Laura|date=July 2019|title=Medicaid and Mortality: New Evidence from Linked Survey and Administrative Data|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research|series=NBER Working Paper No. 26081|doi=10.3386/w26081|s2cid=164463149|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w26081.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldin|first1=Jacob|last2=Lurie|first2=Ithai Z.|last3=McCubbin|first3=Janet|title=Health Insurance and Mortality: Experimental Evidence from Taxpayer Outreach|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2020|volume=136|pages=1–49|language=en|doi=10.1093/qje/qjaa029|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, its legacy [[Criticism of Obamacare|remains controversial]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Mathews|first=Anna Wilde|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-is-aca-still-controversial-11-years-after-healthcare-law-known-as-obamacare-was-passed-11623962729|title=Why Is ACA Still Controversial 11 Years After Healthcare Law Known as Obamacare Was Passed?|work=[[Wall Street Journal]]|date=June 17, 2021|access-date=July 18, 2022}}</ref> ==Culture and society== {{Main|Culture of the United States|Society of the United States}} [[File:Liberty02.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Statue of Liberty]] (''Liberty Enlightening the World''), a gift from [[France]], has become an iconic symbol of the [[American Dream]].<ref>{{cite web| title = Statue of Liberty| website=World Heritage| publisher=UNESCO| url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/307| access-date = January 4, 2022}}</ref>|alt=The Statue of Liberty, a large teal bronze sculpture on a stone pedestal]] Americans have traditionally [[Stereotypes of Americans|been characterized]] by a unifying belief in an "[[American civil religion|American creed]]" emphasizing liberty, [[equality under the law]], democracy, [[social equality]], [[property rights]], and a preference for [[limited government]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Huntington |first=Samuel P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whoarewechalleng00hunt |title=Who are We?: The Challenges to America's National Identity |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-684-87053-3 |chapter=Chapters 2–4 |author-link=Samuel P. Huntington |access-date=October 25, 2015 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xiYiybkE8kC&q=core}}: also see [[American Creed]], written by [[William Tyler Page]] and adopted by Congress in 1918.</ref><ref>Hoeveler, J. David, ''Creating the American Mind: Intellect and Politics in the Colonial Colleges'', Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-0742548398}}, 2007, p. xi</ref> [[Individualism]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grabb |first1=Edward |last2=Baer |first2=Douglas |last3=Curtis |first3=James |year=1999 |title=The Origins of American Individualism: Reconsidering the Historical Evidence |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Sociology]] |publisher=[[University of Alberta]] |volume=24 |pages=511–533 |doi=10.2307/3341789 |issn=0318-6431 |jstor=3341789 |number=4}}</ref> having a strong [[work ethic]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Porter |first=Gayle |date=November 2010 |title=Work Ethic and Ethical Work: Distortions in the American Dream |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-business-ethics_2010-11_96_4/page/535 |journal=[[Journal of Business Ethics]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |volume=96 |pages=535–550 |doi=10.1007/s10551-010-0481-6 |jstor=29789736 |s2cid=143991044 |number=4}}</ref> [[Competition (economics)|competitiveness]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stephens |first=R.H. |date=September 1952 |title=The Role Of Competition In American Life |journal=[[The Australian Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Australian Institute of Policy and Science]] |volume=24 |pages=9–14 |jstor=41317686 |number=3}}</ref> and [[altruism]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://good2give.ngo/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/2022-CAF-World-Giving-Index.pdf |title=World Giving Index 2022 |website=[[Charities Aid Foundation]] |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Country-level estimates of altruism |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/cross-country-variation-in-altruism |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Marsh |first=Abigail |date=February 5, 2018 |title=Could A More Individualistic World Also Be A More Altruistic One? |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2018/02/05/581873428/could-a-more-individualistic-world-also-be-a-more-altruistic-one |access-date=March 14, 2023 |website=[[National Public Radio]]}}</ref> are also cited values. According to a 2016 study by the [[Charities Aid Foundation]], Americans donated 1.44% of total GDP to charity, the [[List of countries by charitable donation|highest]] in the world by a large margin.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 2016 |title=GROSS DOMESTIC PHILANTHROPY: An international analysis of GDP, tax and giving |url=https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-policy-and-campaigns/gross-domestic-philanthropy-feb-2016.pdf |access-date=July 18, 2022 |publisher=[[Charities Aid Foundation]]}}</ref> The United States is home to a [[Multiculturalism|wide variety]] of ethnic groups, traditions, and values,<ref name="DD">{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=J.Q. |title=Dealing with diversity : the anthology |url=https://archive.org/details/dealingwithdiver0000adam |last2=Strother-Adams |first2=Pearlie |date=2001 |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Pub |isbn=978-0-7872-8145-8 |location=Chicago}}</ref><ref name="Society in Focus">{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=William E. |title=Society in focus : an introduction to sociology |url=https://archive.org/details/societyinfocusin0000will |last2=Hickey |first2=Joseph V. |date=2004 |publisher=Pearson/Allyn and Bacon |isbn=978-0-205-41365-2 |edition=5th |location=Boston}}</ref> and exerts major cultural influence on a global scale,<ref>[[#BBC18may|BBC, April 2008: Country Profile: United States of America]]</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last1=Fergie |first1=Dexter |date=March 24, 2022 |title=How American Culture Ate the World |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/165836/american-culture-ate-world-righteous-smokescreen-globalization-review |magazine=The New Republic |issn=0028-6583 |access-date=July 3, 2022}}</ref> with the phenomenon being termed ''[[Americanization]]''.<ref name="stead1901">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/stream/americanizationo01stea#page/392/mode/2up | title=The Americanization of the World | publisher=Horace Markley | author=Stead, W. T. | year=1901 | page=393}}</ref> As such, the U.S. is considered a [[cultural superpower]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Berghahn |first=Volker R. |date=2010-02-01 |title=The debate on 'Americanization' among economic and cultural historians |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14682740903388566 |journal=Cold War History |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=107–130 |doi=10.1080/14682740903388566 |s2cid=144459911 |issn=1468-2745}}</ref> Nearly all present Americans or their ancestors came from [[Afro-Eurasia|Eurafrasia]] ("the [[Old World]]") within the past five centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fiorina|first1=Morris P.|author-link1=Morris P. Fiorina|last2=Peterson|first2=Paul E.|title=The New American democracy|url=https://archive.org/details/newamericandemoc0007edunse|date=2010|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=978-0-205-78016-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/newamericandemoc0007edunse/page/97 97]|edition=7th}}</ref> [[wikt:mainstream|Mainstream]] American culture is a [[Western culture]] largely derived from the [[European American|traditions of European immigrants]] with influences from many other sources, such as [[African-American culture|traditions brought by slaves from Africa]].<ref name="DD" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Holloway|first1=Joseph E.|title=Africanisms in American culture|url=https://archive.org/details/africanismsiname0000unse|date=2005|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0-253-21749-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/africanismsiname0000unse/page/18 18]–38|edition=2nd}}<br />{{cite book|last1=Johnson|first1=Fern L.|title=Speaking culturally : language diversity in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/speakingcultural0000john|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-0-8039-5912-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/speakingcultural0000john/page/116 116]|year=2000 }}</ref> More recent immigration from [[Asian American|Asia]] and especially [[Latin American culture|Latin America]] has added to a cultural mix that has been described as a homogenizing [[melting pot]], and a heterogeneous [[salad bowl (cultural idea)|salad bowl]], with immigrants contributing to, and often [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilating]] into, mainstream American culture.<ref name="DD" /> The [[American Dream]], or the perception that Americans enjoy high [[Socio-economic mobility in the United States|social mobility]], plays a key role in attracting immigrants.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gallup.com/poll/161435/100-million-worldwide-dream-life.aspx|title=More Than 100 Million Worldwide Dream of a Life in the U.S. More than 25% in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Dominican Republic want to move to the U.S.|last=Clifton|first=Jon|date=March 21, 2013|publisher=Gallup|access-date=January 10, 2014}}</ref> Whether this perception is accurate has been a topic of debate.<ref name="socialmobility">*{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/tax/public-finance/chapter%205%20gfg%202010.pdf|title=A Family Affair: Intergenerational Social Mobility across OECD Countries|publisher=OECD|website=Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth|year=2010|access-date=September 20, 2010}} *{{cite web|url=https://www.suttontrust.com/reports/IntergenerationalMobility.pdf|title=Intergenerational Mobility in Europe and North America|author1=Blanden, Jo|author2=Gregg, Paul|author3=Machin, Stephen|publisher=Centre for Economic Performance|date=April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623094610/https://www.suttontrust.com/reports/IntergenerationalMobility.pdf|archive-date=June 23, 2006}} *{{cite web|last1=Gould|first1=Elise|title=U.S. lags behind peer countries in mobility|url=https://www.epi.org/publication/usa-lags-peer-countries-mobility/|website=[[Economic Policy Institute]]|access-date=July 15, 2013|date=October 10, 2012}} *{{cite journal|last=Winship|first=Scott|title=Overstating the Costs of Inequality|journal=National Affairs|date=Spring 2013|url=https://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024141452/https://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|archive-date=October 24, 2013|access-date=January 10, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="CAP">{{cite web|title=Understanding Mobility in America|url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/news/2006/04/26/1917/understanding-mobility-in-america/|website=Center for American Progress|date=April 26, 2006}}</ref><ref name="Schneider">{{cite web|last=Schneider|first=Donald|title=A Guide to Understanding International Comparisons of Economic Mobility|url=https://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/07/a-guide-to-understanding-international-comparisons-of-economic-mobility|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=August 22, 2013|date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> While mainstream culture holds that the United States is a [[classless society]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Gutfeld|first=Amon|year=2002|title=American Exceptionalism: The Effects of Plenty on the American Experience|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton and Portland|page=65|isbn=978-1-903900-08-6}}</ref> scholars identify significant differences between [[Social class in the United States|the country's social classes]], affecting [[socialization]], language, and values.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zweig|first=Michael|year=2004|title=What's Class Got To Do With It, American Society in the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|isbn=978-0-8014-8899-3}} {{cite web|url=https://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED309843&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&objectId=0900000b800472a5|title=Effects of Social Class and Interactive Setting on Maternal Speech|publisher=Education Resource Information Center|access-date=January 27, 2007}}</ref> Americans tend to greatly value [[socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] achievement, but being [[Average Joe|ordinary or average]] is promoted by some as a noble condition.<ref>{{cite book|last=O'Keefe|first=Kevin|year=2005|title=The Average American|publisher=PublicAffairs|location=New York|isbn=978-1-58648-270-1|url=https://archive.org/details/averageamericant00okee }}</ref> The United States is considered to have the [[Freedom of speech by country|strongest protections of free speech of any country]] in the world under the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coleman |first=Gabriella |title=Coding Freedom |url=https://archive.org/details/codingfreedometh0000cole |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9780691144610 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/codingfreedometh0000cole/page/10 10], 201 |author-link=Gabriella Coleman}}</ref> with the Supreme Court ruling that [[flag desecration]], [[Hate speech laws by country|hate speech]], [[Blasphemy law|blasphemy]], and [[Lèse-majesté|lese-majesty]] are all forms of protected expression.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 19, 2012 |title=Held Dear In U.S., Free Speech Perplexing Abroad |url=https://www.npr.org/2012/09/19/161439562/held-dear-in-u-s-free-speech-perplexing-abroad |access-date=March 4, 2023 |website=[[National Public Radio]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Liptak |first=Adam |date=11 June 2008 |title=Hate speech or free speech? What much of West bans is protected in U.S. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/11/world/americas/11iht-hate.4.13645369.html |url-access=limited |access-date=February 21, 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Durkee |first=Alison |date=April 25, 2018 |title=What if we didn't... have the First Amendment? |url=https://www.mic.com/articles/188402/what-if-we-didnt-have-the-first-amendment |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Mic |language=en}}</ref> A 2016 [[Pew Research Center]] poll found that Americans were the most supportive of free expression of any polity measured.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wike |first=Richard |title=Americans more tolerant of offensive speech than others in the world |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/10/12/americans-more-tolerant-of-offensive-speech-than-others-in-the-world/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> They are also the "most supportive of [[freedom of the press]] and the [[Right to Internet access|right to use the Internet]] without government censorship."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gray |first=Alex |date=November 8, 2016 |title=Freedom of speech: which country has the most? |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/freedom-of-speech-country-comparison/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref> It is a [[Cultural liberalism|socially progressive]] country<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Norris |first=Pippa |author-link=Pippa Norris |date=February 2023 |title=Cancel Culture: Myth or Reality? |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00323217211037023 |journal=Political Studies |language=en |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=145–174 |doi=10.1177/00323217211037023 |s2cid=238647612 |issn=0032-3217 |quote=As predicted, in post-industrial societies, characterized by predominately liberal social cultures, like the US, Sweden, and UK...}}</ref> with [[Permissive society|permissive]] attitudes surrounding [[human sexuality]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book |last1=Derks |first1=Marco |title=Public Discourses About Homosexuality and Religion in Europe and Beyond |last2=van den Berg |first2=Mariecke |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]] |year=2020 |isbn=9783030563264 |pages=338 |quote=...(the United States and [Western] Europe) as "already in crisis" for their permissive attitudes toward nonnormative sexualities...}}</ref> [[LGBT rights in the United States|LGBT rights in the U.S.]] are among the most advanced in the world.<ref name="auto1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Leveille |first=Dan |date=December 4, 2009 |title=LGBT Equality Index: The most LGBT-friendly countries in the world |url=https://www.equaldex.com/equality-index |access-date=January 26, 2023 |website=[[Equaldex]] |quote=13.) United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Garretson |first=Jeremiah |title=The Path to Gay Rights: How Activism and Coming Out Changed Public Opinion |url=https://archive.org/details/pathtogayrightsh0000garr |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=9781479850075 |page= |chapter=A Transformed Society: LGBT Rights in the United States |quote=In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a dramatic wave began to form in the waters of public opinion: American attitudes involving homosexuality began to change... The transformation of America's response to homosexuality has been — and continues to be — one of the most rapid and sustained shifts in mass attitudes since the start of public polling.}}</ref> ===Literature and visual arts=== {{Main|American literature|American philosophy|Architecture of the United States|Visual art of the United States}} [[File:Mark Twain by AF Bradley.jpg|thumb|253x253px|[[Mark Twain]], American author and [[humorist]]|alt=Photograph of Mark Twain]] In the 18th and early 19th centuries, American art and literature took most of their cues from Europe, contributing to Western culture. Writers such as [[Washington Irving]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], and [[Henry David Thoreau]] established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. [[Mark Twain]] and poet [[Walt Whitman]] were major figures in the century's second half; [[Emily Dickinson]], virtually unknown during her lifetime, is recognized as an essential American poet.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Harold|first1=Bloom|author-link1=Harold Bloom|title=Emily Dickinson|date=1999|publisher=Chelsea House Publishers|location=Broomall, PA|isbn=978-0-7910-5106-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/emilydickinson00bloo/page/9 9]|url=https://archive.org/details/emilydickinson00bloo/page/9 }}</ref> In the 1920s, the [[Harlem Renaissance|New Negro Movement]] coalesced in Harlem, where many writers had migrated (some coming from the South, others from the West Indies). Its pan-African perspective was a significant cultural export during the [[Jazz Age]] in Paris and as such was a key early influence on the ''[[négritude]]'' philosophy.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Philipson | first = Robert | title = The Harlem Renaissance as Postcolonial Phenomenon | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_african-american-review_spring-2006_40_1/page/145 | journal = African American Review | volume = 40 | issue = 1 | year = 2006 | pages = 145–160 | jstor = 40027037}}</ref> There have been a multitude of candidates for the "[[Great American Novel]]"—works seen as embodying and examining the essence and character of the United States—including [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' (1851), [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]'s ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' (1852), Twain's ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn|The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'' (1885), [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' (1925), [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'' (1939), [[Harper Lee]]'s ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird]]'' (1960), [[Toni Morrison]]'s [[Beloved (novel)|''Beloved'']] (1987), and [[David Foster Wallace]]'s ''[[Infinite Jest]]'' (1996).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buell |first=Lawrence |title=The Dream of the Great American Novel |url=https://archive.org/details/dreamofgreatamer0000buel |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=9780674051157 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dreamofgreatamer0000buel/page/57 57] |oclc=871257583 |author-link=Lawrence Buell}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | first = Lawrence | last = Buell | title = The Rise and 'Fall' of the Great American Novel | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquarian-society-proceedings_1994_104_2/page/261 | journal = Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society | date = October 1994 | volume = 104 | issue = 2 | pages = 261–283 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Buell, Lawrence|title=The Unkillable Dream of the Great American Novel: ''Moby-Dick'' as Test Case|date=Spring–Summer 2008|volume=20|issue=1–2|pages=132–155|doi=10.1093/alh/ajn005|journal=American Literary History|s2cid=170250346|issn=0896-7148|url=https://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:31740086 }}</ref> Thirteen U.S. citizens have won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]], most recently [[Louise Glück]], [[Bob Dylan]], and Toni Morrison.<ref>{{Cite web | title = All Nobel Prizes in Literature | website = NobelPrize.org | author = Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2023 | access-date = 23 Mar 2023 | url = https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-prizes-in-literature | language = en}}</ref> Earlier laureates [[William Faulkner]], [[Ernest Hemingway]] and John Steinbeck have also been recognized as influential 20th century writers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edward|first1=Quinn|title=A dictionary of literary and thematic terms|date=2006|publisher=Facts On File|isbn=978-0-8160-6243-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflite0002quin/page/361 361]|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflite0002quin/page/361 }}</ref> In the visual arts, the [[Hudson River School]] was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of European [[Realism (arts)|naturalism]]. The 1913 [[Armory Show]] in New York City, an exhibition of European [[modern art|modernist art]], shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Milton W.|title=The Story of the Armory Show|date=1963|publisher=Abbeville Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-89659-795-2|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/storyofarmorysho00brow }}</ref> [[Georgia O'Keeffe]], [[Marsden Hartley]], and others experimented with new, individualistic styles, which would become known as [[American modernism]]. Major artistic movements such as the [[abstract expressionism]] of [[Jackson Pollock]] and [[Willem de Kooning]] and the [[pop art]] of [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Roy Lichtenstein]] developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism and then [[postmodernism]] has brought global fame to American architects such as [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Philip Johnson]], and [[Frank Gehry]].<ref name="JansonJanson2003">{{cite book|last1=Janson|first1=Horst Woldemar|last2=Janson|first2=Anthony F.|title=History of Art: The Western Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMYHuvhWBH4C&pg=PT955|year=2003|publisher=Prentice Hall Professional|isbn=978-0-13-182895-7|page=955}}</ref> Major photographers include [[Alfred Stieglitz]], [[Edward Steichen]], [[Dorothea Lange]], [[Edward Weston]], [[James Van Der Zee]], [[Ansel Adams]], and [[Gordon Parks]].<ref name="Davenport1991">{{cite book|last=Davenport|first=Alma|title=The History of Photography: An Overview|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hca5H_rJZnUC&pg=PA67|year=1991|publisher=UNM Press|isbn=978-0-8263-2076-6|page=67}}</ref> The most notable American architectural innovation has been the [[skyscraper]]. By some measures, what came to be known as a "skyscraper" in the modern world, first appeared in [[Chicago]] with the 1885 completion of the world's first largely steel-frame structure, the [[Home Insurance Building]]. One culturally significant early skyscraper was New York City's [[Woolworth Building]] designed by architect [[Cass Gilbert]]. Raising previous technological advances to new heights, 793&nbsp;ft (233 m), it was the world's tallest building in 1913–1930.<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11376/ |title = Study for Woolworth Building, New York |website = [[World Digital Library]] |date = 1910-12-10 |access-date = 2013-07-25 }}</ref> ===Cinema and theater=== {{Main|Cinema of the United States|Theater in the United States}} [[File:Hollywood Sign (Zuschnitt).jpg|thumb|230px|The iconic [[Hollywood Sign]] in [[Los Angeles]], California|alt=The Hollywood Sign, large white block letters on a hillside]] The United States movie industry has a worldwide influence and following. [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]], a northern district of Los Angeles, California, is the leader in motion picture production and the most recognizable movie industry in the world.<ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Controller of the City of Los Angeles, California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VbOAAAAMAAJ&q=Hollywood+merged+with+City+of+Los+Angeles+in+1910&pg=PA193|publisher=By[[Office controller|Office of Controller]] Los Angeles, CA (1914)|access-date=February 22, 2014|year = 1914}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Report of the Auditor of the City of Los Angeles California of the Financial Affairs of the Corporation in Its Capacity as a City for the Fiscal Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPo2AQAAMAAJ&q=Hollywood+merged+with+City+of+Los+Angeles+in+1910&pg=PA173|publisher=By [[State auditor|Auditor's Office]] of Los Angeles, CA (1913)|access-date=February 22, 2014|year = 1913}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=30707|title=Nigeria surpasses Hollywood as world's second-largest film producer|publisher=United Nations|date=May 5, 2009|access-date=February 17, 2013}}</ref> The [[major film studios]] of the United States are the primary source of the [[List of highest-grossing films|most commercially successful]] and most ticket selling movies in the world.<ref name="Kerrigan_Page_18">{{cite book |last1=Kerrigan |first1=Finola |title=Film Marketing |date=2010 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |location=Oxford |isbn=9780750686839 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ufMdvuuTQ7MC&pg=PA18 |access-date=4 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="Davis">{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Glyn |last2=Dickinson |first2=Kay |last3=Patti |first3=Lisa |last4=Villarejo |first4=Amy |title=Film Studies: A Global Introduction |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon |isbn=9781317623380 |page=299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnXABgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 |access-date=24 August 2020}}</ref> The world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City in 1894, using the [[Kinetoscope]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Billboard|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_cBoEAAAAMBAJ|date=April 29, 1944|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_cBoEAAAAMBAJ/page/n67 68]|publisher=Nielsen Business Media|issn=0006-2510}}</ref> Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, although in the 21st century an increasing number of films are not made there, and film companies have been subject to the forces of globalization.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/john-landis-rails-studios-theyre-659222|title=John Landis Rails Against Studios: 'They're Not in the Movie Business Anymore'|magazine=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=January 24, 2015}}</ref> The [[Academy Awards]], popularly known as the Oscars, have been held annually by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] since 1929,<ref name="DrowneHuber2004">{{cite book |last1=Drowne |first1=Kathleen Morgan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CecCHiI95dYC&pg=PA236 |title=The 1920s |last2=Huber |first2=Patrick |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32013-2 |page=236}}</ref> and the [[Golden Globe Award]]s have been held annually since January 1944.<ref name="Kroon2014">{{cite book |last=Kroon |first=Richard W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjmNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA338 |title=A/V A to Z: An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Media, Entertainment and Other Audiovisual Terms |publisher=McFarland |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7864-5740-3 |page=338}}</ref> Director [[D. W. Griffith]], an American [[filmmaker]] during the [[silent film]] period, was central to the development of [[film grammar]], and producer/entrepreneur [[Walt Disney]] was a leader in both [[animation|animated film]] and movie [[merchandising]].<ref name="KrasniewiczDisney2010">{{cite book|last1=Krasniewicz|first1=Louise|last2=Disney|first2=Walt|title=Walt Disney: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ3vTgpHgFoC&pg=PR10|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35830-2|page=10}}</ref> Directors such as [[John Ford]] redefined the image of the American Old West, and, like others such as [[John Huston]], broadened the possibilities of cinema with location shooting. The industry enjoyed its golden years, in what is commonly referred to as the "[[Classical Hollywood cinema|Golden Age of Hollywood]]", from the early sound period until the early 1960s,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Matthews|first1=Charles|title=Book explores Hollywood 'Golden Age' of the 1960s-'70s|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/book-explores-hollywood-golden-age-of-the-1960s-70s/2011/02/10/AGh5xJIH_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=June 3, 2011}}</ref> with screen actors such as [[John Wayne]] and [[Marilyn Monroe]] becoming iconic figures.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Banner|first1=Lois|title=Marilyn Monroe, the eternal shape shifter|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2012/aug/05/opinion/la-oe-0805-banner-marilyn-monroe-icon-biography-20120805|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=August 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Rick|first1=Jewell|title=John Wayne, an American Icon|url=https://www.usc.edu/uscnews/stories/15465.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822102812/https://www.usc.edu/uscnews/stories/15465.html|archive-date=August 22, 2008|publisher=University of Southern California|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=August 8, 2008}}</ref> In the 1970s, "[[New Hollywood]]" or the "Hollywood Renaissance"<ref name="Greven2013">{{cite book|last=Greven|first=David|title=Psycho-Sexual: Male Desire in Hitchcock, De Palma, Scorsese, and Friedkin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIyNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT23|year=2013|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-74204-8|page=23}}</ref> was defined by grittier films influenced by French and Italian realist pictures of the [[Aftermath of World War II|post-war period]].<ref name="Morrison1998">{{cite book|last=Morrison|first=James|title=Passport to Hollywood: Hollywood Films, European Directors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWRif68I3igC&pg=PA11|year=1998|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3938-8|page=11}}</ref> The 21st century has been marked by the rise of the American streaming platforms, such as [[Netflix]], [[Disney+]], [[Paramount+]], and [[Apple TV+]], which came to rival traditional cinema.<ref name="RE">{{cite news |last=Seitz|first=Matt Zoller|author-link=Matt Zoller Seitz|title=What's Next: Avengers, MCU, Game of Thrones, and the Content Endgame|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/mzs/avengers-mcu-and-the-content-endgame|access-date=July 21, 2021|work=[[RogerEbert.com]]|publisher=Ebert Digital LLC|date=April 29, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Hannah Avery |title=US streaming market growth continues, despite changes in the industry |url=https://www.kantar.com/inspiration/technology/us-streaming-market-growth-continues-despite-changes-in-the-industry |date=January 18, 2023 |website=[[Kantar Group]] |access-date=April 29, 2023}}</ref> Mainstream theater in the United States derives from the old European theatrical tradition and has been heavily influenced by the [[Theatre of the United Kingdom|British theater]].<ref name="Saxon2011">{{cite book| first = Theresa| last = Saxon| date = October 11, 2011| title = American Theatre: History, Context, Form| publisher = Edinburgh University Press| pages = 7–| isbn = 978-0-7486-3127-8| oclc = 1162047055| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2-AkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7}}</ref> The central hub of the American theater scene has been [[Manhattan]], with its divisions of [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], [[off-Broadway]], and [[off-off-Broadway]].<ref name="LondréWatermeier1998">{{cite book| first1 = Felicia Hardison | last1 = Londré| first2 = Daniel J.| last2 = Watermeier| date = 1998| title = The History of North American Theater: From Pre-Columbian Times to the Present| url = https://archive.org/details/historyofnortham0000lond | publisher = Continuum| pages =| isbn = 978-0-8264-1079-5| oclc = 1024855967}}</ref> Many movie and television [[Celebrity|stars]] have gotten their big break working in New York productions. Outside New York City, many cities have professional [[Regional theater in the United States|regional or resident theater companies]] that produce their own seasons, with some works being produced regionally with hopes of eventually moving to New York. The biggest-budget theatrical productions are [[musical theatre|musicals]]. U.S. theater also has an active [[community theater]] culture, which relies mainly on local volunteers who may not be actively pursuing a theatrical career.<ref>Stephen Watt, and Gary A. Richardson, ''American Drama: Colonial to Contemporary'' (1994).</ref> ===Music=== <!---Wikipedia:WikiProject Countries. Caution should be taken to ensure that the section is not simply a listing of names or mini biographies.--> {{Main|Music of the United States}} [[File:Country_music_hall_of_fame2.jpg|thumb|The [[Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum]] in [[Nashville, Tennessee]]]] [[American folk music]] encompasses numerous music genres, variously known as traditional music, traditional [[folk music]], contemporary folk music, or roots music. Many traditional songs have been sung within the same family or folk group for generations, and sometimes trace back to such origins as the [[British Isles]], [[Mainland Europe]], or [[African-American music|Africa]].<ref name=afc>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/folklife/guide/folkmusicandsong.html|title=Folk Music and Song: American Folklife Center: An Illustrated Guide (Library of Congress)|website=www.loc.gov}}</ref> Among the country's earliest composers was [[William Billings]] who, born in Boston, composed patriotic hymns in the 1770s;<ref name="Eggart2007">{{cite book|first=Elise|last=Eggart|title=Let's Go USA 24th Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMGOgKLHbz8C&pg=PA68|date=2007|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-37445-7|page=68}}</ref> Billings was a part of the [[Yankee tunesmiths|First New England School]], who dominated American music during its earliest stages. [[Anthony Heinrich]] was the most prominent composer before the Civil War. From the mid- to late 1800s, [[John Philip Sousa]] of the late [[Romantic music|Romantic era]] composed numerous military songs—[[List of marches by John Philip Sousa|particularly marches]]—and is regarded as one of the nation's greatest composers.<ref name="Bierley1973">{{cite book|first=Paul E.|last=Bierley|title=John Philip Sousa: American Phenomenon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QcabC2avFLsC&pg=PA5|year=1973|publisher=Alfred Music|isbn=978-1-4574-4995-6|page=5|edition=Revised}}</ref> The rhythmic and lyrical styles of [[African-American music]] have significantly influenced American music at large, distinguishing it from European and African traditions. The [[Smithsonian Institution]] states, "African-American influences are so fundamental to American music that there would be no American music without them."<ref>{{cite web |title=Musical Crossroads: African American Influence on American Music |url=https://music.si.edu/story/musical-crossroads |website=Smithsonian |date=September 22, 2016 |access-date=April 14, 2023}}</ref> [[Country music]] developed in the 1920s, and [[rhythm and blues]] in the 1940s. Elements from folk idioms such as the [[blues]] and what is known as [[old-time music]] were adopted and transformed into [[popular music|popular genres]] with global audiences. [[Jazz]] was developed by innovators such as [[Louis Armstrong]] and [[Duke Ellington]] early in the 20th century.<ref name="autogenerated2001">{{cite book|last1=Biddle|first1=Julian|title=What Was Hot!: Five Decades of Pop Culture in America|date=2001|publisher=Citadel|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8065-2311-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/whatwashotroller00bidd/page/ ix]|url=https://archive.org/details/whatwashotroller00bidd/page/ }}</ref> Known for singing in a wide variety of genres, [[Aretha Franklin]] is considered one of the all-time greatest American singers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Aretha was the greatest singer in US history |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20180816-aretha-greatest-singer-in-us-history |website=BBC |access-date=April 14, 2023}}</ref> [[Elvis Presley]] and [[Chuck Berry]] were among the pioneers of [[rock and roll]] in the mid-1950s. Rock bands such as [[Metallica]], the [[Eagles (band)|Eagles]], and [[Aerosmith]] are among the [[List of best-selling music artists|highest grossing]] in worldwide sales.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hartman|first1=Graham|title=Metallica's 'Black album' is Top-Selling Disc of last 20 years|url=https://loudwire.com/metallica-black-album-top-selling-disc-last-20-years/|website=Loudwire|access-date=October 12, 2015|date=January 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Vorel|first1=Jim|title=Eagles tribute band landing at Kirkland|url=https://herald-review.com/entertainment/local/eagles-tribute-band-landing-at-kirkland/article_a8dcd506-08d0-11e2-82ac-001a4bcf887a.html|access-date=October 12, 2015|agency=Herald & Review|date=September 27, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Aerosmith will rock Salinas with July concert|url=https://www.ksbw.com/news/central-california/salinas/aerosmith-will-rock-salinas-with-july-concert/31042330|access-date=October 12, 2015|date=February 2, 2015}}</ref> In the 1960s, [[Bob Dylan]] emerged from the [[American folk music revival|folk revival]] to become one of the country's most celebrated songwriters.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=April 10, 2020 |title=No. 1 Bob Dylan |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/interactive/lists-100-greatest-songwriters/#bob-dylan |magazine=Rolling Stone |access-date=January 29, 2021}}</ref> Mid-20th-century American [[Popular music|pop stars]] such as [[Bing Crosby]], [[Frank Sinatra]],<ref>{{cite web|date=December 8, 2015|title=10 ways that Frank Sinatra changed the world|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/music/2015/12/08/10-ways-frank-sinatra-changed-world/76381754/|access-date=June 24, 2021|website=USA Today}}</ref> and Elvis Presley became global celebrities,<ref name="autogenerated2001" /> as have artists of the late 20th century such as [[Prince (musician)|Prince]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[Madonna]], [[Whitney Houston]], and [[Mariah Carey]].<ref>{{cite web |date=February 13, 2012 |title=Whitney Houston's Global Impact |url=https://edition.cnn.com/videos/bestoftv/2012/02/13/exp-nr-bilchik-whitney-international-reaction.cnn |access-date=June 24, 2021 |website=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How Prince and his music challenged the music industry |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/2654768/how-prince-and-his-music-challenged-the-music-industry/ |access-date=June 25, 2016 |website=Global News}}</ref> The musical forms of [[Punk rock|punk]] and [[hip hop]] both originated in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/artandmusicbiographies/chapter/reading-9-neo-expressionism-and-music-reaching-into-the-1980s/|title=A Quick and Dirty Guide to Art, Music, and Culture|author=Clayton Funk|chapter=9. Neo-Expressionism, Punk, and Hip Hop Emerge|publisher=The Ohio State University|date=August 16, 2016}}</ref> American professional opera singers have reached the highest level of success in that form, including [[Renée Fleming]], [[Leontyne Price]], [[Beverly Sills]], [[Nelson Eddy]], and many others.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://journals.openedition.org/lisa/2966#:~:text=The%20American%20Opera%20Boom%20of,1960s%3A%20History%20and%20Stylistic%20Analysis|title=The American Opera Boom of the 1950s and 1960s: History and Stylistic Analysis|author=Rachel Hutchins-Viroux|journal=Revue Lisa / Lisa e-Journal |year=2004 |issue=Vol. II - n°3 |pages=145–163 |publisher=OpenEdition Journals|doi=10.4000/lisa.2966 |access-date=April 28, 2023}}</ref> [[American popular music]], as part of the wider U.S. pop culture, has a worldwide influence and following.<ref>{{cite book |author =Ewen, David|title=Panorama of American Popular Music|url =https://archive.org/details/panoramaofameric00ewen|url-access =registration|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1957 |isbn=0-13-648360-7}} pg. 3 ''Of all the contributions made by Americans to world culture—automation and the assembly line, advertising, innumerable devices and gadgets, skyscrapers, supersalesmen, baseball, ketchup, mustard and hot dogs and hamburrgers—one, undeniably native has been taken to heart by the entire world. It is American popular music.''</ref> [[Beyoncé]], [[Taylor Swift]], [[Miley Cyrus]], [[Ariana Grande]], [[Eminem]], [[Lady Gaga]], [[Katy Perry]], and many other contemporary artists dominate [[List of most-streamed artists on Spotify|global streaming rankings]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2022/music/news/spotify-wrapped-bad-bunny-taylor-swift-1235444491|title=Spotify Launches Wrapped 2022: Bad Bunny, Taylor Swift Are Most-Streamed Artists of the Year|last=Spangler|first=Todd|date=November 30, 2022|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130153903/https://variety.com/2022/music/news/spotify-wrapped-bad-bunny-taylor-swift-1235444491/|archive-date=November 30, 2022|url-status=live|access-date=November 30, 2022}}</ref> The United States has the world's [[List of largest recorded music markets|largest music market]] with a total retail value of $4.9 billion in 2014.<ref name="RIAJ Yearbook 2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.riaj.or.jp/riaj/pdf/issue/industry/RIAJ2015E.pdf|title=RIAJ Yearbook 2015: IFPI 2013, 2014 Report: 28. Global Sales of Recorded Music (Page 24)|publisher=[[Recording Industry Association of Japan]]|access-date=2016-03-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208104131/http://www.riaj.or.jp/riaj/pdf/issue/industry/RIAJ2015E.pdf|archive-date=December 8, 2015}}</ref> The American music industry includes a number of fields, ranging from record companies to [[Radio in the United States|radio stations]] and community orchestras. Most of the world's [[Record label#Major labels|major record companies]] are based in the U.S.; they are represented by the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://universitytimes.ie/2014/03/how-american-music-took-over-the-world/ |title=How American Music Took Over the World |author=Eoin Hennessy |website=[[The University Times]] |access-date=April 28, 2023 |date=March 27, 2014}}</ref> ===Mass media=== {{further|Mass media in the United States}} {{see also|Newspapers in the United States|Television in the United States|Internet in the United States|Radio in the United States|Video games in the United States}} [[File:Comcast_Philly.JPG|upright|thumb|The [[Comcast Center]] in [[Philadelphia]], headquarters of the [[Comcast Corporation]], which is the nation's largest [[Multinational corporation|multinational]] [[telecommunications]] [[conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]]{{cn|date=April 2023}}]] The four major broadcasters in the U.S. are the [[National Broadcasting Company]] (NBC), [[Columbia Broadcasting System]] (CBS), [[American Broadcasting Company]] (ABC), and [[Fox Broadcasting Company]] (FOX). The four major broadcast [[television network]]s are all commercial entities. [[Cable television in the United States|Cable television]] offers hundreds of channels catering to a variety of niches.<ref>{{cite news|title=Streaming TV Services: What They Cost, What You Get|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/10/12/business/ap-us-streaming-tv-options.html|access-date=October 12, 2015|work=[[The New York Times]]|agency=Associated Press|date=October 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015023520/https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/10/12/business/ap-us-streaming-tv-options.html|archive-date=October 15, 2015}}</ref> {{as of|2021}}, about 83% of Americans over age 12 listen to [[radio broadcasting|broadcast radio]], while about 41% listen to [[podcast]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/fact-sheet/audio-and-podcasting/|title=Audio and Podcasting Fact Sheet|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|location=Washington, D.C.|date=June 29, 2021|access-date=July 3, 2022}}</ref> {{As of|2014|09|30|df=US}}, there are 15,433 licensed full-power radio stations in the U.S. according to the U.S. [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC).<ref>{{cite web|last=Waits|first=Jennifer|date=October 17, 2014|title=Number of U.S. Radio Stations on the Rise, Especially LPFM, according to New FCC Count|url=https://www.radiosurvivor.com/2014/10/17/number-u-s-radio-stations-rise-especially-lpfm-according-latest-fcc-count/|access-date=January 6, 2015|website=Radio Survivor}}</ref> Much of the public radio broadcasting is supplied by [[NPR]], incorporated in February 1970 under the [[Public Broadcasting Act of 1967]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=June 20, 2013|title=History: NPR|publisher=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/about-npr/192827079/overview-and-history|access-date=May 5, 2021}}</ref> Internationally well-known U.S. newspapers include ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'' and ''[[USA Today]]''.<ref name="Shaffer2006">{{cite book|first=Brenda|last=Shaffer|title=The Limits of Culture: Islam and Foreign Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEOd-cDWVwQC&pg=PA116|year=2006|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-19529-4|page=116}}</ref> More than 800 publications are produced in Spanish, the second most commonly used language in the United States behind English.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spanish Newspapers in United States|url=https://www.w3newspapers.com/usa/spanish|access-date=August 5, 2014|publisher=W3newspapers}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Spanish Language Newspapers in the USA : Hispanic Newspapers : Periódiscos en Español en los EE.UU|url=https://www.onlinenewspapers.com/usstate/spanish-language-newspapers-usa.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626114455/https://www.onlinenewspapers.com/usstate/spanish-language-newspapers-usa.htm|archive-date=June 26, 2014|access-date=August 5, 2014|publisher=Onlinenewspapers.com}}</ref> With very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as [[Gannett Company|Gannett]] or [[The McClatchy Company|McClatchy]], which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or, in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families. Major cities often have [[alternative newspaper]]s to complement the mainstream daily papers, such as New York City's ''[[The Village Voice]]'' or Los Angeles' ''[[LA Weekly]]''. The five most popular websites used in the U.S. are [[Google]], [[YouTube]], [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Yahoo]], and [[Facebook]], with all of them being American companies.<ref name="alexa-topsitesus">{{cite web|year=2021|title=Top Sites in United States|url=https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/US|access-date=October 6, 2021|publisher=Alexa|archive-date=June 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621221154/https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/US|url-status=dead}}</ref> Widely regarded as the birthplace of the modern video gaming industry,{{cn|date=May 2023}} the United States is the world's second-largest video game market by revenue.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian countries make up 40% of the world's top 10 video gaming markets |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/08/which-countries-have-the-largest-video-gaming-markets/ |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref> Major publishers headquartered in the United States are [[Sony Interactive Entertainment]], [[Take-Two Interactive|Take-Two]], [[Activision Blizzard]], [[Electronic Arts]], [[Xbox Game Studios]], [[Bethesda Softworks]], [[Epic Games]], [[Valve Corporation|Valve]], [[Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment|Warner Bros.]], [[Riot Games]], and others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian countries make up 40% of the world's top 10 video gaming markets |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/08/which-countries-have-the-largest-video-gaming-markets/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-13 |title=Top 10 gaming companies made $126bn revenue last year |language=en-gb |work=Eurogamer.net |url=https://www.eurogamer.net/top-10-gaming-companies-made-126bn-revenue-last-year |access-date=2022-12-14}}</ref> There are 444 publishers, developers, and hardware companies in [[California]] alone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=California (CA) |url=https://www.theesa.com/video-game-impact-map/state/california/ |access-date=2022-12-14 |website=ESA Impact Map |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|American cuisine}} {{further|List of American regional and fusion cuisines}} [[File:Cheeseburger with fries.jpg|thumb|A [[cheeseburger]] served with [[French fries|fries]] and [[coleslaw]]]] Early settlers were introduced by Native Americans to such indigenous, non-European foods as [[Turkey as food|turkey]], [[sweet potato]]es, [[maize|corn]], [[Cucurbita|squash]], and [[maple syrup]]. They and later immigrants combined these with foods they had known, such as [[wheat flour]],<ref name="Wheat">{{cite web|title=Wheat Info|url=https://www.wheatworld.org/wheat-info/fast-facts/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091011012758/https://www.wheatworld.org/wheat-info/fast-facts/|archive-date=October 11, 2009|website=Wheatworld.org|access-date=January 15, 2015 }}</ref> beef, and milk to create a distinctive American cuisine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Traditional Indigenous Recipes|url=https://aihd.ku.edu/recipes/index.html|publisher=American Indian Health and Diet Project|access-date=September 15, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Akenuwa|first=Ambrose|title=Is the United States Still the Land of the Free and Home to the Brave?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aw5CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT93|date=July 1, 2015|pages=92–94|publisher=Lulu Press|isbn=978-1-329-26112-9|access-date=November 20, 2020}}</ref> Homegrown foods are part of a shared national menu on one of America's most popular holidays, [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]], when many Americans make or purchase traditional foods to celebrate the occasion.<ref name="Mintz1996">{{cite book|author=Sidney Wilfred Mintz|title=Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom: Excursions Into Eating, Culture, and the Past|url=https://archive.org/details/tastingfoodtasti00mint_0|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-4629-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tastingfoodtasti00mint_0/page/134 134]–|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> The American [[fast food]] industry, the world's first and largest, is also often viewed as being a symbol of U.S. marketing dominance. Companies such as [[McDonald's]],<ref name="DeBres2005">Karen DeBres, "A Cultural Geography of McDonald's UK," Journal of Cultural Geography, 2005</ref> [[Burger King]], [[Pizza Hut]], [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]], and [[Domino's Pizza]] among others, have numerous outlets around the world,<ref>{{cite news|title=Why McDonald's in France Doesn't Feel Like Fast Food|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/01/24/145698222/why-mcdonalds-in-france-doesnt-feel-like-fast-food|last1=Breadsley|first1=Eleanor|website=NPR|date=January 24, 2012|access-date=January 15, 2015}}</ref> and pioneered the [[drive-through]] format in the 1940s.<ref name="drivethru">{{cite web|title=When Was the First Drive-Thru Restaurant Created?|url=https://www.wisegeek.org/when-was-the-first-drive-thru-restaurant-created.htm|website=Wisegeek.org|access-date=January 15, 2015}}</ref> Characteristic American dishes such as [[apple pie]], [[fried chicken]], [[doughnuts]], [[french fries]], [[macaroni and cheese]], [[ice cream]], [[Pizza in the United States|pizza]], [[hamburgers]], and [[hot dogs]] derive from the recipes of various immigrants.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/louisville/news/2020/12/31/consumer-spending-data-kfc-is-the-most-popular.html|title=KFC is America's favorite fried chicken, data suggests|last=Cawthon|first=Haley|date=December 31, 2020|website=BizJournals.com|access-date=May 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pastemagazine.com/food/america/the-history-of-the-pizza/|title=How Pizza Became America's Favorite Food|last=Russell|first=Joan|date=May 23, 2016|website=PasteMagazine.com|access-date=May 8, 2021}}</ref> [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]] dishes such as [[burritos]] and [[tacos]] and [[pasta]] dishes freely adapted from [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] sources are widely consumed.<ref name="IFT">{{cite web|url=https://www.newswise.com/articles/what-when-and-where-americans-eat-in-2003|author=Klapthor, James N.|title=What, When, and Where Americans Eat in 2003|publisher=Newswise/Institute of Food Technologists|date=August 23, 2003|access-date=June 19, 2007}}</ref> American [[chef]]s have been influential both in the food industry and in popular culture. Some important 19th-century American chefs include [[Charles Ranhofer]] of [[Delmonico's Restaurant]] in [[New York City|New York]], and [[Bob Payton]], who is credited with bringing American-style pizza to the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-bob-payton-1413990.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421080253/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-bob-payton-1413990.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 April 2009| title= Obituary: Bob Payton|work= The Independent|access-date= 15 September 2015}}</ref> Later, chefs Charles Scotto, Louis Pacquet, John Massironi founded the [[American Culinary Federation]] in 1930, taking after similar organizations across Europe. In the 1940s, Chef [[James Beard]] hosted the first nationally televised cooking show ''I Love to Eat.'' His name is also carried by the foundation and prestigious cooking award recognizing excellence in the American cooking community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} James Beard Foundation |url=https://www.jamesbeard.org/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |website=www.jamesbeard.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=James Beard, Authority On Food, Dies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/01/24/nyregion/james-beard-authority-on-food-dies.html |quote=James Beard, the bald and portly chef and cookbook writer who was one of the country's leading authorities on food and drink and its foremost champion of American cooking, died of cardiac arrest yesterday at the New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center. He was 81 years old and lived in ... |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 24, 1985 |access-date=April 11, 2010 | first=Albin | last=Krebs}}</ref> Since Beard, many chefs and cooking personalities have taken to television, and the success of the [[Cooking Channel]] and [[Food Network]] have contributed to the popularity of American cuisine. Probably the best-known television chef was [[Julia Child]] who taught French cuisine in her weekly show, [[The French Chef]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Julia Child {{!}} Biography, Cookbooks, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Julia-Child|access-date=2021-10-15|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> In 1946, the [[Culinary Institute of America]] was founded by [[Katharine Cramer Angell|Katharine Angell]] and [[Frances Roth]]. This would become the United States' most prestigious culinary school, where many of the most talented American chefs would study prior to successful careers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Story: CIA History {{!}} Culinary Institute of America |url=https://www.ciachef.edu/our-story/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |website=www.ciachef.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref name="FTfbs">{{cite news|last=Averbuch|first=Bonnie|title=Attention Food Entrepreneurs: School's Back in Business|publisher=[[Food Tank]]|url=https://foodtank.com/news/2015/09/attention-food-entrepreneurs-its-time-to-head-back-to-school/|date=September 2015|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref> ===Sports=== {{Main|Sports in the United States}} {{See also|Professional sports leagues in the United States|National Collegiate Athletic Association|United States at the Olympics}} [[File:Commanders vs. Jaguars (52379056543).jpg|thumb|[[American football]] is the most popular sport in the United States.]] The most popular spectator sports in the U.S. are [[American football]], [[basketball]], [[baseball]], [[association football|soccer]], and [[ice hockey]], according to a 2017 ''[[Gallup, Inc.|Gallup]]'' poll.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sports |date=September 25, 2007 |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/4735/sports.aspx |publisher=Gallup, Inc. |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}</ref> While most major U.S. sports such as baseball and American football have evolved out of European practices, basketball, [[volleyball]], [[skateboarding]], and [[snowboarding]] are American inventions, some of which have become popular worldwide.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sarah Krasnoff|first=Lindsay|date=December 26, 2017|title=How the NBA went global|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/made-by-history/wp/2017/12/26/how-the-nba-went-global/|access-date=January 24, 2021}}</ref> [[Lacrosse]] and [[surfing]] arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate European contact.<ref name="liss">Liss, Howard. ''Lacrosse'' (Funk & Wagnalls, 1970) pg 13.</ref> The market for [[professional sports]] in the United States was roughly $69&nbsp;billion in July 2013, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.<ref>{{cite web|date=June 18, 2008|title=Global sports market to hit $141 billion in 2012|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pwcstudy-idUSN1738075220080618|access-date=July 24, 2013|website=Reuters}}</ref> American football is by several measures the most popular spectator sport in the United States;<ref>{{cite web|author=Krane, David K.|title=Professional Football Widens Its Lead Over Baseball as Nation's Favorite Sport|url=https://www.harrisinteractive.com/Insights/HarrisVault8482.aspx?PID=337|publisher=Harris Interactive|date=October 30, 2002|access-date=September 14, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709111448/https://www.harrisinteractive.com/Insights/HarrisVault8482.aspx?PID=337|archive-date=July 9, 2010}} MacCambridge, Michael (2004). ''America's Game: The Epic Story of How Pro Football Captured a Nation''. New York: Random House. {{ISBN|978-0-375-50454-9}}.</ref> the [[National Football League]] (NFL) has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world, and the [[Super Bowl]] is watched by tens of millions globally.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/nfl/story/_/id/27321898/how-nfl-took-america-100-years|title=How the NFL took over America in 100 years|last=Guliza|first=Anthony|date=August 14, 2019|publisher=[[ESPN]]|access-date=May 8, 2021}}</ref> Baseball has been regarded as the U.S. [[national sport]] since the late 19th century, with [[Major League Baseball]] being the top league. Basketball and [[ice hockey]] are the country's next two most popular professional team sports, with the top leagues being the [[National Basketball Association]] and the [[National Hockey League]], which are also the premier leagues worldwide for these sports. The most-watched [[individual sport]]s in the U.S. are [[golf]] and [[auto racing]], particularly [[NASCAR]] and [[IndyCar]].<ref>{{cite web|date=January 16, 2014|title=As American as Mom, Apple Pie and Football? Football continues to trump baseball as America's Favorite Sport|url=https://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris%20Poll%205%20-%202014%20Fave%20Sport_1.16.14.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309053431/https://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris%20Poll%205%20-%202014%20Fave%20Sport_1.16.14.pdf|archive-date=March 9, 2014|access-date=July 2, 2014|website=Harris Interactive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Cowen, Tyler|author2=Grier, Kevin|date=February 9, 2012|title=What Would the End of Football Look Like?|url=https://www.grantland.com/story/_/id/7559458/cte-concussion-crisis-economic-look-end-football|access-date=February 12, 2012|publisher=Grantland/ESPN}}</ref> On the [[collegiate athletics|collegiate]] level, earnings for the member institutions exceed $1 billion annually,<ref name="si">{{Cite web|url=https://www.si.com/college-basketball/2018/03/07/ncaa-1-billion-revenue|title=Sports Illustrated: NCAA Reports $1.1 Billion in Revenues|date=March 7, 2018 }}</ref> and [[college football]] and [[College basketball|basketball]] attract large audiences, as the [[NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|NCAA Final Four]] is one of the most watched national sporting events.<ref>{{cite web|date=March 19, 2013|title=Passion for College Football Remains Robust|url=https://www.footballfoundation.org/tabid/567/Article/53380/Passion-for-College-Football-Remains-Robust.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407075223/https://www.footballfoundation.org/tabid/567/Article/53380/Passion-for-College-Football-Remains-Robust.aspx|archive-date=April 7, 2014|access-date=April 1, 2014|publisher=National Football Foundation}}</ref> Eight [[Olympic Games]] have taken place in the United States. The [[1904 Summer Olympics]] in [[St. Louis]], [[Missouri]], were the first-ever Olympic Games held outside of Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schaus|first=Gerald P.|last2=Wenn|first2=Stephen R.|title=Onward to the Olympics: Historical Perspectives on the Olympic Games|url=https://archive.org/details/onwardtoolympics0000unse|date=February 9, 2007|publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/onwardtoolympics0000unse/page/224 224]|isbn=978-0-889-20505-5}}</ref> The Olympic Games will be held in the U.S. for a ninth time when [[Los Angeles]] hosts the [[2028 Summer Olympics]]. [[United States at the Olympics|U.S. athletes]] have won a total of 2,959 medals (1,173 gold) at the [[Olympic Games]], by far the most of any country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://greatestsportingnation.com/|title=Greatest Sporting Nation|website=greatestsportingnation.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/sports/olympics/the-1000-medals-of-the-united-states/| title = 1,000 times gold – The thousand medals of Team USA – Washington Post| newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The 10 most fascinating facts about the all-time Winter Olympics medal standings|first=Chris|last=Chase|date=February 7, 2014|work=USA Today|url=https://ftw.usatoday.com/2014/02/winter-olympics-medal-count-sochi-all-time-facts/|access-date=February 28, 2014}} {{cite news|title=With Sochi Olympics approaching, a history of Winter Olympic medals|date=February 6, 2014|first=Dan|last=Loumena|work=Los Angeles Times|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2014/feb/06/sports/la-sp-a-history-of-the-winter-olympic-medals-20140206|access-date=February 28, 2014}}</ref> In international [[Association football|soccer]], the [[United States men's national soccer team|men's national soccer team]] qualified for [[United States at the FIFA World Cup|eleven World Cups]], while the [[United States women's national soccer team|women's national team]] has [[United States at the FIFA Women's World Cup|won]] the [[FIFA Women's World Cup]] and [[Football at the Summer Olympics|Olympic soccer tournament]] four times each.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carlisle|first=Jeff|date=April 6, 2020|title=MLS Year One, 25 seasons ago: The Wild West of training, travel, hockey shootouts and American soccer|url=https://www.espn.com/soccer/major-league-soccer/story/4082408/mls-year-one25-seasons-ago-the-wild-west-of-trainingtravelhockey-shootouts-and-american-soccer|access-date=May 5, 2021|publisher=[[ESPN]]}}</ref> The United States hosted the [[1994 FIFA World Cup]] and will host the [[2026 FIFA World Cup]] along with [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Wamsley |first=Laurel |date=June 16, 2022 |title=The U.S. cities hosting the 2026 World Cup are announced |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/06/16/1105562734/us-cities-hosting-2026-world-cup-announcement |publisher=[[NPR]] |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Index of United States–related articles]] * [[Lists of U.S. state topics]] * [[Outline of the United States]] {{clear}} <!--For wide-screen monitors, prevent image above from punching through the ref section. --> ==Notes== {{notelist | colwidth = | notes = {{efn | name = pop | Excludes [[Puerto Rico]] and the other [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated islands]] because they are counted separately in [[U.S. census]] statistics. }} {{efn | name = time | See [[Time in the United States]] for details about laws governing time zones in the United States. }} {{efn | name = drive | A single jurisdiction, the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], uses left-hand traffic. }} }} ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal|last1=Bianchine|first1=Peter J.|last2=Russo|first2=Thomas A.|year=1992|title=The Role of Epidemic Infectious Diseases in the Discovery of America|volume=13|issue=5|pages=225–232|ref=Bianchine|doi=10.2500/108854192778817040|pmid=1483570|journal=Allergy and Asthma Proceedings}} * {{cite book|last=Blakeley|first=Ruth|date=2009|title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South|url=https://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-68617-4|ref=Blakeley}} * {{cite book|last1=Boyer|first1=Paul S.