Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.24 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 35996 123290 123282 2026-10-17T06:52:03Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 123290 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kasandiro''' (''science'') ni sambiro lakukhazikika ilo likuzenga na kunozga umanyi mu nthowa ya vyakulongosora vyakuyezgeka vya kawiro (''nature'') na ŵanthu (''society'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=E. O. |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135 |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |publisher=Vintage |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8 |edition=Reprint |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55 49]–71 |chapter=The natural sciences |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{rp|pp=49–71}}<ref name="Heilbron2003">{{cite book |last=Heilbron |first=J. L. |author-link=J. L. Heilbron |title=The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-511229-0 |location=New York |pages=vii–x |chapter=Preface |quote=...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions. |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Kasandiro kakulongozgeka na ''nthowa ya kasandiro'' (''scientific method''): cizungulizo cha ukaboni (''empirical cycle'') uwo kanandi ukusazgapo kuwona vinthu, kupanga ''hypotheses'', kuviyezga na ukaboni, na kufika pa vyakumalizira. Kasandiro kakukhwaska nthowa iyi na thupi la umanyi ilo kakupanga, ilo ŵasandi (''scientists'') ŵakuyezga, kukhozgera, na kunozga nyengo zose. Kanandi kasandiro ka sono kakugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikuru:<ref name="Cohen2021">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Eliel |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |title=The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-56298-4 |location=New York |pages=14–41 |chapter=The boundary lens: theorising academic activity |access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |url-status=live}}</ref> tusandiro twa kawiro (''natural sciences''), utwu tukusanda caro ca vinthu vyakuwoneka, na tusandiro twa ŵanthu (''social sciences''), utwu tukusanda ŵanthu paŵekha na magulu gha ŵanthu (''individuals'' na ''societies'').<ref name="Colander2019">{{cite book |last1=Colander |first1=David C. |title=Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society |last2=Hunt |first2=Elgin F. |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |edition=17th |location=New York |pages=1–22 |chapter=Social science and its methods}}</ref><ref name="Nisbet2020">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Social Science |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |access-date=9 May 2021 |date=16 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202193947/https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |archive-date=2 February 2022 |last2=Greenfeld |first2=Liah |last1=Nisbet |first1=Robert A. |url-status=live}}</ref> Nangauli masamu, ''logic'', na ''theoretical computer science'' vikucemeka tusandiro twa dango (''formal sciences''), kanandi vikuwonekera kuti ni vyakupatuka cifukwa vikuthemba pa kughanaghana kwakufumira pa vyakukwana (''deductive reasoning'') m'malo mwa nthowa ya kasandiro nga ni nthowa yawo yikuru.<ref name="Kluwer">{{cite book |last1=Bishop |first1=Alan |title=Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education |publisher=Kluwer |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7923-1270-3 |location=Norwell, MA |pages=20–59 |chapter=Environmental activities and mathematical culture |access-date=24 March 2018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref><ref name="Fetzer2013">{{cite book |last1=Fetzer |first1=James H. |title=Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines |publisher=Kluwer |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4438-1946-6 |location=Newcastle, United Kingdom |pages=271–308 |chapter=Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nickles |first1=Thomas |title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |page=104 |chapter=The Problem of Demarcation}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyi, tusandiro twakugwiriskira ntchito (''applied sciences'') ni vigaŵa ivyo vikugwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa kasandiro pa vyakukhumbikwa vya zuŵa na zuŵa, nga ni uinjiniya (''engineering'') na munkhwala (''medicine'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=M. R. |last2=Fabry |first2=G |year=2014 |title=Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education |journal=GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=Doc24 |doi=10.3205/zma000916 |pmc=4027809 |pmid=24872859}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sinclair |first=Marius |year=1993 |title=On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods |url=https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |url-status=live |journal=The International Journal of Engineering Education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |archive-date=15 November 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966">{{Cite book |last=Bunge |first=M. |title=Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology |publisher=Springer |year=1966 |isbn=978-94-010-2184-5 |editor-last=Rapp |editor-first=F. |location=Dordrecht |pages=19–39 |chapter=Technology as Applied Science |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 |s2cid=110332727}}</ref> Mbiri ya kasandiro yikukwata nyengo yitali ya mbiri ya ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakwamba kumanyikwa kuti ŵakaŵako pambere kasandiro ka sono kandazengeke ŵakaŵako mu Nyengo ya Mkuŵa (''Bronze Age'') ku Egypt na Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE). Ivyo ŵakapereka pa masamu, vya kuthambo (''astronomy''), na munkhwala vikanjira mu ukaghanaghani wa Ŵagiriki wa kawiro (''natural philosophy'') wa nyengo yakale (''classical antiquity'') na pamanyuma mu masambiro gha nyengo ya pakati (''medieval scholarship''), apo ŵakayezgayezga mwakukhazikika kupereka vyakulongosora vya ivyo vikucitika mu caro cakuwoneka kwizira mu vifukwa vya kawiro; kupita panthazi kwinaku, kusazgapo kwamba kwa nthowa ya manambala gha Ŵahindu na Ŵarabu (''Hindu–Arabic numeral system''), kukacitika mu Nyengo ya Golide ya India (''Golden Age of India'') na mu Nyengo ya Golide ya Ŵaislamu (''Islamic Golden Age'').<ref name="Lindberg2007">{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{rp|p=12}}<ref name="Grant2007a">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |location=New York }}</ref>{{rp|pp=1–26}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ Building Bridges Among the BRICs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081025/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ |date=18 April 2023 }}, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 |title=India: A history |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 132] |quote=The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden. |author-link=John Keay}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=163–192}} Kubwezgera na kutora ntchito za Ŵagiriki na ivyo ŵaislamu ŵakasanda ku Ulaya wa Kumadazi (''Western Europe'') mu nyengo ya ''Renaissance'' kukawuskapo ukaghanaghani wa kawiro,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=193–224, 225–253}}<ref>Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything+we+would+today+call+science+came+through+Islam%22&pg=PA80 Pages 80–81] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240827070053/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything%20we%20would%20today%20call%20science%20came%20through%20Islam%22&pg=PA80 |date=27 August 2024 }}. Retrieved 6 October 2023.</ref> uwo pamanyuma ukasinthika na Kusintha kwa Kasandiro (''Scientific Revolution'') kuko kukayamba mu zana la myaka la 16<ref>{{cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |location=New York |pages=1–3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> apo maghanoghano na vyakusanga vyapya vikapatuka na vyakughanaghana na mitheto ya Ŵagiriki.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=357–368}}<ref name="Grant2007a" />{{rp|pp=274–322}} Nthowa ya kasandiro yikamba kugwira ntchito yikuru mu kusanga umanyi, ndipo mu zana la myaka la 19, vinandi vya vyakukhazikika vya mabungwe na ntchito vya kasandiro vikamba kuwonekera,<ref>{{cite book |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-08928-7 |editor1-last=Cahan |editor1-first=David}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |page=367 |chapter=13. Science and the Public |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter}}</ref> ndipo "ukaghanaghani wa kawiro" (''natural philosophy'') ukasintha kuŵa "kasandiro ka kawiro" (''natural science'').<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |year=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18451-7 |pages=164–165 |quote=The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life. |author-link1=Peter Harrison (historian)}}</ref> Umanyi wapya mu kasandiro ukuluta panthazi cifukwa ca kafukufuku wa ŵasandi awo ŵakusuzgika na kukhumba kumanya caro na khumbo la kuthana masuzgo.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacRitchie |first=Finlay |url=https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |title=Scientific Research as a Career |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4398-6965-9 |location=New York |pages=1–6 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505074020/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marder |first=Michael P. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |title=Research Methods for Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-14584-8 |location=New York |pages=1–17 |chapter=Curiosity and research |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505001547/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |url-status=live}}</ref> Kafukufuku wa kasandiro wa sono kanandi wakukolerana comene ndipo kanandi wakucitika na magulu mu mabungwe gha masambiro na kafukufuku (''research institutions''),<ref>{{cite book |last=de Ridder |first=Jeroen |url=https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |title=What is Scientific Knowledge? An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-138-57016-0 |editor-last1=McCain |editor-first1=Kevin |location=New York |pages=3–17 |chapter=How many scientists does it take to have knowledge? |access-date=5 May 2021 |editor-last2=Kampourakis |editor-first2=Kostas |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505044353/https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |url-status=live}}</ref> mabungwe gha boma,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=163–192}} na ma kampani.<ref>{{cite book |last=Szycher |first=Michael |url=https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |title=Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-40741-1 |location=New York |pages=159–176 |chapter=Establishing your dream team |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818032914/https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, vinthu vinandi vikuru ivyo vyacitika—comene mu kasandiro ka muzu (''fundamental science'')—vyafuma kwa ŵasandi paŵekha ndipo vikumanyikwa comene kwizira mu mphoto zikuru za pa caro cose nga ni Mphoto ya Nobel (''Nobel Prize''). Ivyo vikucitika cifukwa ca ntchito ya kasandiro vyapangiska kuti paŵe ndondomeko za kasandiro (''science policies'') izo zikukhumba kuŵika pakwamba kupanga vinthu vya malonda mwakwenelera, kusunga umoyo wa ŵanthu, kuzenga vinthu vya boma, kuvikilira kawiro, na kujivikilira. == Kufuma kwa lizgu == Lizgu ''science'' lagwiriskika ntchito mu Cingelezi kufuma mu zana la myaka la 14 (Cingelezi ca Pakati) mu ng'anamuro la "mkhaliro wa kumanya". Lizgu ili likabwereka kufuma ku Anglo-Norman nga ni suffix ''-cience'', iyo yikabwereka kufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini ''scientia'', ilo likung'anamura "umanyi, kumanya, kupulikiska", dazina lakufuma ku ''sciens'' ilo likung'anamura "kumanya", ilo mwene lizgu ilo likugwira ntchito sono la ''sciō'' "kumanya".<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Science |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |access-date=16 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901035713/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |archive-date=1 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pali vigomezgo vinandi vyakuti lizgu ''science'' likafuma kwakwamba. Kuyana na Michiel de Vaan, msambiri wa viyowoyero wa ku Netherlands, ''sciō'' yingaŵa kuti yikafuma mu chiyowoyero cha Proto-Italic nga ni ''*skije-'' panji ''*skijo-'' icho chikung'anamura "kumanya", icho chingaŵa kuti chikafuma ku Proto-Indo-European nga ni ''skh₁-ie'', ''skh₁-io'' icho chikung'anamura "kucheka". Buku la ''Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben'' likuyowoya kuti ''sciō'' ni lizgu lakupangika kufuma ku ''nescīre'', ilo likung'anamura "kuleka kumanya, kuŵa wambula kumanyikwa na", ilo lingafuma ku Proto-Indo-European ''sekH-'' mu Cilatini ''secāre'', panji ''skh₂-'' kufuma ku ''sḱʰeh2(i)-'' ilo likung'anamura "kucheka".<ref>{{Cite dictionary |year=2008 |title=sciō |dictionary=Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/m-de-vaan-2008-etymological-dictionary-of-latin-and-the-other-italic-languages/page/544/ |last=Vaan |first=Michiel de |author-link=Michiel de Vaan |series=[[Indo-European Etymological Dictionary]] |page=545 |isbn=978-90-04-16797-1}}</ref> Kale, kasandiro kakaŵa lizgu lakuyana waka na "umanyi" panji "kusambira", mwakukolerana na chiyambi chake cha Cilatini. Munthu uyo wakacitanga kafukufuku wa kasandiro wakacemekanga "msambiri wa kawiro" (''natural philosopher'') panji "munthu wa kasandiro".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cahan |first=David |title=From natural philosophy to the sciences: writing the history of nineteenth-century science |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-08927-4 |pages=3–15}}</ref> Mu 1834, William Whewell wakayambiska lizgu ''scientist'' (msandi) apo wakawoneseskanga buku la Mary Somerville ''On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ross |first=Sydney |year=1962 |title=Scientist: The story of a word |journal=[[Annals of Science]] |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=65–85 |doi=10.1080/00033796200202722 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ndipo wakayowoya kuti lizgu ili likalembeka na "munthu munyake wavinjeru" (panji iyo mwekha).<ref>{{cite OED|scientist}}</ref> == Mbiri == === Mbiri ya kwamba<span class="anchor" id="Earliest roots"></span> === [[File:Megaliths Aswan Nubia museum.JPG|left|thumb|Mabwe ghakuru ghakufuma ku Nabta Playa, ghakapangika na ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo ya Neolithic kuti ŵalongozge vyakuwonera vya mu mlengalenga. Ghali ku Aswan, ku Egypt wa Kumpoto.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |page=107 |language=en}}</ref>]] [[File:Plimpton 322.jpg|thumb|Chiphapha cha dongo cha Plimpton 322 icho Ŵababuloni ŵakalemba chikulembapo ''Pythagorean triples'', chakulembeka c. 1800 BCE|alt=Chiphapha cha dongo chinalembeka, mizati yitatu ya manambala na umoza wa manambala gha mu nyengo]] Kasandiro kalije na chiyambi chimoza chekha. M'malo mwake, kughanaghana kwa kasandiro kukawoneka pang'ono-pang'ono mu myaka yakukwana vikwi vinandi,<ref>{{Citation |last=Carruthers |first=Peter |chapter=The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking |date=2 May 2002 |title=The Cognitive Basis of Science |pages=73–96 |editor-last=Carruthers |editor-first=Peter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511613517.005 |isbn=978-0-521-81229-0 |editor2-last=Stich |editor2-first=Stephen |editor3-last=Siegal |editor3-first=Michael}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lombard |first1=Marlize |last2=Gärdenfors |first2=Peter |year=2017 |title=Tracking the Evolution of Causal Cognition in Humans |journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences |volume=95 |issue=95 |pages=219–234 |doi=10.4436/JASS.95006 |pmid=28489015 |issn=1827-4765}}</ref> kukaŵa na mitundu yakupambanapambana pa caro cose, ndipo ni vichoko waka ivyo vikumanyikwa pa ivyo vikacitika pakwamba comene. Ŵanakazi ŵakwenera kuti ŵakawovwiranga comene pa kasandiro ka nyengo ya pambere kulemba,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graeber |first1=David |last2=Wengrow |first2=David |author-link1=David Graeber |author-link2=David Wengrow |year=2021 |title=The Dawn of Everything |title-link=The Dawn of Everything |page=248}}</ref> nga umo vikaŵira na mitheto ya cisopo.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Faerie Smith Meets the Bronze Industry: Magic Versus Science in the Interpretation of Prehistoric Metal-Making |jstor=124782 |last1=Budd |first1=Paul |last2=Taylor |first2=Timothy |journal=World Archaeology |year=1995 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=133–143 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1995.9980297 |bibcode=1995WoArc..27..133B }}</ref> Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵakugwiriskira ntchito lizgu "''protoscience''" kulemba milimo yakale iyo yikuyana na kasandiro ka sono mu vinyake kweni vyose yayi;<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuomela |first=Raimo |year=1987 |chapter=Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience |editor-last1=Pitt |editor-first1=J. C. |editor-last2=Pera |editor-first2=M. |title=Rational Changes in Science |series=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |volume=98 |pages=83–101 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6_4 |isbn=978-94-010-8181-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/599864 |first=Pamela H. |last=Smith |title=Science on the Move: Recent Trends in the History of Early Modern Science |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |volume=62 |number=2 |year=2009 |pages=345–375 |pmid=19750597 |s2cid=43643053}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fleck |first=Robert |date=March 2021 |title=Fundamental Themes in Physics from the History of Art |journal=Physics in Perspective |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=25–48 |doi=10.1007/s00016-020-00269-7 |bibcode=2021PhP....23...25F |s2cid=253597172 |issn=1422-6944 |doi-access=free}}</ref> kweni lizgu ili lasuskikaso kuti likuyuyura,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Scott |first=Colin |encyclopedia=The Postcolonial Science and Technology Studies Reader |title=Science for the West, Myth for the Rest? |chapter=The Case of James Bay Cree Knowledge Construction |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham, NC |editor-last=Harding |editor-first=Sandra |isbn=978-0-8223-4936-5 |year=2011 |pages=175–197 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv11g96cc.16 |jstor=j.ctv11g96cc.16}}</ref> panji kuti likulongora comene ''presentism'', kughanaghana vya milimo yila pakukhwaskana na vigaŵa vya sono pera.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/007327531205000203 |first=Peter |last=Dear |title=Historiography of Not-So-Recent Science |journal=History of Science |volume=50 |number=2 |year=2012 |pages=197–211 |s2cid=141599452}}</ref> Ukaboni wakuwonekera wa nthowa za kasandiro ukuŵa wakukhazikika na kufika kwa nthowa zakulembera (''writing systems'') mu vikolo vya Nyengo ya Mkuŵa ku Egypt wakale na Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE), ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe mabuku ghakwamba ghakulembeka mu mbiri ya kasandiro.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=12–15}}<ref name="Grant2007a" /> Nangauli mazgu na maghanoghano gha "kasandiro" na "kawiro" ghakaŵa mbali ya maghanoghano yayi pa nyengo yila, Ŵaegypt ŵakale na Ŵamesopotamia ŵakapereka vyawanangwa ivyo pamanyuma vikasanga malo mu kasandiro ka Ŵagiriki na ka nyengo ya pakati: masamu, vya kuthambo, na munkhwala.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rochberg |first1=Francesca |author-link=Francesca Rochberg |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=9 |chapter=Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=12}} Kufuma mu vikwi viwiri BCE, Ŵaegypt ŵakale ŵakapanga nthowa ya kuŵerenga manambala ya khumi yambula malo (''non-positional decimal numbering system''),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32433-8 |page=127}}</ref> ŵakamazga masuzgo gha zuŵa na zuŵa mwakugwiriskira ntchito ''geometry'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlich |first1=Ḥaggai |author-link=Haggai Erlich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&q=egyptian%20geometry%20Nile&pg=PA80 |title=The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths |last2=Gershoni |first2=Israel |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner |isbn=978-1-55587-672-2 |pages=80–81 |quote=The Nile occupied an important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to disappear." |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref> ndipo ŵakapanga kalendara.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Telling Time in Ancient Egypt |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |date=February 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303133140/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa zawo zakuchizgira zikaŵa zakukhwaskana na munkhwala wakuzweteska na vinthu vya kutali na kuwoneka, nga ni mapemphero, malurombo, na mitheto.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=9}} Ŵanubia ŵakale ŵakambiska munkhwala wakukoma tuvilombo (''antibiotics'') ndipo ŵakakhazikiska ndondomeko ya malango gha ''geometry'' agho ghakaŵa muzu wa mawotchi ghakwamba gha zuŵa (''sundials''). Ŵanubia nawo ŵakagwiriskiranga ntchito nthowa ya ''trigonometry'' yakuyana waka na ya Ŵaegypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Armelagos, George |date=2000 |title=Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians |url=https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/482bd90a-de71-49b3-9bbc-d8ff0ab974b3 |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |issue=5 |pages=50–3 |s2cid=89542474}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry|first=Leo|last=Depuydt|date=1 January 1998|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=84|pages=171–180|doi=10.2307/3822211|jstor=3822211}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|title=Neolithic Skywatchers|date=27 May 1998|first=Andrew|last=Slayman|website=Archaeology Magazine Archive|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234044/http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|archive-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&q=nubia&pg=PA744|title=A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy|last=Neugebauer|first=O.|date=2004-09-17|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-06995-9|language=en}}</ref> Ŵamesopotamia ŵakale ŵakagwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa vikaŵa vya vinthu vya kawiro kuti ŵapange viŵiya vya dongo, ''faience'', galasi, sopo, vyuma, ''lime plaster'', na vyakuvikilira maji.<ref name="McIntosh2005">{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane R. |author-link=Jane McIntosh |title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-57607-966-9 |pages=273–276 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵakasanda umoyo wa vinyama, thupi lawo, nkharo yawo, na nyenyezi (''astrology'') kuti ŵalote.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |last=Aaboe |first=Asger |author-link=Asger Aaboe |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=2 May 1974 |pages=21–42 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |jstor=74272 |s2cid=122508567}}</ref> Ŵamesopotamia ŵakatemwanga comene munkhwala, ndipo malembo ghakwamba gha munkhwala ghakawoneka mu Cisumeri (''Sumerian'') mu nyengo ya ''Third Dynasty of Ur''.<ref name="McIntosh2005" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia |first=R. D. |last=Biggs |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2005 |pages=7–18}}</ref> Vikuwoneka kuti ŵakasanda vyakukhwaskana na kasandiro ivyo vikaŵa na ntchito panji vya cisopo, ndipo ŵakaŵa na kukhumba kuchoko kwa kukhorweska khumbo la kumanya vinandi.<ref name="McIntosh2005" /> === Nyengo yakale ya Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma === [[File:MANNapoli 124545 plato's academy mosaic.jpg|thumb|Chithunzi cha ''mosaic'' cha Plato's Academy, chakupangika pakati pa 100 BCE na 79 CE, chikulongora ŵakaghanaghani na ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵa Ŵagiriki.|alt=Chithunzi cha ''mosaic'' chakuzingilizgika na chimiti, cha ŵakaghanaghani ŵakugumana na kukambirana]] Mu nyengo yakale (''classical antiquity''), kukaŵavya munthu uyo wakayana na msandi wa sono. M'malo mwake, ŵanthu ŵakasambira makora, kanandi ŵapachanya, na pafupifupi ŵanalume wose, ŵakacitanga kafukufuku wakupambanapambana wakukhwaskana na kawiro nyengo yiliyose para ŵangakwaniska.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehoux |first1=Daryn |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=39 |chapter=2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World}}</ref> Pambere ukaghanaghani wa ''phusis'' panji kawiro uyo yindapangike panji kusangika na ŵakaghanaghani ŵa pambere Socrates (''pre-Socratic philosophers''), mazgu ghamoza agha ghakatemwa kugwiriskika ntchito kulongosora "nthowa" ya kawiro iyo mbuto yikukulira,<ref>An account of the pre-Socratic use of the concept of φύσις may be found in {{cite book |last=Naddaf |first=Gerard |year=2006 |title=The Greek Concept of Nature |publisher=SUNY Press |postscript=,}} and in {{cite journal |last1=Ducarme |first1=Frédéric |last2=Couvet |first2=Denis |year=2020 |title=What does 'nature' mean? |journal=[[Palgrave Communications]] |volume=6 |issue=14 |article-number=14 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |doi=10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816053756/https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |url-status=live}} The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word ''nature'' is used, as confirmed by {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus |postscript=none}} (volume 2 of his ''History of Greek Philosophy''), Cambridge University Press, 1965.</ref> na "nthowa" iyo, mwachiyelezgero, fuko linyake likusopa ciuta munyake. Pa chifukwa ichi, ŵakuti ŵanalume aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakaghanaghani ŵakwamba mu ng'anamuro lakukhora ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kupambaniska makora "kawiro" na "mwambo".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Strauss |first1=Leo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpx2j0TumyIC |title=An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss |last2=Gildin |first2=Hilail |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8143-1902-4 |chapter=Progress or Return? The Contemporary Crisis in Western Education |year=1989 |access-date=30 May 2022 |page=209}}</ref> Ŵakaghanaghani ŵakwambilira ŵa Ŵagiriki ŵa sukulu ya Miletus, iyo yikakhazikiska Thales wa ku Miletus ndipo pamanyuma yikalutilira na awo ŵakamulondezga Anaximander na Anaximenes, ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuyezga kulongosora vinthu vya kawiro kwambura kuthemba pa vinthu vyambura kumanyikwa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Grady |first1=Patricia F. |author-link=Patricia O'Grady |title=Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7546-0533-1 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&q=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist&pg=PA245 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵapythagoras (''Pythagoreans'') ŵakapanga ukaghanaghani wa manambala ghakusuzga<ref name="Burkert1972">{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1}}</ref>{{rp|467–468}} ndipo ŵakawovwira comene pa kukura kwa kasandiro ka masamu.<ref name="Burkert1972" />{{rp|465}} Ukaghanaghani wa ''atoms'' ukapangika na msambiri wa Chigiriki Leucippus na ndiyo wake Democritus.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pullman |first1=Bernard |title=The Atom in the History of Human Thought |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-515040-7 |pages=31–33 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56 |bibcode=1998ahht.book.....P |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=Henri |editor2-last=Lefebvre |editor2-first=Claire |title=Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science |year=2017 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-08-101107-2 |page=427 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA427 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pamanyuma, Epicurus wakapanga ukaghanaghani wakukwana wa caro cose wakuthemba pa ''atomism'', ndipo wakazomera "canon" (muyezo) uwo wakakhazikiska vyakuwoneka panji vipimo vya unenesko wa kasandiro.<ref>[[Lucretius]] ({{floruit}}1st century&nbsp;BCE) {{lang|la|[[De rerum natura]]}}.</ref> Ng'anga ya Chigiriki Hippocrates wakakhazikiska mwambo wa kasandiro ka munkhwala kakukhazikika<ref>{{cite book |last=Margotta |first=Roberto |year=1968 |title=The Story of Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrAAAAMAAJ |location=New York |publisher=[[Golden Press]] |access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Touwaide |first1=Alain |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |year=2005 |editor1-last=Glick |editor1-first=Thomas F. |editor2-last=Livesey |editor2-first=Steven |editor3-last=Wallis |editor3-first=Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-96930-7 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=Hippocrates+medical+science&pg=PA224 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti "Adada wa Munkhwala" (''The Father of Medicine'').<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leff |first1=Samuel |last2=Leff |first2=Vera |year=1956 |title=From Witchcraft to World Health |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjNrAAAAMAAJ |location=London |publisher=Macmillan |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref> Chinthu chinyake icho chikasintha comene mbiri ya kasandiro ka ŵakaghanaghani ŵakwambilira chikaŵa chiyelezgero cha Socrates cha kugwiriskira ntchito ukaghanaghani pa kusambira vinthu vya ŵanthu, kusazgapo kawiro ka munthu, kawiro ka magulu gha boma, na umanyi wa ŵanthu wekha. Nthowa ya Socrates (''Socratic method'') nga umo yikulembekera mu mazgu gha Plato ni nthowa ya ''dialectic'' yakuwuskapo ''hypothesis'': ''hypotheses'' zawemi zikusangika mwakuzumbulira na kuwuskapo izo zikutigira ku kususkana. Nthowa ya Socrates yikupenja unenesko wakukolerana uwo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga, uwo ukupangiska vigomezgo, na kuviwoneseska kuti viŵe vyakuyana waka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |title=Plato, Apology |page=17 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Socrates wakasuska mtundu wakale wa kusambira ''physics'' kuti ukaŵa wakughanaghana waka ndipo ukaŵavya kujisuska.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |title=Plato, Apology |page=27 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 4 BCE, Aristotle wakapanga ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya ukaghanaghani wa ''teleological''.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |edition=H. Rackham |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317140402/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc= |archive-date=17 March 2012 |access-date=22 September 2010 |at=1139b}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 3 BCE, msandi wa vya kuthambo wa Chigiriki Aristarchus wa Samos wakaŵa wakwamba kupanga ukaghanaghani wakuti zuŵa lili pakati pa caro cose (''heliocentric model''), na mapulaneti ghose ghakuzunguliza ilo.