|last2=Clark Jr.|first2=Clifford E.|last3=Kett|first3=Joseph F.|last4=Salisbury|first4=Neal|last5=Sitkoff|first5=Harvard|last6=Woloch|first6=Nancy|title=The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People|ref=Boyer|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9KT3lI76-0cC|publisher=Cengage Learning|page=588|isbn=978-0-618-80161-9}} * {{cite book|first=Colin G.|last=Calloway|title=New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edYbAZ7ECEoC|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press|JHU Press]]|ref=Calloway1998|page=229|isbn=978-0-8018-5959-5|year=1998}} * {{cite book|last=Davis|first=Kenneth C.|title=Don't know much about the Civil War|ref=Davis96|publisher=William Marrow and Co.|location=New York|year=1996|url=https://archive.org/details/dontknowmuchabou00davi_1/page/518|isbn=978-0-688-11814-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/dontknowmuchabou00davi_1/page/518 518] }} * {{cite book|last1=Daynes|first1=Byron W.|last2=Sussman|first2=Glen|title=White House Politics and the Environment: Franklin D. Roosevelt to George W. Bush|ref=Daynes|publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]]|year=2010|page=320|url=https://archive.org/details/whitehousepoliti0000dayn|url-access=registration|isbn=978-1-60344-254-1|oclc=670419432|quote=Presidential environmental policies, 1933–2009}} * {{cite book|first1=Jon M|last1=Erlandson|first2=Torben C|last2=Rick|first3=Rene L|last3=Vellanoweth|title=A Canyon Through Time: Archaeology, History, and Ecology of the Tecolote Canyon Area, Santa Barbara County|location=California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GeTv2lmb79UC&pg=PA19|year=2008|publisher=University of Utah Press|isbn=978-0-87480-879-7}} * {{cite book|first=Brian M.|last=Fagan|title=Ancient Lives: An Introduction to Archaeology and Prehistory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9lqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA390|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-35027-9}} * {{cite book|first1=Sylvan G.|last1=Feldstein|first2=Frank J.|last2=Fabozzi|title=The Handbook of Municipal Bonds|ref=Feldstein|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|year=2011|page=1376|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Juc4fb1Fx1cC|isbn=978-1-118-04494-0}} * {{cite journal|last1=Fladmark|first1=K.R.|title=Routes: Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America|journal=American Antiquity|volume=44|issue=1|year=2017|pages=55–69|issn=0002-7316|doi=10.2307/279189|jstor=279189|s2cid=162243347}} * {{cite book|first=Tim|last= Flannery|title=The Eternal Frontier: An Ecological History of North America and Its Peoples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mkkyBgAAQBAJ|date=2015|publisher=Open Road + Grove/Atlantic|isbn=978-0-8021-9109-0}} * {{cite book|last1=Fraser|first1=Steve|first2=Gary|last2=Gerstle|author-link2=Gary Gerstle|ref=Fraser|title=The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order: 1930–1980|series=American History: Political science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yd4GqkP5XYgC&pg=PA229|year=1989|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-00607-9|page=311}} * {{cite book|last=Gaddis|first=John Lewis|title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd|year=1972|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12239-9 }} * {{cite book|first=Daniel J.|last= Gelo|title=Indians of the Great Plains|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBBmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT79|date=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-71812-7}} * {{cite book|first=Ofelia|last=García|title=Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bW6V__K95ckC&pg=PT167|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5978-7}} *{{cite book |last=Gerstle|first=Gary|author-link=Gary Gerstle|date=2022 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order: America and the World in the Free Market Era|location= |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0197519646}} * {{cite book|last=Gold|first=Susan Dudley|title=United States V. Amistad: Slave Ship Mutiny|ref=Gold2006|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesvami0000gold/page/144 144]|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesvami0000gold/page/144|isbn=978-0-7614-2143-6 }} * {{cite book|last=Gordon|first=John Steele|author-link=John Steele Gordon|ref=Gordon|title=An Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of American Economic Power|year=2004|publisher=HarperCollins|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofwealthth00gord|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-06-009362-4 }} * {{cite book|last1=Graebner|first1=Norman A.|last2=Burns|first2=Richard Dean|last3=Siracusa|first3=Joseph M.|ref=Burns2008|title=Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r71u_AgE7iYC&pg=PA142|year=2008|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|series=Praeger Security International Series|isbn=978-0-313-35241-6|page=180}} * {{cite book|first1=Michael Robert|last1=Haines|first2=Michael R.|last2= Haines|first3=Richard H.|last3=Steckel|title=A Population History of North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPdgiysIVcgC&pg=PA12|date= 2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-49666-7 }} * {{cite book|title=The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States|editor1-first=Stephen|editor1-last=Haymes|editor2-first= Maria|editor2-last=Vidal de Haymes|editor3-first= Reuben|editor3-last= Miller|publisher=Routledge|url=https://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415673440/|year=2014|isbn=978-0-415-67344-0|ref=Haymes et al}} * {{cite book|first1=William A.|last1= Haviland|first2=Dana|last2= Walrath|first3=Harald E.L.|last3= Prins|title=Evolution and Prehistory: The Human Challenge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_qGhW338KQC&pg=PA219|date=2013|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-06141-2}} * {{cite book|last1=Hoopes|first1=Townsend|last2=Brinkley|first2=Douglas|title=FDR and the Creation of the U.N|url=https://archive.org/details/fdrcreationofun00hoop|url-access=registration|year=1997|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08553-2 }} * {{cite book|first=Thomas N.|last=Ingersoll|title=The Loyalist Problem in Revolutionary New England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qwdQDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA208|year=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-12861-3}} * {{cite book|first=Moira|last=Inghilleri|title=Translation and Migration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1yuDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT117|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-315-39980-5}} * {{cite book|last=Jacobs|first=Lawrence R.|title=Health Care Reform and American Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know: What Everyone Needs to Know|ref=Jacobs10|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-978142-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/healthcarereform0000jaco }} * {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Paul|title=A History of the American People|year=1997|publisher=HarperCollins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXSVQjz1_tMC|isbn=978-0-06-195213-5}} * {{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of American studies|date=2001|publisher=Grolier Educational|editor-last=Kurian|editor-first=George T.|isbn=978-0-7172-9222-6|location=New York|oclc=46343385}} * {{cite book|first=Paul|last= Joseph|title=The Sage Encyclopedia of War: Social Science Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idw0DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA590|date=2016|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-1-4833-5988-5 }} * {{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Native American Wars and Warfare|series=[[Infobase Publishing|Facts on File]] library of American History|last1=Kessel|first1=William B.|last2=Wooster|first2=Robert|year=2005|publisher=Infobase Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laxSyAp89G4C|isbn=978-0-8160-3337-9|page=398|ref=Kessel}} * {{cite book|first1=David S.|last1=Kidder|first2=Noah D.|last2=Oppenheim|title=The Intellectual Devotional: American History: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Converse Confidently about Our Nation's Past|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PF39tMiwmWcC&pg=PA91|year=2007|publisher=Rodale|isbn=978-1-59486-744-6}} * {{cite book|title=One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America|first1=Kevin M.|last1=Kruse|publisher=Basic Books|year=2015|isbn=978-0-465-04949-3|url=https://archive.org/details/onenationundergo0000krus }} * {{cite book|last=Leckie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Leckie (author)|title=None died in vain: The Saga of the American Civil War|ref=Leckie|publisher=Harper-Collins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvIeAAAAMAAJ|location=New York|year=1990|page=682|isbn=978-0-06-016280-1}} * {{cite book|first=Craig|last= Lockard|title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume B: From 600 to 1750|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k91sCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA315|year=2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-111-79083-7}} * {{cite book|first1=Donna|last1=Martinez|first2=Jennifer L. Williams|last2=Bordeaux|title=50 Events That Shaped American Indian History: An Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic &#91;2 volumes&#93;|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnB1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|date= 2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3577-3}} * {{cite book|first1=Donna|last1=Martinez|first2=Grace|last2=Sage|first3=Azusa|last3=Ono|title=Urban American Indians: Reclaiming Native Space: Reclaiming Native Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HjEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3208-6}} * {{cite book|first=Eric|last=Martone|title=Italian Americans: The History and Culture of a People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MHJ1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA504|year=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-995-2}} * {{cite book|last=Leffler|first=Melvyn P.|author-link=Melvyn P. Leffler|editor-last=Westad|editor-first=Odd Arne|year=2010|chapter=The emergence of an American grand strategy, 1945–1952|title=The Cambridge History of the Cold War|volume=1: Origins|pages=67–89|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83719-4|oclc=309835719|language=en }} * {{cite book|last=Lemon|first=James T.|editor1-first=Robert D.|editor1-last=Mitchell|editor2-first=Paul A.|editor2-last=Groves|title=North America: the historical geography of a changing continent|chapter=Colonial America in the 18th Century|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|chapter-url=https://cascourses.uoregon.edu/geog471/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Lemon.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123135724/https://cascourses.uoregon.edu/geog471/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Lemon.pdf|archive-date=January 23, 2013|year=1987|ref=Lemon}} * {{cite book|last=Lien|first=Arnold Johnson|title=Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law|volume=54|ref=Lien|publisher=Columbia University|location=New York|year=1913|page=604|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UYpVAAAAYAAJ}} * {{cite book|first=Karen Woods|last=Weierman|title=One Nation, One Blood: Interracial Marriage In American Fiction, Scandal, And Law, 1820–1870|year=2005|publisher=University of Massachusetts Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=24mIQuLBuN8C&pg=PA44|isbn=978-1-55849-483-1|page=214}} * {{cite book|last=Levenstein|first=Harvey|title=Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet|url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionattabl0000leve_d6o6|ref=Levenstein|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|year=2003|isbn=978-0-520-23439-0}} * {{cite book|first=David J.|last=Meltzer|title=First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rnc-bg2voI8C&pg=PA129|date=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-94315-5}} * {{cite book|author=The New York Times|title=The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge: A Desk Reference for the Curious Mind|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/newyorktimesguid00|year=2007|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-37659-8 }} * {{cite book|first=Mary|last=Mostert|title=The Threat of Anarchy Leads to the Constitution of the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jntSQ-yn66AC&pg=PA18|year=2005|publisher=CTR Publishing, Inc.|isbn=978-0-9753851-4-2}} * {{cite book|first=Peter S.|last=Onuf|title=The Origins of the Federal Republic: Jurisdictional Controversies in the United States, 1775–1787|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcUgLPqmfuYC|year=2010|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0038-6}} * {{cite book|first1=Theda|last1= Perdue|first2=Michael D|last2=Green|title=The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Southeast|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-RBJCyp2bFIC&pg=PA40|date= 2005|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50602-1}} * {{cite book|last=Quirk|first=Joel|title=The Anti-Slavery Project: From the Slave Trade to Human Trafficking|ref=Quirk|year=2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqxK4KlqKYMC|isbn=978-0-8122-4333-8|page=344}} * {{cite book|last=Ranlet|first=Philip|title=New England Encounters: Indians and Euroamericans Ca. 1600–1850|ref=Ranlet|publisher=North Eastern University Press|editor-first=Alden T.|editor-last=Vaughan|year=1999}} * {{cite book|last=Remini|first=Robert V.|title=The House: The History of the House of Representatives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CAM6J6IoQFQC|year=2007|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-134111-3}} * {{Cite book|editor1-last=Richter|editor1-first=Daniel K.|editor2-last=Merrell|editor2-first=James H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQnEwUaPAegC|title=Beyond the covenant chain : the Iroquois and their neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800|date=2003|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|isbn=978-0-271-02299-4|location=University Park|oclc=51306167}} * {{cite book|last=Ripper|first=Jason|title=American Stories: To 1877|year=2008|ref=Ripper2008|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vX-fYvoAeHwC|page=299|isbn=978-0-7656-2903-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius |title=Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World |publisher=[[Routledge]] ([[Taylor & Francis]]) |year=2015 |isbn=9781317471806 |edition=Illustrated |pages=}} * {{cite book|last=Russell|first=John Henderson|title=The Free Negro in Virginia, 1619–1865|ref=Russell1913|publisher=Johns Hopkins University|url=https://archive.org/details/freenegroinvirg00russgoog|year=1913|page=[https://archive.org/details/freenegroinvirg00russgoog/page/n202 196]}} * {{cite book|first=William|last=Safire|title=No Uncertain Terms: More Writing from the Popular "On Language" Column in The New York Times Magazine|url=https://archive.org/details/nouncertainterms00safi|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/nouncertainterms00safi/page/199 199]|year=2003|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-4955-3}} * {{cite book|first=Bunford|last=Samuel|title=Secession and Constitutional Liberty: In which is Shown the Right of a Nation to Secede from a Compact of Federation and that Such Right is Necessary to Constitutional Liberty and a Surety of Union|url=https://archive.org/details/secessionandcon03samugoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/secessionandcon03samugoog/page/n329 323]|year=1920|publisher=Neale publishing Company}} * {{cite book|first= Candace|last= Savage|title=Prairie: A Natural History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1u9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55|date=2011|publisher=Greystone Books|isbn=978-1-55365-899-3}} * {{cite book|last1=Schneider|first1=Dorothy|last2=Schneider|first2=Carl J.|title=Slavery in America|ref=Schneider|publisher=Infobase Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlemwRTsY20C|year=2007|page=554|isbn=978-1-4381-0813-1}} * {{cite book|last=Schultz|first=David Andrew|title=Encyclopedia of the United States Constitution|ref=Schultz|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f7m713xwK58C|page=904|isbn=978-1-4381-2677-7}} * {{cite book|first=Sandra|last=Sider|title=Handbook to Life in Renaissance Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JtYy67FsRosC&pg=PA226|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533084-7}} * {{cite book|last=Simonson|first=Peter|title=Refiguring Mass Communication: A History|ref=Simonson|year=2010|publisher=University of Illinois Press|quote=He held high the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the nation's unofficial motto, ''e pluribus unum'', even as he was recoiling from the party system in which he had long participated.|location=Urbana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6lrAmPlbvIC&pg=PA79|isbn=978-0-252-07705-0}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Andrew F.|year=2004|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordencycloped0001unse_d3n9|ref=Smith2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordencycloped0001unse_d3n9/page/131 131]–132|isbn=978-0-19-515437-5}} * {{cite book|last=Soss|first=Joe|editor-last=Hacker|editor-first=Jacob S.|editor2-last=Mettler|editor2-first=Suzanne|ref=Soss|title=Remaking America: Democracy and Public Policy in an Age of Inequality|year=2010|publisher=Russell Sage Foundation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JttyjBoyb3AC|isbn=978-1-61044-694-5 }} * {{cite book|ref=Stannard|last=Stannard|first=David E.|author-link=David Stannard|title=American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World|year=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan|isbn=978-0-19-508557-0 }} * {{Cite journal|ref=Tadman|last=Tadman|first=Michael|title=The Demographic Cost of Sugar: Debates on Slave Societies and Natural Increase in the Americas|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_2000-12_105_5/page/1534|journal=American Historical 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of America, 1815–1848]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=9780199726578 |author-link=Daniel Walker Howe}} * {{cite book|last=Vaughan|first=Alden T.|title=New England Encounters: Indians and Euroamericans Ca. 1600–1850|publisher=North Eastern University Press|year=1999}} * {{cite book|first1=James M.|last1=Volo|first2=Dorothy Denneen|last2=Volo|title=Family Life in Native America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z_bc61ezj0cC&pg=PR11|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-33795-6}} * {{cite book|last1=Walton|first1=Gary M.|last2=Rockoff|first2=Hugh|title=History of the American Economy|year=2009|ref=Walton|publisher=Cengage Learning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyhI1q_E4G0C|isbn=978-0-324-78662-0 }} * {{cite journal|last1=Waters|first1=M.R.|last2=Stafford|first2=T W.|title=Redefining the Age of Clovis: Implications for the Peopling of the Americas|journal=Science|volume=315|issue=5815|year=2007|pages=1122–1126|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.1137166|pmid=17322060|bibcode=2007Sci...315.1122W|s2cid=23205379|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/2127cb07b275c5be603cef1434db0b167b94c94f}} * {{cite book|first1=Edith Brown|last1=Weiss|first2=Harold Karan|last2=Jacobson|title=Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_JAw31U5qQC&pg=PA180|year=2000|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-73132-4}} * {{cite book|last=Winchester|first=Simon|title=The men who United the States|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780062079602|url-access=registration|year=2013|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-0-06-207960-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780062079602/page/198 198], 216, 251, 253}} * {{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=Gavin |year=2022 |title=Slavery and the Rise of the Nineteenth-Century American Economy |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.123 |journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=123–148 |doi=10.1257/jep.36.2.123 |s2cid=248716718 |via=}} * {{cite book|last=Zinn|first=Howard|author-link=Howard Zinn|title=A People's History of the United States|ref=Zinn|year=2005|publisher=[[Harper Perennial]] Modern Classics|isbn=978-0-06-083865-2|title-link=A People's History of the United States }} {{refend}} '''Internet sources''' {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm|title=Country Profile: United States of America|ref=BBC18may|work=BBC News|location=London|date=April 22, 2008|access-date=May 18, 2008}} * {{cite magazine|last=Cohen|first=Eliot A.|ref=Cohen|location=Washington, DC|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/59919/eliot-a-cohen/history-and-the-hyperpower|title=History and the Hyperpower|website=Foreign Affairs|date=July–August 2004|access-date=July 14, 2006}} * {{cite journal|last1=Wallander|first1=Celeste A.|year=2003|ref=Wallander2003|title=Western Policy and the Demise of the Soviet Union|journal=[[Journal of Cold War Studies]]|volume=5|issue=4|pages=137–177|doi=10.1162/152039703322483774|s2cid=57560487 }} * {{cite journal|title=Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens|last1=Gilens|first1=Martin|last2=Page|first2=Benjamin I.|name-list-style=amp|journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]]|date=2014|volume=12|issue=3|pages=564–581|doi=10.1017/S1537592714001595|url=https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/mgilens/files/gilens_and_page_2014_-testing_theories_of_american_politics.doc.pdf|doi-access=free }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Library resources box}} <!-- Please: 1) Follow the [[WP:EL]] guideline where possible and consider discussing on the talk page. 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Cifukwa ca kutchuka kwa mtundu uwu, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakwiza ku Malaŵi kuzakawona hona na kusanga ndalama zinandi comene. Mu Febuluwale 2020, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Malawi yikazomerezga kulima na kusamalira chamba kuti chiŵe chakugwiliskirika ntchito mu mafakitale na munkhwala, kweni yikazomerezga yayi kuti chiŵe chakugwiliskirika ntchito pa vyakusanguluska.<ref name="guardian-legal">{{Cite web |last=McCool |first=Alice |date=2020-02-28 |title=Malawi legalises cannabis amid hopes of fresh economic growth - Law change hailed by supporters as chance for country to benefit from rising global demand for medicinal cannabis products |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/28/malawi-legalises-cannabis-amid-hopes-of-fresh-economic-growth |access-date=2020-08-19 |website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-11-24|title=Malawi ready to produce cannabis for industrial and medicinal use|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/malawi-cannabis-idUSL8N2IA4VV|access-date=2021-09-28}}</ref> == Kulima == Malaŵi njimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikupanga chomene munkhwala wa cannabis ku Southern Africa. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakulima mu vigaŵa vyakutali chomene vya pakati na kumpoto. Ku mpoto, yikukura mu mapiri gha Likwawa mu chigaŵa cha Mzimba, na Nkhotakota. Chigaŵa cha Nkhotakota chikumanyikwa kuti chikupambika chomene chamba, comenecomene kufupi na mlonga wa Lupache. Kweniso vikusangika mu vigaŵa vya Ntchisi, Kasungu, Ntcheu na Dedza. Ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakulima minda yichoko iyo yili pachanya pa mapiri ghakutali, mu vivwati, panji mu minda yinyake. Ŵalimi ŵanyake ŵakuchita malonda. Lipoti la United Nations Development Assistance Framework likuti kuumaliro wa m'ma 1990, malo ghakujumpha 156,000 mu charu ichi ghakaŵa gha kulima chamba.<ref name="bnltimes1">{{cite web |date=2011-03-02 |title=UDF factions 'agree' |url=http://www.bnltimes.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=378 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708075446/http://www.bnltimes.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=378 |archive-date=2011-07-08 |access-date=2011-04-20 |publisher=Bnltimes.com}}</ref> Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakulima chomene chamba, ndipo ŵanalume ndiwo ŵakuguliska.<ref name="iss.co.za">{{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.iss.co.za/uploads/CANNABIS.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614085640/http://www.iss.co.za/uploads/CANNABIS.PDF |archive-date=2012-06-14 |access-date=2011-12-16}}</ref> Mu Malaŵi, mbanje izo zafuma mu mbanje zikuŵa makora para zavungika makora mu makuni gha banane panji mbuto. Vinthu ivi ŵakuviguliska mu vigaŵa vyakuchemeka 'cobs' ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuvichema kuti'mfani' panji 'bola' mu Chichewa. == Msika wa pa caru cose == Chifukwa cha unandi wake, wakuluska munkhwala uwo ŵanthu ŵakulima mu vyaru vinyake. Magulu gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana ghakugwiliskira nchito ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi kugura na kupanga cannabis ku ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici. Likwendera chomene mu Malawi, Mozambique na Zimbabwe, m'paka ku South Africa. Ku Malaŵi na South Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku malo agha kuti ŵakagure matholi. Sonosono apa, hona wa ku Malawi wawukira misika ya hona mu Kenya, Tanzania, na malo ghanyake ghanandi. Ku Kenya, thumba limoza la chamba icho munthu wangasuta ghalipo madola 1.97. Mulimi wakwamba wakupokera ndalama zakukwana madola 0.32.Kweniso yikaŵa mu Netherlands.<ref name="bnltimes1" />Nangauli golide wa ku Malawi wakuwuguliska mwambura kuzomerezgeka mu charu ichi kuti ŵanthu ŵakondwenge nalo. Charu ichi chakhala nyengo yitali kwambura kusanga ndalama zakukwana za misonkho. === Critical Acclaim === Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhweŵa matholi ŵakuwona kuti mtundu wa Malawi Gold uli nga ni munthondwe. Pali mawebusayiti na mabulogu agho ghakuchindika chamba. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuyowoya vya munkhwala uwu. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakiza ku Malawi, ŵakayezga chamba, ndipo ŵakakhumba yayi kuwelera kukwawo. Muyimbi wa reggae wa ku Jamaica, Bob Marley, wakayowoyapo kuti wakatemwanga comene sumu izi cifukwa zikamupangiska kujiwona "mwakuwoneka yayi."<ref name="jstor.org">Sevenzo, Farai. “Bedtime for Banda.” Transition, no. 85 (2000): 4–29. p13, 21 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3137481.</ref> === Marijuana tourism === Malawi wakusangirapo ndalama zinandi pa malonda gha hona. Nangauli ni vyambura kuzomerezgeka, kweni vikukura mu malo ghanandi, ntheura nchakusuzga kuti munthu waleke kurya. Ku vigaŵa vya nyanja, ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakugura munkhwala uwu na kukhweŵa mu vipinda vyawo vya mu mahotelo panji mu nyumba zawo. Ŵalendo ku Malawi ŵakumanya kugura chamba mu chigaŵa cha Nkhotakota icho chili na mbiri ya kupanga mpunga uwemi chomene.<ref name="ospiti.peacelink.it">{{cite web |title=Pag6July |url=http://ospiti.peacelink.it/npeople/lug99/PAG6JULY.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406065800/http://ospiti.peacelink.it/npeople/lug99/PAG6JULY.html |archive-date=2012-04-06 |access-date=2011-12-15}}</ref> == Domestic market == Malonda ghambura kuzomerezgeka gha chamba ghakukwana 0.2% ya GDP ya Malawi panji K1.4 billion. Vyakumera vinandi vikugwiliskirika ntchito yayi mu charu ichi chifukwa vikulereskeka ku vyaru vinyake. Kujibatika mu msika wa caru cose kwapangiska kuti malonda ghaŵe ghambura urunji, ntheura ŵalimi ŵa ku Malawi ŵakupokera malipiro ghacoko. Ŵalimi ŵa ku Malawi ŵakupokera pacoko waka pa cipaturo cimoza ca vigaŵa vinkhondi vya mtengo uwo ŵakuguliskira viŵeto vyawo mu vyaru vinyake. Kweni ndalama izo zikufuma mu vyakurya ivi ni zinandi kuluska za hona. Ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakuguliska mwaluŵiro yayi ku msika, kweni ŵakuguliska ku ŵamalonda ŵa mu charu chawo panji ŵamitundu yinyake.<ref name="siteresources.worldbank.org">{{cite web |title=Ill Gotten Money and Economy |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTFINANCIALSECTOR/Resources/Ill_gotten_money_and_economy.pdf |access-date=2016-11-16 |website=World Bank Document}}</ref> === Medicinal usage === Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito munkhwala wa cannabis kuti ŵaleke kukhuŵara kweniso kuti ŵagwenthe nthenda zinyake nga ni nthenda ya maleriya, maleriya, na njoka. Ŵarastafari ŵa ku Malawi ndiwo sono ŵakukhozgera kuti makuni gha chamba ghakovwira pa munkhwala. Kafukufuku munyake wakucemeka kuti, "Umo Ŵalwari Ŵakughanaghanira vya Kukhweŵa Chamba (Chipayawa) mu Malaŵi" wakacitika mu cipatala ca Zomba Mental Hospital ndipo wakalembeka mu magazini ya International Journal of the Addictions mu 1998. Ici cikakhwaska comene ndondomeko ya kucitapo kanthu kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito mankhwala gha chamba mu Malawi ŵaleke kulwara. === Kugwiliskira nchito visopa === Kwa vyaka vinandi, Ŵaraasta ŵa ku Malawi ŵakugwiliskira nchito munkhwala wakuchemeka marijuana. Ŵanthu ŵa Rastafarian ŵakughanaghana kuti pakugwiliskira nchito khuni ili pali kukolerana na cisopa. === Kugwiliskira nchito vyakusanguluska === Ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakugwiliskira nchito munkhwala wa cannabis kwa miwiro yinandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kumwa munkhwala wakuchemeka cannabis mumphepete mwa nyanja. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Malawi ŵakuti hona wakuŵawovwira kuti ŵapumure na kuŵika maghanoghano ghawo pa vinthu vinyake. Ŵasambiri ŵa ku malo agha ŵakugwiliskira nchito munkhwala wa cannabis kuti ŵaleke kwenjerwa pambere ŵandayezge. Nangauli ŵapolisi ŵakutemwa kuwukira ŵanthu, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira nchito munkhwala wa cannabis. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuluta ku Malaŵi ŵakutemwa kumwa munkhwala wakuchemeka cannabis. == Nkhani za malango zakukhwaskana na kugwiliskira nchito == Kulima, kuguliska, kugwiliskira nchito, panji kuŵa na cannabis kuti munthu wakondwenge nayo ni mulandu ku Malawi. Nangauli ku Malawi kukwendera njuga nkhukanizgika, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti nkhunjizga munkhwala uwu mu vyaru vinyake. Chifukwa cha unandi wa vyakurya ivyo vikuguliskika, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuliska munkhwala uwu mwambura kuzomerezgeka mu Malawi. Ndipouli, kafukufuku uyo wakacitika sonosono apa na Banki ya Caru Cose, wakalongora kuti ŵalimi ŵa ku Malawi ŵakupokera malipiro ghacoko comene cifukwa ca nchito yawo. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vyakurya vya chamba vikusangika comene mu Malawi. Ŵakuyezgayezga kuti ŵaleke kupanga na kuguliska munkhwala uwu. Wupu wakulimbana na minkhwala yakuzweteska wongo, uwo ukulongozgeka na ŵapolisi ŵa ku Malawi, ukakora makilogiramu pafupifupi 70,000 gha munkhwala wa cannabis mu 2010. Nambara ya United Nations yakukhwaskana na unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakoleka munkhwala wa cannabis mu Malawi kufuma mu 1995 m'paka mu 2000, yili kulembeka mu lipoti la Institute for Security Studies Report 2003:<ref>Peter Gastrow, Institute for Security Studies, Cape town, Published: October 2003</ref> {| class="wikitable" !1995 !1996 !1997 !1998 !1999 !2000 !Total |- |39,911 |8,453 |10,320 |5,202 |27,142 |312,472 |403,500 |} === Campaign to legalize cannabis === Malawi wali kuzomerezga kuti golide la Malawi liŵe la munkhwala na la vyamalonda pamanyuma pa kampeni iyo yikachitika mu nyumba ya malango mu 2015 na Boniface Kadzamira, uyo ni munthu wakujiyimira yekha mu nyumba ya malango. Ŵarastafari mu Malaŵi ŵaluta ku khoti kuti ŵakasange wanangwa wawo wa kukhweŵa hona. Mu 2000, boma likadumbiskanapo mwakudumura za kuzomerezga hemp ya ku India, nangauli ŵapolisi ŵakachenjezga kuti ŵalimi ŵa cannabis ŵangagwiliskira ntchito uheni hemp. Mubali Joe Manduwa, uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa nduna ya vyaulimi, wakawovwirapo pa nkhani iyi. Munthu munyake wa ku parliament na dokotala, Hetherwick Ntaba, wakakhozgera fundo iyi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Otañez|first1=Martin G.|last2=Mamudu|first2=Hadii M.|last3=Glantz|first3=Stanton A.|date=October 2009|title=Tobacco Companies' Use of Developing Countries' Economic Reliance on Tobacco to Lobby Against Global Tobacco Control: The Case of Malawi|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-public-health_2009-10_99_10/page/1759|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=99|issue=10|pages=1759–1771|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2008.146217|issn=0090-0036|pmc=2741530|pmid=19696392}}</ref> == Malawi Gold in Pop Culture == === Bob Marley === When reggae musician [[:en:Bob_Marley|Bob Marley]] visited [[:en:Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]] during his Zimbabwe Independence Tour concert in 1980, he smoked Malawi Gold in Harare with his art director, [[:en:Neville_Garrick|Neville Garrick]]. It was wrapped in a banana leaf and had a lasting effect on him. He liked it so much that he commented to reporters that Malawi Gold made him "feel invisible".<ref name="jstor.org" /><ref name="marleynatural.com">{{Cite web |title="Herb was a great inspiration to me." |url=https://www.marleynatural.com/blog/2017/2/27/test |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=Marley Natural |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128225710/https://www.marleynatural.com/blog/2017/2/27/test |archive-date=2022-11-28}}</ref><ref name="businesswire.com">{{Cite web |date=2017-02-21 |title=Marley Natural Celebrates Anniversary with Limited-Edition Cannabis Collection |url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20170221005426/en/Marley-Natural-Celebrates-Anniversary-with-Limited-Edition-Cannabis-Collection |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en}}</ref> === Fresh Air Fiend (Book) === Malawi cannabis was mentioned in the New York Times Notable list book, ''Fresh air Fiend'': Travel Writing 1985-2000 by American travel writer and author [[:en:Paul_Theroux|Paul Theroux]]. Theroux writes about the usage of Malawi by peacecorps volunteers and hippies when he lived in Malawi. He notes that hippies, backpackers and peacecorps volunteers had the same experience visiting Malawi and smoking marijuana like the hippies who went on the [[:en:Hippie_trail|Hippie trail]] in Asia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Theroux|first=Paul|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42892218|title=Fresh air fiend : travel writings, 1985-2000|date=2000|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|isbn=0-618-03406-4|location=Boston|pages=44|oclc=42892218}}</ref> === Marley Natural === In 2021 the weed brand [[:en:Marley_Natural|Marley Natural]] launched a limited edition sativa edition inspired by Malawi Gold, called "Gold". Artist and photographer [[:en:Neville_Garrick|Neville Garrick]], who was also Bob Marley's art director, designed the bottle with an image of African mask, banana leaves, and the Malawi flag.<ref name="marleynatural.com" /><ref name="businesswire.com" /> He had first tried Malawi gold with Bob Marley on his trip to [[:en:Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]] where it was given to them by Zimbabwean soldiers. === Mike Tyson === Former heavy weight champion boxing champion [[:en:Mike_Tyson|Mike Tyson]] was asked to be the Malawian Cannabis Ambassador in 2021 to help promote Malawian Marijuana sales.<ref>BBC News, Nov 24, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59406196</ref> === Strain Hunters Malawi Expedition (2010) === On an episode of strain hunters international, "Strain Hunters Malawi Expedition" (2010) by Green House Seed Company from Netherlands featured an episode on finding the source of Malawi Gold, which is popular in [[:en:Netherlands|Netherlands]], their country of origin. It features Franco Loja, [[:en:Arjan_Roskam|Arjan Roskam]], Simon and Dust.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strain Hunters Malawi I (Short 2010) - IMDb |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt8806806/ |via=www.imdb.com |accessdate=11 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Strain Hunters Malawi |url=https://strainhunters.com/expeditions/malawi/ |website=Strain Hunters - Purveyors of Fine Landraces |accessdate=11 March 2023}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Cannabis}} * ''[[:en:Cannabis_sativa|Cannabis sativa]]'' * [[:en:Medical_cannabis|Medical cannabis]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="0"></references> == External links == * [http://www.420magazine.com/forums/420-documentaries/85857-strain-hunters-malawi-gold.html Strain Hunters - hunt for Malawi Gold]. 420 Magazine {{Cannabis by country}} f5ot6rufldbupjrbdny0j0d4375dic1 0 28527 123284 76094 2026-10-14T06:30:38Z Gliwi 12362 123284 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Roßleben-Wiehe''' ni msumba wakusangika mu charu cha [[Germany]], cha pakati mu chilwa chikulu cha [[Ulaya]]. [[File:Flag_of_Germany.svg|thumb|mbendela ya Germany]] [[File:DEU Roßleben-Wiehe COA.svg|thumb|]] [[Category:Misumba ikulu na idoko yamu Germany]] [[Category:Germany]] [[Category:Malo ghamu Germany]] [[Category:Mndandanda wa misumba na matauni ghachoko ghamu Germany]] frmhk5rcxzfph5i6v8hju3qybw91gat 0 35996 123282 123167 2026-10-13T21:13:01Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123282 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Mlimo wakulondezga ndondomeko pakusanga umanyi}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{For-multi|the journal|Science (journal){{!}}''Science'' (journal)|a topical guide|Outline of science|other uses}} {{Use British English|date=December 2024}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}} {{Sidebar | name = Usanthuro | pretitle = Part of [[Portal:Science|a series]] on | title = [[Usanthuro]] | image = [[File:Stylised atom with three Bohr model orbits and stylised nucleus.svg|100px]] | contentclass = hlist | heading1 = Usanisani | content1 = * [[Mbiri ya Usanthuro|Mbiri]] * [[vyakulemba vya Usanthuro|Vyakulemba]] * [[Ndondomeko ya Usanthuro|Ndondomeko]] * [[Kusanda umanyi mwa usanthuro|Kusanda-Umanyi]] | heading2 = Nthavi | content2 = * [[usanthuro wa malango ghakunyoloka|Vya malango ghakunyoloka]] * [[Usanthuro chilengiwa chose|Vya chilengiwa chose]] ** [[Usanthuro wa vya mvimba|Vya mvimba]] ** [[Usanthuro wa vya moyo|Vya moyo]] * [[Usanthuro wa ŵanthu|Vya ŵanthu]] ** [[Usanthuro wa nkharo za ŵanthu|Vya nkharo za ŵanthu]] ** [[Usanthuro wa vya zeru|Vya zeru]] * [[Usanthuro wa kukhazikiskika|wa Kukhazikiskika]] | heading3 = Mu Vikaya | content3 = * [[Kudumbiskana kwa vya usanthuro|Kudumbiskana]] * [[Ŵasanthuri|Ŵasanthuri]] * [[Masambiro gha sayansi|Masambiro]] * [[Kufighilira ndalama za usanthuro|Kufighilira ndalama]] * [[Malango gha usanthuro|Malango]] * [[Ma usanthuro gha yautesi]] * [[Msanthura]] | below = * [[File:Nuvola apps kcmsystem.png|15px|link=Portal:Science]] [[Portal:Science|Science portal]] * [[Outline of science|Outline]] * [[:Category:Science|Category]] * [[Index of science articles|Article indexes]] * [[Glossary of scientific terms|Glossaries]] }} '''Usanthuro''' ni nthowa yakulongosoka ya masambiro iyo yikuzenga na kunozga umanyi kwizira mu [[maghanoghano|maghanoghano gha kusachizga]] agho ghangapimika na [[ivyo vikusololeka|vyakuloskeka]] vya chilengiwa chose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=E. O. |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135 |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |publisher=Vintage |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8 |edition=Reprint |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55 49]–71 |chapter=The natural sciences |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Heilbron2003">{{cite book |last=Heilbron |first=J. L. |author-link=J. L. Heilbron |title=The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_q5e5 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-511229-0 |location=New York |pages=vii–x |chapter=Preface |quote=...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions. |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Usanthuro wa mu nyengo yasono kanandi yikugaŵika mu vipaturo vikuru viŵiri{{snd}}panji vitatu{{snd}}vikuru:<ref name="Cohen2021">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Eliel |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |title=The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-56298-4 |location=New York |pages=14–41 |chapter=The boundary lens: theorising academic activity |access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[vipaturo vya kusanda vinthu vya chilengiwa]], ivyo vikusanda [[charu chakukhwaskika na vyakuwoneka|vya mvimba]], na [[vipaturo vya kusanda makhaliro gha ŵanthu|mausanthuro gha kusanda makhaliro gha ŵanthu]], agho ghakusanda munthu payekha na kakhaliro ka ŵanthu mu vikaya na misumba.<ref name="Colander2019">{{cite book |last1=Colander |first1=David C. |title=Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society |last2=Hunt |first2=Elgin F. |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |edition=17th |location=New York |pages=1–22 |chapter=Social science and its methods}}</ref><ref name="Nisbet2020">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Social Science |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |access-date=9 May 2021 |date=16 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202193947/https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |archive-date=2 February 2022 |last2=Greenfeld |first2=Liah |last1=Nisbet |first1=Robert A. |url-status=live}}</ref> Nangauli ghakuchemeka [[masambiro gha malango ghakunyoloka|mausanthuro gha malango ghakunyoloka]], masambiro gha [[kaghanaghaniro kanyoloka|kaghanaghaniro kakunyoloka]], [[kusanda kwa manambala|kusanda kwa kupenda]], na [[kaghanaghaniro ka makina ghakupenda|usanthuro wa fundo za makina gha kurangura]] kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ngapadera chifukwa ghakuthemba pa [[nthowa yakulongosolera kufuma ku malango ghakumanyikwa kale]] m'malo mwa [[nthowa ya kusanda vinthu pakuyezgelera|nthowa ya kusanthura]] kuŵa nthowa yawo yikuru ya kachitiro ka milimo.<ref name="Kluwer">{{cite book |last1=Bishop |first1=Alan |title=Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education |publisher=Kluwer |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7923-1270-3 |location=Norwell, MA |pages=20–59 |chapter=Environmental activities and mathematical culture |access-date=24 March 2018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref><ref name="Fetzer2013">{{cite book |last1=Fetzer |first1=James H. |title=Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines |publisher=Kluwer |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4438-1946-6 |location=Newcastle, United Kingdom |pages=271–308 |chapter=Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nickles |first1=Thomas |title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |page=104 |chapter=The Problem of Demarcation}}</ref> Panyengo yeneyiyo, [[masambiro ghakuŵika kumanya pa milimo|mausanthuro ghakuŵika kumanya pa milimo]] ni masambiro agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito kumanya kwa usanthuro pa milimo yakukhwaskika, nga ni luso la kupanga-mwaufundi na luso la munkhwara.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=M. R. |last2=Fabry |first2=G |year=2014 |title=Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education |journal=GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=Doc24 |doi=10.3205/zma000916 |pmc=4027809 |pmid=24872859}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sinclair |first=Marius |year=1993 |title=On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods |url=https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |url-status=live |journal=The International Journal of Engineering Education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |archive-date=15 November 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966">{{Cite book |last=Bunge |first=M. |title=Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology |publisher=Springer |year=1966 |isbn=978-94-010-2184-5 |editor-last=Rapp |editor-first=F. |location=Dordrecht |pages=19–39 |chapter=Technology as Applied Science |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 |s2cid=110332727}}</ref> [[Mbiri ya kusanda kwa ndondomeko|Mbiri ya usanthuro]] yikutandazgika mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vili kulembeka kale, apo masambiro ghakwambilira agho ghakatovwira kufika pa masambiro gha mazuŵa ghano ghakamba mu [[Nyengo ya Chikuŵa]] ku [[Eguputo wa kale|Eguputo]] na [[Mesopotamiya]] ({{circa|3000–1200 BC}}). Kutovwira kwawo pa masambiro gha manambala, [[kusanda nyenyezi]], na [[luso la kurapa]] kukasolora na kuozga [[mahala gha chilengedwe]] gha Chigiriki gha [[nyengo yakale chomene]] ndipo pamanyuma masambiro gha mu [[Medieval renaissances|nyengo ya kuwuka kwa masambiro ya mu pakati]], apo pakaŵa kuyezgelera kwa ndondomeko kuti paŵe kulongosola vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu [[charu chakukhwaskika na vyakuwoneka]] kwizira mu vifukwa vya chilengedwe; apo kukulira kunyake, kusazgapo kwizika kwa [[nthowa ya manambala ya ku Indiya na Chiarabu]], kukachitika mu [[Golden Age of India#Gupta Empire|Nyengo ya Ukuru ya Indiya]] na [[Islamic Golden Age|Nyengo ya Ukuru ya Chisilamu]].<ref name="Lindberg2007">{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name="Grant2007a"> {{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |location=New York }}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ Building Bridges Among the BRICs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081025/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ |date=18 April 2023 }}, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 |title=India: A history |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 132] |quote=The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden. |author-link=John Keay}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" /> Kusangika so na kusazgika kwa [[Ancient Greek literature|mabuku gha Chigiriki]] na [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|mafumbo gha Chisilamu]] mu kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Yuropu mu nyengo ya [[Renaissance|Kuwuka kukhuru kwa masambiro]] kukawuska so mahala gha chilengedwe,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=193–224, 225–253}}<ref>Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything+we+would+today+call+science+came+through+Islam%22&pg=PA80 Pages 80–81] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240827070053/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything%20we%20would%20today%20call%20science%20came%20through%20Islam%22&pg=PA80 |date=27 August 2024 }}. Retrieved 6 October 2023</ref> ilo pamanyuma likasinthika na [[Scientific Revolution|Kusintha kukhuru kwa nthowa zakusandira vinthu]] uko kukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500<ref>{{cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin/page/1 1]–3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> apo maghanoghano na visangwa viphya vikapatukana na kaghanaghaniro na maluso gha kale gha Chigiriki.<ref name="Lindberg2007" /><ref name="Grant2007a" /> [[nthowa ya kusanda vinthu pakuyezgelera]] mwaluŵiro yikamba kuchita ntchito yikuru pa kusanga kumanya, ndipo mu [[19th century in science|vyaka vya m'ma 1800]], vinandi mwa kakhaliro ka [[Institutionalisation|nyumba za masambiro]] na [[Professionalization|luso la pa ntchito]] la kusanda kwa ndondomeko vikamba kuoneka,<ref>{{cite book |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |url=https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-08928-7 |editor1-last=Cahan |editor1-first=David}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/367 367] |chapter=13. Science and the Public |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter}}</ref> pamoza na kusintha kwa "mahala gha chilengedwe" kuŵa "vipaturo vya kusanda vinthu vya chilengedwe".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |year=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18451-7 |pages=164–165 |quote=The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life. |author-link1=Peter Harrison (historian)}}</ref> Kumanya kupya mu kusanda kwa ndondomeko kukukulira chifukwa cha kusanda kwa ŵasandi awo ŵali na khumbo la kumanya vinandi vya charu na khumbo la kumazga masuzgo.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacRitchie |first=Finlay |url=https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |title=Scientific Research as a Career |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4398-6965-9 |location=New York |pages=1–6 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505074020/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marder |first=Michael P. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |title=Research Methods for Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-14584-8 |location=New York |pages=1–17 |chapter=Curiosity and research |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505001547/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |url-status=live}}</ref> Kusanda kwa ndondomeko kwa mazuŵa ghano kanandi nkhwa kugwilira ntchito pamoza kwa magulu mu [[nyumba za masambiro na zakusandiramo vinthu]], maofesi gha boma,<ref name="Lindberg2007" /> na magulu gha malonda.<ref>{{cite book |last=Szycher |first=Michael |url=https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |title=Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-40741-1 |location=New York |pages=159–176 |chapter=Establishing your dream team |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818032914/https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, visangwa vinandi vikuru—makamaka mu [[kusanda vinthu pafupifupi na mizu yawo]]—vafuma ku ŵasandi payekha ndipo vikumanyikwa chomene kwizira mu [[chawanangwa]] chikuru cha pa charu chose nga ni [[Nobel Prize|Chawanangwa cha Nobelo]]. Vyandulo vyakukhwaskika vya ntchito ya kusanda vinthu vyapangiska kuti kuŵe [[Science policy|ndondomeko za boma pa vya kusanda vinthu]] izo zikupenja kuŵika pakwamba [[Responsible Research and Innovation|kukuzga mwakuchita makora]] kwa vinthu vya malonda, chisamaliro cha umoyo, nthowa za kwendera na kukhala kwa ŵanthu, [[environmental protection|kuvikilira chilengedwe]], na mphanvu za kuvikilira charu. == Kujima lizgu == Mazgu ghakuti ''science (usanthuro)'' ghayamba kale kugwiliskirika ntchito mu Chingelezi kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 ([[Middle English|Chingelezi cha mu vyaka vya pakati]]) mu kakhaliro kakuti "kuŵa na kumanya". Mazgu agha ghakatoleka kufuma ku [[Anglo-Norman language|chiyowoyero cha Anglo-Norman]] nga ni chivizizgo cha {{lang|xno|-cience}}, icho chikachita kutoleka kufuma ku mazgu gha [[Latin|Chilatini]] gha {{lang|la|[[wikt:scientia|scientia]]}}, kung'anamura {{gloss|kumanya, kuŵa maso, kupulikiska}}, [[Morphological derivation|mazgu ghakufuma]] ku {{lang|la|[[wikt:sciens|sciens]]}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kumanya}}, ilo pakulokha ni kanyake ka mazgu ghakuchita ka {{wikt-lang|la|sciō}} {{gloss|kumanya}}.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Science |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |access-date=16 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901035713/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |archive-date=1 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Paliso maghanoghano ghanandi ghakuyezgelereka pa nkhani ya uko mazgu ghakuti ''science'' ghakafuma na kukhazikika. Kuyana na [[Michiel de Vaan]], wakumanya vya viyowoyero wa ku Netherlands ndipo [[Indo-Europeanist|wakumanya viyowoyero vya ku Indiya na Yuropu]], {{lang|la|sciō}} lingaŵa kuti lina mafumiro ghake mu [[Proto-Italic language|chiyowoyero chakwambilira cha Chitaliya]] nga ni {{lang|itc-x-proto|*skije-}} panji {{lang|itc-x-proto|*skijo-}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kumanya}}, icho lingaŵa kuti lina mafumiro kufuma mu [[Proto-Indo-European language|chiyowoyero chakwambilira cha ku Indiya na Yuropu]] nga ni {{lang|ine-x-proto|skh₁-ie}}, {{lang|ine-x-proto|skh₁-io}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kuŵatula}}. Buku la ''[[Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben]]'' likati {{lang|la|sciō}} ni [[back-formation|mazgu ghakupangika kufuma]] ku {{lang|la|[[wikt:nescire|nescīre]]}}, kung'anamura {{gloss|kuleka kumanya, kuleka kuŵa na chizambizambi}}, icho lingafuma ku Proto-Indo-European ''{{lang|ine-x-proto|[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/sek-|sekH-]]}}'' mu Chilatini ni {{lang|la|[[wikt:secare|secāre]]}}, panji {{lang|ine-x-proto|skh₂-}} kufuma ku {{lang|ine-x-proto|sḱʰeh2(i)-}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kudumura}}.<ref>{{Cite dictionary |year=2008 |title=sciō |dictionary=Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/m-de-vaan-2008-etymological-dictionary-of-latin-and-the-other-italic-languages/page/544/ |last=Vaan |first=Michiel de |author-link=Michiel de Vaan |series=[[Indo-European Etymological Dictionary]] |page=545 |isbn=978-90-04-16797-1}}</ref> Mu nyengo zakale, kusanda kwa ndondomeko yikaŵa chinthu chimoza na "kumanya" panji "kusambira," mwakukolerana na mafumiro ghake gha Chilatini. Munthu uyo wakachitanga kafukufuku wa kusanda kwa ndondomeko wakachemekanga "[[natural philosopher|wamahara wa vinthu vya chilengedwe]]" panji "munthu wa masambiro gha kusanda."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cahan |first=David |title=From natural philosophy to the sciences: writing the history of nineteenth-century science |url=https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-08927-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse/page/3 3]–15}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 1834, [[William Whewell]] wakazika mazgu ghakuti ''scientist'' (wakumanya vya kusanda kwa ndondomeko) mu kuwunika kwake kwa buku la [[Mary Somerville]] lakuti ''[[On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ross |first=Sydney |year=1962 |title=Scientist: The story of a word |journal=[[Annals of Science]] |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=65–85 |doi=10.1080/00033796200202722 |doi-access=free}}</ref> apo wakapeleka ulemu wa kupangika kwa mazgu agha kwa "mwanalume munyake wamahara" (panyake wakaŵa iyeyu mwaŵene).<ref>{{cite OED|scientist}}</ref> == Mbiri == {{Main|Mbiri ya usanthuro}} === Mbiri yakwambilira === {{Main|Usanthuro mu charu cha mchiyamwaka}} [[File:Megaliths Aswan Nubia museum.JPG|left|thumb|Malibwe ghakuru kufuma ku [[Nabta Playa]], ghakazengeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu [[Neolithic|nyengo ya mawe ghasono]] kuti ŵalongozge kawonero ka vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, ghakusangika mu [[Aswan]], [[Upper Egypt|Kuchanya kwa Eguputo]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |page=107 |language=en}}</ref>]] [[File:Plimpton 322.jpg|thumb|Lupapati la dongo la [[Plimpton 322]] cha ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Babylonia]] chikulemba [[Pythagorean triple|vigaŵa vitatu vya Pythagoras]], chikulembeka {{circa|1800 BCE}}|alt=Clay tablet with markings, three columns for numbers and one for ordinals]] Kusanda kwa ndondomeko kulije mafumiro ghamoza pera. M'malo mwake, kaghanaghaniro ka kusanda kanyumba kano kakamba kuoneka pachoko na pachoko mu vyaka vinkhaniro vinandi,<ref>{{Citation |last=Carruthers |first=Peter |title=The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking |date=2 May 2002 |work=The Cognitive Basis of Science |pages=73–96 |editor-last=Carruthers |editor-first=Peter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511613517.005 |isbn=978-0-521-81229-0 |editor2-last=Stich |editor2-first=Stephen |editor3-last=Siegal |editor3-first=Michael}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lombard |first1=Marlize |last2=Gärdenfors |first2=Peter |year=2017 |title=Tracking the Evolution of Causal Cognition in Humans |journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences |volume=95 |issue=95 |pages=219–234 |doi=10.4436/JASS.95006 |pmid=28489015 |issn=1827-4765}}</ref> pakutora kakhaliro kantu kakupambanapambana pa charu chose, ndipo vigaŵa vichoko pera ndivyo vikumanyikwa pa nkhani ya kukuzga kwakwambilira chomene. [[Women in science|Ŵanakazi]] ŵakaŵa na ntchito yikuru chomene mu kusanda kwa ndondomeko mu nyengo zakuzizwa pambere mbiri yindakhalikike,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graeber |first1=David |last2=Wengrow |first2=David |author-link1=David Graeber |author-link2=David Wengrow |year=2021 |title=The Dawn of Everything |title-link=The Dawn of Everything |page=[https://archive.org/details/dawnofeverything0000grae/page/248 248]}}</ref> nga ni umo vikaŵira na [[Ritual#Religious perspectives|maluso gha chisopa]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Faerie Smith Meets the Bronze Industry: Magic Versus Science in the Interpretation of Prehistoric Metal-Making |jstor=124782 |last1=Budd |first1=Paul |last2=Taylor |first2=Timothy |journal=World Archaeology |year=1995 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=133–143 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1995.9980297 |bibcode=1995WoArc..27..133B }}</ref> Ŵamahara ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazgu ghakuti "[[protoscience|masambiro ghakuyana na kusanda]]" pakuyowoya vya milimo ya mu nyengo yakale iyo yikuyana na kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano mu vigaŵa vinyake kweni mu vyose yayi;<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuomela |first=Raimo |year=1987 |chapter=Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience |editor-last1=Pitt |editor-first1=J. C. |editor-last2=Pera |editor-first2=M. |title=Rational Changes in Science |series=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |volume=98 |pages=83–101 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6_4 |isbn=978-94-010-8181-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/599864 |first=Pamela H. |last=Smith |title=Science on the Move: Recent Trends in the History of Early Modern Science |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_renaissance-quarterly_summer-2009_62_2/page/345 |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |volume=62 |number=2 |year=2009 |pages=345–375 |pmid=19750597 |s2cid=43643053}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fleck |first=Robert |date=March 2021 |title=Fundamental Themes in Physics from the History of Art |journal=Physics in Perspective |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=25–48 |doi=10.1007/s00016-020-00269-7 |bibcode=2021PhP....23...25F |s2cid=253597172 |issn=1422-6944 |doi-access=free}}</ref> kweni, mazgu agha ghakususulika kuti ghakuyuyura, panji ghakuŵika mtima chomene pa [[Presentism (historical analysis)|kawonero ka mazuŵa ghano]], pakughanaghanira milimo iyo mwakukolerana pera na vigaŵa vya mazuŵa ghano.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/007327531205000203 |first=Peter |last=Dear |title=Historiography of Not-So-Recent Science |journal=History of Science |volume=50 |number=2 |year=2012 |pages=197–211 |s2cid=141599452}}</ref> Ukaboni wakudunjika wa nthowa za kusanda kwa ndondomeko ukumanyikwa makora chomene pamanyuma pa kwizika kwa [[writing systems|nthowa za kulembera]] mu [[Bronze Age|nyengo ya chikuŵa]] mu vyaka vya m'ma civilisations gha [[Ancient Egypt|Eguputo wa kale]] na [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamiya]] ({{circa|3000–1200 BCE}}), kupanga maliboti ghakwambilira gha kulembeka mu [[history of science|mbiri ya kusanda kwa ndondomeko]].<ref name="Lindberg2007" /><ref name="Grant2007a" /> Nangauli mazgu na maghanoghano gha "kusanda kwa ndondomeko" na "chilengedwe" ghakaŵa mu maghanoghano gha ŵanthu panyengo iyo yayi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakale na Mesopotamiya ŵakaŵa na vyakusanguluska ivyo pamanyuma vikaŵa na malo mu kusanda kwa Chigiriki na kwa mu nyengo ya pakati: masambiro gha manambala, kusanda nyenyezi, na luso la kurapa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rochberg |first1=Francesca |author-link=Francesca Rochberg |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/9 9] |chapter=Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" /> Kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 3000 BCE, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakale ŵakazenga [[Decimal#Origin|nthowa ya kupenda ya nambala khumi]] iyo njakuzengeka pa kakhaliro ka manambala yayi,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |url=https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000kreb_p4w4 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32433-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000kreb_p4w4/page/127 127]}}</ref> ŵakamazgo masuzgo gha pa mlima kwizira mu [[geometry|masambiro gha mikhaliro ya malo na vigaŵa]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlich |first1=Ḥaggai |author-link=Haggai Erlich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&q=egyptian%20geometry%20Nile&pg=PA80 |title=The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths |last2=Gershoni |first2=Israel |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner |isbn=978-1-55587-672-2 |pages=80–81 |quote=The Nile occupied an important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to disappear." |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref> ndipo ŵakapanga [[Egyptian calendar|ndondomeko ya kalendala]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Telling Time in Ancient Egypt |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |date=February 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303133140/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa zawo za kuraŵa zikasazgapo matupi gha munkhwala na milimo yakuzizwa, nga ni malurombo, [[incantation|mashontho]], na maluso gha kachitiro.<ref name="Lindberg2007" /> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Nubians|Nubiya]] ŵakale ŵakaŵa na nthowa yakwambilira ya [[antibiotics|minkhwala yakukoma tushilingini mu thupi]] ndipo ŵakakhazikiska nthowa ya [[geometrics|masambiro gha mikhaliro ya malo]] iyo yikawovwira pa [[sundials|maworoghe gha dazi]] ghakwambilira. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubiya ŵakagwiliskirangaso ntchito nthowa ya [[Trigonometry|masambiro gha makona gha vigaŵa vitatu]] yakuyanako na ŵanyawo ŵa ku Eguputo.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Armelagos, George |date=2000 |title=Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians |url=https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/482bd90a-de71-49b3-9bbc-d8ff0ab974b3 |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |issue=5 |pages=50–3 |s2cid=89542474}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry|first=Leo|last=Depuydt|date=1 January 1998|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=84|pages=171–180|doi=10.2307/3822211|jstor=3822211}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|title=Neolithic Skywatchers|date=27 May 1998|first=Andrew|last=Slayman|website=Archaeology Magazine Archive|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234044/http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|archive-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&q=nubia&pg=PA744|title=A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy|last=Neugebauer|first=O.|date=2004-09-17|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-06995-9|language=en}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamiya]] ŵakale ŵakagwiliskira ntchito kumanya kwa makhaliro gha vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya chilengedwe pakupanga [[pottery|viŵiya vya dongo]], [[faience|vinthu vya dongo vyakuŵala]], gilasi, sopo, visulo, [[lime plaster|malasitara gha njala]], na nthowa za kukanizga maji kunjira.<ref name="McIntosh2005">{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane R. |author-link=Jane McIntosh |title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-57607-966-9 |pages=273–276 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵakasambira vya [[animal physiology|kakhaliro ka matupi gha vinyama]], [[anatomy|makhaliro gha mukati mwa thupi]], [[animal behavior|makhaliro gha vinyama]], na [[astrology|kusambira nyenyezi]] chifukwa cha [[divinatory|milimo ya kuombeza]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |last=Aaboe |first=Asger |author-link=Asger Aaboe |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=2 May 1974 |pages=21–42 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |jstor=74272 |s2cid=122508567}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mesopotamiya ŵakaŵa na [[Babylonian medicine|khumbo likuru mu luso la kurapa]] ndipo [[medical prescription|machira gha minkhwala]] ghakwambilira ghakaoneka mu [[Sumerian language|chiyowoyero cha Chisumeriya]] mu nyengo ya [[Third Dynasty of Ur|Ufumu wachitatu wa Ur]].<ref name="McIntosh2005" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia |first=R. D. |last=Biggs |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2005 |pages=7–18}}</ref> Vikulongora kuti ŵakasambiranga vinthu vya kusanda ivyo vikaŵa na ntchito ya pa mlima panji ya chisopa ndipo ŵakaŵa na khumbo lichoko chomene la kumanya vinthu chifukwa cha khumbo lakukhorweska waka fumbo la mu mtima.<ref name="McIntosh2005" /> === Nyengo yakale ya mahara === {{Main|Science in classical antiquity}} [[File:MANNapoli 124545 plato's academy mosaic.jpg|left|thumb|[[Plato's Academy mosaic]], yakupangika pakati pa 100 BC na 79 AD, yikulongora ŵavinjeru ŵanandi na ŵakusambira ŵa Chigiriki.|alt=Chithuzi cha ŵavinjeru ŵakuwungana na kudumbiskana]] Mu [[classical antiquity|nyengo yakale ya mahara]], mukaŵavyepi munthu uyo tingamuyana na munasayansi wa mazuŵa ghano. M'malo mwake, ŵanalume ŵakusambira, awo kanandi ŵakaŵa ŵakusampha, ŵakachitanga kafukufuku wakupambanapambana mu vyaka vya chilengiwa pa nyengo iyo ŵakaŵira na mpata.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehoux |first1=Daryn |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/39 39] |chapter=2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World}}</ref> Pambere fundo ya [[concept|chilengiwa]] panji kuti ''[[phusis]]'' yindasandulike na [[pre-Socratic philosopher|ŵavinjeru ŵakwambilira ŵa Chigiriki]], mazgu ghamoza ghakagwiliskirikanga ntchito pakulongosora "nthowa" iyo khuni likukulira,<ref>An account of the pre-Socratic use of the concept of φύσις may be found in {{cite book |last=Naddaf |first=Gerard |year=2006 |title=The Greek Concept of Nature |publisher=SUNY Press |postscript=,}} and in {{cite journal |last1=Ducarme |first1=Frédéric |last2=Couvet |first2=Denis |year=2020 |title=What does 'nature' mean? |journal=[[Palgrave Communications]] |volume=6 |issue=14 |article-number=14 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |doi=10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816053756/https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |url-status=live}} The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word ''nature'' is used, as confirmed by {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus |postscript=none}} (volume 2 of his ''History of Greek Philosophy''), Cambridge University Press, 1965.</ref> kweniso "nthowa" iyo fuko linyake likusopera chiuta wawo. Pa chifukwa ichi, chikuyowoyeka kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵavinjeru ŵakwamba panji kuti ŵafilozofwa ŵeneko, kweniso ŵakwamba kupatula pakati pa "chilengiwa" na "maluso gha ŵanthu".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Strauss |first1=Leo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpx2j0TumyIC |title=An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss |last2=Gildin |first2=Hilail |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8143-1902-4 |chapter=Progress or Return? The Contemporary Crisis in Western Education |year=1989 |access-date=30 May 2022 |page=209}}</ref> Ŵavinjeru ŵakwambilira ŵa [[Greek philosophers|Chigiriki]] ŵa ku sukulu ya ku Mileto, iyo yikambika na [[Thales of Miletus|Thales]] ndipo panyuma yikalutilizgika na [[Anaximander]] ndipo pamanyuma [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]], ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuyezga kulongosora [[natural phenomena|vinthu vyakuzizwiska vya chilengiwa]] kwambura kuthemba pa [[supernatural|nkhongono za mizimu]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Grady |first1=Patricia F. |author-link=Patricia O'Grady |title=Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7546-0533-1 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&q=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist&pg=PA245 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵa [[Pythagoreans|pizagoliyasi]] ŵakapanga mahara ghakusuzga ghakukhwaskana na manambara<ref name="Burkert1972">{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1}}</ref>{{rp|467–468}} ndipo ŵakawovwira chomene pakukuzga mahara gha kupenda na kulinganya.<ref name="Burkert1972" />{{rp|465}} Fundo ya [[atomism|tizidutswa tuchoko-tuchoko]] yikapangika na mwanamahara wa ku Giriki [[Leucippus]] na msambiri wake [[Democritus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pullman |first1=Bernard |title=The Atom in the History of Human Thought |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-515040-7 |pages=31–33 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56 |bibcode=1998ahht.book.....P |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=Henri |editor2-last=Lefebvre |editor2-first=Claire |title=Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science |year=2017 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-08-101107-2 |page=427 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA427 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pamanyuma, [[Epicurus]] wakazenga fundo yakunonoka ya makhaliro gha chilengiwa yakujintha pa tizidutswa utu, ndipo wakambiska "ndondomeko" iyo yikaŵika vipimo vya unenesko wa sayansi. <ref>[[Lucretius]] ({{floruit}}1st century BCE) {{lang|la|[[De rerum natura]]}}</ref> Dokotala wa ku Giriki [[Hippocrates]] wakambiska ndondomeko ya masambiro gha munkhwala na wovwiri wa thupi<ref>{{cite book |last=Margotta |first=Roberto |year=1968 |title=The Story of Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrAAAAMAAJ |location=New York |publisher=[[Golden Press]] |access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Touwaide |first1=Alain |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |year=2005 |editor1-last=Glick |editor1-first=Thomas F. |editor2-last=Livesey |editor2-first=Steven |editor3-last=Wallis |editor3-first=Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-96930-7 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=Hippocrates+medical+science&pg=PA224 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti "[[List of persons considered father or mother of a scientific field#Medicine and physiology|Wiske wa Munkhwala]]".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leff |first1=Samuel |last2=Leff |first2=Vera |year=1956 |title=From Witchcraft to World Health |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjNrAAAAMAAJ |location=London |publisher=Macmillan |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref> Kusinthika kukuru mu mdauko wa vinjeru vya chilengiwa kukawoneka pa chiyelezgero cha [[Socrates]] uyo wakagwiliskira ntchito mahara pakusambira vya makhaliro gha ŵanthu, makhaliro gha magulu gha ndale, na kumanya kwa munthu mwenecho. [[Socratic method|Ndondomeko ya Socrates]] umo yikulembekera mu mabuluku gha [[Plato]] ni nthowa ya kudumbiskana m’paka kusanga unenesko: fundo ziwemi zikusangika mwa kuwunguzga na kuseka zila izo zikupereka kususukana. Nthowa iyi yikupenja unenesko uwo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali nawo uwo ukulongozga vigomezgo vyawo na kuviwunguzga kuti viwoneke usange ni vyaunenesko.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |title=Plato, Apology |page=17 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Socrates wakasuska masambiro gha kale gha sayansi ya vinthu (physics) chifukwa wakati ghakaŵa gha maghanoghano waka kwambura kujiwunguzga dankha.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |title=Plato, Apology |page=27 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 BCE, [[Aristotle]] wakambiska ndondomeko yakunozgeka makora ya vinjeru vya [[teleological|chilato cha chilengiwa]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |edition=H. Rackham |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317140402/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc= |archive-date=17 March 2012 |access-date=22 September 2010 |at=1139b}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 BCE, munthu wakusambira vya nyenyezi wa ku Giriki [[Aristarchus of Samos]] wakaŵa wakwamba kuyowoya kuti [[heliocentric model|dazi lili pakati pa chilengiwa]], ndipo mapulaneti ghose ghakuchizungulira.<ref name="McClellan2015">{{cite book |last1=McClellan |first1=James E. III |last2=Dorn |first2=Harold |title=Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction |year=2015 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=978-1-4214-1776-9 |pages=99–100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&q=Aristarchus+heliocentrism&pg=PA99 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Fundo ya Aristarchus yikakanika na ŵanthu ŵanandi chifukwa ŵakawonanga kuti yikususkana na malango gha sayansi ya vinthu,<ref name="McClellan2015" /> ndipo m'malo mwake buku la Ptolemy la ''[[Almagest]]'', lilo likuti charu chapasi ndicho chili pakati pa [[Solar System|ndondomeko ya dazi]], likapokelereka m’paka mu nyengo ya Renaissance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graßhoff |first=Gerd |title=The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalogue |year=1990 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4612-8788-9 |series=Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences |volume=14 |location=New York |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=Susanne M. |title=Hipparchs Himmelsglobus |year=2017 |publisher=Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-658-18682-1 |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8 |bibcode=2017hihi.book.....H}}</ref> Munthu wakupanga vinthu na kusambira manambara [[Archimedes of Syracuse]] wakachita vintu vikuru pakwambiska masambiro gha [[calculus|masamu ghakusuzga]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=C. H. Jr. |title=The Historical Development of the Calculus |year=1979 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-94313-8 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilrlBwAAQBAJ&q=Archimedes+calculus&pg=PA75 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] wakaŵa mulembi wa Chiroma uyo wakamanyanga vinthu vinandi, ndipo wakalemba buku likuru lakuti ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Russell m. |title=Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-85109-539-1 |pages=190–191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia&pg=PA190 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Trevor Morgan |title=Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926288-5 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NC_T_tG9lQC&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Doody |first1=Aude |title=Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48453-4 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoEhAwAAQBAJ&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> [[Positional notation|Nthowa yakulembera manambara kuyana na malo ghawo]] yikulongora kuti yikawoneka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 200 na 400 CE mu nthowa za malonda za ku Indiya. Ndondomeko ya manambara iyi yikapangitsa kuti [[arithmetic|kupenda manambara]] kuŵe kwambura kusuzga ndipo pamanyuma yikazakaŵa nthowa yakuzirwa ya masamu pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conner |first=Clifford D. |title=A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and "Low Mechanicks" |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000conn_v0x0 |year=2005 |publisher=Nation Books |isbn=1-56025-748-2 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000conn_v0x0/page/72 72]–74}}</ref> === Vyaka vya Pakati === {{Main|History of science#Middle Ages}} [[File:ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg|thumb|Pa peji lakwamba la [[Vienna Dioscurides]] pali chithuzi cha [[peacock|nkhwali]], icho chikalembeka mu vyaka vya m’ma 500.|alt=Picture of a peacock on very old paper]] Chifukwa cha [[collapse of the Western Roman Empire|kubwanganduka kwa Ufumu wa Roma wa Kumanjiliro gha Dazi]], mu vyaka vya m’ma 400 vinjeru vikakhira chomene, ndipo kamanidwe ka vinjeru vya Ŵagriki ŵakale pakuyowoya vya chilengiwa kakamba kumala mu Ulaya wa Kumanjiliro gha Dazi.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=194}} Ŵasungiri ŵa vinjeru mu viyowoyero vya Chilatini mu nyengo iyi, nga ni [[Isidore of Seville]], ŵakasungilira vinjeru vinandi vya kale.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC |title=The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional and Intellectual Contexts |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-56762-6 |series=Cambridge Studies in the History of Science |pages=7–17 |access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref> Kweni mwakupambana na ichi, chifukwa chakuti [[Byzantine Empire|Ufumu wa Bizantini]] ukatonda nkhondo za ŵalwani, ukaŵa na nkhongono yakusungilira na kunozga vinjeru ivyo vikaŵako kale.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=159}} [[John Philoponus]], nkhwantha ya ku Bizantini mu vyaka vya m’ma 500, wakamba kususkana na masambiro gha Aristotelu pa nkhani ya malango gha chilengiwa, ndipo wakambiska [[theory of impetus|chigomezgo cha nkhongono ya kachidukulu]].<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307, 311, 363, 402}} Kususkana kwake kukawovwira nkhwantha za mu vyaka vya pakati na Galileo Galilei, uyo wakazunura chomene mabuku ghake pakati pajumpha vyaka chikwi chimoza.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307–308}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Philoponus |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Christian |last=Wildberg |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |date=1 May 2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822110331/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya [[late antiquity|kunthazi ya usambazi wakale]] na [[Early Middle Ages|Vyaka vya Pakati vya Pakwamba]], vinjeru vya chilengiwa vikapimikanga chomene kwizira mu kandiro ka Aristotelu. Kandiro aka kakuŵa na [[four causes|vifukwa vinayi]] vya Aristotelu: chifukwa cha chinthu icho chapangika, kawonekelo kake, icho chikuchichititiska kwenda, na chilato chake chaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Aristotle on Causality |last=Falcon |first=Andrea |editor-last=Zalta |year=2019 |editor-first=Edward |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Spring 2019 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |access-date=3 October 2020 |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009032459/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |url-status=live}}</ref> Malemba manandi gha Ŵagriki ŵakale yakasungika na [[Byzantine Empire|Ufumu wa Bizantini]] ndipo yakang’anamulika mu [[Arabic|Chiarabu]] na Ŵakhristu, chomenechomene ŵa [[Nestorian schism|Chinesitoli]] na ŵa [[Miaphysites|Chimiyafiziti]]. Mu muwuso wa Ŵaabasi, mang’anamuliro agha ghakanozgeka na kukuzgika na nkhwantha za Chiarabu.<ref name="Grant2007a"/>{{rp|pp=62-67}} Mu vyaka vya m’ma 500 na 600, [[Sasanian Empire|Ufumu wa Sasani]] uwo ukaŵa pafupi ukakhazikiska sukulu ya un’anga ya [[Academy of Gondishapur]], iyo yikawonekanga na madokotala gha Chigriki, Chisiriya, na Chipereziya kuŵa malo ghakuzirwa chomene gha munkhwala mu charu cha kale.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Iran |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0007unse_b4w5 |date=1968–1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last=Fisher |first=W. B. |isbn=978-0-521-20093-6}}</ref> Kusanda kwa Chisilamu pa vya [[Aristotelianism#Islamic world|Masambiro gha Aristotelu]] kukakura chomene mu [[House of Wisdom|Nyumba ya Vinjeru]] iyo yikakhazikiskika mu msumba wa [[Baghdad]], Iraq<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |title=Bayt al-Hikmah |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104043313/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> ndipo kukalutilira<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Hossein Nasr |editor-first=Seyyed |title=History of Islamic Philosophy |title-link=History of Islamic Philosophy |editor-last2=Leaman |editor-first2=Oliver |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-25934-7 |pages=165–167 |editor-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr}}</ref> m’paka mu nyengo ya [[Mongol invasions|kuwukira kwa Ŵamongoli]] mu vyaka vya m’ma 1200. [[Ibn al-Haytham]], uyo wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Alhazen, wakachita magesi ghakupimika mu kusanda kwake kwa mboniwoni.{{efn|name=doubtPtolemy|1= Buku la Ibn al-Haytham la ''[[Book of Optics|Mboniwoni]]'' likasuskana na chigomezgo cha Claudius Ptolemy chakuti mboniwoni yikufuma mu maso kuluta ku chinthu: "Ntheura, kufuma kwa minziro ya mboniwoni nkhwakusazgirapo waka ndipo kulije ntchito". Wonani kung’anamulika kwa A. Mark Smith kufuma mu Chilatini,<ref name="Smith2001" /> Buku I, [6.54], pp. 372, 408. }}<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=228328 |last1=Toomer |first1=G. J. |title=Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=463–465 |year=1964 |doi=10.1086/349914}} Wonani p. 464: "Schramm wakulongosora ivyo [Ibn Al-Haytham] wafiska pa nkhani ya kukuzga nthowa ya vinjeru.", p. 465: "Schramm walongora .. kwambura kukana kulikose kuti Ibn al-Haytham ni munthu wakuzirwa mu luso la vinjeru vya Chisilamu, chomenechomene pa nkhani ya kulenga nthowa zakuyezgelera." p. 465: "pekha pala muwuso wa Ibn al-Haytham na ŵanyake pa malemba gha chilengiwa gha mu vyaka vya pakati wasandika mwakupwelelera ndipo apo chigomezgo cha Schramm chakuti Ibn al-Haytham ndiyo wakaŵa muvumbuzi wanadi wa vinjeru vya mazuŵa gano gha chilengiwa chingapimika."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=H. Floris |author-link=Floris Cohen |chapter=Greek nature knowledge transplanted: The Islamic world |title=How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough |year=2010 |pages=99–156 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8964-239-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Kudandawula kwa [[Avicenna]] mu buku la ''[[The Canon of Medicine|Dango la Un’anga]]'', ilo ni buku likuru la usambazi wa munkhwala, kukuwoneka kuŵa limoza mwa mabuku ghakuzirwa chomene mu un’anga ndipo likagwiriskikanga ntchito m’paka mu vyaka vya m’ma 1700.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli |url-access=limited |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli/page/n168 155]–156 |publisher=Springer |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2 |editor-last1=Selin |editor-first1=Helaine |editor-link=Helaine Selin}}</ref> Pofika mu vyaka vya m’ma 1000, vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya vikaŵa vya Chikhristu,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} ndipo mu 1088, [[University of Bologna|Sukulu Yikuru ya Bologna]] ikawoneka kuŵa sukulu yikuru yakwamba mu Ulaya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=Josiah C. |year=1959 |title=Gratian, Irnerius, and the Early Schools of Bologna |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mississippi-quarterly_fall-1959_12_4/page/168 |journal=[[The Mississippi Quarterly]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=168–188 |jstor=26473232 |quote=Panji ntheura kale chomene mu 1088 (nyengo iyo yikapangika mwadango yakukhazikiskika kwa Sukulu Yikuru)}}</ref> Chifukwa cha ichi, khumbiro la kung’anamulira malemba gha kale na gha vinjeru mu Chilatini likakura,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} icho chikaŵa chifukwa chikuru cha [[Renaissance of the 12th century|Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru kwa mu vyaka vya m’ma 1100]]. Masambiro gha ku sukulu mu Ulaya wa kumanjiliro gha dazi yakakura, ndipo magesi ghakachitikanga mu nthowa ya kulaŵiska, kulongosora, na kupanga magulu gha vinthu vya m’chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |title=St. Albertus Magnus |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 October 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028045424/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |archive-date=28 October 2017}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1200, ŵasambi na ŵasambizgi ŵa un’anga ku Bologna ŵakamba kujula mathupi gha ŵanthu, icho chikapangiska kuti paŵe buku lakwamba la kamanidwe ka thupi lakuzingatira pa kujula thupi la munthu ilo likalembeka na [[Mondino de Luzzi]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03327-6 |page=45 |access-date=27 March 2018 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru === {{Main|Science in the Renaissance|Copernican heliocentrism}} [[File:De Revolutionibus manuscript p9b.jpg|thumb|Chithuzi cha nthowa ya kuzingulira kwa dazi nga umo vikasachizgika na Copernicus mu buku lake la {{lang|la|[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]}}alt=Drawing of planets' orbit around the Sun]] Vinthu viphanya ivyo vikavumbulika pa nkhani ya mboniwoni vikawovwira pakwamba kwa [[Renaissance|Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru]], mwa kususkana na maghanoghano gha kale gha [[metaphysical|vinjeru vya kuseri kwa chilengiwa]] pa nkhani ya umo munthu wakuwonera vinthu, kweniso mwa kuwovwira pa kunozga na kukuzga maluso gha mazuŵa gano nga ni [[camera obscura]] na [[telescope|galasi lakulaŵiskira vyakumaso]]. Pakuyamba kwa Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru, [[Roger Bacon]], [[Vitello]], na [[John Peckham]] waliyose wakazenga usambazi wa [[ontology|masambiro gha umo vinthu viliri]] pa nkhani ya kudura kwa vinthu kwambira na kupulika, kuwona, na paumaliro [[apperception|kumanya chomene]] kwa kawonekelo ka munthu payekha na ka chilengiwa chose ka Aristotelu.<ref name="Smith2001">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=A. Mark |title=Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's ''De Aspectibus'', the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāẓir'': Volume Two |title-link=De Aspectibus |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-87169-914-5 |series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=91, parts 4 & 5 |location=Philadelphia }}</ref>{{rp|Book I}} Nthowa ya mboniwoni iyo pambere yikamanyikwanga kuti [[perspectivism|nthowa ya kawonekelo]] [[One-point perspective|yikagwiriskikanga ntchito na kusambirika]] na ŵaluso ŵa vyakujambula ŵa mu nyengo ya Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru. Chigomezgo ichi chikugwiriskira ntchito vifukwa vitatu pera pa vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotelu: kawonekelo, chinthu icho chapangika, na chilato chaumaliro.<ref name="Smith1981">{{Cite journal |jstor=231249 |doi=10.1086/352843 |pmid=7040292 |title=Getting the Big Picture in Perspectivist Optics |journal=Isis |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=568–589 |last1=Smith |first1=A. Mark |year=1981 |s2cid=27806323}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1500, [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] wakapanga [[Copernican_heliocentrism|nthowa yakuti dazi ndilo liri pakati]] pa nthandala ya vyakuzingulira, uku Dazi lili pafupi na pakati pa chilengiwa chose,<ref>"Munthu uyo wakawuskapo charu pa malo ghake ghakunotha pakuŵa pakati pa chilengiwa ndipo wakamanya kuti nkhachimoza waka mwa vyakuzingulira vinyake, wakawona kuti nkhwakukhumbikwa kuchipha malo ghapadera mu nthowa yake yiphanya. Nangauli wakati 'pakati pa vyose pali dazi,' mu vigomezgo vyake vya vyakuzingulira wakayezgerera kuti pakati pa mayendero ghose pakaŵa pakati pa nthandala ya charu, apo dazi pakaŵavye." Dreyer, J.L.E. ''A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler,'' (Dover Publications, 1953). p.343. {{ISBN|9780486600796}}</ref><ref>"...chikaŵa chakuwonekerathu kwa Copernicus...kuti charu chingenda mwakuyana yanyi yayi mu nkhulungulu uku dazi lili pakati. Ntheura Copernicus wakaŵika dazi pakati pa nthandala ya charu yayi, kweni patali kachoko. Pakati pa nthandala ya vyakuzingulira, na pa chilengiwa chose, mu nthowa ya Copernicus ni dazi yayi, kweni ni 'dazi la pakati,' la pakati pa nthandala ya charu. Ntheura, nkhunozga chomene kuchema nthowa ya Copernicus kuŵa nthowa yakukhazikika ya dazi kuluska nthowa yakuti dazi liri pakati." [[I. Bernard Cohen|Cohen, I. Bernard]]. ''The Birth of a New Physics (Revised and Updated)'' (W.W. Norton & Company, 1985). p.44. {{ISBN|0-393-01994-2}}</ref> kwambura kwenda, uku Charu na vyakuzingulira vinyake vikuchizungulira mu mayendero gha nkhulungulu,<ref>"Mayendero ghose mukati mwake (kuwaro kwa pafupi na Charu) yakutolezga dango lakuti mayendero gha kuchanya nga nkhulungulu ndipo ntheura ghakusintha yayi. Ptolemy, Copernicus wakaghanaghana, wakapambana na dango ili...mwa kusazgirapo tumikhulungulu tuchoko pa mayendero ghakuru kuti walongosore chifukwa chake vyakuzingulira nyengo zinyake vikuwoneka nga vikufuma kunyuma mu mlengalenga, kweni mwa kwambiska [[equant]] kuti wachitiske mayendero agha kwenda luŵiro panji kukhira." [[David_Wootton_(historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> ghakosoleka na [[epicycle|tumikhulungulu]], kweniso pa maluwiro ghakuyana. Nthowa ya Copernicus ikasuskana na [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic_model|nthowa yakuti charu chili pakati]] ya [[Ptolemy]], iyo yikaŵika Charu pakati pa chilengiwa chose. Ŵasanda-nyenyezi ŵa m’ma 1500 ŵakagomezganga kuti kufumyapo kwa Copernicus kwa [[equant]] ndiko kukaŵa kufiska kwake kukuru<ref>"Kupenda kwane kwa Copernicus paumaliro kukawovwira kukhazikiska kuti unandi wa ŵasanda-nyenyezi ŵa m’ma 1500 ŵakaghanaghananga kuti kufumyapo kwa [[equant]] ndiko kukaŵa kufiska kukuru kwa Copernicus, chifukwa chikakhorweska dango la kale la kawonekelo kakutowa lakuti mayendero ghamuyirayira gha kuchanya yakaŵenge ghakuyana na gha nkhulungulu..." Gingerich, Owen. ''The Book Nobody Read'' (Walker & Company, 2004).p.55. {{ISBN|0-8027-1415-3}}</ref> kweni nthowa yake yikapoka malo gha Ptolemy yayi, iyo yikaluŵika pakati pajumpha vyaka 70 kufuma apo [[Galileo_Galilei#Phases_of_Venus|Galileo wakawonera na galasi lakulaŵiskira mu 1610]].<ref>"Nkhupusu kulongora kuti usambazi wa Ptolemy ukaŵa wakukula m’paka 1610 [apo Galileo wakawona masinthiro gha Venus na galasi] ndipo ukathera nyengo yichoko waka panyuma...Ukaboni ngwakupanikizga: [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic_model|usambazi wa Ptolemy]] ukayambukirika na Copernicus yayi; ukasuzgika kachoko waka na [[SN 1572|nyenyezi yiphanya ya 1572]], kweni pofika kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m’ma 1500 ukaŵa kuti waŵajikaso. Galasi lakulaŵiskira, ku kanyake, likapangiska kubwanganduka kwake kwa luŵiro na kwambura kuwelera." [[David_Wootton_(historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> === Kusintha Kukuru kwa Vinjeru vya Chilengiwa === {{Main|Scientific Revolution}} [[Johannes Kepler]] na ŵanyake ŵakasuskana na maghanoghano ghakuti ntchito yimoza pera ya jiso nkhuwona, ndipo ŵakasuntha khumbo likuru mu masambiro gha mboniwoni kufuma ku jiso kuya ku umo ungweru ukuyendera.<ref name="Smith1981" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=H. Floris |author-link=Floris Cohen |chapter=Greek nature knowledge transplanted and more: Renaissance Europe |title=How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough |year=2010 |pages=99–156 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8964-239-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Kweni Kepler wakumanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha kusanga kwa [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|malango gha Kepler gha mayendero gha vyakuzingulira]]. Kepler wakakana yayi vinjeru vya kuseri kwa chilengiwa vya Aristotelu ndipo wakalongosora ntchito yake nga nkhupenja [[Harmony of the Spheres|Kuyana kwa Vyakuchanya]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koestler |first=Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/sleepwalkershist00koes_0/page/1 |title=The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe |publisher=Penguin |year=1990 |isbn=0-14-019246-8 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/sleepwalkershist00koes_0/page/1 1] |author-link=Arthur Koestler |orig-date=1959}}</ref> [[Galileo]] wakachita vintu vyakuzirwa chomene mu usambazi wa nyenyezi, malango gha chilengiwa, na vyakupangapanga. Kweni, wakamba kutambuzgika panyuma pakuti Papa Urban VIII wamupaka mulandu chifukwa cha kulemba vya nthowa yakuti dazi ndilo liri pakati.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html |title=Pope Urban VIII |last=van Helden |first=Al |year=1995 |website=The Galileo Project |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111033150/http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html |archive-date=11 November 2016}}</ref> [[printing press|Chakuponderezgera malemba]] chikagwiriskikanga ntchito chomene pakupharazga maghanoghano gha nkhwantha, kusazgapo ghanyake agho yakasuskana chomene na maghanoghano gha mu nyengo iyo pa vya chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gingerich |first=Owen |title=Copernicus and the Impact of Printing |journal=Vistas in Astronomy |volume=17 |year=1975 |issue=1 |pages=201–218 |doi=10.1016/0083-6656(75)90061-6 |bibcode=1975VA.....17..201G}}</ref> [[Francis Bacon]] na [[René Descartes]] ŵakafumiska maghanoghano gha vinjeru pakuvikilira mtundu uphanya wa vinjeru vya chilengiwa uwo ukaŵa wa Aristotelu yayi. Bacon wakadidimizga pa kuzirwa kwa kuyezgelera kuluska kulanguruka waka, wakasuskana na vifukwa vya Aristotelu vya kawonekelo na chilato chaumaliro, ndipo wakachiska fundo yakuti vinjeru vya chilengiwa visambirenge [[Physical law|malango gha chilengiwa]] na kunozga kwa umoyo wa ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zagorin |first=Perez |title=Francis Bacon |url=https://archive.org/details/francisbacon0000zago |page=[https://archive.org/details/francisbacon0000zago/page/84 84] |year=1998 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00966-7}}</ref> Descartes wakadidimizga pa kaghanaghaniro ka munthu payekha ndipo wakayowoya kuti masambiro gha manambala m’malo mwa masambiro gha mapangikiro gha vinthu ndigho ghagwiriskikenge ntchito pa kusanda chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Philip J. |last2=Hersh |first2=Reuben |year=1986 |title=Descartes' Dream: The World According to Mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/descartesdreamwo0000davi |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[Harcourt Brace Jovanovich]]}}</ref> Gemini said === Nyengo ya Kungweluka kwa Vinjeru === {{Main|Science in the Age of Enlightenment}} [[File:Newton's Principia title page.png|thumb|upright|Pa peji lakwamba la buku lakwamba la mu 1687 la {{lang|la|[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]}} lakulembeka na Isaac Newton]] Kuyamba kwa [[Age of Enlightenment|Nyengo ya Kung’weluka kwa Vinjeru]], [[Isaac Newton]] wakakhazikiska fumbiro la [[classical mechanics|malango gha kanyamazira na kachidukulu]] kwizira mu buku lake la {{lang|la|[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]}} ilo likawovwira chomene nkhwantha za vinjeru vya chilengiwa zanthazi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gribbin |first=John |title=Science: A History 1543–2001 |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencehistory150000grib |year=2002 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencehistory150000grib/page/241 241] |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9503-9 |quote=Nangauli chikaŵa chimoza mwa vinthu vinandi mu Nyengo ya Kung'weluka, kutonda kwa malango gha Newton pa nkhani ya kupereka ndondomeko ya manambala ya charu chakunozgeka kukachita chigaŵa chikuru mu kukura kwa kayendero aka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700}}</ref> [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] wakasazgira mazgu ghakufuma mu [[Aristotelian physics|vinjeru vya chilengiwa vya Aristotelu]], agho panyengo iyi ghakagwiriskikanga ntchito mu nthowa yiphanya [[teleological|yambura kulinga pa chilato chakubabika nacho]]. Ichi chikang’anamuranga kusintha kwa umo vinthu vikuwonekerwa: vinthu vikamba kuwoneka kuŵa vyambura vilato vya m’kati. Leibniz wakagomezganga kuti mitundu yakupambanapambana ya vinthu yose yikugwira ntchito kuyana na malango ghakuyana gha chilengiwa, kwambura vifukwa vyapadera vya kawonekelo panji vya chilato chaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz/ |title=Gottfried Leibniz – Biography |website=Maths History |access-date=2 March 2021 |archive-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711221621/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Leibniz.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, chilato na kuzirwa kwa vinjeru vya chilengiwa kukazgoka kupanga usambazi na vyakupangapanga ivyo vinganozga umoyo wa ŵanthu, mu nthowa ya [[Economic materialism|khumbiro la vyakuthupi]] ya kuŵa na vyakurya vinandi, vyakuvwala, na vinthu vinyake. Mu [[Novum Organum|mazgu gha Bacon]], "chilato cheneko na chakuzomerezgeka cha vinjeru {{em|nkhupereka mwaŵi ku umoyo wa munthu na vyakupangapanga viphanya na usambazi}}", ndipo wakachiska nkhwantha kuti zileke kulondezga maghanoghano gha kuseri kwa chilengiwa panji gha vyauzimu, agho wakagomezganga kuti ghakovwira pachoko chomene ku chimwemwe cha munthu kuluska "utunthi wa maghanoghano ghakusuzga panji ghakukondweska waka".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmbZIybuRoC&pg=PA162 |title=The Social and Economic Roots of the Scientific Revolution: Texts by Boris Hessen and Henryk Grossmann |last1=Freudenthal |first1=Gideon |last2=McLaughlin |first2=Peter |date=20 May 2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-9604-4 |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Vinjeru vya chilengiwa mu nyengo ya Kung’weluka vikalongozgekanga na [[scientific societies|mabungwe gha nkhwantha]] na masukulu ghakuya,<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Goddard Bergin |editor-first1=Thomas |editor1-link=Thomas G. Bergin |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_d0p5 |title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance |editor-last2=Speake |editor-first2=Jennifer |editor2-link=Jennifer Speake |year=1987 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-1315-9}}</ref> agho panyengo iyi yakatora malo gha masukulu ghachanya pakuŵa malo ghakusandira na kukuzgyira vinjeru. Mabungwe na masukulu agha yikaŵa fumbiro la kukura kwa ntchito ya unkhwantha wa vinjeru vya chilengiwa. Chinthu chinyake chakuzirwa chikaŵa [[popular culture|kuthandazgika kwa vinjeru]] pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakambanga kumanya chomene kuŵazga na kulemba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=van Horn Melton |first=James |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |title=The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-511-81942-1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511819421 |access-date=27 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |pages=82–83 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120143805/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |url-status=live}}</ref> Nkhwantha za vinjeru za mu nyengo ya Kung’weluka zikaŵazganga ntchito za ŵakale ŵawo—chomenechomene [[Galileo]], [[Kepler]], [[Robert Boyle|Boyle]], na Newton—pakuŵa ŵalongozgi mu vigaŵa vyose vya vyakuthupi na vya kukhaliro kwa ŵanthu vya mazuŵa gano.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment (1500–1780) |url=https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114191547/https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Scientific Revolution |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |access-date=29 January 2024 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518105004/https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1700 kukawoneka kukura kukuru mu kachitidwe ka un’anga<ref>{{cite book |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |url=https://archive.org/details/brockbiologyofmi0011madi |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-144329-7 |editor-last=Madigan |editor-first=M. |editor-last2=Martinko |editor-first2=J. |edition=11th}}</ref> na vinjeru vya chilengiwa;<ref>{{cite book |last=Guicciardini |first=N. |url=https://archive.org/details/readingprincipia0000guic |title=Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-64066-4 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> kukuzgyika kwa [[Taxonomy (biology)|ndondomeko ya magulu gha vyamoyo]] na [[Carl Linnaeus]];<ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Charles Calisher |last1=Calisher |first1=CH |year=2007 |title=Taxonomy: what's in a name? Doesn't a rose by any other name smell as sweet? |journal=Croatian Medical Journal |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=268–270 |pmc=2080517 |pmid=17436393}}</ref> kapulikisko kaphanya ka [[magnetism|nkhongono yakuguza]] na mphenzi; <ref>{{cite book |last1=Darrigol |first1=Olivier |url=https://archive.org/details/electrodynamicsf0000darr |title=Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-850594-9 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> ndipo kukura kwa vinjeru vya [[chemistry|kapangikiro ka vinthu]] pakuŵa chigaŵa chakujiyimira pa chekha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olby |first1=R. C. |last2=Cantor |first2=G. N. |last3=Christie |first3=J. R. R. |last4=Hodge |first4=M. J. S. |year=1990 |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=265}}</ref> Maghanoghano pa nkhani ya mukhaliro wa munthu, chalo, na usambazi yakasinthaso mu nyengo ya Kung’weluka. Hume na nkhwantha zinyake za ku Scotland ŵakapanga buku la ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature|Muwonekelo wa Mukhaliro wa Munthu]]'', ilo likalongosoreka mu nthowa ya mbiri mu malemba gha ŵalembi nga ni [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo|James Burnett]], [[Adam Ferguson]], [[John Millar (philosopher)|John Millar]] na [[William Robertson (historian)|William Robertson]], ŵose awo ŵakasazga kusanda kwa unkhwantha kwa umo ŵanthu ŵakachitiranga mu nyengo za kale na mu mitheto yakwamba, uku ŵakumanya chomene nkhongono izo zikupanga [[modernity|mukhaliro wa mazuŵa gano]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magnusson |first=Magnus |date=10 November 2003 |title=Review of James Buchan, ''Capital of the Mind: how Edinburgh Changed the World'' |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606015918/http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-date=6 June 2011 |access-date=27 April 2014 |work=New Statesman}}</ref> Masambiro gha mazuŵa gano gha mukhaliro wa ŵanthu mu chalo yakambira mu nthandala iyi.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=588406 |title=Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-sociology_1970-06_21_2/page/164 |journal=The British Journal of Sociology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=164–180 |last1=Swingewood |first1=Alan |year=1970 |doi=10.2307/588406}}</ref> Mu 1776, [[Adam Smith]] wakafumiska buku la ''[[The Wealth of Nations|Usambazi wa Mabuku]]'', ilo kanandi likuwoneka kuŵa ntchito yakwamba ya masambiro gha mazuŵa gano gha usambazi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fry |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/adamsmithslegacy0000unse |title=Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |others=[[Paul Samuelson]], [[Lawrence Klein]], [[Franco Modigliani]], [[James M. Buchanan]], [[Maurice Allais]], [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Richard Stone]], [[James Tobin]], [[Wassily Leontief]], [[Jan Tinbergen]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-415-06164-3 |url-access=registration}}</ref> === Vyaka vya m’ma 1800 === {{Main|19th century in science}} [[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|thumb|upright|Chithuzi chakwamba cha [[Phylogenetic tree|khuni la kusanduka kwa vyamoyo]] chakupangika na [[Charles Darwin]] mu 1837|alt=Sketch of a map with captions]] Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800, vinthu vinandi ivyo vikumanyikwitsa vinjeru vya chilengiwa vya mazuŵa gano vikamba kuŵako. Ivi vikasazgapo kusanduka kwa masambiro gha vyamoyo na vyakuthupi; kugwiriskira ntchito chomene vipimiro vyakugomezgeka; kuŵako kwa mazgu nga ni "wasanda-vyamoyo", "wasanda-vyakuthupi", na "wasanda-vinjeru vya chilengiwa"; kukura kwa ntchito ya kusanda chilengiwa; nkhwantha za vinjeru kusanga mazaza gha mitheto pa vigaŵa vinandi vya ŵanthu; kukhazikiskika kwa mafakitale mu vyaru vinandi; kuthandazgika kwa malemba gha vinjeru vya chilengiwa pakati pa ŵanthu; na kuŵako kwa mabuku gha nkhwantha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/367 367] |chapter=13. Science and the Public}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800, masambiro gha makhaliro gha maghanoghano yakafumamo mu masambiro gha vinjeru vya umoyo apo [[Wilhelm Wundt]] wakakhazikiskika malo ghakwamba ghakusandira makhaliro gha maghanoghano mu 1879.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leahey |first=Thomas Hardy |title=A History of Psychology: From Antiquity to Modernity |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpsychol0000thom |year=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-65242-2 |edition=8th |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpsychol0000thom/page/219 219]–253 |chapter=The psychology of consciousness}}</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m’ma 1800, [[Charles Darwin]] na [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] waliyose payekha wakasachizga chigomezgo cha kusanduka kwa vyamoyo kwizira mu [[natural selection|kusankhika na chilengiwa]] mu 1858, icho chikulongosora umo vyakumera na vinyama vyakupambanapambana vikayambira na kusanduka. Chigomezgo chawo chikayowoyeka mwakudidimizga mu buku la Darwin la ''[[On the Origin of Species|Pa Chiyambi cha Mitundu ya Vyamoyo]]'', ilo likafumiskika mu 1859.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Padian |first=Kevin |title=Darwin's enduring legacy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2008-02-07_451_7179/page/632 |journal=Nature |volume=451 |issue=7179 |pages=632–634 |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/451632a |pmid=18256649 |bibcode=2008Natur.451..632P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kwakujiyimira pa yekha, [[Gregor Mendel]] wakapereka lipoti lake, "[[Experiments on Plant Hybridisation|Kuyezgelera pa Kusazga Vyakumera]]" mu 1865,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henig |first=Robin Marantz |author-link=Robin Marantz Henig |url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni |title=The monk in the garden: the lost and found genius of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics |year=2000 |pages=134–138}}</ref> ilo likalongosora malango gha chiharo cha m’thupi, icho chikachita pakuŵa fumbiro la vinjeru vya mazuŵa gano vya chiharo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miko |first=Ilona |title=Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they? |journal=Nature Education |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=134 |year=2008 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593/ |access-date=9 May 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224056/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kuyamba kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1800 [[John Dalton]] wakasachizga [[atomic theory|chigomezgo cha mazuŵa gano cha kachidutswa kambura kugaŵika]], chakuzingatira pa ghanoghano la Democritus la tuchidutswa tuchoko chomene twambura kugaŵika uto tikuchemeka ''atoms''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rocke |first1=Alan J. |year=2005 |title=In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-research_spring-2005_72_1/page/125 |journal=Social Research |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=125–158 |doi=10.1353/sor.2005.0003 |jstor=40972005 |s2cid=141350239}}</ref> Malango gha [[conservation of energy|kusungilira nkhongono]], [[conservation of momentum|kusungilira kanyamazira]] na [[conservation of mass|kusungilira unandi wa chinthu]] yakalongora chilengiwa chakukhalira apo pangaŵa kutayika pachoko kwa vinthu. Kweni, chifukwa cha kwiza kwa [[steam engine|injini ya nthuzi]] na [[Industrial Revolution|Kusintha Kukuru kwa Mafakitale]] pakaŵa kapulikisko kakuru kakuti ni mitundu yose ya nkhongono yayi iyo yili na mukhaliro wakuyana, mwa kupusu kusandulika kuŵa [[Work (thermodynamics)|ntchito]] yakuzirwa panji kuŵa nkhongono yinyake.<ref name="Reichl1980" /> Kumanya ichi kukapangiska kukuzga kwa malango gha [[thermodynamics|vinjeru vya nkhongono ya chithukuzi]], mwa icho nkhongono yakuzirwa ya chilengiwa yikuwoneka kuŵa yakukhira nyengo zose: [[entropy|kubwanganduka]] kwa chilengiwa chakuzingika kukuluta panthazi m’paka muyirayira.{{efn|name= HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde|1= Usange chilengiwa chili chakuzingika panji chakujulika, panji [[shape of the universe|kawonekelo ka chilengiwa]], ni fumbo lambura kumanyikwa. Dango lachiŵiri la vinjeru vya nkhongono ya chithukuzi,<ref name="Reichl1980">{{cite book |last=Reichl |first=Linda |author-link=Linda Reichl |year=1980 |title=A Modern Course in Statistical Physics |url= |location= |publisher=Edward Arnold |isbn=0-7131-2789-9}}</ref>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Rao |first=Y. V. C. |title=Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics |publisher=Universities Press |isbn=978-81-7371-048-3 |year=1997 |page=158}}</ref> na dango lachitatu la vinjeru vya nkhongono ya chithukuzi<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.aop.2016.07.031 |title=Bounded energy exchange as an alternative to the third law of thermodynamics |year=2016 |last1=Heidrich |first1=M. |journal=Annals of Physics |volume=373 |pages=665–681 |bibcode=2016AnPhy.373..665H}}</ref> ghakulongora [[heat death of the universe|nyifwa ya chithukuzi ya chilengiwa]] usange chilengiwa chili nthandala yakuzingika, kweni ni ntheura yayi kwa chilengiwa icho chikukulirako.}} [[electromagnetic theory|Chigomezgo cha nkhongono ya mphenzi na kuguza]] chikakhazikiskika mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800 na ntchito za [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Oliver Heaviside]], na [[Heinrich Hertz]]. Chigomezgo chiphanya ichi chikawuska mafumbo agho yakaŵa ghakusuzga kuzgoreka kwizira mu ndondomeko ya Newton. Kusangika kwa [[X-ray|minziro ya X]] kukachiska kusangika kwa [[radioactivity|ungweru wakofya wa malibwe]] na [[Henri Becquerel]] na [[Marie Curie]] mu 1896,<ref>{{cite book |last=Mould |first=Richard F. |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofxraysra0000moul |year=1995 |publisher=Inst. of Physics Publ. |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |edition=Reprint. with minor corr |location=Bristol |page=[https://archive.org/details/centuryofxraysra0000moul/page/12 12]}}</ref> Marie Curie panyuma wakazgoka munthu wakwamba kutonda viphale viŵiri vya Nobel.<ref name="Estreicher1938">{{cite book |last=Estreicher |first=Tadeusz |title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4 |title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny |year=1938 |page=113 |language=pl |chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich |author-link=Tadeusz Estreicher}}</ref> Mu chaka chakulondezgapo kukasangika kachidutswa kakwamba kam’kati ka atomu, kano kakuchemeka [[electron]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thomson |first=J. J. |year=1897 |title=Cathode Rays |journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]] |volume=44 |issue=269 |pages=293–316 |doi=10.1080/14786449708621070 |bibcode=1897LEDPM..44..293T }}</ref> === Vyaka chitanda cha 20 === {{Main|20th century in science}} [[File:Carte trou ozone Antarctique.jpg|alt=Chithuzi chikulongora kuchepa kwa nkhongono ya mlengalenga ku Mpoto kwa charu|thumb|Chithuzi cha pakompyuta cha [[dindi la mlengalenga]] icho chikachitika mu chaka cha 1987 pakugwiliskira ntchito uthenga wa telesikopu ya ku mlengalenga]] Mu chigaŵa chakwamba cha chaka chitanda ichi, kupangika kwa [[munkhwala wakukoma tumpoyo]] na [[mufundo wakupangika na mawoko]] kukawovya chomene umoyo wa ŵanthu pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goyotte |first=Dolores |year=2017 |title=The Surgical Legacy of World War II. Part II: The age of antibiotics |url=https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Surgical Technologist |volume=109 |pages=257–264 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505180530/https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2021 |access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erisman |first1=Jan Willem |first2=M. A. |last2=Sutton |first3=J. |last3=Galloway |first4=Z. |last4=Klimont |first5=W. |last5=Winiwarter |date=October 2008 |title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world |url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=636–639 |bibcode=2008NatGe...1..636E |doi=10.1038/ngeo325 |s2cid=94880859 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723223052/http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |archive-date=23 July 2010 |access-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> Masuzgo ghakofya gha [[vyakuzingilizga]] nga ni [[kumalika kwa mlengalenga]], [[kununkhira kwa nyanja]], [[kuzara kwa vyakumera mu maji]], na [[kusintha kwa kanyengo]] kukamba kumanyikwa na ŵanthu ndipo kukambiska [[masambiro gha vyakuzingilizga]].<ref>{{cite journal |editor-last1=Emmett |editor-first1=Rob |editor-last2=Zelko |editor-first2=Frank |url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |title=Minding the Gap: Working Across Disciplines in Environmental Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121054306/https://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |archive-date=21 January 2022 |series=RCC Perspectives no. 2 |year=2014 |doi=10.5282/rcc/6313 |last1=Emmett |first1=Robert |last2=Zelko |first2=Frank |journal=Environment & Society Portal}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, kuyezgelera kwa vya umanyi kukakula chomene ndipo kukamba kupenja [[Umanyi ukuru|ndalama zinandi na nthowa zikuru]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Furner |first=Jonathan |date=1 June 2003 |title=Little Book, Big Book: Before and After Little Science, Big Science: A Review Article, Part I |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-librarianship-and-information-science_2003-06_35_2/page/115 |journal=Journal of Librarianship and Information Science |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1177/0961000603352006 |s2cid=34844169}}</ref> Kusintha kukuru kwa luso chifukwa cha [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose]], [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]], na [[Nkhondo ya Mazgu]] kukambiska chiphalizgano pakati pa [[Mautongi ghankhongono|mautongi ghakurughakuru gha charu]], nga ni [[Chiphalizgano cha ku Mlengalenga]] na [[chiphalizgano cha vilwero vyakofya]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kraft |first1=Chris |url=https://archive.org/details/flight00chri |title=Flight: My Life in Mission Control |first2=James |last2=Schefter |publisher=Dutton |year=2001 |isbn=0-525-94571-7 |location=New York |author-link1=Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. |pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Herman |author-link=Herman Kahn |year=1962 |title=Thinking about the Unthinkable |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkingaboutunt0000kahn |publisher=Horizon}}</ref> Kukawa so kukolerana kukuru pakati pa vyaru, nangauli pakaŵa nkhondo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shrum |first=Wesley |title=Structures of scientific collaboration |url=https://archive.org/details/structuresofscie0000shru |year=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |others=Joel Genuth, Ivan Chompalov |isbn=978-0-262-28358-8 |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> Kukumpoto kwa vyaka chitanda cha 20, kukoleka kwa ŵanakazi na kuwuskapo kwa [[kusankhulana chifukwa cha kwanakazi]] kukapangiska kuti ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵaje ŵasanduzi ŵa umanyi, kweni kupambana kukuru pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukhalilira mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosser |first=Sue V. |title=Breaking into the Lab: Engineering Progress for Women in Science |url=https://archive.org/details/breakingintolabe0000ross |date=12 March 2012 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-7645-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/breakingintolabe0000ross/page/7 7]}}</ref> Kusangika kwa [[kungweruka kwa mlengalenga]] mu chaka cha 1964<ref>{{cite journal |last=Penzias |first=A. A. |year=2006 |title=The origin of elements |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |journal=Science |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] |volume=205 |issue=4406 |pages=549–554 |doi=10.1126/science.205.4406.549 |pmid=17729659 |access-date=4 October 2006 |archive-date=17 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117225210/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> kukapangiska kukana [[fundo ya chilengiwa chakukhazikika]] na kupokelera fundo ya [[Big Bang]] ya [[Georges Lemaître]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=S. |url=https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 |title=Gravitation and Cosmology |publisher=John Whitney & Sons |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-471-92567-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 464–495] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Chaka chitanda ichi chikawona kusintha kukuru mu vigaŵa vya umanyi. Kusintha kwa vyamoyo kukazgoka fundo yimoza mu vyaka vyakwamba vya 1900 apo [[Kukolerana kwa mazuŵa gano (chaka chitanda cha 20)|kukolerana kwa mazuŵa gano]] kukasazga fundo ya kusintha kwa vyamoyo ya Darwin na [[masambiro gha mazuŵa ghano gha ndonda za umoyo]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Futuyma |first1=Douglas J. |title=Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu_j9h3 |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=Mark |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-60535-605-1 |edition=4th |pages=[https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu_j9h3/page/n26 3]–26 |chapter=Chapter 1: Evolutionary Biology |publisher=Sinauer}}</ref> [[Albert Einstein]] na [[fundo yake ya unandi wa vinthu]] kweniso kukura kwa [[umanyi wa tinthu tuchoko chomene]] kukasazgirapo pa umanyi wakale wa kanyengo na [[nkhongono yakuguzira]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Arthur I. |title=Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911) |year=1981 |location=Reading |publisher=Addison–Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-04679-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=ter Haar |first=D. |url=https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar |title=The Old Quantum Theory |publisher=Pergamon |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-08-012101-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar/page/206 206] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Kugwiliskira ntchito chomene [[nthambo zakukolerana za magesi]] mu vigaŵa vyaumaliro vya chaka chitanda cha 20, pamoza na [[pachanya pa mlengalenga vyakuperekera uthenga]], kukambiska kusintha kukuru mu luso lwa uthenga na kukura kwa nthambo ya charu chose ya uthenga na [[vipangizgo vyakuyendayenda]], kusazgapo [[foni zamazuŵa gano]]. Kukhumbikwa kwa ndondomeko ya vinthu vinandi vyakukolerana kukapangiska kukura kwa [[fundo ya ndondomeko]] na [[kapangiro ka vinthu pakugwiliskira ntchito kompyuta]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=von Bertalanffy |first1=Ludwig |year=1972 |title=The History and Status of General Systems Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_academy-of-management-journal_1972-12_15_4/page/407 |journal=The Academy of Management Journal |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=407–426 |jstor=255139 |bibcode=1972AManJ..15..407V }}</ref> === Vyaka chitanda cha 21 === {{Main|21st century#Science and technology}} [[Ndondomeko ya ndonda za umoyo wa muntu]] ikamalizgika mu chaka cha 2003 pakumanya na kuŵika mapu gha ndonda zose za [[ndonda za muntu]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Naidoo |first1=Nasheen |last2=Pawitan |first2=Yudi |last3=Soong |first3=Richie |last4=Cooper |first4=David N. |last5=Ku |first5=Chee-Seng |date=October 2011 |title=Human genetics and genomics a decade after the release of the draft sequence of the human genome |journal=Human Genomics |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=577–622 |doi=10.1186/1479-7364-5-6-577 |pmc=3525251 |pmid=22155605 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Maselo ghakwamba gha [[Maselo ghakuyana na gha mwana uyo wandababike]] ghakapangika mu chaka cha 2006, icho chikazomerezga maselo gha ŵanthu ŵakuru kuzgoka [[maselo ghakwamba]] na kuŵa selo lililose ilo likusangika mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=S. Tamir |last2=Alexander |first2=Graeme J. M. |date=March 2013 |title=Induced pluripotent stem cells: from Nobel Prizes to clinical applications |journal=Journal of Hepatology |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=625–629 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2012.10.026 |issn=1600-0641 |pmid=23131523 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pakusimikizga kusangika kwa [[Higgs boson]] mu chaka cha 2013, kantu kaumaliro ako kakayowoyekerathu na [[Ndondomeko ya Umanyi]] ya umanyi wa tinthu tuchoko chomene kakasangika.<ref>{{cite press release |last=O'Luanaigh |first=C. |date=14 March 2013 |title=New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson |publisher=[[CERN]] |url=http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020000722/http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |archive-date=20 October 2015}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2015, [[mafumbi gha nkhongono yakuguzira]], agho ghakayowoyekerathu na [[fundo ya unandi wa vinthu]] chaka chitanda chimoza kumasinda, [[Kuwoneka kwakwamba kwa mafumbi gha nkhongono yakuguzira|ghakawoneka kakwamba]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/aa91c9 |title=Multi-messenger Observations of a Binary Neutron Star Merger |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=848 |issue=2 |page=L12 |year=2017 |last1=Abbott |first1=B. P. |last2=Abbott |first2=R. |last3=Abbott |first3=T. D. |last4=Acernese |first4=F. |last5=Ackley |first5=K. |last6=Adams |first6=C. |last7=Adams |first7=T. |last8=Addesso |first8=P. |last9=Adhikari |first9=R. X.|last10 = Adya|first10 = V. B. |last11=Affeldt |first11=C. |last12=Afrough |first12=M. |last13=Agarwal |first13=B. |last14=Agathos |first14=M. |last15=Agatsuma |first15=K. |last16=Aggarwal |first16=N. |last17=Aguiar |first17=O. D. |last18=Aiello |first18=L. |last19=Ain |first19=A.|last20 = Ajith|first20 = P. |last21=Allen |first21=B. |last22=Allen |first22=G. |last23=Allocca |first23=A. |last24=Altin |first24=P. A. |last25=Amato |first25=A. |last26=Ananyeva |first26=A. |last27=Anderson |first27=S. B. |last28=Anderson |first28=W. G. |last29=Angelova |first29=S. V.|last30 = Antier|first30 = S. |display-authors=29 |bibcode=2017ApJ...848L..12A |arxiv=1710.05833 |s2cid=217162243 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.aar2149 |title=Merging neutron stars generate gravitational waves and a celestial light show |journal=Science |year=2017 |last1=Cho |first1=Adrian}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2019, kukolerana kwa charu chose kwa [[Telesikopu ya m'mbali mwa dindi]] kukalongora chithuzi chakwamba cha [[chizongwe chafifi]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2019 |title=Media Advisory: First Results from the Event Horizon Telescope to be Presented on April 10th |publisher=Event Horizon Telescope |url=https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420135254/https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-date=20 April 2019 |access-date=21 September 2021}}</ref> == Mirazi == {{Main|Branches of science}} Umanyi wa mazuŵa gano ukugaŵika mu [[Mirazi ya umanyi|mirazi]] yikuru yitatu: [[umanyi wa chilengiwa]], [[umanyi wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu]], na [[umanyi wa ndondomeko]].<ref name="Cohen2021" /> Chigaŵa chilichose mwa vigaŵa ivi chili na masambiro ghake agho nyengo zinyake ghakusazgikana ndipo ghali na [[maina gha luso]] na umanyi wake.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |title=Scientific Method: Relationships Among Scientific Paradigms |date=7 March 2007 |magazine=Seed Magazine |access-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101001155/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |archive-date=1 November 2016}}</ref> Umanyi wa chilengiwa na wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ghose ni [[umanyi wa kuyezgelera]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung |last=Bunge |first=Mario Augusto |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung/page/24 24]}}</ref> pakuti umanyi wawo wukuzikira pa [[ukaboni wa maso]] ndipo ungayezgeka na ŵasanduzi ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu mikhalidwe yakuyana.<ref name="Popper2002">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl R. |year=2002a |chapter=A survey of some fundamental problems |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574 |url-access=limited |orig-date=1959 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133 3]–26 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-27844-7}}</ref>{{rp|pp=3-26}} === Chilengiwa === [[Natural science|Umanyi wa chilengiwa]] ni kusambira vya charu icho tikuwona. Ukugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: [[umanyi wa vyamoyo]] na [[umanyi wa vinthu vyambura umoyo]]. Mirazi iyi yingasazgirika mu vigaŵa vinyake vya luso. Chiyelezgero, umanyi wa vinthu vyambura umoyo ungagaŵika mu physics, [[chemistry]], [[umanyi wa mlengalenga]], na [[umanyi wa charu pasi]]. Umanyi wa chilengiwa wa mazuŵa gano uli kufuma ku [[fundo za chilengiwa]] izo zikambira ku [[Greece yakale]]. [[Galileo]], [[Descartes]], [[Francis Bacon|Bacon]], na [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] ŵakadumbiskananga uwemi wa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za [[physics wa masamu]] na kuyezgelera mu nthowa yakudunjika. Kweni, kaghanaliro ka vinthu na [[maghanoghano gha mu mutu]] vikuŵa vyakukhumbikwa ni m'paka lero mu umanyi wa chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gauch |first=Hugh G. Jr. |chapter=Science in perspective |title=Scientific Method in Practice |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71 |pages=21–73 |isbn=978-0-521-01708-4 |year=2003 |access-date=3 September 2018}}</ref> Kusonkhanitsa uthenga mu nthowa yakukhazikika kukatora malo gha [[mbiri ya chilengiwa]], iyo ikawoneka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 pakulongosora na kugaŵa vyakumera, vinyama, malibwe, na vinthu vinyake vyamoyo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Oglivie |first=Brian W. |year=2008 |chapter=Introduction |title=The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceofdescrib0000ogil |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scienceofdescrib0000ogil/page/1 1]–24 |edition=Paperback |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-62088-6}}</ref> Lero, "mbiri ya chilengiwa" yikuyowoya chomene za malongosolero gha vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka na maso ku ŵanthu bweka.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Natural History |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |dictionary=Princeton University WordNet |access-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303173506/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref> === Kakhaliro ka ŵanthu === [[File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg|thumb|[[Kuguliska na kukhumba]] mu vyachuma, kukumana pa malo ghawemi|alt=Mizere yiŵiri yakusatuka, kupanga chizindikiro cha X]] [[Social science|Umanyi wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu]] ni kusambira kakhaliro ka ŵanthu na umo magulu gha ŵanthu ghakwendera.<ref name="Colander2019" /><ref name="Nisbet2020" /> Uli na masambiro ghanandi nga ni [[anthropoloji]], vyachuma, mbiri, [[geografe ya ŵanthu]], [[umanyi wa ndyali]], sayikoloji, na sosiyoloji.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Mu umanyi wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu, muli maghanoghano ghanandi ghakupambana agho ghakusazgirika mu [[mapulogilamu gha kafukufuku]] ghakupambana.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Chifukwa cha kusuzga kuchita kuyezgelera kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi panji pa nkhani zakusuzga, ŵasanduzi ŵa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ŵangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zinyake nga ni [[nthowa ya mbiri]], [[kusambira chinthu chimoza]], na [[kusambira mitheto yakupambana]]. Kweniso, usange uthenga wa manambala ulipo, ŵasanduzi ŵangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa za masamu kuti ŵapulikiske makora kakhaliro na mendero gha ŵanthu.<ref name="Colander2019" /> === Ndondomeko === [[Formal science|Umanyi wa ndondomeko]] ni chigaŵa cha masambiro icho chikupanga umanyi pakugwiliskira ntchito [[ndondomeko zakukhazikika]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |title=Formal Sciences: Washington and Lee University |website=Washington and Lee University |access-date=14 May 2021 |quote=A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in Mathematics and Computer Science. Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on them. |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514125428/https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Löwe2002">{{cite journal |last=Löwe |first=Benedikt |author-link=Benedikt Löwe |year=2002 |title=The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |issue=1/2 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/A:1020887832028 |issn=0039-7857 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref><ref name="Rucker2019">{{cite book |last=Rucker |first=Rudy |author-link=Rudy Rucker |url=http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |title=Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-691-19138-6 |edition=Reprint |pages=157–188 |chapter=Robots and souls |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226212447/http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ndondomeko yakukhazikika ni [[kakhaliro ka vinthu mu mutu]] ako kakugwiliskira ntchito [[fundo zakusimikizga]] kufuma pa [[fundo zakwamba]] kuyana na malango. Ukusazgapo masamu,<ref>{{cite book |last=Tomalin |first=Marcus |year=2006 |title=Linguistics and the Formal Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/a:1020887832028 |year=2002 |last1=Löwe |first1=Benedikt |issue=1/2 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref> [[fundo ya ndondomeko]], na [[umanyi wa kompyuta]]. Umanyi wa ndondomeko wuli na kukozgana na mirazi yinyake yiŵiri pakugomezga kusambira vinthu mu nthowa yakudunjika na yakutowa. Kweni upambana na umanyi wa kuyezgelera chifukwa ukugomezga chomene kaghanaliro ka mu mutu kwambura kukhumbikwa kwa ukaboni wa maso kuti usimikizge vinthu.<ref name="Fetzer2013" /><ref>{{cite book |first=Thompson |last=Bill |title=The Nature of Statistical Evidence |chapter=2.4 Formal Science and Applied Mathematics |publisher=Springer |series=Lecture Notes in Statistics |volume=189 |year=2007 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Popper2002" /> Pa chifukwa ichi, pali kupambana maghanoghano usange umanyi uwu ni umanyi nadi.<ref name="Kluwer" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |year=1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref> Ndipouli, umanyi wa ndondomeko uli na ntchito yikuru mu umanyi wa kuyezgelera. Chiyelezgero, [[Calculus]] wakambiska kuti munthu apulikiske [[mendero]] mu physics.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mujumdar |first1=Anshu Gupta |last2=Singh |first2=Tejinder |year=2016 |chapter=Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics |title=Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/trickortruthmyst0000unse |editor-first1=Anthony |editor-last1=Aguirre |editor-first2=Brendan |editor-last2=Foster |series=The Frontiers Collection |pages=[https://archive.org/details/trickortruthmyst0000unse/page/201 201]–218 |location=Switzerland |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-27494-2}}</ref> Umanyi wa chilengiwa na wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu uwo ukugomezga chomene masamu ukusazgapo [[physics wa masamu]],<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Journal |url=http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003233339/http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-date=3 October 2006 |access-date=3 October 2006 |website=[[Journal of Mathematical Physics]]}}</ref> [[chemistry wa masamu]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Restrepo |first=G. |chapter=Mathematical chemistry, a new discipline |title=Essays in the philosophy of chemistry |editor-last1=Scerri |editor-first1=E. |editor-last2=Fisher |editor-first2=G. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2016 |pages=332–351 |isbn=978-0-19-049459-9 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |archive-date=10 June 2021 |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610130352/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |url-status=live}}</ref> [[bioloji wa masamu]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is mathematical biology |publisher=Centre for Mathematical Biology, University of Bath |url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923070442/http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-date=23 September 2018 |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> [[vyachuma vya masamu]],<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Johnson |first=Tim |date=1 September 2009 |title=What is financial mathematics? |url=https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |access-date=1 March 2021 |magazine=+Plus Magazine |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408231344/https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |url-status=live}}</ref> na [[ekonomiki ya masamu]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Varian |first=Hal |author-link=Hal Varian |year=1997 |chapter=What Use Is Economic Theory? |editor-last1=D'Autume |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Cartelier |editor-first2=J. |title=Is Economics Becoming a Hard Science? |publisher=Edward Elgar}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf Pre-publication]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf |date=25 June 2006 }}. Retrieved 1 April 2008.</ref> === Kugwiliskira Ntchito === [[Applied science|Umanyi wakugwiliskira ntchito]] ni kukhazikika kwa [[nthowa za umanyi]] na kumanya vinthu kuti ufikepo pa ivyo ukukhumba mu umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, ndipo ukusazgapo vigaŵa nga ni unjinariya na munkhwala.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Reem Rachel |year=2004 |title=Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students |journal=Advances in Physiology Education |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=102–104 |doi=10.1152/advan.00001.2004 |pmid=15319191 |s2cid=21610124}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966" /> Unjinariya ni kugwiliskira ntchito fundo za umanyi pakupanga, kuzenga mashini, na luso linyake.