<ref name="McClellan2015">{{cite book |last1=McClellan |first1=James E. III |last2=Dorn |first2=Harold |title=Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction |year=2015 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=978-1-4214-1776-9 |pages=99–100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&q=Aristarchus+heliocentrism&pg=PA99 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ukaghanaghani wa Aristarchus ukakanizgika comene cifukwa ŵakagomezganga kuti ukuswa malango gha ''physics'',<ref name="McClellan2015" /> apo buku la ''Almagest'' la Ptolemy, ilo lili na ndondomeko yakuti caro ni pakati (''geocentric'') ya Cigaŵa ca Zuŵa (''Solar System''), likazomerezgeka mpaka nyengo ya ''Renaissance'' yakwamba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graßhoff |first=Gerd |title=The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalogue |year=1990 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4612-8788-9 |series=Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences |volume=14 |location=New York |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=Susanne M. |title=Hipparchs Himmelsglobus |year=2017 |publisher=Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-658-18682-1 |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8 |bibcode=2017hihi.book.....H}}</ref> Mpanji na msambiri wa masamu Archimedes wa Syracuse wakawovwira comene pakwamba kwa ''calculus''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=C. H. Jr. |title=The Historical Development of the Calculus |year=1979 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-94313-8 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilrlBwAAQBAJ&q=Archimedes+calculus&pg=PA75 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pliny the Elder wakaŵa mulembi wa ku Roma na msambiri wa vinandi uyo wakalemba buku likuru lakuti ''Natural History''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Russell M. |title=Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-85109-539-1 |pages=190–191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia&pg=PA190 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Trevor Morgan |title=Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926288-5 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NC_T_tG9lQC&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Doody |first1=Aude |title=Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48453-4 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoEhAwAAQBAJ&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Nthowa ya kulemba manambala pa malo (''positional notation'') yikwenera kuti yikawoneka pakati pa zana la myaka la 3 na la 5 CE mu nthowa za malonda za ku India. Nthowa iyi ya manambala yikapangiska kuŵerenga kuŵa kwamsanga, ndipo pamanyuma yikaŵa nthowa yakumanyikwa comene ya masamu pa caro cose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conner |first=Clifford D. |title=A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and "Low Mechanicks" |year=2005 |publisher=Nation Books |isbn=1-56025-748-2 |location=New York |pages=72–74}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Pakati === [[File:ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg|thumb|Peji lakwamba la ''Vienna Dioscurides'' likulongora ''peacock'', lakapangika mu zana la myaka la 6.|alt=Chithunzi cha ''peacock'' pa pepala lakale comene]] Cifukwa ca kugwa kwa Ufumu wa Roma wa Kumadazi (''Western Roman Empire''), zana la myaka la 5 likawona kuchepa kwa umanyi, ndipo umanyi wa Ŵagiriki wa caro ukawola ku Ulaya wa Kumadazi.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=194}} Ŵalembi ŵa Cilatini ŵa nyengo iyo nga ni Isidore wa Seville ŵakasunga vinandi vya umanyi wakale.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC |title=The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional and Intellectual Contexts |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-56762-6 |series=Cambridge Studies in the History of Science |pages=7–17 |access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref> Kweni, cifukwa Ufumu wa Byzantine ukakana kuukirika na ŵalwani, ŵakakwaniska kusunga na kunozga ivyo ŵakasambira kale.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=159}} John Philoponus, msambiri wa Byzantine mu zana la myaka la 6, wakamba kukayika ivyo Aristotle wakasambizganga vya ''physics'', ndipo wakambiska ''theory of impetus''.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307, 311, 363, 402}} Kususka kwake kukaŵa cipulikiro ku ŵasambiri ŵa nyengo ya pakati na ku Galileo Galilei, uyo wakalongora ntchito zake kwa nyengo yitali, vikwi vya myaka vimoza pamanyuma.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307–308}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Philoponus |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Christian |last=Wildberg |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |date=1 May 2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822110331/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya kumanyuma kwa ukale (''late antiquity'') na mu Nyengo ya Pakati ya Kwamba (''Early Middle Ages''), vinthu vya kawiro vikasandika comene mu nthowa ya Aristotle. Nthowa iyi yikukhwaska vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotle (''four causes''): chakuthupi, chakumanyikwa, chakugwira ntchito, na chaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Aristotle on Causality |last=Falcon |first=Andrea |editor-last=Zalta |year=2019 |editor-first=Edward |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Spring 2019 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |access-date=3 October 2020 |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009032459/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |url-status=live}}</ref> Malemba ghanandi gha Chigiriki ghakale ghakasungika na Ufumu wa Byzantine, ndipo Ŵakhristu, comene Ŵanestorian na Ŵamiaphysite, ŵakaghamasulira mu Cirabu. Pasi pa ŵa Abbasid, ghamasuliro agha ghakanozgeka na kukura na ŵasandi ŵa Ŵarabu.<ref name="Grant2007a"/>{{rp|pp=62–67}} Mu zana la myaka la 6 na la 7, Ufumu wa Sasanian uwo ukaŵa pafupi ukakhazikiska sukulu ya munkhwala ya Gondishapur (''Academy of Gondishapur''), iyo yikawonekanga na ŵang'anga ŵa Ŵagiriki, Ŵasiriya, na Ŵapersia kuti ni malo gha munkhwala ghakuzirwa comene mu caro cakale.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Iran |date=1968–1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last=Fisher |first=W. B. |isbn=978-0-521-20093-6}}</ref> Masambiro gha Ŵaislamu gha Aristotle (''Aristotelianism'') ghakakura mu Nyumba ya Nzeru (''House of Wisdom'') iyo yikakhazikika mu msumba ukuru wa ŵa Abbasid, Baghdad, ku Iraq<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |title=Bayt al-Hikmah |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104043313/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> ndipo ghakakura comene<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Hossein Nasr |editor-first=Seyyed |title=History of Islamic Philosophy |title-link=History of Islamic Philosophy |editor-last2=Leaman |editor-first2=Oliver |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-25934-7 |pages=165–167 |editor-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr}}</ref> mpaka apo Ŵamongol ŵakawukira mu zana la myaka la 13. Ibn al-Haytham, uyo wakumanyikwa comene kuti Alhazen, wakagwiriskira ntchito vyakuyezgayezga vyakulongozgeka pa kafukufuku wake wa vyakuwona (''optics'').{{efn|name=doubtPtolemy|1= Ibn al-Haytham's ''[[Book of Optics]]'' disputed Claudius Ptolemy's extramission theory of vision: "Hence, the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous and useless". See A. Mark Smith's translation from the Latin,<ref name="Smith2001">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=A. Mark |title=Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's ''De Aspectibus'', the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāẓir'': Volume Two |title-link=De Aspectibus |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-87169-914-5 |series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=91, parts 4 & 5 |location=Philadelphia }}</ref> Book I, [6.54], pp. 372, 408. }}<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=228328 |last1=Toomer |first1=G. J. |title=Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=463–465 |year=1964 |doi=10.1086/349914}} See p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.", p. 465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major figure in the Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the influence of Ibn al-Haytham and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that Ibn al-Haytham was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=H. Floris |author-link=Floris Cohen |chapter=Greek nature knowledge transplanted: The Islamic world |title=How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough |year=2010 |pages=99–156 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8964-239-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Buku la ''The Canon of Medicine'' ilo Avicenna wakalemba, buku lakulongosora vya munkhwala, likuwonekera kuti ni linyake mwa mabuku ghakukhumbikwa comene mu munkhwala, ndipo likagwiriskika ntchito mpaka mu zana la myaka la 18.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli |url-access=limited |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli/page/n168 155]–156 |publisher=Springer |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2 |editor-last1=Selin |editor-first1=Helaine |editor-link=Helaine Selin}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 11, vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya vikaŵa kuti vyazgoka Ŵakhristu,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} ndipo mu 1088, yunivesite ya Bologna (''University of Bologna'') yikawonekera kuŵa yunivesite yakwamba ku Ulaya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=Josiah C. |year=1959 |title=Gratian, Irnerius, and the Early Schools of Bologna |journal=[[The Mississippi Quarterly]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=168–188 |jstor=26473232 |quote=Perhaps even as early as 1088 (the date officially set for the founding of the University)}}</ref> Pakuti vikaŵa nthena, kukhumba kwa kumasulira mabuku gha kale na gha kasandiro mu Cilatini kukakura,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} ico cikawovwira comene ku ''Renaissance'' ya zana la myaka la 12. Masambiro gha ''scholasticism'' ku Ulaya wa Kumadazi ghakakura, ndipo ŵakayezgayezga vinthu mwakuwona, kulongosora, na kugaŵa vinthu vya kawiro mu mitundu.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |title=St. Albertus Magnus |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 October 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028045424/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |archive-date=28 October 2017}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 13, ŵasambizgi ŵa munkhwala na ŵasambiri ŵa ku Bologna ŵakamba kujura matupi gha ŵanthu, ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe buku lakwamba lakusambizga vya thupi la munthu (''anatomy'') ilo likapangika na Mondino de Luzzi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03327-6 |page=45 |access-date=27 March 2018 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Renaissance === [[File:Printing towns incunabula.svg|thumb|alt=Mapu gha Ulaya na vimaŵara vikulongora misumba umo makina gha kusindikizga mabuku ghakakhazikiskika pakumalizira kwa zana la myaka la 15|Kuthandazgika kwa kusindikizga mabuku pakati pa 1440 na 1500.]] Kufuma pa sitoro yimoza yakusindikizgirako mabuku ku Mainz, Germany, pafupifupi mu 1440, makina ghakusindikizgirako mabuku ghakugwiriskira ntchito mazgu ghakusunkhunyika (''movable-type printing press'') ghakathandazgika mu misumba pafupifupi 270 ku Ulaya wa pakati, wa Kumadazi, na wa Kumaulo, ndipo ghakaŵa kuti ghasindikizga kale mabuku ghakujumpha 20 miliyoni kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 15.<ref name="Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean 1976 by Anderson, Benedict 1993, 58f.">Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976). ''The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800''. London: New Left Books. Quoted in: Anderson, Benedict. ''Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo''. Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico, 1993. {{ISBN|978-968-16-3867-2}}. pp. 58f.</ref> Kusindikizga mabuku kukapangiska kuti mabuku gha ŵasambiri ghasangike comene, ndipo ŵasandi ŵakawonenge mabuku ghakale mwakufwatuka na kuyaniska ivyo iwo ŵakawona na ivyo ŵasambiri ŵanyawo ŵakawona.<ref>"Printing made it possible for [[Tycho Brahe|Brahe]] to survey a wide range of publications (there were over a hundred on the [[Great Comet of 1577#Observations by Tycho Brahe|comet of 1577]], though many were merely astrological prognostications) and demonstrate that the four best observers had produced results compatible with his own. It also ensured that Brahe's new system was quickly known throughout Europe, so that his arguments could be tested against the [[Kepler's Supernova|nova of 1604]] and the [[C/1618 W1#Scientific evaluation|comets of 1618]]. Printing created a community of astronomers working on common problems with common methods and reaching agreed solutions." Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). pp.197-198. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> Kusindikizga mabuku kukamalizga mwambo wa malemba ghakulembeka na woko (''manuscript culture'') wa Nyengo ya Pakati, apo unenesko ukaŵa uchoko ndiposo wakupambana, ndipo kukasintha na mwambo wa kusindikizga apo unenesko wakugomezgeka na wakulembeka ukachuluka mwaluŵiro ndipo ukazgoka maziko ghakukhora gha umanyi wa kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wootton |first=David |author-link=David Wootton (historian) |title=The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution |publisher=Penguin |year=2015 |page=282 |isbn=978-0-06-175952-9 |quote=...a manuscript culture, in which experience is unspecific, indirect, and amorphous...a print culture, in which experience is specific, direct, documented and retrievable...In comparison to the world of print, manuscript culture is one of rumour and gossip. The printing press represents an information revolution, and secure facts are its consequence.}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 16, Nicolaus Copernicus wakapanga ukaghanaghani wakuti zuŵa lili pakati (''heliocentric model'') wa Cigaŵa ca Zuŵa, na zuŵa likaŵa pafupi na pakati pa caro cose,<ref>"The man who had deposed the earth from its proud position as the centre of the universe and had recognized it to be merely one of the planets, had yet felt compelled to give it quite an exceptional position in his new system. Though he had said 'in the midst of all stand the sun,' he had in his planetary theories assumed the centre of all movements to be the centre of the earth's orbit, where the sun was not." Dreyer, J.L.E. ''A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler,'' (Dover Publications, 1953). p.343. {{ISBN|9780486600796}}</ref><ref>"...it was obvious to Copernicus...that the earth cannot move uniformly about a circle with the sun at the center. Thus Copernicus placed the sun not at the center of the earth's orbit, but at some distance away. The center of the solar system, and of the universe, in the system of Copernicus is thus not the sun at all, but rather a 'mean sun,' of the center of the earth's orbit. Hence, it is preferable to call the Copernican system a heliostatic system rather than a heliocentric system." [[I. Bernard Cohen|Cohen, I. Bernard]]. ''The Birth of a New Physics (Revised and Updated)'' (W.W. Norton & Company, 1985). p.44. {{ISBN|0-393-01994-2}}</ref> lisunkhunyika yayi, na caro na mapulaneti ghanyake ghakuzunguliza mu mzere wakuzungulira,<ref>"All movement within it (outside of the immediate vicinity of the Earth) is determined by the fundamental principle that heavenly movement is circular and therefore unchanging. Ptolemy, Copernicus thought, had betrayed this principle not...by adding epicycles to deferents in order to explain why the planets sometimes appear to move backwards in the sky, but by introducing the [[equant]] in order to speed them up and slow them down." [[David Wootton (historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> ghakusinthika na ''epicycles'', ndipo ghakuyenda mwakuyana waka. Ukaghanaghani wa Copernicus ukasuska ukaghanaghani wakuti caro ni pakati (''geocentric model'') wa Ptolemy, uwo wakaŵika caro pakati pa caro cose. Ŵasandi ŵa vya kuthambo ŵa zana la myaka la 16 ŵakagomezganga kuti kuwuskapo kwa ''equant'' na Copernicus ndiko kukaŵa kukwaniska kwake kukuru,<ref>"My Copernican census eventually helped to establish that the majority of sixteenth-century astronomers thought eliminating the [[equant]] was Copernicus' big achievement, because it satisfied the ancient aesthetic principle that eternal celestial motions should be uniform and circular or compounded of uniform and circular parts." Gingerich, Owen. ''The Book Nobody Read'' (Walker & Company, 2004).p. 55. {{ISBN|0-8027-1415-3}}</ref> kweni ukaghanaghani wake ukasintha yayi ukaghanaghani wa Ptolemy, uwo wakangoleka kukondweka pamanyuma pa vyaka 70 kufuma apo Galileo wakawonera vinthu na telesikopu mu 1610.<ref>"It is easy to show that conventional Ptolemaic astronomy was thriving until 1610 [when Galileo observed the phases of Venus with a telescope] and went into crisis immediately afterwards...The evidence is clear: [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic model|Ptolemaic astronomy]] was unaffected by Copernicus; it went into crisis briefly with the [[SN 1572|new star of 1572]], but by the end of the sixteenth century it had fully recovered. The telescope, on the other hand, brought about its immediate and irreversible collapse." [[David Wootton (historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> === Kusintha kwa Kasandiro === Kuwonera kwa Tycho Brahe kwakuyanirana comene kwa vya kuthambo kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 16, na kuwonera kwa Galileo Galilei na telesikopu kukwambilira kwa zana la myaka la 17, vikasazganako ndipo vikapangiska kuti kasandiro ka vya kuthambo (''astronomy'') kaŵe kasandiro kakwamba ka sono. Kuwonera kwa Galileo kukamalizga vikwi vya myaka vya maghanoghano gha kale gha vya kuthambo, apo Johannes Kepler wakagwiriskira ntchito vyakusangika vya Brahe kuti wasange kuti mapulaneti ghali na nthowa zakuzungulira za ''elliptical'', zakuzungulira yayi, ndipo wakapanga malango gha kuyenda kwa mapulaneti (''laws of planetary motion'').<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article-pdf/64/9/50/9881314/50_1_online.pdf|title= The great Martian catastrophe and how Kepler fixed it |journal=Physics Today|date= 2011 |volume=64|issue=9|pages=50–54|doi=10.1063/PT.3.1259|access-date=27 July 2023 |last= Gingerich |first= Owen |author-link=Owen Gingerich |bibcode= 2011PhT....64i..50G }}</ref> Cifukwa ca Kepler, vinthu vya kuthambo vikamba kuwoneka kuti vikulongozgeka na malango gha kawiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldstein|first1=Bernard|last2=Hon|first2=Giora|date=2005|title=Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246602496|journal=Perspectives on Science|volume=13|pages=74–111|doi=10.1162/1063614053714126 |s2cid=57559843 }}</ref> "Kasandiro Kapya" (''New Science'') ako kakawonekera kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 17 kakapatuka comene na ukaghanaghani wa kawiro uwo ukaŵapo kale,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Küskü |first=Elif Aslan |date=2022 |title=Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body / Bilimsel Devrim Tıbbını İnsan Bedeni Üzerinden İncelemek |url=https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |journal=The Legends: Journal of European History Studies |access-date=28 September 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112202215/https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hendrix |first=Scott E. |title=Natural Philosophy or Science in Premodern Epistemic Regimes? The Case of the Astrology of Albert the Great and Galileo Galilei |journal=Teorie Vědy / Theory of Science |year=2011 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.46938/tv.2011.72 |s2cid=258069710 |url=http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118024030/http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name= "Principe2011">{{cite book | last= Principe | first= Lawrence M. | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction | pages = 1–3 | location = New York| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-199-56741-6}}</ref> kakapatuka na maghanoghano na mitheto ya Ŵagiriki,<ref name= "Lindberg1990">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 1990 | chapter = Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch | title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution | editor-first1 = David C. | editor-last1 = Lindberg | editor-first2 = Robert S. | editor-last2 = Westman | pages = 1–26 | edition = First | location = Chicago | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-34262-9}}</ref><ref name= "lindberg2007n">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The legacy of ancient and medieval science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages= 357–368| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Stanford Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|title= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last= Del Soldato|first= Eva|date= 2016|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last= Zalta|editor-first= Edward N.|edition= Fall 2016|access-date= 1 June 2018|archive-date= 11 December 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name= Grant2007c>{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran | url-access= limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> kakaŵa ka makina comene mu kuwona caro ndipo kakasazgikira na masamu,<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name= "gal2021i">{{cite book|author1-link=Ofer Gal | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = The New Science | title = The Origins of Modern Science | pages = 308–349 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020b">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The scientific revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 25–57 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> ndipo kakatemwanga comene kusanga na kupulikiska ukaboni wapya.<ref>Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.136. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Kuŵala === [[File:Newton's Principia title page.png|thumb|upright|Peji la mutu wa buku lakwamba la 1687 la ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' lakulembeka na Isaac Newton]] Pakwamba kwa Nyengo ya Kuŵala (''Age of Enlightenment''), Isaac Newton wakakhazikiska maziko gha ''classical mechanics'' na buku lake la ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', ico cikakhuŵilizga comene ŵasandi ŵa ''physics'' ŵa munthazi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gribbin |first=John |title=Science: A History 1543–2001 |year=2002 |page=241 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9503-9 |quote=Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightenment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century.}}</ref> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz wakasazgapo mazgu ghakufuma mu ''Aristotelian physics'', agho sono ghakugwiriskika ntchito mu nthowa yiphya yambura ''teleological''. Ici cikang'anamuranga kuti ŵanthu ŵakasintha umo ŵakawoneranga vinthu: vinthu sono vikawonekanga kuti vilije vilato vyakubabikira. Leibniz wakaghanaghananga kuti mitundu yakupambanapambana ya vinthu vyose vikugwira ntchito mwakuyana na malango ghakuyana waka gha kawiro, kwambura vifukwa vyapadera vyakumanyikwa panji vyaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz/ |title=Gottfried Leibniz – Biography |website=Maths History |access-date=2 March 2021 |archive-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711221621/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Leibniz.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, cilato na kuzirwa kwa kasandiro ivyo vikapharazgika vikamba kupanga cuma na vyakupangika ivyo vingapangiska kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu uŵe uwemi, mu ng'anamuro la kutemwa vinthu vyakuthupi lakuti ŵaŵe na vyakurya vinandi, vyakuvwara, na vinthu vinyake. Mu mazgu gha Bacon, "cilato cenicenico na cakwenelera ca tusandiro '''ni kupereka ku umoyo wa munthu vyakupanga viphya na vyuma'''", ndipo wakakhuŵazga ŵasandi kuti ŵaleke kulondezga maghanoghano ghambura kuwoneka gha filosofi panji gha mzimu, agho wakagomezganga kuti ghakovwira viŵi yayi ku cimwemwe ca munthu kuluska "utsi wa maghanoghano ghakuthukuka, ghakuzirwa panji ghakukondweska".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmbZIybuRoC&pg=PA162 |title=The Social and Economic Roots of the Scientific Revolution: Texts by Boris Hessen and Henryk Grossmann |last1=Freudenthal |first1=Gideon |last2=McLaughlin |first2=Peter |date=20 May 2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-9604-4 |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Kasandiro mu Nyengo ya Kuŵala kakalongozgeka na mabungwe gha kasandiro (''scientific societies'') na ma ''academy'',<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Goddard Bergin |editor-first1=Thomas |editor1-link=Thomas G. Bergin |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_d0p5 |title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance |editor-last2=Speake |editor-first2=Jennifer |editor2-link=Jennifer Speake |year=1987 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-1315-9}}</ref> agho ghakaŵa kuti ghanjira comene mu malo gha mayunivesite kuŵa malo ghakufufuzira na kukuzga kasandiro. Mabungwe na ma ''academy'' ghakaŵa mafupa gha kukhwima kwa ntchito ya kasandiro. Chinthu chinyake chakuzirwa chikaŵa kuthandazgika kwa kasandiro ku ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamanyanga kuŵazga na kulemba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=van Horn Melton |first=James |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |title=The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-511-81942-1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511819421 |access-date=27 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |pages=82–83 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120143805/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵakaghanaghani ŵa Nyengo ya Kuŵala ŵakazgokera kwa ŵasandi ŵachoko waka awo ŵakaŵako pambere—Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, na Newton comene—nga ni ŵalongozgi mu chigaŵa chilichose cha caro na cha ŵanthu cha nyengo iyo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment (1500–1780) |url=https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114191547/https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Scientific Revolution |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |access-date=29 January 2024 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518105004/https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 18, ŵanthu ŵakasintha comene pa munkhwala<ref>{{cite book |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-144329-7 |editor-last=Madigan |editor-first=M. |editor-last2=Martinko |editor-first2=J. |edition=11th}}</ref> na ''physics'';<ref>{{cite book |last=Guicciardini |first=N. |url=https://archive.org/details/readingprincipia0000guic |title=Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-64066-4 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> Carl Linnaeus wakapanga ''taxonomy'' ya vyamoyo;<ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Charles Calisher |last1=Calisher |first1=C. H. |year=2007 |title=Taxonomy: what's in a name? Doesn't a rose by any other name smell as sweet? |journal=Croatian Medical Journal |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=268–270 |pmc=2080517 |pmid=17436393}}</ref> ŵakapulikiska vyapya pa ''magnetism'' na magetsi;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Darrigol |first1=Olivier |url=https://archive.org/details/electrodynamicsf0000darr |title=Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-850594-9 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> ndipo kemistri yikakhwima kuŵa cigaŵa ca kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olby |first1=R. C. |last2=Cantor |first2=G. N. |last3=Christie |first3=J. R. R. |last4=Hodge |first4=M. J. S. |year=1990 |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=265}}</ref> Maghanoghano gha kawiro ka munthu, ŵanthu, na vya cuma ghakasintha mu Nyengo ya Kuŵala. Hume na ŵakaghanaghani ŵanyake ŵa ku Scotland ŵakapanga ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', ilo likalongosoreka mu mbiri mu ntchito za ŵalembi nga ni James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar na William Robertson, ŵose ŵakasazga pamoza kafukufuku wa kasandiro wa umo ŵanthu ŵakacitiranga mu mitheto yakale na yambula kukura na kumanya makora ivyo vikulongozga nyengo ya sono (''modernity'').<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magnusson |first=Magnus |date=10 November 2003 |title=Review of James Buchan, ''Capital of the Mind: How Edinburgh Changed the World'' |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606015918/http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-date=6 June 2011 |access-date=27 April 2014 |work=New Statesman}}</ref> ''Sociology'' ya sono yikafuma comene mu gulu ili.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=588406 |title=Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment |journal=The British Journal of Sociology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=164–180 |last1=Swingewood |first1=Alan |year=1970 |doi=10.2307/588406}}</ref> Mu 1776, Adam Smith wakalemba ''The Wealth of Nations'', ilo kanandi likuwoneka kuti ndilo buku lakwamba la cuma ca sono (''modern economics'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fry |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/adamsmithslegacy0000unse |title=Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |others=[[Paul Samuelson]], [[Lawrence Klein]], [[Franco Modigliani]], [[James M. Buchanan]], [[Maurice Allais]], [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Richard Stone]], [[James Tobin]], [[Wassily Leontief]], [[Jan Tinbergen]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-415-06164-3 |url-access=registration}}</ref> === Zana la myaka la 19 === [[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|thumb|upright|Chithunzi chakwamba cha mti wa kukura kwa vyamoyo (''evolutionary tree'') icho Charles Darwin wakapanga mu 1837|alt=Chithunzi cha mapu chakulembeka na mazgu]] Mu zana la myaka la 19, vinthu vinandi vyakupambaniska vya kasandiro ka sono vikamba kuwoneka. Ivi vikaŵa kusintha kwa kasandiro ka vyamoyo na ka vinthu vyambura umoyo; kugwiriskira ntchito pafupipafupi vipangizo vyakupima makora; kuwoneka kwa mazgu nga ni "msandi wa vyamoyo" (''biologist''), "msandi wa ''physics''" (''physicist''), na "msandi" (''scientist''); kuŵa ŵakukhwima kwa awo ŵakusambira vya kawiro; ŵasandi kupokera ulemu wa miyambo pa vigaŵa vinandi vya ŵanthu; kupanga mafakitale mu vyaru vinandi; kukura kwa mabuku gha kasandiro gha ŵanthu wose; na kuwoneka kwa magazini gha kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=367 |chapter=13. Science and the Public}}</ref> Kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 19, ''psychology'' yikawoneka nga ni sambiro lakupambana na filosofi apo Wilhelm Wundt wakakhazikiska labotale yakwamba ya kafukufuku wa ''psychology'' mu 1879.