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |title=Engineering |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819030859/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |url-status=live}}</ref> Umanyi ungawovya pakupanga luso liphya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Harvey |date=1 September 1994 |title=The relationship between science and technology |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |journal=Research Policy |series=Special Issue in Honor of Nathan Rosenberg |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 |issn=0048-7333 |access-date=14 October 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230224402/https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Munkhwala ni ntchito ya kupwelelerera ŵalwari mwa kusunga na kuwezgerapo umoyo kwizira mu [[kuvilekeska (munkhwala)|kuvilekeska]], [[kumanya nthenda]], na [[chovwiro|kuchizga]] nthenda panji kupwetekeka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Firth |first=John |title=Oxford textbook of medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-874669-0 |chapter=Science in medicine: when, how, and what}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=J. |date=June 2000 |title=The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science |journal=Med Humanit |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=18–22 |doi=10.1136/mh.26.1.18 |pmid=12484313 |doi-access=free |s2cid=73306806 |pmc=1071282}}</ref> === Yakwamba === Umanyi wakugwiliskira ntchito kanandi ukupambaniskika na [[umanyi wakwamba]], uwo ukulaŵiska chomene pa kusazgirako fundo na malango gha umanyi agho ghakulongosora na kuyowoyerathu ivyo vikuchitika mu chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Bernard D. |date=March 2000 |title=Limited scope of science |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471 |postscript=none}} & "Technology" in {{cite journal |first=Bernard |last=Davis |author-link1=Bernard Davis (biologist) |date=Mar 2000 |title=The scientist's world |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews]] |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=James |last=McCormick |year=2001 |title=Scientific medicine—fact of fiction? The contribution of science to medicine |journal=Occasional Paper (Royal College of General Practitioners) |pages=3–6 |pmc=2560978 |pmid=19790950 |number=80}}</ref> === Kafukufuku wa mlengalenga === {{Excerpt|Blue skies research|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs|hat=no}} === Pakugwiliskira ntchito makina === [[Computational science|Umanyi wa makina]] ukugwiliskira ntchito [[kuyezgelera kwa pakompyuta]] mu umanyi, icho chikupangiska kupulikiska makora masuzgo gha umanyi kuluska umo masamu pera ghangachitira. Kugwiliskira ntchito [[makina ghakusambira pande]] na [[luso lwakupangika na munthu mu makina]] kukuzgoka chigaŵa chikuru cha wovwiri wa makina mu umanyi, chiyelezgero mu [[vyachuma vyakusanda na makina]], [[makuni ghakupambana gha masamu]], [[kapangiro ka mitu ya nkhani]] na nthowa zinandi zakuyowoyerathu ivyo vichitikenge. Kweni, makina pa ghaŵo ghekha nyengo zinandi ghangasazgirako yayi umanyi chifukwa ghakukhumbikira mulongozgi wa munthu na nkhongono ya kughanaghanira; ndipo ghangasazgirako sankho pa magulu gha ŵanthu panji nyengo zinyake kugwira ntchito pasi pa nkhongono ya munthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breznau |first1=Nate |year=2022 |title=Integrating Computer Prediction Methods in Social Science: A Comment on Hofman et al. (2021) |journal=Social Science Computer Review |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=844–853 |doi=10.1177/08944393211049776 |doi-access=free |s2cid=248334446 |url=[suspicious link removed] |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429040922/https://osf.io/adxb3/download |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hofman |first1=Jake M. |last2=Watts |first2=Duncan J. |author2-link=Duncan J. Watts |last3=Athey |first3=Susan |author3-link=Susan Athey |last4=Garip |first4=Filiz |last5=Griffiths |first5=Thomas L. |author5-link=Tom Griffiths (cognitive scientist) |last6=Kleinberg |first6=Jon |author6-link=Jon Kleinberg |last7=Margetts |first7=Helen |author7-link=Helen Margetts |last8=Mullainathan |first8=Sendhil |author8-link=Sendhil Mullainathan |last9=Salganik |first9=Matthew J. |author9-link=Matthew J. Salganik |last10=Vazire |first10=Simine |author10-link=Simine Vazire |last11=Vespignani |first11=Alessandro |author11-link=Alessandro Vespignani |date=July 2021 |title=Integrating explanation and prediction in computational social science |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |volume=595 |issue=7866 |pages=181–188 |bibcode=2021Natur.595..181H |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03659-0 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=34194044 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925074416/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |access-date=25 September 2021 |s2cid=235697917}}</ref> === Kusazga masambiro === [[Interdisciplinary science|Umanyi wakusazga masambiro]] ukusazgapo kusazga masambiro ghaŵiri panji kujumpha kuŵa limoza,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nissani |first=M. |year=1995 |title=Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working definition of Interdisciplinarity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-educational-thought_1995-08_29_2/page/121 |journal=The Journal of Educational Thought |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=121–128 |doi=10.55016/ojs/jet.v29i2.52385 |jstor=23767672}}</ref> nga ni [[bioinformatics]], kusazgika kwa bioloji na umanyi wa kompyuta<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalcodeoflif0000mood |title=Digital Code of Life: How Bioinformatics is Revolutionizing Science, Medicine, and Business |last=Moody |first=G. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-32788-2 |url-access=registration |page=vii |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> panji [[umanyi wa kaghanaliro]]. Fundo iyi yaŵako kwamba mu nyengo ya Greece yakale ndipo ikambaso kumanyikwa mu vyaka chitanda cha 20.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ausburg |first=Tanya |title=Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/becominginterdis0000augs |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing |year=2006 |edition=2nd |location=New York}}</ref> == Kafukufuku == Kafukufuku wa umanyi ungathyakika kuŵa kafukufuku wakwamba panji kafukufuku wakugwiliskira ntchito. [[Basic research|Kafukufuku wakwamba]] ni kupenja umanyi ndipo [[applied research|kafukufuku wakugwiliskira ntchito]] ni kupenja nthowa zamazgu ku masuzgo ghakuwoneka pakugwiliskira ntchito umanyi uwu. Kupulikiska vinandi kukufuma mu kafukufuku wakwamba, nangauli nyengo zinyake kafukufuku wakugwiliskira ntchito ukulazga ku masuzgo ghachindunji. Ichi chikupangiska kukura kwa luso ilo pakwamba likaŵa lakusuzga kughanaghanira.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119113522/http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |title=To Live at All Is Miracle Enough |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |publisher=RichardDawkins.net |date=10 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> === Nthowa za umanyi === [[File:The Scientific Method.svg|thumb|Chithuzi chakulongora nthowa za umanyi nga ni [[Scientific method#Elements of the scientific method|ndondomeko yakulutilira]]|alt=Vigaŵa 6 vya nthowa za umanyi mu kamuzingizgi]] Shutterstock Kafukufuku wa umanyi ukusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito [[scientific method|nthowa za umanyi]], izo zikupenja kulongosora vyakuchitika vya [[chilengiwa]] kwambura sankho mu nthowa iyo [[kuyezgeka so|ingachitika so]].<ref name="di Francia1976">{{cite book |last=di Francia |first=Giuliano Toraldo |chapter=The method of physics |title=The Investigation of the Physical World |url=https://archive.org/details/investigationofp0000tora |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1976 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/investigationofp0000tora/page/1 1]–52 |isbn=978-0-521-29925-1 |quote=The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!}}</ref> Ŵasanduzi kanandi ŵakupokelera fundo zinyake zakwamba izo zikukhumbikwa kuti nthowa za umanyi ziŵe zakwenelera: pali [[unenesko uwo ulipo]] uwo uliupange kwa ŵasanduzi wose; unenesko uwu ukulongozgeka na [[malango gha chilengiwa]]; malango agha ghakasangika kwizira mu [[kuwonelera]] kwakukhazikika na kuyezgelera.<ref name="Heilbron2003" /> Masamu ngakukhumbikwa chomene mu kupanga [[maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka]], [[fundo za umanyi]], na malango, chifukwa ghakugwiliskira ntchito chomene mu kupanga vipangizgo, kuwonelera, na kusonkhanitsa [[milingo]].<ref name=Popper2002 />{{rp|pp=3-26}} Masamu gha dongo ghakugwiliskira ntchito pakudumura na kusanda uthenga, icho chikuzomerezga ŵasanduzi kupima kugomezgeka kwa ivyo vyasangika mu kuyezgelera.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Diggle |first1=Peter J. |author-link=Peter Diggle |title=Statistics and Scientific Method: An Introduction for Students and Researchers |url=https://archive.org/details/statisticsscient0000digg |last2=Chetwynd |first2=Amanda G. |author2-link=Amanda Chetwynd |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954318-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statisticsscient0000digg/page/1 1]–2}}</ref> Mu nthowa za umanyi, [[kuyezgelera mu mutu]] panji maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka ghakuŵikika nga ni malongosolero pakugwiliskira ntchito [[fundo yakudumura vinthu]] ndipo ghakulindilirika kupenja [[kukolerana]] – kuyana na unenesko unyake wakuzomerezgeka wakukhwaskana na ivyo vikuwoneka panji fumbo la umanyi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Edward |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity0000wils |publisher=Vintage |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref> Malongosolero agha ghakugwiliskira ntchito pakupanga vinthu ivyo [[vingasangika kuti mbutesi]], ivyo kanandi vikuŵikika pakweru pambere vindayezgeke na kuyezgelera. Kutondeka kwa ivyo vikayowoyerathu mbukaboni wa kukura kwa umanyi.<ref name="di Francia1976" />{{Rp|pages=4–5}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Fara |first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Fara |year=2009 |chapter=Decisions |title=Science: A Four Thousand Year History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-922689-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408 408] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/306}}</ref> Kuyezgelera nkhwakukhumbikwa chomene mu umanyi kuti kukhozge [[kukolerana kwa vyakuchitika]] kugega [[upusikizgi wa kukozgana kwa vinthu]], nangauli mu umanyi unyake nga ni wa mlengalenga panji wa malibwe, kuwonelera ivyo vikayowoyerathu kungaŵa kwakwenelera chomene.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aldrich |first=John |journal=Statistical Science |volume=10 |year=1995 |pages=364–376 |title=Correlations Genuine and Spurious in Pearson and Yule |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_statistical-science_1995-11_10_4/page/364 |jstor=2246135 |doi=10.1214/ss/1177009870 |issue=4 |bibcode=1995StaSc..1009870A |doi-access=free}}</ref> Usange maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka ghasangika kuti ngakukhorweska yayi, ghakusinthika panji kutayika. Usange maghanoghano agha ghapona pa kuyezgelera, ghangapokelereka mu ndondomeko ya [[scientific theory|fundo ya umanyi]], iyo ni chakuwonelerapo chakukhazikika chakulongosora kakhaliro ka vyakuchitika vinyake vya chilengiwa. Fundo ya umanyi kanandi yikulongosora kakhaliro ka vinthu vinandi chomene kuluska maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka; kanandi, maghanoghano ghanandi ghangakolerana pamoza na fundo yimoza ya umanyi. Ntheura, fundo ya umanyi ni maghanoghano ghakulongosora maghanoghano ghanyake ghanandi. Mu nthowa yimoza iyi, fundo za umanyi zikupangika kuyana na malango gha umanyi ghakuyana na gha maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka. Ŵasanduzi ŵangapanga [[Scientific modelling|chakuwonelerapo]], kuyezga kulongosora panji kuwoneska ivyo vikuwoneka mu nthowa ya masamu panji ya thupi, na kupanga maghanoghano ghaphya agho ghangayezgeka na kuyezgelera.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nola |first1=Robert |last2=Irzik |first2=Gürol |year=2005 |title=Philosophy, science, education and culture |volume=28 |series=Science & technology education library |isbn=978-1-4020-3769-6 |publisher=Springer |pages=207–230}}</ref> Pachita kuyezgelera kuti ŵayezge maghanoghano, ŵasanduzi ŵangaŵa na kakhumbiro ka kuti chinthu chimoza chichitike kuluska chinyake.<ref>{{cite web |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |year=1999 |url=http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |title="Heads I win, tails you lose": A Foray Into the Psychology of Philosophy |publisher=University of Melbourne |access-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409054240/http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pease |first=Craig |date=6 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619154617/http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm |archive-date=19 June 2010 |title=Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science |website=Science for Business, Law and Journalism |publisher=Vermont Law School |url=http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm}}</ref> Kuwuskapo sankho kungaoneka kwizira mu kachitiro kakweru, [[kapangiro kawemi ka kuyezgelera]], na nthowa ya [[kusanda kwa ŵasanduzi ŵanyake]] pa ivyo vyasangika. Pamanyuma pa kupharazga ivyo vyasangika, ni kakhaliro kakwenelera kuti ŵasanduzi ŵanyake ŵazakaŵereso umo kafukufuku ukayendera, na kuchita kuyezgelera kwakuyana kuti ŵawone usange ivyo vyasangika vingagomezgeka.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ruth Ellen |last1=Bulger |year=2002 |last2=Heitman |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Reiser |first3=Stanley Joel |title=The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-521-00886-0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Pakuwona kose, nthowa za umanyi zikuzomerezga kumazga masuzgo mu nthowa ya luso uku zikuchepeska sankho na [[kukhozgera maghanoghano gha munthu]]. [[Kusimikizga kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi]], nkhongono ya kufika pa kukolerana na kupangika so kwa ivyo vyasangika, nkhwakukhumbikwa chomene pa kupanga umanyi wose wa umanyi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziman |first=John |title=Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1978c |isbn=978-0-521-22087-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42 42–76] |chapter=Common observation |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42}}</ref> === Mabuku === {{Main|Scientific literature|Lists of important publications in science}} [[File:Nature cover, November 4, 1869.jpg|thumb|Chifupi cha nkhani yakwamba ya ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', 4 Novemba 1869|alt=Lilembo la "NATURE" pakati, na malemba gha umanyi kusi]] Kafukufuku wa umanyi ukupharazgika mu mabuku ghanandi.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=John Ziman |last=Ziman |first=J. M. |journal=Science |title=The proliferation of scientific literature: a natural process |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1980-04-25_208_4442/page/369 |year=1980 |volume=208 |issue=4442 |pages=369–371 |doi=10.1126/science.7367863 |pmid=7367863 |bibcode=1980Sci...208..369Z}}</ref> [[Scientific journal|Mabuku gha umanyi]] ghakupharazga na kusunga ivyo vyasangika mu kafukufuku uwo ukuchitika mu maunivesite na malo gha kafukufuku, kuŵa nga ni nkhokwe ya umanyi. Mabuku ghakwamba gha umanyi, {{lang|fr|[[Journal des sçavans]]}} kulondezgana na ''[[Philosophical Transactions]]'', ghakamba kupharazgika mu chaka cha 1665. Kufuma nyengo iyo, unandi wa mabuku agha wakulutilira kukura. Mu chaka cha 1981, unandi wa mabuku gha umanyi na luso ukaŵa pafupifupi 11,500.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Krishna |last1=Subramanyam |last2=Subramanyam |first2=Bhadriraju |year=1981 |title=Scientific and Technical Information Resources |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8247-8297-9}}</ref> Mabuku ghanandi gha umanyi ghakuyowoya za chigaŵa chimoza cha umanyi; kafukufuku kanandi wakuŵikika mu nthowa ya [[nkhani ya umanyi]]. Umanyi wazara chomene mu magulu gha ŵanthu mazuŵa gano mwakuti nkhwakukhumbikwa kupharazga ivyo vyachitika, uthenga, na makhumbiro gha ŵasanduzi kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi.<ref name="Bush1945">{{cite web |last=Bush |first=Vannevar |date=July 1945 |title=Science the Endless Frontier |url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221306/https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=4 November 2016 |publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref> == Fundo za kaghanaliro == {{anchor|ConjectureAndRefutation}} [[File:Epicycle and deferent.svg|thumb|Kwayana na [[Thomas Kuhn|Kuhn]], kusazgirako [[maghanoghano gha mizere]] mu umanyi wa Ptolemy kukaŵa "umanyi wa bweka" mu ndondomeko yimoza, uku [[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions#Copernican Revolution|Kusintha kwa Copernicus]] kukaŵa kusintha kukuru kwa ndondomeko.|alt=Chithuzi cha mizere ya kuzingilira, apo polaneti yikuzingilira mu nthambo yikuru]] Pali magulu gha kaghanaliro ghakupambana mu [[philosophy of science|fundo za kaghanaliro ka umanyi]]. Kaghanaliro kamanyikwa chomene ni [[empiricism]], ako kakusambizga kuti umanyi ukupangika kwizira mu kuwonelera; fundo za umanyi zikusazga ivyo vikuwonelereka.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=39-56}} Empiricism kanandi yikusazgapo [[inductivism]], iyo yikulongosora umo fundo zikuru zingapangikira kufuma pa ukaboni wa maso uchoko uwo ulipo. Pali nthowa zinandi za empiricism, izo zikumanyikwa chomene ni [[Bayesianism]] na [[hypothetico-deductive method]].<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=219-232}} Empiricism yakhala yakupambana na [[rationalism]], kaghanaliro ako pakwamba kakavikilirika na [[Descartes]], ako kakusambizga kuti umanyi ukupangika na nzeru ya munthu, osati na kuwonelera.<ref name=pGS2003 >{{cite book |last=Godfrey-Smith |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryrealityint00godf |title=Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-30062-7 }}</ref>{{rp|pp=19-38}} [[Critical rationalism]] ni nthowa yakupambana ya vyaka chitanda cha 20, iyo yikambika na wakughanaghanira wa ku Austria-Britain [[Karl Popper]]. Popper wakakana nthowa iyo empiricism yikulongosolera kukolerana pakati pa fundo na kuwonelera. Iye wakati fundo zikupangika na kuwonelera yayi, kweni kuwonelera kukuchitika chifukwa cha fundo, ndipo nthowa yekha iyo fundo A yingakhwaskika na kuwonelera ni ''pamanyuma'' pakuti fundo A yagalukira kuwonelera, kweni fundo B yapona pa kuwonelera uko.<ref name=pGS2003/>{{rp|pp=57-74}} Popper wakayowoya kuti malo ghakusimikizga vinthu ghaŵe [[falsifiability]] (kusangika kuŵa utesi) nga ni chimanyikwiro cha fundo za umanyi, kusintha nthowa ya kusanda na nthowa ya kusanga utesi nga ni nthowa ya kafukufuku. Popper wakayowoyaso kuti kuli nthowa yimoza pera pa charu chose, osati ya umanyi pera: nthowa ya kususka, [[kuyezga na kutondeka]], ikusazgapo vyose ivyo nzeru ya munthu yapanga, kusazgapo umanyi, masamu, kaghanaliro, na luso.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl |title=Objective Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/objectiveknowled0000karl |year=1972}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake, [[instrumentalism]], yikulongora uwemi wa fundo nga ni vipangizgo vyakulongosolera na kuyowoyerathu vyakuchitika. Yikuwona fundo za umanyi nga ni mabokosi ghafifi, apo ivyo vikuŵikikamo (mikhalidwe yakwamba) na ivyo vikufumamo (ivyo vikayowoyerathu) ndivyo ni vyakukhumbikwa. Ivyo vikuchitika, vigaŵa vya fundo, na kapangiro ka maghanoghano vikuyowoyeka kuti ni vinthu ivyo vikwenera kulekeka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Newton-Smith |first=W. H. |url=https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt |title=The Rationality of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7100-0913-5 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt/page/30 30] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Pafupi na instrumentalism pali [[constructive empiricism]], kuyana na iyo chimanyikwiro chikuru cha kupambana kwa fundo ya umanyi ni usange icho yikuyowoya pa vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka ni unenesko.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Votsis |first=I. |year=2004 |title=The Epistemological Status of Scientific Theories: An Investigation of the Structural Realist Account |publisher=University of London, London School of Economics |degree=PhD |page=39}}</ref> [[Thomas Kuhn]] wakayowoya kuti ndondomeko ya kuwonelera na kupima ikuchitika mkati mwa ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya kaghanaliro (paradigm), "chithuzi" cha charu icho chikukolerana na kuwonelera uko kukuchitika. Iye wakati ''umanyi wa bweka'' ni ndondomeko ya kuwonelera na "kumazga fumbo", icho chikuchitika mkati mwa ndondomeko iyo, apo ''umanyi wakusintha vinthu'' ukuchitika apo ndondomeko yimoza yikuwira yinyake mu [[paradigm shift|kusintha kwa kaghanaliro]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Bird |first=Alexander |year=2013 |editor1-last=Zalta |editor1-first=Edward N. |title=Thomas Kuhn |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715191833/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |archive-date=15 July 2020 |access-date=26 October 2015 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> Ndondomeko yiliyose ili na mafumbo ghake, makhumbiro, na malongosolero ghake. Kusankha pakati pa ndondomeko kuli nga nkhuyelezgera "vithuzi" viŵiri panji kujumpha pa charu na kusankha icho chikuwoneka kuti nchakugomezgeka chomene. Kusintha kwa kaghanaliro kukuchitika apo masuzgo ghanandi ghakuwoneka mu ndondomeko yakale ndipo ndondomeko yiphya yikulongosora makora. Ntheura, kusankha ndondomeko yiphya kukuzikira pa kuwonelera, nangauli kuwonelera uko kukuchitika mu chithuzi cha ndondomeko yakale. Kwa Kuhn, kupokelera panji kukana ndondomeko ni kakhaliro ka ŵanthu kukuluka kakhaliro ka maghanoghano. Kweni kaghanaliro ka Kuhn si kaghanaliro ka [[relativism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuhn |first=Thomas S. |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-226-45804-5 |edition=2nd |page=206 |access-date=30 May 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019102817/https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake iyo yikuzunulika chomene mu kudumbiskana kwa [[scientific scepticism|kukayikira umanyi]] kususka magulu nga ni "[[creation science|umanyi wa chilengiwa]]" ni [[methodological naturalism]]. Ŵasanduzi ŵa kaghanaliro aka ŵakusimikizga kuti mphaukaboni uŵepo pakati pa chilengiwa na vyamizimu, ndipo umanyi ukwenera kuŵa pa malongosolero gha chilengiwa pera.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=149-162}} Methodological naturalism yikusambizga kuti umanyi ukukhumbikira kulondezga chomene kafukufuku wa [[empirical|ukaboni wa maso]] na kusimikizga kwambura kuthemba chinthu chinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brugger |first=E. Christian |year=2004 |title=Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition |journal=The Review of Metaphysics |volume=58 |issue=2}}</ref> == Gulu == [[Scientific community|Gulu la umanyi]] ni nthambo ya kukolerana kwa ŵasanduzi awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku wa umanyi. Gulu ili lili na magulu ghachoko awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu vigaŵa vya umanyi. Pakuŵa na [[peer review|kusanda kwa ŵasanduzi ŵanyake]], kwizira mu kudumbiskana mu mabuku na misonkhano, ŵasanduzi ŵakusunga mukhaliro wa nthowa za kafukufuku na kuleka sankho pakulongosora ivyo vyasangika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kornfeld |first1=W. |last2=Hewitt |first2=C. E. |year=1981 |title=The Scientific Community Metaphor |url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=24–33 |doi=10.1109/TSMC.1981.4308575 |bibcode=1981ITSMC..11...24K |hdl-access=free |hdl=1721.1/5693 |s2cid=1322857 |access-date=26 May 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408100757/http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Ŵasanduzi === [[File:Marie Curie c. 1920s.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Marie Curie]] wakaŵa muntu wakwamba kupokera vyawanangwa viŵiri vya Nobel: [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]] mu chaka cha 1903 na [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]] mu chaka cha 1911.<ref name="Estreicher1938" />|alt=Chithuzi cha mwanakazi mulara]] Ŵasanduzi ni ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku wa umanyi kuti ŵasazgireko umanyi mu chigaŵa chakukhumbikwa.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |title=Eusocial climbers |publisher=E. O. Wilson Foundation |access-date=3 September 2018 |quote=But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says. |archive-date=27 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427085753/https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |title=Our definition of a scientist |publisher=Science Council |access-date=7 September 2018 |quote=A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge. |archive-date=23 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823135636/https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasanduzi ŵangaŵa na khumbiro likuru lakumanya unenesko na kakhumbiro ka kugwiliskira ntchito umanyi wa umanyi kuti ŵawovye umoyo wa ŵanthu, vyaru, vyakuzingilizga, panji mafakitale; vifukwa vinyake ni kumanyikwa na ŵasanduzi ŵanyake na uchindami.<ref name=leeEtal2007/> Mu nyengo zino, ŵasanduzi ŵanandi ŵakusambira vigaŵa vinyake mu [[academic institution|malo gha masambiro ghapachanya]], kanandi ŵakupokera [[terminal degree|madigiri ghapachanya]] mu nthowa iyi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cyranoski |first1=David |last2=Gilbert |first2=Natasha |last3=Ledford |first3=Heidi |last4=Nayar |first4=Anjali |author4-link=Anjali Nayar |last5=Yahia |first5=Mohammed |year=2011 |title=Education: The PhD factory |journal=Nature |volume=472 |issue=7343 |pages=276–279 |doi=10.1038/472276a |pmid=21512548 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..276C |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ŵasanduzi ŵanandi ŵakuchita ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambana nga ni mu maunivesite, mafakitale, boma, na magulu ghambura kupanga phindu.<ref name=kwok2017>{{cite journal |last1=Kwok |first1=Roberta |title=Flexible working: Science in the gig economy |url=https://archive.org/details/nature-uk_2017-10-26_550_7677/page/n6 |journal=Nature |volume=550 |pages=419–421 |doi=10.1038/nj7677-549a |year=2017 |issue=7677 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=woolston2024 >{{cite journal |year=2024 |title=How researchers in remote regions handle the isolation |journal=Nature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01523-5 |last1=Woolston |first1=Chris |volume=629 |issue=8014 |pages=1193–1195 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-01523-5 |pmid=38789626 |bibcode=2024Natur.629.1193W }}</ref><ref name=leeEtal2007>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Adrian |last2=Dennis |first2=Carina |last3=Campbell |first3=Phillip |year=2007 |title=Nature's guide for mentors |journal=Nature |volume=447 |issue=7677 |pages=791–797 |doi=10.1038/447791a |doi-access=free |pmid=17568738 |bibcode=2007Natur.447..791L }}</ref> Umanyi mwa mbiri waŵa chigaŵa chakuŵalamulika na ŵanalume, nangauli pakaŵa ŵanakazi ŵanyake ŵakuzirwa. Ŵanakazi ŵakumana na sankho likuru mu umanyi, nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya magulu gha ŵanthu ghakulamulika na ŵanalume. Chiyelezgero, ŵanakazi kanandi ŵakaŵanyimanga mwaŵi wa ntchito na kuleka kupika uchindami pa ntchito yawo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Leigh Ann |title=Women's History as Scientists |url=https://archive.org/details/womenshistoryass0000whal |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003}}</ref> Ivyo [[women in science|ŵanakazi mu umanyi]] ŵafika navyo vyayowoyeka kuti ni chifukwa cha kukana kukhala mu kakhaliro kaŵo ka mbiri nga mbanchito ŵa pa nyumba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spanier |first=Bonnie |title=Im/partial Science: Gender Identity in Molecular Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/impartialscience0000span |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-253-20968-9 |chapter=From Molecules to Brains, Normal Science Supports Sexist Beliefs about Difference}}</ref> === Mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru === [[File:200 y Anniversary of Berlin Academy 1900.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵasayansi pa kukwaniska vilimika 200 vya [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]], 1900|left]] [[Learned societies|Mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru]] ghakukolerana na kutandazga maghanoghano gha vinjeru vya chilengiwa na kuyezga vinthu ghaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya kuwuka kwa vinjeru.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parrott |first=Jim |date=9 August 2007 |url=http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |title=Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599 |publisher=Scholarly Societies Project |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106185404/http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵali mu mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru agho ghakovwira pa nkhani ya luso lwawo, [[profession|mulimo wawo]], panji magulu gha maluso ghakuyana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |title=The Environmental Studies Association of Canada – What is a Learned Society? |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529163615/http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref> Kuŵa chiŵaro kungaŵa kwa waliyose, panji kukukhumbikwa kuŵa na maukaboni gha vinjeru, panji kusankhika na ŵanthu ŵanji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |title=Learned societies & academies |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603140851/http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |archive-date=3 June 2014}}</ref> Mawungano ghanandi gha vinjeru ni mawupu ghamasambiro agho ghakupenja phindu yayi,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2019 |title=Learned Societies, the key to realising an open access future? |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |access-date=22 January 2023 |website=Impact of Social Sciences |publisher=London School of Economics |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205140831/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ndipo ghanandi ni [[professional association|mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa maluso]]. Milimo yawo kanandi yikusazgapo kuchita [[academic conference|maungano]] ghakukhazikika ghakupeleka na kudumbiskana vinthu viphanya ivyo vasangika pakufufuza, na kusindikiza panji kovwira [[academic journal|mabuku gha maluso]] pa luso lwawo. Mawungano ghanji ghakugwira ntchito nga ni [[professional bodies|mawupu gha maluso]], ghakulongozga milimo ya viŵaro vyawo kuti ŵanthu wose panji viŵaro vose visange chandulo. Kuzgora sayansi kuŵa mulimo wa luso kukayamba mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800, ndipo chovwiro chikuru chikafuma mu kulengeka kwa mawupu ghakumanyikwa gha m'charu chose gha [[academy of sciences|nyumba za vinjeru]] nga ni Italian {{lang|it|[[Accademia dei Lincei]]}} mu 1603,<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |url=http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |title=Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei |language=it |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228005402/http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |archive-date=28 February 2010}}</ref> British [[Royal Society]] mu 1660,<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2004 |title=Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building |url=http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |access-date=7 December 2009 |publisher=The Royal Society |archive-date=9 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409010143/https://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[French Academy of Sciences]] mu 1666,<ref>{{cite web |first=G. G. |last=Meynell |url=http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |title=The French Academy of Sciences, 1666–91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666–83) and Louvois (1683–91) |access-date=13 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118174108/http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> American [[National Academy of Sciences]] mu 1863,<ref>{{cite web |title=Founding of the National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |access-date=12 March 2012 |publisher=.nationalacademies.org |archive-date=3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203154802/http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |url-status=live}}</ref> German [[Kaiser Wilhelm Society]] mu 1911,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (1911) |url=https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |access-date=30 May 2022 |publisher=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302052520/https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |url-status=live}}</ref> na [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]] mu 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=Chinese Academy of Sciences |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331215338/https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> Mawupu gha sayansi gha m'charu chose, nga ni [[International Science Council|Wupu wa Vinjeru wa mu Vyaru Vyose]], ghakuyezgayezga pa nkhani ya [[international cooperation|kukolerana kwa vyaru vyose]] kuti vinjeru vilute panthazi.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2018 |title=Two main Science Councils merge to address complex global challenges |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |access-date=21 October 2018 |publisher=UNESCO |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712044005/https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |url-status=live}}</ref> === Vyawanangwa === [[Lists of science and technology awards|Vyawanangwa vya vinjeru]] kanandi vikupelekeka kwa ŵanthu panji mawupu agho ghachita vinthu vikulu mu luso lwawo. Kanandi vikupelekeka na mawupu ghakumanyikwa; ntheura, chikuŵa chinthu cha ulemu ukulu kwa wasayansi uyo wapokera. Kufuma mu nyengo ya kuwuka kwa vinjeru, ŵasayansi kanandi ŵakumanyikwa na vyawanangwa vya mendulo, ndalama, na mazina gha ulemu. Chawanangwa cha Nobel, icho chikumanyikwa chomene m'charu chose, chikupelekeka chaka chilichose kwa awo ŵachita vinjeru viphanya mu vigaŵa vya munkhwala, vya makhaliro gha vinthu, na [[chemistry|luso lwa mankhwala]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=7 October 2014 |title=How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth? |newspaper=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet |url-status=live |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619044702/https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet/ |archive-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> == Banthu na kukhala kwawo == {{Redirect-distinguish|Science and society|Science & Society|Sociology of scientific knowledge}} === Chovwiro na malango === [[File:NASA-Budget-Federal.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Budget of NASA]] nga ni chiŵerengero cha [[United States federal budget]], apo chikafika pa 4.4% mu 1966 ndipo chayamba kukhira kufuma nyengo iyo|alt=see caption]] [[Funding of science|Chovwiro cha ndalama mu vinjeru]] kanandi chikuchitika mu nthowa ya kuphalizgana umo milimo ya kufufuza yikuwunikika ndipo iyo njakovwira chomene ndiyo yikupokera ndalama. Nthowa izi, izo zikulongozgeka na boma, makampani, panji mawupu ghakupeleka chovwiro, zikugaŵa ndalama zichoko izo ziliko. Chovwiro chose cha kufufuza mu vyaru ivyo [[developed countries|vyatukuka kale]] chili pakati pa 1.5% na 3% ya usambazi wose wa charu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |title=Main Science and Technology Indicators – 2008-1 |publisher=[[OECD]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215172528/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010}}</ref> Mu mawupu gha [[OECD]], pafupifupi vigaŵa viŵiri pa vitatu vya [[research and development|kufufuza na kutukuska]] mu vigaŵa vya vinjeru na maluso chikuchitika na makampani, ndipo 20% na 10% chikuchitika na mayunivesite na boma. Chovwiro cha boma mu vigaŵa vinyake ntchikulu chomene, ndipo chikuluska mu kufufuza kwa nkhani za ŵanthu na [[humanities|maluso gha kukhala kwa ŵanthu]]. Mu vyaru ivyo vindatukuke chomene, boma ndilo likupeleka chovwiro chikuru pa nkhani za kufufuza kwa vinjeru vyakwamba.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |title=OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015: Innovation for growth and society |publisher=OECD |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-64-23978-4 |page=156 |doi=10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2015-en |via=oecd-ilibrary.org |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525063455/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |url-status=live}}</ref> Maboma ghanandi ghali na mawupu ghake ghakovwira pakufufuza vinjeru, nga ni [[National Science Foundation]] ku United States,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kevles |first=Daniel |year=1977 |title=The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942–1945 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_1977-03_68_241/page/n5 |journal=Isis |volume=68 |issue=241 |pages=4–26 |doi=10.1086/351711 |pmid=320157 |s2cid=32956693}}</ref> [[National Scientific and Technical Research Council]] ku Argentina,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Argentina, National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) |url=https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=International Science Council |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516220311/https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]] ku Australia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Innis |first=Michelle |date=17 May 2016 |title=Australia to Lay Off Leading Scientist on Sea Levels |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507080237/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |archive-date=7 May 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> [[National Centre for Scientific Research]] ku France,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Le CNRS recherche 10.000 passionnés du blob |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=[[Le Figaro]] |language=fr |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427225305/https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Max Planck Society]] ku Germany,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bredow |first=Rafaela von |date=18 December 2021 |title=How a Prestigious Scientific Organization Came Under Suspicion of Treating Women Unequally |work=Der Spiegel |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |access-date=31 May 2022 |issn=2195-1349 |archive-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529004707/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |url-status=live}}</ref> na [[Spanish National Research Council|National Research Council]] ku Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 May 2022 |title=En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia |url=https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=ELMUNDO |language=es |archive-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513185034/https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu milimo ya bizinesi ya kutukuska na kufufuza, makampani ghanandi ghakufwilirapo chomene pa vinthu ivyo vingaguliskika mwaluŵiro kuluska kufufuza uko kuli na chilato cha kumanya waka vinthu. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Anthony C. |last2=Bourne |first2=Philip E. |date=27 September 2012 |title=Ten Simple Rules To Commercialize Scientific Research |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |volume=8 |issue=9 |article-number=e1002712 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002712 |issn=1553-734X |pmc=3459878 |pmid=23028299 |bibcode=2012PLSCB...8E2712F |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Science policy|Ndondomeko ya vinjeru]] yikukhwaskana na malango agho ghakukhwaska makhaliro gha ntchito ya vinjeru, kusazgapo [[research funding|chovwiro cha kufufuza]], kanandi pakuya pa vilato vinyake vya boma nga ni kulenga vinthu viphanya vya luso kuti vitukuske katundu wa bizinesi, kulenga vilwero, chovwiro cha vya chipatala, na kulaŵilira chilengiwa. Ndondomeko ya vinjeru nyengo zinyake yikung'anamura nchito ya kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru vya chilengiwa na kukolerana kwa maghanoghano pa nkhani ya kulenga malango gha boma. Pakuti malango gha boma ghakulaŵilira makhaliro ghawemi gha ŵanthu, chilato cha ndondomeko ya vinjeru nkhuwona umo vinjeru na luso vingawovwilira ŵanthu m'nthowa yiwemi chomene.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marburger |first=John Harmen III |title=Science policy up close |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencepolicyupc0000marb |date=10 February 2015 |others=Crease, Robert P. |isbn=978-0-674-41709-0 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Malango gha boma ghangaŵa na nkhongono pa chovwiro cha [[capital equipment|vithandizgo vikulu]] na vinthu vya vinjeru pakufufuza kwa makampani mwa kupeleka mwaŵi wa kukhizga msonkho kwa mawupu agho ghakovwira pakufufuza.<ref name="Bush1945" /> === Kusambizga na kumanyiska === {{Main|2 = Public awareness of science|3 = Science journalism}} [[File:Dinosaur exhibit - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01881.JPG|thumb|upright=1.13|Chiwonetsero cha Dinosaulo pa [[Houston Museum of Natural Science]]]] [[Science education|Masambiro gha vinjeru]] kwa ŵanthu wose ghali mu ndondomeko ya masambiro gha pa sukulu, ndipo ghakusazgirika na [[YouTube in education|vinthu vya masambiro pa Intaneti]] (chiyelezgero, YouTube na Khan Academy), nyumba zakusungiramo vinthu vyakale (museums), na mabuku gha vinjeru. Mawupu ghakulu gha [[scientist|ŵasayansi]] nga ni American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) ghakuwona vinjeru vya chilengiwa nga ni chigaŵa cha masambiro gha maluso ghakuyana na mahala (philosophy) na mbiri (history).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauch |first1=Hugh G. |title=Scientific Method in Brief |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-66672-6 |pages=7–10}}</ref> Kumanya vya vinjeru kuli na chilato cha kupulikiska [[scientific method|nthowa zakufufuzira]], vithandizgo na nthowa za [[measurement|kupima]], [[empiricism|kugwiliskira ntchito ukaboni wakuwoneka]], kupulikiska vigaŵa vya manambala ([[correlations|kukolerana kwa vinthu]], [[Qualitative research|kawonekero]] na [[Quantitative research|chiŵerengero]]), na kupulikiska vigaŵa vyakwamba vya vinjeru nga ni makhaliro gha vinthu, [[chemistry|luso lwa mankhwala]], [[biology|vinjeru vya vyamoyo]], makhaliro gha chilengiwa, vya malibwe, na [[computation|kugwiliskira ntchito makompyuta]]. Apo mwana akuluta panthazi mu [[formal education|masambiro gha pa sukulu]], ndondomeko yikufika pakuzikira chomene. Masambiro agho ghakumanyikwa chomene mu sukulu ni vinjeru vya chilengiwa na vinjeru vya manambala, nangauli mazuŵa ghano ghakusazgapo vinjeru vya kukhala kwa ŵanthu na vinjeru vyakugwiliskira ntchito luso. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Benneworth |first1=Paul |last2=Jongbloed |first2=Ben W. |date=31 July 2009 |title=Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation |journal=Higher Education |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 |issn=0018-1560 |doi-access=free |url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024214150/https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Manyuzipepara na mawayilesi ghali na masuzgo agho ghangatondeska kulongora makora unenesko wa vinjeru ivyo vikupambana mwakuyana na umo ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuvipulikira. Kusankha unenesko uwo uli na nkhongono chomene pa [[scientific debate|kudumbiskana kwa vinjeru]] kungakhumbikwa luso lukulu pa nkhani iyo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dickson |first=David |date=11 October 2004 |title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=Science and Development Network}}</ref> Mbachoko chomene ŵatola nkhani awo ŵali na vinjeru vya sayansi veneko, ndipo nanga ŵangeŵa [[beat reporter|ŵatola nkhani]] awo ŵakumanya nkhani zinyake za vinjeru, ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakumanya yayi nkhani zinyake za vinjeru izo ŵapempheka kuti ŵazilembe mwadzidzi.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=Nov–Dec 2004 |title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |url-status=live |magazine=Columbia Journalism Review |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |archive-date=17 January 2010 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIlwaine |first1=S. |last2=Nguyen |first2=D. A. |year=2005 |title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science? |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Studies in Journalism |volume=14 |pages=41–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref> [[Science magazines|Mabuku gha vinjeru]] nga ni ''[[New Scientist]]'', ''[[Science & Vie]]'', na ''[[Scientific American]]'' ghakovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene na kupeleka mwakudumura nkhani za kufufuza m'nthowa yipusu, kusazgapo ivyo vasangika viphanya na kukura kwa vinjeru mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kufufuza.<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Webb |author-first=Sarah |title=Popular science: Get the word out |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2013-12-05_504_7478/page/177 |journal=Nature |volume=504 |issue=7478 |pages=177–179 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24312943 |doi=10.1038/nj7478-177a |doi-access=free}}</ref> Nkhani za m'maghanoghano (science fiction), chomenechomene [[speculative fiction|nkhani za vyam'tsogolo]], zingatandazga maghanoghano na nthowa za vinjeru kwa ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilde |first=Fran |author-link=Fran Wilde (author) |date=21 January 2016 |title=How Do You Like Your Science Fiction? Ten Authors Weigh In On 'Hard' vs. 'Soft' SF |url=https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404025029/https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |archive-date=4 April 2019 |access-date=4 April 2019 |website=Tor.com}}</ref> Kuyezgayezga kwa mazuŵa ghano kwa kukoleraniska vinjeru vya chilengiwa na maluso ghanyake, nga ni mabuku panji ndakatulo, kukusazgapo chinthu cha ''Creative Writing Science'' icho chikapangika kwizira mu [[Royal Literary Fund]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Mario |last=Petrucci |url=http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |title=Creative Writing – Science |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106015539/http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |archive-date=6 January 2009}}</ref> === Maghanoghano ghakususka vinjeru vya chilengiwa === {{Main|Antiscience}} Nangauli nthowa ya vinjeru yakalika mwa ŵasayansi, vigaŵa vinyake vya ŵanthu vikukana maghanoghano gha vinjeru vinyake panji vikuŵa na kukayika pa nkhani ya vinjeru. Viyelezgero ni maghanoghano ghakumanyikwa akuti [[COVID-19]] ni nthenda yakofya yayi ku US (maghanoghano agha ghakaŵa na 39% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku America mu mwezi wa Ogasiti 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tyson |first1=Alec |last2=Funk |first2=Cary |last3=Kennedy |first3=Brian |last4=Johnson |first4=Courtney |date=15 September 2021 |title=Majority in U.S. Says Public Health Benefits of COVID-19 Restrictions Worth the Costs, Even as Large Shares Also See Downsides |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center Science & Society |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809114234/https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |url-status=live}}</ref> panji chipulikano chakuti [[climate change|kusinthika kwa nyengo]] nkhwakofya yayi ku US (maghanoghano agho ghakaŵa na 40% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku America, kuumaliro kwa 2019 na kukwambira kwa 2020).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Brian |title=U.S. concern about climate change is rising, but mainly among Democrats |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803101033/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasayansi ŵa vya maghanoghano (psychologists) ŵalongora vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitiska kukana ivyo vinjeru vasanga:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Philipp-Muller |first1=Aviva |last2=Lee |first2=Spike W. S. |last3=Petty |first3=Richard E. |date=26 July 2022 |title=Why are people antiscience, and what can we do about it? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=119 |issue=30 |article-number=e2120755119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120755119 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9335320 |pmid=35858405 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920755P}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mazaza mu vinjeru nyengo zinyake ŵakuwoneka nga mbambura luso, ŵambura kugomezgeka, panji [[academic bias|ŵali na chitemwano]]. Magulu ghanji gha ŵanthu agho [[marginalised|ghatondeka kuŵa na mazaza]] ghali na maghanoghano ghakususka vinjeru, chifukwa chakuti magulu agha nyengo zinandi ghakanyengetereka mu [[Unethical human experimentation|vilingo vyambura ulemu]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Test of Three Theories of Anti-Science Attitudes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_sociological-focus_2008-11_41_4/page/337 |year=2008 |doi=10.1080/00380237.2008.10571338 |last1=Gauchat |first1=Gordon William |journal=Sociological Focus |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=337–357 |s2cid=144645723}}</ref> Uthenga wakufuma kwa ŵasayansi ungasuska vigomezgo panji makhaliro gha ulemu agho ŵanthu ŵali nawo. Maghanoghano ghakususka vinjeru kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ghakuchitika chifukwa cha kopa kukanika mu magulu gha ŵanthu. Chiyelezgero, kusinthika kwa nyengo kukuwoneka nga nkhwakofya na 22% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵali ku mbali ya malango ghakale (right side), kweni na 85% ya awo ŵali ku mbali ya malango phanya (left).<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Poushter |first1=Jacob |last2=Fagan |first2=Moira |last3=Gubbala |first3=Sneha |date=31 August 2022 |title=Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |access-date=5 September 2022 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831225832/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ndiposo, usange m'modzi wa ku mbali ya malango phanya wakuleka kuwona kusinthika kwa nyengo nga nkhwakofya, munthu uyu wanganyoŵeka na kukanika mu gulu ilo. Unenesko ngwakuti, ŵanthu ŵangazomera kukana unenesko wa vinjeru kuluska kutaya panji kuŵika pa ngozi makhaliro ghawo mu gulu lawo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McRaney |first=David |title=How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion, and Persuasion |url=https://archive.org/details/howmindschangesu0000davi |publisher=Portfolio/Penguin |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-593-19029-6 |location=New York}}</ref> === Vyandyale === {{See also|Politicization of science}} [[File:2021 Survey on existence of global warming and responsibility for climate change - bar chart.svg|alt=Result in bar graph of two questions ("Is global warming occurring?" and "Are oil/gas companies responsible?"), showing large discrepancies between American Democrats and Republicans|thumb|[[Public opinion on global warming#United States|Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa kuthukira kwa charu mu United States]] kuyana na magulu gha vyandyale<ref>{{cite news |last1=McGreal |first1=Chris |date=26 October 2021 |title=Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026122356/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |archive-date=26 October 2021 |quote=Source: Guardian/Vice/CCN/YouGov poll. Note: ±4% margin of error.}}</ref>|upright=1.4]] Maghanoghano pa nkhani ya vinjeru kanandi ghakusankhika na maghanoghano gha vyandyale na vilato. Boma, bizinesi na [[advocacy group|magulu gha vyakukhumba]] ŵakumanyikwa kuti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito malango na ndalama kuti ŵakhwaske ŵafufuzi ŵa vinjeru. Vinthu vinandi vingachitika nga ni vigaŵa vya [[politicisation of science|vinjeru vyakuŵikika mu vyandyale]] nga ni [[anti-intellectualism|kukana ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru]], kuwona nga vigomezgo vya chisopa vili pa ngozi, na kopa kwa bizinesi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeanne |year=2017 |title=The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=34–39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |archive-date=16 August 2018 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> Vinjeru vyakuŵikika mu vyandyale kanandi vikuchitika usange uthenga wa vinjeru ukupelekeka mu nthowa iyo yikulongora kukayika uko kuli pa [[scientific evidence|ukaboni wa vinjeru]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bolsen |first1=Toby |last2=Druckman |first2=James N. |author2-link=James N. Druckman |year=2015 |title=Counteracting the Politicization of Science |journal=Journal of Communication |issue=65 |page=746}}</ref> Nthowa nga ni kusintha nkhani, kutondeka kuzomera unenesko, na kugwiliskira ntchito kukayika pa [[scientific consensus|kukolerana kwa ŵasayansi]] zikugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ŵapokere chitemwa pa maghanoghano agho ghali kukanika kale na ukaboni wa vinjeru.<ref name="Freudenberg2008">{{cite journal |last1=Freudenberg |first1=William F. |last2=Gramling |first2=Robert |last3=Davidson |first3=Debra J. |year=2008 |title=Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt |url=http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=2–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126214329/http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2020 |access-date=12 April 2020 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Viyelezgero vya nkhani izo zikukhwaska vinjeru vyakuŵikika mu vyandyale ni [[global warming controversy|kudumbiskana kwa kuthukira kwa charu]], [[health effects of pesticides|uheni wa mankhwala gha vinkhumbira pa umoyo]], na [[health effects of tobacco|uheni wa hona pa umoyo]].<ref name="Freudenberg2008" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Linden |first1=Sander |last2=Leiserowitz |first2=Anthony |last3=Rosenthal |first3=Seth |last4=Maibach |first4=Edward |year=2017 |title=Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/270860/1/global%20challenges.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Global Challenges |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=1 |doi=10.1002/gch2.201600008 |pmc=6607159 |pmid=31565263 |bibcode=2017GloCh...100008V |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404185312/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/270860/global%20challenges.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=4 April 2020 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> === Masuzgo === {{See also|Criticism of science|Academic bias}} [[replication crisis|Suzgo la kutondeka kuwirizga]] ni suzgo ilo lichilipo mu [[methodological|nthowa zakufufuzira]] ilo likukhwaska vigaŵa vya vinjeru vya [[social science|kukhala kwa ŵanthu]] na [[life science|vinjeru vya vyamoyo]]. Mu kufufuza kwinyake, ivyo vasangika mu masambiro ghanandi gha vinjeru vyalongoreka kuti [[reproducibility|vingawirizgika yayi]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1038/515009a |title=Metascience could rescue the 'replication crisis' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_nature_2014-11-06_515_7525/page/n19 |journal=Nature |volume=515 |issue=7525 |page=9 |year=2014 |last1=Schooler |first1=J. W. |pmid=25373639 |bibcode=2014Natur.515....9S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Suzgo ili lili na misisi yakale; lizina ili likapelekeka kukwambira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 2010<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1177/1745691612465253 |title=Editors' Introduction to the Special Section on Replicability in Psychological Science: A Crisis of Confidence? |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=528–530 |year=2012 |last1=Pashler |first1=Harold |last2=Wagenmakers |first2=Eric Jan |pmid=26168108 |s2cid=26361121 |doi-access=free}}</ref> nga ni chigaŵa cha kumanya kukuru kwa suzgo ili. Suzgo la kutondeka kuwirizga likulongora chigaŵa chakuzirwa cha kufufuza mu [[metascience|vinjeru vya vinjeru]], icho chili na chilato cha kunozga makhaliro gha kufufuza kose kwa vinjeru kwinaku chikukhizga kusakaza. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ioannidis |first1=John P. A. |last2=Fanelli |first2=Daniele |last3=Dunne |first3=Debbie Drake |last4=Goodman |first4=Steven N. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Meta-research: Evaluation and Improvement of Research Methods and Practices |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=–1002264 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002264 |pmid=26431313 |pmc=4592065 |issn=1545-7885 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mazgu ghakuti [[scientific misconduct|makhaliro ghaheni mu vinjeru]] ghakung'anamura nyengo izo ŵafufuzi ŵakugolozga unenesko wa ivyo ŵasangapo mwadala, panji kupeleka ulemu wa chinthu icho chasangika kwa munthu uyo wandachichite mwakukhumba.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Coping with fraud |journal=The COPE Report 1999 |pages=11–18 |url=http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151119/http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |quote=It is 10 years, to the month, since Stephen Lock ... Reproduced with kind permission of the Editor, The Lancet. |archive-date=28 September 2007 |url-status=usurped |access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> Chigaŵa cha masambiro panji maghanoghano agho ghakujizgora kuŵa nga ni vinjeru vya chilengiwa kuti ghawoneke nga ngaunenesko kweni ndimo ghaliri yayi, nyengo zinyake ghakuchemeka kuti [[pseudoscience|vinjeru vyautesi]], [[fringe science|vinjeru vya m'mbali]], panji [[junk science|vinjeru vyambura ntchito]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science |title=Science and Pseudoscience |at=Section 2: The "science" of pseudoscience |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first1=Sven Ove |last1=Hansson |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |date=3 September 2008 |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029205141/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shermer |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Shermer |year=1997 |title=Why people believe weird things: pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965594875 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Co. |isbn=978-0-7167-3090-3 |page=17}}</ref> Wasayansi [[Richard Feynman]] wakapanga chizina chakuti "[[cargo cult science|vinjeru vyakuyezgera waka]]" pa nkhani izo ŵafufuzi ŵakugomezga, ndipo pakuŵala ŵakuwoneka nga ŵakuchita sayansi, kweni ŵalije unenesko wakuti ivyo ŵasangapo viwunnikike makora na ŵanji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |title=Cargo Cult Science |last=Feynman |first=Richard |year=1974 |website=Center for Theoretical Neuroscience |publisher=Columbia University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050304032544/http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |archive-date=4 March 2005 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> Nthowa zakupambanapambana zakusatsira malonda, kufuma pa kukulisha nkhani kufika pa uuryezi, zingaŵa mu vigaŵa ivi. Vinjeru vya chilengiwa vyalongosoreka nga ni "chiŵiya chakuzirwa chomene" pakupatula unenesko ku utesi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novella |first=Steven |title=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake |title-link=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book) |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4736-9641-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/skepticsguidetou0000nove/page/162 162] |author-link=Steven Novella}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake, kufufuza kungaŵa na chilato chiwemi kweni kungaŵa kwakubudika, kwachikale, kwambura kukwana, panji kulongosora vinjeru m'nthowa yipusu chomene yakujumpha muyero. Paliso chigaŵa cha [[political bias|kutemwera vya ndale]] panji maghanoghano ghakuŵa ku mbali yimoza mu vinjeru. Ŵasayansi mu vyaru vinyake ŵasangika kuti ŵali na chitemwano pa nkhani ya [[political party|vipani vya ndale]] pakuyaniska na ŵanthu bweka.<ref name="y499">{{cite journal | last1=Duarte | first1=José L. | last2=Crawford | first2=Jarret T. | last3=Stern | first3=Charlotta | last4=Haidt | first4=Jonathan | last5=Jussim | first5=Lee | last6=Tetlock | first6=Philip E. | title=Political diversity will improve social psychological science | journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume=38 | date=2015 | issn=0140-525X | doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000430 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0140525X14000430/type/journal_article | access-date=2026-02-12 | page=}}</ref> == Wonaniso ivi == [[List of scientific occupations|Mndandanda wa milimo ya sayansi]] [[List of years in science|Mndandanda wa vilimika mu sayansi]] [[v:Science|Vinjeru vya Chilengiwa]] (Wikiversity) [[Scientific integrity|Unenesko mu vinjeru]] == Mazgu ghanyake == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Mahamba ghakuwaro == {{Wiktionary|science}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Science and the public}} {{Glossaries of science and engineering}} {{Science and technology studies}} {{Subject bar|auto=1|portal1=Science}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Vinjeru vya Chilengiwa| ]] [[Category:Kulaŵiska na Kuwona]] [[Category:Nkhani zikulu]] [[Category:Kufumbilira]] [[Category:Milimo ya ŵanthu]] thwcl9w4x7qo5h1vqng5ydwalc8gruj 0 48142 123269 120333 2026-10-13T20:47:21Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123269 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|palije}} <!--Per MOS:BOLDTITLE and WP:SBE, please do not reword this to include the article's title.--> [[File:Malawi-map-blank.png|thumb|right|alt=Map of Malawi.|Mapu ya Malawi.]] [[Malawi|Malawi]] ntchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na chitukuko chakukwana yayi pa charu chose. Mu [[Ndemanga ya chitukuko cha ŵanthu|Human Development Index]] ya chaka cha 2010, Malawi yikaŵa pa malo 170 pa vyaru 187.<ref name="Number52">{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2013 |title=Human Development Report 2013 |author=United Nations |date=2013-01-01 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref> Chalo ichi chili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 16 miliyoni, ndipo 53% ŵawo ŵakukhala pasi pa [[Mphaka wa ukavu|mphaka wa ukavu]] wa charu. Pafupifupi 90% ŵakukhala na ndalama zakujumpha yayi madola gha ku America ghaŵiri pa zuŵa.<ref name="Number53">{{Cite web |title=FINCA Malawi |url=https://finca.org/where-we-work/africa/malawi/?wp-nocache=true |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=FINCA International |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Wupu wa Mitundu Yakwiza wa Kusungilira Ŵana|Wupu wa Ŵana wa United Nations]] (UNICEF) ukayowoya kuti mu Malawi muli ŵana 46,000 awo ŵakusuzgika chomene na [[kusowa chakurya chakukwana|kusowa chakurya]].<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/media/media_28776.html|title=High stakes for Malawi's children as malnutrition rises|publisher=[[UNICEF]]|date=2005-10-14|access-date=2007-12-13|archive-date=2021-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121023749/https://www.unicef.org/media/media_28776.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mu 2023, UNICEF yikachenjezga kuti ŵana ŵakujumpha 500,000 mu Malawi ŵakaŵa pa ngozi ya kusowa chakurya.<ref name=":1" /> Mazuŵa ghano, mapulogiramu ghanandi ghakuŵikika mu Malawi kuti ghakumane na masuzgo gha kusintha kwa nyengo, ukavu, kweniso kusintha kwa vyakuchita vya chuma na ulimi.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last1=Stringer |first1=Lindsay C. |last2=Mkwambisi |first2=David D. |last3=Dougill |first3=Andrew J. |last4=Dyer |first4=Jen C. |date=April 2010 |title=Adaptation to climate change and desertification: Perspectives from national policy and autonomous practice in Malawi |journal=Climate and Development |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=145–160 |doi=10.3763/cdev.2010.0042 |issn=1756-5529 |s2cid=153677852}}</ref> ==Mbiri na ivyo vikachitika pakwamba== Ŵasayansi ŵa mbiri ŵalondezga kwamba kwa suzgo la chakurya mu Malawi kufika mu vyaka vya 1991 na 1992, apo chilangalanga chikuru mu kumwera kwa [[Africa]] chikachepeska chomene vyakurya vya chimanga mu Malawi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Msowoya |first1=Kondwani |last2=Madani |first2=Kaveh |last3=Davtalab |first3=Rahman |last4=Mirchi |first4=Ali |last5=Lund |first5=Jay R. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Climate Change Impacts on Maize Production in the Warm Heart of Africa |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-016-1487-3 |journal=Water Resources Management |language=en |volume=30 |issue=14 |pages=5299–5312 |doi=10.1007/s11269-016-1487-3 |issn=1573-1650|doi-access=free |hdl=10044/1/39909 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Mtengo wa chimanga ukakwera chomene. Chimanga ndicho chikupanga pafupifupi 54% ya chakurya cha ma calories agho Ŵamalawi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito zuŵa lililose.<ref name="Number1">{{Cite journal |last=Minot |first=Nicholas |date=2010-01-10 |title=Staple Food Prices in Malawi |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46470944 |journal=Food Security Collaborative Working Papers, Prepared for Comesa Policy Seminar on "Variation in Staple Food Prices: Causes, Consequence, and Policy Options" Under the African Agricultural Marketing Project (AAMP) |location=Maputo, Mozambique |publisher=Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics}}</ref> Mtengo wa chimanga ukakwera pafupifupi kaŵiri pakati pa 1992 na 1993.<ref name="Number2">{{Cite book |last=Administrative Committee on Coordination |first=Subcommittee on Nutrition |title=Update on the Nutrition Situation |date=November 1994 |publisher=United Nations |language=en-GB |chapter=Recent Nutrition Trends in 14 Countries – Malawi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202025840/http://www.unsystem.org/scn/archives/rwns94update/ch14.htm#Malawi |archive-date=2008-12-02 |chapter-url=http://www.unsystem.org/scn/archives/rwns94update/ch14.htm#Malawi}}</ref> Nangauli mu 1993 mukaŵa chimanga chinandi chifukwa cha vula yiwemi kweniso mbuto ziwemi za chimanga na fetereza uyo boma likapeleka, ŵanthu ŵakakura yayi mu vyakurya chifukwa cha umo ŵakachitira mu nyengo ya njara.<ref name="Number3">Hayes, L.M., Minae, S., Bunderson, W.T., Bodnar, F. & Ngugi, D. "The potential of improved fallows on small holder maize productivity on food security in Malawi." 1997. Paper presented at the International Symposium on The Science and Practice of Short-term Fallows. Lilongwe, Malawi.</ref> [[File:ILRI, Stevie Mann - Household takes refuge from the rain in central Malawi.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Flooding in Malawi.|Chigumula mu Malawi. Ulimi wa Malawi ukusuzgika chifukwa cha masoka gha chilengedwe.]] Bungwe la boma ilo likachemekanga [[Bungwe la Ulimi na Malonda la Malawi|ADMARC]] (Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation) likalamuliranga kugura na kuguliska vyakurya vya ŵalimi ŵachoko kweniso kugawa fetereza pambere chaka cha 1998 chindafike.<ref name="Number12">"Malawi—The Food Crises, the Strategic Grain Reserve, and the IMF." July 2002. International Monetary Fund. Washington, DC: IMF.</ref> Ukaboni wa vimbundi na kusanga phindu mwakwenelera yayi mu ADMARC ukapangiska kuti bungwe ili lisuzge ŵalimi ŵachoko na kusintha mitengo ya vyakurya mwambura kwenelera.<ref name=Number12 /> Peneapo mitengo ya hona yikakhira mu 1985, [[Bungwe la Ulimi na Malonda la Malawi|ADMARC]] likakhala pafupi kubwanganduka.<ref name="Number32">{{Cite journal |last=Lele |first=Uma |date=1990-09-01 |title=Structural adjustment, agricultural development and the poor: Some lessons from the Malawian experience |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750x(90)90026-t |journal=World Development |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=1207–1219 |doi=10.1016/0305-750X(90)90026-t |issn=0305-750X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Pambere apa, nyengo za chilala na chigumula zikalutilira kusuzga Malawi.<ref name="Number5">"Climate change and smallholder farmers in Malawi." ActionAid. October 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20150503035203/https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/doc_lib/malawi_climate_change_report.