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leahey |first=Thomas Hardy |title=A History of Psychology: From Antiquity to Modernity |year=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-65242-2 |edition=8th |location=New York |pages=219–253 |chapter=The psychology of consciousness}}</ref> Pakati pa zana la myaka la 19, Charles Darwin na Alfred Russel Wallace ŵakayowoya paŵekha ukaghanaghani wa kukura kwa vyamoyo na ''natural selection'' mu 1858, uwo ukalongosora umo mbuto na vinyama vyakupambanapambana vikambira na kukura. Ukaghanaghani wawo ukalongosoreka mwakudumura mu buku la Darwin ''On the Origin of Species'', ilo likalembeka mu 1859.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Padian |first=Kevin |title=Darwin's enduring legacy |journal=Nature |volume=451 |issue=7179 |pages=632–634 |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/451632a |pmid=18256649 |bibcode=2008Natur.451..632P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Padera, Gregor Mendel wakalongosora pepala lake "Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" mu 1865,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henig |first=Robin Marantz |author-link=Robin Marantz Henig |url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni |title=The monk in the garden: the lost and found genius of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics |year=2000 |pages=134–138}}</ref> ilo likalongosora malango gha chiharo cha vyamoyo, ico cikaŵa maziko gha ''genetics'' ya sono.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miko |first=Ilona |title=Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they? |journal=Nature Education |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=134 |year=2008 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593/ |access-date=9 May 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224056/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kukwambilira kwa zana la myaka la 19, John Dalton wakayowoya ukaghanaghani wa sono wa ''atomic'' (''atomic theory''), uwo ukuthemba pa ukaghanaghani wakwamba wa Democritus wa vinthu vyambura kugaŵika vyakucemeka ''atoms''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rocke |first1=Alan J. |year=2005 |title=In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory |journal=Social Research |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=125–158 |doi=10.1353/sor.2005.0003 |jstor=40972005 |s2cid=141350239}}</ref> Malango gha kusunga ''energy'', kusunga ''momentum'', na kusunga ''mass'' ghakalongora caro cakukhazikika comene apo pangaŵa kutaya kwa vinthu vichoko waka. Kweni, na kufika kwa injini ya ''steam'' na ''Industrial Revolution'', ŵanthu ŵakamba kupulikiska kuti ni mitundu yose yayi ya ''energy'' iyo yili na mikhaliro yakuyana waka, nchakusuzga yayi kusintha kuti yiŵe ntchito yakukhumbikwa panji ''energy'' yinyake.<ref name="Reichl1980" /> Kupulikiska uku kukapangiska kuti paŵe malango gha ''thermodynamics'', umo ''free energy'' ya caro cose yikuwoneka kuti yikuchepa nyengo zose: ''entropy'' ya caro cakujalika yikukura na nyengo.{{efn|name= HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde|1= Whether the universe is closed or open, or the [[shape of the universe]], is an open question. The 2nd law of thermodynamics,<ref name="Reichl1980">{{cite book |last=Reichl |first=Linda |author-link=Linda Reichl |year=1980 |title=A Modern Course in Statistical Physics |url= |location= |publisher=Edward Arnold |isbn=0-7131-2789-9}}</ref>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Rao |first=Y. V. C. |title=Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics |publisher=Universities Press |isbn=978-81-7371-048-3 |year=1997 |page=158}}</ref> and the 3rd law of thermodynamics<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.aop.2016.07.031 |title=Bounded energy exchange as an alternative to the third law of thermodynamics |year=2016 |last1=Heidrich |first1=M. |journal=Annals of Physics |volume=373 |pages=665–681 |bibcode=2016AnPhy.373..665H}}</ref> imply the [[heat death of the universe]] if the universe is a closed system, but not necessarily for an expanding universe.}} Ukaghanaghani wa ''electromagnetic'' (''electromagnetic theory'') ukakhazikika mu zana la myaka la 19 na ntchito za Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, na Heinrich Hertz. Ukaghanaghani wapya uwu ukapangiska mafumbo agho ghakaŵa ghambura kusuzga kuzgora mwakugwiriskira ntchito ndondomeko ya Newton. Kusangika kwa ''X-rays'' kukapangiska kuti Henri Becquerel na Marie Curie ŵasange ''radioactivity'' mu 1896;<ref>{{cite book |last=Mould |first=Richard F. |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |year=1995 |publisher=Inst. of Physics Publ. |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |edition=Reprint. with minor corr |location=Bristol |page=12}}</ref> Marie Curie wakazgoka munthu wakwamba kupokera Mphoto ziŵiri za Nobel.<ref name="Estreicher1938">{{cite book |last=Estreicher |first=Tadeusz |title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4 |title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny |year=1938 |page=113 |language=pl |chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich |author-link=Tadeusz Estreicher}}</ref> Mu caka cakulondezgapo ŵakasanga cinthu cakwamba chichoko kuluska ''atom'', ico cikucemeka ''electron''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thomson |first=J. J. |year=1897 |title=Cathode Rays |journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]] |volume=44 |issue=269 |pages=293–316 |doi=10.1080/14786449708621070 |bibcode=1897LEDPM..44..293T }}</ref> === Zana la myaka la 20 === [[File:Carte trou ozone Antarctique.jpg|alt=Chithunzi chikulongora ''ozone'' yichoko ku South Pole|thumb|Chithunzi cha pa ''computer'' cha ''ozone hole'' chakapangika mu 1987 mwakugwiriskira ntchito vyakusangika kufuma ku telesikopu ya mlengalenga]] Mu hafu yakwamba ya zana la myaka, kupangika kwa ''antibiotics'' na feteleza wakupangika na ŵanthu (''artificial fertilisers'') kukawovwira umoyo wa ŵanthu pa caro cose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goyotte |first=Dolores |year=2017 |title=The Surgical Legacy of World War II. Part II: The age of antibiotics |url=https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Surgical Technologist |volume=109 |pages=257–264 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505180530/https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2021 |access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erisman |first1=Jan Willem |first2=M. A. |last2=Sutton |first3=J. |last3=Galloway |first4=Z. |last4=Klimont |first5=W. |last5=Winiwarter |date=October 2008 |title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world |url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=636–639 |bibcode=2008NatGe...1..636E |doi=10.1038/ngeo325 |s2cid=94880859 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723223052/http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |archive-date=23 July 2010 |access-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> Masuzgo ghakofya gha kawiro nga ni kuchepa kwa ''ozone'', kuŵa na asidi mu nyanja, ''eutrophication'', na kusintha kwa nyengo vikiza mu mtima wa ŵanthu ndipo vikapangiska kuti ŵambe kusambira vya kawiro (''environmental studies'').<ref>{{cite journal |editor-last1=Emmett |editor-first1=Rob |editor-last2=Zelko |editor-first2=Frank |url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |title=Minding the Gap: Working Across Disciplines in Environmental Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121054306/https://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |archive-date=21 January 2022 |series=RCC Perspectives no. 2 |year=2014 |doi=10.5282/rcc/6313 |last1=Emmett |first1=Robert |last2=Zelko |first2=Frank |journal=Environment & Society Portal}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, kuyezgayezga kwa kasandiro kukaŵa kukuru comene mu unandi na ndalama.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Furner |first=Jonathan |date=1 June 2003 |title=Little Book, Big Book: Before and After Little Science, Big Science: A Review Article, Part I |journal=Journal of Librarianship and Information Science |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1177/0961000603352006 |s2cid=34844169}}</ref> Kupanga vinthu vyapya kukuru kuko kukakhuŵilizgika na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro (''World War I''), Nkhondo ya Caro ya Wuŵiri (''World War II''), na Nkhondo Yakuzizira (''Cold War'') kukapangiska kulimbana pakati pa maboma ghakuru, nga ni Kulimbana kwa Kuthambo (''Space Race'') na kulimbana kwa vilwero vya ''nuclear''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kraft |first1=Chris |url=https://archive.org/details/flight00chri |title=Flight: My Life in Mission Control |first2=James |last2=Schefter |publisher=Dutton |year=2001 |isbn=0-525-94571-7 |location=New York |author-link1=Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. |pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Herman |author-link=Herman Kahn |year=1962 |title=Thinking about the Unthinkable |publisher=Horizon}}</ref> Kukolerana kukuru kwa vyaru vinyake nako kukacitika, nangauli pakaŵa nkhondo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shrum |first=Wesley |title=Structures of scientific collaboration |year=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |others=Joel Genuth, Ivan Chompalov |isbn=978-0-262-28358-8 |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> Kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 20, kulemba ŵanakazi mwamwamphu na kuwuskapo kusankhana pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukapangiska kuti ŵasandi ŵanakazi ŵaŵe ŵanandi, kweni mphambano yikuru pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi yikalutilira mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosser |first=Sue V. |title=Breaking into the Lab: Engineering Progress for Women in Science |date=12 March 2012 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-7645-2 |page=7}}</ref> Kusangika kwa ''cosmic microwave background'' mu 1964<ref>{{cite journal |last=Penzias |first=A. A. |year=2006 |title=The origin of elements |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |journal=Science |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] |volume=205 |issue=4406 |pages=549–554 |doi=10.1126/science.205.4406.549 |pmid=17729659 |access-date=4 October 2006 |archive-date=17 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117225210/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakane ukaghanaghani wa caro cakukhazikika (''steady-state model'') ndipo ŵazomerezge ukaghanaghani wa ''Big Bang'' wa Georges Lemaître.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=S. |url=https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 |title=Gravitation and Cosmology |publisher=John Whitney & Sons |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-471-92567-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 464–495] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Zana la myaka ili likawona kusintha kukuru mu vigaŵa vya kasandiro. Ukaghanaghani wa kukura kwa vyamoyo (''evolution'') ukaŵa ukaghanaghani wakukolerana kukwambilira kwa zana la myaka la 20 apo ''modern synthesis'' yikaphatikizga ukaghanaghani wa Darwin na ''classical genetics''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Futuyma |first1=Douglas J. |title=Evolution |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=Mark |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-60535-605-1 |edition=4th |pages=3–26 |chapter=Chapter 1: Evolutionary Biology |publisher=Sinauer}}</ref> Ukaghanaghani wa Albert Einstein wa ''relativity'' na kukura kwa ''quantum mechanics'' vikovwira ''classical mechanics'' kulongosora ''physics'' mu utali wakukwana, nyengo, na ''gravity''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Arthur I. |title=Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911) |year=1981 |location=Reading |publisher=Addison–Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-04679-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=ter Haar |first=D. |url=https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar |title=The Old Quantum Theory |publisher=Pergamon |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-08-012101-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar/page/206 206] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Kugwiriskira ntchito kwakuthandazgika kwa ''integrated circuits'' mu kotala yaumaliro ya zana la myaka la 20 pamoza na ''communications satellites'' kukapangiska kusintha kukuru mu tekinoloji ya uthenga (''information technology'') na kukwera kwa ''internet'' ya caro cose na ''mobile computing'', kusazgapo ma ''smartphone''. Kukhumbikwa kwa kuŵika mu ndondomeko vyakuphanana vyakutali na vyakukolerana na vyakusangika vinandi (''data'') kukapangiska kuti paŵe kukwera kwa vigaŵa vya ''systems theory'' na ''scientific modelling'' yakovwirika na ma ''computer''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=von Bertalanffy |first1=Ludwig |year=1972 |title=The History and Status of General Systems Theory |journal=The Academy of Management Journal |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=407–426 |doi=10.2307/255139 |jstor=255139 |bibcode=1972AManJ..15..407V }}</ref> === Zana la myaka la 21 === Ntchito ya ''Human Genome Project'' yikamalizgika mu 2003 pakusanga na kuŵika mapu gha ''genes'' zose za ''human genome''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Naidoo |first1=Nasheen |last2=Pawitan |first2=Yudi |last3=Soong |first3=Richie |last4=Cooper |first4=David N. |last5=Ku |first5=Chee-Seng |date=October 2011 |title=Human genetics and genomics a decade after the release of the draft sequence of the human genome |journal=Human Genomics |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=577–622 |doi=10.1186/1479-7364-5-6-577 |pmc=3525251 |pmid=22155605 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Maselo ghakwamba gha ŵanthu gha ''induced pluripotent stem cells'' ghakapangika mu 2006, ico cikapangiska kuti maselo gha ŵakukura ghasinthike kuŵa ''stem cells'' ndipo ghazgoke mtundu uliwose wa selo uwo ukusangika mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=S. Tamir |last2=Alexander |first2=Graeme J. M. |date=March 2013 |title=Induced pluripotent stem cells: from Nobel Prizes to clinical applications |journal=Journal of Hepatology |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=625–629 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2012.10.026 |issn=1600-0641 |pmid=23131523 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Na kukhozgera kusangika kwa ''Higgs boson'' mu 2013, cinthu caumaliro ico ''Standard Model'' ya ''particle physics'' yikayowoya kale cikasangika.<ref>{{cite press release |last=O'Luanaigh |first=C. |date=14 March 2013 |title=New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson |publisher=[[CERN]] |url=http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020000722/http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |archive-date=20 October 2015}}</ref> Mu 2015, ''gravitational waves'', izo ''general relativity'' yikayowoya kale vyaka zana limoza pambere, zikawonekera kwakwamba.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/aa91c9 |title=Multi-messenger Observations of a Binary Neutron Star Merger |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=848 |issue=2 |page=L12 |year=2017 |last1=Abbott |first1=B. P. |last2=Abbott |first2=R. |last3=Abbott |first3=T. D. |last4=Acernese |first4=F. |last5=Ackley |first5=K. |last6=Adams |first6=C. |last7=Adams |first7=T. |last8=Addesso |first8=P. |last9=Adhikari |first9=R. X.|last10 = Adya|first10 = V. B. |last11=Affeldt |first11=C. |last12=Afrough |first12=M. |last13=Agarwal |first13=B. |last14=Agathos |first14=M. |last15=Agatsuma |first15=K. |last16=Aggarwal |first16=N. |last17=Aguiar |first17=O. D. |last18=Aiello |first18=L. |last19=Ain |first19=A.|last20 = Ajith|first20 = P. |last21=Allen |first21=B. |last22=Allen |first22=G. |last23=Allocca |first23=A. |last24=Altin |first24=P. A. |last25=Amato |first25=A. |last26=Ananyeva |first26=A. |last27=Anderson |first27=S. B. |last28=Anderson |first28=W. G. |last29=Angelova |first29=S. V.|last30 = Antier|first30 = S. |display-authors=29 |bibcode=2017ApJ...848L..12A |arxiv=1710.05833 |s2cid=217162243 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.aar2149 |title=Merging neutron stars generate gravitational waves and a celestial light show |journal=Science |year=2017 |last1=Cho |first1=Adrian}}</ref> Mu 2019, ubungwe wa caro cose ''Event Horizon Telescope'' ukalongora chithunzi chakwamba chakuwoneka cha ''accretion disc'' ya ''black hole''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2019 |title=Media Advisory: First Results from the Event Horizon Telescope to be Presented on April 10th |publisher=Event Horizon Telescope |url=https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420135254/https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-date=20 April 2019 |access-date=21 September 2021}}</ref> == Vigaŵa == Kasandiro ka sono kanandi kakugaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu vikuru: kasandiro ka kawiro (''natural science''), kasandiro ka ŵanthu (''social science''), na kasandiro ka dango (''formal science'').<ref name="Cohen2021" /> Cigaŵa chiliconse cha ivi chili na vigaŵa vinandi vya kasandiro vyakupambana kweni vyakukhwaskana, ivyo kanandi vikuŵa na mazgu na umanyi wawo.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |title=Scientific Method: Relationships Among Scientific Paradigms |date=7 March 2007 |magazine=Seed Magazine |access-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101001155/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |archive-date=1 November 2016}}</ref> Tusandiro twa kawiro na twa ŵanthu twose ni tusandiro twa ukaboni (''empirical sciences''),<ref>{{cite book |title=Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory |last=Bunge |first=Mario Augusto |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |page=24}}</ref> pakuti umanyi wawo ukuthemba pa ivyo vikuwoneka, ndipo ŵafukufuku ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu nyengo yakuyana ŵangayeza usange ni wa unenesko.<ref name="Popper2002">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl R. |year=2002a |chapter=A survey of some fundamental problems |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574 |url-access=limited |orig-date=1959 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133 3]–26 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-27844-7}}</ref>{{rp|pp=3–26}} === Tusandiro twa kawiro === Kasandiro ka kawiro ni kusanda caro ca vinthu vyakuwoneka. Kangagaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikuru: kasandiro ka vyamoyo (''life science'') na kasandiro ka vinthu vyambura umoyo (''physical science''). Vigaŵa ivi viŵiri vingagaŵikaso mu vigaŵa vichoko vyapadera. Mwachiyelezgero, kasandiro ka vinthu vyambura umoyo kangagaŵika mu ''physics'', kemistri, ''astronomy'', na kasandiro ka caro (''earth science''). Kasandiro ka kawiro ka sono ni uyo wakulondezga ukaghanaghani wa kawiro (''natural philosophy'') uwo wakamba ku Girisi wakale. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, na Newton ŵakakangana za uwemi wa kugwiriskira ntchito nthowa izo zikaŵa za masamu comene na zakuyezgayezga comene mu nthowa yakukhazikika. Kweni, maghanoghano gha filosofi, ukaghanaghani, na vyakuyamba kutorekwa kuti ni vyanenesko, ivyo kanandi vikuyeghekeka, vikulutilira kukhumbikwa mu kasandiro ka kawiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gauch |first=Hugh G. Jr. |chapter=Science in perspective |title=Scientific Method in Practice |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71 |pages=21–73 |isbn=978-0-521-01708-4 |year=2003 |access-date=3 September 2018}}</ref> Kutora vyakusangika mu nthowa yakukhazikika, kusazgapo ''discovery science'', kukalondezga ''natural history'', iyo yikawoneka mu zana la myaka la 16 mwakulongosora na kugaŵa mbuto, vinyama, malibwe, na vyamoyo vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Oglivie |first=Brian W. |year=2008 |chapter=Introduction |title=The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe |pages=1–24 |edition=Paperback |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-62088-6}}</ref> Sono, "''natural history''" likulongosora vyakuwonera vyakulembeka ku ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Natural History |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |dictionary=Princeton University WordNet |access-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303173506/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref> === Tusandiro twa ŵanthu === [[File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Mzere wa ''supply'' na ''demand'' mu ''economics'', wakukumana pa malo ghawemi ghakuyana|alt=Mizere yiŵiri yikukumana pa malo ghamoza, yikupanga chimanyisko cha X]] Kasandiro ka ŵanthu ni kusanda nkharo za ŵanthu na umo ŵanthu ŵakukhalira pamoza.<ref name="Colander2019" /><ref name="Nisbet2020" /> Kali na vigaŵa vinandi, nga ni ''anthropology'', ''economics'', mbiri, ''human geography'', ''political science'', ''psychology'', na ''sociology''.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Mu tusandiro twa ŵanthu muli maghanoghano ghanandi ghakukangana, ndipo ghanandi ghakukuzgika kwizira mu mapulogiramu gha kafukufuku ghakukangana, nga ni ''functionalists'', ''conflict theorists'', na ''interactionists'' mu ''sociology''.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Cifukwa ca masuzgo gha kucita ma ''experiment'' ghakulongozgeka pa magulu ghakuru gha ŵanthu panji pa vinthu vyakusuzga, ŵasandi ŵa ŵanthu ŵangagwiriskira ntchito nthowa zinyake za kafukufuku nga ni nthowa ya mbiri (''historical method''), ''case studies'', na ''cross-cultural studies''. Kweniso usange manambala ghalipo, ŵasandi ŵa ŵanthu ŵangathemba pa ''statistics'' kuti ŵapulikiske makora ubwezi na nthowa za ŵanthu.<ref name="Colander2019" /> === Tusandiro twa dango === Kasandiro ka dango (''formal science'') ni chigaŵa cha kusanda icho chikupanga umanyi mwakugwiriskira ntchito ndondomeko zakukhazikika (''formal systems'').<ref>{{cite web |url=https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |title=Formal Sciences: Washington and Lee University |website=Washington and Lee University |access-date=14 May 2021 |quote=A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in Mathematics and Computer Science. Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on them. |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514125428/https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Löwe2002">{{cite journal |last=Löwe |first=Benedikt |author-link=Benedikt Löwe |year=2002 |title=The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |issue=1/2 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/A:1020887832028 |issn=0039-7857 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref><ref name="Rucker2019">{{cite book |last=Rucker |first=Rudy |author-link=Rudy Rucker |url=http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |title=Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-691-19138-6 |edition=Reprint |pages=157–188 |chapter=Robots and souls |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226212447/http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Formal system'' ni chikaghanaghaniro chambura kuwoneka icho chikugwiriskika ntchito kufumiska vyakumalizira (''theorems'') kufuma pa vyakwamba (''axioms'') kuyana na dango.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Formal system |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-system |access-date=30 May 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=29 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429174130/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9034889/formal-system |url-status=live}}</ref> Chikukhwaska masamu,<ref>{{cite book |last=Tomalin |first=Marcus |year=2006 |title=Linguistics and the Formal Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/a:1020887832028 |year=2002 |last1=Löwe |first1=Benedikt |issue=1/2 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref> ''systems theory'', na ''theoretical computer science''. Tusandiro twa dango tukuyana na vigaŵa vinyake viŵiri pakuthemba pa kusanda kwakukwana, kwa makora, na kwakukhazikika kwa chigaŵa cha umanyi. Kweni tukupambana na tusandiro twa ukaboni cifukwa tukuthemba kughanaghana kwa ''deductive'' pera, kwambura kukhumbikwira ukaboni, kuti tuyeze maghanoghano ghawo ghambura kuwoneka.<ref name="Fetzer2013" /><ref>{{cite book |first=Thompson |last=Bill |title=The Nature of Statistical Evidence |chapter=2.4 Formal Science and Applied Mathematics |publisher=Springer |series=Lecture Notes in Statistics |volume=189 |year=2007 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Popper2002" /> Tusandiro twa dango, ntheura, ni vigaŵa vya ''a priori'', ndipo cifukwa ca ici, pali kukangana usange vikuŵa kasandiro.<ref name="Kluwer" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |year=1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref> Nangauli vili nthena, tusandiro twa dango tukuseŵera chigaŵa chikuru mu tusandiro twa ukaboni. ''Calculus'', mwachiyelezgero, yikapangika pakwamba kuti ŵamanye umo vinthu vikwendera mu ''physics''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mujumdar |first1=Anshu Gupta |last2=Singh |first2=Tejinder |year=2016 |chapter=Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics |title=Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics |editor-first1=Anthony |editor-last1=Aguirre |editor-first2=Brendan |editor-last2=Foster |series=The Frontiers Collection |pages=201–218 |location=Switzerland |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-27494-2}}</ref> Tusandiro twa kawiro na twa ŵanthu utwu tukuthemba comene pa masamu tukusazgapo ''mathematical physics'',<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Journal |url=http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003233339/http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-date=3 October 2006 |access-date=3 October 2006 |website=[[Journal of Mathematical Physics]]}}</ref> kemistri,<ref>{{cite book |last=Restrepo |first=G. |chapter=Mathematical chemistry, a new discipline |title=Essays in the philosophy of chemistry |editor-last1=Scerri |editor-first1=E. |editor-last2=Fisher |editor-first2=G. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2016 |pages=332–351 |isbn=978-0-19-049459-9 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |archive-date=10 June 2021 |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610130352/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |url-status=live}}</ref> ''biology'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is mathematical biology |publisher=Centre for Mathematical Biology, University of Bath |url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923070442/http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-date=23 September 2018 |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> ''finance'',<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Johnson |first=Tim |date=1 September 2009 |title=What is financial mathematics? |url=https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |access-date=1 March 2021 |magazine=+Plus Magazine |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408231344/https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |url-status=live}}</ref> na ''economics''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Varian |first=Hal |author-link=Hal Varian |year=1997 |chapter=What Use Is Economic Theory? |editor-last1=D'Autume |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Cartelier |editor-first2=J. |title=Is Economics Becoming a Hard Science? |publisher=Edward Elgar}} [http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf Pre-publication]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf |date=25 June 2006 }}. Retrieved 1 April 2008.</ref> === Tusandiro twakugwiriskira ntchito === Kasandiro ka kugwiriskira ntchito (''applied science'') ni kugwiriskira ntchito nthowa ya kasandiro na umanyi kuti ŵasange vilato vya zuŵa na zuŵa, ndipo kakukhwaska vigaŵa vinandi nga ni uinjiniya (''engineering'') na munkhwala (''medicine'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Reem Rachel |year=2004 |title=Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students |journal=Advances in Physiology Education |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=102–104 |doi=10.1152/advan.00001.2004 |pmid=15319191 |s2cid=21610124}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966" /> ''Engineering'' ni kugwiriskira ntchito mazgu gha kasandiro kupanga, kukonda, na kuzenga makina, vyakuzengeka, na tekinoloji.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |title=Engineering |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819030859/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |url-status=live}}</ref> Kasandiro kangawovwira kupanga tekinoloji zapya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Harvey |date=1 September 1994 |title=The relationship between science and technology |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |journal=Research Policy |series=Special Issue in Honor of Nathan Rosenberg |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 |issn=0048-7333 |access-date=14 October 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230224402/https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Munkhwala ni nthowa yakusamalira ŵalwari mwa kusunga na kubwezgera umoyo wawemi kwizira mu kugega, kusanda nthenda, na kuchizga vilonda panji nthenda.<ref>{{cite book |last=Firth |first=John |title=Oxford textbook of medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-874669-0 |chapter=Science in medicine: when, how, and what}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=J. |date=June 2000 |title=The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science |journal=Med Humanit |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=18–22 |doi=10.1136/mh.26.1.18 |pmid=12484313 |doi-access=free |s2cid=73306806 |pmc=1071282}}</ref> === Tusandiro twa muzu === Kanandi tusandiro twa kugwiriskira ntchito tukuyezgeka na tusandiro twa muzu (''basic sciences''), utwu tukulingalira kukuzga ukaghanaghani na dango za kasandiro izo zikulongosora na kuvikira ivyo vikucitika mu kawiro.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Bernard D. |date=March 2000 |title=Limited scope of science |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471 |postscript=none}} & "Technology" in {{cite journal |first=Bernard |last=Davis |author-link1=Bernard Davis (biologist) |date=Mar 2000 |title=The scientist's world |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews]] |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=James |last=McCormick |year=2001 |title=Scientific medicine—fact of fiction? The contribution of science to medicine |journal=Occasional Paper (Royal College of General Practitioners) |pages=3–6 |pmc=2560978 |pmid=19790950 |number=80}}</ref> === Kasandiro ka ''blue skies'' === Kafukufuku wa ''blue skies'' (''blue skies research''), uyo wakucemekaso ''blue sky science'', ni kafukufuku wa kasandiro mu vigaŵa umo kugwiriskika kwa "caro cenicenico" kukuwonekera yayi pa nyengo yeneyiyo. === Kasandiro ka kompyuta === Kasandiro ka kompyuta (''computational science'') kakugwiriskira ntchito ''computer simulations'' mu kasandiro, ico cikovwira kupulikiska makora masuzgo gha kasandiro kuluska umo masamu ghekha ghangacitira. Kugwiriskira ntchito ''machine learning'' na ''artificial intelligence'' kukuzgoka chinthu chikuru mu uwovwiri wa kompyuta ku kasandiro, mwachiyelezgero mu ''agent-based computational economics'', ''random forests'', ''topic modelling'', na mitundu yakupambanapambana ya kuvikira (''prediction''). Kweni, makina ghekha ghakukuzga umanyi kachoko pera cifukwa ghakukhumba ulongozgi wa ŵanthu na luso lwa kughanaghana; ndipo ghangapangiska kuti magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghasankhikwe panji nyengo zinyake ghangacita makora yayi kuluska ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breznau |first1=Nate |year=2022 |title=Integrating Computer Prediction Methods in Social Science: A Comment on Hofman et al. (2021) |journal=Social Science Computer Review |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=844–853 |doi=10.1177/08944393211049776 |doi-access=free |s2cid=248334446 |url=https://osf.io/adxb3/download |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429040922/https://osf.io/adxb3/download |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hofman |first1=Jake M. |last2=Watts |first2=Duncan J. |author2-link=Duncan J. Watts |last3=Athey |first3=Susan |author3-link=Susan Athey |last4=Garip |first4=Filiz |last5=Griffiths |first5=Thomas L. |author5-link=Tom Griffiths (cognitive scientist) |last6=Kleinberg |first6=Jon |author6-link=Jon Kleinberg |last7=Margetts |first7=Helen |author7-link=Helen Margetts |last8=Mullainathan |first8=Sendhil |author8-link=Sendhil Mullainathan |last9=Salganik |first9=Matthew J. |author9-link=Matthew J. Salganik |last10=Vazire |first10=Simine |author10-link=Simine Vazire |last11=Vespignani |first11=Alessandro |author11-link=Alessandro Vespignani |date=July 2021 |title=Integrating explanation and prediction in computational social science |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |volume=595 |issue=7866 |pages=181–188 |bibcode=2021Natur.595..181H |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03659-0 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=34194044 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925074416/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |access-date=25 September 2021 |s2cid=235697917}}</ref> === Kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi === Kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi (''interdisciplinary science'') kakukhwaska kuphatikiza vigaŵa viŵiri panji vinandi kuŵa chimoza,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nissani |first=M. |year=1995 |title=Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working Definition of Interdisciplinarity |journal=The Journal of Educational Thought |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=121–128 |doi=10.55016/ojs/jet.v29i2.52385 |doi-access=free|jstor=23767672}}</ref> nga ni ''bioinformatics'' (kuphatikiza ''biology'' na ''computer science'')<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalcodeoflif0000mood |title=Digital Code of Life: How Bioinformatics is Revolutionizing Science, Medicine, and Business |last=Moody |first=G. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-32788-2 |url-access=registration |page=vii |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> na ''cognitive sciences''. Maghanoghano agha ghaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya Ŵagiriki ŵakale, ndipo ghakamba kukondweka kaso mu zana la myaka la 20.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ausburg |first=Tanya |title=Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing |year=2006 |edition=2nd |location=New York}}</ref> == Kafukufuku == Kafukufuku wa kasandiro wangalembeka kuti ni wa muzu panji wa kugwiriskira ntchito. Kafukufuku wa muzu (''basic research'') ni kusaka umanyi, ndipo kafukufuku wa kugwiriskira ntchito (''applied research'') ni kusaka nthowa zakuthana masuzgo gha zuŵa na zuŵa pakugwiriskira ntchito umanyi uwu. Kupulikiska kunandi kukufuma mu kafukufuku wa muzu, nangauli nyengo zinyake kafukufuku wa kugwiriskira ntchito wakulingalira masuzgo ghenipo. Ici cikupangiska kuti paŵe tekinoloji zapya izo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga yayi pakwamba.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119113522/http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |title=To Live at All Is Miracle Enough |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |publisher=RichardDawkins.net |date=10 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> === Nthowa ya kasandiro === [[File:The Scientific Method.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Chithunzi cha nthowa ya kasandiro icho chikulongosoreka nga ni mzere wakulutilira|alt=Masitepu 6 gha nthowa ya kasandiro mu chizunguzunguzu]] Kafukufuku wa kasandiro ukugwiriskira ntchito nthowa ya kasandiro, iyo yikusaka kulongosora mwakwenenesko vyakucitika mu kawiro mu nthowa iyo yingabwerezgeka.<ref name="di Francia1976">{{cite book |last=di Francia |first=Giuliano Toraldo |chapter=The method of physics |title=The Investigation of the Physical World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1976 |pages=1–52 |isbn=978-0-521-29925-1 |quote=The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!}}</ref> Kanandi ŵasandi ŵakutora kuti ghanyake gha maghanoghano ghakwamba ni ghanenesko, agho ghakukhumbikwa kuti nthowa ya kasandiro yiŵe yakukhazikika: kuli caro chenichenicho icho ŵakuwona wose ŵakughanaghana makora ŵakugabana; caro ichi chenichenicho chikulongozgeka na dango za kawiro; dango izi zikasangika kwizira mu kuwona na kuyezgayezga mu nthowa yakukhazikika.<ref name="Heilbron2003" /> Masamu ghakukhumbikwa comene mu kupanga ''hypotheses'', ukaghanaghani, na dango, cifukwa ghakugwiriskika comene mu kupanga ''quantitative models'', kuwona, na kutora vyakupimika.<ref name=Popper2002 />{{rp|pp=3–26}} ''Statistics'' yikugwiriskika kuphatikiza na kusanda manambala, ico cikovwira ŵasandi kupima kuti vyakuyezgeka vikwenere kugomezgeka.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Diggle |first1=Peter J. |author-link=Peter Diggle |title=Statistics and Scientific Method: An Introduction for Students and Researchers |last2=Chetwynd |first2=Amanda G. |author2-link=Amanda Chetwynd |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954318-2 |pages=1–2}}</ref> Mu nthowa ya kasandiro, ''thought experiment'' panji ''hypothesis'' yakulongosora yikuŵikika nga ni chikaghanaghaniro pakugwiriskira ntchito ''parsimony principles'', ndipo yikukhumbikwa kusaka ''consilience''—kuyanirana na vyanenesko vinyake vyasikizgika vyakukhwaskana na chakuwonekapo panji fumbo la kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Edward |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |publisher=Vintage |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref> Chikaghanaghaniro ichi chakwamba chikugwiriskika kupanga vyakuvikira (''predictions'') vyakuti vingapusikizgika, ivyo kanandi ŵakulemba kwambere kuyezgayezga. Kupusikizga chakuvikira ni ukaboni wa kukhwima.<ref name="di Francia1976" />{{Rp|pages=4–5}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Fara |first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Fara |year=2009 |chapter=Decisions |title=Science: A Four Thousand Year History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-922689-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408 408] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/306}}</ref> Kuyezgayezga ni kwakukhumbikwa comene mu kasandiro kuti kuwovwire kupanga ubwezi wa chifukwa na chakucitika (''causal relationships'') kuti ŵaleke kugwa mu ''correlation fallacy'', kweni mu tusandiro tunyake nga ni ''astronomy'' panji ''geology'', chakuwonekapo chakuvikilika chingaŵa chawemi comene.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aldrich |first=John |journal=Statistical Science |volume=10 |year=1995 |pages=364–376 |title=Correlations Genuine and Spurious in Pearson and Yule |jstor=2246135 |doi=10.1214/ss/1177009870 |issue=4 |bibcode=1995StaSc..1009870A |doi-access=free}}</ref> Usange ''hypothesis'' yikulephera, ŵakuyisintha panji kuyiwusa. Usange yikuyimilira pa kuyezgayezga, yingatolekwa mu ndondomeko ya ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro (''scientific theory''), ''model'' yakughanaghanika makora, yakuyana yekha, panji ndondomeko yakulongosora makhaliro gha vyakucitika vinyake vya kawiro. Ukaghanaghani (''theory'') kanandi ukulongosora makhaliro gha vyakuwoneka vyanandi kuluska ''hypothesis''; kanandi, ''hypotheses'' zinandi zingaphatikizgika na ukaghanaghani umoza. Ntheura, ukaghanaghani ni ''hypothesis'' yikulongosora ''hypotheses'' zinyake zinandi. Mu nthowa iyi, ukaghanaghani ukupangika kuyana na mazgu gha kasandiro ghakuyana na gha ''hypotheses''. Ŵasandi ŵangapanga ''model'', chikaghanaghaniro cha kulongosora panji kulongora chakuwoneka mu nthowa ya ''logical'', ya ''physical'', panji ya masamu, na kupanga ''hypotheses'' zapya izo zingayezgeka pakuyezgayezga.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nola |first1=Robert |last2=Irzik |first2=Gürol |year=2005 |title=Philosophy, science, education and culture |volume=28 |series=Science & technology education library |isbn=978-1-4020-3769-6 |publisher=Springer |pages=207–230}}</ref> Apo ŵakuyezgayezga kuti ŵayeze ''hypotheses'', ŵasandi ŵangakondwa na chakuyezgeka chimoza kuluska chinyake.<ref>{{cite web |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |year=1999 |url=http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |title="Heads I win, tails you lose": A Foray Into the Psychology of Philosophy |publisher=University of Melbourne |access-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409054240/http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pease |first=Craig |date=6 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619154617/http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm |archive-date=19 June 2010 |title=Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science |website=Science for Business, Law and Journalism |publisher=Vermont Law School |url=http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm}}</ref> Kuwuskapo ukondelero uwu kungacitika kwizira mu kuwonekera (''transparency''), kupanga makora kuyezgayezga, na kupimiskika makora kwa vyakuyezgeka na vyakumalizira na ŵasandi ŵanyake (''peer review'').<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Shatz |year=2004 |title=Peer Review: A Critical Inquiry |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1434-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Sheldon |last=Krimsky |year=2003 |title=Science in the Private Interest: Has the Lure of Profits Corrupted the Virtue of Biomedical Research |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1479-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceinprivate0000krim}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti vyakuyezgeka vyatenderezgeka panji vyalembeka, ni chikozgero chawemi kuti ŵafukufuku ŵakujiyimirira ŵapime kuti kafukufuku wacitikira wuli, ndipo ŵalondezge na kucita ma ''experiments'' ghakuyana kuti ŵamanye kuti vyakuyezgeka vingagomezgeka wuli.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ruth Ellen |last1=Bulger |year=2002 |last2=Heitman |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Reiser |first3=Stanley Joel |title=The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-521-00886-0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Para nthowa ya kasandiro yagwiriskika yose, yikuzomerezga kuthana masuzgo mwaluso comene uku yikucepeska ukondelero wa munthu yekha na ukondelero wa kukhozgera ivyo wali kale kugomezga (''confirmation bias'').<ref>{{cite web |last=Backer |first=Patricia Ryaby |date=29 October 2004 |url=http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm |title=What is the scientific method? |publisher=San Jose State University |access-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408082917/http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm |archive-date=8 April 2008}}</ref> ''Intersubjective verifiability'', luso lakufika pa kuzomerezgana na kubwerezga vyakuyezgeka, ni lakukhumbikwa comene pakupanga umanyi wose wa kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziman |first=John |title=Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1978c |isbn=978-0-521-22087-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42 42–76] |chapter=Common observation |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42}}</ref> === Vyakulembeka === [[File:Nature cover, November 4, 1869.jpg|thumb|Chikuto cha buku lakwamba la ''Nature'', 4 November 1869|alt=Mutu wa "NATURE" wakukometa, na malemba gha kasandiro pasi]] Kafukufuku wa kasandiro ukutenderezgeka mu vyakulembeka vyakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=John Ziman |last=Ziman |first=J. M. |journal=Science |title=The proliferation of scientific literature: a natural process |year=1980 |volume=208 |issue=4442 |pages=369–371 |doi=10.1126/science.7367863 |pmid=7367863 |bibcode=1980Sci...208..369Z}}</ref> Ma ''journal'' gha kasandiro (''scientific journals'') ghakumanyisha na kulemba vyakuyezgeka vya kafukufuku uwo ukucitika mu mayunivesite na malo ghanyake ghakufufuzira, ndipo ghakugwira ntchito nga ni vyakusunga vya mbiri ya kasandiro. Ma ''journal'' ghakwamba gha kasandiro, ''Journal des sçavans'' na pamanyuma ''Philosophical Transactions'', ghakamba kutenderezgeka mu 1665. Kufuma nyengo iyo, ciŵerengero cose ca ma ''periodical'' ghakugwira ntchito cikukura nyengo zose. Mu 1981, cilingo cimoza ca ciŵerengero ca ma ''journal'' gha kasandiro na gha tekinoloji ghakutenderezgeka cikaŵa 11,500.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Krishna |last1=Subramanyam |last2=Subramanyam |first2=Bhadriraju |year=1981 |title=Scientific and Technical Information Resources |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8247-8297-9}}</ref> Ma ''journal'' ghanandi gha kasandiro ghakukwata chigaŵa chimoza cha kasandiro ndipo ghakutenderezga kafukufuku wa mu chigaŵa ichi; kafukufuku uyu kanandi ukulembeka mu nkhani ya kasandiro (''scientific article''). Kasandiro kathandazgika comene mu caro cha sono mwakuti kukukhumbikwa kumanyisha ŵanthu ŵanandi ivyo ŵasandi ŵafikapo, nkhani, na ivyo ŵakukhumba.<ref name="Bush1945">{{cite web |last=Bush |first=Vannevar |date=July 1945 |title=Science the Endless Frontier |url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221306/https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=4 November 2016 |publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref> == Filosofi == [[File:Epicycle and deferent.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Kwa Kuhn, kusazgapo kwa ''epicycles'' mu ''Ptolemaic astronomy'' kukaŵa "kasandiro kakawaleza" (''normal science'') mukati mwa ''paradigm'', apo ''Copernican Revolution'' yikaŵa kusintha kwa ''paradigm''.|alt=Chithunzi cha ''epicycles'', apo pulaneti likuzunguliza mu mzunguliro mukuru]] Pali masukulu ghakupambanapambana gha maghanoghano mu filosofi ya kasandiro (''philosophy of science''). Maghanoghano ghakukondwa comene ni ''empiricism'', agho ghakuti umanyi ukupangika kwizira mu nthowa yakukhwaska kuwona; ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro ukugaŵa ivyo ŵakuwona.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=39–56}} ''Empiricism'' kanandi yikukhwaska ''inductivism'', maghanoghano ghakulongosora umo ukaghanaghani wakuru ungapangikira kufuma ku ukaboni wacoko uwo ulipo. Mitundu yinandi ya ''empiricism'' yilipo, ndipo iyo yikumanyikwa comene ni ''Bayesianism'' na ''hypothetico-deductive method''.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=219–232}} ''Empiricism'' yikaŵa yakukangana na ''rationalism'', maghanoghano agho pakwamba ghakaŵa ghakukhwaskana na Descartes, agho ghakuti umanyi ukupangika na mano gha munthu, m'malo mwa kuwona.<ref name=pGS2003 >{{cite book |last=Godfrey-Smith |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryrealityint00godf |title=Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-30062-7 }}</ref>{{rp|pp=19–38}} ''Critical rationalism'' ni nthowa yakukangana ya zana la myaka la 20 pa kasandiro, iyo yikalongosoreka pakwamba na msambiri wa ku Austria na Britain, Karl Popper. Popper wakakana umo ''empiricism'' yikulongosolera ubwezi pakati pa ukaghanaghani na kuwona. Wakati ukaghanaghani ukupangika na kuwona yayi, kweni kuti kuwona kukupangika mwakuyana na ukaghanaghani, ndipo nthowa yimoza pera iyo ukaghanaghani A ungakhwaskikira na kuwona ni para ukaghanaghani A wasuskana na kuwona, kweni ukaghanaghani B wapona pa ivyo vikuwoneka.<ref name=pGS2003/>{{rp|pp=57–74}} Popper wakalongosora kuti ''falsifiability'' iŵikike m'malo mwa ''verifiability'' nga ni chimanyikwiro cha ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro, na ''falsification'' m'malo mwa ''induction'' nga ni nthowa ya ukaboni.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=102–121}} Popper wakasazgirapo kuti pali nadi nthowa yimoza pera ya caro cose, iyo yikukhwaskana na kasandiro yayi: nthowa ya kukanira, kuyezga na kuphonya (''trial and error''),<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=102–121}} iyo yikukhwaska vyose ivyo vikufuma mu mano gha munthu, kusazgapo kasandiro, masamu, filosofi, na luso.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl |title=Objective Knowledge |year=1972}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake, ''instrumentalism'', yikudidimizga phindu la ukaghanaghani nga ni vipangizo vyakulongosolera na kuvikira vyakuwoneka. Yikuwona ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro nga ni mabokosi ghafipa, ndipo ivyo vikunjilirapo pera (mikhaliro yakwamba) na ivyo vikufumamo (vyakuvikira) ndivyo vikukhumbikwa. Vyakumalizira, vinthu vya ukaghanaghani, na ukhazikiko wa maghanoghano vikuyowoyeka kuti vikwenera kulekeka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Newton-Smith |first=W. H. |url=https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt |title=The Rationality of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7100-0913-5 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt/page/30 30] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Pafupi na ''instrumentalism'' pali ''constructive empiricism'', iyo yikuti chimanyikwiro chikuru cha kupambana kwa ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro ni usange ivyo ukuyowoya pa vinthu vyakuwoneka ni vyanenesko.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Votsis |first=I. |year=2004 |title=The Epistemological Status of Scientific Theories: An Investigation of the Structural Realist Account |publisher=University of London, London School of Economics |degree=PhD |page=39}}</ref> Thomas Kuhn wakayowoya kuti nthowa ya kuwona na kupima yikucitika mu ''paradigm'', "chithunzi" cha caro icho chikuyana na ivyo vikuwoneka kufuma mu chikopa chake. Wakalongosora ''normal science'' nga ni nthowa ya kuwona na "kuthana masuzgo gha ''puzzle''" iyo yikucitika mu ''paradigm'', apo ''revolutionary science'' yikucitika para ''paradigm'' yimoza yikupambana yinyake mu ''paradigm shift''.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Bird |first=Alexander |year=2013 |editor1-last=Zalta |editor1-first=Edward N. |title=Thomas Kuhn |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715191833/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |archive-date=15 July 2020 |access-date=26 October 2015 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> ''Paradigm'' iliyose yili na mafumbo, vilato, na ng'anamuro ghake. Kusankha pakati pa ma ''paradigm'' kukukhwaska kuŵika "vithunzi" viŵiri panji vinandi pa caro na kusankha kuti ni cithunzi wuli icho chikuyana comene. ''Paradigm shift'' yikucitika para vinthu vinandi vya kuwona vyambura kuyana vikusangika mu ''paradigm'' yakale, ndipo ''paradigm'' yapya yikuvilongosora. Ntheura, kusankha ''paradigm'' yapya kukuthemba pa kuwona, nangauli kuwona uku kukucitika mu ukhaliro wa ''paradigm'' yakale. Kwa Kuhn, kuzomera panji kukana ''paradigm'' ni nthowa ya ŵanthu nga umo vikuŵira na nthowa ya maghanoghano. Kweni, maghanoghano gha Kuhn ghali ''relativism'' yayi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuhn |first=Thomas S. |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-226-45804-5 |edition=2nd |page=206 |access-date=30 May 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019102817/https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake iyo kanandi yikuyowoyeka mu kukangana kwa kuwona kwa kasandiro (''scientific scepticism'') kuwukira magulu ghakukangana nga ni "''creation science''" ni ''methodological naturalism''. Ŵanaturalisti ŵakuti kupambana kukwenera kupangika pakati pa cakawiro na cakuzuwa, ndipo kasandiro kakwenera kuŵa na vyakulongosora vya kawiro pera.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=149–162}} ''Methodological naturalism'' yikuti kasandiro kakukhumba kuyimilira makora pa kusanda kwa ukaboni na kukhozgeka kwakujiyimirira.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brugger |first=E. Christian |year=2004 |title=Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition |journal=The Review of Metaphysics |volume=58 |issue=2}}</ref> Fumbo limoza la filosofi ya kasandiro ni umo ukaboni na ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro ungalongozgera ku visankho. Nga umo ''is-ought problem'' yikulongosolera, vyanenesko vyekha vingasankha yayi ivyo vikwenera kuŵa. Ici cikukhwaska maghanoghano gha ''value-ladenness'': umo visankho ivyo vikupangika pa ivyo kasandiro kasanga vikuthemba pa mtengo wa vinthu.<ref>{{Citation |last=Ward |first=Zina B. |chapter=What Does it Mean to say That Science is Value-Laden? |date=2026-03-10 |title=The Routledge Handbook of Values and Science |pages=74–83 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781003469100/chapters/10.4324/9781003469100-8 |access-date=2026-03-23 |edition= |place=New York |publisher=Routledge |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781003469100-8 |isbn=978-1-003-46910-0}}</ref> == Gulu la ŵasandi == Gulu la ŵasandi (''scientific community'') ni mtolo wa ŵasandi awo ŵakukolerana ndipo ŵakucita kafukufuku wa kasandiro. Gulu ili lili na magulu ghachokoghachoko agho ghakugwira ntchito mu vigaŵa vya kasandiro. Kwizira mu ''peer review'', kukambirana na kukangana mu ma ''journal'' na mu ma ''conference'', ŵasandi ŵakusunga ukwenere wa nthowa za kafukufuku na kuŵa ŵambura kupendelera para ŵakulongosora vyakuyezgeka.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kornfeld |first1=W. |last2=Hewitt |first2=C. E. |year=1981 |title=The Scientific Community Metaphor |url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=24–33 |doi=10.1109/TSMC.1981.4308575 |bibcode=1981ITSMC..11...24K |hdl-access=free |hdl=1721.1/5693 |s2cid=1322857 |access-date=26 May 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408100757/http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Ŵasandi === [[File:Marie Curie c. 1920s.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Marie Curie wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kupokera Mphoto ziŵiri za Nobel: ''Physics'' mu 1903 na kemistri mu 1911.<ref name="Estreicher1938" />|alt=Chithunzi cha mwanakazi wa vyaka vyapakati]] Ŵasandi (''scientists'') ni ŵanthu awo ŵakucita kafukufuku wa kasandiro kuti ŵakuzge umanyi mu chigaŵa icho ŵakukhumba.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |title=Eusocial climbers |publisher=E. O. Wilson Foundation |access-date=3 September 2018 |quote=But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says. |archive-date=27 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427085753/https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |title=Our definition of a scientist |publisher=Science Council |access-date=7 September 2018 |quote=A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge. |archive-date=23 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823135636/https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵangalongora kukhumba comene kumanya caro chenichenicho na khumbo lakugwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa kasandiro ku phindu la umoyo wa ŵanthu, fuko, kawiro, panji ma fakitale; vyakukhumba vinyake ni kumanyikwa na ŵasandi ŵanyawo na ulemu.<ref name=leeEtal2007/> Mu nyengo za sono, ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakusambira mu vigaŵa vyapadera vya kasandiro mu malo gha masambiro, kanandi ŵakupokera ma ''degree'' gha pachanya.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cyranoski |first1=David |last2=Gilbert |first2=Natasha |last3=Ledford |first3=Heidi |last4=Nayar |first4=Anjali |author4-link=Anjali Nayar |last5=Yahia |first5=Mohammed |year=2011 |title=Education: The PhD factory |journal=Nature |volume=472 |issue=7343 |pages=276–279 |doi=10.1038/472276a |pmid=21512548 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..276C |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakulondezga ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana nga ni masambiro, mafakitale, boma, na mabungwe ghambura kusanga phindu.<ref name=kwok2017>{{cite journal |last1=Kwok |first1=Roberta |title=Flexible working: Science in the gig economy |journal=Nature |volume=550 |pages=419–421 |doi=10.1038/nj7677-549a |year=2017 |issue=7677 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=woolston2024 >{{cite journal |year=2024 |title=How researchers in remote regions handle the isolation |journal=Nature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01523-5 |last1=Woolston |first1=Chris |volume=629 |issue=8014 |pages=1193–1195 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-01523-5 |pmid=38789626 |bibcode=2024Natur.629.1193W |archive-date=13 June 2024 |access-date=27 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613002615/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01523-5 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=leeEtal2007>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Adrian |last2=Dennis |first2=Carina |last3=Campbell |first3=Phillip |year=2007 |title=Nature's guide for mentors |journal=Nature |volume=447 |issue=7677 |pages=791–797 |doi=10.1038/447791a |doi-access=free |pmid=17568738 |bibcode=2007Natur.447..791L }}</ref> Kasandiro kali na mbiri yakuŵa ka ŵanalume comene, kweni pali ŵakuwonekera. Ŵanakazi ŵasuzgika comene mu kasandiro kufuma kale. Mwachiyelezgero, kanandi ŵanakazi ŵakajumphikanga pa mwaŵi wa ntchito ndipo ŵakakanizgika ulemu wa ntchito yawo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Leigh Ann |title=Women's History as Scientists |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003}}</ref> Ivyo ŵanakazi ŵasanga mu kasandiro vikulongosoreka nga ni kukana ntchito yawo yakale ya kuŵa ŵantchito mu nyumba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spanier |first=Bonnie |title=Im/partial Science: Gender Identity in Molecular Biology |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-253-20968-9 |chapter=From Molecules to Brains, Normal Science Supports Sexist Beliefs about Difference}}</ref> Sonosono apa kusankhana ŵanalume kwawonekeka mu vigaŵa vinyake vya gulu la ŵasandi.<ref name="l841">{{cite journal | last=Desposato | first=Scott W. | title=Where You Go, What You Do, Who You Are: Predictors of Political Science Job-Market Outcomes, 2023–2024 | journal=PS: Political Science & Politics | volume=59 | issue=4 | date=2026 | issn=1049-0965 | doi=10.1017/S1049096526102182 | pages=667–683 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1049096526102182/type/journal_article | access-date=2026-09-15}}</ref><ref name="m735">{{cite journal | last1=Gërxhani | first1=Klarita | last2=Kulic | first2=Nevena | last3=Rusconi | first3=Alessandra | last4=Solga | first4=Heike | title=Gender bias in evaluating assistant professorship applicants? Evidence from harmonized survey experiments in Germany and Italy | journal=Social Science Research | volume=126 | date=2025 | doi=10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103113 | doi-access=free | article-number=103113 | pmid=39909620 | hdl=1871.1/50358537-4ba1-49ee-aab3-29cef8e950ce | hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Mabungwe gha ŵasambiri === [[File:200 y Anniversary of Berlin Academy 1900.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵasandi pa chikumbusko cha vyaka 200 vya ''Prussian Academy of Sciences'', 1900]] Mabungwe gha ŵasambiri (''learned societies'') gha kumanyisha na kukuzga maghanoghano na kuyezgayezga kwa kasandiro ghaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya ''Renaissance''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parrott |first=Jim |date=9 August 2007 |url=http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |title=Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599 |publisher=Scholarly Societies Project |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106185404/http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵali mu bungwe la ŵasambiri ilo likukuzga chigaŵa chawo cha kasandiro, ntchito, panji gulu la vigaŵa vyakukhwaskana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |title=The Environmental Studies Association of Canada – What is a Learned Society? |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529163615/http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref> Umembala ungaŵa wakujulika kwa wose, kukhumbikwira ma ''credential'' gha kasandiro, panji kupelekeka kwizira mu kusankhika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |title=Learned societies & academies |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603140851/http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |archive-date=3 June 2014}}</ref> Mabungwe ghanandi gha kasandiro ghambura kusanga phindu,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2019 |title=Learned Societies, the key to realising an open access future? |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |access-date=22 January 2023 |website=Impact of Social Sciences |publisher=London School of Economics |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205140831/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ndipo ghanandi ni mabungwe gha ŵantchito. Ntchito zawo kanandi zikukhwaska kucita ma ''conference'' ghakuyendera nyengo kuti ŵalongosore na kukambirana vyakuyezgeka vyapya vya kafukufuku, na kutenderezga panji kuwovwira ma ''academic journal'' mu chigaŵa chawo. Mabungwe ghanyake ghakugwira nga ni mathupi gha ŵantchito, ghakulongolera ntchito za ŵembala ŵawo ku phindu la ŵanthu wose, panji phindu la ŵembala wose. Kuŵa kwa kasandiro nga ni ntchito yakukhazikika, uko kukayamba mu zana la myaka la 19, kukawovwirika na kupangika kwa ma ''academy'' gha fuko gha kasandiro, nga ni ''Accademia dei Lincei'' ya ku Italy mu 1603,<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |url=http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |title=Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei |language=it |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228005402/http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |archive-date=28 February 2010}}</ref> ''Royal Society'' ya ku Britain mu 1660,<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2004 |title=Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building |url=http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |access-date=7 December 2009 |publisher=The Royal Society |archive-date=9 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409010143/https://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |url-status=live}}</ref> ''French Academy of Sciences'' mu 1666,<ref>{{cite web |first=G. G. |last=Meynell |url=http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |title=The French Academy of Sciences, 1666–91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666–83) and Louvois (1683–91) |access-date=13 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118174108/http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> ''National Academy of Sciences'' ya ku America mu 1863,<ref>{{cite web |title=Founding of the National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |access-date=12 March 2012 |publisher=.nationalacademies.org |archive-date=3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203154802/http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Kaiser Wilhelm Society'' ya ku Germany mu 1911,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (1911) |url=https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |access-date=30 May 2022 |publisher=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302052520/https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |url-status=live}}</ref> na ''Chinese Academy of Sciences'' mu 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=Chinese Academy of Sciences |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331215338/https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> Mabungwe gha caro cose gha kasandiro, nga ni ''International Science Council'', ghakujipeleka ku kugwirizgana pakati pa vyaru kuti kasandiro kakule.