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503035203/https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/doc_lib/malawi_climate_change_report.pdf |date=2015-05-03 }}</ref> Pakati pa 1990 na 2006, pakaŵa masoka gha nyengo 33, ndipo ichi chikaŵa chikuru chomene pakuyaniska na masoka 7 agho ghakachitika pakati pa 1970 na 1989, kuyana na [[ActionAid]].<ref name=Number5 /> Chuma cha Malawi chikugomezga chomene pa [[Ulimi|ulimi]]. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakulima ndipo ŵakuguliska ivyo vyakhalako kuti ŵasange ndalama.<ref name="Number6">{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/s0022278x04000229 | title=The Malawi 2002 food crisis: The rural development challenge | year=2004 | last1=Dorward | first1=Andrew | last2=Kydd | first2=Jonathan | journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies | volume=42 | issue=3 | pages=343–361 | s2cid=54763363 | url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/5115/1/malawi_food_crisis.pdf }}</ref> Kuchuluka kwa chilala na chigumula kufuma mu 1990 kukakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵa mu Malawi. Ŵalimi ŵakaŵavya nthowa zakukwana zakuzizipizgira masoka agha panji kubwelera mwaluŵiro, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵaŵe pa ngozi ya kusuzgika chomene na masuzgo ghanyake mu nyengo yikwiza. Mzere wa ukavu na njara ukalutilira kukura.<ref name=Number5 /> Kufuma ku vyaka vya m'ma 1970 m'paka mu 1994, boma likapelekanga wovwiri pa ulimi wa chimanga chakusazgika luso. Kweni apo boma likalekezga pulogalamu iyi chifukwa cha mtengo wake ukuru, ulimi wa chimanga ukakhira ndipo mitengo yikakweraso.<ref name=Number5 /> Mu 2002, pakaŵa [[Njara|njara yikuru]] mu Malawi ndipo ŵanthu ŵakufwa ŵakayananga pakati pa 300 na 3,000, kuyana na [[ActionAid]] na [[Lipoti la chitukuko cha ŵanthu|HDR]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/famine-malawi-causes-and-consequences |title=Famine in Malawi: Causes and Consequences |author=United Nations |date=2008-01-01 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Number16">{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Erica |title=Case Studies in Food Policy for Developing Countries |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2019 |isbn=9780801466373 |editor1=Pinstrup-Andersen, Per |location=Ithaca, NY |pages=135–148 |chapter=Chapter Eleven. The 2002 Malawi Famine (7-1) |doi=10.7591/9780801466373-014 |editor2=Cheng, Fuzhi |s2cid=198660921}}</ref> Pafupifupi 85% ya ndalama zakwizira mu mbumba za Ŵamalawi zikaŵanga kufuma ku ulimi. Chimanga, tirigu na mbatata vikaŵa vyakurya vikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalimanga na kurya.<ref name="Number15">{{Cite book |last=Lilliston, B. & Ranallo, A. |title=Grain reserves and the food price crisis: Selected writings from 2008–2012 |date=2012-07-13 |publisher=Institution for Agriculture and Trade Policy |location=Minneapolis}}</ref> Ntheura, apo [[Wupu wa Ndalama wa Charu Chose|IMF]] ukayowoya kuti zokolola za chimanga mu nyengo ya 2000/2001 zikakhira kufuma pa matani 2.5 miliyoni kufika pa matani 1.7 miliyoni, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti mu charu muŵe kusoŵa kwa matani 273,000 gha chimanga, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika.<ref name="Number12" /> Mu February 2002, boma la Malawi likapharazga kuti mu charu mukaŵa suzgo la chakurya ndipo likapharazga kuti chikaŵa nyengo ya soka la chalo.<ref name="Number12" /> Zakurya ivyo vikavunwa mu hafu yakwamba ya 2002 vikawovwira kuchepeska njara yikuru, kweni mu 2005, chilala chinyake chikapangiska suzgo linyake la chakurya.<ref name="Number54">{{Citation |chapter=Food, human rights, democracy and beyond |date=2016-11-10 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.9774/gleaf.9781315529899_3 |title=The Right to Food Guidelines, Democracy and Citizen Participation |pages=9–27 |access-date=2022-05-14 |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.9774/gleaf.9781315529899_3 |isbn=9781315529899|chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref> Pa Okutobala 15, 2005, boma ilo likalongozgekanga na [[Mulongozgi wa Malawi|Mulongozgi]] [[Bingu wa Mutharika]] likapharazga [[nyengo ya soka|soka la chalo]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2005-10-15 |title=Malawi issues food crisis appeal |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4345246.stm |access-date=2007-12-13 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Kufuma apo Malawi yikamba kubwelera kufuma ku suzgo la 2005, kweni sono yikusangana na suzgo linyake la kusoŵa chakurya.<ref name="Number20">{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/9780801466380 |title=Case Studies in Food Policy for Developing Countries |date=2009-01-01 |isbn=9780801466380 |editor-last=Pinstrup-Andersen |editor-first=Per |doi=10.7591/9780801466380 |editor2-last=Cheng |editor2-first=Fuzhi}}</ref> Pakaŵaso masuzgo gha chakurya mu 2012 na 2015. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikapangiska suzgo la 2002 vikapambananga yayi, kweni pa nyengo iyi vikakhwaskika chomene na chilala chikuru na vyigumula. Mu 2012, suzgo la chakurya likachitika chifukwa cha vula yichoko iyo yikakhwaska zokolola za chimanga, kweniso kukwera kwa mitengo chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa mtengo wa [[Kwacha ya Malawi|kwacha]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Malawi {{!}} WFP {{!}} United Nations World Food Programme – Fighting Hunger Worldwide |url=https://www.wfp.org/node/3513/3879/642177 |access-date=2019-04-25 |website=www.wfp.org |archive-date=2023-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210030856/https://www.wfp.org/node/3513/3879/642177 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mu 2015, chilara chikuru chikapangiska suzgo linyake la chakurya, ndipo mulongozgi wa Malawi wakapharazga kuti mu charu mukaŵa nyengo ya soka.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last1=Oneko |first1=Sella |date=2016-04-13 |title=Malawi declares national disaster over food crisis |url=https://www.dw.com/en/malawi-declares-national-disaster-over-food-crisis/a-19183292 |access-date=2019-04-01 |website=Deutsche Welle (DW)}}</ref> [[File:ILRI, Stevie Mann - Household takes refuge from the rain in central Malawi.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Flooding in Malawi.|Ulimi wa ku Malawi ukukhwaskika na masoka gha chilengedwe nga ni vigumula.]] Bungwe la boma ilo likachemekanga [[Bungwe la chitukuko cha ulimi na malonda|ADMARC]] (Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation) ndilo likalamuliranga kugura na kuguliska vyakurya vya ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko kweniso manyowa pambere chaka cha 1998 chindafike.<ref name="Number12">"Malawi—The Food Crises, the Strategic Grain Reserve, and the IMF." July 2002. International Monetary Fund. Washington, DC: IMF.</ref> Vimbundi na vyakuchita vya kujipenja phindu mu ADMARC vikapangiska kuti bungwe ili lisangwe likupoka ndalama za ŵalimi ŵachoko na kusintha mitengo ya vyakurya mwakubendera.<ref name=Number12 /> Apo mitengo ya hona yikakhira mu 1985, ADMARC yikakhala pafupi kubwanganduka.<ref name="Number32">{{Cite journal |last=Lele |first=Uma |date=1990-09-01 |title=Structural adjustment, agricultural development and the poor: Some lessons from the Malawian experience |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750x(90)90026-t |journal=World Development |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=1207–1219 |doi=10.1016/0305-750X(90)90026-t |issn=0305-750X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kuti lisange ngongoli kufuma ku [[Bungwe la ndalama la charu chose|World Bank]], ADMARC likazgoka kampani iyo yikaŵa na chigaŵa cha ŵanthu wamba ndipo likamazga chithandizo cha manyowa mu 1988/1989.<ref name=Number32 /> Kusowa kwa ADMARC kupereka manyowa na mbuto kwa ŵalimi ŵachoko nako kukawovwira kuti suzgo la chakurya la 1992 liŵe likuru.<ref name="Number33">{{Cite book |last=Mkandawire |first=Thandika |url=http://www.oit.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---africa/---ro-abidjan/---sro-harare/documents/publication/wcms_228921.pdf |title=Agriculture, Employment, and Poverty in Malawi. ILO/SAMAT Policy Paper NO. 9 |publisher=International Labour Organization |year=1999 |location=Harare}}</ref> Kwambira nyengo iyi, chilangalanga na vigumula vikulutilira kukhuŵazga Malawi.<ref name="Number5">"Climate change and smallholder farmers in Malawi." ActionAid. October 2006.</ref> Pakati pa 1990 na 2006, pakaŵa masoka gha nyengo 33, ndipo ichi chikaŵa chakwera chomene kuluska masoka 7 agho ghakachitika pakati pa 1970 na 1989, kuyana na [[ActionAid]].<ref name=Number5 /> Chuma cha Malawi chikukhazikika chomene pa ulimi; ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakuvuna ndipo ŵakuguliska ivyo vyajumphapo kuti ŵasange ndalama.<ref name="Number6">{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/s0022278x04000229 | title=The Malawi 2002 food crisis: The rural development challenge | year=2004 | last1=Dorward | first1=Andrew | last2=Kydd | first2=Jonathan | journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies | volume=42 | issue=3 | pages=343–361 | s2cid=54763363 | url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/5115/1/malawi_food_crisis.pdf }}</ref> Chiŵelengero chikuru cha chilangalanga na vigumula kufuma mu 1990 chakhwaska ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi. Ŵalimi ŵakaŵa ŵambura nkhongono zakusintha panji kuwezgerapo ivyo ŵakataya chifukwa cha masoka, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵaŵe pa ngozi yakukumana na masuzgo ghanyake mu nyengo yikwiza.<ref name=Number5 /> Kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 m'paka mu 1994, boma likapelekanga chithandizo cha manyowa na mbuto za chimanga cha mtundu uphya. Kweni apo pulogiramu iyi yikamara chifukwa cha kukwera kwa mtengo wake, kupanga chimanga kukakhira ndipo mitengo yikakwera so.<ref name=Number5 /> ==Njara ya mu 2002 ku Malawi== Mu 2002, ku Malawi kukaŵa [[Njara|njara yikuru]]. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa chikupambanapambana, kufuma pa 300 m'paka 3,000, kuyana na [[ActionAid]] na [[Lipoti la chitukuko cha ŵanthu|HDR]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/famine-malawi-causes-and-consequences |title=Famine in Malawi: Causes and Consequences |author=United Nations |date=2008-01-01 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Number16"/> ==Vyakuchitiska suzgo la chakurya== ===Vyandulo vya ndyali=== Pamanyuma pakuti Malawi yapeleka wanangwa mu 1964, charu ichi chikalongozgekanga na pulezidenti [[Hastings Banda]].<ref name="Number35">{{Cite web |title=Malawi: History |url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/malawi/history |access-date=2014-03-30 |website=Global Edge |language=en-us}}</ref> Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kuvota, Malawi yikaŵa na ndyali ya chipani chimoza, ndipo Banda ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa [[Malawi Congress Party|Chipani cha Malawi Congress]], chipani chimoza pera icho chikaŵapo pa nyengo iyo.<ref name=Number35 /> Ntheura Banda wakaŵa na mazaza nga ni muwusi wankhongono chomene, ndipo pa nyengo ya muwuso wake pakaŵa kuphwanya wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kukoma ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma.<ref name=Number35 /> Mu 1993 pera, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakavota kuti Malawi yiŵe na ndyali ya vyipani vinandi. Pa nyengo iyi Banda na [[Malawi Congress Party|Chipani cha Malawi Congress]] ŵakathereskeka pa mavoti.<ref name=Number35 /> Mu 1995, pakaŵa [[dango]] liphya la charu ilo likakhazikiska boma ilo likaŵa na nthambi yakulongozga, nyumba ya malango ya chipani chimoza, kweniso makhoti.<ref name="Number34">{{Citation |title=Malawi |date=2022-05-11 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malawi/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513105646/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malawi/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 13, 2022 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2022-05-15}}</ref> Mu 1998, pasi pa muwuso wa demokilasi wa [[Bakili Muluzi]], boma likakhazikiska [[Bungwe la National Food Reserve Agency|Bungwe la chakurya chakusungika cha charu]] (NFRA) kuti lilongozge malo ghakusungirako chimanga kuti ghawovwire pa nyengo ya masoka. NFRA, ilo likaŵa bungwe la boma ilo likaŵa na komiti ya ŵalongozgi ŵakusankhika na boma la Malawi, likalamuliranga vyakusungika vya chimanga kweniso ndalama na malonda ghakunjira na kufuma mu charu.<ref name="Number36">{{Cite web |date=2014-03-03 |title=Adequate Reserves for Malawi |url=http://www.nframw.com/ |website=National Food Reserve Agency}}</ref> Kweni mwaluŵiro NFRA likamba kuŵa na ngongoli yakukwana 1 biliyoni ya [[Malawi kwacha|kwacha ya Malawi]] chifukwa cha chiwongolero chikuru cha ngongoli cha 56%. Bungwe ili likagura matani 165,000 gha chimanga.<ref name=Number12 /> Mu 2001, [[Bungwe la ndalama la charu chose|IMF]] likalangura boma kuti liguliske chimanga chakusungika chifukwa mu 2000 pakaŵa chimanga chinandi. Pakawonekanga kuti pakukhumbikwanga yayi kusunga chimanga chinandi nthena ndipo chimanga chinyake chikaŵa kwamba kunangika.<ref name=Number12 /> Kulongozga uku kukaliso chifukwa cha kafukufuku wa 2000 uyo wakapemphika na [[European Commission|Bungwe la European Commission]]. Kafukufuku uyu wakayowoya kuti matani 30,000 m'paka 60,000 gha chimanga ghakaŵa ghakukwana pa nyengo ya soka lakukhuŵazga chigaŵa chimoza pera.<ref name=Number12 /> NFRA likalondezga languro la IMF ndipo likaguliska chigaŵa chikuru cha chimanga chakusungika ku [[Kenya]] na [[Mozambique]], ndipo malo ghakusungirako chimanga ghakakhira kufuma pa matani 165,000 kufika pa matani 60,000.<ref name=Number16 /><ref name=Number15 /><ref name=Number12 /> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakayowoyanga kuti languro la IMF lakuti chimanga chiguliskike ndilo likaŵa chimoza mwa ivyo vikapangiska njara ya 2002.<ref name=Number16 /> Kweni IMF na [[ActionAid]] ŵakazomera kuti chimanga icho chikaŵa chakale ndipo chikaŵa chakudura kuchisunga, ntheura pa nyengo iyo languro ili likawonekanga lakwenelera.<ref name=Number16 /> Apo njara yikakura chomene mu 2002, malo ghakusungirako chimanga ghakaŵa kuti ghamara ndipo boma likaŵavya vinthu vyakukwana vyakuti lingagwiliskira ntchito.<ref name=Number12 /> Suzgo likakulirakulira chifukwa boma likanozga yayi kuwezgerapo chimanga chakusungika apo chikagwiliskikanga ntchito.<ref name=Number12 /> Kweniso ŵamalonda ŵachisisi ŵakanjilirapo ndipo ŵakagura chimanga chinandi kufuma mu malo ghakusungirako, pamanyuma ŵakachiguliska pa mitengo yapachanya chomene apo chakurya chikaŵa chakusowa.<ref name=Number15 /> == Mbiri na vyakuyambirira == Ŵasayansi ŵa mbiri ŵakulongora kuti suzgo la vyakurya ku Malawi likamba mu 1991 na 1992, apo chilangalanga chikuru ku kumwera kwa Africa chikapangiska kuti vyakurya vya [[chimanga]] viŵe vichoko chomene ku Malawi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Msowoya |first1=Kondwani |last2=Madani |first2=Kaveh |last3=Davtalab |first3=Rahman |last4=Mirchi |first4=Ali |last5=Lund |first5=Jay R. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Climate Change Impacts on Maize Production in the Warm Heart of Africa |journal=Water Resources Management |volume=30 |issue=14 |pages=5299–5312 |doi=10.1007/s11269-016-1487-3 |issn=1573-1650|doi-access=free |hdl=10044/1/39909 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Mtengo wa chimanga, icho chikaŵa chakurya chakuzirwa chomene ndipo chikaŵa pafupifupi 54% ya mphamvu ya vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakalyanga,<ref name="Number1">{{Cite journal |last=Minot |first=Nicholas |date=2010-01-10 |title=Staple Food Prices in Malawi |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46470944 |journal=Food Security Collaborative Working Papers, Prepared for Comesa Policy Seminar on "Variation in Staple Food Prices: Causes, Consequence, and Policy Options" Under the African Agricultural Marketing Project (AAMP) |location=Maputo, Mozambique |publisher=Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics}}</ref> ukakwera chomene; mtengo wa chimanga ukakhala pafupifupi wakukwana kaŵiri pakati pa 1992 na 1993.<ref name="Number2"/> Nangauli mu 1993 mukaŵa chimanga chinandi chifukwa cha vula yiwemi kweniso ndondomeko ya boma ya kovwira ŵalimi na mbuto za chimanga za mtundu uphya na manyowa, ŵanthu ŵakalyanga vyakurya vinandi yayi chifukwa cha umo ŵakajizolerezgera mu nyengo ya njara.<ref name="Number3">Hayes, L.M., Minae, S., Bunderson, W.T., Bodnar, F. & Ngugi, D. "The potential of improved fallows on small holder maize productivity on food security in Malawi." 1997. Paper presented at the International Symposium on The Science and Practice of Short-term Fallows. Lilongwe, Malawi.</ref> [[File:ILRI, Stevie Mann - Household takes refuge from the rain in central Malawi.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Madambo ku Malawi.|Ulimi wa Malawi ukusuzgika chifukwa cha masoka gha chilengiwa nga ni kusefukira kwa maji.]] Bungwe la boma ilo likachemekanga [[Bungwe la vya ulimi na malonda|Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation]] (ADMARC) ndilo likalamuliranga kugura na kuguliska vyakurya vya ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko kweniso kugawira manyowa pambere chaka cha 1998 chindafike.<ref name="Number12">"Malawi—The Food Crises, the Strategic Grain Reserve, and the IMF." July 2002. International Monetary Fund. Washington, DC: IMF.</ref> Kupuluska ndarama na vinthu vya boma mukati mwa bungwe ili kukapangiska kuti ADMARC yileme kuŵa yakovwira ŵalimi ndipo yikapangiska mitengo ya vyakurya kuŵa yambura kulongosoka.<ref name=Number12 /> Apo mitengo ya fodya yikakhira mu 1985, ADMARC yikamba kusuzgika chomene ndipo yikaŵa pafupi kumara.<ref name="Number32">{{Cite journal |last=Lele |first=Uma |date=1990-09-01 |title=Structural adjustment, agricultural development and the poor: Some lessons from the Malawian experience |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-development_1990-09_18_9/page/1207 |journal=World Development |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=1207–1219 |doi=10.1016/0305-750x(90)90026-t}}</ref> Kuti liŵeze ngongoli kufuma ku [[Bungwe la ndalama la pa charu chose|International Monetary Fund]] na mabungwe gha charu chose, ADMARC likazgoka kampani ya payekha mwa chigaŵa ndipo likaleka kovwira na manyowa mu vyaka vya 1988/1989.<ref name=Number32 /> Kuleka kwa ADMARC kupereka manyowa na mbuto ku ŵalimi ŵachoko kukapangiska kuti suzgo la vyakurya mu 1992 liŵe likuru chomene.<ref name="Number33"/> Kwambira nyengo iyo, Malawi wakumana nyengo na nyengo na chilangalanga kweniso kusefukira kwa maji.<ref name="Number5">"Climate change and smallholder farmers in Malawi." ActionAid. October 2006.</ref> Pakati pa 1990 na 2006, kukaŵa masoka gha nyengo ghakukwana 33, apo pakati pa 1970 na 1989 kukaŵa masoka 7 pera.<ref name=Number5 /> Chuma cha Malawi chikudalira chomene ulimi; ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuphalira pa ivyo ŵalima kuti ŵarye kweniso kuguliska ivyo vyakhalako kuti ŵasange ndalama.<ref name="Number6">{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/s0022278x04000229 | title=The Malawi 2002 food crisis: The rural development challenge | year=2004 | journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies}}</ref> Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa chilangalanga na kusefukira kwa maji, ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakatondeka kusintha nthowa zawo za ulimi ndipo ŵakaŵa pangozi ya njara. Mu 2002, kukaŵa [[njara]] yikuru ku Malawi iyo yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵasuzgike chomene. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa chikupambana, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵakaŵa pakati pa 300 na 3,000, kuyana na malipoti gha [[ActionAid]] na [[Lipoti la vya chitukuko cha ŵanthu|Human Development Report]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/famine-malawi-causes-and-consequences |title=Famine in Malawi: Causes and Consequences |author=United Nations |date=2008-01-01 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Number16"/> Pa nyengo iyi, pafupifupi 85% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakasanganga ndalama zawo chomene kufuma ku ulimi.<ref name="Number15"/> [[Chimanga]] chikaŵa chakurya chakuzirwa chomene mu charu ichi. Ntheura apo zokolola za chimanga zikakhira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakatondeka kusanga chakurya chakukwana. Mu nyengo ya 2000/2001, [[Bungwe la ndalama la pa charu chose|IMF]] likati zokolola za chimanga zikakhira kufuma pa matani 2.5 miliyoni kufika pa matani 1.7 miliyoni, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti pa charu chose paŵe mphaka ya matani 273,000 gha chimanga.<ref name="Number12" /> Mu Febuluwale 2002, boma la Malawi likapharazga kuti charu ichi chikaŵa mu suzgo la vyakurya ndipo likati pali [[suzgo la chivikiliro cha charu|soka la chigaŵa cha charu]].<ref name="Number12" /> Mu chigaŵa chaumaliro cha 2002, mvula yikawovwira ndipo vyakurya vikamba kuŵako, kuchepeska njara yikuru. Kweni mu 2005, chilangalanga chinyake chikapangiska kuti Malawi wakumaneso na suzgo la vyakurya.<ref name="Number54"/> Pa 15 Okutobala 2005, boma ilo likalongozgekanga na [[Bingu wa Mutharika]] likapharazga kuti mu Malawi mukaŵa [[suzgo la vyakurya|soka la pa charu chose]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2005-10-15 |title=Malawi issues food crisis appeal |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Nangauli Malawi wakachira kufuma ku suzgo la 2005, charu ichi chikalutilira kukumana na masuzgo gha vyakurya chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo, ukavu, kweniso kuthemba chomene ulimi wa chimanga.<ref name="Number20"/> Mu vyaka vya 2012 na 2015, kukaŵaso masuzgo ghanyake gha vyakurya. Masuzgo agha ghakafuma ku vinthu vyakuyana na vya 2002, kweni ghakasazgikako chifukwa cha chilangalanga chikuru na kusefukira kwa maji. Mu 2012, kusowa kwa vula kukapangiska kuti zokolola za chimanga zichepe, apo kutsika kwa mtengo wa ndalama ya Malawi ([[kwacha]]) kukapangiska kuti mitengo ya vyakurya yikwere.<ref name=":12"/> Mu 2015, chilangalanga chikuru chikati chachitika, chikazakasazgika na kusefukira kwa maji. Ivi vikapangiska kuti pulezidenti wa Malawi walengezge kuti charu chili mu suzgo la vyachilengiwa.<ref name=":7"/> == Vyakupangiska suzgo la vyakurya == === Ndale === Pamanyuma pakuti Malawi wapokera wanangwa mu 1964, charu ichi chikalamulirika na pulezidenti [[Hastings Banda]].<ref name="Number35"/> Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kuvota, Malawi wakaŵa na ndondomeko ya chipani chimoza pera, ndipo Banda wakaŵa mulongozgi wa chipani cha [[Malawi Congress Party]], icho chikaŵa chipani chekha pa nyengo iyo.<ref name=Number35 /> Chifukwa cha nkhongono zake, Banda wakalamuliranga nga ni mulongozgi wankhongono chomene, ndipo mu nyengo ya muwuso wake mukaŵa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kukoma ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma.<ref name=Number35 /> Mu 1993, ŵanthu ŵakavota kuti Malawi usinthe kuŵa charu cha vyipani vinandi, ndipo Banda na [[Malawi Congress Party]] ŵakafumiskika mu mazaza.<ref name=Number35 /> Mu 1995, pakaŵa dango liphya la charu ilo likakhazikiska boma ilo likaŵa na nthambi yakulongozga, nyumba ya malango yimoza, na makhoti.<ref name="Number34"/> Mu 1998, mu nyengo ya pulezidenti [[Bakili Muluzi]], boma likakhazikiska [[National Food Reserve Agency]] (NFRA) kuti lilongozge malo ghakusungirako chimanga cha chivikiliro mu nyengo ya masoka.<ref name="Number36"/> NFRA likaŵa bungwe la boma ilo likaŵa na wupu wa ŵanthu ŵakimikika na boma la Malawi. Bungwe ili likalamuliranga chomene malo ghakusungirako chimanga kweniso ndarama, kugula na kuguliska vyakurya.<ref name="Number36" /> Kweni NFRA likamba kuŵa na ngongoli ya pafupifupi 1 biliyoni ya [[kwacha ya Malawi]] chifukwa cha chiŵelengero chikuru cha chiwongolero cha ngongoli (56%).<ref name=Number12 /> Bungwe ili likagura matani 165,000 gha chimanga kuti lisunge nga ni chakurya cha nyengo ya soka.<ref name=Number12 /> Mu 2001, [[Bungwe la ndalama la pa charu chose|IMF]] likalangura boma kuti liguliske malo ghakusungirako chimanga chifukwa zokolola za 2000 zikaŵa zinandi ndipo pakaŵavya chifukwa cha kusunga chimanga chinandi nthena.<ref name=Number12 /> Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2000 na kulamulika na [[European Commission]] wakalongora kuti chimanga chakukwana matani 30,000 mpaka 60,000 ndicho chikakhumbikwanga kuti chivikilire charu pa nyengo ya soka.<ref name=Number12 /> Chifukwa cha ulongozgi wa IMF, NFRA likaguliska chigaŵa chikuru cha chimanga chake ku [[Kenya]] na [[Mozambique]], kuchepeska malo ghakusungirako kufuma pa matani 165,000 kufika pa matani 60,000.<ref name=Number16 /><ref name=Number15 /><ref name=Number12 /> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakatenge suzgo la vyakurya la 2002 likasazgikapo chifukwa cha ulongozgi wa IMF wakuti chimanga ichi chigulisike.<ref name=Number16 /> Kweni IMF na mabungwe ghanyake ghakazomerezga kuti kusunga chimanga chinandi kukawonanga ndalama zinandi ndipo chimanga chikaŵa chakale, ntheura ulongozgi uwu ukaŵa wakupulikikwa pa nyengo iyo.<ref name=Number16 /> Apo njara yikafika pachanya mu 2002, malo ghakusungirako chimanga ghakaŵa ghawaka ndipo boma likaŵavya vyakusungira vyakukwana. Suzgo ili likakura chifukwa boma likaleka kunozgekera mwakukwana kuti lizuzgenso malo ghakusungirako chimanga.<ref name=Number12 /> Kweniso, ŵamalonda ŵachisisi ŵakagura chimanga chinandi kufuma ku malo ghakusungirako boma ndipo pamanyuma ŵakachiguliska pa mitengo yapachanya chomene apo vyakurya vikamba kusowa.<ref name=Number15 /> Boma likamba kupenja chimanga kufuma ku vyaru vyapafupi kweniso vyakutali, kweni chikatora nyengo kuti chifike ku Malawi chifukwa cha masuzgo gha mayendedwe, misewu yambura kwenelera, madoko ghakuzura, na magalimoto agho ghakatondekanga kufika luŵiro.<ref name=Number12 /><ref name=Number16 /> Vyaru vinyake vyakupereka wovwiri navyo vikachedwa kovwira chifukwa vikasuzgika na nkhani za katangale mu boma la Malawi kweniso chifukwa cha mphindano zakukhwaskana na ulongozgi wa IMF.<ref name=Number16 /> === Vyakupangiska vya chuma === Mu 2009, [[United Nations|Bungwe la vyaru vyose]] likati pafupifupi 80% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakakhalanga mu mizi.<ref name="Number30">{{Cite web |last=United Nations |date=2011-02-22 |title=Urban/rural division of countries for the year 2010, World Urbanization Prospects |website=GeoHive}}</ref> Mu charu ichi mukaŵavya nchito zinandi zakukhwaskana na mafakitale panji mauteŵeti.<ref name=Number15 /> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakasanganga nchito mu minda yikuru ya [[fodya]], mu matawuni, panji kusamira ku vyaru vyapafupi kuti ŵakagwire nchito za malipiro ghachoko.<ref name=Number15 /> Kweni mipata ya nchito yikaŵa yichoko. Chuma cha Malawi chikudalira chomene ulimi. Mu vyaka vya 2000, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu ulimi, ndipo ulimi ukapanganga chigaŵa chikuru cha ndalama izo charu chikapezanga.<ref name="Number37">{{Cite web |last=Kadzamira, Z.D., Kalinga, O.J., Mitchell, J.C., Ingham, K., Phiri, K.M. |date=2021-10-29 |title=Malawi |website=Britannica Online}}</ref> Pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ndalama zose za charu (GDP) chikaŵanga kufuma ku ulimi, ndipo ulimi ukapanganga ndalama zinandi zakufuma ku malonda gha ku vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene kufuma ku [[fodya]], shuga, tiyi, na kotoni.<ref name=Number37 /> Bungwe la [[Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation|ADMARC]] likaŵa bungwe la boma ilo likalamuliranga chigaŵa chinyake cha msika wa chimanga ndipo likawovwiranga pa mitengo ya vyakurya.<ref name=Number15 /> Kafukufuku wa [[Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy]] wakalongora kuti mtengo wa chimanga ukakwera chomene kufuma pa 4 MK pa kilogalamu yimoza mu Juni 2001 kufika pa ma MK 40 panji kujumpha mu Janyuwale 2002.<ref name=Number15 /> Nangauli mtengo wa vyakurya ukakwera, malipiro gha ŵantchito ghakhalilira waka pa 20 MK pa zuŵa.<ref name=Number15 /> Ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵatondeke kugura chakurya. Kufwatuka kwa msika, chomenechomene kuchepa kwa mazaza gha ADMARC, kukapangiska kuti kuŵe kusuzga kulondezga na kulamulira msika wa chimanga.<ref name=Number16 /> Mtengo wa chimanga ukamba kutoleka na msika pera, ndipo NFRA likaŵavya nkhongono zinandi zakusinthira vinthu mu msika.<ref name=Number16 /> Ndondomeko za ulimi za Malawi zikaŵaso na masuzgo chifukwa charu ichi chikagomezganga chomene pa chimanga pera. Maukaboni ghakupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵalime vyakurya vyakupambana ghakatondeka chomene.<ref name=Number12 /> Ntheura, apo zokolola za chimanga zikakhira mu 2001, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika chifukwa ŵakatondeka kulima chakurya chawo panji kusanga ndalama zakugulira chakurya. [[Fodya]] ukaŵa chinthu chikuru icho Malawi wakaguliskanga ku vyaru vinyake, kweni malonda gha fodya ghakamba kuchepa kufuma mu ma 1980. Ndalama izo zikafumanga mu fodya zikakhira na pafupifupi hafu, ndipo ivi vikachepeska nkhongono zakugulira vinthu za ŵalimi ŵachoko.<ref name=Number15 /> Mu nyengo ya 2000/2001, ŵalimi ŵachoko ŵanandi ŵakatondeka kuwezga ngongoli izo ŵakaŵa nazo ku mabungwe gha ndalama na ku boma.<ref name=Number15 /> Chifukwa cha ichi, mu 2001/2002 ŵakatondeka kusanga ngongoli zakugulira mbuto na manyowa.<ref name="Number22">{{Cite book |title=FAO/WFP Crop and food supply assessment mission |publisher=University of Arizona Libraries |year=2000}}</ref> Nthowa zinyake zakukhozgera ulimi, nga ni kusazgirako vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, kunozga vyakuthilira maji, kusunga vyakurya, kuzenga misewu, na kupereka ngongoli ku ŵalimi, zikaŵa zakovwira chomene ŵalimi ŵakurya mu minda yikuru kuluska ŵalimi ŵachoko.<ref name=Number37 /> === Vyakukhwaskana na ŵanthu na umoyo === [[File:Malawi AIDS Orphans.jpeg|thumb|left|alt=Ŵana ŵakusuzgika chifukwa cha HIV/AIDS ku Malawi.|Suzgo la vyakurya likapangiska kuti ŵana awo ŵakataya ŵapapi chifukwa cha HIV/AIDS ŵaŵe pangozi chomene ya ukavu na njara.]] Ukavu uli palipose mu Malawi. Mwakuyana na [[Bungwe la Banki ya Charu|World Bank]], pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakukhala pasi pa mphaka ya ukavu ya madola gha US$2 pa zuŵa.<ref name="Number17">{{Cite web |title=Malawi Overview |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/malawi/overview |website=World Bank}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakavu awo ŵakukhala mu mizi ndiwo ŵakasuzgika chomene mu nyengo ya suzgo la vyakurya chifukwa ŵakaŵavya ndalama zakugulira chakurya para vyakurya ivyo ŵakalima vyatondeka.<ref name=Number16 /> Lipoti la [[ActionAid]] la mu 2002 likayowoya kuti kufuma apo demokilase yikakhazikikira mu Malawi mu 1994, chigomezgo cha kovwirana pakati pa ŵanthu chikamba kuchepa.<ref name=Number1 /> Mu nyengo ya chilangalanga cha 1991/1992, mbumba zikovwirana na kupereka chakurya panji nchito ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasuzgikanga. Kweni mu suzgo la vyakurya la 2001/2002, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakamba kuŵa na mtima wa "munthu waliyose wajipulumuske yekha", kuyana na lipoti la ActionAid.<ref name=Number1 /> [[HIV/AIDS ku Malawi|HIV/AIDS]] nayo yikaŵa suzgo likuru ilo likapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe pangozi mu nyengo ya njara. Mu 2012, boma la Malawi likati nthenda iyi yikakhwaskanga pafupifupi 17% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu matawuni na 9% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi.<ref name="Number55">{{Cite journal |last=Government of Malawi |date=2012-03-31 |title=2012 Global AIDS Response Report: Malawi Country Report for 2010 and 2011 |journal=Joint United Nations Programme on HIV AIDS}}</ref> Mbumba izo zikaŵa na ŵanthu awo ŵali na HIV/AIDS zikaŵa na vyakulima vichoko chifukwa ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi ŵakatondekanga kugwira ntchito mu minda. Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵanyake mu mbumba ŵakeneranga kuŵapwelelera, ndipo ndalama zinyake zikagwiranga ntchito pa munkhwala na malaro. Ichi chikapangiska kuti mbumba zinandi ziŵe zakuzizipizga yayi para chakurya chasowa.<ref name="Number18">{{Cite book |last=Shah |first=Meera Kaul |title=Impact of HIV/AIDS on agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods in the central region of Malawi |publisher=CARE International in Malawi |year=2002 |location=Malawi}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya njara ya 2002, pafupifupi 70% ya ŵanthu awo ŵakafwira mu vipatala ŵakaŵa chifukwa cha HIV/AIDS.<ref name="Number31">{{Cite web |title=HIV & AIDS in Malawi |website=Avert}}</ref> Suzgo la vyakurya likapangiska kuti ŵana ŵaŵe pangozi chomene ku matenda na kusoŵa chakurya chakukwana. Mu 2006, [[UNICEF]] yikati 46% ya ŵana ŵa pasi pa vyaka vinkhondi ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kukura chifukwa cha kusoŵa chakurya, ndipo 19% ŵakaŵa ŵakupereŵera thupi.<ref name="Number13">UNICEF. “Malawi Annual Report.” 2006. Malawi: UNICEF.</ref> Kwambira mu 1992 apo suzgo la vyakurya likamba, umoyo wa ŵana pa nkhani ya chakurya ukasintha viŵi yayi.<ref name=Number13 /> Mu nyengo ya kusowa kwa chakurya mu 2001/2002 na 2005/2006, kukaŵa miliri yikuru ya [[kolera]] mu Malawi. [[UNICEF]] yikati miliri iyi yikachitika chifukwa cha kusowa kwa ukhondo, maji ghambura kuŵa ghawemi, kweniso chifukwa chakuti njara yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakutondeka kulimbana na matenda.<ref name=Number13 /> Kafukufuku wa [[Save the Children]] UK mu 2002 wakalongora kuti suzgo la vyakurya likapangiska kuti ŵana na ŵalara ŵaŵe na kutupa kwa mawoko na malundi chifukwa cha kusoŵa chakurya.<ref name="Number21">Kamowa, Olex M. "Living In The Abyss: Hunger In Mchinji, Lilongwe." Save the Children (UK). February 2002.</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na njara ŵakamba kurya vinthu ivyo ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakalyanga yayi, nga ni misisi yinyake, vikoti vya chimanga, vikhuni vyakuphwanyika, na vipasi vyakusangika mu muthondo. Ivi vikapangiska matenda gha mu nthumbo na vyakuŵinya.<ref name=Number21 /> Mu chigaŵa cha [[Nsanje District|Nsanje]], ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakamba kurya vimiti vya maji ivyo vikuchemeka nyika. Nangauli pakwamba vikaŵa chakurya cha nyengo, sono ŵakamba kuvigwiliskira ntchito nga ni chakurya chikuru, kweni kurya vinandi kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na matenda gha mu nthumbo.<ref name="Number51">{{cite journal |title=Malawi's food crisis continues to worsen |journal=The Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9502 |pages=1994–1995}}</ref> === Vyakukhwaskana na chilengiwa === Dongo la ku Malawi lili na suzgo chifukwa ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakaŵavya ndalama zakugulira manyowa mu nyengo yakale.<ref name="Number4">{{Cite book|last=Hardy |first=Jeffrey S. |date=1998-05-01 |title=Malawi: Soil Fertility Issues and Options |publisher=Cornell University Press |volume=1}}</ref> Pali nthowa zicoko waka zakuwezgera nkhongono za dongo. Malawi ngwakavu chomene kuti wambe kunjizga vinthu vinandi vya ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵawezgere vyakurya mu dongo, ndipo malo ghakulimapo ngakusuzga kusunga malo ghakuru ghakupumulira dongo.<ref name=Number4 /> Ŵalimi ŵachoko ŵanandi ŵakatondeka kugura manyowa chifukwa cha kusoŵa ndalama.<ref name=Number16 /> Chifukwa cha ichi, unandi wa vyakurya ivyo ŵakalima ukakhwaskika chomene na kuchepa kwa nkhongono ya dongo kweniso kuchepa kwa malo ghakulimapo. Ŵalimi ŵachoko ku Malawi ŵakakumanaso na kuchepa kwa vyakurya chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo. Para nyengo ya vula yikusintha na kutentha kukukwera, nyengo yakulimapo yikuchepa ndipo ŵalimi ŵakukhumbikwira kugura mbuto zakudura za mtundu uphya kuti ŵasange vyakurya vyakukwana.<ref name="Number5" /> Ŵalimi ŵanyake ŵakasintha nyengo iyo ŵakalimiranga chimanga. Ŵanyake ŵakamba kulima mu Disembala m’malo mwa Novembala, apo ŵanyake ŵakalima mwaluŵiro kuti ŵayezge kukumana na kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref name="Number5" /> Kuchuluka kwa nyengo za chilangalanga na kusefukira kwa maji kukapangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵaŵe pangozi chomene ya kusoŵa chakurya.<ref name="Number5" /> Mu nyengo ya 2000/2001 na 2001/2002, vula yikaŵa yambura kwenelera. Pakachitikanga nyengo zakumira na kusefukira kwa maji, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti vyakurya vileke kukura makora.<ref name="Number8">{{Cite web |last=Masina |first=Lameck |date=2013-01-22 |title=Washed Away: Malawi's Food Security Hit By Natural Disasters |website=Global Policy Forum}}</ref> Ŵalimi ŵanandi, kuti ŵayezge kujivikilira ku nyengo yambura kumanyikwa, ŵakamba kuvuna vyakurya vyawo pambere nyengo yakuvunira yindafike. Kweni ichi chikapangiska kuti vyakurya ivyo vikapelekekanga viŵe vichoko chomene mu 2001/2002.<ref name=Number8 /> Kusintha kwa nyengo kukapangiska kuti nthowa zakuyowoyera vya zokolola zamunthazi ziŵe zambura kugomezgeka. Mautolero agho ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito vifukwa vya nyengo na kuwona vyakurya ghakatondeka kumanya mwakwenelera kukhira kwa vyakurya mu nyengo iyi.<ref name=Number8 /> Mwachiyerezgero, ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozganga vya vyakurya ŵakaghanaghananga kuti kuchepa kwa chimanga kuzamuwelerapo chifukwa cha vyakurya vinyake nga ni misisi na vyakurya vya pasi. Kweni mu nyengo ya 2001/2002, vyakurya vyose vikatondeka.<ref name=Number8 /> Chifukwa cha ichi, boma likaŵavya kunozgeka kwakukwana apo suzgo la vyakurya la 2002 likafika.<ref name=Number8 /> == Wovwiri na nthowa zakuzenga == Boma la Malawi likakhazikiska ndondomeko ya kovwira ŵalimi iyo yikuchemeka [[Farm Input Subsidy Programme]] (FISP) mu 2005. Mu ndondomeko iyi, boma likapelekanga manyowa na mbuto pa mtengo wakuchepa ku ŵalimi awo ŵakaŵa mu suzgo.<ref name="Number7" /> Manyowa gha mu FISP ghakaguliskikanga pa madola gha US$7 pa thumba la makilogalamu 50, apo mtengo wa msika ukaŵa pafupifupi madola gha US$27 pa thumba lenelili.<ref name=Number7 /> Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika na [[Michigan State University]] wakalongora kuti nangauli vula yambura kwenelera yikatondeska ndondomeko iyi mu nyengo ya 2005/2006, nyengo yiwemi mu 2007 yikawovwira kuti ndondomeko iyi yichite makora.<ref name="Number7">{{Cite journal |last=Jayne, T.S., Chapoto, A., Minde I.J., Donovan, C. |date=2008 |title=Grain Marketing Policy at the Crossroads: Challenges for Eastern and Southern Africa |journal=International Development Working Papers |publisher=Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics}}</ref> Chifukwa cha FISP, Malawi wakasanga zokolola zikuru za chimanga mu 2007. Charu ichi chikavuna matani pafupifupi 3.4 miliyoni gha chimanga, ndipo chikaŵa na chakukwana chakujumpha chomene chomwe chikakwana matani 1.4 miliyoni.<ref name=Number7 /> Chifukwa cha chimanga chinandi ichi, Malawi wakamba kuguliska chimanga ku vyaru vinyake kweniso kupereka wovwiri ku vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na suzgo la vyakurya. [[Zimbabwe]] wakapokera matani 40,000 gha chimanga kufuma ku Malawi, ndipo [[Lesotho]] na [[Eswatini|Swaziland]] waliyose wakapokera matani 5,000 gha chimanga.<ref name=Number7 /> Mabungwe gha pa charu chose na gha mu Malawi, kusazgapo [[World Food Programme|WFP]], [[European Union|EU]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], na [[USAID]], ghakapeleka wovwiri wa vyakurya ku Malawi pamanyuma pakuti boma lapharazga soka mu 2002. Mu 2005, WFP yikati wovwiri wake wa vyakurya ukaŵa kovwira pafupifupi 11% ya ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Malawi.<ref name=Number20 /> ==Vyakukhala vyakunyuma (Long-term effects)== ===Umoyo=== Suzgo la vyakurya lapangiska kuti ŵana ŵaŵe pangozi yikuru ya kusoŵa vyakurya mu thupi na matenda. Mu 2006, [[UNICEF]] yikayowoya kuti 46% ya ŵana ŵa pasi pa vyaka vinkhondi ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa vyakurya mu thupi nyengo yitali, ndipo 19% ŵakaŵa ŵakutepeta chomene.<ref name="Number13">UNICEF. “Malawi Annual Report.” 2006. Malawi: UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/malawi/MLW_annualreport_2006.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030933/http://www.unicef.org/malawi/MLW_annualreport_2006.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Kufuma mu 1992, apo misisi ya suzgo la vyakurya yikambiranga, umoyo wa kadyero ka ŵana undasintha.<ref name=Number13 /> Mu 2001/2002 na 2005/2006, mu nyengo izo kusoŵa vyakurya kukaŵa kukuru, kukaŵa miliri yikuru ya [[kolera]] mu charu chose. [[UNICEF]] yikamanya kuti miliri iyi yikachitika chifukwa cha ukhondo wambura kwenelera na maji ghambura kuvikilirika, ivyo vikakolerana na suzgo la vyakurya ndipo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakupokera matenda.<ref name=Number13 /> Mwakuyana waka, kafukufuku uyo wakachitika na [[Save the Children|Save The Children]] UK mu February 2002 wakawona kuti suzgo la vyakurya likakhwaska umoyo wa ŵanthu chifukwa likapangiska kuvimba kwa mawoko na malundi mu ŵana na ŵalara.<ref name="Number21">Kamowa, Olex M. "Living In The Abyss: Hunger In Mchinji, Lilongwe." Save the Children (UK). February 2002.</ref> Kusoŵa vyakurya kwapangiska nyifwa zinandi chifukwa cha njara; unandi wake weneko ukumanyikwa yayi.<ref name=Number5 /> Zinyake mwa nyifwa izi zikasazgirako suzgo la [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]], ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi ŵakaŵa pangozi chomene, kweniso kukapangika unandi wa ŵana ŵambura ŵapapi. [[UNICEF]] yikuyowoya kuti 17% ya ŵana ŵalije ŵapapi ŵamoyo chifukwa cha HIV/AIDS.<ref name=Number13 /> Pa nyengo iyo suzgo la vyakurya likaŵa likuru chomene, kufuma mu Epulero m’paka Meyi 2002, [[WHO]] yikachita kuwunika umoyo wa ŵanthu mu Malawi. Yikawona kuti pakati pa Okutobala 2001 na Malichi 2002, pakaŵa nyifwa zakukwana 1.9 pa ŵanthu 10,000 zuŵa lililose. Kukaŵa muliri wa kolera uwo ukaŵa na milandu 33,150 yakumanyikwa na nyifwa 981, mwakuyana na chiŵelengero cha nyifwa cha 3%. Kweni chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakalutanga ku malo gha chipatala chikakhira na 25% mu nyengo yeneyiyo. Kafukufuku uyu wakalongora kuti malo gha chipatala ghakaŵa na masuzgo chifukwa cha kusoŵa ŵantchito, munkhwala, kweniso mauthenga na mayendedwe ghambura kwenelera. Apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuŵika pakwamba kusanga vyakurya, kupenja wovwiri wa umoyo na kuluta ku malo gha chipatala ghambura kunozgeka kukamba kuchepa.<ref name=Number50>WHO 2002</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na njara ŵakamba kurya misisi yambura kuŵa yakwenelera, mphangwe za chimanga, fumbi la mathabwa, na vipambi vyakuphikika, ndipo ŵakamba kutora matenda gha mu nthumbo na vyakurya vyakuphambanapambana.<ref name=Number21 /> Lipoti mu magazini ya [[The Lancet]] likawona kuti mbumba zinandi, nanga zikaŵa zasambazi, mu [[Nsanje]] chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Malawi, zikaŵa kurya mizi ya chomera cha maji icho chikachemekanga nyika. Mizi iyi iyo pakwamba yikaŵa chakurya chakulyera waka, yikazgoka chakurya chikuru ndipo para munthu wangarya vinandi yingapangiska kutaya nthumbo.<ref name="Number51">{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67799-9 | title=Malawi's food crisis continues to worsen | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_december-10-16-2005_366_9502/page/n33 | year=2005 | last1=Tenthani | first1=Raphael | journal=The Lancet | volume=366 | issue=9502 | pages=1994–1995 | pmid=16353311 | s2cid=28688185 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Pa nyengo yinyake, mwana mukuru wa mbumba ya ŵanthu 10 wakasanga mphonje zakupha za chomera cha mbatata zakuthengo. Awiske ŵakapeleka mphonje izi ku ŵana na anyina chifukwa ŵakaŵavya chakurya chinyake; ŵenecho ŵakarya yayi chifukwa ŵakaŵika njara ya ŵana na muwoli wawo panthazi pa njara yawo. Anyina na ŵana ŵawo 8 ŵakafwa yumoza yumoza chifukwa cha kusanza na kupokera chiphe cha vyakurya.<ref name=Number51 /> ===Ndondomeko za boma=== Ndondomeko ya boma ya kuvikilira vyakurya, iyo yikuchemeka FISP, yikawovwira kusazgirako ulimi. Nga umo vyayowoyekera kale, kupanga chimanga kukajumpha ivyo charu chikakhumbanga pamanyuma pa kukhazikiska FISP. Pakati pa 2005 na 2011, [[GDP|GDP ya Malawi]] yikakuranga mwakukwana 11.7% chaka chilichose, ndipo ŵakumanya vinthu ŵanandi ŵakayaniska kukura kwa GDP ya ulimi na FISP. Kweni kafukufuku wa sonosono wakulongora kuti FISP ni ndondomeko iyo yingakhalapo yayi nyengo yitali: apo mbumba izo zikukhumbikwira wovwiri zikuchuluka, uwemi wa fetereza na mbuto izo zikuperekeka ukakhira kufuma pa makilogalamu 85 pa mulimi mu 2005/2006 kufika pa makilogalamu 60 pa mulimi mu 2012/2013.<ref name="Number25">{{Cite journal |last=Thurlow, James |first=Pauw, Karl |date=2014 |title=Malawi's Farm Input Subsidy Program: Where do we go from here? Policy Note 18 |url=http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/massppn18.pdf |journal=Malawi Strategy Support Program |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute}}</ref> Ndondomeko ziphya za kuvikilira vyakurya zikapangika mu 2002 na 2003. Ndondomeko ya Malawi ya [[Kuchepeska ukavu|kuchepeska ukavu]] yikaŵa chikalata cha ndondomeko icho chikakhumbikwanga kulongozga na kovwira pakupanga vyakusankha vya bajeti ya boma. Pakatikati pa ndondomeko iyi pakaŵa kukura kwa chuma, ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa pa chuma, nthowa zakovwilira ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika, na kayendeskero kawemi ka boma; mwa kupanga vyakusankha vya bajeti ivyo vikukhozgera kukura kwa ulimi na kuŵika nthowa zakovwilira ŵanthu, boma likate liŵe na nkhongono zakukhozgera kuŵa na vyakurya.<ref name="Number27">{{Cite journal |last=Sahley, C., Groelsema, Bob., Marchione, T., Nelson, D. |date=2005 |title=The Governance Dimensions of Food Security in Malawi |url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnade034.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923152016/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADE034.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 23, 2006 |journal=Is Food Security Achievable in Malawi? |location=Washington DC |publisher=USA Agency for International Development |volume=20}}</ref> Unduna wa vyaulimi ukagwira ntchito pamoza na mabungwe gha ŵanthu, ma unduna ghanyake, makampani ghapadera, na ŵakupereka wovwiri kupanga Ndondomeko ya Vyakurya na Kadyero. Ndondomeko iyi yikaŵa na vilato vya: 1) kusazgirako vyakurya mwa kusazgirako vyakuvwilira vya maji na kuŵa na fetereza na malo, 2) kukhozga misika ya ku mizi, 3) kupanga malango gha umoyo na kadyero, na 4) kukhazikiska na kukhozga ndondomeko zakulimbana na masoka, malo ghakusungirako chimanga, na nthowa zakuwonera na kulongosora kupanga vyakurya.<ref name=Number27 /> Pamasinda, Unduna wa Kupanga Chuma na Chitukuko ukapanga ndondomeko ya kukura kwa chuma iyo yikaŵa na chilato chakuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na m'pata wakusanga vyakurya mwa kukhozgera malonda na ndalama zakunjira mu vyalo vya ku mizi mu Malawi, kuti ŵasange ndalama na ntchito.<ref name=Number27 /> ===Mitheto na chikaya=== Pa nyengo ya suzgo la vyakurya, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusintha umo ŵakakhaliranga kuti ŵasange chakurya. Ŵanyake ŵakamba kugwira ntchito zakwiza waka kuti ŵapokere vyakurya. Ŵanandi ŵakaguliska katundu wa mu nyumba na viŵeto pa mitengo yichoko kuti ŵagule chakurya, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti chiŵe chakusuzga kwa iwo kuwelera ku umoyo wakukhazikika pamanyuma pa suzgo la vyakurya.<ref name="Number39">{{Cite journal |last=Margolies, A., Kalagho, K., Kazembe, C. |date=2019 |title=Examining perceptions of food assistance on household food security and resilience in Malawi; Policy Note 32 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133065 |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute |location=Washington DC |volume= |doi=10.2499/p15738coll2.133065|s2cid=239189252|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakasamukira ku [[Zambia]] na vyalo vinyake vyapafupi kukapenja ntchito za malipiro ghachoko panji vyakurya.<ref name=Number5 /> Suzgo la vyakurya likakhwaskaso masambiro. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵana awo ŵakaleka sukulu ŵakafika pa 25% chifukwa cha njara. Ŵanandi ŵakaleka kuluta ku sukulu kuti ŵagwire ntchito panji kupenja chakurya, apo ŵanyake ŵakatondeka kulipira ndalama za sukulu.<ref name=Number39 /> Ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵakadandawura kuti sukulu zikaluza mazaza pa ŵana chifukwa ŵangachichizga yayi ŵana kukhala, kusambira, panji kuchita ntchito za ku sukulu usange ŵali na njara na kudwala.<ref name=Number5 /> [[UNICEF]] yikayowoya kuti mu vigaŵa ivyo suzgo la vyakurya likaŵa likuru chomene, hafu m’paka vitatu mwa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakaleka kuluta ku sukulu.<ref name=Number51 /> Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa ŵana ku sukulu, [[UNICEF]] na [[WFP]] vikamba mapulogiramu ghakupereka vyakurya ku ŵana ku sukulu na wovwiri unyake ku ŵasambizgi na ŵantchito. [[UNICEF]] yikati pulogiramu iyi yikapangiska "kusintha kukuru" mu kuluta ku sukulu, ndipo mu malo ghanyake nyumba za sukulu zikazura na ŵana awo ŵakapenjanga chakurya.<ref name=Number51 /> Makhaliro gha chikaya chose ghakasinthaso kuheni, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakamba kwiba ku ŵazengezgani, kusida ŵana, kulimbana chifukwa cha chakurya, na kusinthana kugonana kuti ŵasange chakurya.<ref name=Number5 /> Kwiba vyakurya na ndalama kukachuluka chomene. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵakukora ŵankhungu ŵakaŵatombozganga na kuŵapweteka nga ni chilango.<ref name=Number5 /> Ŵachekuru, ŵana ŵambura ŵapapi, na ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa pangozi chomene, chifukwa chikaŵa chakusuzga kwa iwo kujiwovwira, ndipo ŵakaŵa vilato vikuru vya kwiba na nkhaza.<ref name=Number5 /> Mu 2005, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakakomekanga pa msika wa [[ADMARC]] apo ŵakaguranga chimanga chawo cha makilogalamu 25 icho ŵakapika.<ref name="Number40">{{Cite web |title=The Effect of the Food Crisis on Women and Their Families |url=https://archive.globalpolicy.org/the-dark-side-of-natural-resources-st/water-in-conflict/46209.html |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=archive.globalpolicy.org}}</ref> Mtengo wa [[ntchito ya kugonana]] ukakhira kufuma pa MK1000 kufika pa MK200, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana awo ŵakachitanga vinthu ivi kuti ŵasange ndalama ŵaŵe pangozi yikuru.<ref name=Number40 /> Mbumba na nthengwa nazo zikasinthika chifukwa cha suzgo la vyakurya: ŵasungwana ŵanandi ŵakachichizgika kutengwa ŵachali ŵachoko chifukwa mbumba zawo zikatenge zingakwaniska yayi kuŵapwelelera mu nyengo ya suzgo la vyakurya, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti nthengwa zakuleka na za nkhaza zichuluke.<ref name=Number39 /> Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakutorana ŵanyake ŵakamba kuleka kugomezgeka mu nthengwa kuti ŵasange ndalama na chakurya, ndipo ichi nacho chikapangiska kuti nthengwa zakuleka na za nkhaza zichuluke.<ref name=Number39 /> ==Suzgo la kusoŵa vyakurya mu 2012–2013== Malawi yikasanganaso na suzgo linyake la vyakurya mu 2012 na 2013. Kuyana na MVAC National [[Chivikiliro cha vyakurya|Food Security]] Forecast, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1.4 miliyoni mu [[Malawi]] ŵakaŵa pangozi ya kusoŵa vyakurya mu vyaka vya 2013 na 2014.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/disaster/ot-2012-000156-mwi|title=Malawi: Food Insecurity – 2012–2014|website=ReliefWeb|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Ichi chikaŵa 9.5% ya ŵanthu mu vigaŵa 21 vya charu, ndipo chigaŵa cha kumpoto ndicho chikasangana na suzgo likuru chomene.<ref name=":0" /> Vifukwa vya chuma, ndale, na ulimi vikawovwirapo pa suzgo ili.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Ku chigaŵa cha chuma na ndale, Joyce Banda wakamba kulamulira mu Epulero 2012, ndipo wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba kuŵa pulezidenti wa Malawi. Mu Meyi wa chaka chenicho, [[Malawian kwacha|kwacha]] yikachepeska mtengo wake na 49% ndipo yikayamba kutaya nkhongono chomene.<ref name=":12"/> Kuyana na [[World Food Programme]], kuchepa kwa mtengo kwa ndalama iyi pamoza na kukwera kwa mitengo ya vinthu (inflation) kwa 12.4% mu mwezi wenewura kukapangiska mitengo ya vinthu vyakuzirwa na mauteŵeti kukwera chomene mu charu chose.<ref name=":12"/> Kweniso, Centre for Social Concern yikafumiska lipoti ilo likalongora kuti mtengo wa umoyo ukakwera na kujumpha 50% kufuma mu 2011 kufika mu 2012.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Ku chigaŵa cha ulimi, kupanga chimanga kukakhira na 40% mu vigaŵa vinandi chifukwa cha vula yichoko.<ref name=":12"/> Kupanga chimanga kochepa uku pamoza na kuchepa kwa nkhongono za ŵanthu kugura vinthu, vikapangiska kuti mu 2012 ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni yimoza ŵakhumbikwirenge wovwiri kuti ŵasange vyakurya vyawo vyakuzirwa.<ref name=":12" /> Ndipouli, umo Malawi Vulnerability Assessment Committee yikawoneranga mu 2012, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa pangozi chikeneranga kukwera na 21% chifukwa cha suzgo la vyakurya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/disaster/ot-2012-000156-mwi|title=Malawi: Food Insecurity – 2012–2014|website=ReliefWeb|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Kukwera kwa mitengo pamoza na kuchepa kwa kupanga chimanga vikapangiska kuti mitengo ya [[chimanga]] mu 2012 yiŵe yakwera na 40% kuluska mtengo wapakati wa vyaka vinkhondi ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name=":12" /> Chifukwa cha kukwera chomene kwa khumbo la chakurya, ŵamalonda ŵachisisi ŵakaguliskanga chimanga pa mitengo yapachanya chomene, ndipo ŵakapelekanga ku misika yinyake chimanga icho chikeneranga kupelekeka ku ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Musa |first=Madalitso |date=2013-09-30 |title=No maize in Malawi's Admarc depots |url=http://timesmediamw.com/no-maize-in-malawis-admarc-depots/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316233943/http://timesmediamw.com/no-maize-in-malawis-admarc-depots/ |archive-date=2015-03-16 |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=BNL Times}}</ref> Vinthu ivyo vikabisika na malo ghakupelekera vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga vikawa vichoko chomene panji vikamara. Ichi chikakhwaska chomene chivikiliro cha vyakurya mu Malawi chifukwa chimanga ntchakurya chakuzirwa chomene ndipo ndicho chikulimika na kuryeka chomene mu charu.<ref name=":03"/> [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|Mulongozgi wa machenjezo ghakwamba gha njara]] wakafumiska uthenga wakuti suzgo likuru la vyakurya lingachitika mu Malawi kufika mu Julayi 2012 ndipo lingatora myezi 9.<ref name=":12" /> Kweniso, kuyana na kafukufuku mu [[The Journal of Modern African Studies]], vinthu vyakhalako kufuma ku masuzgo gha vyakurya ghakale vikaŵa vikuwoneka mu 2012. Vifukwa vinandi ivyo vikapangiska suzgo la vyakurya la 2002, nga ni kutondeka kwa chitukuko na misika, navyo vikawovwirapo pa suzgo la 2012.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dorward|first1=Andrew|last2=Kydd|first2=Jonathan|date=2004|title=The Malawi 2002 Food Crisis: The Rural Development Challenge|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=42|issue=3|pages=343–361|issn=0022-278X|jstor=3876336|doi=10.1017/S0022278X04000229|s2cid=54763363|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/5115/1/malawi_food_crisis.pdf}}</ref> Ivi vikasazgapo kusazgikiska kwa malonda gha vyakurya mu mawoko gha ŵanthu, kufumiskapo wovwiri wa ŵalimi, na kuleka kulamulira misika.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ng’ambi|first1=F.|last2=Owusu|first2=K.|date=2002|title=Structural damage: the causes and consequences of Malawi's food crisis|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=GB2013202812|language=en}}</ref> Kweniso, masuzgo gha vyakurya ghakale ghali na ndalama zikuru za nyengo yitali chifukwa kusoŵa makora vyakurya mu thupi kukupangiska kuchepa kwa nkhongono za ntchito chifukwa cha [[Kukura kwambura kwenelera|kuŵa wakutepeta]]. Kuyana na kafukufuku, pafupifupi 60% ya ŵalara mu charu ŵakusuzgika na kukura kwambura kwenelera chifukwa cha njara iyo ŵakaŵa nayo apo ŵakaŵa ŵana, ndipo ichi chikukwana pafupifupi ŵanthu 4.5 miliyoni mu Malawi awo ŵali na suzgo la kusoŵa vyakurya mu thupi.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.wfp.org/news/news-release/new-study-reveals-huge-impact-hunger-economy-malawi-0|title=New Study Reveals Huge Impact Of Hunger On Economy Of Malawi|website=www.wfp.org|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Nadi, kafukufuku wenewura wa [[World Food Programme]] wakawona kuti Malawi yikataya ndalama zakukwana MWK 16.5 biliyoni mu kupanga vinthu chifukwa cha kusoŵa vyakurya mu thupi.<ref name=":2" /> == Chaka cha 2015 cha njara == Nangauli mu 2014 kuŵa kwa vyakurya mu Malawi kukakwera, ŵalimi ŵakawelera mu suzgo la kusoŵa chakurya mu 2015. Mu 2014, komiti ya Malawi Vulnerability Assessment Committee (MVAC) yikayowoya kuti ŵanthu 640,009 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakusuzgika kusanga chakurya, pakuyaniska na ŵanthu 1.46 miliyoni mu chaka cham'mbuyo.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/disaster/ot-2012-000156-mwi|title=Malawi: Food Insecurity – 2012–2014|website=ReliefWeb|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Kuchepa kwa ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika na chakurya kukachitika chifukwa cha kusangika kwa vyakurya vinandi mu 2014 chifukwa cha vuna yiwemi, kweni ivi vikakhala kwa nyengo yichoko chifukwa mu 2015 Malawi yikakhwaskika na maji ghanandi chomene.<ref name=":3" /> Vikuyerekelezgeka kuti Malawi yikutaya ndalama zakukwana madola 12.5 miliyoni, panji 1% ya [[GDP|chuma cha charu chonse]], chaka chilichose chifukwa cha chilangalanga, ndipo madola 9 miliyoni panji 0.7% ya GDP chifukwa cha kusefukira kwa maji mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa charu.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Besada|first1=Hany|last2=Werner|first2=Karolina|date=2015-01-02|title=An assessment of the effects of Africa's water crisis on food security and management|journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development|volume=31|issue=1|pages=120–133|doi=10.1080/07900627.2014.905124|issn=0790-0627|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nadi, Malawi ni charu chachilendo yayi ku masuzgo gha nyengo, chifukwa pakati pa 1970 na 2006 pakaŵa masoka ghakujintha pa nyengo ghakujumpha 40.<ref name=":5"/> Mu 2015 kufika mu 2016, Malawi yikakumana na chilangalanga chikuru ndipo pamanyuma pakaŵa kusefukira kwa maji chifukwa cha [[El Niño|El Nino]].<ref name="Malawi Food Crisis">{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfam.org.uk/what-we-do/emergency-response/malawi-food-crisis|title=Malawi Food Crisis|website=Oxfam GB|access-date=2019-04-01}}</ref> Vilangalanga ivi vikaŵa viheni chomene mu vyaka 35 ivyo vyajumpha, chifukwa pakaŵa nyengo ziŵiri zakulima zakutondeka ndipo ŵalimi ŵakaŵavya vinthu vyakukwana vyakuŵapa chakurya iwo na mbumba zawo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deki.org.uk/blog/2017/1/27/update-on-food-crisis-in-malawi|title=Update on the food crisis in Malawi|website=Deki|access-date=2019-04-01|archive-date=2019-04-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401043739/https://www.deki.org.uk/blog/2017/1/27/update-on-food-crisis-in-malawi|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ivyo vikakhwaska ŵanthu chomene chifukwa 90% ya ŵanthu mu Malawi ŵakuthemba vyakurya ivyo vikulimika na vula kweniso ulimi kuti ŵakhale na umoyo. Ntheura pa 13 April 2016, [[Peter Mutharika|Mutharika]] pulezidenti wakapharazga kuti mu charu mwawa masoka ghakuru ndipo wakaŵika Malawi pa mulandu wa suzgo la chilangalanga na kusefukira kwa maji.<ref name=":7" /> Chifukwa cha suzgo ili, mitengo ya [[chimanga]] yikakwera chomene ndipo mbumba zinandi zikakatondeka kugula. Kweniso maji ghakukwana pa ulimi ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene, ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵaleke kuwelera ku umoyo wawo wa kale.<ref name="Malawi Food Crisis"/> Mu February wa chaka chenechichi, mtengo wa chimanga ukaŵa kuti wakwera kale na 60% kuluska mtengo wa vyaka vitatu ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name=":7"/> Kuyana na [[Action Against Hunger]], ulimi wa chimanga ukachepa na 27% kufuma mu 2013 ndipo ukawa pasi na 20% pakuyaniska na umo ukaŵira mu vyaka vinkhondi ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/malawi/massive-food-crisis-threatens-500000-children-malawi|title=Massive food crisis threatens 500,000 children in Malawi – Malawi|website=ReliefWeb|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Masuzgo agha ghakapangiska ŵanthu kuguliska katundu wawo kuti ŵagure chakurya cha mbumba zawo, ndipo charu chikanjira mu suzgo likuru.<ref name=":4" /> Kuyana na [[World Food Programme]], mwana yumoza pa ŵana 10 wakusuzgika na kukura makora kwa thupi chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa vyakurya na suzgo la chakurya ilo likapangika na kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2015/09/509722-malawi-facing-worst-food-crisis-decade-requires-81-million-relief-aid-un-agency|title=Malawi facing worst food crisis in decade, requires $81 million in relief aid – UN agency|date=2015-09-25|website=UN News|access-date=2019-04-01}}</ref> Pakaŵaso vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangiska suzgo ili kuŵa likuru, nga nkhuŵavya ndondomeko zakukhora za nyengo yitali zakovwira ŵalimi mu Malawi kuti ŵalimbane na kusintha kwa nyengo mu ulimi.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal | doi=10.3390/su7021620 | doi-access=free | title=Responding to Crop Failure: Understanding Farmers' Coping Strategies in Southern Malawi | year=2015 | last1=Coulibaly | first1=Jeanne | last2=Gbetibouo | first2=Glwadys | last3=Kundhlande | first3=Godfrey | last4=Sileshi | first4=Gudeta | last5=Beedy | first5=Tracy | journal=Sustainability | volume=7 | issue=2 | pages=1620–1636 }}</ref> Vikupulikikwa kuti pakukhumbikwa ndondomeko zakovwira ŵalimi kusanga nthowa zakulimbana na kusintha kwa nyengo, nga ni ulimi wakukhalilira kweniso kusazgirako uwemi wa dongo.<ref name=":02" /> Kusowa kwa kunozgekera uku kukasazgikira pa masuzgo agho charu chikaŵa nagho kale. Kuyana na [[World Bank]], ŵanthu mu vyaru vyakukura makora yayi ŵakukhwaskika chomene na masoka gha chilengedwe chifukwa kutaya kwawo kukupimika kuyana na GDP yawo.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/famine-malawi-causes-and-consequences|title=Famine in Malawi: Causes and Consequences {{!}} Human Development Reports|website=hdr.undp.org|date=January 2008 |access-date=2019-04-27}}</ref> Kweniso [[United Nations Development Programme]] yikulongosora kuti para charu chilije kunozgekera makora, masoka na ivyo vikuchitika pamanyuma vikuŵa viheni chomene.<ref name=":5" /> Malawi yikayezga kuchepeska vyakufumapo vya suzgo la chakurya mwa kugura inshuwalansi ya chilangalanga. Mu 2015, Malawi yikagura inshuwalansi ya chilangalanga ya nyengo ya ulimi wa 2015/2016 kufuma ku kampani ya African Risk Capacity (ACR).<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last1=Reeves|first1=Jonathan|date=May 2017|title=The wrong model for resilience: How G7-backed drought insurance failed Malawi, and what we must learn from it|url=https://actionaid.org/publications/2017/wrong-model-resilience#downloads|journal=Action Aid}}</ref> Inshuwalansi iyi yikagulira madola ghakukwana US$5 miliyoni.<ref name=":62"/> Kweni wovwiri ukachedwa kufika ndipo ukafika ku ŵanthu ŵa Malawi mu 2017, ntheura ukatondeka kuchepeska kutaya kwachuma chifukwa cha suzgo ili.<ref name=":62"/> Action Aid yikuyowoya kuti chilangalanga cha 2015 chikapangiska Malawi kutaya ndalama zakukwana US$395 miliyoni.<ref name=":62"/> == Umo vinthu viliri sono == Nangauli Malawi yikambiska Ndondomeko ya Kovwira Ŵalimi na Vinthu vya Ulimi mu 2005, chandulo cha ndondomeko iyi chikalutilira kuthemba pa vula.<ref name=":62"/> Kweniso nthowa izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni manyowa gha kupanga na mbuto zakusinthika zikwambiska kunangika kwa dongo kweniso kuŵika ŵalimi mu vikatiko vya ngongoli.<ref name=":62" /> Ndondomeko zinandi zili kuŵikika kuti zivwire ŵalimi pa nkhani ya ndalama na ngongoli, nga ni [[ntchito za ulongozgi wa ulimi]], mapulogiramu gha ntchito za boma, na kupokera ndalama kwambura vifukwa vyakupokera. Ndondomeko ya charu ya kusintha na kunozgekera nyengo nayo yikukhumba kuŵikapo nthowa zakukhozgera chomene ulimi kuti ulutilire kususkana na masuzgo.<ref name=":62" /> Ivi vikukolerana na ndondomeko ya Malawi ya kusinthasintha vyakuchita, iyo yikuyowoya kuti masuzgo ghakuru ni ukavu, malo ghachoko gha kulimapo, kweniso kuthemba chomene pa vinthu vya chilengedwe.<ref name=":03"/> Ndondomeko iyi yikukhumba kunozga nkhani za kusangika kwa chakurya, kusamalira vinthu vya chilengedwe, nkhongono zakutowa, tekinoloje, na ndalama kuti chitukuko chikure, kusintha kwa nyengo kuchepe, kweniso kukhozga mtende na chitetezo cha ŵanthu.<ref name=":03"/> Mu 2018, mtengo wa chimanga ukakwera kanandi waka, kufuma pa 100 Malawi Kwacha (US$0.14) pa kilogalamu kufika pa 140 Kwacha ($0.19) pa kilogalamu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mwnation.com/maize-prices-40/|title=Maize prices up 40%|last1=Phiri|first1=Grace|date=2018-02-06|website=The Nation Online|access-date=2019-03-15}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ulimi wa chimanga mu Malawi ukachepa na 20% mu 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Roy |first1=Deblina |date=24 May 2018 |title=Malawi maize production down by 20 percent |url=http://www.africanfarming.net/crops/agriculture/malawi-maize-production-down-by-20-per-cent |access-date=2019-03-15 |website=African Farming and Food Processing |language=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Khamula |first=Owen |date=2018-05-22 |title=Malawi maize production harvests down by 20 percent |url=https://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi-maize-production-harvests-drops-by-20/ |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=Nyasa Times |language=en-GB}}</ref> Kufika mu Seputembala 2018, boma la Malawi likakhazikiska mtengo wa chimanga pa 170 Kwacha ($0.23) pa kilogalamu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nyasatimes.com/govt-brings-down-maize-prices-in-admarc/|title=Govt brings down maize prices in Admarc|date=2018-09-20|website=Malawi Nyasa Times – Malawi breaking news in Malawi|access-date=2019-03-15}}</ref> Pa 14 Malichi 2019, Fumu yikuru ya mu [[Karonga District|Chigaŵa cha Karonga]] yikayowoya kuti yikwenjerwa kuti Karonga yingakumana na kusoŵa kwa chimanga chifukwa cha chilangalanga icho chikatora nyengo yitali.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201903140491.html|title=Malawi: Karonga At Risk of Hunger Due to Prolonged Dry Spell|last1=Mhone|first1=Sithembile|date=2019-03-14|work=Nyasa Times (Leeds)|access-date=2019-03-15}}</ref> Mu Malichi 2019, Malawi yikakhwaskika na [[Cyclone Idai|Chimphepo cha Idai]]. Pamanyuma pa kusefukira kwa maji kwakofya uko kukachitika chifukwa cha chimphepo ichi, nduna ya vya ulimi yikayowoya kuti charu chingaŵa kuti chataya 20% ya chimanga icho chikeneranga kubalika mu nyengo iyi.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN1RE0NK-OZATP|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402094925/https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN1RE0NK-OZATP|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 2, 2019|title=Malawi could lose 20 pct of maize crop in cyclone flooding – minister|last1=Winning|first1=Alexander|date=April 2, 2019|work=Reuters Africa|access-date=April 5, 2019}}</ref> == Mazgu ghakulongosora == <references/> [[Category:Njara mu Africa]] [[Category:2005 mu Malawi|suzgo la vyakurya]] [[Category:Chilala mu Africa]] [[Category:Masoka gha chilengiwa mu Malawi]] [[Category: 2002 chilala]] [[Category:2002 mu Malaŵi]] [[Category:Kuvikilirika kwa vyakurya kuyana na vyaru|Malawi]] is6qj4yglwmlx8lp8fzna9x8tkc7aez 0 48168 123283 122607 2026-10-13T21:14:16Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123283 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mbiri ya Kumwera kwa Afilika''' yagawika mu nyengo za kale za ŵanthu, mbiri yake yakale, maufumu ghakuru agho ghakasambira na kukura, nyengo ya ukoloni, na nyengo ya pamanyuma pa ukoloni, iyo ndiyo yikapangiska vyaru ivyo vilipo sono. [[Kumwera kwa Afilika]] kuli na mphaka na [[Afilika ya Pakati]], [[Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi]], [[Nyanja ya Atlantic]], [[Nyanja ya India]], na [[Jangwa la Sahara]]. Mipaka ya mu nyengo ya ukoloni yikuwoneka mu mipaka ya mazuŵa ghano pakati pa vyaru vya ku Kumwera kwa Afilika, ndipo kanandi yikajumpha pa mphaka za mitundu na chikaya, mwakugaŵa gulu limoza la mtundu wa ŵanthu pakati pa vyaru viŵiri panji vyakujumpha. ==Malo gha Charu== {{Further|Malo gha Charu gha Africa}} [[File:2002 Satellite Image of Southern Africa.