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2018 |title=Two main Science Councils merge to address complex global challenges |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |access-date=21 October 2018 |publisher=UNESCO |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712044005/https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |url-status=live}}</ref> === Mphoto === Mphoto za kasandiro kanandi zikupelekeka ku ŵanthu panji mabungwe agho ghawovwira comene pa chigaŵa chinyake. Kanandi zikupelekeka na mabungwe ghakumanyikwa; ntheura, kupokera mphoto kukuwonekwa nga ni ulemu ukuru comene ku msandi. Kufuma kwambere kwa ''Renaissance'', ŵasandi kanandi ŵakapokera ma ''medal'', ndalama, na mazina gha ulemu. Mphoto ya Nobel (''Nobel Prize''), iyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti njakuzirwa comene, yikupelekeka chaka chiliconse ku awo ŵafika pa kukula kwa kasandiro mu munkhwala, ''physics'', na kemistri.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=7 October 2014 |title=How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth? |newspaper=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet |url-status=live |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619044702/https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet/ |archive-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> == Kasandiro na ŵanthu == === Ndalama na ndondomeko === [[File:NASA-Budget-Federal.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|upright=1.4|Ndalama za NASA nga ni cigaŵa ca ndalama za boma la United States, zikufika pa 4.4% mu 1966, ndipo zikuchepa pang'ono-pang'ono kufuma apo|alt=wonani mazgu gha chithunzi]] Kuwovwira kasandiro na ndalama kanandi kukucitika mu nthowa yakukangana, apo mapulani gha kafukufuku ghakuyezgeka ndipo agho ghali na ukaboni wawemi pera ghakupokera ndalama. Nthowa izi, izo zikulongozgeka na boma, ma kampani, panji ma ''foundation'', zikugaŵa ndalama zichoko. Ndalama zose za kafukufuku mu vyaru vinandi vyakukula zili pakati pa 1.5% na 3% ya ''GDP''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |title=Main Science and Technology Indicators&nbsp;– 2008-1 |publisher=[[OECD]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215172528/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010}}</ref> Mu ''OECD'', pafupifupi magaŵa ghaŵiri pa ghatatu gha kafukufuku na kukuzga mu vigaŵa vya kasandiro na tekinoloji ghakucitika na ma fakitale, ndipo 20% na 10%, mwakuyana, ghakucitika na yunivesite na boma. Cigaŵa ca ndalama za boma mu vigaŵa vinyake ni chikuru, ndipo boma lili na ulongozgi wa kafukufuku wa tusandiro twa ŵanthu na vya cikolo (''humanities''). Mu vyaru vyambura kukula, boma likupereka ndalama zinandi za kafukufuku wawo wa muzu wa kasandiro.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |title=OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015: Innovation for growth and society |publisher=OECD |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-64-23978-4 |page=156 |doi=10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2015-en |via=oecd-ilibrary.org |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525063455/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |url-status=live}}</ref> Maboma ghanandi ghali na mabungwe ghakuwovwira kafukufuku wa kasandiro, nga ni ''National Science Foundation'' ku United States,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kevles |first=Daniel |year=1977 |title=The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942–1945 |journal=Isis |volume=68 |issue=241 |pages=4–26 |doi=10.1086/351711 |pmid=320157 |s2cid=32956693}}</ref> ''National Scientific and Technical Research Council'' ku Argentina,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Argentina, National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) |url=https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=International Science Council |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516220311/https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation'' ku Australia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Innis |first=Michelle |date=17 May 2016 |title=Australia to Lay Off Leading Scientist on Sea Levels |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507080237/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |archive-date=7 May 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> ''National Centre for Scientific Research'' ku France,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Le CNRS recherche 10.000 passionnés du blob |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=[[Le Figaro]] |language=fr |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427225305/https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Max Planck Society'' ku Germany,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bredow |first=Rafaela von |date=18 December 2021 |title=How a Prestigious Scientific Organization Came Under Suspicion of Treating Women Unequally |work=Der Spiegel |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |access-date=31 May 2022 |issn=2195-1349 |archive-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529004707/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |url-status=live}}</ref> na ''National Research Council'' ku Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 May 2022 |title=En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia |url=https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=EL MUNDO |language=es |archive-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513185034/https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu kafukufuku na kukuzga wa ma kampani, ma kampani ghose kweka agho ghakulingalira comene kafukufuku ghakulingalira comene nthowa zakusanga phindu la pafupi kuluska kafukufuku uwo ukulongozgeka na kukhumba kumanya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Anthony C. |last2=Bourne |first2=Philip E. |date=27 September 2012 |title=Ten Simple Rules To Commercialize Scientific Research |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |volume=8 |issue=9 |article-number=e1002712 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002712 |issn=1553-734X |pmc=3459878 |pmid=23028299 |bibcode=2012PLSCB...8E2712F |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ndondomeko za kasandiro (''science policy'') zikukwata ndondomeko izo zikukhwima kucitika kwa ntchito ya kasandiro, kusazgapo ndalama za kafukufuku, kanandi kuti zifikire vilato vinyake vya fuko nga ni kupanga vinthu vyapya vya tekinoloji kuti ziwovwire kupanga vinthu vya malonda, kupanga vilwero, umoyo, na kusunga kawiro. Nyengo zinyake ndondomeko za kasandiro zikung'anamura kugwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa kasandiro na kuyanirana mu kupanga ndondomeko za ŵanthu wose. Pakuti ndondomeko za ŵanthu wose zikulingalira umoyo wawemi wa ŵanthu ŵa fuko, cilato ca ndondomeko za kasandiro ni kuwona umo kasandiro na tekinoloji zingawovwirira ŵanthu mwawemi comene.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marburger |first=John Harmen III |title=Science policy up close |date=10 February 2015 |others=Crease, Robert P. |isbn=978-0-674-41709-0 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Ndondomeko za ŵanthu wose zingakhwaska mwakuwonekera ndalama za vipangizo na vyakuzenga vya maghanoghano vya kafukufuku wa ma fakitale mwakupereka vyakuvwira vya msonkho ku mabungwe agho ghakuwovwira kafukufuku.<ref name="Bush1945" /> === Chisambizo na kumanya === [[File:Dinosaur exhibit - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01881.JPG|thumb|upright=1.13|Chakulongora cha ''dinosaur'' mu ''Houston Museum of Natural Science'']] Chisambizo cha kasandiro cha ŵanthu wose chili mu ''curriculum'' ya vikolo, ndipo chikuwovwirika na vyakusambizga vya pa intaneti (nga ni YouTube na Khan Academy), malo gha vyakale (museums), na magazini na ma ''blog'' gha kasandiro. Mabungwe ghakuru gha ŵasandi nga ni ''American Association for the Advancement of Science'' (AAAS) ghakuwona tusandiro nga ni chigaŵa cha ''liberal arts'' ya kusambira, pamoza na filosofi na mbiri.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauch |first1=Hugh G. |title=Scientific Method in Brief |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-66672-6 |pages=7–10}}</ref> Kumanya kasandiro (''scientific literacy'') kukukhwaska comene kumanya nthowa ya kasandiro, ma ''unit'' na nthowa za kupima, ''empiricism'', kumanya kwa muzu kwa ''statistics'' (''correlations'', kuwona kwa ''qualitative'' na ''quantitative'', ''aggregate statistics''), na kumanya kwa muzu kwa vigaŵa vikuru vya kasandiro nga ni ''physics'', kemistri, ''biology'', ''ecology'', ''geology'', na kompyuta. Apo msambiri wakukura pa magawo gha pachanya gha chisambizo, ''curriculum'' yikuŵa yakuzamirika. Vyakusambira vyakale vyakukhwimika mu ''curriculum'' ni tusandiro twa kawiro na twa dango, nangauli kusintha kwa sono kukukhwaska tusandiro twa ŵanthu na twa kugwiriskira ntchito.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Benneworth |first1=Paul |last2=Jongbloed |first2=Ben W. |date=31 July 2009 |title=Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation |journal=Higher Education |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 |issn=0018-1560 |doi-access=free |url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024214150/https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Ma ''mass media'' ghali na masuzgo agho ghangaleka kulongora makora vyakukangana vya kasandiro mu ukaboni wawo mu gulu lose la ŵasandi. Kusankha kuti ni kuzito wuli wakupereka ku mbali zakupambana pa kukangana kwa kasandiro kungakhumba umanyi wanandi pa nkhani yeniyo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dickson |first=David |date=11 October 2004 |title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=Science and Development Network}}</ref> Ŵalemba nkhani ŵachoko ŵali na umanyi wanenesko wa kasandiro, ndipo ŵalemba nkhani awo ŵakumanya makora vya nkhani zinyake za kasandiro ŵangaŵa ŵambura kumanya nkhani zinyake izo ŵakukhumbikwa kulemba mwaluŵiro.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=Nov–Dec 2004 |title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |url-status=live |magazine=Columbia Journalism Review |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |archive-date=17 January 2010 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIlwaine |first1=S. |last2=Nguyen |first2=D. A. |year=2005 |title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science? |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Studies in Journalism |volume=14 |pages=41–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref> Magazini gha kasandiro nga ni ''New Scientist'', ''Science & Vie'', na ''Scientific American'' ghakwenerana na ŵawerengi ŵanandi comene ndipo ghakupereka ucidule wambula mazgu gha ukatswiri gha vigaŵa vya kafukufuku vyakukondweka, kusazgapo vyakusangika na kukula mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Webb |author-first=Sarah |title=Popular science: Get the word out |journal=Nature |volume=504 |issue=7478 |pages=177–179 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24312943 |doi=10.1038/nj7478-177a |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mtundu wa ''science fiction'', comene ''speculative fiction'', ungatumizga maghanoghano na nthowa za kasandiro ku ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilde |first=Fran |author-link=Fran Wilde (author) |date=21 January 2016 |title=How Do You Like Your Science Fiction? Ten Authors Weigh In On 'Hard' vs. 'Soft' SF |url=https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404025029/https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |archive-date=4 April 2019 |access-date=4 April 2019 |website=Tor.com}}</ref> Ntchito za sono gha kukuzga ubwezi pakati pa kasandiro na vigaŵa vyambura kuŵa kasandiro, nga ni mabuku panji ndakatulo, ghakukhwaska ''Creative Writing Science'' iyo yikapangika kwizira mu ''Royal Literary Fund''.<ref>{{cite web |first=Mario |last=Petrucci |url=http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |title=Creative Writing&nbsp;– Science |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106015539/http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |archive-date=6 January 2009}}</ref> === Maghanoghano ghakususka kasandiro === Nangauli nthowa ya kasandiro yikuzomerezgeka comene mu gulu la ŵasandi, magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghakukana vyakusankha vinyake vya kasandiro panji ghakukayikiska kasandiro. Nga ni, maghanoghano ghakuti COVID-19 yili kuopsa kukuru yayi ku umoyo ku US (ghakuŵa na 39% ya ŵaAmerica mu August 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tyson |first1=Alec |last2=Funk |first2=Cary |last3=Kennedy |first3=Brian |last4=Johnson |first4=Courtney |date=15 September 2021 |title=Majority in U.S. Says Public Health Benefits of COVID-19 Restrictions Worth the Costs, Even as Large Shares Also See Downsides |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center Science & Society |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809114234/https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |url-status=live}}</ref> panji cikhulupiro cakuti kusintha kwa nyengo (''climate change'') kuli kuopsa kukuru yayi ku US (cikuŵaso na 40% ya ŵaAmerica, pakumaliza kwa 2019 na kwamba kwa 2020).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Brian |title=U.S. concern about climate change is rising, but mainly among Democrats |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803101033/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasambiri ŵa ''psychology'' ŵalongora vifukwa vinandi vikupangiska kukana vyakuyezgeka vya kasandiro:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Philipp-Muller |first1=Aviva |last2=Lee |first2=Spike W. S. |last3=Petty |first3=Richard E. |date=26 July 2022 |title=Why are people antiscience, and what can we do about it? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=119 |issue=30 |article-number=e2120755119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120755119 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9335320 |pmid=35858405 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920755P}}</ref> * Ŵalongozgi ŵa kasandiro nyengo zinyake ŵakuwonekwa nga ni ŵambura umanyi, ŵambura kugomezgeka, panji ŵakupendelera. * Magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghasuzgika ghali na maghanoghano ghakususka kasandiro, mu mbali cifukwa magulu agha kaŵiri ghakagwiriskika mu kuyezgayezga kwambura ukwenere.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Test of Three Theories of Anti-Science Attitudes |year=2008 |doi=10.1080/00380237.2008.10571338 |last1=Gauchat |first1=Gordon William |journal=Sociological Focus |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=337–357 |s2cid=144645723}}</ref> * Mauthenga gha ŵasandi ghangakangana na vikhulupiro panji milandu yakuŵika makora. Maghanoghano ghakususka kasandiro kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ghakupangika na mantha gha kukanikwa mu magulu gha ŵanthu. Mwachiyelezgero, kusintha kwa nyengo kukuwonekwa nga ni kuopsa na 22% pera ya ŵaAmerica ŵa mbali ya kumalyero ya ndale, kweni na 85% ya ŵa mbali ya kumazere.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Poushter |first1=Jacob |last2=Fagan |first2=Moira |last3=Gubbala |first3=Sneha |date=31 August 2022 |title=Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |access-date=5 September 2022 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831225832/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ntheura, usange munthu wa kumazere wakuwona kuti kusintha kwa nyengo kuli kuopsa yayi, munthu uyu wangasuzgika na kunyozgeka na kukanikwa mu gulu ilo. Cenicenico, ŵanthu ŵangakana cinenesko ico kasandiro kasikizga kuluska kuluza panji kuvuska cikhazikiko cawo mu gulu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McRaney |first=David |title=How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion, and Persuasion |publisher=Portfolio/Penguin |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-593-19029-6 |location=New York}}</ref> === Ndale === [[File:2021 Survey on existence of global warming and responsibility for climate change - bar chart.svg|alt=Zakuyezgeka za mafumbo ghaŵiri ("Kodi kutentha kwa caro kukucitika?" na "Kodi ma kampani gha mafuta/gasi ghali na mulandu?"), zikulongora kupambana kukuru pakati pa ŵa Democrat na ŵa Republican ŵa America|thumb|Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa kutentha kwa caro ku United States kuyana na chipani cha ndale<ref>{{cite news |last1=McGreal |first1=Chris |date=26 October 2021 |title=Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026122356/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |archive-date=26 October 2021 |quote=Source: Guardian/Vice/CCN/YouGov poll. Note: ±4% margin of error.}}</ref>|upright=1.4]] Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa kasandiro kanandi ghakusankhika na maghanoghano na vyakukhumba vya ndale. Boma, ŵamalonda, na magulu ghakuwovwira ghaziŵika kugwiriskira ntchito kukakamizga kwa dango na ndalama kuti ghasinthe ŵafukufuku ŵa kasandiro. Vifukwa vinandi vingaŵa nga ni mbali za kuŵika kasandiro mu ndale, nga ni kukana ŵasambiri (''anti-intellectualism''), kuopa kuti vikhulupiro vya cisopo vingapusikizgika, na mantha gha phindu la ma kampani.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeanne |year=2017 |title=The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=34–39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |archive-date=16 August 2018 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> Kuŵika kasandiro mu ndale kanandi kukucitika apo mauthenga gha kasandiro ghakulongosoleka mu nthowa iyo yikugomezga kuti ukaboni wa kasandiro wali na kusasimikizgika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bolsen |first1=Toby |last2=Druckman |first2=James N. |author2-link=James N. Druckman |year=2015 |title=Counteracting the Politicization of Science |journal=Journal of Communication |issue=65 |page=746}}</ref> Nthowa nga ni kusintha nkhani, kukana kuvisikira vyanenesko, na kugwiriskira ntchito kukayika pa kuyanirana kwa ŵasandi zagwiriskika kuti ziwonjezge kutchera khutu ku maghanoghano agho ukaboni wa kasandiro wagakana.<ref name="Freudenberg2008">{{cite journal |last1=Freudenberg |first1=William F. |last2=Gramling |first2=Robert |last3=Davidson |first3=Debra J. |year=2008 |title=Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt |url=http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=2–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126214329/http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2020 |access-date=12 April 2020 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vyakucitika ivyo vikukhwaska kuŵika kasandiro mu ndale vikukhwaska kukangana pa kutentha kwa caro, vyakuopsa vya umoyo vya mankhwala gha kupha tuvinyama, na vyakuopsa vya umoyo vya fodya.<ref name="Freudenberg2008" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Linden |first1=Sander |last2=Leiserowitz |first2=Anthony |last3=Rosenthal |first3=Seth |last4=Maibach |first4=Edward |year=2017 |title=Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/270860/1/global%20challenges.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Global Challenges |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=1 |doi=10.1002/gch2.201600008 |doi-access=free |pmc=6607159 |pmid=31565263 |bibcode=2017GloCh...100008V |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404185312/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/270860/global%20challenges.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=4 April 2020 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> === Masuzgo === ''Replication crisis'' ni suzgo likuru ilo likuphatika mbali zinyake za kasandiro, apo vyakuyezgeka vya cigaŵa ca kafukufuku vyalongora kuti vyambura kubwerezgeka.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1038/515009a |title=Metascience could rescue the 'replication crisis' |journal=Nature |volume=515 |issue=7525 |page=9 |year=2014 |last1=Schooler |first1=J. W. |pmid=25373639 |bibcode=2014Natur.515....9S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Suzgo ili lili na mizu ya kale; lizgu ili likapangika kwamba kwa 2010 nga ni mbali ya kumanya suzgo ili kukura.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1177/1745691612465253 |title=Editors' Introduction to the Special Section on Replicability in Psychological Science: A Crisis of Confidence? |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=528–530 |year=2012 |last1=Pashler |first1=Harold |last2=Wagenmakers |first2=Eric Jan |pmid=26168108 |s2cid=26361121 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kafukufuku wa kubwerezga wa 2026 wakasanga kuti kubwerezgeka kwa vyakuyezgeka kuli kwacoko mu tusandiro twa ŵanthu na twa makhaliro (business, ''economics'', chisambizo, ''political science'', ''psychology'' na ''sociology'').<ref name="c901">{{cite journal | last1=Tyner | first1=Andrew H. | last2=Abatayo | first2=Anna Lou | last3=Daley | first3=Mason | last4=Field | first4=Samuel | last5=Fox | first5=Nicholas | title=Investigating the replicability of the social and behavioural sciences | journal=Nature | volume=652 | issue=8108 | date=2026-04-01 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/s41586-025-10078-y | pages=143–150 |display-authors=1 | pmid=41922700 | bibcode=2026Natur.652..143T | url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/1fa174e4-3f91-489f-aa67-c0cccf90c5ba }}</ref> ''Replication crisis'' yikuŵa chigaŵa chikuru cha kafukufuku mu ''metascience'', iyo yikulingalira kukuzga ukwenere na ukoma wa kafukufuku wa kasandiro na kucepeska kutaya ndalama na ntchito.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ioannidis |first1=John P. A. |last2=Fanelli |first2=Daniele |last3=Dunne |first3=Debbie Drake |last4=Goodman |first4=Steven N. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Meta-research: Evaluation and Improvement of Research Methods and Practices |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=–1002264 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002264 |pmid=26431313 |pmc=4592065 |issn=1545-7885 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kubwerezgeka kwacoko kwa kasandiro kungacepeska kuzomerezgeka kwake.<ref name="f898">{{cite journal | last1=Peels | first1=Rik | last2=Bouter | first2=Lex | title=Replication and trustworthiness | journal=Accountability in Research | volume=30 | issue=2 | date=2023 | issn=0898-9621 | doi=10.1080/08989621.2021.1963708 | pages=77–87 | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08989621.2021.1963708 | access-date=2026-08-20}}</ref> Mazgu ghakuti ''scientific misconduct'' ghakukwata nyengo apo ŵafukufuku ŵali kulongora mwakusankha vyakuyezgeka vyawo vyatenderezgeka mwakubudika panji kupereka ulemu wa cakupanga kwa munthu wakubudika mwakusankha.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Coping with fraud |journal=The COPE Report 1999 |pages=11–18 |url=http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151119/http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |quote=It is 10 years, to the month, since Stephen Lock&nbsp;... Reproduced with kind permission of the Editor, The Lancet. |archive-date=28 September 2007 |url-status=usurped |access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> Chigaŵa cha kusanda panji kughanaghana icho chikuyeghesa kuŵa kasandiro kuti chisange ulemu uwo chingasange chambura ici, nyengo zinyake chikucemeka ''pseudoscience'', ''fringe science'', panji ''junk science''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science |title=Science and Pseudoscience |at=Section 2: The "science" of pseudoscience |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first1=Sven Ove |last1=Hansson |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |date=3 September 2008 |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029205141/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shermer |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Shermer |year=1997 |title=Why people believe weird things: pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965594875 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Co. |isbn=978-0-7167-3090-3 |page=17}}</ref> Msandi wa ''physics'' Richard Feynman wakapanga lizgu "''cargo cult science''" ku vyakucitika apo ŵafukufuku ŵakukhulupira, ndipo pakuwona kwa cokha ŵakuwoneka nga ŵakucita kasandiro, kweni ŵambula uneneski wakuleka kuti vyakuyezgeka vyawo vipimike makora.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |title=Cargo Cult Science |last=Feynman |first=Richard |year=1974 |website=Center for Theoretical Neuroscience |publisher=Columbia University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050304032544/http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |archive-date=4 March 2005 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> Mitundu yakupambanapambana ya malonda gha kutumizga, kufuma pa kudikizga kufikira pa vigeŵa, ingaŵa mu magulu agha. Kasandiro kali kulongosoleka nga ni "cipangizo cikuru comene" ca kupambanisha vyakulongosora vyanenesko na vyambura kuŵa vyanenesko.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novella |first=Steven |title=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake |title-link=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book) |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4736-9641-9 |page=162 |author-link=Steven Novella}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake, kafukufuku ungaŵa wa maghanoghano ghawemi kweni wakusuzga, wakale, wambura kukwana, panji wakulongosora kasandiro mwacoko comene. Ufulu wa cisambizo ungacepeskeka na kuletsa kasandiro kuyendera maboma, mabungwe, ŵasandi ŵanyake, panji kujizizika.<ref name="h812">{{cite journal | last1=Clark | first1=Cory J. | last2=Jussim | first2=Lee | last3=Frey | first3=Komi | last4=Stevens | first4=Sean T. | last5=al-Gharbi | first5=Musa | last6=Aquino | first6=Karl | last7=Bailey | first7=J. Michael | last8=Barbaro | first8=Nicole | last9=Baumeister | first9=Roy F. | last10=Bleske-Rechek | first10=April | last11=Buss | first11=David | last12=Ceci | first12=Stephen | last13=Del Giudice | first13=Marco | last14=Ditto | first14=Peter H. | last15=Forgas | first15=Joseph P. | last16=Geary | first16=David C. | last17=Geher | first17=Glenn | last18=Haider | first18=Sarah | last19=Honeycutt | first19=Nathan | last20=Joshi | first20=Hrishikesh | last21=Krylov | first21=Anna I. | last22=Loftus | first22=Elizabeth | last23=Loury | first23=Glenn | last24=Lu | first24=Louise | last25=Macy | first25=Michael | last26=Martin | first26=Chris C. | last27=McWhorter | first27=John | last28=Miller | first28=Geoffrey | last29=Paresky | first29=Pamela | last30=Pinker | first30=Steven | last31=Reilly | first31=Wilfred | last32=Salmon | first32=Catherine | last33=Stewart-Williams | first33=Steve | last34=Tetlock | first34=Philip E. | last35=Williams | first35=Wendy M. | last36=Wilson | first36=Anne E. | last37=Winegard | first37=Bo M. | last38=Yancey | first38=George | last39=von Hippel | first39=William | title=Prosocial motives underlie scientific censorship by scientists: A perspective and research agenda | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=120 | issue=48 | date=2023 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.2301642120 | article-number=e2301642120 | doi-access=free | pmid=37983511 | pmc=10691350 | bibcode=2023PNAS..12001642C }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵasangika kuti ŵakukhizga kuletsa kasandiro na kuleka kuvulaza.<ref name="h812"/> Kungaŵaso ukondelero wa ndale panji ukondelero wa maghanoghano mu kasandiro. Ŵasandi mu vyaru vinyake ŵasangika kuti ŵali na ukondelero mu kusankha vipani vya ndale kuluska ŵanthu wose.<ref name="y499">{{cite journal | last1=Duarte | first1=José L. | last2=Crawford | first2=Jarret T. | last3=Stern | first3=Charlotta | last4=Haidt | first4=Jonathan | last5=Jussim | first5=Lee | last6=Tetlock | first6=Philip E. | title=Political diversity will improve social psychological science | journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume=38 | date=2015 | issn=0140-525X | doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000430 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0140525X14000430/type/journal_article | access-date=2026-02-12 | article-number=e130 | pmid=25036715 }}</ref> Ukondelero wa ndale wa chigaŵa cha kasandiro ungasintha ndipo ungalongosoleka na kukhwimana kwa chigaŵa na kawiro kake na ukondelero wa kujisankhira.<ref name="d253">{{cite journal | last=Manzi | first=James | title=The ideological orientation of academic social science research 1960–2024 | journal=Theory and Society | volume=55 | issue=2 | date=2026 | issn=0304-2421 | doi=10.1007/s11186-026-09690-2 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11186-026-09690-2 | access-date=2026-07-01 | article-number=25 }}</ref> Kulimbikira kwa kasandiro uko kukuphatikizgika na kuwovwira ndale kungacepeska kuzomerezgeka kwa kasandiro.<ref name="h639">{{cite journal | last1=Kallergi | first1=Amalia | last2=Landeweerd | first2=Laurens | title=Science, Activism, and Climate Action: Navigating Credibility, Responsibility, and Engagement | journal=[[Journal of Academic Ethics]] | volume=23 | issue=4 | date=2025 | issn=1570-1727 | doi=10.1007/s10805-025-09626-y | pages=1759–1779 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10805-025-09626-y | access-date=2026-06-24}}</ref> == Wonaninso == * ''List of scientific occupations'' * ''List of years in science'' == Zindikiro == {{notelist}} == Vyakusazgirapo == {{Reflist}} == Maulalo gha kunja == * Lizgu ''science'' mu Wiktionary [[Category:Kasandiro| ]] elvvqwagrgap77n0od3h5epxxio157x 123291 123290 2026-10-17T06:52:50Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Anthonymunthali44 moved page [[Usanthuro]] to [[Kasandiro]] 123290 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kasandiro''' (''science'') ni sambiro lakukhazikika ilo likuzenga na kunozga umanyi mu nthowa ya vyakulongosora vyakuyezgeka vya kawiro (''nature'') na ŵanthu (''society'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=E. O. |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135 |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |publisher=Vintage |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8 |edition=Reprint |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55 49]–71 |chapter=The natural sciences |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{rp|pp=49–71}}<ref name="Heilbron2003">{{cite book |last=Heilbron |first=J. L. |author-link=J. L. Heilbron |title=The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-511229-0 |location=New York |pages=vii–x |chapter=Preface |quote=...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions. |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Kasandiro kakulongozgeka na ''nthowa ya kasandiro'' (''scientific method''): cizungulizo cha ukaboni (''empirical cycle'') uwo kanandi ukusazgapo kuwona vinthu, kupanga ''hypotheses'', kuviyezga na ukaboni, na kufika pa vyakumalizira. Kasandiro kakukhwaska nthowa iyi na thupi la umanyi ilo kakupanga, ilo ŵasandi (''scientists'') ŵakuyezga, kukhozgera, na kunozga nyengo zose. Kanandi kasandiro ka sono kakugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikuru:<ref name="Cohen2021">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Eliel |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |title=The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-56298-4 |location=New York |pages=14–41 |chapter=The boundary lens: theorising academic activity |access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |url-status=live}}</ref> tusandiro twa kawiro (''natural sciences''), utwu tukusanda caro ca vinthu vyakuwoneka, na tusandiro twa ŵanthu (''social sciences''), utwu tukusanda ŵanthu paŵekha na magulu gha ŵanthu (''individuals'' na ''societies'').<ref name="Colander2019">{{cite book |last1=Colander |first1=David C. |title=Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society |last2=Hunt |first2=Elgin F. |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |edition=17th |location=New York |pages=1–22 |chapter=Social science and its methods}}</ref><ref name="Nisbet2020">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Social Science |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |access-date=9 May 2021 |date=16 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202193947/https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |archive-date=2 February 2022 |last2=Greenfeld |first2=Liah |last1=Nisbet |first1=Robert A. |url-status=live}}</ref> Nangauli masamu, ''logic'', na ''theoretical computer science'' vikucemeka tusandiro twa dango (''formal sciences''), kanandi vikuwonekera kuti ni vyakupatuka cifukwa vikuthemba pa kughanaghana kwakufumira pa vyakukwana (''deductive reasoning'') m'malo mwa nthowa ya kasandiro nga ni nthowa yawo yikuru.<ref name="Kluwer">{{cite book |last1=Bishop |first1=Alan |title=Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education |publisher=Kluwer |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7923-1270-3 |location=Norwell, MA |pages=20–59 |chapter=Environmental activities and mathematical culture |access-date=24 March 2018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref><ref name="Fetzer2013">{{cite book |last1=Fetzer |first1=James H. |title=Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines |publisher=Kluwer |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4438-1946-6 |location=Newcastle, United Kingdom |pages=271–308 |chapter=Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nickles |first1=Thomas |title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |page=104 |chapter=The Problem of Demarcation}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyi, tusandiro twakugwiriskira ntchito (''applied sciences'') ni vigaŵa ivyo vikugwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa kasandiro pa vyakukhumbikwa vya zuŵa na zuŵa, nga ni uinjiniya (''engineering'') na munkhwala (''medicine'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=M. R. |last2=Fabry |first2=G |year=2014 |title=Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education |journal=GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=Doc24 |doi=10.3205/zma000916 |pmc=4027809 |pmid=24872859}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sinclair |first=Marius |year=1993 |title=On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods |url=https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |url-status=live |journal=The International Journal of Engineering Education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |archive-date=15 November 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966">{{Cite book |last=Bunge |first=M. |title=Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology |publisher=Springer |year=1966 |isbn=978-94-010-2184-5 |editor-last=Rapp |editor-first=F. |location=Dordrecht |pages=19–39 |chapter=Technology as Applied Science |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 |s2cid=110332727}}</ref> Mbiri ya kasandiro yikukwata nyengo yitali ya mbiri ya ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakwamba kumanyikwa kuti ŵakaŵako pambere kasandiro ka sono kandazengeke ŵakaŵako mu Nyengo ya Mkuŵa (''Bronze Age'') ku Egypt na Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE). Ivyo ŵakapereka pa masamu, vya kuthambo (''astronomy''), na munkhwala vikanjira mu ukaghanaghani wa Ŵagiriki wa kawiro (''natural philosophy'') wa nyengo yakale (''classical antiquity'') na pamanyuma mu masambiro gha nyengo ya pakati (''medieval scholarship''), apo ŵakayezgayezga mwakukhazikika kupereka vyakulongosora vya ivyo vikucitika mu caro cakuwoneka kwizira mu vifukwa vya kawiro; kupita panthazi kwinaku, kusazgapo kwamba kwa nthowa ya manambala gha Ŵahindu na Ŵarabu (''Hindu–Arabic numeral system''), kukacitika mu Nyengo ya Golide ya India (''Golden Age of India'') na mu Nyengo ya Golide ya Ŵaislamu (''Islamic Golden Age'').<ref name="Lindberg2007">{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{rp|p=12}}<ref name="Grant2007a">{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |location=New York }}</ref>{{rp|pp=1–26}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ Building Bridges Among the BRICs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081025/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ |date=18 April 2023 }}, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 |title=India: A history |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 132] |quote=The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden. |author-link=John Keay}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=163–192}} Kubwezgera na kutora ntchito za Ŵagiriki na ivyo ŵaislamu ŵakasanda ku Ulaya wa Kumadazi (''Western Europe'') mu nyengo ya ''Renaissance'' kukawuskapo ukaghanaghani wa kawiro,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=193–224, 225–253}}<ref>Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything+we+would+today+call+science+came+through+Islam%22&pg=PA80 Pages 80–81] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240827070053/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything%20we%20would%20today%20call%20science%20came%20through%20Islam%22&pg=PA80 |date=27 August 2024 }}. Retrieved 6 October 2023.</ref> uwo pamanyuma ukasinthika na Kusintha kwa Kasandiro (''Scientific Revolution'') kuko kukayamba mu zana la myaka la 16<ref>{{cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |location=New York |pages=1–3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> apo maghanoghano na vyakusanga vyapya vikapatuka na vyakughanaghana na mitheto ya Ŵagiriki.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=357–368}}<ref name="Grant2007a" />{{rp|pp=274–322}} Nthowa ya kasandiro yikamba kugwira ntchito yikuru mu kusanga umanyi, ndipo mu zana la myaka la 19, vinandi vya vyakukhazikika vya mabungwe na ntchito vya kasandiro vikamba kuwonekera,<ref>{{cite book |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-08928-7 |editor1-last=Cahan |editor1-first=David}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |page=367 |chapter=13. Science and the Public |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter}}</ref> ndipo "ukaghanaghani wa kawiro" (''natural philosophy'') ukasintha kuŵa "kasandiro ka kawiro" (''natural science'').<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |year=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18451-7 |pages=164–165 |quote=The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life. |author-link1=Peter Harrison (historian)}}</ref> Umanyi wapya mu kasandiro ukuluta panthazi cifukwa ca kafukufuku wa ŵasandi awo ŵakusuzgika na kukhumba kumanya caro na khumbo la kuthana masuzgo.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacRitchie |first=Finlay |url=https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |title=Scientific Research as a Career |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4398-6965-9 |location=New York |pages=1–6 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505074020/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marder |first=Michael P. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |title=Research Methods for Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-14584-8 |location=New York |pages=1–17 |chapter=Curiosity and research |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505001547/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |url-status=live}}</ref> Kafukufuku wa kasandiro wa sono kanandi wakukolerana comene ndipo kanandi wakucitika na magulu mu mabungwe gha masambiro na kafukufuku (''research institutions''),<ref>{{cite book |last=de Ridder |first=Jeroen |url=https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |title=What is Scientific Knowledge? An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-138-57016-0 |editor-last1=McCain |editor-first1=Kevin |location=New York |pages=3–17 |chapter=How many scientists does it take to have knowledge? |access-date=5 May 2021 |editor-last2=Kampourakis |editor-first2=Kostas |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505044353/https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 |url-status=live}}</ref> mabungwe gha boma,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=163–192}} na ma kampani.<ref>{{cite book |last=Szycher |first=Michael |url=https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |title=Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-40741-1 |location=New York |pages=159–176 |chapter=Establishing your dream team |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818032914/https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, vinthu vinandi vikuru ivyo vyacitika—comene mu kasandiro ka muzu (''fundamental science'')—vyafuma kwa ŵasandi paŵekha ndipo vikumanyikwa comene kwizira mu mphoto zikuru za pa caro cose nga ni Mphoto ya Nobel (''Nobel Prize''). Ivyo vikucitika cifukwa ca ntchito ya kasandiro vyapangiska kuti paŵe ndondomeko za kasandiro (''science policies'') izo zikukhumba kuŵika pakwamba kupanga vinthu vya malonda mwakwenelera, kusunga umoyo wa ŵanthu, kuzenga vinthu vya boma, kuvikilira kawiro, na kujivikilira. == Kufuma kwa lizgu == Lizgu ''science'' lagwiriskika ntchito mu Cingelezi kufuma mu zana la myaka la 14 (Cingelezi ca Pakati) mu ng'anamuro la "mkhaliro wa kumanya". Lizgu ili likabwereka kufuma ku Anglo-Norman nga ni suffix ''-cience'', iyo yikabwereka kufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini ''scientia'', ilo likung'anamura "umanyi, kumanya, kupulikiska", dazina lakufuma ku ''sciens'' ilo likung'anamura "kumanya", ilo mwene lizgu ilo likugwira ntchito sono la ''sciō'' "kumanya".<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Science |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |access-date=16 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901035713/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |archive-date=1 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pali vigomezgo vinandi vyakuti lizgu ''science'' likafuma kwakwamba. Kuyana na Michiel de Vaan, msambiri wa viyowoyero wa ku Netherlands, ''sciō'' yingaŵa kuti yikafuma mu chiyowoyero cha Proto-Italic nga ni ''*skije-'' panji ''*skijo-'' icho chikung'anamura "kumanya", icho chingaŵa kuti chikafuma ku Proto-Indo-European nga ni ''skh₁-ie'', ''skh₁-io'' icho chikung'anamura "kucheka". Buku la ''Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben'' likuyowoya kuti ''sciō'' ni lizgu lakupangika kufuma ku ''nescīre'', ilo likung'anamura "kuleka kumanya, kuŵa wambula kumanyikwa na", ilo lingafuma ku Proto-Indo-European ''sekH-'' mu Cilatini ''secāre'', panji ''skh₂-'' kufuma ku ''sḱʰeh2(i)-'' ilo likung'anamura "kucheka".<ref>{{Cite dictionary |year=2008 |title=sciō |dictionary=Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/m-de-vaan-2008-etymological-dictionary-of-latin-and-the-other-italic-languages/page/544/ |last=Vaan |first=Michiel de |author-link=Michiel de Vaan |series=[[Indo-European Etymological Dictionary]] |page=545 |isbn=978-90-04-16797-1}}</ref> Kale, kasandiro kakaŵa lizgu lakuyana waka na "umanyi" panji "kusambira", mwakukolerana na chiyambi chake cha Cilatini. Munthu uyo wakacitanga kafukufuku wa kasandiro wakacemekanga "msambiri wa kawiro" (''natural philosopher'') panji "munthu wa kasandiro".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cahan |first=David |title=From natural philosophy to the sciences: writing the history of nineteenth-century science |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-08927-4 |pages=3–15}}</ref> Mu 1834, William Whewell wakayambiska lizgu ''scientist'' (msandi) apo wakawoneseskanga buku la Mary Somerville ''On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ross |first=Sydney |year=1962 |title=Scientist: The story of a word |journal=[[Annals of Science]] |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=65–85 |doi=10.1080/00033796200202722 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ndipo wakayowoya kuti lizgu ili likalembeka na "munthu munyake wavinjeru" (panji iyo mwekha).<ref>{{cite OED|scientist}}</ref> == Mbiri == === Mbiri ya kwamba<span class="anchor" id="Earliest roots"></span> === [[File:Megaliths Aswan Nubia museum.JPG|left|thumb|Mabwe ghakuru ghakufuma ku Nabta Playa, ghakapangika na ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo ya Neolithic kuti ŵalongozge vyakuwonera vya mu mlengalenga. Ghali ku Aswan, ku Egypt wa Kumpoto.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |page=107 |language=en}}</ref>]] [[File:Plimpton 322.jpg|thumb|Chiphapha cha dongo cha Plimpton 322 icho Ŵababuloni ŵakalemba chikulembapo ''Pythagorean triples'', chakulembeka c. 1800 BCE|alt=Chiphapha cha dongo chinalembeka, mizati yitatu ya manambala na umoza wa manambala gha mu nyengo]] Kasandiro kalije na chiyambi chimoza chekha. M'malo mwake, kughanaghana kwa kasandiro kukawoneka pang'ono-pang'ono mu myaka yakukwana vikwi vinandi,<ref>{{Citation |last=Carruthers |first=Peter |chapter=The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking |date=2 May 2002 |title=The Cognitive Basis of Science |pages=73–96 |editor-last=Carruthers |editor-first=Peter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511613517.005 |isbn=978-0-521-81229-0 |editor2-last=Stich |editor2-first=Stephen |editor3-last=Siegal |editor3-first=Michael}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lombard |first1=Marlize |last2=Gärdenfors |first2=Peter |year=2017 |title=Tracking the Evolution of Causal Cognition in Humans |journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences |volume=95 |issue=95 |pages=219–234 |doi=10.4436/JASS.95006 |pmid=28489015 |issn=1827-4765}}</ref> kukaŵa na mitundu yakupambanapambana pa caro cose, ndipo ni vichoko waka ivyo vikumanyikwa pa ivyo vikacitika pakwamba comene. Ŵanakazi ŵakwenera kuti ŵakawovwiranga comene pa kasandiro ka nyengo ya pambere kulemba,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graeber |first1=David |last2=Wengrow |first2=David |author-link1=David Graeber |author-link2=David Wengrow |year=2021 |title=The Dawn of Everything |title-link=The Dawn of Everything |page=248}}</ref> nga umo vikaŵira na mitheto ya cisopo.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Faerie Smith Meets the Bronze Industry: Magic Versus Science in the Interpretation of Prehistoric Metal-Making |jstor=124782 |last1=Budd |first1=Paul |last2=Taylor |first2=Timothy |journal=World Archaeology |year=1995 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=133–143 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1995.9980297 |bibcode=1995WoArc..27..133B }}</ref> Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵakugwiriskira ntchito lizgu "''protoscience''" kulemba milimo yakale iyo yikuyana na kasandiro ka sono mu vinyake kweni vyose yayi;<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuomela |first=Raimo |year=1987 |chapter=Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience |editor-last1=Pitt |editor-first1=J. C. |editor-last2=Pera |editor-first2=M. |title=Rational Changes in Science |series=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |volume=98 |pages=83–101 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6_4 |isbn=978-94-010-8181-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/599864 |first=Pamela H. |last=Smith |title=Science on the Move: Recent Trends in the History of Early Modern Science |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |volume=62 |number=2 |year=2009 |pages=345–375 |pmid=19750597 |s2cid=43643053}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fleck |first=Robert |date=March 2021 |title=Fundamental Themes in Physics from the History of Art |journal=Physics in Perspective |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=25–48 |doi=10.1007/s00016-020-00269-7 |bibcode=2021PhP....23...25F |s2cid=253597172 |issn=1422-6944 |doi-access=free}}</ref> kweni lizgu ili lasuskikaso kuti likuyuyura,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Scott |first=Colin |encyclopedia=The Postcolonial Science and Technology Studies Reader |title=Science for the West, Myth for the Rest? |chapter=The Case of James Bay Cree Knowledge Construction |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham, NC |editor-last=Harding |editor-first=Sandra |isbn=978-0-8223-4936-5 |year=2011 |pages=175–197 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv11g96cc.16 |jstor=j.ctv11g96cc.16}}</ref> panji kuti likulongora comene ''presentism'', kughanaghana vya milimo yila pakukhwaskana na vigaŵa vya sono pera.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/007327531205000203 |first=Peter |last=Dear |title=Historiography of Not-So-Recent Science |journal=History of Science |volume=50 |number=2 |year=2012 |pages=197–211 |s2cid=141599452}}</ref> Ukaboni wakuwonekera wa nthowa za kasandiro ukuŵa wakukhazikika na kufika kwa nthowa zakulembera (''writing systems'') mu vikolo vya Nyengo ya Mkuŵa ku Egypt wakale na Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE), ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe mabuku ghakwamba ghakulembeka mu mbiri ya kasandiro.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=12–15}}<ref name="Grant2007a" /> Nangauli mazgu na maghanoghano gha "kasandiro" na "kawiro" ghakaŵa mbali ya maghanoghano yayi pa nyengo yila, Ŵaegypt ŵakale na Ŵamesopotamia ŵakapereka vyawanangwa ivyo pamanyuma vikasanga malo mu kasandiro ka Ŵagiriki na ka nyengo ya pakati: masamu, vya kuthambo, na munkhwala.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rochberg |first1=Francesca |author-link=Francesca Rochberg |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=9 |chapter=Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=12}} Kufuma mu vikwi viwiri BCE, Ŵaegypt ŵakale ŵakapanga nthowa ya kuŵerenga manambala ya khumi yambula malo (''non-positional decimal numbering system''),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32433-8 |page=127}}</ref> ŵakamazga masuzgo gha zuŵa na zuŵa mwakugwiriskira ntchito ''geometry'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlich |first1=Ḥaggai |author-link=Haggai Erlich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&q=egyptian%20geometry%20Nile&pg=PA80 |title=The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths |last2=Gershoni |first2=Israel |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner |isbn=978-1-55587-672-2 |pages=80–81 |quote=The Nile occupied an important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to disappear." |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref> ndipo ŵakapanga kalendara.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Telling Time in Ancient Egypt |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |date=February 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303133140/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa zawo zakuchizgira zikaŵa zakukhwaskana na munkhwala wakuzweteska na vinthu vya kutali na kuwoneka, nga ni mapemphero, malurombo, na mitheto.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=9}} Ŵanubia ŵakale ŵakambiska munkhwala wakukoma tuvilombo (''antibiotics'') ndipo ŵakakhazikiska ndondomeko ya malango gha ''geometry'' agho ghakaŵa muzu wa mawotchi ghakwamba gha zuŵa (''sundials''). Ŵanubia nawo ŵakagwiriskiranga ntchito nthowa ya ''trigonometry'' yakuyana waka na ya Ŵaegypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Armelagos, George |date=2000 |title=Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians |url=https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/482bd90a-de71-49b3-9bbc-d8ff0ab974b3 |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |issue=5 |pages=50–3 |s2cid=89542474}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry|first=Leo|last=Depuydt|date=1 January 1998|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=84|pages=171–180|doi=10.2307/3822211|jstor=3822211}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|title=Neolithic Skywatchers|date=27 May 1998|first=Andrew|last=Slayman|website=Archaeology Magazine Archive|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234044/http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|archive-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&q=nubia&pg=PA744|title=A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy|last=Neugebauer|first=O.|date=2004-09-17|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-06995-9|language=en}}</ref> Ŵamesopotamia ŵakale ŵakagwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa vikaŵa vya vinthu vya kawiro kuti ŵapange viŵiya vya dongo, ''faience'', galasi, sopo, vyuma, ''lime plaster'', na vyakuvikilira maji.<ref name="McIntosh2005">{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane R. |author-link=Jane McIntosh |title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-57607-966-9 |pages=273–276 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵakasanda umoyo wa vinyama, thupi lawo, nkharo yawo, na nyenyezi (''astrology'') kuti ŵalote.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |last=Aaboe |first=Asger |author-link=Asger Aaboe |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=2 May 1974 |pages=21–42 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |jstor=74272 |s2cid=122508567}}</ref> Ŵamesopotamia ŵakatemwanga comene munkhwala, ndipo malembo ghakwamba gha munkhwala ghakawoneka mu Cisumeri (''Sumerian'') mu nyengo ya ''Third Dynasty of Ur''.<ref name="McIntosh2005" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia |first=R. D. |last=Biggs |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2005 |pages=7–18}}</ref> Vikuwoneka kuti ŵakasanda vyakukhwaskana na kasandiro ivyo vikaŵa na ntchito panji vya cisopo, ndipo ŵakaŵa na kukhumba kuchoko kwa kukhorweska khumbo la kumanya vinandi.<ref name="McIntosh2005" /> === Nyengo yakale ya Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma === [[File:MANNapoli 124545 plato's academy mosaic.jpg|thumb|Chithunzi cha ''mosaic'' cha Plato's Academy, chakupangika pakati pa 100 BCE na 79 CE, chikulongora ŵakaghanaghani na ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵa Ŵagiriki.|alt=Chithunzi cha ''mosaic'' chakuzingilizgika na chimiti, cha ŵakaghanaghani ŵakugumana na kukambirana]] Mu nyengo yakale (''classical antiquity''), kukaŵavya munthu uyo wakayana na msandi wa sono. M'malo mwake, ŵanthu ŵakasambira makora, kanandi ŵapachanya, na pafupifupi ŵanalume wose, ŵakacitanga kafukufuku wakupambanapambana wakukhwaskana na kawiro nyengo yiliyose para ŵangakwaniska.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehoux |first1=Daryn |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=39 |chapter=2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World}}</ref> Pambere ukaghanaghani wa ''phusis'' panji kawiro uyo yindapangike panji kusangika na ŵakaghanaghani ŵa pambere Socrates (''pre-Socratic philosophers''), mazgu ghamoza agha ghakatemwa kugwiriskika ntchito kulongosora "nthowa" ya kawiro iyo mbuto yikukulira,<ref>An account of the pre-Socratic use of the concept of φύσις may be found in {{cite book |last=Naddaf |first=Gerard |year=2006 |title=The Greek Concept of Nature |publisher=SUNY Press |postscript=,}} and in {{cite journal |last1=Ducarme |first1=Frédéric |last2=Couvet |first2=Denis |year=2020 |title=What does 'nature' mean? |journal=[[Palgrave Communications]] |volume=6 |issue=14 |article-number=14 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |doi=10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816053756/https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |url-status=live}} The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word ''nature'' is used, as confirmed by {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus |postscript=none}} (volume 2 of his ''History of Greek Philosophy''), Cambridge University Press, 1965.</ref> na "nthowa" iyo, mwachiyelezgero, fuko linyake likusopa ciuta munyake. Pa chifukwa ichi, ŵakuti ŵanalume aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakaghanaghani ŵakwamba mu ng'anamuro lakukhora ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kupambaniska makora "kawiro" na "mwambo".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Strauss |first1=Leo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpx2j0TumyIC |title=An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss |last2=Gildin |first2=Hilail |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8143-1902-4 |chapter=Progress or Return? The Contemporary Crisis in Western Education |year=1989 |access-date=30 May 2022 |page=209}}</ref> Ŵakaghanaghani ŵakwambilira ŵa Ŵagiriki ŵa sukulu ya Miletus, iyo yikakhazikiska Thales wa ku Miletus ndipo pamanyuma yikalutilira na awo ŵakamulondezga Anaximander na Anaximenes, ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuyezga kulongosora vinthu vya kawiro kwambura kuthemba pa vinthu vyambura kumanyikwa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Grady |first1=Patricia F. |author-link=Patricia O'Grady |title=Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7546-0533-1 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&q=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist&pg=PA245 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵapythagoras (''Pythagoreans'') ŵakapanga ukaghanaghani wa manambala ghakusuzga<ref name="Burkert1972">{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1}}</ref>{{rp|467–468}} ndipo ŵakawovwira comene pa kukura kwa kasandiro ka masamu.<ref name="Burkert1972" />{{rp|465}} Ukaghanaghani wa ''atoms'' ukapangika na msambiri wa Chigiriki Leucippus na ndiyo wake Democritus.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pullman |first1=Bernard |title=The Atom in the History of Human Thought |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-515040-7 |pages=31–33 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56 |bibcode=1998ahht.book.....P |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=Henri |editor2-last=Lefebvre |editor2-first=Claire |title=Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science |year=2017 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-08-101107-2 |page=427 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA427 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pamanyuma, Epicurus wakapanga ukaghanaghani wakukwana wa caro cose wakuthemba pa ''atomism'', ndipo wakazomera "canon" (muyezo) uwo wakakhazikiska vyakuwoneka panji vipimo vya unenesko wa kasandiro.<ref>[[Lucretius]] ({{floruit}}1st century&nbsp;BCE) {{lang|la|[[De rerum natura]]}}.</ref> Ng'anga ya Chigiriki Hippocrates wakakhazikiska mwambo wa kasandiro ka munkhwala kakukhazikika<ref>{{cite book |last=Margotta |first=Roberto |year=1968 |title=The Story of Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrAAAAMAAJ |location=New York |publisher=[[Golden Press]] |access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Touwaide |first1=Alain |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |year=2005 |editor1-last=Glick |editor1-first=Thomas F. |editor2-last=Livesey |editor2-first=Steven |editor3-last=Wallis |editor3-first=Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-96930-7 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=Hippocrates+medical+science&pg=PA224 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti "Adada wa Munkhwala" (''The Father of Medicine'').<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leff |first1=Samuel |last2=Leff |first2=Vera |year=1956 |title=From Witchcraft to World Health |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjNrAAAAMAAJ |location=London |publisher=Macmillan |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref> Chinthu chinyake icho chikasintha comene mbiri ya kasandiro ka ŵakaghanaghani ŵakwambilira chikaŵa chiyelezgero cha Socrates cha kugwiriskira ntchito ukaghanaghani pa kusambira vinthu vya ŵanthu, kusazgapo kawiro ka munthu, kawiro ka magulu gha boma, na umanyi wa ŵanthu wekha. Nthowa ya Socrates (''Socratic method'') nga umo yikulembekera mu mazgu gha Plato ni nthowa ya ''dialectic'' yakuwuskapo ''hypothesis'': ''hypotheses'' zawemi zikusangika mwakuzumbulira na kuwuskapo izo zikutigira ku kususkana. Nthowa ya Socrates yikupenja unenesko wakukolerana uwo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga, uwo ukupangiska vigomezgo, na kuviwoneseska kuti viŵe vyakuyana waka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |title=Plato, Apology |page=17 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Socrates wakasuska mtundu wakale wa kusambira ''physics'' kuti ukaŵa wakughanaghana waka ndipo ukaŵavya kujisuska.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |title=Plato, Apology |page=27 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 4 BCE, Aristotle wakapanga ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya ukaghanaghani wa ''teleological''.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |edition=H. Rackham |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317140402/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc= |archive-date=17 March 2012 |access-date=22 September 2010 |at=1139b}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 3 BCE, msandi wa vya kuthambo wa Chigiriki Aristarchus wa Samos wakaŵa wakwamba kupanga ukaghanaghani wakuti zuŵa lili pakati pa caro cose (''heliocentric model''), na mapulaneti ghose ghakuzunguliza ilo.