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Chithuzithuzi cha pa satellite]] cha [[Kumwera kwa Africa]].]] Chigaŵa icho chili kumwera kwa jangwa ichi ni [[steppe|chigaŵa cha udambo]], icho ntcha chikaŵa chichoko cha chiwawa, ndipo chikuchemeka [[Sahel]]. Ni chigaŵa cha nyengo na [[chigaŵa cha vyamoyo|vyamoyo]] cha [[ecotone|kusintha]] mu Africa pakati pa Jangwa la Sahara kumpoto na [[Savanna ya Sudan]] kumwera. Savanna ya Sudan ni lamba ukuru wa [[malo gha udambo gha mu nyengo yakotcha, masavanna na malo gha vithaka|savanna ya mu nyengo yakotcha]] iyo yikwenda mu [[Africa|charu cha Africa]], kufuma ku mphepete mwa Nyanja ya Atlantic mu [[Savanna ya Sudan ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi]] kufika ku [[Mapiri gha Ethiopia]] mu [[Savanna ya Sudan ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi]]. ==Nyengo== {{Further|Nyengo ya Africa}} Mu vyaka 15,000 [[Pambere Pakaŵako sono|BP]], [[Mvula ya ku Africa ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi]] yikasintha malo gha [[Africa]] ndipo yikambiska nyengo ya [[Sahara Wakubiliwira]]; vula zinandi mu nyengo ya chihanya zikapangiska kuti malo gha maji (nga ni [[nyanja]], [[madambo]]) na masavanna (nga ni [[malo gha utheka]], [[malo gha vithaka]]) vikure mu [[Africa ya Kumpoto]].<ref name="Pausata">{{cite journal |last1=Pausata |first1=Francesco S.R. |display-authors=etal |title=Impacts of dust reduction on the northward expansion of the African monsoon during the Green Sahara period |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |year=2016 |volume=434 |pages=298–307 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.049 |bibcode=2016E&PSL.434..298P|doi-access=free }}</ref> Pakati pa 5500 BP na 4000 BP, nyengo ya Sahara Wakubiliwira yikamara.<ref name="Pausata" /> ==Mbiri ya Kale ya Ŵanthu== {{Main|Mbiri ya Kale ya Kumwera kwa Africa}} Kuŵa kwamba mu vyaka 170,000 BP, mu nyengo ya [[Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe|Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe]], ŵanthu ŵa ku Kumwera kwa Africa ŵakaphikanga na kurya [[Hypoxis]] angustifolia [[mizu ya pasi]] ku [[Malo gha Malibwe gha Border]], [[Africa ya Kumwera]], ndipo vyakurya ivi vikwenera kuti vikapelekanga [[makarbohayidireti]] pa maulendo ghawo.<ref name="Wadley">{{cite journal |last1=Wadley |first1=Lyn |last2=Backwell |first2=Lucinda |last3=D'Errico |first3=Francesco |last4=Sievers |first4=Christine |title=Cooked starchy rhizomes in Africa 170 thousand years ago |journal=Science |volume=367 |issue=6473 |pages=87–91 |date=3 Jan 2020 |doi=10.1126/science.aaz5926 |pmid=31896717 |bibcode=2020Sci...367...87W |oclc=8527136604 |s2cid=209677578|doi-access=free |hdl=11336/142825 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Mu vyaka 92,000 BP, mu nyengo ya [[Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe]], ŵalimi ŵa vinyama na ŵakusaka ŵa ku Malawi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito [[Moto|mulilo]] kuti ŵasinthe malo agho ŵakakhalanga.<ref name="Thompson">{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Jessica C. |display-authors=etal |title=Early human impacts and ecosystem reorganization in southern-central Africa |journal=Science Advances |volume=7 |issue=19 |date=5 May 2021 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abf9776 |pmid=33952528 |pmc=8099189 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.9776T |oclc=9579895150 |s2cid=233871035}}</ref> Pakati pa 65,000 BP na 37,000 BP, mu nyengo yakusintha kufuma ku [[Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe|Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe]] kuya ku [[Nyengo ya Malibwe Yakumaliro|Nyengo ya Malibwe Yakumaliro]], [[ŴaKhoisan|ŴaKhosani ŵa Kumwera kwa Africa]] ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito [[uta na mivi]].<ref name="Hitchcock">{{cite journal |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Robert K. |last2=Crowell |first2=Aron |last3=Brooks |first3=Alison |title=The ethnoarchaeology of Ambush Hunting: A Case Study of ǂGi Pan, Western Ngamiland, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332529080 |journal=African Archaeological Review |date=14 February 2019 |pages=119–144 |volume=36 |doi=10.1007/S10437-018-9319-X |issn=0263-0338 |oclc=8031623872 |s2cid=166634393}}</ref> ===Ufumu wa Butua=== {{Main|Ufumu wa Butua}} Pambere undaŵe chigaŵa cha [[Ufumu wa Rozwi|Ufumu wa Rozwi]], fuko la Togwa likalamuliranga mu ufumu wa Butua m'paka mu chaka cha 1683 C.E.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |title=Butua |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Butua |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> ===Ufumu wa Maravi=== {{Main|Maravi}} Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 16 C.E. na m'ma 19 C.E., maufumu gha Maravi (nga ni Undi, Lundu, na Kalonga) ghakasangwa na kukura chomene.<ref name="Newitt">{{cite book |last1=Newitt |first1=Malyn |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |chapter=Maravi Kingdom |year=2016 |pages=1–2 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe035 |publisher=Wiley|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe035 |isbn=978-1-118-45507-4 }}</ref> ==Mbiri ya sono== ===Ufumu wa Merina=== {{Main|Ufumu wa Merina#Mbiri}} Kufika kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E., Ŵamerina ŵakakwaniska kutonda mafuko ghanyake gha pa chilwa ichi nga ni [[Ŵanthu ŵa Bezanozano|Bezanozano]], [[Ŵanthu ŵa Betsimisaraka|Betsimisaraka]], na ufumu wa Sakalava, ndipo ŵakaghazenga pasi pa ufumu wa Merina. Mu ndondomeko iyi mazina gha mtundu wakuti "Merina" ghakamba kugwiliskirika ntchito chomene, chifukwa ghakulongora kuŵa ŵakumanyikwa mu chiyowoyero cha [[Chiyowoyero cha Malagasy|Malagasy]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Larson|first=Pier M.|date=1996|title=Desperately Seeking 'the Merina' (Central Madagascar): Reading Ethnonyms and Their Semantic Fields in African Identity Histories|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-southern-african-studies_1996-12_22_4/page/541|journal=Journal of Southern African Studies|volume=22|issue=4|pages=541–560|doi=10.1080/03057079608708511|jstor=2637156|bibcode=1996JSAfS..22..541L |issn=0305-7070}}</ref> Nangauli vinyake vikulongosora kukura kwa Merina nga nkhuwunganiska Madagascar yose, mafuko agho ghakakhalanga pafupi nga ni Betsimisaraka ghakawonanga kukura uku nga ni nthowa ya kulamulira ŵanthu ŵanyake.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cole, Jennifer, 1966-|title=Forget colonialism?: sacrifice and the art of memory in Madagascar|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92682-0 |oclc=49570321}}</ref> Mu 1824 C.E., Ŵamerina ŵakatora doko la [[Mahajanga]] ilo lili ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa chilwa, ndipo ichi chikalongora kusazgikira kwa nkhongono zawo. Mu nyengo ya [[Radama I]], Ŵamerina ŵakalutilira kuchita nkhondo izo zikakuzga mazaza gha ufumu na kusazgira chuma cha ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari.<ref name="Campbell">{{Cite journal|last=Campbell|first=Gwyn|date=1981|title=Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1981_22_2/page/203|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=22|issue=2|pages=203–227|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019411|jstor=181583|s2cid=161991146 |issn=0021-8537}}</ref> Ŵasilikari ŵa Merina ŵakakumana na kususkika kufuma ku ŵazga awo ŵakachimbira na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakachimbira ku ulamuliro wa ufumu. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa masauzandi ghanandi, ndipo ŵakakhalanga nga ni magulu ghakuwukira agho ghakasuskikanga na ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu awo ŵakakwendera ŵanthu aŵa mu 1835 C.E. Chomenechomene, unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakachimbiranga ukapangiska kuti pakhale khumbo likuru la ŵantchito ŵazga mu ufumu wa Merina, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti nkhondo zakukuzga ufumu zilutilire.<ref name="Campbell" /> Mu pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E., kukura kwa ufumu na kulamulira chomene malonda gha ku mphepete mwa nyanja vikapangiska kuti Merina ŵaŵe na mazaza ghakuru pa chilwa chose. Ufumu wa Merina ukakhala pafupi kuŵika Madagascar yose pasi pa ufumu umoza pambere [[Ukoloni wa France ku Madagascar|ukoloni wa France]] undambe mu 1895 C.E.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Merina|title=Merina {{!}} people |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> [[File:Ranavalona III of Madagascar.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ranavalona III]] wakaŵa themba laumaliro la Madagascar.]] ===Ufumu wa Rozwi=== {{Main|Ufumu wa Rozwi#Mbiri}} Mabuku gha Ŵapwitikizi ghakulongora kuti Ŵarozwi ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵakumanya chomene. Ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa ya [[kupanga msasa wa nkhondo wa nyanga za ng'ombe|nyanga za ng'ombe mu nkhondo]] vyaka vinandi pambere mulongozgi mukuru wa Ŵazulu, [[Shaka]], wandayambe kuyigwiliskira ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E. Ŵarozwi, awo ŵakaŵa na mikondo, zishango, na mauta na mivi, ŵakatola chigaŵa cha Zimbabwe plateau.<ref name="brit1">{{cite news |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064305/Rozvi |title=Rozvi |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> ===Ufumu wa Ndwandwe=== {{Main|Ndwandwe}} Ufumu wa Ndwandwe ukakura mu vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E. chifukwa cha kusintha kwakupambanapambana kwa vya chuma, ndyali, na umoyo wa ŵanthu.<ref name="Ndlovu‐Gatsheni">{{cite book |last1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first1=Sabelo J. |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |chapter=Nguni empires |year=2016 |pages=1–8 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe161 |publisher=Wiley|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe161 |isbn=978-1-118-45507-4 }}</ref> ===Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa=== {{Main|Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa}} Mwakuyana na Muzi Mthethwa (1995), Ŵamthethwa ŵakafuma ku mafuko gha [[Ŵanthu ŵa Nguni|Nguni]] gha kumpoto kwa Natal na [[Mapiri gha Lubombo|Mapiri gha Lubombo]], ndipo mtundu wawo wa sono ukamba kumanyikwa vyaka pafupifupi 700 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>Muzi Mthethwa (1995), "The History of abakwaMthethwa, Research Project", Department of History, University of Zululand.</ref> Ŵakaŵa pakati pa magulu ghakwambilira gha Nguni-Tsonga agho ghakafuma ku [[Maziŵa Ghakuru gha mu Africa|Maziŵa Ghakuru]] mu [[Central Africa|Africa ya pakati]] pakati pa 200 C.E. na 1200 C.E. Apo ŵakafika ku [[Southern Africa|Africa ya kumwera]], ŵakakhala pafupi na charu cha sono cha [[Eswatini]], chomenechomene pa [[Mapiri gha Lubombo]]. Pamanyuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 17 C.E. ŵakasamira ku chigaŵa cha sono cha [[KwaZulu-Natal]], mu chigaŵa cha [[Nkandla, KwaZulu-Natal|Nkandla]]. Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa ukaŵa na mafuko, mbumba, na maufumu ghachoko pafupifupi 30 gha Nguni. Mwakupambana na uyo wakiza pamanyuma, [[Ufumu wa Zulu]], Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa ukaŵa wupu wa maufumu ghakupambanapambana.<ref>Morris, page 42</ref> Pasi pa ulamuliro wa [[Dingiswayo]], ulongozgi wa Mthethwa ukakhozgeka na kusazgikira. Themba ili likapanga ubwezi na [[Ŵanthu ŵa Tsonga|Ŵatsonga]] kumpoto kwa chigaŵa ichi mu vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E. ndipo likamba kuchita malonda gha [[minyanga ya njovu|minyanga ya njovu]] na vinthu vinyake na [[Portugal|Ŵapwitikizi]] mu [[Mozambique]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mthethwa|title=Mthethwa - historical state, Africa |publisher=Britannica}}</ref> ===Ufumu wa Zulu=== {{Main|Ufumu wa Zulu#Mbiri}} [[Shaka]] wakaŵa mwana wa [[Senzangakhona]], themba la Ŵazulu, uyo wakababika cha mu nthengwa. Wakababika cha mu chaka cha 1787 C.E. Iyo na amama ŵake, [[Nandi (amama ŵa Shaka)|Nandi]], ŵakachimbizgika na Senzangakhona ndipo ŵakasanga malo ghakubisamamo mu [[Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa|Mthethwa]]. Shaka wakalwana nga ni msilikari pasi pa Jobe, ndipo pamanyuma pasi pa Dingiswayo, mulongozgi wa Mthethwa. Senzangakhona wati wafwa, Dingiswayo wakawovwira Shaka kuŵa mulongozgi wa Ufumu wa Zulu. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Dingiswayo chifukwa cha Zwide, themba la [[Ufumu wa Ndwandwe|Ndwandwe]], mu 1818 C.E., Shaka wakatora ulongozgi wa wupu wose wa Mthethwa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shaka Zulu: Africa's Napoleon?|url=https://www.historynet.com/shaka-zulu-africas-napoleon.htm|last=Wilkinson|first=Stephan|date=2017-03-14 |publisher=HistoryNet}}</ref> Shaka wakambiska masinthiro ghanandi gha vya nkhondo, vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, vya mitheto, na vya ndyali, ndipo wakazenga ufumu wa Zulu uwo ukaŵa wakulongozgeka mwakukhora. Kusintha kukuru chomene kukaŵa mu umo ŵasilikari ŵakenderanga, kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ziphya za nkhondo na vilwero, kweniso kulimbana na ŵalongozgi ŵa vya mizimu, ŵamankhwala ŵa mizimu ([[sangoma]]), mwakuti ŵakaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha boma la Zulu. Wupu uwo ukaŵa pasi pa ulongozgi wake ukapona pa kuwukira kwakwamba kwa Zwide pa [[Nkhondo ya Phiri la Gqokli|Nkhondo ya Gqokli Hill]] mu 1818 C.E. Mu vyaka viŵiri, Shaka wakatonda Zwide pa [[Nkhondo ya Mlonga wa Mhlatuze|Nkhondo ya Mhlatuze River]] mu 1820 C.E. ndipo wakaparanya wupu wa Ndwandwe. Ŵanyake mwa Ŵandwandwe ŵakamba ulendo wakukoma na kuwukira mafuko ghanyake gha [[Ŵanthu ŵa Nguni|Nguni]], ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe [[Difaqane|Difaqane (Mfecane)]], uwo ukaŵa kusama kukuru kwa mafuko agho ghakachimbiranga ku maboma agho ghakasweka na nkhondo za Ŵazulu. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa mu nyengo iyi chikumanyikwa makora yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuti chikaŵa pakati pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni na 2 miliyoni, kweni manambara agha ghakususkika.<ref name="Walter1969">{{cite book|author=Walter, Eugene Victor |year=1969 |title=Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence, with Case Studies of Some Primitive African Communities|publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k-3mmwEACAAJ|isbn=978-0-19-501562-1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=<nowiki>Charters, R. A. (Major, Royal Artillery)</nowiki>|year=1839|title=Notices of the Cape And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier|journal=United Service Journal and Naval and Military Magazine |publisher=Henry Colburn|volume=1839, Part III|issue=September, October, November|pages=19–25, 171–179, 352–359}}</ref><ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition</ref><ref name="Hanson2007">{{cite book|author=Hanson, Victor Davis |year=2001 |title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-42518-8|page=313}}</ref> Kufika mu 1822 C.E., Shaka wakaŵa walamulira ufumu uwo ukaŵa na malo pafupifupi {{convert|80000|sqmi|km2|sigfig=2}}.<ref name="Gluckman">{{Cite journal|last=Gluckman|first=Max|author-link=Max Gluckman|date=1960|title=The Rise of a Zulu Empire|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-rise-of-a-zulu-empire/|journal=[[Scientific American]]|volume=202|issue=4|page=162|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0460-157|issn=0036-8733|jstor=24940454|bibcode=1960SciAm.202d.157G |quote=By 1822 he had made himself master over 80,000 square miles|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:KingShaka.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Chithuzithuzi cha Themba Shaka ({{circa}} 1824)]] ===Ufumu wa Mthwakazi=== {{Main|Mthwakazi#Kukhazikika kwa Mzilikazi mu Mthwakazi}} Mthwakazi ni zina lakale ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito pa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa Ndebele na ufumu wa [[Ŵanthu ŵa Ndebele ŵa Kumpoto|Ndebele]], uwo uli mu chigaŵa cha sono cha [[Zimbabwe]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.reportfocusnews.com/2018/10/01/bulelani-lobengula-crowned-the-ndebele-king/|title=Bulelani Lobengula crowned the Ndebele King|date=1 October 2018|access-date=26 July 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260802115824/https://www.reportfocusnews.com/2018/10/01/bulelani-lobengula-crowned-the-ndebele-king/|archive-date=2 August 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mthwakazifoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=51|title=Brief History of Mthwakazi (English)|access-date=2021-05-13|archive-date=2013-04-15|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415094724/http://www.mthwakazifoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=51}}</ref> Mthwakazi likugwiliskirikaso ntchito pakuyowoya za ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha Matebeleland mu Zimbabwe.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140311164413/http://www.mthwakazifoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=29 Mthwakazi Foundation Inc.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311164413/http://www.mthwakazifoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=29 |date=2014-03-11 }} Retrieved 2012-08-09.</ref> ===Malonda gha ŵazga=== {{Further|Malonda gha ŵazga mu Nyanja ya India|Malonda gha ŵazga mu Nyanja ya Atlantic}} ===Nyengo ya ukoloni=== {{Main|Ukoloni wa Africa}} Mu 1652 C.E., [[Dutch East India Company]] yikakhazikiska malo gha ukoloni pafupi na [[Cape of Good Hope]] kuti yiwovwire nthowa ya malonda gha pa nyanja pakati pa Europe na Southeast Asia. Malo agha ghakakura kuŵa [[Cape Town]], ndipo ghakazgoka [[Dutch Cape Colony]]. Ukoloni wa Ŵadachi ukawukilika kaŵiri na Ŵabritishi; ulendo wakwamba ukaŵa mu 1795 C.E. mu [[kuwukira Cape Colony|kuwukira kwa Cape Colony]] uko kukaŵa chigaŵa cha nkhondo za French Revolutionary Wars, ndipo ulendo wachiŵiri ukaŵa mu 1806 C.E. pa [[Nkhondo ya Blaauwberg]] mu nyengo ya nkhondo za Napoleon. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwachiŵiri uku, Cape Colony yikazgoka koloni ya Britain mpaka apo [[Union ya South Africa]] yikapangika mu 1910 C.E. Kukhazikika kwa Cape Colony kukamba nyengo ya ukoloni mu Africa ya kumwera ndipo kukapereka nthowa ya [[Kugawana Africa|kugawika kwa Africa]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1880 na kukhazikika kwa [[Maboma gha Boer|maboma gha Boer]] pamanyuma pa [[Ulendo Mukuru wa Boer|Great Trek]] mu 1836 C.E. Nyengo iyi yikawona kwiza kwa ŵanthu ŵaphya, matekinoloje, vyakumera, na vinyama kufuma ku vyaru vinyake pa charu chose, kweniso kusuzgika kwa maufumu gha ku Africa agho ghakaŵapo kale. ====Kugawana Africa==== {{Main|Kugawana Africa}} ===Nyengo ya pamanyuma pa ukoloni=== {{Further|Kuleka kwa ukoloni mu Africa|Africa ya pamanyuma pa ukoloni#Africa ya kumwera|Ukoloni uphya}} {{See also|Phangano la umoza wa ŵasilikari}} ==Mbiri ya Mapangidwe gha Nyumba mu Africa ya Kumwera== ''Wonani vinyake mu vigaŵa vya [[Mapangidwe gha nyumba mu Africa]]:'' * [[Mapangidwe gha nyumba mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera|Mapangidwe gha nyumba gha mu nyengo ya pakati mu Africa ya Kumwera]] ==Mbiri ya Sayansi na Tekinoloji mu Africa ya Kumwera== {{Further||List of South African inventions and discoveries}} ''Wonani vinyake mu vigaŵa vya [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa]]:'' {{Div col|small=yes}} * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera|Sayansi ya nyenyezi]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya pakati na ya kumwera|Masamu]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 2|Mankhwala]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 3|Ulimi]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 4|Kupanga salu]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 5|Mapangidwe gha nyumba]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 6|Nkhondo]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 7|Mwakuyana na charu]] {{Div col end}} ==Mbiri ya vya nkhondo mu Africa ya Kumwera== {{Main|Mbiri ya nkhondo mu Africa#Mbiri ya nkhondo mu Africa ya Kumwera}} ==Mbiri ya majini mu Africa ya Kumwera== {{Main|Mbiri ya majini mu Africa ya Kumwera}} {{Further|Ŵanthu ŵa San#Majini|Ŵanthu ŵa Khoekhoe}} Kufuma ku chigaŵa cha [[Kenya]] na [[Tanzania]] kuya ku [[South Africa]], Ŵaafrica ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya [[viyowoyero vya Bantu]] ŵakulongora mphambano ya majini yakufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera. Kweniso, kufuma ku [[Africa ya kumafumiro gha dazi]] kulazga ku [[Africa ya kumwera]], ukaboni wa kufanana kwa majini ukulongora kuti pakaŵa kusama kwa ŵanthu na kusazgikana kwa mitundu pakati pa Ŵanthu ŵa Bantu na magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa apo kusama kwa Bantu kukafika ku Africa ya kumwera.<ref name="Pfennig">{{cite journal |last1=Pfennig |first1=Aaron |display-authors=etal |title=Evolutionary Genetics and Admixture in African Populations |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |date=March 29, 2023 |volume=15 |issue=4 |article-number=evad054 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evad054 |pmid=36987563 |url=https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/15/4/evad054/7092825 |pmc=10118306 |oclc=9817135458 |s2cid=257803764}}</ref> ===DNA ya ŵanthu ŵakale=== {{Further|Kusazgikana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakale na ŵanthu ŵasono#Ŵanthu ŵakale ŵa mu Africa}} Nangauli mphapu za [[Denisovan]] na [[Neanderthal]] mu ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala kuwaro kwa Africa zikupulikikwa makora, ukaboni wa mphapu za ŵanthu ŵakale mu ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ngwachali kusimikizgika yayi ndipo ukukumana na mphindano.<ref name="Bergström">{{cite journal |last1=Bergström |first1=Anders |display-authors=etal |title=Origins of modern human ancestry |url=https://iranvarjavand.ir/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/paperhub.ir10.1038@s41586-021-03244-5.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=590 |issue=7845 |pages=229–237 |date=February 2021 |pmid=33568824 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5 |s2cid=231883210 |bibcode=2021Natur.590..229B}}</ref> ===DNA yakufuma ku ŵanthu ŵakale=== Ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵa [[Nyengo ya Malibwe ya Pamanyuma|Nyengo ya Malibwe ya Pamanyuma]] awo ŵakaŵa ŵakukwima ŵakanyamura DNA yakuyana na ya ŵanthu ŵa San awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha San.<ref name="Choudhury">{{cite journal |last1=Choudhury |first1=Ananyo |display-authors=etal |title=Bantu-speaker migration and admixture in southern Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/30/R1/R56/6046806 |journal=Human Molecular Genetics |volume=30 |issue=R1 |pages=R56–R63 |date=April 2021 |pmid=33367711 |pmc=8117461 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddaa274}}</ref> Pambere kusama kwa [[Ŵanthu ŵa Bantu|Bantu]] kwinda mu chigaŵa ichi, nga umo DNA yakufuma ku ŵanthu ŵakale mu [[Botswana]] yikulongolera, ŵaliska ŵa vinyama ŵakufuma ku [[Africa ya kumafumiro gha dazi]] ŵakasamira ku Africa ya kumwera.<ref name="Choudhury" /> Pa ŵalimi ŵa nyengo ya [[Nyengo ya Chuma cha Chisulo|Chuma cha Chisulo]] ŵanayi ŵa Bantu awo ŵakafuma ku [[Africa ya kumanjiliro gha dazi]], ŵalimi ŵaŵiri ŵakwambilira ŵakaŵa na DNA yakuyana na Ŵatsonga na Ŵavenda, ndipo ŵalimi ŵaŵiri ŵanyengo yamanyuma ŵakaŵa na DNA yakuyana na Ŵanthu ŵa Nguni. Ichi chikulongora kuti pakaŵa mayendedwe ghakupambanapambana gha ŵanthu pa nyengo ya kusama kwa Bantu, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti Ŵanthu ŵa Bantu na Ŵanthu ŵa Khoisan ŵakumane na kusazgikana.<ref name="Choudhury" /> ====Botswana==== Ku Nqoma, mu [[Botswana]], munthu yumoza uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako mu nyengo yakwamba ya [[Nyengo ya Chuma cha Chisulo|Chuma cha Chisulo]] (vyaka pafupifupi 900 ivyo vyajumpha), wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)#Haplogroup L2a1|haplogroup L2a1f]].<ref name="Wang">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Ke |display-authors=etal |title=Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=24 |article-number=eaaz0183 |date=June 2020 |pmid=32582847 |pmc=7292641 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183 |bibcode=2020SciA....6..183W}}</ref><ref name="Wang II">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Ke |display-authors=etal |title=Supplementary Materials for Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2020/06/08/6.24.eaaz0183.DC1/aaz0183_SM.pdf |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=24 |article-number=eaaz0183 |date=June 2020 |pmid=32582847 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183 |pmc=7292641 |bibcode=2020SciA....6..183W}}</ref> Ku Taukome, mu [[Botswana]], munthu uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako mu nyengo yakwamba ya [[Nyengo ya Chuma cha Chisulo|Chuma cha Chisulo]] (vyaka pafupifupi 1100 ivyo vyajumpha), wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-M2#E1b1a1|E1b1a1 (E-M2, E-Z1123)]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d3b1]].<ref name="Wang" /><ref name="Wang II" /> Ku Xaro, mu [[Botswana]], mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵaŵiri awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo yakwamba ya [[Nyengo ya Chuma cha Chisulo|Chuma cha Chisulo]] (vyaka pafupifupi 1400 ivyo vyajumpha). Yumoza wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-M2#E1b1a1a1c|E1b1a1a1c1a]] na [[Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)#Subclade distribution|L3e1a2]], ndipo munyake wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-Z827#E-V1515|E1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-CTS10880)]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0k1a2]].<ref name="Wang" /><ref name="Wang II" /> ====Malawi==== =====Fingira===== Ku malo ghakusungirako malibwe gha Fingira mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 6179 BP na 2341 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup B-M60#B-M182|B2]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d1]].<ref name="Lipson II">{{cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |display-authors=etal |title=Extended Data Table 1 Ancient individuals analysed in this study: Ancient DNA and deep population structure in sub-Saharan African foragers |journal=Nature |date=23 February 2022 |volume=603 |issue=7900 |pages=290–296 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04430-9 |pmid=35197631 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=8907066 |oclc=9437356581 |bibcode=2022Natur.603..290L |s2cid=247083477}}</ref> Ku Fingira, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 6175 BP na 5913 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup BT|BT]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d1b2b]].<ref name="Skoglund">{{cite journal |last1=Skoglund |first1=Pontus |display-authors=etal |title=Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure |journal=Cell |volume=171 |issue=1 |pages=59–71.e21 |date=September 2017 |pmid=28938123 |pmc=5679310 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049}}</ref> Ku Fingira, mu [[Malawi]], munthu munyake uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 6177 BP na 5923 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup BT|BT]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d1c]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> Ku Fingira, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 2676 BP na 2330 BP, wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|haplogroup L0f]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> =====Chencherere===== Ku Chencherere, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 5400 BP na 4800 BP, wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|haplogroup L0k2]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> Ku Chencherere, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 5293 BP na 4979 BP, wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|haplogroup L0k1]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> =====Hora===== Ku Hora 1 rockshelter, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 16,897 BP na 15,827 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup B-M60#B-M112|B2b]] na [[Haplogroup L5 (mtDNA)|L5b]].<ref name="Lipson II" /> Ku Hora 1 rockshelter, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 16,424 BP na 14,029 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup B-M60#B-M112|B2b1a2~]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d3/L0d3b]].<ref name="Lipson II" /> Ku Hora, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 10,000 BP na 5000 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup BT|BT]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0k2]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> Ku Hora, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 8173 BP na 7957 BP, wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|haplogroup L0a2]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> =====Ballito Bay===== {{Main|Ballito Bay}} Ku [[Ballito Bay|Malaŵi gha ku Ballito Bay]], ku [[South Africa|South Africa]], munthu munyake uyo wakayezgeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 1986 BP na 1831 BP wakaŵa na ma [[Haplogulu la Y-DNA|haplogulu]] gha [[Haplogulu A (Y-DNA)|A1b1b2]] na [[Haplogulu L0|L0d2c1]].<ref name="Schlebusch">{{cite journal |last1=Schlebusch |first1=Carina M. |display-authors=etal |title=Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago |journal=Science |volume=358 |issue=6363 |pages=652–655 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28971970 |doi=10.1126/science.aao6266 |s2cid=206663925 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017Sci...358..652S}}</ref><ref name="Schlebusch II">{{cite journal |last1=Schlebusch |first1=Carina M. |display-authors=etal |title=Supplementary Materials for Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago |url=[https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/suppl/2017/09/27/science.aao6266.DC1/aao6266_Schlebusch_SM.pdf](https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/suppl/2017/09/27/science.aao6266.DC1/aao6266_Schlebusch_SM.pdf) |journal=Science |date=3 November 2017 |volume=358 |issue=6363 |pages=652–655 |doi=10.1126/science.aao6266 |pmid=28971970 |bibcode=2017Sci...358..652S |s2cid=206663925}}</ref> Munthu munyake wa ku [[Ballito Bay|Ballito Bay]], uyo wakayezgeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 2149 BP na 1932 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogulu gha [[Haplogulu A (Y-DNA)|A1b1b2]] na [[Haplogulu L0|L0d2a1]].<ref name="Schlebusch"/><ref name="Schlebusch II"/> Ku [[Ballito Bay|Ballito Bay]], mwana uyo wakumanyikwa kuti Ballito Boy, uyo wakayezgeka kuti wakaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 1,980 ± 20 BP, wakasangika kuti wakaŵa na DNA ya [[Rickettsia felis]].<ref name="Rifkin">{{cite journal |last1=Rifkin |first1=Riaan F. |display-authors=etal |title=Rickettsia felis DNA recovered from a child who lived in southern Africa 2000 years ago |journal=Communications Biology |date=March 3, 2023 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=240 |doi=10.1038/s42003-023-04582-y |pmid=36869137 |pmc=9984397 |oclc=9786799123 |s2cid=257312840}}</ref><ref name="Rifkin II">{{cite journal |last1=Rifkin |first1=Riaan F. |display-authors=etal |title=Supplementary Notes 1-7 for Rickettsia felis DNA recovered from a child who lived in southern Africa 2,000 years ago |journal=Communications Biology |date=March 3, 2023 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=240 |doi=10.1038/s42003-023-04582-y |pmid=36869137 |url=[https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42003-023-04582-y/MediaObjects/42003_2023_4582_MOESM2_ESM.pdf](https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42003-023-04582-y/MediaObjects/42003_2023_4582_MOESM2_ESM.pdf) |pmc=9984397 |oclc=9786799123 |s2cid=257312840}}</ref> ===DNA ya kromozomu Y=== {{Further|Ma haplogulu gha Y-DNA mu ŵanthu ŵa kumwera kwa Jangwa la Sahara}} Masambiro ghakupambanapambana gha [[Kromozomu Y|kromozomu Y]] ghakulongora kuti Ŵasan ŵali na ma haplogulu gha kromozomu Y agho ghakusangika kuŵa ghakale chomene pa charu chapasi. Ma haplogulu agha ni magulu gha [[Haplogulu A (Y-DNA)|A]] na [[Haplogulu B (Y-DNA)|B]], agho ni nthambi zakwambilira chomene mu mphyanga ya ubabika wa kromozomu Y wa ŵanthu.<ref name=j1>{{cite journal |last1=Knight |first1=Alec |display-authors=etal |title=African Y chromosome and mtDNA divergence provides insight into the history of click languages |journal=Current Biology |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=464–473 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12646128 |doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00130-1 |issn=0960-9822 |oclc=4931666146 |s2cid=52862939 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2003CBio...13..464K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hammer |first1=MF |display-authors=etal |title=Hierarchical patterns of global human Y-chromosome diversity |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=1189–1203 |date=July 2001 |pmid=11420360 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003906 |issn=0737-4038 |oclc=8092394585 |s2cid=28304418 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Naidoo |first1=Thijessen |display-authors=etal |title=Development of a single base extension method to resolve Y chromosome haplogroups in sub-Saharan African populations |journal=Investigative Genetics |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=6 |date=September 2010 |pmid=21092339 |pmc=2988483 |doi=10.1186/2041-2223-1-6 |oclc=5632083214 |s2cid=18243824 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===DNA ya mitochondria=== {{Further|DNA ya mitochondria ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa}} Mu vyaka pafupifupi 200,000 BP, ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa (nga ni [[Ŵasan|Ŵasan ŵa kumwera kwa Africa]]) awo ŵakaŵa na [[Haplogulu L0|haplogulu L0]] ŵakapambanika kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵa na haplogulu [[Haplogulu L1–6 (mtDNA)|L1′6]], awo ŵakukhala chomene kumpoto kwa [[Kumwera kwa Africa|kumwera kwa Africa]].<ref name="Sá">{{cite journal |last1=Sá |first1=Luísa |display-authors=etal |title=Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |date=16 August 2022 |volume=23 |issue=16 |page=9219 |doi=10.3390/ijms23169219 |pmid=36012483 |issn=1661-6596 |pmc=9408831 |oclc=9627558751 |s2cid=251653686|doi-access=free }}</ref> Pakati pa 130,000 BP na 75,000 BP, vinthu ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuŵa na maluso gha mazuŵa ghano vikawoneka pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Kumwera kwa Africa|Kumwera kwa Africa]], ndipo ubwezi wa nyengo yitali pakati pa chigaŵa cha Kumwera kwa Africa na [[Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa|Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa]] ukakhazikika.<ref name="Sá"/> Masambiro gha DNA ya mitochondria ghakulongoraso kuti Ŵasan ŵali na unandi ukuru wa nthambi zakale chomene za [[Haplogulu la DNA ya mitochondria|haplogulu ya DNA ya mitochondria]]. DNA iyi yikupokera kufuma kwa nyina pera. Haplogulu yakale chomene, [[Haplogulu L0|L0]], yikusangika chomene mu magulu gha Ŵasan ŵa kumwera kwa Africa.<ref name=j1/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Yu-Sheng |display-authors=etal |title=mtDNA variation in the South African Kung and Khwe-and their genetic relationships to other African populations |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=1362–1383 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10739760 |pmc=1288201 |doi=10.1086/302848 |oclc=679558953 |s2cid=31258611}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tishkoff |first1=S. A. |display-authors=etal |title=History of click-speaking populations of Africa inferred from mtDNA and Y chromosome genetic variation |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=2180–2195 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17656633 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msm155 |issn=0737-4038 |oclc=8090974992 |s2cid=17282053 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlebusch |first1=Carina M. |display-authors=etal |title=SNaPshot minisequencing to resolve mitochondrial macro-haplogroups found in Africa |url=[https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/elps.200900197](https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/elps.200900197) |journal=Electrophoresis |volume=30 |issue=21 |pages=3657–3664 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19810027 |doi=10.1002/elps.200900197 |issn=0173-0835 |oclc=5151862048 |s2cid=19515426|url-access=subscription }}</ref> === DNA ya thupi lose (Autosomal DNA) === Mu kafukufuku uyo ukafumiskika mu Malichi 2011, Brenna Henn na ŵanyake ŵakasanga kuti Ŵa [[ǂKhomani San|ǂKhomani San]], kweniso Ŵa [[Sandawe people|Sandawe]] na Ŵa [[Hadza people|Hadza]] ŵa ku [[Tanzania]], ŵakaŵa na kupambana kukuru kwa majini kuluska ŵanthu wose ŵanyake ŵamoyo awo ŵakasandikwa mu kafukufuku uyu. Kupambana kukuru uku kwa majini kukulongora kuti ndiko kukwenera kuŵa uko [[anatomically modern humans|ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵa thupi lakukwana]] ŵakambira.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Henn |first1=Brenna |display-authors=etal |title=Hunter-gatherer genomic diversity suggests a southern African origin for modern humans |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2011-03-29_108_13/page/5154 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=108 |issue=13 |pages=5154–5162 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21383195 |pmc=3069156 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1017511108 |jstor=41125668 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.5154H |issn=0027-8424 |oclc=9529060694 |s2cid=12423756 |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kaplan |first=Matt |year=2011 |title=Gene Study Challenges Human Origins in Eastern Africa |journal=[[Scientific American|Scientific American]] |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group|Nature Publishing Group]] |url=[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/gene-study-challenges-human-origin-africa/](http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/gene-study-challenges-human-origin-africa/) |issn=0036-8733 |oclc=1775222}}</ref> === DNA ya vya matenda (Medical DNA) === Pakati pa DNA yakale yakufuma ku ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakaŵa ŵakusanga vyakurya mu vigaŵa vya chilengedwe (hunter-gatherers) ndipo ŵakaŵa na kufanana kwa majini na [[San people|Ŵa San]], kweniso ŵalimi ŵanayi ŵa nyengo ya Iron Age, ma [[SNPs|SNP]] ghawo ghakalongora kuti ŵakaŵa na mitundu ya majini yakovwira kulimbana na [[sleeping sickness|matenda gha tsetse fly]] na [[Plasmodium vivax]].<ref name="Pfeiffer">{{cite journal |last1=Pfeiffer |first1=Susan |title=Disease as a Factor in the African Archaeological Record |journal=The African Archaeological Review |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=487–490 |year=2020 |pmid=32863518 |pmc=7445818 |doi=10.1007/s10437-020-09405-7 |issn=0263-0338 |oclc=8671686339 |s2cid=221320841}}</ref> Mwakudumura, ŵaŵiri pa ŵalimi ŵanayi ŵa nyengo ya Iron Age ŵakaŵa na mitundu ya majini yakovwira kulimbana na matenda gha tsetse fly, ndipo ŵatatu pa ŵalimi ŵanayi ŵakaŵa na [[Human genetic resistance to malaria#Duffy antigen receptor negativity|mitundu ya Duffy negative]] iyo yikovwira kulimbana na [[malaria]].<ref name="Pfeiffer" /> Mwakupambana na ŵalimi ŵa Iron Age, pakati pa ŵasakaji ŵakale awo ŵakaŵa paubali na Ŵa San, mwana munyamata wa vyaka 6 wakwenera kuti wakafwa chifukwa cha [[schistosomiasis|matenda gha mphutsi za mu maji]].<ref name="Pfeiffer" /> Ku [[Botswana]], mwanalume uyo wakukhala mu nyengo ya vyaka pafupifupi 1400 BP, wakwenera kuti wakaŵa na mtundu wa Duffy negative uwo ukovwira kulimbana na malaria.<ref name="Pfeiffer" /> ### Kusintha kwa majini mwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa (Genetic adaptation) Ma genome gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa agho kanandi ghakusangika kuti ghali na **kusintha kwakukhwaskana na chilengedwe (adaptation)** ghakukhwaska chomene **DNA yakulongozga umo majini ghakugwilira ntchito (regulatory DNA)**. Milandu yinandi ya kusintha uku mwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa yikukolerana na **vyakurya, umo thupi likugwilira ntchito (physiology),** kweniso **mphinjika za kusankha kwa chilengedwe chifukwa cha matenda (evolutionary pressure from pathogens)**.<ref name="Pfennig" /> Mu [[Sub-Saharan Africa|vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa chipalamba cha Sahara]], kusintha kwa majini (mwachiyelezgero, kusintha kwa **rs334**, [[Duffy blood group|gulu la ndopa la Duffy]], kuchuluka kwa [[Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency|kupereŵera kwa G6PD]], na [[sickle cell disease|matenda gha sickle cell]]) kwakukhwaskana na [[malaria]] kwasangwa pakati pa Ŵa ku Sub-Saharan Africa. Kusintha uku kukwenera kuti kukamba kuchitika pafupifupi vyaka 7300 BP ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Pfennig" /> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Sub-Saharan Africa|kumwera kwa Sahara]] ŵali na kupitilira 90% ya mtundu wa majini wa [[Duffy antigen system|Duffy-null]].<ref name="Wonkam">{{cite journal |last1=Wonkam |first1=Ambroise |last2=Adeyemo |first2=Adebowale |title=Leveraging our common African origins to understand human evolution and health |journal=Cell Genomics |date=March 8, 2023 |volume=3 |issue=3 |article-number=100278 |doi=10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100278 |pmid=36950382 |url=[https://www.cell.com/cell-genomics/pdf/S2666-979X(23)00038-1.pdf](https://www.cell.com/cell-genomics/pdf/S2666-979X%2823%2900038-1.pdf) |pmc=10025516 |s2cid=257458855}}</ref> Mu chigaŵa cha [[Kalahari Desert|chipalamba cha Kalahari]] mu Africa, mitundu yakupambanapambana ya kusintha kwa majini (nga ni [[adiponectin]], [[body mass index|chiyezo cha uzito wa thupi]], na [[metabolism|umo thupi likusinthira vyakurya kuŵa nkhongono]]) yasangika pakati pa Ŵa [[ǂKhomani people|ǂKhomani]].<ref name="Pfennig" /> Mu [[South Africa|South Africa]], kusintha kwa majini (nga ni rs28647531 pa [[Chromosome 4|chromosome 4q22]]) kweniso kutambuzgika chomene na [[Tuberculosis#Risk factors|TB]] kwasangwa pakati pa Ŵa [[Coloureds|Coloured]].<ref name="Pfennig" /> --- ## Ndondomeko ya nyengo ya malo gha vinthu vya kale na mitheto ya ŵanthu (Timeline of archaeological cultures and sites) * [[Lomekwi]] (vyaka 3,300,000 BP)<ref name="Berwick">{{cite book |last1=Berwick |first1=Robert C. |last2=Chomsky |first2=Noam |title=Why Only Us: Language and Evolution |date=2016 |publisher=MIT Press |page=37 |isbn=978-0-262-03424-1 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8eBRCwAAQBAJ&q=Lomekwi&pg=PP6}}](https://books.google.com/books?id=8eBRCwAAQBAJ&q=Lomekwi&pg=PP6}})</ref> * [[Taung]] (vyaka 3,030,000 BP)<ref name="Kuhn">{{cite web |last1=Kuhn |first1=Brian F. |display-authors=etal |title=Renewed investigations at Taung; 90 years after the discovery of Australopithecus africanus |url=[http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/21251/2016.V51.KUHN_ET_AL_Taung.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y](http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/21251/2016.V51.KUHN_ET_AL_Taung.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y) |publisher=Palaeontologia africana}}</ref> * [[Sterkfontein]] (vyaka 2,800,000 BP)<ref name="Pickering">{{cite journal |last1=Pickering |first1=Robyn |last2=Kramers |first2=Jan D. |title=Re-appraisal of the stratigraphy and determination of new U-Pb dates for the Sterkfontein hominin site, South Africa |year=2010 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=70–86 |url=[https://www.academia.edu/446925](https://www.academia.edu/446925) |journal=Journal of Human Evolution|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.03.014 |pmid=20605190 |bibcode=2010JHumE..59...70P }}</ref> * [[Drimolen]] (vyaka 2,000,000 BP)<ref name="Stammers">{{cite web |last1=Stammers |first1=Rhiannon C. |title=The first bone tools from Kromdraai and stone tools from Drimolen, and the place of bone tools in the South African Earlier Stone Age |url=[http://www.archaeomagnetism.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Stammers-et-al-2018-QR.pdf](http://www.archaeomagnetism.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Stammers-et-al-2018-QR.pdf) |publisher=Quaternary International}}</ref> * [[Kromdraai fossil site|Kromdraai malo gha mafupa gha zakale]] (vyaka 2,000,000 BP)<ref name="Stammers" /> * [[Cooper's Cave]] (vyaka 1,900,000 BP)<ref name="Steininger">{{cite journal |last1=Steininger |first1=Christine |display-authors=etal |title=A partial skull of Paranthropus robustus from Cooper's Cave, South Africa |issue=3–4 |pages=143–146 |url=[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532008000200014](http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532008000200014) |journal=South African Journal of Science|date=April 2008 |volume=104 }}</ref> * [[Canteen Kopje]] (vyaka 1,890,000 BP)<ref name="Smith">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Patricia |display-authors=etal |title=Canteen Kopje: a new look at an old skull |issue=1–2 |pages=01–09 |journal=South African Journal of Science|date=January 2012 |volume=108 |doi=10.4102/sajs.v108i1/2.738 |doi-access=free }}</ref> * [[Swartkrans]] (vyaka 1,800,000 BP)<ref name="D'Errico">{{cite web |last1=D'Errico |first1=Francesco |last2=Backwell |first2=Lucinda |title=Possible Evidence of Bone Tool Shaping by Swartkrans Early Hominids |url=[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223636936](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223636936) |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science}}</ref> * [[Motsetsi]] (vyaka 1,640,000 ivyo vyajumpha (BP))<ref name="Berger">{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=L.R. |last2=Lacruz |first2=R. |title=Preliminary report on the firstexcavations at the new fossil siteof Motsetse, Gauteng, South Africa |url=https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/EJC97627 |publisher=South African Journal of Science}}</ref> * [[Wonderwerk Cave]] (vyaka 1,000,000 ivyo vyajumpha (BP))<ref name="Berna">{{cite web |last1=Berna |first1=Francesco |title=Microstratigraphic evidence of in situfire in theAcheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/109/20/E1215.full.pdf |publisher=Francesco Berna |ref=PNAS}}</ref> * [[Amanzi Springs archaeological site]] ([[Pleistocene chapakati]])<ref name="Petraglia">{{cite journal |last1=Petraglia |first1=Michael |title=The large cutting tools from the South African Acheulean and the question of social traditions |issue=5 |page=653 |url=https://www.academia.edu/471301 |journal=Current Anthropology|year=2004 |volume=45 |doi=10.1086/423973 |s2cid=163124683 }}</ref> * [[Rising Star Cave]] (vyaka 414,000 ivyo vyajumpha (BP))<ref name="Dirks">{{cite journal |last1=Dirks |first1=Paul HGM |display-authors=etal |title=The age of Homo naledi and associated sediments in the Rising Star Cave, South Africa |year=2017 |volume=6 |journal=eLife|doi=10.7554/eLife.24231 |pmid=28483040 |pmc=5423772 |doi-access=free }}</ref> * [[Kalambo Falls]] (vyaka 300,000 BP – 200,000 BP)<ref name="Clark">{{cite book |last1=Clark |first1=J.D. |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site: Volume 3, The Earlier Cultures: Middle and Earlier Stone Age |date=1969 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=28 |isbn=978-0-521-20071-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYGwagdt9MQC&dq=%22Kalambo+Falls%22+%22BP%22+Africa&pg=PP14}}</ref> * [[Duinefontein]] (vyaka 290,000 BP)<ref name="Cruz-Uribe">{{cite web |last1=Cruz-Uribe |first1=Kathryn |display-authors=etal |title=Excavation of buried Late Acheulean (Mid-Quaternary) land surfaces at Duinefontein 2, Western Cape Province, South Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223255530 |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science}}</ref> * [[Gladysvale Cave]] (vyaka 257,000 BP)<ref name="Backwell">{{cite web |last1=Backwell |first1=Lucinda |display-authors=etal |title=Probable human hair found in a fossil hyaena coprolite from Gladysvale cave, South Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223705742 |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science}}</ref> * [[Florisbad archaeological and paleontological site]] (vyaka 200,000 BP)<ref name="Kuman">{{cite web |last1=Kuman |first1=K. |last2=Clarke |first2=R. |title=Florisbad—New investigations at a middle stone age Hominid Site in South Africa |url=http://hesp.irmacs.sfu.ca/sites/hesp.irmacs.sfu.ca/files/kuman_1986_-_new_investigations_at_florisbad.pdf |publisher=Geoarchaeology}}</ref> * [[Mumbwa Caves]] (vyaka 194,000 BP – 124,000 BP)<ref name="Avery">{{cite journal |last1=Avery |first1=D.M. |title=Early and Middle Pleistocene environments and hominid biogeography; micromammalian evidence from Kabwe, Twin Rivers and Mumbwa Caves in central Zambia |year=2003 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003101820200593X |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=189 |issue=1–2 |pages=55–69 |doi=10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00593-X |bibcode=2003PPP...189...55A |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Pinnacle Point]] (vyaka 164,000 BP)<ref name="Marean">{{cite web |last1=Marean |first1=Curtis W. |title=The stratigraphy of the Middle Stone Age sediments at Pinnacle PointCave 13B (Mossel Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa) |url=http://www.archaeomagnetism.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Marean-et-al-2010-JHE.pdf |publisher=Journal of Human Evolution}}</ref> * [[Hoedjiespunt]] (vyaka 130,000 BP)<ref name="Kyriacou">{{cite journal |last1=Kyriacou |first1=K. |title=Middle and Later Stone Age shellfish exploitation strategies and coastal foraging at Hoedjiespunt and Lynch Point, Saldanha Bay, South Africa |year=2015 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030544031500031X |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=57 |pages=197–206 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2015.01.018 |bibcode=2015JArSc..57..197K |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Ngalue]] (vyaka 105,000 BP)<ref name="Mercader">{{cite journal |last1=Mercader |first1=Julio |display-authors=etal |title=Initial excavation and dating of Ngalue Cave: A Middle Stone Age site along the Niassa Rift, Mozambique |year=2009 |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=63–74 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248409000633 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.03.005 |pmid=19487015 |bibcode=2009JHumE..57...63M |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Blombos Cave]] (vyaka 84,000 ivyo vyajumpha (BP))<ref name="Backwell II">{{cite web |last1=Backwell |first1=Lucinda |last2=D'Errico |first2=Francesco |last3=Wadley |first3=Lyn |title=Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa |url=http://in-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Backwell-et-al-2008-JAS-MSA-bone-tools-from-HP-layers-Sibudu.pdf |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science |access-date=2026-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260726113935/http://in-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Backwell-et-al-2008-JAS-MSA-bone-tools-from-HP-layers-Sibudu.pdf |archive-date=2026-07-26}}</ref> * [[Stillbay]] (vyaka 80,000 BP)<ref name="Lovell">{{cite web |last1=Lovell |first1=Nancy C |last2=Palichuk |first2=Kimberley E. |title=Task activity and tooth wear in a woman of ancient Egypt |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331309201 |publisher=Bioarchaeology of Marginalized People}}</ref> * [[Howieson's Poort Shelter]] (vyaka 80,000 BP – 60,000 BP)<ref name="Jacobs">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Zenobia |display-authors=etal |title=Ages for the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa: Implications for Human Behavior and Dispersal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23441925 |journal=Science|year=2008 |volume=322 |issue=5902 |pages=733–735 |doi=10.1126/science.1162219 |pmid=18974351 |bibcode=2008Sci...322..733J |hdl=1885/32902 |s2cid=206514762 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> * [[Mousteroid]] (vyaka 80,000 BP – 50,000 BP)<ref>O. Davies (1964)</ref><ref>J. D. Clark (1967)</ref> * Peers Cave (vyaka 75,000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[Howiesons Poort]] (vyaka 68,000 BP – 60,000 BP)<ref name="Gibson">{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=N. E. |last2=Wadley |first2=L. |last3=Williamson |first3=B. S. |title=Microscopic residues as evidence of hafting on backed tools from the 60 000 to 68 000 year-old Howiesons Poort layers of Rose Cottage Cave, South Africa |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.902.9496&rep=rep1&type=pdf |publisher=Southern African Humanities|citeseerx=10.1.1.902.9496 }}</ref> * [[Boomplaas Cave]] (vyaka 66,000 BP)<ref name="Pargeter">{{cite web |last1=Pargeter |first1=Justin |title=New ages from Boomplaas Cave, South Africa, provideincreased resolution on late/terminal Pleistocene humanbehavioural variability |url=https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/brianstewart/wp-content/uploads/sites/62/2018/03/New-ages-from-Boomplaas-Cave-South-Africa-provide-increased-resolution-on-late-terminal-Pleistocene-human-behavioural-variability.pdf |publisher=Azania: Archaeological Research In Africa |access-date=2026-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113212110/https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/brianstewart/wp-content/uploads/sites/62/2018/03/New-ages-from-Boomplaas-Cave-South-Africa-provide-increased-resolution-on-late-terminal-Pleistocene-human-behavioural-variability.pdf |archive-date=2023-11-13}}</ref> * [[Klasies River Caves]] (vyaka 66,000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[Diepkloof Rock Shelter]] (vyaka 65,000 BP)<ref name="Verna">{{cite journal |last1=Verna |first1=Christine |display-authors=etal |title=The Middle Stone Age human remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape, South Africa) |year=2013 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440313001350 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=40 |issue=9 |pages=3532–3541 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2013.04.011 |bibcode=2013JArSc..40.3532V |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Plovers Lake]] (vyaka 62,900 BP)<ref name="Brophy">{{cite journal |last1=Brophy |first1=Juliet |display-authors=etal |title=Faunal assemblage composition and paleoenvironment of Plovers Lake, a Middle Stone Age locality in Gauteng Province, South Africa |year=2008 |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=1102–1117 |url=https://www.academia.edu/9373821 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.011 |pmid=18954892 |bibcode=2008JHumE..55.1102D }}</ref> * [[Sibudu Cave]] (vyaka 61,000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[Fauresmith (industry)]] (vyaka 60,300 BP – 32,600 BP)<ref name="Herries">{{cite journal |last1=Herries |first1=Andy I. R. |title=A Chronological Perspective on the Acheulian and ItsTransition to the Middle Stone Age in Southern Africa:The Question of the Fauresmith |date=2011 |url=https://downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2011/961401.pdf |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology|issue=1 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.4061/2011/961401 |doi-access=free |pmid=21785711 |pmc=3139141 }}</ref> * [[Border Cave]] (vyaka 58,200 BP)<ref name="Bird">{{cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=M.I. |display-authors=etal |title=Radiocarbon dating from 40 to 60 ka BP at Border Cave, South Africa |year=2003 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379103000052 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=22 |issue=8–9 |pages=943–947 |doi=10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00005-2 |bibcode=2003QSRv...22..943B |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Ngwenya Mine]] (vyaka 43,000 BP)<ref name="Watling">{{cite web |last1=Watling |first1=Sarah Elizabeth |title=What Does The Mine Have To Tell Us? Art As A Reclamation Streategy In The Post-Mined Landscape Of The Oldest Known Mine In The World, Ngwenya Mine Swaziland |url=https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/14237/Watling_umd_0117N_14329.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=n |publisher=University of Maryland}}</ref> * [[Apollo 11 Cave]] (vyaka 30,000 BP)<ref name="Haaland">{{cite web |last1=Haaland |first1=Magnus |display-authors=etal |title=Pleistocene Figurative Art Mobilier From Apollo 11 Cave, Karas Region, Southern Namibia |url=https://www.academia.edu/14617050 |publisher=South African Archaeological Bulletin}}</ref> * [[Elands Bay Cave]] (vyaka 19,398 BP)<ref name="Porraz">{{cite web |last1=Porraz |first1=Guillaume |display-authors=etal |title=A shape to the microlithic Robberg from Elands BayCave (South Africa) |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02517687/document |publisher=Southern African Humanities}}</ref> * [[Tsodilo]] (vyaka 14,500 BP)<ref name="Robbins">{{cite web |last1=Robbins |first1=Lawrence H. |display-authors=etal |title=World's Oldest Ritual Site? The"Python Cave" at Tsodilo Hills World Heritage Site, Botswana |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5bd0e66f8d97400eb0099556/t/5bddf66f40ec9a449daf1e88/1541273199732/Nyame+Akuma+Issue+067-Robbins.pdf |publisher=Nyame Akuma}}</ref> * [[Mwela Rock Paintings]] (vyaka 10,820 BP)<ref name="Muianga">{{cite web |last1=Muianga |first1=Décio |title=Rock Art and Ancient Material Culture of Cahora Bassa Dam, Tete Province, Mozambique |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279443446 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand}}</ref> * [[Kalemba Rockshelter]] (vyaka 10,000 BP – 8,000 BP)<ref name="Robinson">{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Joshua R. |last2=Rowan |first2=John |title=Holocene paleoenvironmental change in southeastern Africa (Makwe Rockshelter, Zambia): Implications for the spread of pastoralism |year=2017 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=156 |pages=57–68 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.11.030 |bibcode=2017QSRv..156...57R |doi-access=free }}</ref> * [[Matsieng Footprints]] (vyaka 10,000 BP – 3000 BP)<ref name="Matsieng">{{cite web |title=Matsieng Footprints |url=http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/attractions/matsieng_footprints.html |publisher=Botswana Tourism Board|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725080508/http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/attractions/matsieng_footprints.html |archive-date=2010-07-25 }}</ref> * [[Nelson Bay Cave]] (vyaka 9000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * Jubilee Shelter (vyaka 8500 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[Twyfelfontein]] (vyaka 5850 BP)<ref name="Imalwa">{{cite web |last1=Imalwa |first1=Emma |title=Analysis of the Management of Twyfelfontein World Heritage Site, Namibia |url=https://repositorio.utad.pt/bitstream/10348/6089/1/phd_eimalwa.pdf |publisher=Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro}}</ref> * [[Rose Cottage Cave]] (vyaka 4000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[The White Lady (Namibia)|The White Lady]] (3000 B.C.E. – 1500 B.C.E.)<ref name="Dubow">{{cite web |last1=Dubow |first1=Saul |title=Henri Breuil And The Imagination Of Prehistory:'Mixing Up Rubble, Trouble And Stratification' |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332735840 |publisher=South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series}}</ref> * [[Mussel Point]] (vyaka 3500 BP)<ref name="Jerardino">{{cite web |last1=Jerardino |first1=Antonieta |title=Mid- to late-Holocene sea-level fluctuations: the archaeological evidence at Tortoise Cave, south-western Cape, South Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292257945 |publisher=Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Wetenskap}}</ref> * [[Byneskranskop]] (vyaka 3200 BP – 1500 BP)<ref name="Bräuer">{{cite book |last1=Bräuer |first1=Günter |last2=Friedrich |first2=Wilhelm Rösing |title=Afrika II: Südafrika: Human biological history of southern Africa. Le peuplement de Madagascar |date=Dec 3, 2018 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-486-82584-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7N6DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Bambandyanalo%22+%22BP%22+Africa&pg=PA6}}</ref> * [[Driekops Eiland]] (vyaka 2500 BP)<ref name="Morris">{{cite web |last1=Morris |first1=David Roger Neacalbann McIntyre |title=Driekopseiland and "the rain's magic power': history and landscape in a new interpretation of a Northern Cape rock engraving site |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/58912508.pdf |publisher=University of Western Cape}}</ref> * [[Bambata Cave]] (mu chaka cha 215 C.E.)<ref name="Huffman">{{cite web |last1=Huffman |first1=Thomas |title=The stylistic origin of Bambata and the spread of mixed farming in southern Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264852616 |publisher=Southern African Humanities}}</ref> * [[Ziwa]] (vyaka 1630 BP)<ref name="Huffman II">{{cite web |last1=Huffman |first1=Thomas |title=Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The Origin and Spread of Social Complexity in Southern Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248572439 |publisher=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology}}</ref> * [[Chibuene]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 7 C.E.)<ref name="Robertshaw">{{cite web |last1=Robertshaw |first1=Peter |display-authors=etal |title=Glass finds from Chibuene, a 6th to 17th century AD port in southern Mozambique |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265050510 |publisher=The South African Archaeological Bulletin}}</ref> * [[Toutswemogala Hill]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 7 C.E. – 19 C.E.)<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web |title=Toutswemogala Hill Iron Age Settlement |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1340/ |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> * [[Leopard's Kopje]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 750 C.E. – 800 C.E.)<ref name="Huffman III">{{cite web |last1=Huffman |first1=Thomas |title=A cultural proxy for drought: ritual burning in the Iron age of Southern Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248579741 |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science}}</ref> * [[Bambandyanalo]] (mu chaka cha 1000 C.E.)<ref name="Bräuer" /> * [[Great Zimbabwe]] (mu chaka cha 1300 C.E.)<ref name="Huffman IV">{{cite journal |last1=Huffman |first1=Tom |title=Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The origin and spread of social complexity in southern Africa |date=2009 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7500155 |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|volume=28 |pages=37–54 |doi=10.1016/J.JAA.2008.10.004 }}</ref> * [[Domboshaba]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1300 C.E. – 1600 C.E.)<ref name="De Wit">{{cite journal |last1=De Wit |first1=Michiel C. J. |title=Prospecting history leading to the discovery of Botswana's diamond mines: from artefacts to Lesedi La Rona |year=2018 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00710-018-0556-0 |journal=Mineralogy and Petrology|volume=112 |issue=1 |pages=7–22 |doi=10.1007/s00710-018-0556-0 |bibcode=2018MinPe.112....7D |hdl=2263/64747 |s2cid=189943118 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Majojo]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1300 C.E. – 1650 C.E.)<ref name="Ossola">{{cite book |last1=Ossola |first1=Paola |last2=Grechi |first2=Daniele |title=Botswana Cultural Heritage and Sustainable Tourism Development A Handbook of Theory and Practice |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |page=253 |isbn=978-1-5275-4956-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkfhDwAAQBAJ&dq=Majojo+1300-1650+AD&pg=PA253}}</ref> * [[Mbande Hill]] (vyaka 600 BP)<ref name="Seitsonen">{{cite web |last1=Seitsonen |first1=Oula |title=Lithics After Stone Age In East Africa Wadh Lang'o Case Study |url=https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/19613/lithicsa.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y |publisher=University Of Helsinki Institute For Cultural Studies}}</ref> * [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1370 C.E. – 1410 C.E.)<ref name="Bräuer" /> * [[Manyikeni]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 14 C.E.)<ref name="Jopela">{{cite web |last1=Jopela |first1=Albino Pereira de Jesus |title=Traditional Custodianship Of Rock Art Sites In Southern Africa: A Case Study From Central Mozambique |url=http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/8878/MA%20Thesis%20-%20Jopela.pdf?sequence=2 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand}}</ref> * [[Khami]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1450 C.E. – 1820 C.E.)<ref name="Chirikure">{{cite journal |last1=Chirikure |first1=Shadreck |display-authors=etal |title=New Pathways of Sociopolitical Complexity in Southern Africa |year=2013 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10437-013-9142-3?shared-article-renderer |journal=African Archaeological Review|volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=339–366 |doi=10.1007/s10437-013-9142-3 |s2cid=254192991 |hdl=2263/41780 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Dzata ruins]] (pambere pa chaka cha 1600 C.E.)<ref name="Swanepoel">{{cite book |last1=Swanepoel |first1=Natalie |last2=Esterhuysen |first2=Amanda |title=Five Hundred Years Rediscovered: Southern African precedents and prospects |date=Aug 1, 2008 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-1-77614-228-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjZjDwAAQBAJ&q=dzata&pg=PT8}}</ref> * [[Blaauboschkraal stone ruins]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 16 C.E.)<ref name="Bokoni">{{cite web |title=The Bokoni story unearthed |date=26 February 2015 |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2015-02-26-the-bokoni-story-unearthed/ |publisher=Mail & Guardian Online}}</ref> * [[Ingombe Ilede]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 16 C.E.)<ref name="McIntosh">{{cite journal |last1=McIntosh |first1=Susan Keech |last2=Fagan |first2=Brian M. |title=Re-dating the Ingombe Ilede burials |date=2017 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/redating-the-ingombe-ilede-burials/E15825A560157DBC4389DD416013A859 |journal=Antiquity|volume=91 |issue=358 |pages=1069–1077 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.74 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Danangombe]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1650 C.E. – 1815 C.E.)<ref name="Pikirayi">{{cite book |last1=Pikirayi |first1=Innocent |title=The Zimbabwe Culture Origins and Decline of Social Complexity in Southern Zambezian States |date=2002 |publisher=AltaMira Press |isbn=978-0-585-38649-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ2aAAAAQBAJ&q=Danangombe}}</ref> * [[Burchell's Shelter]] (pamanyuma pa 1660 C.E.)<ref name="Vogel">{{cite web |last1=Vogel |first1=J.C. |display-authors=etal |title=Pretoria Radiocarbon Dates III |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/469F44D9DB5C543B6285300463751FF4/S003382220002018Xa.pdf/pretoria_radiocarbon_dates_iii.pdf |publisher=Radiocarbon}}</ref> * [[Mamuno Monument]] (vyaka 200 BP)<ref name="Litherland">{{cite journal |last1=Litherland |first1=M. |display-authors=etal |title=Rock Engravings from Mamuno |year=1975 |journal=Botswana Notes and Records|volume=7 |pages=19–28 |jstor=40979420 }}</ref> * [[Kaditshwene]] (mu chaka cha 1790 C.E.)