<ref name="McClellan2015">{{cite book |last1=McClellan |first1=James E. III |last2=Dorn |first2=Harold |title=Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction |year=2015 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=978-1-4214-1776-9 |pages=99–100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&q=Aristarchus+heliocentrism&pg=PA99 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ukaghanaghani wa Aristarchus ukakanizgika comene cifukwa ŵakagomezganga kuti ukuswa malango gha ''physics'',<ref name="McClellan2015" /> apo buku la ''Almagest'' la Ptolemy, ilo lili na ndondomeko yakuti caro ni pakati (''geocentric'') ya Cigaŵa ca Zuŵa (''Solar System''), likazomerezgeka mpaka nyengo ya ''Renaissance'' yakwamba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graßhoff |first=Gerd |title=The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalogue |year=1990 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4612-8788-9 |series=Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences |volume=14 |location=New York |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=Susanne M. |title=Hipparchs Himmelsglobus |year=2017 |publisher=Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-658-18682-1 |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8 |bibcode=2017hihi.book.....H}}</ref> Mpanji na msambiri wa masamu Archimedes wa Syracuse wakawovwira comene pakwamba kwa ''calculus''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=C. H. Jr. |title=The Historical Development of the Calculus |year=1979 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-94313-8 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilrlBwAAQBAJ&q=Archimedes+calculus&pg=PA75 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pliny the Elder wakaŵa mulembi wa ku Roma na msambiri wa vinandi uyo wakalemba buku likuru lakuti ''Natural History''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Russell M. |title=Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-85109-539-1 |pages=190–191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia&pg=PA190 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Trevor Morgan |title=Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926288-5 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NC_T_tG9lQC&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Doody |first1=Aude |title=Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48453-4 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoEhAwAAQBAJ&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Nthowa ya kulemba manambala pa malo (''positional notation'') yikwenera kuti yikawoneka pakati pa zana la myaka la 3 na la 5 CE mu nthowa za malonda za ku India. Nthowa iyi ya manambala yikapangiska kuŵerenga kuŵa kwamsanga, ndipo pamanyuma yikaŵa nthowa yakumanyikwa comene ya masamu pa caro cose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conner |first=Clifford D. |title=A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and "Low Mechanicks" |year=2005 |publisher=Nation Books |isbn=1-56025-748-2 |location=New York |pages=72–74}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Pakati === [[File:ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg|thumb|Peji lakwamba la ''Vienna Dioscurides'' likulongora ''peacock'', lakapangika mu zana la myaka la 6.|alt=Chithunzi cha ''peacock'' pa pepala lakale comene]] Cifukwa ca kugwa kwa Ufumu wa Roma wa Kumadazi (''Western Roman Empire''), zana la myaka la 5 likawona kuchepa kwa umanyi, ndipo umanyi wa Ŵagiriki wa caro ukawola ku Ulaya wa Kumadazi.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=194}} Ŵalembi ŵa Cilatini ŵa nyengo iyo nga ni Isidore wa Seville ŵakasunga vinandi vya umanyi wakale.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC |title=The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional and Intellectual Contexts |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-56762-6 |series=Cambridge Studies in the History of Science |pages=7–17 |access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref> Kweni, cifukwa Ufumu wa Byzantine ukakana kuukirika na ŵalwani, ŵakakwaniska kusunga na kunozga ivyo ŵakasambira kale.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=159}} John Philoponus, msambiri wa Byzantine mu zana la myaka la 6, wakamba kukayika ivyo Aristotle wakasambizganga vya ''physics'', ndipo wakambiska ''theory of impetus''.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307, 311, 363, 402}} Kususka kwake kukaŵa cipulikiro ku ŵasambiri ŵa nyengo ya pakati na ku Galileo Galilei, uyo wakalongora ntchito zake kwa nyengo yitali, vikwi vya myaka vimoza pamanyuma.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307–308}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Philoponus |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Christian |last=Wildberg |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |date=1 May 2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822110331/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya kumanyuma kwa ukale (''late antiquity'') na mu Nyengo ya Pakati ya Kwamba (''Early Middle Ages''), vinthu vya kawiro vikasandika comene mu nthowa ya Aristotle. Nthowa iyi yikukhwaska vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotle (''four causes''): chakuthupi, chakumanyikwa, chakugwira ntchito, na chaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Aristotle on Causality |last=Falcon |first=Andrea |editor-last=Zalta |year=2019 |editor-first=Edward |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Spring 2019 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |access-date=3 October 2020 |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009032459/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |url-status=live}}</ref> Malemba ghanandi gha Chigiriki ghakale ghakasungika na Ufumu wa Byzantine, ndipo Ŵakhristu, comene Ŵanestorian na Ŵamiaphysite, ŵakaghamasulira mu Cirabu. Pasi pa ŵa Abbasid, ghamasuliro agha ghakanozgeka na kukura na ŵasandi ŵa Ŵarabu.<ref name="Grant2007a"/>{{rp|pp=62–67}} Mu zana la myaka la 6 na la 7, Ufumu wa Sasanian uwo ukaŵa pafupi ukakhazikiska sukulu ya munkhwala ya Gondishapur (''Academy of Gondishapur''), iyo yikawonekanga na ŵang'anga ŵa Ŵagiriki, Ŵasiriya, na Ŵapersia kuti ni malo gha munkhwala ghakuzirwa comene mu caro cakale.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Iran |date=1968–1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last=Fisher |first=W. B. |isbn=978-0-521-20093-6}}</ref> Masambiro gha Ŵaislamu gha Aristotle (''Aristotelianism'') ghakakura mu Nyumba ya Nzeru (''House of Wisdom'') iyo yikakhazikika mu msumba ukuru wa ŵa Abbasid, Baghdad, ku Iraq<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |title=Bayt al-Hikmah |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104043313/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> ndipo ghakakura comene<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Hossein Nasr |editor-first=Seyyed |title=History of Islamic Philosophy |title-link=History of Islamic Philosophy |editor-last2=Leaman |editor-first2=Oliver |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-25934-7 |pages=165–167 |editor-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr}}</ref> mpaka apo Ŵamongol ŵakawukira mu zana la myaka la 13. Ibn al-Haytham, uyo wakumanyikwa comene kuti Alhazen, wakagwiriskira ntchito vyakuyezgayezga vyakulongozgeka pa kafukufuku wake wa vyakuwona (''optics'').{{efn|name=doubtPtolemy|1= Ibn al-Haytham's ''[[Book of Optics]]'' disputed Claudius Ptolemy's extramission theory of vision: "Hence, the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous and useless". See A. Mark Smith's translation from the Latin,<ref name="Smith2001">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=A. Mark |title=Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's ''De Aspectibus'', the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāẓir'': Volume Two |title-link=De Aspectibus |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-87169-914-5 |series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=91, parts 4 & 5 |location=Philadelphia }}</ref> Book I, [6.54], pp. 372, 408. }}<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=228328 |last1=Toomer |first1=G. J. |title=Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=463–465 |year=1964 |doi=10.1086/349914}} See p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.", p. 465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major figure in the Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the influence of Ibn al-Haytham and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that Ibn al-Haytham was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=H. Floris |author-link=Floris Cohen |chapter=Greek nature knowledge transplanted: The Islamic world |title=How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough |year=2010 |pages=99–156 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8964-239-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Buku la ''The Canon of Medicine'' ilo Avicenna wakalemba, buku lakulongosora vya munkhwala, likuwonekera kuti ni linyake mwa mabuku ghakukhumbikwa comene mu munkhwala, ndipo likagwiriskika ntchito mpaka mu zana la myaka la 18.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli |url-access=limited |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli/page/n168 155]–156 |publisher=Springer |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2 |editor-last1=Selin |editor-first1=Helaine |editor-link=Helaine Selin}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 11, vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya vikaŵa kuti vyazgoka Ŵakhristu,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} ndipo mu 1088, yunivesite ya Bologna (''University of Bologna'') yikawonekera kuŵa yunivesite yakwamba ku Ulaya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=Josiah C. |year=1959 |title=Gratian, Irnerius, and the Early Schools of Bologna |journal=[[The Mississippi Quarterly]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=168–188 |jstor=26473232 |quote=Perhaps even as early as 1088 (the date officially set for the founding of the University)}}</ref> Pakuti vikaŵa nthena, kukhumba kwa kumasulira mabuku gha kale na gha kasandiro mu Cilatini kukakura,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} ico cikawovwira comene ku ''Renaissance'' ya zana la myaka la 12. Masambiro gha ''scholasticism'' ku Ulaya wa Kumadazi ghakakura, ndipo ŵakayezgayezga vinthu mwakuwona, kulongosora, na kugaŵa vinthu vya kawiro mu mitundu.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |title=St. Albertus Magnus |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 October 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028045424/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |archive-date=28 October 2017}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 13, ŵasambizgi ŵa munkhwala na ŵasambiri ŵa ku Bologna ŵakamba kujura matupi gha ŵanthu, ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe buku lakwamba lakusambizga vya thupi la munthu (''anatomy'') ilo likapangika na Mondino de Luzzi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03327-6 |page=45 |access-date=27 March 2018 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Renaissance === [[File:Printing towns incunabula.svg|thumb|alt=Mapu gha Ulaya na vimaŵara vikulongora misumba umo makina gha kusindikizga mabuku ghakakhazikiskika pakumalizira kwa zana la myaka la 15|Kuthandazgika kwa kusindikizga mabuku pakati pa 1440 na 1500.]] Kufuma pa sitoro yimoza yakusindikizgirako mabuku ku Mainz, Germany, pafupifupi mu 1440, makina ghakusindikizgirako mabuku ghakugwiriskira ntchito mazgu ghakusunkhunyika (''movable-type printing press'') ghakathandazgika mu misumba pafupifupi 270 ku Ulaya wa pakati, wa Kumadazi, na wa Kumaulo, ndipo ghakaŵa kuti ghasindikizga kale mabuku ghakujumpha 20 miliyoni kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 15.<ref name="Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean 1976 by Anderson, Benedict 1993, 58f.">Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976). ''The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800''. London: New Left Books. Quoted in: Anderson, Benedict. ''Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo''. Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico, 1993. {{ISBN|978-968-16-3867-2}}. pp. 58f.</ref> Kusindikizga mabuku kukapangiska kuti mabuku gha ŵasambiri ghasangike comene, ndipo ŵasandi ŵakawonenge mabuku ghakale mwakufwatuka na kuyaniska ivyo iwo ŵakawona na ivyo ŵasambiri ŵanyawo ŵakawona.<ref>"Printing made it possible for [[Tycho Brahe|Brahe]] to survey a wide range of publications (there were over a hundred on the [[Great Comet of 1577#Observations by Tycho Brahe|comet of 1577]], though many were merely astrological prognostications) and demonstrate that the four best observers had produced results compatible with his own. It also ensured that Brahe's new system was quickly known throughout Europe, so that his arguments could be tested against the [[Kepler's Supernova|nova of 1604]] and the [[C/1618 W1#Scientific evaluation|comets of 1618]]. Printing created a community of astronomers working on common problems with common methods and reaching agreed solutions." Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). pp.197-198. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> Kusindikizga mabuku kukamalizga mwambo wa malemba ghakulembeka na woko (''manuscript culture'') wa Nyengo ya Pakati, apo unenesko ukaŵa uchoko ndiposo wakupambana, ndipo kukasintha na mwambo wa kusindikizga apo unenesko wakugomezgeka na wakulembeka ukachuluka mwaluŵiro ndipo ukazgoka maziko ghakukhora gha umanyi wa kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wootton |first=David |author-link=David Wootton (historian) |title=The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution |publisher=Penguin |year=2015 |page=282 |isbn=978-0-06-175952-9 |quote=...a manuscript culture, in which experience is unspecific, indirect, and amorphous...a print culture, in which experience is specific, direct, documented and retrievable...In comparison to the world of print, manuscript culture is one of rumour and gossip. The printing press represents an information revolution, and secure facts are its consequence.}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 16, Nicolaus Copernicus wakapanga ukaghanaghani wakuti zuŵa lili pakati (''heliocentric model'') wa Cigaŵa ca Zuŵa, na zuŵa likaŵa pafupi na pakati pa caro cose,<ref>"The man who had deposed the earth from its proud position as the centre of the universe and had recognized it to be merely one of the planets, had yet felt compelled to give it quite an exceptional position in his new system. Though he had said 'in the midst of all stand the sun,' he had in his planetary theories assumed the centre of all movements to be the centre of the earth's orbit, where the sun was not." Dreyer, J.L.E. ''A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler,'' (Dover Publications, 1953). p.343. {{ISBN|9780486600796}}</ref><ref>"...it was obvious to Copernicus...that the earth cannot move uniformly about a circle with the sun at the center. Thus Copernicus placed the sun not at the center of the earth's orbit, but at some distance away. The center of the solar system, and of the universe, in the system of Copernicus is thus not the sun at all, but rather a 'mean sun,' of the center of the earth's orbit. Hence, it is preferable to call the Copernican system a heliostatic system rather than a heliocentric system." [[I. Bernard Cohen|Cohen, I. Bernard]]. ''The Birth of a New Physics (Revised and Updated)'' (W.W. Norton & Company, 1985). p.44. {{ISBN|0-393-01994-2}}</ref> lisunkhunyika yayi, na caro na mapulaneti ghanyake ghakuzunguliza mu mzere wakuzungulira,<ref>"All movement within it (outside of the immediate vicinity of the Earth) is determined by the fundamental principle that heavenly movement is circular and therefore unchanging. Ptolemy, Copernicus thought, had betrayed this principle not...by adding epicycles to deferents in order to explain why the planets sometimes appear to move backwards in the sky, but by introducing the [[equant]] in order to speed them up and slow them down." [[David Wootton (historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> ghakusinthika na ''epicycles'', ndipo ghakuyenda mwakuyana waka. Ukaghanaghani wa Copernicus ukasuska ukaghanaghani wakuti caro ni pakati (''geocentric model'') wa Ptolemy, uwo wakaŵika caro pakati pa caro cose. Ŵasandi ŵa vya kuthambo ŵa zana la myaka la 16 ŵakagomezganga kuti kuwuskapo kwa ''equant'' na Copernicus ndiko kukaŵa kukwaniska kwake kukuru,<ref>"My Copernican census eventually helped to establish that the majority of sixteenth-century astronomers thought eliminating the [[equant]] was Copernicus' big achievement, because it satisfied the ancient aesthetic principle that eternal celestial motions should be uniform and circular or compounded of uniform and circular parts." Gingerich, Owen. ''The Book Nobody Read'' (Walker & Company, 2004).p. 55. {{ISBN|0-8027-1415-3}}</ref> kweni ukaghanaghani wake ukasintha yayi ukaghanaghani wa Ptolemy, uwo wakangoleka kukondweka pamanyuma pa vyaka 70 kufuma apo Galileo wakawonera vinthu na telesikopu mu 1610.<ref>"It is easy to show that conventional Ptolemaic astronomy was thriving until 1610 [when Galileo observed the phases of Venus with a telescope] and went into crisis immediately afterwards...The evidence is clear: [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic model|Ptolemaic astronomy]] was unaffected by Copernicus; it went into crisis briefly with the [[SN 1572|new star of 1572]], but by the end of the sixteenth century it had fully recovered. The telescope, on the other hand, brought about its immediate and irreversible collapse." [[David Wootton (historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> === Kusintha kwa Kasandiro === Kuwonera kwa Tycho Brahe kwakuyanirana comene kwa vya kuthambo kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 16, na kuwonera kwa Galileo Galilei na telesikopu kukwambilira kwa zana la myaka la 17, vikasazganako ndipo vikapangiska kuti kasandiro ka vya kuthambo (''astronomy'') kaŵe kasandiro kakwamba ka sono. Kuwonera kwa Galileo kukamalizga vikwi vya myaka vya maghanoghano gha kale gha vya kuthambo, apo Johannes Kepler wakagwiriskira ntchito vyakusangika vya Brahe kuti wasange kuti mapulaneti ghali na nthowa zakuzungulira za ''elliptical'', zakuzungulira yayi, ndipo wakapanga malango gha kuyenda kwa mapulaneti (''laws of planetary motion'').<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article-pdf/64/9/50/9881314/50_1_online.pdf|title= The great Martian catastrophe and how Kepler fixed it |journal=Physics Today|date= 2011 |volume=64|issue=9|pages=50–54|doi=10.1063/PT.3.1259|access-date=27 July 2023 |last= Gingerich |first= Owen |author-link=Owen Gingerich |bibcode= 2011PhT....64i..50G }}</ref> Cifukwa ca Kepler, vinthu vya kuthambo vikamba kuwoneka kuti vikulongozgeka na malango gha kawiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldstein|first1=Bernard|last2=Hon|first2=Giora|date=2005|title=Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246602496|journal=Perspectives on Science|volume=13|pages=74–111|doi=10.1162/1063614053714126 |s2cid=57559843 }}</ref> "Kasandiro Kapya" (''New Science'') ako kakawonekera kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 17 kakapatuka comene na ukaghanaghani wa kawiro uwo ukaŵapo kale,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Küskü |first=Elif Aslan |date=2022 |title=Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body / Bilimsel Devrim Tıbbını İnsan Bedeni Üzerinden İncelemek |url=https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |journal=The Legends: Journal of European History Studies |access-date=28 September 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112202215/https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hendrix |first=Scott E. |title=Natural Philosophy or Science in Premodern Epistemic Regimes? The Case of the Astrology of Albert the Great and Galileo Galilei |journal=Teorie Vědy / Theory of Science |year=2011 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.46938/tv.2011.72 |s2cid=258069710 |url=http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118024030/http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name= "Principe2011">{{cite book | last= Principe | first= Lawrence M. | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction | pages = 1–3 | location = New York| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-199-56741-6}}</ref> kakapatuka na maghanoghano na mitheto ya Ŵagiriki,<ref name= "Lindberg1990">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 1990 | chapter = Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch | title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution | editor-first1 = David C. | editor-last1 = Lindberg | editor-first2 = Robert S. | editor-last2 = Westman | pages = 1–26 | edition = First | location = Chicago | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-34262-9}}</ref><ref name= "lindberg2007n">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The legacy of ancient and medieval science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages= 357–368| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Stanford Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|title= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last= Del Soldato|first= Eva|date= 2016|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last= Zalta|editor-first= Edward N.|edition= Fall 2016|access-date= 1 June 2018|archive-date= 11 December 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name= Grant2007c>{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran | url-access= limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> kakaŵa ka makina comene mu kuwona caro ndipo kakasazgikira na masamu,<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name= "gal2021i">{{cite book|author1-link=Ofer Gal | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = The New Science | title = The Origins of Modern Science | pages = 308–349 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020b">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The scientific revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 25–57 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> ndipo kakatemwanga comene kusanga na kupulikiska ukaboni wapya.<ref>Wootton, David. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.136. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Kuŵala === [[File:Newton's Principia title page.png|thumb|upright|Peji la mutu wa buku lakwamba la 1687 la ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' lakulembeka na Isaac Newton]] Pakwamba kwa Nyengo ya Kuŵala (''Age of Enlightenment''), Isaac Newton wakakhazikiska maziko gha ''classical mechanics'' na buku lake la ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', ico cikakhuŵilizga comene ŵasandi ŵa ''physics'' ŵa munthazi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gribbin |first=John |title=Science: A History 1543–2001 |year=2002 |page=241 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9503-9 |quote=Although it was just one of the many factors in the Enlightenment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth century.}}</ref> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz wakasazgapo mazgu ghakufuma mu ''Aristotelian physics'', agho sono ghakugwiriskika ntchito mu nthowa yiphya yambura ''teleological''. Ici cikang'anamuranga kuti ŵanthu ŵakasintha umo ŵakawoneranga vinthu: vinthu sono vikawonekanga kuti vilije vilato vyakubabikira. Leibniz wakaghanaghananga kuti mitundu yakupambanapambana ya vinthu vyose vikugwira ntchito mwakuyana na malango ghakuyana waka gha kawiro, kwambura vifukwa vyapadera vyakumanyikwa panji vyaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz/ |title=Gottfried Leibniz – Biography |website=Maths History |access-date=2 March 2021 |archive-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711221621/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Leibniz.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, cilato na kuzirwa kwa kasandiro ivyo vikapharazgika vikamba kupanga cuma na vyakupangika ivyo vingapangiska kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu uŵe uwemi, mu ng'anamuro la kutemwa vinthu vyakuthupi lakuti ŵaŵe na vyakurya vinandi, vyakuvwara, na vinthu vinyake. Mu mazgu gha Bacon, "cilato cenicenico na cakwenelera ca tusandiro '''ni kupereka ku umoyo wa munthu vyakupanga viphya na vyuma'''", ndipo wakakhuŵazga ŵasandi kuti ŵaleke kulondezga maghanoghano ghambura kuwoneka gha filosofi panji gha mzimu, agho wakagomezganga kuti ghakovwira viŵi yayi ku cimwemwe ca munthu kuluska "utsi wa maghanoghano ghakuthukuka, ghakuzirwa panji ghakukondweska".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmbZIybuRoC&pg=PA162 |title=The Social and Economic Roots of the Scientific Revolution: Texts by Boris Hessen and Henryk Grossmann |last1=Freudenthal |first1=Gideon |last2=McLaughlin |first2=Peter |date=20 May 2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-9604-4 |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Kasandiro mu Nyengo ya Kuŵala kakalongozgeka na mabungwe gha kasandiro (''scientific societies'') na ma ''academy'',<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Goddard Bergin |editor-first1=Thomas |editor1-link=Thomas G. Bergin |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_d0p5 |title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance |editor-last2=Speake |editor-first2=Jennifer |editor2-link=Jennifer Speake |year=1987 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-1315-9}}</ref> agho ghakaŵa kuti ghanjira comene mu malo gha mayunivesite kuŵa malo ghakufufuzira na kukuzga kasandiro. Mabungwe na ma ''academy'' ghakaŵa mafupa gha kukhwima kwa ntchito ya kasandiro. Chinthu chinyake chakuzirwa chikaŵa kuthandazgika kwa kasandiro ku ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamanyanga kuŵazga na kulemba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=van Horn Melton |first=James |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |title=The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-511-81942-1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511819421 |access-date=27 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |pages=82–83 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120143805/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵakaghanaghani ŵa Nyengo ya Kuŵala ŵakazgokera kwa ŵasandi ŵachoko waka awo ŵakaŵako pambere—Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, na Newton comene—nga ni ŵalongozgi mu chigaŵa chilichose cha caro na cha ŵanthu cha nyengo iyo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment (1500–1780) |url=https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114191547/https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Scientific Revolution |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |access-date=29 January 2024 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518105004/https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu zana la myaka la 18, ŵanthu ŵakasintha comene pa munkhwala<ref>{{cite book |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-144329-7 |editor-last=Madigan |editor-first=M. |editor-last2=Martinko |editor-first2=J. |edition=11th}}</ref> na ''physics'';<ref>{{cite book |last=Guicciardini |first=N. |url=https://archive.org/details/readingprincipia0000guic |title=Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-64066-4 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> Carl Linnaeus wakapanga ''taxonomy'' ya vyamoyo;<ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Charles Calisher |last1=Calisher |first1=C. H. |year=2007 |title=Taxonomy: what's in a name? Doesn't a rose by any other name smell as sweet? |journal=Croatian Medical Journal |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=268–270 |pmc=2080517 |pmid=17436393}}</ref> ŵakapulikiska vyapya pa ''magnetism'' na magetsi;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Darrigol |first1=Olivier |url=https://archive.org/details/electrodynamicsf0000darr |title=Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-850594-9 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> ndipo kemistri yikakhwima kuŵa cigaŵa ca kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olby |first1=R. C. |last2=Cantor |first2=G. N. |last3=Christie |first3=J. R. R. |last4=Hodge |first4=M. J. S. |year=1990 |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=265}}</ref> Maghanoghano gha kawiro ka munthu, ŵanthu, na vya cuma ghakasintha mu Nyengo ya Kuŵala. Hume na ŵakaghanaghani ŵanyake ŵa ku Scotland ŵakapanga ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', ilo likalongosoreka mu mbiri mu ntchito za ŵalembi nga ni James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar na William Robertson, ŵose ŵakasazga pamoza kafukufuku wa kasandiro wa umo ŵanthu ŵakacitiranga mu mitheto yakale na yambula kukura na kumanya makora ivyo vikulongozga nyengo ya sono (''modernity'').<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magnusson |first=Magnus |date=10 November 2003 |title=Review of James Buchan, ''Capital of the Mind: How Edinburgh Changed the World'' |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606015918/http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-date=6 June 2011 |access-date=27 April 2014 |work=New Statesman}}</ref> ''Sociology'' ya sono yikafuma comene mu gulu ili.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=588406 |title=Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment |journal=The British Journal of Sociology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=164–180 |last1=Swingewood |first1=Alan |year=1970 |doi=10.2307/588406}}</ref> Mu 1776, Adam Smith wakalemba ''The Wealth of Nations'', ilo kanandi likuwoneka kuti ndilo buku lakwamba la cuma ca sono (''modern economics'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fry |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/adamsmithslegacy0000unse |title=Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |others=[[Paul Samuelson]], [[Lawrence Klein]], [[Franco Modigliani]], [[James M. Buchanan]], [[Maurice Allais]], [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Richard Stone]], [[James Tobin]], [[Wassily Leontief]], [[Jan Tinbergen]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-415-06164-3 |url-access=registration}}</ref> === Zana la myaka la 19 === [[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|thumb|upright|Chithunzi chakwamba cha mti wa kukura kwa vyamoyo (''evolutionary tree'') icho Charles Darwin wakapanga mu 1837|alt=Chithunzi cha mapu chakulembeka na mazgu]] Mu zana la myaka la 19, vinthu vinandi vyakupambaniska vya kasandiro ka sono vikamba kuwoneka. Ivi vikaŵa kusintha kwa kasandiro ka vyamoyo na ka vinthu vyambura umoyo; kugwiriskira ntchito pafupipafupi vipangizo vyakupima makora; kuwoneka kwa mazgu nga ni "msandi wa vyamoyo" (''biologist''), "msandi wa ''physics''" (''physicist''), na "msandi" (''scientist''); kuŵa ŵakukhwima kwa awo ŵakusambira vya kawiro; ŵasandi kupokera ulemu wa miyambo pa vigaŵa vinandi vya ŵanthu; kupanga mafakitale mu vyaru vinandi; kukura kwa mabuku gha kasandiro gha ŵanthu wose; na kuwoneka kwa magazini gha kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=367 |chapter=13. Science and the Public}}</ref> Kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 19, ''psychology'' yikawoneka nga ni sambiro lakupambana na filosofi apo Wilhelm Wundt wakakhazikiska labotale yakwamba ya kafukufuku wa ''psychology'' mu 1879.