<ref name="Boeyens">{{cite web |last1=Boeyens |first1=J.C.A. |last2=Plug |first2=I. |title='A chief is like an ash-heap on which is gathered all therefuse': the faunal remains from the central court middenat Kaditshwene |url=http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/4190/BOEYENS-high-res.pdf?sequence=1 |publisher=Annals Of The Ditsong National Museum Of Natural History}}</ref> * [[Bumbusi National Monument]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 18 C.E.)<ref name="Haynes">{{cite web |last1=Haynes |first1=Gary |title=Puzzling over the Bumbusi Spoor Engravings in Zimbabwe |work=Paper presented at SAA annual meeting |date=January 2010 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2916049 |publisher=SAA}}</ref> * [[Tlokwe Ruins]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 19 C.E.)<ref name="Anderson">{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Mark Steven |title=The historical archaeology of Marothodi: towards an understanding of space, identity and the organisation of production at an early 19th century Tlokwa capital in the Pilansberg region of South Africa |date=2009 |url=https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/8924 |publisher=University of Cape Town}}</ref> * [[Old Palapye]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 19 C.E.)<ref name="Reid">{{cite book |last1=Reid |first1=Andrew M. |last2=Lane |first2=Paul J. |title=African Historical Archaeologies |date=Nov 30, 2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-306-47996-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T3PUSDyy4vQC&q=Old+Palapye&pg=PA1}}</ref> * [[Dundo]] (mu chaka cha 1912 C.E.)<ref name="Bednarski">{{cite web |last1=Bednarski |first1=Cezary M |title=Urbanisation in Africa –Taking Angola as an Example |url=https://www.salzburgglobal.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Documents/2010-2019/2016/Session_559/C_Bednarski_.IABSE-Geneva_09.2015.pdf |publisher=IABSE Conference –Structural Engineering: Providing Solutions to Global Challenge}}</ref> ===Mndandanda wa mitundu ya vya m'mabwinja na malo gha m'mbiri=== * [[Mapanga gha Cango]] * [[Jiso la Kuruman]] * [[Maji ghakotcha gha Gwisho]] * [[Chuma cha Western Cape]] * [[Malo gha m'mabwinja gha Kathu]] * [[ǁKhauxaǃnas]] * [[Pango la Kogelbeen]] * [[Mission ya Kolobeng]] * [[Mabwinja gha Kweneng]] * [[Magosian]] * [[Makapansgat]] * [[Malapa Fossil Site, Mlonga wa Umo Ŵanthu Ŵakafumira]] * [[Pango la Melkhoutboom]] * [[Melville Koppies]] * [[Naletale]] * [[Malo gha myala yakuzizima gha Nooitgedacht]] * [[Ulamuliro wa vya chiharo cha Northern Cape]] * [[Mafunde gha Nyambwezi]] * [[Malo gha visulo vya Paternoster]] * [[Sangoan]] * [[Schoemansdal, Limpopo]] * [[Nyumba za myala za Sedan za nga njuchi]] * [[Malo gha vithuzithuzi vya pa myala gha Wildebeest Kuil]] * [[Pango la Witsie (Lekhalong la Witsie)]] ==Wonani so== *[[Mndandanda wa maufumu mu Africa mu nyengo yakale#Kummwera kwa Africa]] ==Mabuku gha umo vyafumira== {{reflist}} {{Africa topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Kummwera kwa Africa]] [[Category:Mbiri ya Kummwera kwa Africa]] [[Category:Mbiri ya Africa mwakuyana na chigaŵa]] [[Category:Africa iyo yili pasi pa Sahara]] [[Category:Mbiri ya chilengedwe ya Africa]] d47ytnysjywas6uinzli6jm6sfem7sy 0 49724 123270 122307 2026-10-13T20:49:26Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123270 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi cha pakati pa khoma la mbaru na chiuno}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Luwunda |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Waist.svg|220px|Luwunda la munthu]]<br/><small>Luwunda la munthu</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |228775 |} [[File:Waist to hip ratio-en.svg|thumb|Chiyelekezgero cha luwunda na chiuno]] '''Luwunda''' ni cigaŵa ca thupi icho chili pakati pa khoma la mbaru na chiuno. Kanandi, ndico cigaŵa cichoko comene pa thupi. Mzere wa luwunda ukung'anamura mzere wakuthambalira apo luwunda luli luchoko comene. Ungang'anamuraso muwoneskero wose wa luwunda. Chifukwa cha ici, na chifukwa chakuti luwunda kanandi lukuyowoyeka pamoza na nthumbo, ŵanthu ŵangasokonezgeka pakumanya nadi malo agho luwunda lulipo. Chinthu cinyake icho chikusokoneska ni kuti mzere wa luwunda ukupambana pa ŵanthu ŵakupambana. Kafukufuku wimoza ukalongora kuti kuyeza kwa munthu mwene, m'malo mwa kuyezgeka na wakusanda, kukupungura ukuru wa luwunda uwo ukumanyikwa, ndipo kupungura uku kukukura para thupi la munthu lili likuru comene. Mu kafukufuku uyu, luwunda lukayezgeka pa mbwera lukaŵa lukuru kuluska apo lukayezgeka pa luwunda lwanadi.<ref name="selfreport">{{Cite journal|last1=Bigaard|first1=Janne|last2=Spanggaard|first2=Iben|last3=Thomsen|first3=Birthe Lykke|last4=Overvad|first4=Kim|title=Self-Reported and Technician-Measured Waist Circumferences Differ in Middle-Aged Men and Women|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_2005-09_135_9/page/2263|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=135|issue=9|pages=2263–2270|date=2005-09-01|doi=10.1093/jn/135.9.2263|pmid=16140909}}</ref> Kuti muvimanye malo gha luwunda lwanadi, imilirani cimira, ndipo mupende thupi mbali yimoza, mwakukhozga malundi na chiuno kuti viŵe cimira. Malo agho thupi likujintha ndimo ni mzere wa luwunda wanadi. Kwakukho, luwunda lukuyezgeka pa mzere uwo uli pakati na pakati pa mbaru yapasi comene iyo yingakhwaskika na iliac crest. Ndiwo mung'anamuriro uwo World Health Organization yikugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="who">{{Cite web|author=World Health Organization|title=Waist Circumference and Waist–Hip Ratio, Report of a WHO Expert Consultation|date=2008-12-11|url=https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/44583/9789241501491_eng.pdf|access-date=2024-08-06}}</ref> Kwenekwene, luwunda lukuyezgeka pa mzere uwo uli mucoko comene, kanandi pacoko pachanya pa mbwera. Apo luwunda lukuŵa lwakutupa m'malo mwa kuŵa lwakunjilira mkati, nga umo mwanakazi wali pa nthumbo panji wanenepa comene, luwunda lungayezgeka pa mzere wa inchi yimoza pachanya pa mbwera. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mzere wa mbwera pera, kweni ici chingapangiska kupungura ukuru wa luwunda pakuyezga.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Female Body Characteristics Related to Bra Fit|year=2007|page=20}}</ref> Para wakugwiliskira ntchito makina ghakusanda thupi lose ghakupanga vithuzi vyakugwirizana (point cloud), viwangwa na mbwera vikusuzgika kumanyikwa kufuma mu vithuzi vyene. Mung'anamuriro umoza uwo ukugwiliskikira ntchito comene ni kuyeza pa masentimita 4 pachanya pa malo ghacoko gha kunyuma (SOB). Ici nkhwakwenelera yayi comene ku mung'anamuriro wakwenelera, ndipo masentimita 2 pachanya pa SOB nkhwakwenelera comene, umo vikawoneka mu kafukufuku wa ŵanakazi 106 ŵa vyaka, utali, uzito, na muwoneskero wakupambanapambana.<ref name="scanner1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|last3=Hayes|first3=Steve|last4=Brownbridge|first4=Kathryn|last5=Wren|first5=Paula|last6=Panchenko|first6=Anastasiia|title=The True Height of the Waist: Explorations of Automated Body Scanner Waist Definitions of the TC2 scanner|journal=Proc. of 5th Int. Conf. On 3D Body Scanning Technologies|pages=55–65|date=2014|doi=10.15221/14.055|isbn=978-3-033-04763-1}}</ref> Vinthu nga umo munthu wimilira (posture) vikukhwaska comene kuyeza kwa luwunda. Ntheura, kuyeza kwa gulu la ŵanthu kukukhumbikwira kuti wose ŵimilire munjila yiyeneyiyene.<ref name="scanner2">{{Cite journal|last1=Gill|first1=Simeon|last2=Parker|first2=Christopher J.|title=Scan posture definition and hip girth measurement: the impact on clothing design and body scanning|journal=Ergonomics|volume=60|issue=8|pages=1123–1136|date=2017|doi=10.1080/00140139.2016.1251621|pmid=27764997}}</ref> Chiyelekezgero cha luwunda na chiuno (waist–hip ratio) nkhu chiyelekezgero cha ukuru wa luwunda na ukuru wa chiuno. Chikuyezga umo mafuta ghakugaŵikira mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Han|first1=T.|last2=Van Leer|first2=E.|last3=Seidell|first3=J.|last4=Lean|first4=M.|title=Waist circumference action levels in the identification of cardiovascular risk factors: prevalence study in a random sample|journal=BMJ|volume=311|issue=7017|pages=1401–1405|date=1995|doi=10.1136/bmj.311.7017.1401|pmid=8520275}}</ref> Ukuru wa luwunda (waist circumference) ukulongora kunenepa kwa nthumbo, ndipo ni cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikugwiliskikira ntchito pakusanda "metabolic syndrome". Mafuta ghanandi mu nthumbo ni ntchindi yikuru ya nthenda ya mtima na nthenda zinyake izo zikwiza na kunenepa. Kafukufuku wakupharazgika mu European Heart Journal mu Epulo 2007 ukalongora kuti ukuru wa luwunda na chiyelekezgero cha luwunda na chiuno vyose ni vakulongolera masuzgo gha mtima.<ref name="ehj">{{Cite journal|last1=de Koning|first1=Lawrence|last2=Merchant|first2=A.T.|last3=Pogue|first3=J.|last4=Anand|first4=S.S.|title=Waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio as predictors of cardiovascular events: meta-regression analysis of prospective studies|journal=European Heart Journal|volume=28|issue=7|pages=850–856|date=2007|doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehm026|pmid=17403720}}</ref> The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute yikuŵika ntchindi ya nthenda izi kuŵa yikuru comene usange ŵanalume ŵali na luwunda lwakuluska masentimita 102 (mainchi 40) na ŵanakazi ŵali na luwunda lwakuluska masentimita 88 (mainchi 35).<ref name="nhlbi">{{Cite web|title=Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk|url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/risk.htm|website=www.nhlbi.nih.gov|publisher=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute}}</ref> Kuwonjezgapo, ukuru wa luwunda ukuwoneka kuti ni cakulongolera makora comene kuluska BMI (body mass index). Mwaciyelezgero, awo ŵakunyamula vinthu vitopa mu masuzo gha nkhongono ŵangaŵa na BMI yikuru, kweni ŵali na ntchindi yichoko ya masuzgo gha mtima. Kwa ŵanthu nga aŵa, ukuru wa luwunda ungaŵa cakulongolera makora comene umoyo wawo wose.<ref name="canada">{{Cite journal|last1=Dobbelsteyn|first1=C.J.|last2=Joffres|first2=M.R.|last3=MacLean|first3=D.R.|last4=Flowerdew|first4=G.|title=A comparative evaluation of waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index as indicators of cardiovascular risk factors. The Canadian Heart Health Surveys|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-obesity_2001-05_25_5/page/652|journal=International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders|volume=25|issue=5|pages=652–661|date=May 2001|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0801582|pmid=11360147}}</ref> Kafukufuku winyake ukulongora kuti ukuru wa luwunda ungamanyikwa kwizira mu nchito za ubongo, kulongora kukolerana kwa ubongo na kunenepa.<ref name="brain">{{Cite journal|last1=Farruggia|first1=M.C.|last2=Van Kooten|first2=M.J.|last3=Perszyk|first3=E.|last4=Burke|first4=M.V.|last5=Scheinost|first5=D.|last6=Constable|first6=T.C.|last7=Small|first7=D.M.|title=Identification of a brain fingerprint for overweight and obesity|journal=Physiology & Behavior|volume=222|pages=112940|date=August 2020|doi=10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112940|pmid=32417645}}</ref> Ukuru wa luwunda wakuluska comene ungapangiska kumanyikwa kwambura unenesko kwa umoyo wa viwangwa, para wakugwiliskira ntchito mung'anamuriro wakuchemeka "trabecular bone score".<ref name="tbs">{{Cite journal|last1=Stokar|first1=Joshua|last2=Ben-Porat|first2=Tair|last3=Kaluti|first3=Donia|last4=Abu-Gazala|first4=Mahmud|last5=Weiss|first5=Ram|last6=Mintz|first6=Yoav|last7=Elazari|first7=Ram|last8=Szalat|first8=Auryan|title=Trabecular Bone Score Preceding and during a 2-Year Follow-Up after Sleeve Gastrectomy: Pitfalls and New Insights|journal=Nutrients|volume=15|issue=15|pages=3481|date=2023|doi=10.3390/nu15153481|pmid=37571418}}</ref> Mu vyakuvwara vya sono, cigaŵa ico chikuchemeka luwunda nchapasi comene kuluska umo luwunda lukumanyikwira mu sayansi ya thupi. Pamanyuma pa kwiza kwa vyakuvwara vyapasi ivyo vikukhumba yayi kukolelezgeka kufuma pachanya, luwunda mu vyakuvwara lukasamira pasi, apo thupi likwamba kutupa na kupanga chiuno, apo pali cakukolelezgera. Ndipouli, cigaŵa ca luwunda chikupwelelekabe comene pakuyeza vyakuvwara pakupanga. Vinthu vyakujintha, nga ni unyolo wa nthumbo, vingavwarika pa luwunda lwa vyakuvwara panji pa luwunda lwanadi lwa thupi. Kupungura luwunda panji "kufundiska luwunda" (waist training) nkhwakuvwara corset panji cakuvwara cinyake icho chikukakira thupi kuti luwunda lupunguke panji lusinthe muwoneskero wake. Mbaru zinayi izo zikuyenda-yenda (floating ribs) zingakakika panji kusinthika kwamuyaya na vyakuvwara ivi. Girdle nayo yingagwiliskikira ntchito kusintha muwoneskero wa luwunda. Kupungura luwunda kungagwiliskikira ntchito waka kupungura utali wa luwunda. Kusintha uku kungaŵa kwamuyaya panji kwakanyengo kacoko. Kufundiska luwunda kungagwiliskikira ntchito kuti luwunda luŵe na muwoneskero wamuyaya wakupambana, nga umo ni luwunda luchoko comene comene. ==Ng'anamuro la lizgu== Mu Chingelezi, lizgu "waist" likung'anamura "cigaŵa capakati pa thupi", panjiso "cigaŵa ca vyakuvwara icho chikukolerana na luwunda". Kwamba kale, lizgu ili likafuma ku Chingelezi Chakale "wæst" ilo likang'anamura "kukura", pakuyowoya kuti ndimo thupi likukurira. Likafuma ku Proto-Germanic "*wahs-tu-", ilo likukolerana na mazgu gha vyaro vinyake nga ni Old Norse "vöxtr", Swedish "växt", na Old High German "wahst", ghose ghakung'anamura "kukura".<ref name="etymonline">{{Cite web|title=waist – Origin and meaning of waist by Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/waist|website=www.etymonline.com|access-date=2026-09-23}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Chiuno]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist}} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] tb7uj5whyg6rvf81nfzve94w6tdteih 0 49729 123280 123155 2026-10-13T21:08:28Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123280 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cimanyikwiro pa nthumbo apo mzati wa mbwera ukakolerananga}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Mbwera |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Human navel, female.jpg|220px|Mbwera ni cimanyikwiro cakutuwa, cakupapatala, panji cakunjilira mkati, ico chikukhalako pamanyuma pa mzati wa mbwera kudumuka]]<br/><small>Mbwera ni cimanyikwiro cakutuwa, cakupapatala, panji cakunjilira mkati, ico chikukhalako pamanyuma pa mzati wa mbwera kudumuka</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''umbilicus'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D014472 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A01.2.04.005 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |61584 |} '''Mbwera''' (mu uganga: ''umbilicus'') ni cimanyikwiro pa nthumbo, cakutuwa panji cakunjilira mkati, apo mzati wa mbwera ukakolerananga na mwana pa nyengo ya nthumbo. Mbwera yikugwiliskikira ntchito kupatura nthumbo mu magaŵa. Ni cimanyikwiro icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali nacho pa malo ghakoleranako, ndipo khungu la mumphepete mwa luwunda pa cigaŵa ca mbwera likutumizgika na mzirwe wa T10 (mzirwe wakhumi wa msana wa cifuwa). Mbwera yikuŵapo pafupifupi pa cigaŵa apo chiwangwa cacitatu na cacinayi cha msana (L3 na L4) vikukolerana, nangauli mwa ŵanthu ŵanyake yingaŵapo kufuma pa L3 mpaka L5.<ref name="khati"/> Mbwera ya munthu mzimu yili na vigaŵa. Pakati pake pali cimanyikwiro cakutuwa cakuchemeka "cikola ca mzati", ico ncimanyikwiro cakusazgika para mzati wa mbwera wadumuka. Kuzingilira cikola ici muli mphete yakukhora yakuchemeka "kola la mbwera". Kuzingilira kola ili muli khungu la mumphepete mwa mbwera. Kunyuma kwa mbwera muli mzati wakukhora wakuchemeka urachus, uwo ukufuma ku chiŵaya ca mkodzo. Chifukwa mbwera njakusazgika, njakupambana pa munthu waliyose. ==Mitundu ya mbwera== [[File:T-shaped navel.jpg|thumb|220px|Mbwera ya muwoneskero wa "T"]] Mbwera yingapambanikizgika mu magaŵa ghaŵiri ghakuru: mbwera yakutupa (yikuchemekaso "outie") na mbwera yakunjilira mkati (yikuchemekaso "innie"). Mbwera yakutupa ni iyo cikola ca mzati chikutuwa kuluska khungu la mumphepete mwa mbwera; mbwera yakunjilira mkati ni iyo cikola ca mzati chikutuwa yayi. Muli mitundu yinandi yakupambanikizgika comene, nga umo ni: mbwera yakuzingoka yikuru (round), mbwera yakutandalika kwima (vertical), mbwera yakupapatala (oval), mbwera ya muwoneskero wa "T", mbwera yakutandalika mumphepete (horizontal, iyo yikuwoneka pang'ono comene), mbwera yambura muwoneskero wakwenelera (distorted), mbwera yakuzingilizgika nga chizunguzungu (spiral), na mbwera yakugaŵikamo kuŵa viŵiri na mphuvya (split). Munyake, mbwera yingaŵa yakutuwa yose kwambura kuvundikika (protrusion), panji yingaŵa na mphuvya yicoko pakati pa cikola ca mzati kwambura kudumulapo khungu la kunja (circlet). ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Mbwera yakutupa yikupambana na hernia ya mbwera (umbilical hernia); hernia yikuŵapo usange cigaŵa cakutuwa chili na masentimita 5 panji kuluska.<ref name="meier"/> Muwoneskero wa mbwera ungasintha chifukwa cha kunenepa panji kuzenga thupi, kweni kusintha kwambura kumanyikwa ya cifukwa kungaŵa cimanyikwiro ca ascites (ndopa yakuwungana mu nthumbo). Mbwera yingaŵaso na umbilical sinus panji fistula, ivyo pa nyengo zinyake vingapangiska mvuchi wa nthenda za mwanakazi panji mafunthi kufuma mu mbwera, comenecomene chifukwa cha umbilical endometriosis.<ref name="bagade"/> Omphalitis ni kufuma kwa maka mu mbwera ya mwana mwanchanda, kanandi chifukwa cha tizirombo twakupangiska maka. Nthenda zinyake za kanthendere zingasazgikako kunanga kwa mbwera (umbilical metastases).<ref name="gabriele"/> Kafukufuku wasangaso kuti mbwera njakukhalamo tizirombo tuchoko (bacteria) twakupambanapambana comene pa munthu waliyose.<ref name="moreau"/> ==Mbwera mu opaleshoni== Kuti opaleshoni yireke kusazgapo cimanyikwiro cikuru, mbwera nyengo zinyake yikugwiliskikira ntchito nga malo gha kudumulira, nga umo ni pakuwuska appendix, chiŵaya ca nyongo, panji pa opaleshoni ya umbilicoplasty payekha.<ref name="kaehler"/><ref name="bruekers"/> ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Vinyama vyose ivyo vikubaba ŵana kwizira mu placenta vili na mbwera, nangauli mwa munthu njakuwoneka comene kuluska mwa vinyama vinyake. Vinyama ivyo vikubaba ŵana ŵamoyo vili na mbwera yakuzingoka nga umo ili mwa munthu, kweni mu vinyama ivyo vikutumbuka mazira (nga ni tuyuni), mbwera njakuwoneka nga mphuvya yakwima pa nthumbo. Muli so cizimba ca dinosaur (Psittacosaurus) ico chikasangika na mbwera iyo yikawoneka nga ya vinyama ivyo vikutumbuka mazira. ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Kufumiska pakuwaro mbwera na cigaŵa ca nthumbo kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukaŵa kwakuzomerezgeka yayi mu vikhalidwe vinyake vya ku Yuropu na ku America kwa nyengo yakale, ndipo kukawoneka nga kwambura mchindi. Mu malo ghanyake, kufumiska mbwera ya mwanakazi kukajalikizgika na malango, kweni maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ghasintha sono. Vyakuvwara nga ni crop top, ivyo vikufumiska mbwera na nthumbo, vyaŵa vyakuzomerezgeka comene mwa ŵanyamata. Mbwera na nthumbo vikuwoneka soso mu vyakuvwara vya sono nga ni bikini panji mavwalero ghakukwelera pasi pa nthumbo. Ku India, kufumiska mbwera na nthumbo kwaŵa kwakuzomerezgeka nyengo yitali, kwenerakwene mwa ŵanakazi ŵakuvwara sari.<ref name="banerjee"/> Ku Japan, mu nyengo yakale ya Jōmon, viwuni vitatu vichoko vikawikikanga pa vinthu vya dongo kulongora mabele na mbwera, kulongora muwoneskero wa mwanakazi. Mbwera yikakuzgika kuŵa yikuru comene, chifukwa cha kukhulupilira kuti mbwera ndiyo malo agho umoyo ukwambira.<ref name="naumann"/> Mu chikhalidwe ca ku Arabia na ku Levant, kuvina kwa belly dance ni mzimu wakuzomerezgeka uwo ukukhwaska comene nthumbo na mbwera. Mu Buddhism na Hinduism, chakra ya pa mbwera yikuchemeka manipura. Mu Hinduism, nkhongono ya kundalini nyengo zinyake yikuyowoyeka kuti yili pa mbwera. Mu qigong, mbwera yikuwoneka kuti ndiyo malo ghakuru gha nkhongono, ghakuchemeka dantian. ==Wonaniso== *[[Nthumbo]] *[[Luwunda]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="khati">{{Cite journal|last1=Khati|first1=Nadia J.|last2=Enquist|first2=Erik G.|last3=Javitt|first3=Marcia C.|title=Imaging of the Umbilicus and Periumbilical Region|journal=Radiographics|volume=18|issue=2|pages=413–431|year=1998|doi=10.1148/radiographics.18.2.9536487|pmid=9536487}}</ref> <ref name="meier">{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=Donald E.|last2=OlaOlorun|first2=David A.|last3=Omodele|first3=Rachael A.|last4=Nkor|first4=Sunday K.|last5=Tarpley|first5=John L.|title=Incidence of Umbilical Hernia in African Children: Redefinition of "Normal" and Reevaluation of Indications for Repair|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-journal-of-surgery_2001-05_25_5/page/645|journal=World Journal of Surgery|volume=25|issue=5|pages=645–648|year=2001|doi=10.1007/s002680020072|pmid=11369993}}</ref> <ref name="bagade">{{Cite journal|last1=Bagade|first1=Pallavi V.|last2=Guirguis|first2=Mamdouh M.|title=Menstruating from the umbilicus as a rare case of primary umbilical endometriosis: a case report|journal=Journal of Medical Case Reports|volume=3|pages=9326|year=2009|doi=10.1186/1752-1947-3-9326|pmid=20062755}}</ref> <ref name="gabriele">{{Cite journal|last1=Gabriele|first1=Raimondo|last2=Conte|first2=Marco|last3=Egidi|first3=Federico|last4=Borghese|first4=Mario|title=Umbilical metastases: current viewpoint|journal=World Journal of Surgical Oncology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=13|year=2005|doi=10.1186/1477-7819-3-13|pmid=15723695}}</ref> <ref name="moreau">{{Cite journal|last1=Moreau|first1=Corrie S.|last2=Hulcr|first2=Jiri|last3=Latimer|first3=Andrew M.|last4=Henley|first4=Jessica B.|last5=Rountree|first5=Nina R.|last6=Fierer|first6=Noah|last7=Lucky|first7=Andrea|last8=Lowman|first8=Margaret D.|last9=Dunn|first9=Robert R.|title=A Jungle in There: Bacteria in Belly Buttons are Highly Diverse, but Predictable|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=11|pages=e47712|year=2012|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0047712|pmid=23144827}}</ref> <ref name="kaehler">{{Cite journal|last1=Kaehler|first1=G.|last2=Schoenberg|first2=M. B.|last3=Kienle|first3=P.|last4=Post|first4=S.|last5=Magdeburg|first5=R.|title=Transgastric appendicectomy|journal=British Journal of Surgery|volume=100|issue=7|pages=911–915|year=2013|doi=10.1002/bjs.9115|pmid=23575528}}</ref> <ref name="bruekers">{{Cite journal|last1=Bruekers|first1=Sven E.|last2=van der Lei|first2=Berend|last3=Tan|first3=Tik L.|last4=Luijendijk|first4=Roland W.|last5=Stevens|first5=Hieronymus P. J. D.|title="Scarless" Umbilicoplasty|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-plastic-surgery_2009-07_63_1/page/15|journal=Annals of Plastic Surgery|volume=63|issue=1|pages=15–20|year=2009|doi=10.1097/SAP.0b013e3181877b60|pmid=19546666}}</ref> <ref name="naumann">{{Cite book|last=Naumann|first=Nelly|chapter=First Indications of Symbolic Expression|title=Japanese Prehistory: The Material and Spiritual Culture of the Jōmon Period|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2000|pages=114–115|isbn=978-3-447-04329-8}}</ref> <ref name="banerjee">{{Cite book|last1=Banerjee|first1=Mukulika|last2=Miller|first2=Daniel|title=The Sari|url=https://archive.org/details/sari0000bane|publisher=Berg|year=2003|isbn=1-85973-732-3}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 3zgw5oj9v71uraurz3i6efna2df8sc7 0 49744 123281 123166 2026-10-13T21:10:29Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123281 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca lundi cha pasi pa khongono, chapakati pa khongono na kalundi}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Munkhoza |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Tibia - frontal view.png|220px|Malo gha fupa la munkhoza (lakuwoneka lakusuzumira)]]<br/><small>Malo gha fupa la munkhoza (lakuwoneka lakusuzumira)</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''(os) tibia'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |MeSH | class="infobox-data" |D013977 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA98 | class="infobox-data" |A02.5.06.001 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |TA2 | class="infobox-data" |1397 |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |FMA | class="infobox-data" |24476 |} '''Munkhoza''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''shinbone'' panji ''shankbone'') ni cigaŵa cakunthazi ca lundi cha pasi pa khongono, chapakati pa khongono na kalundi.<ref name="drake1"/> Mu munkhoza muli mafupa ghaŵiri: '''fupa la munkhoza''' (ilo likuchemekaso ''tibia'') na ''fibula''. Fupa la munkhoza ndilo likuru, likukhora, kweniso ndilo lili kunthazi pakati pa mafupa ghaŵiri agha; ndilo fupa lacaŵiri pakukura mu thupi lose, kulondezga waka fupa la chigha (''femur''). Fupa la munkhoza likukolerana na ''fibula'' kwizira mu ''interosseous membrane'', kupanga mphambano yakuchemeka ''syndesmosis'' iyo njakusinthasintha pacoko waka. Fupa la munkhoza likukolelezga khongono na kalundi.<ref name="drake1"/> ==Muundo== ===Umaliro wakuchanya=== [[File:Gray257.png|thumb|left|Mphenuzi yakuchanya ya fupa la munkhoza la kumalyero (kunthazi kuli pachanya)]] Umaliro wakuchanya wa fupa la munkhoza ukukura mu upapi, ndipo uli na vikolerano viŵiri, cakumaso (''medial condyle'') na cakuwaro (''lateral condyle''), ivyo vikukolerana na fupa la chigha kupanga cigaŵa ca khongono icho chikutola nkhongono ya thupi. Pakati pa vikolerano viŵiri ivi pali malo ghakuchemeka ''intercondylar area'', apo ''ligament'' zakuzingoka (''cruciate ligaments'') na ''menisci'' vikukolerapo.<ref name="drake2"/> Pasi pa vikolerano ndimo muli ''tibial tuberosity'', malo agho ''ligament'' ya khongono (''patellar ligament''), iyo njakulondezga minofu ya ''quadriceps femoris'', yikukolerapo.<ref name="drake2"/> ===Thupi la fupa=== [[File:Gray258.png|thumb|Mafupa gha lundi lakumalyero, kulaŵiskira kunthazi]] Thupi (panji ''shaft'') la fupa la munkhoza ndakupanga vikwapa vitatu (''triangular'' mu muwonekero), ndipo lili na mphenuzi zitatu — yakunthazi, yakumaso, na yakuwaro — izo zikupanga mphande zitatu za fupa. Mphenuzi yakunthazi njakumanyikwira comene, ndipo yikukhala pasi pa khungu kwambura kuvundikika na minofu.<ref name="drake2"/> ===Umaliro wapasi=== [[File:Tibia - inferior epiphysis (anterior view).jpg|thumb|Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza la kumalyero, kulaŵiskira kunthazi]] Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza uli mucoko kuluska umaliro wakuchanya, ndipo ukufumiska cigaŵa ca fupa cakukhora chakuchemeka ''medial malleolus''. Umaliro wapasi wa fupa la munkhoza, pamoza na ''fibula'' na fupa la ''talus'', ukupanga kalundi.<ref name="drake2"/> ==Ndopa== Fupa la munkhoza likupokera ndopa kufuma ku vyanthowa viŵiri: msambizi wakuzirwa comene (''nutrient artery''), na misambizi yicoko ya pachanya pa fupa (''periosteal vessels'') iyo yikufuma ku ''anterior tibial artery''.<ref name="nelson"/> ==Viungo== Fupa la munkhoza nchakusazgika mu viungo vinayi: khongono, kalundi, na viungo viŵiri vya pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' (''superior tibiofibular joint'' na ''inferior tibiofibular joint''), ivyo vikuzomerezga kusinthasintha pacoko waka.<ref name="drake2"/> Kalundi (''talocrural joint'') ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo iyo yikukolezga maumaliro ghapasi gha fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' na fupa la ''talus''.<ref name="drake2"/> ==Kukura kwa fupa== [[File:Gray260.png|thumb|Mzere wa kukura kwa fupa la munkhoza, kufuma ku malo ghatatu]] Fupa la munkhoza likukura kufuma ku malo ghatatu: limoza mu thupi la fupa, na linyake mu umaliro uliwose. Kukura uku kukwamba mu upapi, pafupifupi mulungu wacinkhonde na ciŵiri, ndipo kukulutilira mpaka ku maumaliro. Umaliro wakuchanya na wapasi vikukolerana na thupi la fupa mu vyaka vyakukura, cimoza pafupi na vyaka 18 na cinyake pafupi na vyaka 20.<ref name="drake1"/> ==Nkhongono na nchito== Minofu yinandi njakukolerapo pa fupa la munkhoza, kusazgapo ''quadriceps femoris'', ''sartorius'', ''gracilis'', na ''semitendinosus'' (izo zikukolerana pa cigaŵa cakuchemeka ''pes anserinus''), ''popliteus'', ''tibialis anterior'', ''extensor digitorum longus'', ''soleus'', na ''flexor digitorum longus''.<ref name="bojsen"/> Fupa la munkhoza likutola nkhongono yikuru pa nyengo ya kwenda, ndipo mu vigaŵa vyakukalipa vya kwenda likutola nkhongono ya kufika pa 4.7 kuyana na unenepa wa thupi.<ref name="wehner"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la munkhoza kungapambanikizgika kuŵa ako kukukolerana na fupa la munkhoza pelakene, panji ako kukusazgapo fupa la ''fibula'' nako. Cigaŵa ca thupi la fupa la munkhoza ndico malo ghakuzomerezgeka comene agho ŵanthu ŵakucita masewera ŵakusangikirapo kutimbanyika kwakufuma ku kugwiliskira ntchito nyengo yitali (''stress fracture'').<ref name="mccormick"/> ==Mu chikhalidwe na miko== Mu chisopa ca Chiyuda, fupa la munkhoza la mbuzi panji la mberere likugwiliskikira ntchito pa mbale ya ''Seder'' pa nyengo ya Paska. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Khongono]] *[[Kalundi]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="drake1">{{Cite book|last1=Drake|first1=Richard L.|last2=Vogl|first2=A. Wayne|last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.|title=Gray's Anatomy for Students|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5|edition=2nd|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|year=2010|pages=[https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5/page/558 558]–560|isbn=978-0-443-06952-9}}</ref> <ref name="drake2">{{Cite book|last1=Drake|first1=Richard L.|last2=Vogl|first2=A. Wayne|last3=Mitchell|first3=Adam W. M.|title=Gray's Anatomy for Students|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5|edition=2nd|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|year=2010|pages=[https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyfors0000drak_u8f5/page/584 584]–588|isbn=978-0-443-06952-9}}</ref> <ref name="nelson">{{Cite journal|last1=Nelson|first1=G.|last2=Kelly|first2=P.|last3=Peterson|first3=L.|last4=Janes|first4=J.|title=Blood supply of the human tibia|journal=Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, American Volume|volume=42-A|issue=4|pages=625–636|year=1960|doi=10.2106/00004623-196042040-00007|pmid=13854090}}</ref> <ref name="bojsen">{{Cite book|last1=Bojsen-Møller|first1=Finn|last2=Simonsen|first2=Erik B.|last3=Tranum-Jensen|first3=Jørgen|title=Bevægeapparatets anatomi|edition=12th|year=2001|pages=364–367|isbn=978-87-628-0307-7|language=da}}</ref> <ref name="wehner">{{Cite journal|last1=Wehner|first1=T.|last2=Claes|first2=L.|last3=Simon|first3=U.|title=Internal loads in the human tibia during gait|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-biomechanics_2009-03_24_3/page/299|journal=Clinical Biomechanics|volume=24|issue=3|pages=299–302|year=2009|doi=10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2008.12.007|pmid=19185959}}</ref> <ref name="mccormick">{{Cite journal|last1=McCormick|first1=Frank|last2=Nwachukwu|first2=Benedict U.|last3=Provencher|first3=Matthew T.|title=Stress Fractures in Runners|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinics-in-sports-medicine_2012-04_31_2/page/291|journal=Clinics in Sports Medicine|volume=31|issue=2|pages=291–306|year=2012|doi=10.1016/j.csm.2011.09.012|pmid=22341018}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 1qp8r3qbjxhwww679s0jkmiqiz0yxq9 0 49745 123279 123149 2026-10-13T21:07:20Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123279 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mphambano ya lundi iyo yikukolezga chigha na munkhoza}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Khongono |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Human knees.jpg|150px|Makhongono gha munthu]]<br/><small>Makhongono gha munthu</small> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Blausen 0597 KneeAnatomy Side.png|220px|Khongono la kumalyerero (kulaŵiska cakunthazi-kumalyerero)]]<br/><small>Khongono la kumalyerero (kulaŵiska cakunthazi-kumalyerero)</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''articulatio genus'' |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Mfumo | class="infobox-data" |Mfumo wa mafupa na minofu |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |Mzirwe | class="infobox-data" |Femoral, obturator, sciatic |} Mwa ŵanthu na ma primates ghanyake, '''khongono''' ni mphambano iyo yikukolezga chigha na lundi lapasi, ndipo yili na mphambano ziŵiri: yimoza pakati pa fupa la chigha na fupa la munkhoza (tibiofemoral joint), na yinyake pakati pa fupa la chigha na fupa la khongono (patellofemoral joint).<ref name="chhajer"/> Ndilo mphambano likuru comene mu thupi la munthu.<ref name="kulowski"/> Khongono ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo (''modified hinge joint''), iyo yikuzomerezga kunyoloka na kupinda, kweniso kuzungusika pacoko mkati na kuwaro. Khongono ni malo ghakuzomerezgeka pakupwetekeka na pakusangika osteoarthritis. Kanandi khongono likuchemeka "mphambano yakusazgika" (''compound joint''), chifukwa chili na vigaŵa viŵiri: tibiofemoral na patellofemoral.<ref name="rytter"/> ==Muundo== Khongono ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo, mtundu wa ''synovial joint'', iyo yili na vigaŵa vitatu vyakukolerana: mphambano ya patellofemoral (iyo yili na fupa la khongono na chipindi cakuchemeka ''patellar groove'' pa fupa la chigha, apo fupa la khongono likuzuzumira); na mphambano ziŵiri za tibiofemoral (za kumaso na kuwaro) izo zikukolezga fupa la chigha na fupa la munkhoza.<ref name="burgener"/> Mphambano yili na ''synovial fluid'' iyo yili mu thumba lakuchemeka ''joint capsule''. Khongono ni mphambano likuru comene, ndipo lili na nchito yikuzirwa comene pa kwenda (kucimbira na kwenda) na pakuluka.<ref name="lecturio"/> Pakubabika, fupa la khongono likuŵa lachali kupangika na cartilage pera, ndipo likusintha kuŵa fupa (''ossification'') pakati pa vyaka vitatu na vinkhonde. Chifukwa ndilo fupa likuru comene la mtundu wa ''sesamoid bone'' mu thupi la munthu, nchito ya kusintha uku yikutora nyengo yitali comene.<ref name="howstuffworks"/> ===Viŵalo vyakukolerana=== Viŵalo vikuru vyakukolerana pa fupa la chigha ni condyle ziŵiri, ''lateral condyle'' na ''medial condyle''. Izi zikupambana pacoko mu muwoneskero: ''lateral condyle'' njakutandalika comene kunthazi kuluska kunyuma, apo ''medial condyle'' njakuyana pa utali wake wose.<ref name="platzer"/> Ma condyle gha munkhoza (''tibial condyles'') ghawiri ghakupatulika na malo ghakuchemeka ''intercondylar eminence''.<ref name="platzer"/> Fupa la khongono nalo ndichiŵalo cakukolerana; thupi lake lakunyuma likuchemeka ''trochlea'' ya khongono, ndipo likukolerana na chipindi ca fupa la chigha icho chikukolezga ma condyle ghaŵiri gha kunthazi.<ref name="platzer"/> ===Thumba la mphambano=== Thumba la mphambano (''joint capsule'') lili na thako la ''synovial'' na thako lakukhora, izo zikupatulika na mafuta. Kunthazi, thako la ''synovial'' likukolerana na mphepete za cartilage pa fupa la chigha na pa fupa la munkhoza, ndipo likujintha kuluta ku ''suprapatellar bursa''.<ref name="platzer"/> Kunyuma, thako la ''synovial'' likukolerana na mphepete za ma condyle gha fupa la chigha, kupanga vigaŵa viŵiri (''semimembranosus bursa'' na ''popliteal bursa'').<ref name="ryan"/> ===Mizirwe=== Khongono likulongozgeka na mizirwe yinandi. Cigaŵa ca kumaso-kuchanya cikulongozgeka na mizirwe ya ''vastus lateralis'', ''vastus intermedius'', ''sciatic nerve'', na mizirwe ya ''genicular''. Cigaŵa ca kumalyerero-kuchanya cikulongozgeka na mizirwe ya ''vastus medialis'', ''obturator nerve'', na ''sciatic nerve''. Cigaŵa ca kupasi cikulongozgeka na mizirwe yicoko ya ''genicular'' na nthowa ya ''saphenous nerve''.<ref name="tran"/> Khoma lakunyuma la thumba la mphambano likulongozgeka comene na ''tibial nerve'', pamoza na ''obturator'' na ''common fibular nerve''.<ref name="fonk"/> ===Bursa=== Muli bursa zinandi izo zikuzingilira khongono. Bursa yikuru comene ni ''suprapatellar bursa''. Bursa zinayi zichoko zili kunyuma kwa khongono, ndipo bursa ziŵiri zambura kukolerana zili kunthazi kwa fupa la khongono na pasi pa tendon yake.<ref name="platzer"/> ===Cartilage=== Cartilage ni thako lakuzunguka ndipo lakusinthasintha ilo likuvikilira fupa na kuzomerezga viŵalo vya mphambano kuzuzumirana mwakupepuka. Muli mitundu yiŵiri ya cartilage mu khongono: cartilage yakukhora (''meniscus'') na ''hyaline cartilage''. ''Hyaline cartilage'' yikuvundikira malo agho mphambano yikuzuzumirapo. Mkati mwa ''hyaline cartilage'' mulije misambizi ya ndopa; chakulya chake chikwiza kwizira mu ''synovial fluid'' na mafupa ghakuzingilira. Kwenda kwa vyaka, cartilage yikuvunda, ndipo yili na nkhongono yicoko yakujizenga payekha.<ref name="britannica"/> ===Meniscus=== {{Main|Meniscus}} Vigaŵa vya cartilage vya khongono vikuchemeka ''menisci'' chifukwa vikugaŵa mphambano mu vigaŵa viŵiri pera. Ma meniscus ghaŵiri agha, ''medial meniscus'' na ''lateral meniscus'', ghali na thako la ''connective tissue'' lakuŵa na fiber zinandi za ''collagen''. Ma meniscus ghakupapatalira pakati pa mphambano, ghakukolerana na thako la ''synovial'' mumphepete, ndipo ghangazuzumira pa fupa la munkhoza.<ref name="platzer"/><ref name="ryan"/> ''Medial meniscus'' njikuru, njambura kuzingoka comene, kweniso njakuzunguka comene. ''Lateral meniscus'' nchichoko, chakuzingoka comene (pafupifupi kuŵa mzere wakuzingoka wose), ndipo chili na uzito wakuyana comene kuluska ''medial meniscus''. ''Lateral meniscus'' nchambura kukolerana comene na thumba la mphambano, chifukwa tendon ya ''popliteus'' yikwenda pakati pake na thumba.<ref name="ryan"/> ===Ligament=== [[File:Knee diagram.svg|thumb|220px|Khongono la kumalyerero, kulaŵiska cakunthazi-kuwaro]] Ma ligament ghakuzingilira khongono ghakupeleka nkhongono kwa mphambano, kucepeska kuzuzumira kwake, ndipo pamoza na ma meniscus na bursa, ghakuvikilira thumba la mphambano.<ref name="goldman"/> ====Za mkati mwa thumba (Intracapsular)==== Khongono likukhozgeka na ligament ziŵiri izo zikuzingoka (''cruciate ligaments''), izo zili mkati mwa thumba la mphambano.<ref name="kam"/> ''Anterior cruciate ligament'' (ACL) yikufuma ku ''lateral condyle'' ya fupa la chigha na kuluta ku malo gha kunthazi pakati pa ma condyle gha munkhoza; yikukanizga fupa la munkhoza kuti lireke kusonkhezgeka comene kunthazi.<ref name="ryan"/> ''Posterior cruciate ligament'' (PCL) yikufuma ku ''medial condyle'' na kuluta ku malo gha kunyuma; yikukanizga fupa la munkhoza kusonkhezgeka kunyuma.<ref name="ryan"/> Muli soso ''transverse ligament'' iyo yikukolezga ma meniscus ghaŵiri kunthazi, na ma ligament gha ''meniscofemoral'' (gha Wrisberg na Humphrey) agho ghakukolezga ''lateral meniscus'' na fupa la chigha.<ref name="platzer"/> ====Za kuwaro kwa thumba (Extracapsular)==== ''Patellar ligament'' yikukolezga fupa la khongono na fupa la munkhoza (pa ''tibial tuberosity''); nyengo zinyake yikuchemekaso ''patellar tendon''.<ref name="medterms"/> ''Medial collateral ligament'' (MCL) yikufuma ku fupa la chigha na kuluta ku fupa la munkhoza mumphepete wa mkati, ndipo yikuvikilira khongono ku nkhongono iyo yingapangiska kupinduka kuwaro (''valgus''). ''Lateral collateral ligament'' (LCL) yikufuma ku fupa la chigha na kuluta ku ''fibula'' mumphepete wakuwaro, ndipo yikuvikilira khongono ku nkhongono iyo yingapangiska kupinduka mkati (''varus'').<ref name="platzer"/> Kunyuma kwa khongono muli ma ligament ghaŵiri ghanyake, ''oblique popliteal ligament'' na ''arcuate popliteal ligament''.<ref name="platzer"/> ==Minofu== Minofu yinandi iyo yikukolerapo pa khongono yikufuma ku vigaŵa vya kunthazi, vya mkati, na vya kunyuma vya chigha. Minofu ya kunyoloka (extensors) yikufuma comenecomene ku cigaŵa ca kunthazi, apo minofu ya kupinda (flexors) yikufuma ku cigaŵa ca kunyuma. Minofu yikuru ya kunyoloka ni ''quadriceps femoris'', iyo yikupangika na ''rectus femoris'', ''vastus lateralis'', ''vastus intermedius'', na ''vastus medialis'' — yose yikukolerana pa fupa la khongono na fupa la munkhoza kwizira mu ''patellar ligament''.<ref name="gosling"/> Minofu yikuru ya kupinda ni ''hamstring'' — ''biceps femoris'', ''semitendinosus'', na ''semimembranosus'' — pamoza na ''sartorius'', ''gracilis'', na ''popliteus''. Mnofu wa ''gastrocnemius'', uwo ukufuma pa ma condyle gha fupa la chigha, ukovwiraso pang'ono pakupinda khongono, kweni nchito yake yikuru ni pa lundi.<ref name="gosling"/> ==Ndopa== [[File:Gray552.png|thumb|220px|Misambizi ya ndopa ya khongono]] Msambizi wa ''femoral artery'' na wa ''popliteal artery'' ndivyo vikupanga mtundu wa mzere wa misambizi (''plexus'') uwo ukuzingilira khongono. Muli misambizi yikuru yinkhonde: ziŵiri za ''superior genicular artery'', ziŵiri za ''inferior genicular artery'', ''descending genicular artery'', na nthowa yakuwelera ya ''anterior tibial artery''.<ref name="shim"/> ==Ntchito== Khongono likuzomerezga kunyoloka na kupinda kuzingilira mzere wakupambanika, kweniso kuzungusika pacoko mkati na kuwaro apo khongono lili kupindika. Khongono likuchemeka "lakusunkha" chifukwa fupa la chigha na ''lateral meniscus'' vikusunkha pachanya pa fupa la munkhoza pa nyengo ya kuzungusika, apo fupa la chigha likuzuzumira na kusunkha pa ma meniscus ghaŵiri pa nyengo ya kupinda na kunyoloka.<ref name="platzer"/> Kunyoloka kukuzomerezgeka pakati pa madigiri 5 na 10, apo kupinda kukuzomerezgeka pakati pa madigiri 120 na 150.<ref name="thieme"/> Pakunyoloka kwakumaliro, khongono likuzungusika pang'ono mkati (madigiri 5), nchito iyo yikuchemeka "obligatory terminal rotation". Apo khongono lanyoloka, ma ligament gha ''collateral'' ghakukhora, apo ma ''cruciate ligament'' ghakukhora comene apo khongono lapindika.<ref name="platzer"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== [[File:918 Knee Injury.jpg|thumb|220px|Kupwetekeka kwa khongono kufuma ku nkhongono ya mumphepete kungadumura MCL, ACL, na medial meniscus]] Kupweteka kwa khongono kukufuma ku kupwetekeka, kusinthika kwa muwoneskero, kuvunda, na masuzgo agho ghakupangiska arthritis.<ref name="afra"/> Suzgo lakuzomerezgeka comene ni ''patellofemoral syndrome'', ilo likupangika na kupatana kwa fupa la khongono na fupa la chigha, panji na kudumuka na kusonkhezgeka kwa khongono.<ref name="afra"/> ''Prepatellar bursitis'', iyo yikuchemekaso "khongono la muteŵeti wa nyumba" (''housemaid's knee''), ni kuvimba na kupweteka kwa bursa ya kunthazi kwa fupa la khongono, kwakufuma comenecomene ku nchito zakukhalapo pa mawondo nyengo yitali. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugegha ŵakusanga kupweteka kwa khongono kufuma ku osteoarthritis. Kupepuka kwa minofu iyo yikuzingilira khongono kungawonjezgaso suzgo ili.<ref name="pill"/> Kunenepa nakoso nkhwakovwira kuwonjezga kupweteka, chifukwa nkhongono iyo yikuŵikika pa khongono pakwenda yikuwonjezgeka comene para thupi lanenepa.<ref name="andrish"/> ===Kudumuka kwa ligament na cartilage=== Cigaŵa cakuzomerezgeka comene kudumuka ni ''anterior cruciate ligament'' (ACL), comenecomene mu masewera agho ghakukhumba kuzungusika kwa khongono mwakukalipa. Para ACL yadumuka, kanandi munthu wakupulika mvwerere, ndipo lundi lingambiskira kukoma kwambura mazgu.<ref name="acl"/> Kudumuka kwakucoko kungacira kwambura opaleshoni, kweni kudumuka kukuru kukukhumbikwa opaleshoni. ''Meniscus'' nayo yingadumuka pa nyengo ya masewera, comenecomene khongono likazungusika. Kudumuka kucoko kungalozgeka kwambura opaleshoni, kweni kudumuka kukuru kanandi kukukhumbikwa opaleshoni.<ref name="tandeter"/> Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la khongono nkhwakusoŵeka, kweni kungachitika comenecomene pa ngozi za magalimoto.<ref name="segond"/> Ma tendon gha ''quadriceps'' na ''patellar'' nagho ghangadumuka para khongono lakakamizgika mwankhongono; usange tendon yadumuka yose, kupinda panji kunyoloka lundi kukusuzga. ===Kupinduka kwa khongono (varus na valgus)=== [[File:Hip-knee-ankle angle.png|thumb|150px|Ngodya ya chiuno-khongono-kalundi]] ''Genu valgum'' ni apo fupa la munkhoza likupinduka kuwaro kuyana na fupa la chigha, kupangiska malundi kukhwaskana. ''Genu varum'' ni apo fupa la munkhoza likupinduka mkati, kupangiska malundi kupatukana, muwoneskero uwo ukuchemeka "kupendeka kwa malundi".<ref name="dahl"/> ===Kunozga na kutaŵiska=== [[File:Prothese-genou-IMG 0033.jpg|thumb|220px|Cizinganya cakulongora vigaŵa vya khongono lakupangika (opaleshoni ya kusintha khongono)]] Ŵalwari ŵanandi ŵawo ACL yikadumuka ŵakachitikirwa opaleshoni na kupumulira myezi yinandi, kweni sono, kwizira mu ''arthroscopy'', ŵanthu ŵangenda kwambura ma crutches mu majuma ghaŵiri, ndipo ŵangawelera ku masewera mu myezi yicoko.<ref name="uw"/> Para khongono lanangika comene, opaleshoni ya kusintha khongono (''knee replacement'') yingachitika, kuŵikapo vigaŵa vyakupangika kuti vitolere malo gha vigaŵa vyakununkha. ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Mwa munthu, "khongono" likung'anamura mphambano pakati pa fupa la chigha, fupa la munkhoza, na fupa la khongono. Mwa vinyama ivyo vikwenda na malundi ghanayi (nga ni mbwa, hachi, na mbeba), mphambano yakuyana yikuchemeka ''stifle joint''. Mu tuyuni, "khongono" ni mphambano pakati pa fupa la chigha na fupa lakuchemeka ''tibiotarsus''.<ref name="birds"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Chigha]] *[[Munkhoza]] *[[Kalundi]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="chhajer">{{Cite book|last=Chhajer|first=Bimal|chapter=Anatomy of Knee|title=Knee Pain|publisher=Fusion Books|year=2006|pages=10–11|isbn=978-81-8419-181-3}}</ref> <ref name="kulowski">{{Cite journal|last1=Kulowski|first1=Jacob|title=Flexion contracture of the knee|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-bone-and-joint-surgery_1932-07_14_3/page/618|journal=The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery|volume=14|issue=3|pages=618–663|year=1932}}</ref> <ref name="rytter">{{Cite journal|last1=Rytter|first1=Søren|last2=Egund|first2=Niels|last3=Jensen|first3=Lilli|last4=Bonde|first4=Jens|title=Occupational kneeling and radiographic tibiofemoral and patellofemoral osteoarthritis|journal=Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology|volume=4|pages=19|year=2009|doi=10.1186/1745-6673-4-19|pmid=19594940}}</ref> <ref name="burgener">{{Cite book|last1=Burgener|first1=Francis A.|last2=Meyers|first2=Steven P.|last3=Tan|first3=Raymond K.|last4=Zaunbauer|first4=Wolfgang|title=Differential Diagnosis in Magnetic Resonance Imaging|url=https://archive.org/details/differentialdiag0000unse_p4x3|publisher=Thieme|year=2002|page=[https://archive.org/details/differentialdiag0000unse_p4x3/page/390 390]|isbn=978-1588900852}}</ref> <ref name="lecturio">{{Cite web|title=Knee Joint|publisher=The Lecturio Medical Concept Library|access-date=2021-06-22}}</ref> <ref name="howstuffworks">{{Cite web|title=Do babies have kneecaps?|publisher=HowStuffWorks.com|date=2009-02-19}}</ref> <ref name="platzer">{{Cite book|last=Platzer|first=Werner|title=Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System|edition=5th|publisher=Thieme|year=2004|pages=26, 192–252|isbn=978-1588901590}}</ref> <ref name="ryan">{{Cite book|last1=Ryan|first1=Stephanie|title=Anatomy for diagnostic imaging|edition=3rd|publisher=Elsevier Ltd|year=2011|pages=289, 292|isbn=978-0702029714}}</ref> <ref name="tran">{{Cite journal|last1=Tran|first1=J.|last2=Peng|first2=P.W.|last3=Lam|first3=K.|last4=Baig|first4=E.|last5=Agur|first5=A.M.|last6=Gofeld|first6=M.|title=Anatomical Study of the Innervation of Anterior Knee Joint Capsule|journal=Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine|volume=43|issue=4|pages=407–414|year=2018|pmid=29557887}}</ref> <ref name="fonk">{{Cite journal|last1=Fonkoué|first1=L.|last2=Behets|first2=C.|last3=Kouassi|first3=J.K.|last4=Coyette|first4=M.|last5=Detrembleur|first5=C.|last6=Thienpont|first6=E.|last7=Cornu|first7=O.|title=Distribution of sensory nerves supplying the knee joint capsule and implications for genicular blockade and radiofrequency ablation|journal=Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy|volume=41|issue=12|pages=1461–1471|year=2019|pmid=31338537}}</ref> <ref name="britannica">{{Cite web|title=Cartilage|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2021-06-23}}</ref> <ref name="goldman">{{Citation|last1=Goldman|first1=Lee|last2=Schafer|first2=Andrew I.|title=Goldman's Cecil Medicine|publisher=Elsevier|year=2012}}</ref> <ref name="kam">{{Cite journal|last1=Kam|first1=C.K.|last2=Chee|first2=D.W.|last3=Peh|first3=W.C.|title=Magnetic resonance imaging of cruciate ligament injuries of the knee|journal=Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal|volume=61|issue=2|pages=80–89|year=2010|pmid=20110155}}</ref> <ref name="medterms">{{Cite web|title=Definition of patellar tendon|publisher=MedicineNet.com|access-date=2008-12-11}}</ref> <ref name="gosling">{{Cite book|title=Human Anatomy: Color Atlas and Text|last1=Gosling|first1=J.A.|publisher=Mosby Elsevier|year=2008}}</ref> <ref name="shim">{{Cite journal|last1=Shim|first1=S.S.|last2=Leung|first2=G.|title=Blood supply of the knee joint. A microangiographic study in children and adults|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-orthopaedics-and-related-research_1986-07_208/page/119|journal=Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research|issue=208|pages=119–125|year=1986|pmid=3522019}}</ref> <ref name="thieme">{{Cite book|title=Thieme Atlas of Anatomy: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System|url=https://archive.org/details/thiemeatlasofana0000unse|publisher=Thieme|location=New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1588904195}}</ref> <ref name="afra">{{Cite journal|last1=Afra|first1=R.|last2=Schepsis|first2=A.|title=Addressing patellofemoral pathology: Biomechanics and classification|journal=The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine|date=2008-05-28}}</ref> <ref name="pill">{{Cite journal|last1=Pill|first1=S.G.|last2=Khoury|first2=L.D.|last3=Chin|first3=G.C.|title=MRI for evaluating knee pain in older patients: How useful is it?|journal=The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine|volume=25|issue=11|date=2008-10-29}}</ref> <ref name="andrish">{{Cite journal|last1=Andrish|first1=J.T.|title=Sports injuries in weekend warriors: 20 Clinical pearls|journal=The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine|volume=26|issue=5|date=2009-05-08}}</ref> <ref name="acl">{{Cite web|title=ACL injury - Symptoms and causes|publisher=Mayo Clinic|access-date=2022-12-30}}</ref> <ref name="tandeter">{{Cite journal|last1=Tandeter|first1=H.B.|last2=Shvartzman|first2=P.|last3=Stevens|first3=M.A.|title=Acute knee injuries: use of decision rules for selective radiograph ordering|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_1999-12_60_9/page/2599|journal=American Family Physician|volume=60|issue=9|pages=2599–2608|date=1999-12-01|pmid=10605994}}</ref> <ref name="segond">{{Cite web|title=Segond fracture|publisher=Radiopaedia|access-date=2026-05-01}}</ref> <ref name="dahl">{{Cite journal|last1=W-Dahl|first1=Annette|last2=Toksvig-Larsen|first2=Sören|last3=Roos|first3=Ewa M.|title=Association between knee alignment and knee pain in patients surgically treated for medial knee osteoarthritis by high tibial osteotomy|journal=BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders|volume=10|issue=1|pages=154|year=2009|pmid=19995425}}</ref> <ref name="uw">{{Cite web|title=Active After ACL Surgery|publisher=UW Orthopaedic Surgery and Sports Medicine|access-date=2026-08-27}}</ref> <ref name="birds">{{Cite web|title=Bird feet and legs|access-date=2021-06-22}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] iiftqcpw97k3aor6tshvidmlmawft0q 0 49746 123276 123150 2026-10-13T21:02:18Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123276 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Malo agho lundi na khongono vikukolerana}} {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white" |Kalundi |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Ankle.jpg|220px|Kalundi la munthu]]<br/><small>Kalundi la munthu</small> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center" |[[File:Ankle en.svg|220px|Kalundi la munthu, kulaŵiska kuwaro]]<br/><small>Kalundi la munthu, kulaŵiska kuwaro</small> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef" |Vimanyikwiro |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.25em" |[[Latin|Chilatini]] | class="infobox-data" |''tarsus'' |} '''Kalundi''' (icho cikuchemekaso ''talocrural region'') ni malo agho lundi na khongono vikukolerana.<ref name="moore"/> Kalundi lili na mphambano zitatu: mphambano yakwenelera ya kalundi (''talocrural joint''), ''subtalar joint'', na ''inferior tibiofibular joint''.<ref name="milner"/> Nchito zakuchitikira pa mphambano iyi ni kupinda kwa lundi kuya kuchanya (''dorsiflexion'') na kuya pasi (''plantarflexion''). Mu kuyowoya kwa zuŵa na zuŵa, "kalundi" likung'anamura malo ghose gha apa, kweni mu uganga, lizgu ili lingang'anamura malo ghose panji mphambano ya ''talocrural'' payekha.<ref name="moore"/> Mafupa ghakuru gha kalundi ni ''talus'' (mu lundi), fupa la munkhoza, na ''fibula'' (mu lundi lapasi). Mphambano ya ''talocrural'' ni mphambano yakusinthika ya ching'anjo ya mtundu wa synovial, iyo yikukolezga maumaliro ghapasi gha fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' na umaliro wakuchanya wa ''talus''. Kukolerana pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''talus'' nkhwakutola nkhongono yikuru kuluska kukolerana pakati pa ''fibula'' yicoko na ''talus''. ==Muundo== ===Cigaŵa=== Cigaŵa ca kalundi cili pa nkhomano ya lundi na phazi. Cikufuma mumusinjiro wa lundi lapasi kuya pasi, ndipo cikusazgamo vigaŵa vya phazi ivyo vili pafupi na thupi (kufuma ku cidende na khungu la pachanya pa phazi).<ref name="moore2"/> ===Mphambano ya kalundi=== Mphambano ya ''talocrural'' ndiyo mphambano yekha ya mu thupi la munthu ya mtundu wakuchemeka "mortise and tenon", zina ilo likufuma ku ntchito ya uzimba.<ref name="standring"/> Muundo wa mafupa gha kalundi uli na mafupa ghatatu: fupa la munkhoza, ''fibula'', na ''talus''. Cigaŵa ca fupa la munkhoza ico cikukolerana na ''talus'' cikuchemekaso ''plafond'' (Chifalansa kung'anamura "chikuta cakuchanya"). ''Medial malleolus'' ni cigaŵa ca fupa cakufumapo pa fupa la munkhoza mumphepete wa mkati; cigaŵa cakupasi comene ca ''fibula'' chikuchemeka ''lateral malleolus''. Malleoli ghaŵiri agha, pamoza na ma ligament ghawo, ndigho ghakukhozgera ''talus'' pasi pa fupa la munkhoza.<ref name="moore"/> Chifukwa mphambano ya ''subtalar'' yikovwira comene pakunozga muwoneskero wa phazi, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyichemeka mphambano ya kalundi ya pasi, na kuchemeka mphambano ya ''talocrural'' mphambano ya kalundi ya kuchanya.<ref name="muscolino"/> Kupinda kuya kuchanya na kuya pasi (dorsiflexion na plantarflexion) ndivyo vikuchitikira pa mphambano ya kalundi. Apo phazi lapindika kuya pasi, mphambano ya kalundi yikuzomerezgaso kuzuzumira mumphepete, kuzungusika, na kusonkhezgeka pacoko.<ref name="earthslab"/> Muwoneskero wa mafupa uwo ukupangika na ''plafond'' ya munkhoza na ma malleoli ghaŵiri ukuchemeka "mortise" ya kalundi. Malo agha ni cizingo ca makona ghanayi.<ref name="moore"/> Mphepete za viŵalo vyose vya kalundi vikuvundikirika na cartilage. ===Ligament=== [[File:919 Ankle Feet Joints.jpg|thumb|220px|Ma ligament gha kalundi na phazi]] Mphambano ya kalundi yikukhozgeka na ''deltoid ligament'' iyo njakukhora, na ma ligament ghatatu gha kuwaro: ''anterior talofibular ligament'', ''posterior talofibular ligament'', na ''calcaneofibular ligament''. *''Deltoid ligament'' yikukhozgera mumphepete wa mkati wa mphambano; yikufuma ku ''medial malleolus'' ya fupa la munkhoza ndipo yikukolerana pa malo ghanayi gha ''calcaneus'' na ''talus''. *''Anterior'' na ''posterior talofibular ligaments'' zikukhozgera mumphepete wakuwaro wa mphambano, kufuma ku ''lateral malleolus'' ya ''fibula'' kuluta ku ''talus''. *''Calcaneofibular ligament'' yikufuma ku ''lateral malleolus'' na kuluta ku ''calcaneus''. Nangauli njambura kujintha pa mphambano ya kalundi payekha, ''syndesmotic ligament'' njakuzirwa comene pakukhozgera kalundi. Kupwetekeka kwa ligament iyi kwekha kukuchemeka "high ankle sprain". Muundo wa mafupa gha kalundi ukukhora comene apo phazi lili mu ''dorsiflexion''.<ref name="gatt"/> Ntheura, kupendeka kwa kalundi (''sprained ankle'') kukuzomerezgeka comene apo phazi lapindika kuya pasi, chifukwa nyengo iyo ligament zikukhumbikwa comene pakukhozgera mphambano. Kupendeka kwakuzomerezgeka comene kukukolerana na ''anterior talofibular ligament'' (ATFL). ===Retinacula, tendon na thumba lazo, misambizi, na mizirwe=== Ma tendon ghanandi ghakujumphira mu cigaŵa ca kalundi. Mathako gha ''connective tissue'' ghakuchemeka ''retinacula'' ghakuzomerezga ma tendon kupeleka nkhongono kuluta mu ngodya pakati pa lundi na phazi kwambura kufuma pa ngodya iyo.<ref name="muscolino"/> ''Superior extensor retinaculum'' yikwendera pakati pa fupa la munkhoza na ''fibula'' pafupi na maumaliro ghawo ghapasi; mkati mwake muli msambizi wa ''anterior tibial artery'', mzirwe wake, na tendon ya ''tibialis anterior''. ''Inferior extensor retinaculum'' njakuwoneka nga cilembo "Y". ''Flexor retinaculum'' yikwendera kufuma ku ''medial malleolus'' kuluta ku ''calcaneus'', ndipo mkati mwake muli tendon ya ''tibialis posterior'', tendon ya ''flexor digitorum longus'', msambizi wa ''posterior tibial artery'', mzirwe wake, ''tibial nerve'', na tendon ya ''flexor hallucis longus''. Ma ''fibular retinacula'' ghakukhozgera ma tendon gha ''fibularis longus'' na ''fibularis brevis'' mumphepete wakuwaro wa kalundi.<ref name="standring"/> ===Mizirwe yakumanya muwoneskero (mechanoreceptors)=== Mizirwe yakumanya muwoneskero (''mechanoreceptors'') ya kalundi yikutuma uthenga wa muwoneskero wa thupi (''proprioception'') kuluta ku ubongo.<ref name="michelson"/> Kafukufuku wasangapo kuti kalundi likukolerana comene na nkhongono ya kwimilira makola (balance).<ref name="goble"/> ==Ntchito== Kwenda kwa vyaka vinandi, nchito ya kalundi pakwenda yikaghanaghanikwa na Aristotle na Leonardo da Vinci. Nkhongono ya kalundi pa nyengo ya kutulukira mtwendo (''ankle push-off'') ni yakuzirwa comene mu kwenda kwa munthu.<ref name="zelik"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== ===Kupwetekeka kwa nyengo yeneyiyo=== Pa mphambano zose zikuru za thupi, kalundi ndilo lakuzomerezgeka comene kupwetekeka. Usange khungu lakuwaro la phazi lapendeka mumusinjiro wa lundi apo munthu wimilira, ''lateral ligament'', comenecomene cigaŵa ca ''anterior talofibular'', chingapendeka (''sprain''), chifukwa nchakupepuka kuluska ligament ya mkati.<ref name="moore2"/> ====Kutimbanyika kwa fupa==== Kutimbanyika kwa fupa la kalundi kungachitika, comenecomene chifukwa cha ngozi. ===Kujura vithuzi=== Kusanda kwakwamba kwa suzgo la kalundi kukucitika kwizira mu X-ray. Kupinduka kwa kalundi (varus panji valgus) kungapimika na ngodya ya ''tibiotalar surface''.<ref name="nosewicz"/> ===Kuipa kwa muwoneskero=== [[Clubfoot]] (''talipes equinovarus''), iyo yikusangika mwa mwana m'yumoza panji ŵaŵiri mwa ŵana 1,000 ŵakubabika, njakusazgapo kuipa kwa phazi kwakupambanapambana.<ref name="gore"/> ''Equinus'' likung'anamura kupendeka kwa kalundi kuya pasi, ndipo zina lake likufuma ku kwenda pa vyala nga umo hachi yikwendera.<ref name="kallen"/> ''Ankle joint equinus'', mwa ŵanthu ŵakuru, likukolerana na kucepa kwa muwendero wa mphambano ya kalundi. Masuzo gha kutandalika minofu ya khongono ghakovwira kuwonjezga ''dorsiflexion'' ya kalundi. Nyengo zinyake, kalundi la munthu lingaŵa na mphambano ya mtundu wa "ball-and-socket" na kukolerana kwa ''talo-navicular joint''.<ref name="ono"/> ==Mwa vinyama vinyake== Kwaghanaghanikwa kuti nkhongono ya kulongozga vyala mwaluso yatayika mu vinyama vinandi, m'malo mwake vikakura nkhongono yikuru comene ya kulongozga mphambano ya kalundi.<ref name="brouwer"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Khongono]] *[[Munkhoza]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="moore">{{Cite book|last1=Moore|first1=Keith L.|last2=Dalley|first2=Arthur F.|last3=Agur|first3=A.M.R.|chapter=Lower Limb|title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy|edition=7th|pages=508–669|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4511-1945-9}}</ref> <ref name="milner">{{Cite book|last=Milner|first=Brent K.|chapter=Musculoskeletal Imaging|title=Radiology Recall|pages=258–383|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=1999|isbn=978-0-683-30663-7}}</ref> <ref name="moore2">{{Cite book|last=Moore|first=Keith|title=Clinically oriented anatomy|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicallyorient0000moor_t4j3|publisher=Wolters Kluwer|location=Philadelphia|year=2018|page=[https://archive.org/details/clinicallyorient0000moor_t4j3/page/825 825]|isbn=978-1-4963-4721-3}}</ref> <ref name="standring">{{Cite book|last=Standring|first=Susan|title=Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2015|pages=1418–1419|isbn=978-0-7020-6851-5}}</ref> <ref name="muscolino">{{Cite book|last=Muscolino|first=Joseph E.|title=Kinesiology: The Skeletal System and Muscle Function|pages=284–292|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|year=2016|isbn=978-0-323-39935-7}}</ref> <ref name="earthslab">{{Cite web|last=Volker|first=Joseph H.|title=Ankle Joint|publisher=Earth's Lab|date=2018-08-08}}</ref> <ref name="gatt">{{Cite journal|last1=Gatt|first1=Alfred|last2=Chockalingam|first2=Nachiappan|title=Clinical Assessment of Ankle Joint Dorsiflexion|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-podiatric-medical-association_january-february-2011_101_1/page/59|journal=Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association|volume=101|issue=1|pages=59–69|year=2011|doi=10.7547/1010059|pmid=21242472}}</ref> <ref name="michelson">{{Cite journal|last1=Michelson|first1=J.D.|last2=Hutchins|first2=C.|title=Mechanoreceptors in human ankle ligaments|journal=The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British Volume|volume=77|issue=2|pages=219–224|year=1995|pmid=7706334}}</ref> <ref name="goble">{{Cite journal|last1=Goble|first1=D.J.|last2=Coxon|first2=J.P.|last3=Van Impe|first3=A.|last4=Geurts|first4=M.|last5=Doumas|first5=M.|last6=Wenderoth|first6=N.|last7=Swinnen|first7=S.P.|title=Brain Activity during Ankle Proprioceptive Stimulation Predicts Balance Performance in Young and Older Adults|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=45|pages=16344–16352|year=2011|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4159-11.2011|pmid=22072686}}</ref> <ref name="zelik">{{Cite journal|last1=Zelik|first1=Karl E.|last2=Adamczyk|first2=Peter G.|title=A unified perspective on ankle push-off in human walking|journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=219|issue=23|pages=3676–3683|year=2016|doi=10.1242/jeb.140376|pmid=27903626}}</ref> <ref name="nosewicz">{{Cite journal|last1=Nosewicz|first1=Tomasz L.|last2=Knupp|first2=Markus|last3=Bolliger|first3=Lilianna|last4=Hintermann|first4=Beat|title=The reliability and validity of radiographic measurements for determining the three-dimensional position of the talus in varus and valgus osteoarthritic ankles|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_skeletal-radiology_2012-12_41_12/page/1567|journal=Skeletal Radiology|volume=41|issue=12|pages=1567–1573|year=2012|doi=10.1007/s00256-012-1421-6|pmid=22609967}}</ref> <ref name="gore">{{Cite journal|last1=Gore|first1=A.I.|last2=Spencer|first2=J.P.|title=The newborn foot|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2004-02-15_69_4/page/865|journal=American Family Physician|volume=69|issue=4|pages=865–872|year=2004|pmid=14989573}}</ref> <ref name="kallen">{{Cite book|last=Källén|first=Bengt|chapter=Pes Equinovarus|title=Epidemiology of Human Congenital Malformations|pages=111–113|year=2014|isbn=978-3-319-01471-5}}</ref> <ref name="ono">{{Cite journal|last1=Ono|first1=K.|last2=Nakamura|first2=M.|last3=Kurata|first3=Y.|last4=Hiroshima|first4=K.|title=Ball-and-socket ankle joint: Anatomical and kinematic analysis of the hindfoot|journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics|volume=4|issue=5|pages=564–568|year=1984|pmid=6490876}}</ref> <ref name="brouwer">{{Cite journal|last1=Brouwer|first1=B.|last2=Ashby|first2=P.|title=Corticospinal projections to lower limb motoneurons in man|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_experimental-brain-research_1992-06_89_3/page/649|journal=Experimental Brain Research|volume=89|issue=3|pages=649–654|year=1992|pmid=1644127}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] cuplqztrgzss61awljngfae71sk2o1v 0 49748 123271 123146 2026-10-13T20:50:10Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123271 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Mtundu wa munthu panji cinyama uwo ukupanga mbeŵu za mwanalume}} [[File:Male symbol (bold, color).svg|thumb|150px|Chimanyikwiro ca lezi la Mars, ilo likugwiliskikira ntchito kulongora mwanarume mu sayansi ya umoyo.]] [[File:Anterior view of human female and male, with labels 2.png|thumb|220px|Muwoneskero wa mwanarume mzimu, uwo wakuyaniswa na mwanakazi.]] '''Mwanarume''' (chimanyikwiro: ♂) ni mtundu wa cakuzoŵa umo icho chikupanga, panji chanozgeka kupanga, mbeŵu iyo yikuchemeka ''sperm'', iyo yikukolerana na mbeŵu yikuru comene ya mwanakazi (zira) pa nyengo ya kubabira.<ref name="lehtonen"/> Mwanarume wangababa yayi kwambura zira kufuma ku mwanakazi, kweni vinyama vinyake vingababa vyose viŵiri, kubabira kwakukolerana na kwakujipanga pera.<ref name="curtis"/> Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu mwanarume, vili na ''Y chromosome'', iyo yikupangiska kupangika kwa testosterone yinandi kuti viŵalo vya kubabira vya mwanarume vikure.<ref name="ychrom"/> Mwa ŵanthu, lizgu "mwanarume" lingagwiliskikiraso kung'anamura muwoneskero wa munthu mu chikhalidwe (''gender''), nga umo mwanalume wakujiwona panji ŵanyake ŵakumuwona.<ref name="palazzani"/> ==Kuwoneka pakati pa viwumba== Kuŵako kwa mwanarume na mwanakazi vyakupambana kwakwiza pa nyengo zakupambana pakati pa mitundu yakupambana ya viwumba, nchito iyo yikuchemeka ''convergent evolution''.<ref name="berrill"/> Kunozgeka uku kukwamba na viwumba ivyo mbeŵu zawo zilije kupambana (''isogamy''), kuluta ku ivyo mbeŵu za mwanarume na za mwanakazi zapambana pang'ono (''anisogamy''), kufika ku ivyo mbeŵu ya mwanakazi njikuru comene na njambura kwenda payekha (''oogamy'').<ref name="dusenbery"/> Muvinyama vinyake, mwanarume wangababa payekha, mwaciyelezgero kwizira mu ''androgenesis''.<ref name="hedtke"/> Ntheura, kupambana kwa jinsi mu viwumba kukumanyikwa na mtundu wa mbeŵu iyo chiwumba chikupanga (sperm panji zira), ndipo kupambana pakati pa mwanarume na mwanakazi mu mtundu umoza kukhwaskana yayi comene na kupambana uku mu mtundu unyake.<ref name="klymkowsky"/> ==Kukura kwa jinsi== Kunozgeka kwa ''anisogamy'' ndiko kukapangiska kukura kwa nchito za mwanarume na za mwanakazi.<ref name="bachtrog"/> Pambere ''anisogamy'' yindanozgeke, mbeŵu za viwumba zikaŵa zambura kupambana comene mu ukuru na kwenda (''isogamy''). Mu ''anisogamy'', mbeŵu ya mwanarume njichoko kuluska ya mwanakazi, ndipo njakwenda comene.<ref name="kumar"/> Sayansi yikuchali kusuzgika kumanya bwino umo ''anisogamy'' yikanozgekera, chifukwa mbiri yake mu mafupa ghakale nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi. Maghanoghano ghanandi ghakuti mbeŵu zikuru za mwanakazi njakuzomerezgeka comene kukhalilira umoyo, apo mbeŵu zichoko za mwanarume njakwenda comene kufuma ndipo zingasangika mbeŵu zinyake luŵiro.<ref name="togashi"/> ==Chimanyikwiro na kayowoyero== Chimanyikwiro cakuzomerezgeka kulongora mwanarume ni ♂, cizungu na muvi wakulongozga cikwatikwati (northeast). Chimanyikwiro ici nchiyana na cimanyikwiro ca planeti ya Mars, ndipo chikagwiliskikira ntchito pakwamba na Carl Linnaeus mu 1751.<ref name="stearn"/> Lizgu "male" mu Chingelezi likufuma ku Old French ''masle'', kufuma ku Chilatini ''masculus'' ("wamwanarume, wakwenelera mwanalume").<ref name="etymonline"/> ==Kumanyikwa kwa jinsi== Jinsi ya cakuzoŵa cimoza yingamanyikwa na vinthu vinandi — vyakupokerana panji vya vyakuzingilira, panji vingasintha pa nyengo ya umoyo wa cakuzoŵa. Nangauli mitundu yinandi yili na jinsi ziŵiri pera (mwanarume panji mwanakazi),<ref name="berrill"/> vibawo vinyake nga ni njoka za mu mtunda (''worms'') vili na viŵalo vyakubabira vya mwanarume na vya mwanakazi pamoza (''hermaphrodite'').<ref name="britannica_herm"/> ===Kumanyikwa na mahara=== Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu, jinsi yawo yikumanyikwa na mahara kwizira mu mtundu wakuchemeka ''XY sex-determination system'', apo mwanarume wali na ''X chromosome'' yimoza na ''Y chromosome'' yimoza (apo mwanakazi wali na ''X chromosome'' ziŵiri).<ref name="xy"/> Pa nyengo ya kubabira, mwanarume wangapeleka mbeŵu ya ''X'' panji ya ''Y'', apo mwanakazi wangapeleka zira la ''X'' pera. Mbeŵu ya ''Y'' na zira la ''X'' vikupanga mwana mwanarume; mbeŵu ya ''X'' na zira la ''X'' vikupanga mwana mwanakazi.<ref name="determination"/> Cigaŵa ca ''Y chromosome'' ico chikwenderezga umwanarume chikuchemeka ''SRY''.<ref name="sry"/> Mu tuyuni na vibawo vinyake, jinsi yikumanyikwa na mtundu wakuchemeka ''ZW sex-determination system'', apo mwanarume wali na ''ZZ chromosomes''.<ref name="bachtrog"/> ===Kumanyikwa na vyakuzingilira=== Mu vibawo vinyake, nga ni ma alligator, jinsi yikumanyikwa na mzuzu uwo zira likukhozgeka. Vinyama vinyake, nga ni nkhona zinyake (''snails''), vikusintha jinsi: vikwamba kuŵa vyanarume, ndipo pambere vikusintha kuŵa vyanakazi.<ref name="cahill"/> ==Vimanyikwiro vyachiŵiri== Viwumba vya mwanarume vikanozgeka kugwiliskira vimanyikwiro vyachiŵiri kuti vilongore kuti ni vyakukhwima na kwenelera pakubabira. Kusankha kwa mbeŵu za mwanakazi (''sexual selection'') nkhwakughanaghanikwa kuŵa ndikho kukovwira comene pakukura kwa vimanyikwiro ivi.<ref name="campbell"/> Mwa vinyama ivyo vikuyamwiska ŵana, kusazgamo munthu, ŵanarume kanandi ŵakuŵa ŵakuru kuluska ŵanakazi, ndipo mwa munthu comenecomene, ŵanarume ŵali na tsitsi linandi na minofu yinandi kuluska ŵanakazi.<ref name="ellis"/> Mu tuyuni, ŵanarume ŵanandi ŵali na masiskha ghakuwoneka comene (''plumage'') agho ghakukwezga ŵanakazi.<ref name="switze"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Mwanakazi]] *[[Viŵalo vyakubabira]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="lehtonen">{{Cite journal|last1=Lehtonen|first1=Jussi|last2=Parker|first2=Geoff A.|title=Gamete competition, gamete limitation, and the evolution of the two sexes|journal=Molecular Human Reproduction|volume=20|issue=12|pages=1161–1168|year=2014|doi=10.1093/molehr/gau068|pmid=25323972}}</ref> <ref name="curtis">{{Cite journal|last=Lively|first=Curtis M.|title=A Review of Red Queen Models for the Persistence of Obligate Sexual Reproduction|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=101|issue=suppl_1|pages=S13–S20|year=2010|doi=10.1093/jhered/esq010|pmid=20421322}}</ref> <ref name="ychrom">{{Cite web|title=Y chromosome|publisher=Genetics Home Reference, MedlinePlus|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="palazzani">{{Cite book|last1=Palazzani|first1=Laura|last2=Bailes|first2=Victoria|last3=Fella|first3=Marina|title=Gender in Philosophy and Law|url=https://archive.org/details/genderinphilosop0000pala|publisher=Springer|year=2012|isbn=978-94-007-4991-7}}</ref> <ref name="berrill">{{Cite web|last=Berrill|first=N.J.|title=Sex|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="dusenbery">{{Cite book|last=Dusenbery|first=David B.|title=Living at Micro Scale|url=https://archive.org/details/livingatmicrosca0000duse|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-674-03116-6}}</ref> <ref name="hedtke">{{Cite journal|last1=Hedtke|first1=Shannon M.|last2=Stanger-Hall|first2=Kathrin|last3=Baker|first3=Robert J.|last4=Hillis|first4=David M.|title=All-Male Asexuality: Origin and Maintenance of Androgenesis in the Asian Clam Corbicula|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_2008-05_62_5/page/1119|journal=Evolution|volume=62|issue=5|pages=1119–1136|year=2008|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00344.x|pmid=18266987}}</ref> <ref name="klymkowsky">{{Cite web|last1=Klymkowsky|first1=Michael W.|last2=Cooper|first2=Melanie M.|title=Sexual dimorphism|publisher=Biology LibreTexts|date=2016-06-04}}</ref> <ref name="bachtrog">{{Cite journal|last1=Bachtrog|first1=D.|last2=Mank|first2=J.E.|last3=Peichel|first3=C.L.|last4=Kirkpatrick|first4=M.|last5=Otto|first5=S.P.|title=Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=12|issue=7|pages=e1001899|year=2014|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899|pmid=24983465}}</ref> <ref name="kumar">{{Cite encyclopedia|last1=Kumar|first1=R.|last2=Meena|first2=M.|last3=Swapnil|first3=P.|title=Anisogamy|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior|publisher=Springer International|year=2019}}</ref> <ref name="togashi">{{Cite book|last1=Togashi|first1=Tatsuya|last2=Cox|first2=Paul Alan|title=The Evolution of Anisogamy: A Fundamental Phenomenon Underlying Sexual Selection|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-50082-1}}</ref> <ref name="stearn">{{Cite journal|last=Stearn|first=William T.|title=The Origin of the Male and Female Symbols of Biology|journal=Taxon|volume=11|issue=4|pages=109–113|year=1962|doi=10.2307/1217734}}</ref> <ref name="etymonline">{{Cite web|title=male|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=2023-07-23}}</ref> <ref name="britannica_herm">{{Cite web|title=hermaphroditism|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="xy">{{Cite web|title=43.1C: Sex Determination|publisher=Biology LibreTexts|date=2018-07-17}}</ref> <ref name="determination">{{Cite web|title=43.1C: Sex Determination|publisher=Biology LibreTexts|date=2018-07-17}}</ref> <ref name="sry">{{Cite web|title=SRY gene|publisher=Genetics Home Reference, MedlinePlus|access-date=2020-07-22}}</ref> <ref name="cahill">{{Cite journal|last1=Cahill|first1=Abigail E.|last2=Juman|first2=Alia Rehana|last3=Pellman-Isaacs|first3=Aaron|last4=Bruno|first4=William T.|title=Physical and Chemical Interactions with Conspecifics Mediate Sex Change in a Protandrous Gastropod Crepidula fornicata|journal=The Biological Bulletin|volume=229|issue=3|pages=276–281|year=2015|doi=10.1086/bblv229n3p276|pmid=26695826}}</ref> <ref name="campbell">{{Cite book|last=Campbell|first=B.|title=Human Evolution: An Introduction to Man's Adaptations|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|pages=392–393|isbn=978-1-351-51441-5}}</ref> <ref name="ellis">{{Cite book|last1=Ellis|first1=Lee|last2=Hershberger|first2=Scott|last3=Field|first3=Evelyn|title=Sex Differences: Summarizing More than a Century of Scientific Research|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-87493-2}}</ref> <ref name="switze">{{Cite book|title=The Differences Between the Sexes|url=https://archive.org/details/differencesbetwe0000unse_z3o0|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-521-44878-9}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] svmxdw8jm96l18dlhohgnw2h1akmbc3 0 49786 123273 123157 2026-10-13T20:52:47Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123273 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa ca thupi capacisi pa mbombo}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Tako | Latin = clunis | Image = Human buttocks.jpg | Caption = Tako la mwanakazi (kuchanya) na la mwanarume (kusi) | Artery = [[Superior gluteal artery|Msambizi wa gluteal wakuchanya]], [[inferior gluteal artery|msambizi wa gluteal wakusi]] | Nerve = [[Superior gluteal nerve|Mzirwe wa gluteal wakuchanya]], [[inferior gluteal nerve|mzirwe wa gluteal wakusi]], [[superior cluneal nerves|mizirwe ya cluneal yakuchanya]], [[medial cluneal nerves|yakati-kati]], na [[inferior cluneal nerves|yakusi]] }} '''Tako''' (mu Chingelezi: ''buttocks''; libo: ''buttock'') ni vigaŵa viŵiri vyakuzingilira vya thupi la munthu, ivyo vili kunyuma kwa mbombo. Tako lili pakati pa msana wa pasi na [[perineum]]. Likupangika na khungu la kuwaro na fyuta lakukhorera (''subcutaneous fat'') ilo lili pachanya pa minofu ya kumanzi na kumalyero ya ''gluteus maximus'' na ''gluteus medius''. Minofu ya ''gluteus maximus'' njiyikuru comene mu thupi la munthu. Yikugwira ntchito pakunyoloska thupi kuti liwimilire likaŵa lajintha pa cifuwa; pakukhozgera thupi kuwimilira na kukhazikika kwa mphambano za ntchafu; ndiposo pakusundizga thupi kwenda panji kucimbira kwizira mu kunyoloska ntchafu.<ref name="eizenberg"/> Mu vikhaliro vinandi, tako likugwira nawo ntchito mu vinthu vyakukhumba mwakugonana.<ref name="hennig"/> Vikhaliro vinandi navyoso vikugwiliskira ntchito tako pakupeleka cilango (''corporal punishment''), chifukwa fyuta ilo lili mkati mwa khungu la tako likovwira kujiskana na kupwetekeka apo cikwenera kucitika.<ref name="times"/> ==Muundo== Tako likupangika na unyinji wa minofu ya ''gluteal'' (''gluteus maximus'' na ''gluteus medius'') ivyo vili pasi pa fyuta. Cigaŵa cakuchanya ca tako cikufika pa [[iliac crest]], apo cigaŵa cakusi cikulongosoreka na mzere wa pasi wa tako (''horizontal gluteal crease''). ''Gluteus maximus'' yikukolerana pa vyaka viŵiri: cigaŵa cakuchanya ca ''linea aspera'' ya [[femur|fupa la chigha]], na cigaŵa cakuchanya ca ''iliotibial tractus''. Minofu ya ''gluteus maximus'' yikupatukana na mkati mwa cikwazga (''intergluteal cleft''), umo [[anus|mwaziko]] ukusangika. Viwumba vinyake vya anyani (''primates'') vili na vigaŵa vyakuwoneka nga vithupi vyakukhoma (''ischial callosities'') ivyo vikuvipulikiska kukhala pasi kwambura kunyamula uzito wawo pa malundi, nga umo viŵumba vya maundi ghanayi vikucitira. Vithupi ivi vikovwira anyani kugona pakukhala pasi pa nthambi zicoko, kutali na vyakuvirwiska, kwambura kugwa. Ŵanthu ŵakuŵavya vithupi ivi chifukwa minofu ya ''gluteal'' njikuru comene mwakuti yikupeleka kujiskana kwakwenelera.<ref name="montagu"/> Ŵanakazi ŵa mafuko ghanyake gha ''baboon'' ŵakuŵa na vithupi vyakusesa ivyo vikusesa comene kukopa ŵanalume. Kwa ŵanthu, ŵanakazi ŵakuŵa na tako lifupi na likuru comene chifukwa cha fyuta linandi la mkati mwa khungu na mbombo yakufupika comene. Mwa ŵanthu, tako likovwiraso pakusundizga thupi kwenda, na pakovwira munthu kunya mavi kwakwenelera.<ref name="chila"/><ref name="gupte"/> Ŵanyani ŵanyake ŵa mafuko gha ''baboon'' na vinyani vyose vya mtundu wa ''gibbon'', nangauli vikuvikika na vibudi, vikuŵa na vithupi vya ''ischial callosities'' ivyo vikuwoneka pa cigaŵa cakunyuma. Ŵana ŵaŵanandi ŵakuŵa na tako lakuzingilira lambura vibudi, kweni ŵanthu ŵakukhwima ŵakuŵa na vibudi kwakupambanapambana, nga umo viŵoneka pa vigaŵa vinyake vya thupi. Ŵanakazi ŵangaŵa na vibudi mu cikwazga ca tako (kusazgamo kuzingilira mwaziko), apo pena vikufikira kunthazi kwa masasi gha tako. Ŵanalume ŵangaŵa na vibudi pa cigaŵa cinandi panji cose ca tako. ==Mazina== Zina la Chilatini la tako ni ''nates'' (kuwerengeka kwiskana), apo zina la mwene ''natis'' likugwiliskikira comene panandi. ==Wonaniso== *[[Chiuno]] *[[Kalundi]] *[[Mbombo]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="eizenberg">{{Cite book|last=Eizenberg|first=Norman|display-authors=etal|title=General Anatomy: Principles and Applications|url=https://archive.org/details/generalanatomypr0000norm|year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/generalanatomypr0000norm/page/17 17]}}</ref> <ref name="hennig">{{Cite book|last=Hennig|first=Jean-Luc|title=The Rear View: A Brief and Elegant History of Bottoms Through the Ages|url=https://archive.org/details/rearviewbriefele0000henn_h8c3|publisher=Souvenir|location=London|year=1995|isbn=0-285-63303-1}}</ref> <ref name="times">{{Cite news|newspaper=The Times|location=London|date=1894-03-22|title=Police}}</ref> <ref name="montagu">{{Cite journal|last=Montagu|first=Ashley|title=The Buttocks and Natural Selection|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_1966-10-03_198_1/page/51|journal=JAMA|volume=198|issue=1|pages=51|year=1966|doi=10.1001/jama.1966.03110140101027|pmid=5953162}}</ref> <ref name="chila">{{Cite book|title=Foundations of Osteopathic Medicine|last=Chila|first=Anthony G.|page=586|year=2010}}</ref> <ref name="gupte">{{Cite book|title=Recent Advances in Pediatrics|last=Gupte|first=Suraj|page=141|year=2013}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] 5kp4t7lc6s6dv6nia7qbhrkqg8p6din 0 49787 123278 123168 2026-10-13T21:05:45Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123278 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi}} {{Infobox anatomy | Name = Chiŵiŵi cha kalundi | Latin = sura | Greek = acfle | Image = Sb calf.png | Caption = Chiŵiŵi cha kalundi ni cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi | Image2 = Braus 1921 293.png | Caption2 = Cithuzi ca kudumura nkhongono ya pasi ya kulyero, kulongora vigaŵa vinayi vyake }} '''Chiŵiŵi cha kalundi''' (mu Chingelezi: ''calf''; libo: ''calves''; Chilatini: ''sura'') ni cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi mu thupi la munthu.<ref name="oed"/> Minofu iyo yili mkati mwa chiŵiŵi ici yikukolerana na cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi (''posterior compartment of the leg''). Minofu yiŵiri yikuru mu cigaŵa ici yikuchemeka pamoza ''calf muscle'', ndipo yikukolerana na [[chitende]] kwizira mu [[Achilles tendon|tendon la Achilles]]. Minofu yinyake yicoko yikukolerana na majoint gha nkhongono ya pasi, kusazgamo [[kalundi]], na kwizira mu ma tendon ghatali ghakufika ku vala vya malundi. ==Umoza wa zgu== Kufuma ku Middle English ''calf'', ''kalf'', kufuma ku Old Norse ''kalfi'', panyake kufuma ku muzu wa Chijeremani umoza na zgu la Chingelezi ''calf'' (ng'ombe yicoko). Likukolerana na Icelandic ''kálfi'' (chiŵiŵi cha kalundi).<ref name="wiktionary"/> Mazgu ''calf'' na ''calf of the leg'' ghakasangika kale mu Middle English kwambira mu vyaka 1350 na 1425.<ref name="kurath"/> Mu nyengo yakale, ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakawonanga kuŵavya kwa chiŵiŵi ici (ndiko kuti nkhongono ya pasi yambura minofu yakuwoneka comene) kuŵa cimanyikwiro ca kwananga: ''vikumanyikwa kuti mbira zilije chiŵiŵi ici, kweniso viŵumba vinyake vicoko vyakuyezgeka navyo navyo vilije.''<ref name="montessori"/> ==Muundo== Chiŵiŵi cha kalundi cikupangika na minofu ya cigaŵa cakunyuma ca nkhongono ya pasi: ''gastrocnemius'' na ''soleus'' (izo pamoza zikuchemeka ''triceps surae''), na ''tibialis posterior''. [[Mzirwe wa sural]] ndiwo ukupeleka mzirwe (''innervation'') mu cigaŵa ici. Kutali, ''gastrocnemius'' na ''soleus'' zikukolelezgeka pamoza kuŵa [[Achilles tendon|tendon la Achilles]] (panji ''calcaneal tendon''), ilo likukolerana pa cigaŵa cakunyuma ca [[chitende|fupa la chitende]] (''calcaneus'').<ref name="statpearls"/> ==Vyakuzirwa mu uganga== Nthenda izo zikwiza na kutupa kwa chiŵiŵi cha kalundi kusazgamo [[deep vein thrombosis]],<ref name="simel"/> [[compartment syndrome]],<ref name="drey"/><ref name="hartgens"/> kudumuka kwa [[Achilles tendon|tendon la Achilles]], na [[varicose veins]]. Vikatikati vya usiku, minofu ya chiŵiŵi yikukoma kanandi kwambura kumanyikwa cifukwa (''idiopathic leg cramps'').<ref name="young"/> Kutupa (''edema'') nakoso nkhwakusangika comene, kanandi kwambura kumanyikwa cifukwa cake. Mu kafukufuku wicoko wa ŵanchito ŵa m'malo ghakupangira vinthu ŵaŵakukhala makola, kuvwara vyakuvwalira vyakukhorera (''compression garments'') vikawovwira kucepeska kutupa na kupweteka.<ref name="blattler"/> Kafukufuku wicoko wa ŵakucimbira wakasanga kuti kuvwara masokosi ghakukhorera (''compression stockings'') mpaka pa bondo, apo ŵakucimbira, kukawovwira comene pakuwezga makola kucimbira kwawo.<ref name="kemmler"/> Umulu (''circumference'') wa chiŵiŵi wagwiliskikira ntchito pakuyezga masuzgo ghanyake gha thupi. Ku Spain, kafukufuku wa ŵanthu 22,000 ŵakukwana vyaka 65 panji kujumpha wakasanga kuti chiŵiŵi cicoko chikukolerana na ngozi yikuru ya kuperekeka kwa chakulya (''undernutrition'').<ref name="cuervo"/> Ku France, kafukufuku wa ŵanthu 6,265 ŵa vyaka 65 panji kujumpha wakasanga kukolerana kwakususka pakati pa umulu wa chiŵiŵi na vyakwiliskika mu msambizi wa singo (''carotid plaques'').<ref name="debette"/> Kukurizga panji kuwezgera chiŵiŵi kukupangika, kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupangika (''prosthesis'') na majidu ghakupambanapambana gha opaleshoni. ==Kwezga na masuzgo== Chiŵiŵi cingapangika kuŵa cikhwakhwa kwizira mu masunthiro agho ghakukoleska minyendo pasi (''plantarflexion''). Vinthu viŵiri vikuru vya masunthiro gha chiŵiŵi ni agho ghakusunga bondo mwakunyoloka, na agho ghakusunga bondo mwakupinda. Cigaŵa cakwamba cikusazgamo masunthiro nga ni kunyamuka kwa chiŵiŵi kwimilira (''standing calf raises''), ''donkey calf raises'', na kukwera pa masitepe. Cigaŵa cacaŵiri cikusazgamo masunthiro agho bondo likupinda, nga ni kunyamuka kwa chiŵiŵi kukhala pasi (''seated calf raises''). Masunthiro gha bondo lakunyoloka ghakukoleska comene minofu ya ''gastrocnemius'', apo gha bondo lakupinda ghakukoleska comene ''soleus''. Nangauli, masunthiro ghose ghaŵiri ghakukoleska minofu yiŵiri iyi comene. ==Wonaniso== *[[Kalundi]] *[[Chitende]] ==Vyakuwelenga== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="oed">{{Cite web|title=calf, n.2|website=Oxford English Dictionary}}</ref> <ref name="wiktionary">{{Cite web|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/calf|title=calf - Wiktionary|website=en.wiktionary.org|access-date=2020-03-22}}</ref> <ref name="kurath">{{Cite book|last=Kurath|first=Hans|title=Middle English Dictionary|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=1959|isbn=978-0-472-01031-8|page=128}}</ref> <ref name="montessori">{{Cite book|last=Montessori|first=Maria|title=Pedagogical Anthropology|url=https://archive.org/details/pedagogicalanthr00mont|publisher=Frederick A. Stokes Company|year=1913|page=[https://archive.org/details/pedagogicalanthr00mont/page/n571 508]}}</ref> <ref name="statpearls">{{Cite web|last1=Binstead|first1=Justin T.|last2=Munjal|first2=Akul|last3=Varacallo|first3=Matthew A.|title=Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Calf|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|year=2025|pmid=29083629}}</ref> <ref name="simel">{{Cite book|last1=Simel|first1=David|last2=Rennie|first2=Drummond|last3=Hayward|first3=Robert|last4=Keitz|first4=Sheri A.|title=The Rational Clinical Examination: Evidence-Based Clinical Diagnosis|url=https://archive.org/details/rationalclinical0000unse|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|year=2008|isbn=978-0-07-159030-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/rationalclinical0000unse/page/229 229]}}</ref> <ref name="drey">{{Cite journal|last1=Drey|first1=I. A.|last2=Baruch|first2=H.|title=Acute compartment syndrome of the calf presenting after prolonged decubitus position|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_orthopedics_2008-02_31_2/page/184|journal=Orthopedics|volume=31|issue=2|page=184|year=2008|pmid=19292184}}</ref> <ref name="hartgens">{{Cite journal|last1=Hartgens|first1=F.|last2=Hoogeveen|first2=A. R.|last3=Brink|first3=P. R.|title=Athletes with exercise-related pain at the medial side of the lower leg|journal=Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde|volume=152|issue=33|pages=1839–1843|year=2008|pmid=18783163}}</ref> <ref name="young">{{Cite journal|last=Young|first=G.|title=Leg cramps|journal=Clinical Evidence|volume=2009|year=2009|pmid=19445755}}</ref> <ref name="blattler">{{Cite journal|last1=Blättler|first1=W.|last2=Kreis|first2=N.|last3=Lun|first3=B.|last4=Winiger|first4=J.|last5=Amsler|first5=F.|title=Leg symptoms of healthy people and their treatment with compression hosiery|journal=Phlebology|volume=23|issue=5|pages=214–221|year=2008|pmid=18806203}}</ref> <ref name="kemmler">{{Cite journal|last1=Kemmler|first1=W.|last2=von Stengel|first2=S.|last3=Köckritz|first3=C.|last4=Mayhew|first4=J.|last5=Wassermann|first5=A.|last6=Zapf|first6=J.|title=Effect of compression stockings on running performance in men runners|journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research|volume=23|issue=1|pages=101–105|year=2009|pmid=19057400}}</ref> <ref name="cuervo">{{Cite journal|last1=Cuervo|first1=M.|last2=Ansorena|first2=D.|last3=García|first3=A.|last4=González Martínez|first4=M. A.|last5=Astiasarán|first5=I.|last6=Martínez|first6=J. A.|title=Assessment of calf circumference as an indicator of the risk for hyponutrition in the elderly|journal=Nutrición Hospitalaria|volume=24|issue=1|pages=63–67|year=2009|pmid=19266115}}</ref> <ref name="debette">{{Cite journal|last1=Debette|first1=S.|display-authors=etal|title=Calf circumference is inversely associated with carotid plaques|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_stroke_2008-11_39_11/page/n51|journal=Stroke|volume=39|issue=11|pages=2958–2965|year=2008|pmid=18703804}}</ref> }} [[Mtundu:Anatomy]] [[Mtundu:Vigaŵa vya thupi]] h43jmfjxz2aaq1o9qgi8bypzfyu8y8d 0 49858 123272 123151 2026-10-13T20:50:38Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20261013sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.6) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 123272 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Reference to a source}} {{hatnote group| {{distinguish-redirect|Cite|Site}}{{for-multi|"&lt;cite>"|HTML element}} {{other uses|Citation (disambiguation)|Cité (disambiguation)|CITE (disambiguation)}} {{for|citations related to Wikipedia|Wikipedia:Citing sources|Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia|selfref=yes|Wikipedia:Citation templates}} }} [[File:Webcomic_xkcd_-_Wikipedian_protester_-_Tumbuka.png|thumb|''xkcd'' webusayiti ya mutu wakuti "Wakususka wa Wikipedia". Chimanyikwiro ichi chikuti: "<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Citation needed|UKABONI UKUKHUMBIKA APA]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Munroe |first=Randall |title=Wikipedian Protester |url=https://xkcd.com/285/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225215024/https://www.xkcd.com/285/ |archive-date=25 December 2011 |access-date=25 May 2020 |website=xkcd}}</ref>]] '''Ukaboni''' panji '''chiphara''' ni chibekero cha chinthu malo agho ghakulembeka. Kuyowoya mwakudunjika, ukaboni ni mazgu ghakufupikizgika gha afanumeriki agho ghali kuŵikika mu thupi la buku la vinjeru ilo likulongora kuti pali kulembeka mu chigaŵa cha vimanyikwiro vya mabuku gha buku ili na chilato cha kuzomerezga kuti milimo ya ŵanji yikukhwaskana na mutu wakudumbiskana pa malo agho ukaboni yikuyowoyeka. Kanandi, kuphatikizapo vyose viŵiri, ivyo vikulembeka mu thupi na ivyo vikulembeka mu mabuku, vikupanga ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti ni ukaboni (apo ivyo vikulembeka mu mabuku ghakulembeka paŵekha vikupangiska yayi). Mazgu ghakuzunurapo ghali na vilato vinandi vyakuzirwa. Nangauli kugwiriskira nchito kwawo pakukhozgera unenesko wa vinjeru na kukhozga ivyo ŵakuyowoya vikuwoneka comene mu vyakusambizga na vilongozgo vya mtundu (mwaciyelezgero,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://integrity.mit.edu/handbook/citing-your-sources/avoiding-plagiarism-cite-your-source |title=What Does it Mean to Cite? |publisher=MIT Academic Integrity |access-date=2015-09-28 |archive-date=2017-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710203103/http://integrity.mit.edu/handbook/citing-your-sources/avoiding-plagiarism-cite-your-source |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Association of Legal Writing Directors & Darby Dickerson, ''ALWD Citation Manual: A Professional System of Citation,'' 4th ed. (New York: Aspen, 2010), 3.</ref>), kupereka makora fundo zakumanyikwa ku magwero ghakale nchimoza mwa vifukwa ivi.<ref>Mansourizadeh, Kobra, and Ummul K. Ahmad. "Citation practices among non-native expert and novice scientific writers." ''Journal of English for Academic Purposes'' 10, no. 3 (2011): 152–161.</ref> Kusanda kwa chiyowoyero kwa ndondomeko ya kuzunura kwalongora kuti nawo ŵakugwira ntchito zikuru pakunozga umo chimanyisko chikuŵira pa mutu unyake, kusanga ivyo vikusoŵa mu chimanyisko icho chilipo ivyo vikwenera kuzuzgika panji kulongosora malo agho mafumbo ghakwenera kulutilira panji kuzgoŵezgeka.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Swales |first=John M. |orig-date=2004 |title=Research genres: Explorations and applications |journal= [[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139524827 |publication-date=October 2012 |isbn=978-1-139-52482-7}}</ref> Citation nayo yamanyikwa kuti ni nthowa yikuru iyo ŵakusanda ŵakuŵikirapo fundo: kujikolera panji kulimbana na magulu ghachokoghachoko gha ŵanyawo ŵakusanda awo ŵakugwira ntchito pa mapulojekiti ghakuyana waka na kuŵika mwaŵi wakuti ŵapange chimanyisko chiphya.<ref>Hyland, K., & Jiang, F. (2019). Points of reference: Changing patterns of academic citation. Applied Linguistics, 40(1), 64–85.</ref> [[File:Citations on p. 44 of The Byzantine empire by Finlay.png|thumb|right|Mazgu agho ghali mu ukaboni la ŵasambiri]] Mazgu ghakuzunulika (mwachiyelezgero, kuŵika mazuŵa mu vibokosi, mazgu ghakumalira ghakulembeka pachanya na mazgu ghapasi, makoloni panji makoma pa manambara gha masamba, na vinyake) ghakupambana na ndondomeko yakuzunulira ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito (mwachiyelezgero, Oxford,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/refbib.html |title=Oxford Referencing System |access-date=18 January 2011 |archive-date=30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630023831/http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/refbib.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Harvard, MLA, NLM, Bungwe la Ŵanthu ŵa ku America (ASA), Bungwe la Ŵanthu ŵa ku America (APA), na vinyake). Nthowa yiliyose yikukolerana na visambizgo vyakupambanapambana vya masambiro, ndipo magazini gha masambiro agho ghakukolerana na visambizgo ivi ghakusunga mtundu wakukhumbikwa wa citational style mwa kukhozgera na kulondezga ndondomeko zakwenelera za mtundu. == Ghanoghano == A ''bibliographic citation'' is a reference to a book, [[article (publishing)|article]], [[web page]], or other published item. Citations should supply sufficient detail to identify the item uniquely.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ben.edu/library/help/glossary.htm |title=Library glossary |date=August 22, 2008 |publisher=[[Benedictine University]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430220849/http://www.ben.edu/library/help/glossary.htm |archive-date=April 30, 2008 |access-date=2009-02-27}}</ref> Different citation systems and styles are used in [[scientific citation]], [[legal citation]], [[prior art]], [[the arts]], and the [[humanities]]. Regarding the use of citations in the scientific literature, some scholars also put forward "the right to refuse unwanted citations" in certain situations deemed inappropriate.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva|author2= Quan-Hoang Vuong|date=2021|title=The right to refuse unwanted citations: rethinking the culture of science around the citation | journal=Scientometrics |volume=126|issue=6|pages=5355–5360|doi=10.1007/s11192-021-03960-9|pmid= 33994602|pmc= 8105147|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Vyamukati == Citation content can vary depending on the type of source and may include: * ''Book:'' authors, book title, place of publication, publisher, date of publication, and page numbers if appropriate.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workbook/evaluate.htm#citing |title=Anatomy of a Citation |website=LIU.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905125227/http://www2.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workbook/evaluate.htm#citing |archive-date=2015-09-05 |access-date=2015-09-28 |ref=refLongIslandUni}}</ref> * ''Journal:'' authors, article title, journal title, date of publication, and page numbers. * ''Newspaper:'' authors, article title, name of newspaper, section title and page numbers if desired, date of publication. * ''Web site:'' authors, article, and publication title where appropriate, as well as a [[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]], and a date when the site was accessed. * ''Play:'' inline citations offer part, scene, and line numbers, the latter separated by periods: 4.452 refers to scene 4, line 452. For example, "In Eugene Onegin, Onegin rejects Tanya when she is free to be his, and only decides he wants her when she is already married" (Pushkin 4.452–53).<ref name="Brigham">{{Cite web |url=http://www.byui.edu/english/mlaguide/MLA_intext_citation.htm |title=How to cite sources in the body of your paper |year=2008 |website=BYUI.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113174823/http://www.byui.edu/english/mlaguide/MLA_intext_citation.htm |archive-date=November 13, 2011 |access-date=2008-02-08 |ref=refBrigham}}</ref> * ''Poem:'' spaced [[Slash (punctuation)#In English text|slashes]] are normally used to indicate separate lines of a poem, and [[Parenthetical referencing|parenthetical citations]] usually include the line numbers. For example: "For I must love because I live&nbsp;/ And life in me is what you give." (Brennan, lines 15–16).<ref name=Brigham/> * ''Interview:'' name of interviewer, interview descriptor (ex. personal interview), and date of interview. * ''Data:'' authors, dataset title, date of publication, and publisher. === Unique identifiers === Along with information such as authors, date of publication, title and page numbers, citations may also include [[unique identifier]]s depending on the type of work being referred to. * Citations of books may include an [[International Standard Book Number]] (ISBN). * Specific volumes, articles, or other identifiable parts of a periodical, may have an associated [[Serial Item and Contribution Identifier]] (SICI) or an [[International Standard Serial Number]] (ISSN). * Electronic documents may have a [[digital object identifier]] (DOI). * Biomedical research articles may have a PubMed Identifier ([[PMID]]). == Nthowa == Broadly speaking, there are two types of citation systems, the Vancouver system and parenthetical referencing.<ref name="ELhelpdesk">{{cite web |last=Pantcheva |first=Marina |date=nd |title=Citation styles: Vancouver and Harvard systems |url=https://site.uit.no/english/writing-style/citationstyles/ |website=site.uit.no |access-date=July 2, 2020 |archive-date=July 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701114257/https://site.uit.no/english/writing-style/citationstyles/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the [[Council of Science Editors]] (CSE) adds a third, the'' citation-name system''.<ref name="council2006scientific">Council of Science Editors, Style Manual Committee (2007). Scientific style and format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers.</ref> === Vancouver system === {{main|Vancouver system}} The Vancouver system uses sequential numbers in the text, either bracketed or superscript or both.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vancouver (Numbering) |url=https://intranet.birmingham.ac.uk/as/libraryservices/library/referencing/icite/vancouver/index.aspx |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=University of Birmingham |language=en-GB |archive-date=2022-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103130115/https://intranet.birmingham.ac.uk/as/libraryservices/library/referencing/icite/vancouver/index.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> The numbers refer to either footnotes (notes at the end of the page) or endnotes (notes on a page at the end of the paper) that provide source detail. The notes system may or may not require a full bibliography, depending on whether the writer has used a full-note form or a shortened-note form. The organizational logic of the bibliography is that sources are listed in their order of appearance in-text, rather than alphabetically by author last name. For example, an excerpt from the text of a paper using a notes system ''without'' a full bibliography could look like: :"The five stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance."¹ The note, located either at the foot of the page (footnote) or at the end of the paper (endnote) would look like this: :1. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, ''On Death and Dying'' (New York: Macmillan, 1969) 45–60. In a paper with a full bibliography, the shortened note might look like: :1. Kübler-Ross, ''On Death and Dying'' 45–60. The bibliography entry, which is required with a shortened note, would look like this: :Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth. ''On Death and Dying''. New York: Macmillan, 1969. In the humanities, many authors also use footnotes or endnotes to supply anecdotal information. In this way, what looks like a citation is actually supplementary material, or suggestions for further reading.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.studenthandouts.com/citations.htm |title=How to Write Research Papers with Citations: MLA, APA, Footnotes, Endnotes |access-date=2010-01-31 |archive-date=2010-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616071855/http://www.studenthandouts.com/citations.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Parenthetical referencing === {{main|Parenthetical referencing}} Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing, has full or partial, in-text, citations enclosed in circular brackets and embedded in the paragraph.<ref>{{cite web|last1=libguides|first1=liu.cwp|title=Parenthetical Referencing|url=https://liu.cwp.libguides.com/APAstyle/parenthetical#:~:text=Parenthetical%20references%20are%20used%20within,the%20article%20you%20are%20citing.|access-date=26 July 2020|website=liu.cwp.libguides.com|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726214158/https://liu.cwp.libguides.com/APAstyle/parenthetical#:~:text=Parenthetical%20references%20are%20used%20within,the%20article%20you%20are%20citing.|url-status=live}}</ref> An example of a parenthetical reference: :"The five stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance" (Kübler-Ross, 1969, pp. 45–60). Depending on the choice of style, fully cited parenthetical references may require no end section. Other styles include a list of the citations, with complete bibliographical references, in an end section, sorted alphabetically by author. This section is often called "References", "Bibliography", "Works cited" or "Works consulted". In-text references for online publications may differ from conventional parenthetical referencing. A full reference can be hidden, only displayed when wanted by the reader, in the form of a [[tooltip]].<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210428140433/https://livereference.org/ Live Reference Initiative]}}. Retrieved 2012-04-28.</ref> This style makes citing easier and improves the reader's experience. == Masitayilo == {{Styles}} {{Further|APA style|The Chicago Manual of Style|Bluebook|MLA style|ASA style}} {{For|citation templates on Wikipedia|Wikipedia:Citation templates|selfref=yes}} Citation styles can be broadly divided into styles common to the humanities and the sciences, though there is considerable overlap. Some style guides, such as [[the Chicago Manual of Style]], are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation systems. Others, such as [[MLA style manual|MLA]] and [[APA style|APA]] styles, specify formats within the context of a single citation system. These may be referred to as citation formats as well as citation styles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.csuchico.edu/lref/newciting.html |title=Citation Formats & Style Manuals |year=2007 |website=CSUChico.edu |access-date=2008-02-11 |ref=refCaliforniaStateUni |archive-date=2008-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225232139/http://www.csuchico.edu/lref/newciting.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lesley.edu/library/guides/citation/apa.html |title=APA Citation Format |year=2005 |website=Lesley.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228053242/http://www.lesley.edu/library/guides/citation/apa.html |archive-date=December 28, 2007 |access-date=2008-02-11 |ref=refLesleyUni}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://wally.rit.edu/pubs/guides/apa.html |title=APA Citation Format |year=2003 |website=RIT.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080203115324/http://wally.rit.edu/pubs/guides/apa.html |archive-date=February 3, 2008 |access-date=2008-02-11 |ref=refRIT}}</ref> The various guides thus specify order of appearance, for example, of publication date, title, and page numbers following the author name, in addition to conventions of punctuation, use of italics, emphasis, parenthesis, quotation marks, etc., particular to their style. A number of organizations have created styles to fit their needs; consequently, a number of different guides exist. Individual publishers often have their own in-house variations as well, and some works are so long-established as to have their own citation methods too: [[Stephanus pagination]] for [[Plato]]; [[Bekker numbers]] for [[Aristotle]]; citing the Bible by book, chapter and verse; or [[Shakespeare]] notation by play. The [[Citation Style Language]] (CSL) is an open XML-based language to describe the formatting of citations and bibliographies. === Humanities === * The [[The Chicago Manual of Style|Chicago style]] (CMOS) was developed and its guide is ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]''. It is most widely used in history and economics as well as some social sciences. The closely related [[Turabian]] style—which derives from it—is for student references, and is distinguished from the CMOS by omission of quotation marks in reference lists, and mandatory access date citation. * The Columbia style was created by Janice R. Walker and Todd Taylor to give detailed guidelines for citing internet sources. Columbia style offers models for both the humanities and the sciences. * ''Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace'' by Elizabeth Shown Mills covers primary sources not included in CMOS, such as censuses, court, land, government, business, and church records. Includes sources in electronic format. Used by genealogists and historians.<ref name="evidence">Elizabeth Shown Mills. ''Evidence Explained : Citing History Sources from Artifacts to cyberspace.'' 2d ed. Baltimore:Genealogical Pub. Co., 2009.</ref> * [[Harvard referencing]] (or author-date system) is a specific kind of [[parenthetical referencing]]. Parenthetical referencing is recommended by both the [[BSI Group|British Standards Institution]] and the [[Modern Language Association]]. Harvard referencing involves a short author-date reference, e.g., "(Smith, 2000)", being inserted after the cited text within parentheses and the full reference to the source being listed at the end of the article. * [[The MLA Style Manual|MLA style]] was developed by the Modern Language Association and is most often used in [[the arts]] and the [[humanities]], particularly in [[English studies]], other [[Literary criticism|literary studies]], including [[comparative literature]] and [[literary criticism]] in languages other than English ("foreign languages"), and some interdisciplinary studies, such as [[cultural studies]], [[drama]] and [[theatre]], film, and other [[Mass media|media]], including television. This style of citations and bibliographical format uses parenthetical referencing with author-page (Smith 395) or author-[short] title-page (Smith, ''Contingencies'' 42) in the case of more than one work by the same author within parentheses in the text, keyed to an alphabetical list of sources on a "works cited" page at the end of the paper, as well as notes (footnotes or endnotes).{{efn|The field of [[communication]] (or communications) overlaps with some of the disciplines also covered by the MLA and has its own disciplinary style recommendations for documentation format; the style guide recommended for use in student papers in such departments in American colleges and universities is often ''[[APA style|The Publication Manual of the APA]]'' ([[American Psychological Association]]); designated for short as "[[APA style]]".}} * The [[MHRA Style Guide]] is published by the [[Modern Humanities Research Association]] (MHRA) and most widely used in the arts and humanities in the United Kingdom, where the MHRA is based. It is available for sale both in the UK and in the United States. It is similar to MLA style, but has some differences. For example, MHRA style uses footnotes that reference a citation fully while also providing a bibliography. Some readers find it advantageous that the footnotes provide full citations, instead of shortened references, so that they do not need to consult the bibliography while reading for the rest of the publication details.<ref>The 2nd edition (updated April 2008) of the ''[[MHRA Style Guide]]'' is downloadable for free from the [[Modern Humanities Research Association]] official website. {{Cite web |url=http://www.mhra.org.uk/Publications/Books/StyleGuide/ |title=MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses |year=2008 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |access-date=2009-02-05 |archive-date=2005-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050910055050/http://www.mhra.org.uk/Publications/Books/StyleGuide/ }} (2nd ed.)</ref> In some areas of the humanities, footnotes are used exclusively for references, and their use for conventional [[footnotes]] (explanations or examples) is avoided. In these areas, the term ''footnote'' is actually used as a synonym for ''reference'', and care must be taken by editors and typesetters to ensure that they understand how the term is being used by their authors. === Law === {{Main|Legal citation}} * The [[Bluebook]] is a citation system traditionally used in American academic legal writing, and the Bluebook (or similar systems derived from it) are used by many courts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/ |title=Introduction to Basic Legal Citation (LII 2007 ed.) |last=Martin |first=Peter W |date=May 2007 |website=Cornell.edu |orig-date=1993 |access-date=2008-02-03 |ref=refMartin2007 |archive-date=2018-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004233927/https://www.law.cornell.edu/citation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> At present, academic legal articles are always footnoted, but motions submitted to courts and court opinions traditionally use inline citations, which are either separate sentences or separate clauses. Inline citations allow readers to quickly determine the strength of a source based on, for example, the court a case was decided in and the year it was decided. * The legal citation style used almost universally in Canada is based on the ''[[Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation]]'' (AKA ''McGill Guide''), published by ''McGill Law Journal''.<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210184155/http://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/citeguide.php|url=http://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/citeguide.php|title=Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation (Cite Guide)|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-02-10|access-date=2009-02-05|website=McGill Law Journal}}<!--Updated October 2008.--></ref> * British legal citation almost universally follows the ''[[Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities]]'' (OSCOLA). === Sciences, mathematics, engineering, physiology, and medicine === * The [[American Chemical Society]] style, or [[ACS style]], is often used in chemistry and some of the [[physical sciences]]. In ACS style references are numbered in the text and in the reference list, and numbers are repeated throughout the text as needed. * In the style of the [[American Institute of Physics]] ([[AIP style]]), references are also numbered in the text and in the reference list, with numbers repeated throughout the text as needed. * Styles developed for the [[American Mathematical Society]] (AMS), or AMS styles, such as [[AMS-LaTeX]], are typically implemented using the [[BibTeX]] tool in the [[LaTeX]] typesetting environment. Brackets with the author's initials and year are inserted in the text and at the beginning of the reference. Typical citations are listed in line with alphabetic-label format, e.g. [AB90]. This type of style is also called an "authorship trigraph". * The [[Vancouver system]], recommended by the [[Council of Science Editors]] (CSE), is used in medical and scientific papers and research. ** In one major variant, that used by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), citation numbers are included in the text in square brackets rather than as superscripts. All bibliographical information is exclusively included in the list of references at the end of the document, next to the respective citation number. ** The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) is reportedly the original kernel of this biomedical style, which evolved from the Vancouver 1978 editors' meeting.<ref>[http://www.icmje.org "Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191005051625/http://www.icmje.org/ |date=2019-10-05 }}.</ref> The [[MEDLINE]]/[[PubMed]] database uses this citation style and the [[National Library of Medicine]] provides "ICMJE [[Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals]] – Sample References".<ref>International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html "ICMJE Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals – Sample References"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061221120314/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html |date=2006-12-21 }}.</ref> * The American Medical Association has its own variant of Vancouver style with only minor differences. See [[AMA Manual of Style]]. * The style of the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE), or [[IEEE style]], encloses citation numbers within square brackets and numbers them consecutively, with numbers repeated throughout the text as needed.<ref>[http://www.ieee.org/documents/style_manual.pdf IEEE Style Manual] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924043706/http://www.ieee.org/documents/style_manual.pdf |date=2015-09-24 }}. Retrieved 2015-02-16.</ref> * In areas of biology that falls within the [[ICNafp]] (which itself uses this citation style throughout), a variant form of author-title citation is the primary method used when making nomenclatural citations and sometimes general citations (for example in code-related proposals published in ''[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]]''), with the works in question not cited in the bibliography unless also cited in the text. Titles use standardized abbreviations following ''Botanico-Periodicum-Huntianum'' for periodicals and ''Taxonomic Literature 2'' (later [[IPNI]]) for books. * Pechenik citation style is a style described in ''A Short Guide to Writing about Biology'', 6th ed. (2007), by [[Jan Pechenik|Jan A. Pechenik]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150929032143/http://www.gonzaga.edu/academics/colleges-and-schools/college-of-arts-and-sciences/majors-programs/Biology/Undergraduate_Research/Forms/citation_guide.pdf "Pechenik Citation Style QuickGuide"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929032143/http://www.gonzaga.edu/academics/colleges-and-schools/college-of-arts-and-sciences/majors-programs/Biology/Undergraduate_Research/Forms/citation_guide.pdf |date=2015-09-29 }} ([[PDF]]). [[University of Alberta]], Augustana Campus, Canada. [[World Wide Web|Web]]. November 2007.</ref> * In 1955, Eugene Garfield proposed a [[citation index|bibliographic system for scientific literature]], to consolidate the integrity of [[scientific publishing|scientific publications]].<ref name="cisn">{{Cite journal |last=Garfield |first=Eugene |year=2006 |title=Citation indexes for science. A new dimension in documentation through association of ideas |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-epidemiology_2006-10_35_5/page/1123 |journal=International Journal of Epidemiology |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1123–1127 |doi=10.1093/ije/dyl189 |pmid=16987841 |doi-access=}}</ref> === Social sciences === * The style of the [[American Psychological Association]], or [[APA style]], published in the [[Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association]], is most often used in [[social sciences]]. APA citation style is similar to [[Harvard referencing]], listing the author's name and year of publication, although these can take two forms: ''name citations'' in which the surnames of the authors appear in the text and the year of publication then appears in parentheses, and ''author-date citations'', in which the surnames of the authors and the year of publication all appear in parentheses. In both cases, in-text citations point to an alphabetical list of sources at the end of the paper in a "references" section. * The [[American Political Science Association]] publishes both a style manual and a style guide for publications in this field.<ref name="APSA">Stephen Yoder, ed. (2008). ''The APSA Guide to Writing and Publishing'' and ''Style Manual for Political Science''. Rev. ed. August 2006. [http://www.apsanet.org/PUBLICATIONS/Online-Store APSAnet.org Publications] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929073143/http://www.apsanet.org/PUBLICATIONS/Online-Store |date=2015-09-29 }}. Retrieved 2015-09-28.</ref> The style is close to the CMOS. * The [[American Anthropological Association]] utilizes a modified form of the Chicago style laid out in their publishing style guide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aaanet.org/publications/guidelines.cfm|title=Publishing Style Guide - Stay Informed|website=www.aaanet.org|access-date=Apr 28, 2020|archive-date=October 9, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009061048/http://aaanet.org/publications/guidelines.cfm|url-status=live}}</ref> * The [[ASA style]] of the [[American Sociological Association]] is one of the main styles used in [[sociological]] publications. == Mavuto == {{see also|Impact factor#Editorial policies that affect the impact factor}}In their research on footnotes in scholarly journals in the field of communication, Michael Bugeja and Daniela V. Dimitrova have found that citations to online sources have a rate of decay (as cited pages are taken down), which they call a "half-life", that renders footnotes in those journals less useful for scholarship over time.<ref>Bugeja, Michael and Daniela V. Dimitrova (2010). ''Vanishing Act: The Erosion of Online Footnotes and Implications for Scholarship in the Digital Age''. Duluth, Minnesota: Litwin Books. {{ISBN|978-1-936117-14-7}}</ref> Other experts have found that published replications do not have as many citations as original publications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Raymond Hubbard and J. Scott Armstrong |year=1994 |title=Replications and Extensions in Marketing: Rarely Published But Quite Contrary |url=http://cogprints.org/5199/1/Replications-and-Extensions-in-Marketing.pdf |journal=International Journal of Research in Marketing |s2cid-access=free |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=233–248 |doi=10.1016/0167-8116(94)90003-5 |s2cid=18205635 |access-date=2017-11-01 |archive-date=2017-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922010807/http://cogprints.org/5199/1/Replications%2Dand%2DExtensions%2Din%2DMarketing.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Another important issue is citation errors, which often occur due to carelessness on either the researcher or journal editor's part in the publication procedure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Peoples | first1=Nicholas | last2=Østbye | first2=Truls | last3=Yan | first3=Lijing L. | title=Burden of proof: Combating inaccurate citation in biomedical literature | journal=BMJ | date=2023 | volume=383 | article-number=e076441 | doi=10.1136/bmj-2023-076441 | pmid=37931929 }}</ref> For example, a study that analyzed 1,200 randomly selected citations from three major business ethics journals concluded that an average article contains at least three plagiarized citations when authors copy and paste a citation entry from another publication without consulting the original source.<ref name="Serenko2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Serenko |first1=A. |last2=Dumay |first2=J. |last3=Hsiao |first3=P-C.K. |last4=Choo |first4=C.W. |date=2021 |title=Do They Practice What They Preach? The Presence of Problematic Citations in Business Ethics Research |url=http://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Do_They_Practice.pdf |journal=Journal of Documentation |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=1304–1320 |doi=10.1108/JD-01-2021-0018 |s2cid=237823862 |access-date=2021-10-19 |archive-date=2021-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023193000/http://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Do_They_Practice.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Experts have found that simple precautions, such as consulting the author of a cited source about proper citations, reduce the likelihood of citation errors and thus increase the quality of research.<ref name="Wright2008">{{Cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=Malcolm |last2=Armstrong |first2=J.&nbsp;Scott |author-link2=J. Scott Armstrong |date=2008 |title=The Ombudsman: Verification of Citations: Fawlty Towers of Knowledge? |journal=Interfaces |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=125–139 |doi=10.1287/inte.1070.0317 |issn=0092-2102 |eissn=1526-551X |jstor=25062982 |oclc=5582131729 |ssrn=1941335 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Another study noted that approximately 25% citations do not support the claims made, a finding that affects many disciplines, including history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cumberledge |first1=Aaron |last2=Smith |first2=Neal |last3=Riley |first3=Benjamin W. |date=2023-08-01 |title=Unverified history: an analysis of quotation accuracy in leading history journals |journal=Scientometrics |language=en |volume=128 |issue=8 |pages=4677–4687 |doi=10.1007/s11192-023-04755-w |s2cid=259519993 |issn=1588-2861}}</ref> Research suggests the impact of an article can be, partly, explained by superficial factors and not only by the scientific merits of an article.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Bornmann | first1=Lutz | last2=Daniel | first2=Hans-Dieter | title=What do citation counts measure? A review of studies on citing behavior | journal=Journal of Documentation | date=2008 | volume=64 | pages=45–80 | doi=10.1108/00220410810844150 | hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-7A94-3 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> Field-dependent factors are usually listed as an issue to be tackled not only when comparisons across disciplines are made, but also when different fields of research of one discipline are being compared.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anauati |first1=Maria Victoria |last2=Galiani |first2=Sebastian |last3=Gálvez |first3=Ramiro H. |date=November 4, 2015 |title=Quantifying the Life Cycle of Scholarly Articles Across Fields of Economic Research |ssrn=2523078 |journal=Economic Inquiry |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=1339–1355}}</ref> For example, in medicine, among other factors, the number of authors, the number of references, the article length, and the presence of a colon in the title influence the impact; while in sociology the number of references, the article length, and title length are among the factors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Wesel |first1=M. |last2=Wyatt |first2=S. |last3=ten Haaf |first3=J. |year=2014 |title=What a difference a colon makes: how superficial factors influence subsequent citation |url=https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/894334/art_3A10.1007_2Fs11192_013_1154_x.pdf |journal=Scientometrics |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=1601–1615 |doi=10.1007/s11192-013-1154-x |s2cid=18553863 |hdl=20.500.11755/2fd7fc12-1766-4ddd-8f19-1d2603d2e11d |hdl-access=free |access-date=2019-07-11 |archive-date=2021-01-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126035317/https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/894334/art_3A10.1007_2Fs11192_013_1154_x.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Studies of methodological quality and reliability have found that "reliability of published research works in several fields may be decreasing with increasing journal rank".<ref name="Brembs2018">{{cite journal |last1=Brembs|first1=Björn|title=Prestigious Science Journals Struggle to Reach Even Average Reliability |journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience |volume=12 |article-number=37 |year=2018 |pmid=29515380 |pmc=5826185 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2018.00037 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Nature Index]] recognizes that citations remain a controversial and yet important metric for academics.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://go.nature.com/2TdWoM6 |title=Studies suggest 5 ways to increase citation counts |last=Crew |first=Bec |date=7 August 2019 |website=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] Index |access-date=20 August 2019 |archive-date=18 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218015207/https://www.natureindex.com/news-blog/studies-research-five-ways-increase-citation-counts |url-status=live }}</ref> They report five ways to increase citation counts: (1) watch the title length and punctuation;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hudson |first=John |year=2016 |title=An analysis of the titles of papers submitted to the UK REF in 2014: authors, disciplines, and stylistic details |journal=[[Scientometrics]] |volume=109 |issue=2 |pages=871–889 |doi=10.1007/s11192-016-2081-4 |pmc=5065898 |pmid=27795594}}</ref> (2) release the results early as preprints;<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fraser |first1=Nicholas |last2=Momeni |first2=Fakhri |last3=Mayr |first3=Philipp |last4=Peters |first4=Isabella |title=The relationship between bioRxiv preprints, citations and altmetrics |journal=Quantitative Science Studies |date=2020 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=618–638 |biorxiv=10.1101/673665 |doi=10.1162/qss_a_00043 |doi-access=free|hdl=11108/455 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> (3) avoid referring to a country in the title, abstract, or keywords;<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abramo |first1=Giovanni |last2=D'Angelo |first2=Ciriaco Andrea |last3=Di Costa |first3=Flavia |year=2016 |title=The effect of a country's name in the title of a publication on its visibility and citability |journal=[[Scientometrics]] |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=1895–1909 |arxiv=1810.12657 |doi=10.1007/s11192-016-2120-1|s2cid=4354082 }}</ref> (4) link the article to supporting data in a repository;<ref>{{Cite journal|arxiv=1907.02565 |first1=Giovanni |last1=Colavizza |first2=Iain |last2=Hrynaszkiewicz |title=The citation advantage of linking publications to research data |first3=Isla |last3=Staden |first4=Kirstie |last4=Whitaker |first5=Barbara |last5=McGillivray |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2019|volume=15 |issue=4 |article-number=e0230416 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0230416 |pmid=32320428 |pmc=7176083 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1530416C |doi-access=free }}</ref> and (5) avoid hyphens in the titles of research articles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Zhi Quan |last2=Tse |first2=T.H. |last3=Witheridge |first3=Matt |year=2021 |title=Metamorphic robustness testing: Exposing hidden defects in citation statistics and journal impact factors |journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering]] |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=1164–1183 |doi=10.1109/TSE.2019.2915065|bibcode=2021ITSEn..47.1164Z |doi-access=free }}</ref> Citation patterns are also known to be affected by unethical behavior of both the authors and journal staff. Such behavior is called impact factor boosting and was reported to involve even the top-tier journals. Specifically the high-ranking journals of medical science, including ''The Lancet'', ''JAMA'' and ''The New England Journal of Medicine'', are thought to be associated with such behavior, with up to 30% of citations to these journals being generated by commissioned opinion articles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heneberg |first=P. |year=2014 |title=Parallel Worlds of Citable Documents and Others: Inflated Commissioned Opinion Articles Enhance Scientometric Indicators |journal=Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology |volume=65 |issue=3 |page=635 |doi=10.1002/asi.22997 |s2cid=3165853 |url=https://asistdl.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/asi.22997 |url-access=subscription |access-date=2021-06-20 |archive-date=2021-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202227/https://asistdl.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/asi.22997 |url-status=live }}</ref> On the other hand, the phenomenon of citation cartels is rising. Citation cartels are defined as groups of authors that cite each other disproportionately more than they do other groups of authors who work on the same subject.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fister |first1=I. Jr. |last2=Fister |first2=I. |last3=Perc |first3=M. |year=2016 |title=Toward the Discovery of Citation Cartels in Citation Networks |journal=Frontiers in Physics |volume=4 |page=49 |bibcode=2016FrP.....4...49F |doi=10.3389/fphy.2016.00049 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Citation politics=== Another issue is citation politics, which describes how citation shapes power structures by dictating the legitimacy of published authors and their work.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perkins-White |first=Amy |title=Library Guides: Citation politics: Getting Started |url=https://unimelb.libguides.com/citation-politics |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=unimelb.libguides.com |language=en |archive-date=2025-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250216223059/https://unimelb.libguides.com/citation-politics |url-status=live }}</ref> As ideas are frequently reproduced through citation, they accrue increasing intellectual value.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Annabel L. |date=2020 |title=The Politics of Citation |journal=Diacritics |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=4–9 |doi=10.1353/dia.2020.0016 |issn=1080-6539}}</ref> Research suggests that the number of times that an academic article gets cited has a direct impact on the author's academic prestige and recognition, promotion opportunities, and potential impact in their respective fields.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Christen A. |last2=Garrett-Scott |first2=Dominique |date=2021-04-05 |title="We are not named": Black women and the politics of citation in anthropology |journal=Feminist Anthropology |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=18–37 |doi=10.1002/fea2.12038 |issn=2643-7961}}</ref> The [[Matthew effect|Matthew Effect]], [[Matilda effect|Matilda Effect]] and [[Reporting bias#Citation bias|citation bias]] describe phenomena to this effect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ray |first1=Keisha S. |last2=Zurn |first2=Perry |last3=Dworkin |first3=Jordan D. |last4=Bassett |first4=Dani S. |last5=Resnik |first5=David B. |date=2022-08-18 |title=Citation bias, diversity, and ethics |journal=Accountability in Research |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=158–172 |doi=10.1080/08989621.2022.2111257 |pmid=35938378 |pmc=9938084 |issn=0898-9621}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Kwon |first=Diana |date=2022-03-22 |title=The rise of citational justice: how scholars are making references fairer |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00793-1 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=603 |issue=7902 |pages=568–571 |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-00793-1 |pmid=35318470 |bibcode=2022Natur.603..568K }}</ref> However, evidence indicates that external factors may influence the likelihood of a paper getting cited.<ref name=":1" /> For example, citation counts have been shown to favor researchers from the Global North and thus can undervalue researchers from the Global South and from minority communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lazarus |first=Suleman |date=2024-12-05 |title=An Autoethnographic Perspective on Scholarly Impact, Citation Politics, and North–South Power Dynamics |journal=Life Writing |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=603–629 |doi=10.1080/14484528.2024.2430666 |issn=1448-4528|doi-access=free }}</ref> In addition, male names tend to get cited disproportionately more frequently than female names.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rosa |first1=Fernanda R. |last2=Anastácio |first2=Kimberly |last3=Pereira de Jesus |first3=Maria Vitoria |last4=Veras |first4=Hemanuel Jhosé A. |date=June 2024 |title=Citation politics: The gender gap in internet governance |journal=Telecommunications Policy |volume=48 |issue=5 |article-number=102734 |doi=10.1016/j.telpol.2024.102734 |issn=0308-5961|doi-access=free |hdl=10919/124563 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Smith and Garrett-Scott have also argued that black women in the anthropological field are rarely ever cited by non-black women.<ref name=":0" /> Researchers have suggested combating inequality in citation politics with the use of a Citation Diversity Statement, a statement that would include the proportions of citations used in a scholarly article in terms of gender, race, and/or ethnicity.<ref name=":1" /> Another option is the formation of campaigns like #CiteBlackWomen that promote awareness of citational disparity.<ref name=":1" /> == Kafukufuku na kupanga == There is research about citations and development of related tools and systems, mainly relating to scientific citations. [[Citation analysis]] is a method widely used in [[metascience]]. ===Citation analysis=== {{Excerpt|Citation analysis|only=paragraphs|paragraphs=1-2}} ===Citation frequency=== {{See also|Metascience#Evaluation and incentives}} {{Excerpt|Scientific citation|Citation frequency|hat=no}} ===Progress and citation consolidation=== {{Excerpt|Scientific citation|Progress and citation consolidation|hat=no}} ===IT systems=== {{Excerpt|Scientific citation|IT systems|subsections=yes|hat=no}} == Wonaniso == <!-- New links in alpphabetial order please --> {{columns-list|colwidth=30em| * [[Acknowledgment (creative arts)]] * [[Bible citation]] * [[Case citation]] * [[Citation creator]] * [[Citation index]] * [[Citation signal]] * [[Citationality]] * [[Coercive citation]] * [[Credit (creative arts)]] * [[Cross-reference]] * [[Drive-by citation]] * [[San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment]] * [[Scholarly method]] * [[Source evaluation]] * [[Style guide]] }} == Manotisi == {{Notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Kuŵerenga kwakusazgikira == * {{Wiktionary-inline}} * {{Wikiquote-inline}} *{{commonscatinline}} <!-- This list needs to be ordered alphabetically. --> {{refbegin}} * {{Cite journal |last=Armstrong |first=J Scott |date=July 1996 |title=The Ombudsman: Management Folklore and Management Science{{snd}}On Portfolio Planning, Escalation Bias, and Such |url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1111&context=marketing_papers |journal=Interfaces |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=28–42 |doi=10.1287/inte.26.4.25 |oclc=210941768 |ref=refArmstrong 2007 |access-date=2019-07-11 |archive-date=2018-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720064706/https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1111&context=marketing_papers |url-status=live }} * <cite id=refPechenik2004>{{Cite book |last=Pechenik |first=Jan A |title=A Short Guide to Writing About Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/shortguidetowrit0000pech_j5p3 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-321-15981-6 |edition=5th |location=[[New York City|New York]] |oclc=52166026 |ref=refMHRA}}</cite> * {{Cite web |url=https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/undergraduates/using-sources/principles-citing-sources/why-are-there-different-citation-styles |title=Why Are There Different Citation Styles? |website=Yale.edu |access-date=2025-01-23 |ref=refYaleUni |author=Yale Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning |date=25 June 2015 |archive-date=2025-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250123155948/https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/undergraduates/using-sources/principles-citing-sources/why-are-there-different-citation-styles |url-status=dead }} * {{cite web |title=Why Cite Sources in Your Academic Writing? |url=https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/undergraduates/using-sources/principles-citing-sources/why-cite |author=Yale Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning |website=Yale.edu |access-date=2025-01-23 |archive-date=2025-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250123160020/https://poorvucenter.yale.edu/undergraduates/using-sources/principles-citing-sources/why-cite |url-status=live }} {{refend}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Bibliography]] [[Category:Intellectual history]] [[Category:Reference]] [[Category:Sources]] [[Category:Elements of documents]] jofyvuttho7abb5xsjqle3do3vv9ccr 0 49961 123268 2026-10-13T12:06:06Z Andre Engels 129 Andre Engels moved page [[CentralNotice/Request]] to [[Wikipedia:CentralNotice/Request]] 123268 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:CentralNotice/Request]] f4jjjessmr3uztb8olr46gnlzta0jb9