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leahey |first=Thomas Hardy |title=A History of Psychology: From Antiquity to Modernity |year=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-65242-2 |edition=8th |location=New York |pages=219–253 |chapter=The psychology of consciousness}}</ref> Pakati pa zana la myaka la 19, Charles Darwin na Alfred Russel Wallace ŵakayowoya paŵekha ukaghanaghani wa kukura kwa vyamoyo na ''natural selection'' mu 1858, uwo ukalongosora umo mbuto na vinyama vyakupambanapambana vikambira na kukura. Ukaghanaghani wawo ukalongosoreka mwakudumura mu buku la Darwin ''On the Origin of Species'', ilo likalembeka mu 1859.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Padian |first=Kevin |title=Darwin's enduring legacy |journal=Nature |volume=451 |issue=7179 |pages=632–634 |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/451632a |pmid=18256649 |bibcode=2008Natur.451..632P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Padera, Gregor Mendel wakalongosora pepala lake "Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" mu 1865,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henig |first=Robin Marantz |author-link=Robin Marantz Henig |url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni |title=The monk in the garden: the lost and found genius of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics |year=2000 |pages=134–138}}</ref> ilo likalongosora malango gha chiharo cha vyamoyo, ico cikaŵa maziko gha ''genetics'' ya sono.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miko |first=Ilona |title=Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they? |journal=Nature Education |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=134 |year=2008 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593/ |access-date=9 May 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224056/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kukwambilira kwa zana la myaka la 19, John Dalton wakayowoya ukaghanaghani wa sono wa ''atomic'' (''atomic theory''), uwo ukuthemba pa ukaghanaghani wakwamba wa Democritus wa vinthu vyambura kugaŵika vyakucemeka ''atoms''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rocke |first1=Alan J. |year=2005 |title=In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory |journal=Social Research |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=125–158 |doi=10.1353/sor.2005.0003 |jstor=40972005 |s2cid=141350239}}</ref> Malango gha kusunga ''energy'', kusunga ''momentum'', na kusunga ''mass'' ghakalongora caro cakukhazikika comene apo pangaŵa kutaya kwa vinthu vichoko waka. Kweni, na kufika kwa injini ya ''steam'' na ''Industrial Revolution'', ŵanthu ŵakamba kupulikiska kuti ni mitundu yose yayi ya ''energy'' iyo yili na mikhaliro yakuyana waka, nchakusuzga yayi kusintha kuti yiŵe ntchito yakukhumbikwa panji ''energy'' yinyake.<ref name="Reichl1980" /> Kupulikiska uku kukapangiska kuti paŵe malango gha ''thermodynamics'', umo ''free energy'' ya caro cose yikuwoneka kuti yikuchepa nyengo zose: ''entropy'' ya caro cakujalika yikukura na nyengo.{{efn|name= HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde|1= Whether the universe is closed or open, or the [[shape of the universe]], is an open question. The 2nd law of thermodynamics,<ref name="Reichl1980">{{cite book |last=Reichl |first=Linda |author-link=Linda Reichl |year=1980 |title=A Modern Course in Statistical Physics |url= |location= |publisher=Edward Arnold |isbn=0-7131-2789-9}}</ref>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Rao |first=Y. V. C. |title=Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics |publisher=Universities Press |isbn=978-81-7371-048-3 |year=1997 |page=158}}</ref> and the 3rd law of thermodynamics<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.aop.2016.07.031 |title=Bounded energy exchange as an alternative to the third law of thermodynamics |year=2016 |last1=Heidrich |first1=M. |journal=Annals of Physics |volume=373 |pages=665–681 |bibcode=2016AnPhy.373..665H}}</ref> imply the [[heat death of the universe]] if the universe is a closed system, but not necessarily for an expanding universe.}} Ukaghanaghani wa ''electromagnetic'' (''electromagnetic theory'') ukakhazikika mu zana la myaka la 19 na ntchito za Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, na Heinrich Hertz. Ukaghanaghani wapya uwu ukapangiska mafumbo agho ghakaŵa ghambura kusuzga kuzgora mwakugwiriskira ntchito ndondomeko ya Newton. Kusangika kwa ''X-rays'' kukapangiska kuti Henri Becquerel na Marie Curie ŵasange ''radioactivity'' mu 1896;<ref>{{cite book |last=Mould |first=Richard F. |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |year=1995 |publisher=Inst. of Physics Publ. |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |edition=Reprint. with minor corr |location=Bristol |page=12}}</ref> Marie Curie wakazgoka munthu wakwamba kupokera Mphoto ziŵiri za Nobel.<ref name="Estreicher1938">{{cite book |last=Estreicher |first=Tadeusz |title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4 |title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny |year=1938 |page=113 |language=pl |chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich |author-link=Tadeusz Estreicher}}</ref> Mu caka cakulondezgapo ŵakasanga cinthu cakwamba chichoko kuluska ''atom'', ico cikucemeka ''electron''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thomson |first=J. J. |year=1897 |title=Cathode Rays |journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]] |volume=44 |issue=269 |pages=293–316 |doi=10.1080/14786449708621070 |bibcode=1897LEDPM..44..293T }}</ref> === Zana la myaka la 20 === [[File:Carte trou ozone Antarctique.jpg|alt=Chithunzi chikulongora ''ozone'' yichoko ku South Pole|thumb|Chithunzi cha pa ''computer'' cha ''ozone hole'' chakapangika mu 1987 mwakugwiriskira ntchito vyakusangika kufuma ku telesikopu ya mlengalenga]] Mu hafu yakwamba ya zana la myaka, kupangika kwa ''antibiotics'' na feteleza wakupangika na ŵanthu (''artificial fertilisers'') kukawovwira umoyo wa ŵanthu pa caro cose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goyotte |first=Dolores |year=2017 |title=The Surgical Legacy of World War II. Part II: The age of antibiotics |url=https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Surgical Technologist |volume=109 |pages=257–264 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505180530/https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2021 |access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erisman |first1=Jan Willem |first2=M. A. |last2=Sutton |first3=J. |last3=Galloway |first4=Z. |last4=Klimont |first5=W. |last5=Winiwarter |date=October 2008 |title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world |url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=636–639 |bibcode=2008NatGe...1..636E |doi=10.1038/ngeo325 |s2cid=94880859 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723223052/http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |archive-date=23 July 2010 |access-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> Masuzgo ghakofya gha kawiro nga ni kuchepa kwa ''ozone'', kuŵa na asidi mu nyanja, ''eutrophication'', na kusintha kwa nyengo vikiza mu mtima wa ŵanthu ndipo vikapangiska kuti ŵambe kusambira vya kawiro (''environmental studies'').<ref>{{cite journal |editor-last1=Emmett |editor-first1=Rob |editor-last2=Zelko |editor-first2=Frank |url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |title=Minding the Gap: Working Across Disciplines in Environmental Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121054306/https://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |archive-date=21 January 2022 |series=RCC Perspectives no. 2 |year=2014 |doi=10.5282/rcc/6313 |last1=Emmett |first1=Robert |last2=Zelko |first2=Frank |journal=Environment & Society Portal}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, kuyezgayezga kwa kasandiro kukaŵa kukuru comene mu unandi na ndalama.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Furner |first=Jonathan |date=1 June 2003 |title=Little Book, Big Book: Before and After Little Science, Big Science: A Review Article, Part I |journal=Journal of Librarianship and Information Science |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1177/0961000603352006 |s2cid=34844169}}</ref> Kupanga vinthu vyapya kukuru kuko kukakhuŵilizgika na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caro (''World War I''), Nkhondo ya Caro ya Wuŵiri (''World War II''), na Nkhondo Yakuzizira (''Cold War'') kukapangiska kulimbana pakati pa maboma ghakuru, nga ni Kulimbana kwa Kuthambo (''Space Race'') na kulimbana kwa vilwero vya ''nuclear''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kraft |first1=Chris |url=https://archive.org/details/flight00chri |title=Flight: My Life in Mission Control |first2=James |last2=Schefter |publisher=Dutton |year=2001 |isbn=0-525-94571-7 |location=New York |author-link1=Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. |pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Herman |author-link=Herman Kahn |year=1962 |title=Thinking about the Unthinkable |publisher=Horizon}}</ref> Kukolerana kukuru kwa vyaru vinyake nako kukacitika, nangauli pakaŵa nkhondo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shrum |first=Wesley |title=Structures of scientific collaboration |year=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |others=Joel Genuth, Ivan Chompalov |isbn=978-0-262-28358-8 |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> Kuumaliro wa zana la myaka la 20, kulemba ŵanakazi mwamwamphu na kuwuskapo kusankhana pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukapangiska kuti ŵasandi ŵanakazi ŵaŵe ŵanandi, kweni mphambano yikuru pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi yikalutilira mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosser |first=Sue V. |title=Breaking into the Lab: Engineering Progress for Women in Science |date=12 March 2012 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-7645-2 |page=7}}</ref> Kusangika kwa ''cosmic microwave background'' mu 1964<ref>{{cite journal |last=Penzias |first=A. A. |year=2006 |title=The origin of elements |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |journal=Science |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] |volume=205 |issue=4406 |pages=549–554 |doi=10.1126/science.205.4406.549 |pmid=17729659 |access-date=4 October 2006 |archive-date=17 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117225210/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakane ukaghanaghani wa caro cakukhazikika (''steady-state model'') ndipo ŵazomerezge ukaghanaghani wa ''Big Bang'' wa Georges Lemaître.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=S. |url=https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 |title=Gravitation and Cosmology |publisher=John Whitney & Sons |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-471-92567-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 464–495] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Zana la myaka ili likawona kusintha kukuru mu vigaŵa vya kasandiro. Ukaghanaghani wa kukura kwa vyamoyo (''evolution'') ukaŵa ukaghanaghani wakukolerana kukwambilira kwa zana la myaka la 20 apo ''modern synthesis'' yikaphatikizga ukaghanaghani wa Darwin na ''classical genetics''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Futuyma |first1=Douglas J. |title=Evolution |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=Mark |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-60535-605-1 |edition=4th |pages=3–26 |chapter=Chapter 1: Evolutionary Biology |publisher=Sinauer}}</ref> Ukaghanaghani wa Albert Einstein wa ''relativity'' na kukura kwa ''quantum mechanics'' vikovwira ''classical mechanics'' kulongosora ''physics'' mu utali wakukwana, nyengo, na ''gravity''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Arthur I. |title=Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911) |year=1981 |location=Reading |publisher=Addison–Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-04679-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=ter Haar |first=D. |url=https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar |title=The Old Quantum Theory |publisher=Pergamon |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-08-012101-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar/page/206 206] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Kugwiriskira ntchito kwakuthandazgika kwa ''integrated circuits'' mu kotala yaumaliro ya zana la myaka la 20 pamoza na ''communications satellites'' kukapangiska kusintha kukuru mu tekinoloji ya uthenga (''information technology'') na kukwera kwa ''internet'' ya caro cose na ''mobile computing'', kusazgapo ma ''smartphone''. Kukhumbikwa kwa kuŵika mu ndondomeko vyakuphanana vyakutali na vyakukolerana na vyakusangika vinandi (''data'') kukapangiska kuti paŵe kukwera kwa vigaŵa vya ''systems theory'' na ''scientific modelling'' yakovwirika na ma ''computer''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=von Bertalanffy |first1=Ludwig |year=1972 |title=The History and Status of General Systems Theory |journal=The Academy of Management Journal |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=407–426 |doi=10.2307/255139 |jstor=255139 |bibcode=1972AManJ..15..407V }}</ref> === Zana la myaka la 21 === Ntchito ya ''Human Genome Project'' yikamalizgika mu 2003 pakusanga na kuŵika mapu gha ''genes'' zose za ''human genome''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Naidoo |first1=Nasheen |last2=Pawitan |first2=Yudi |last3=Soong |first3=Richie |last4=Cooper |first4=David N. |last5=Ku |first5=Chee-Seng |date=October 2011 |title=Human genetics and genomics a decade after the release of the draft sequence of the human genome |journal=Human Genomics |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=577–622 |doi=10.1186/1479-7364-5-6-577 |pmc=3525251 |pmid=22155605 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Maselo ghakwamba gha ŵanthu gha ''induced pluripotent stem cells'' ghakapangika mu 2006, ico cikapangiska kuti maselo gha ŵakukura ghasinthike kuŵa ''stem cells'' ndipo ghazgoke mtundu uliwose wa selo uwo ukusangika mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=S. Tamir |last2=Alexander |first2=Graeme J. M. |date=March 2013 |title=Induced pluripotent stem cells: from Nobel Prizes to clinical applications |journal=Journal of Hepatology |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=625–629 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2012.10.026 |issn=1600-0641 |pmid=23131523 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Na kukhozgera kusangika kwa ''Higgs boson'' mu 2013, cinthu caumaliro ico ''Standard Model'' ya ''particle physics'' yikayowoya kale cikasangika.<ref>{{cite press release |last=O'Luanaigh |first=C. |date=14 March 2013 |title=New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson |publisher=[[CERN]] |url=http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020000722/http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |archive-date=20 October 2015}}</ref> Mu 2015, ''gravitational waves'', izo ''general relativity'' yikayowoya kale vyaka zana limoza pambere, zikawonekera kwakwamba.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/aa91c9 |title=Multi-messenger Observations of a Binary Neutron Star Merger |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=848 |issue=2 |page=L12 |year=2017 |last1=Abbott |first1=B. P. |last2=Abbott |first2=R. |last3=Abbott |first3=T. D. |last4=Acernese |first4=F. |last5=Ackley |first5=K. |last6=Adams |first6=C. |last7=Adams |first7=T. |last8=Addesso |first8=P. |last9=Adhikari |first9=R. X.|last10 = Adya|first10 = V. B. |last11=Affeldt |first11=C. |last12=Afrough |first12=M. |last13=Agarwal |first13=B. |last14=Agathos |first14=M. |last15=Agatsuma |first15=K. |last16=Aggarwal |first16=N. |last17=Aguiar |first17=O. D. |last18=Aiello |first18=L. |last19=Ain |first19=A.|last20 = Ajith|first20 = P. |last21=Allen |first21=B. |last22=Allen |first22=G. |last23=Allocca |first23=A. |last24=Altin |first24=P. A. |last25=Amato |first25=A. |last26=Ananyeva |first26=A. |last27=Anderson |first27=S. B. |last28=Anderson |first28=W. G. |last29=Angelova |first29=S. V.|last30 = Antier|first30 = S. |display-authors=29 |bibcode=2017ApJ...848L..12A |arxiv=1710.05833 |s2cid=217162243 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.aar2149 |title=Merging neutron stars generate gravitational waves and a celestial light show |journal=Science |year=2017 |last1=Cho |first1=Adrian}}</ref> Mu 2019, ubungwe wa caro cose ''Event Horizon Telescope'' ukalongora chithunzi chakwamba chakuwoneka cha ''accretion disc'' ya ''black hole''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2019 |title=Media Advisory: First Results from the Event Horizon Telescope to be Presented on April 10th |publisher=Event Horizon Telescope |url=https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420135254/https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-date=20 April 2019 |access-date=21 September 2021}}</ref> == Vigaŵa == Kasandiro ka sono kanandi kakugaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu vikuru: kasandiro ka kawiro (''natural science''), kasandiro ka ŵanthu (''social science''), na kasandiro ka dango (''formal science'').<ref name="Cohen2021" /> Cigaŵa chiliconse cha ivi chili na vigaŵa vinandi vya kasandiro vyakupambana kweni vyakukhwaskana, ivyo kanandi vikuŵa na mazgu na umanyi wawo.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |title=Scientific Method: Relationships Among Scientific Paradigms |date=7 March 2007 |magazine=Seed Magazine |access-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101001155/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |archive-date=1 November 2016}}</ref> Tusandiro twa kawiro na twa ŵanthu twose ni tusandiro twa ukaboni (''empirical sciences''),<ref>{{cite book |title=Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory |last=Bunge |first=Mario Augusto |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |page=24}}</ref> pakuti umanyi wawo ukuthemba pa ivyo vikuwoneka, ndipo ŵafukufuku ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu nyengo yakuyana ŵangayeza usange ni wa unenesko.<ref name="Popper2002">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl R. |year=2002a |chapter=A survey of some fundamental problems |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574 |url-access=limited |orig-date=1959 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133 3]–26 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-27844-7}}</ref>{{rp|pp=3–26}} === Tusandiro twa kawiro === Kasandiro ka kawiro ni kusanda caro ca vinthu vyakuwoneka. Kangagaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikuru: kasandiro ka vyamoyo (''life science'') na kasandiro ka vinthu vyambura umoyo (''physical science''). Vigaŵa ivi viŵiri vingagaŵikaso mu vigaŵa vichoko vyapadera. Mwachiyelezgero, kasandiro ka vinthu vyambura umoyo kangagaŵika mu ''physics'', kemistri, ''astronomy'', na kasandiro ka caro (''earth science''). Kasandiro ka kawiro ka sono ni uyo wakulondezga ukaghanaghani wa kawiro (''natural philosophy'') uwo wakamba ku Girisi wakale. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, na Newton ŵakakangana za uwemi wa kugwiriskira ntchito nthowa izo zikaŵa za masamu comene na zakuyezgayezga comene mu nthowa yakukhazikika. Kweni, maghanoghano gha filosofi, ukaghanaghani, na vyakuyamba kutorekwa kuti ni vyanenesko, ivyo kanandi vikuyeghekeka, vikulutilira kukhumbikwa mu kasandiro ka kawiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gauch |first=Hugh G. Jr. |chapter=Science in perspective |title=Scientific Method in Practice |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71 |pages=21–73 |isbn=978-0-521-01708-4 |year=2003 |access-date=3 September 2018}}</ref> Kutora vyakusangika mu nthowa yakukhazikika, kusazgapo ''discovery science'', kukalondezga ''natural history'', iyo yikawoneka mu zana la myaka la 16 mwakulongosora na kugaŵa mbuto, vinyama, malibwe, na vyamoyo vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Oglivie |first=Brian W. |year=2008 |chapter=Introduction |title=The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe |pages=1–24 |edition=Paperback |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-62088-6}}</ref> Sono, "''natural history''" likulongosora vyakuwonera vyakulembeka ku ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Natural History |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |dictionary=Princeton University WordNet |access-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303173506/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref> === Tusandiro twa ŵanthu === [[File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Mzere wa ''supply'' na ''demand'' mu ''economics'', wakukumana pa malo ghawemi ghakuyana|alt=Mizere yiŵiri yikukumana pa malo ghamoza, yikupanga chimanyisko cha X]] Kasandiro ka ŵanthu ni kusanda nkharo za ŵanthu na umo ŵanthu ŵakukhalira pamoza.<ref name="Colander2019" /><ref name="Nisbet2020" /> Kali na vigaŵa vinandi, nga ni ''anthropology'', ''economics'', mbiri, ''human geography'', ''political science'', ''psychology'', na ''sociology''.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Mu tusandiro twa ŵanthu muli maghanoghano ghanandi ghakukangana, ndipo ghanandi ghakukuzgika kwizira mu mapulogiramu gha kafukufuku ghakukangana, nga ni ''functionalists'', ''conflict theorists'', na ''interactionists'' mu ''sociology''.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Cifukwa ca masuzgo gha kucita ma ''experiment'' ghakulongozgeka pa magulu ghakuru gha ŵanthu panji pa vinthu vyakusuzga, ŵasandi ŵa ŵanthu ŵangagwiriskira ntchito nthowa zinyake za kafukufuku nga ni nthowa ya mbiri (''historical method''), ''case studies'', na ''cross-cultural studies''. Kweniso usange manambala ghalipo, ŵasandi ŵa ŵanthu ŵangathemba pa ''statistics'' kuti ŵapulikiske makora ubwezi na nthowa za ŵanthu.<ref name="Colander2019" /> === Tusandiro twa dango === Kasandiro ka dango (''formal science'') ni chigaŵa cha kusanda icho chikupanga umanyi mwakugwiriskira ntchito ndondomeko zakukhazikika (''formal systems'').<ref>{{cite web |url=https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |title=Formal Sciences: Washington and Lee University |website=Washington and Lee University |access-date=14 May 2021 |quote=A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in Mathematics and Computer Science. Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on them. |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514125428/https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Löwe2002">{{cite journal |last=Löwe |first=Benedikt |author-link=Benedikt Löwe |year=2002 |title=The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |issue=1/2 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/A:1020887832028 |issn=0039-7857 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref><ref name="Rucker2019">{{cite book |last=Rucker |first=Rudy |author-link=Rudy Rucker |url=http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |title=Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-691-19138-6 |edition=Reprint |pages=157–188 |chapter=Robots and souls |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226212447/http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Formal system'' ni chikaghanaghaniro chambura kuwoneka icho chikugwiriskika ntchito kufumiska vyakumalizira (''theorems'') kufuma pa vyakwamba (''axioms'') kuyana na dango.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Formal system |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-system |access-date=30 May 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=29 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429174130/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9034889/formal-system |url-status=live}}</ref> Chikukhwaska masamu,<ref>{{cite book |last=Tomalin |first=Marcus |year=2006 |title=Linguistics and the Formal Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/a:1020887832028 |year=2002 |last1=Löwe |first1=Benedikt |issue=1/2 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref> ''systems theory'', na ''theoretical computer science''. Tusandiro twa dango tukuyana na vigaŵa vinyake viŵiri pakuthemba pa kusanda kwakukwana, kwa makora, na kwakukhazikika kwa chigaŵa cha umanyi. Kweni tukupambana na tusandiro twa ukaboni cifukwa tukuthemba kughanaghana kwa ''deductive'' pera, kwambura kukhumbikwira ukaboni, kuti tuyeze maghanoghano ghawo ghambura kuwoneka.<ref name="Fetzer2013" /><ref>{{cite book |first=Thompson |last=Bill |title=The Nature of Statistical Evidence |chapter=2.4 Formal Science and Applied Mathematics |publisher=Springer |series=Lecture Notes in Statistics |volume=189 |year=2007 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Popper2002" /> Tusandiro twa dango, ntheura, ni vigaŵa vya ''a priori'', ndipo cifukwa ca ici, pali kukangana usange vikuŵa kasandiro.<ref name="Kluwer" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |year=1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref> Nangauli vili nthena, tusandiro twa dango tukuseŵera chigaŵa chikuru mu tusandiro twa ukaboni. ''Calculus'', mwachiyelezgero, yikapangika pakwamba kuti ŵamanye umo vinthu vikwendera mu ''physics''.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mujumdar |first1=Anshu Gupta |last2=Singh |first2=Tejinder |year=2016 |chapter=Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics |title=Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics |editor-first1=Anthony |editor-last1=Aguirre |editor-first2=Brendan |editor-last2=Foster |series=The Frontiers Collection |pages=201–218 |location=Switzerland |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-27494-2}}</ref> Tusandiro twa kawiro na twa ŵanthu utwu tukuthemba comene pa masamu tukusazgapo ''mathematical physics'',<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Journal |url=http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003233339/http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-date=3 October 2006 |access-date=3 October 2006 |website=[[Journal of Mathematical Physics]]}}</ref> kemistri,<ref>{{cite book |last=Restrepo |first=G. |chapter=Mathematical chemistry, a new discipline |title=Essays in the philosophy of chemistry |editor-last1=Scerri |editor-first1=E. |editor-last2=Fisher |editor-first2=G. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2016 |pages=332–351 |isbn=978-0-19-049459-9 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |archive-date=10 June 2021 |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610130352/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |url-status=live}}</ref> ''biology'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is mathematical biology |publisher=Centre for Mathematical Biology, University of Bath |url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923070442/http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-date=23 September 2018 |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> ''finance'',<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Johnson |first=Tim |date=1 September 2009 |title=What is financial mathematics? |url=https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |access-date=1 March 2021 |magazine=+Plus Magazine |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408231344/https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |url-status=live}}</ref> na ''economics''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Varian |first=Hal |author-link=Hal Varian |year=1997 |chapter=What Use Is Economic Theory? |editor-last1=D'Autume |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Cartelier |editor-first2=J. |title=Is Economics Becoming a Hard Science? |publisher=Edward Elgar}} [http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf Pre-publication]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf |date=25 June 2006 }}. Retrieved 1 April 2008.</ref> === Tusandiro twakugwiriskira ntchito === Kasandiro ka kugwiriskira ntchito (''applied science'') ni kugwiriskira ntchito nthowa ya kasandiro na umanyi kuti ŵasange vilato vya zuŵa na zuŵa, ndipo kakukhwaska vigaŵa vinandi nga ni uinjiniya (''engineering'') na munkhwala (''medicine'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Reem Rachel |year=2004 |title=Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students |journal=Advances in Physiology Education |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=102–104 |doi=10.1152/advan.00001.2004 |pmid=15319191 |s2cid=21610124}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966" /> ''Engineering'' ni kugwiriskira ntchito mazgu gha kasandiro kupanga, kukonda, na kuzenga makina, vyakuzengeka, na tekinoloji.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |title=Engineering |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819030859/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |url-status=live}}</ref> Kasandiro kangawovwira kupanga tekinoloji zapya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Harvey |date=1 September 1994 |title=The relationship between science and technology |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |journal=Research Policy |series=Special Issue in Honor of Nathan Rosenberg |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 |issn=0048-7333 |access-date=14 October 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230224402/https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Munkhwala ni nthowa yakusamalira ŵalwari mwa kusunga na kubwezgera umoyo wawemi kwizira mu kugega, kusanda nthenda, na kuchizga vilonda panji nthenda.<ref>{{cite book |last=Firth |first=John |title=Oxford textbook of medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-874669-0 |chapter=Science in medicine: when, how, and what}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=J. |date=June 2000 |title=The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science |journal=Med Humanit |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=18–22 |doi=10.1136/mh.26.1.18 |pmid=12484313 |doi-access=free |s2cid=73306806 |pmc=1071282}}</ref> === Tusandiro twa muzu === Kanandi tusandiro twa kugwiriskira ntchito tukuyezgeka na tusandiro twa muzu (''basic sciences''), utwu tukulingalira kukuzga ukaghanaghani na dango za kasandiro izo zikulongosora na kuvikira ivyo vikucitika mu kawiro.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Bernard D. |date=March 2000 |title=Limited scope of science |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471 |postscript=none}} & "Technology" in {{cite journal |first=Bernard |last=Davis |author-link1=Bernard Davis (biologist) |date=Mar 2000 |title=The scientist's world |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews]] |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=James |last=McCormick |year=2001 |title=Scientific medicine—fact of fiction? The contribution of science to medicine |journal=Occasional Paper (Royal College of General Practitioners) |pages=3–6 |pmc=2560978 |pmid=19790950 |number=80}}</ref> === Kasandiro ka ''blue skies'' === Kafukufuku wa ''blue skies'' (''blue skies research''), uyo wakucemekaso ''blue sky science'', ni kafukufuku wa kasandiro mu vigaŵa umo kugwiriskika kwa "caro cenicenico" kukuwonekera yayi pa nyengo yeneyiyo. === Kasandiro ka kompyuta === Kasandiro ka kompyuta (''computational science'') kakugwiriskira ntchito ''computer simulations'' mu kasandiro, ico cikovwira kupulikiska makora masuzgo gha kasandiro kuluska umo masamu ghekha ghangacitira. Kugwiriskira ntchito ''machine learning'' na ''artificial intelligence'' kukuzgoka chinthu chikuru mu uwovwiri wa kompyuta ku kasandiro, mwachiyelezgero mu ''agent-based computational economics'', ''random forests'', ''topic modelling'', na mitundu yakupambanapambana ya kuvikira (''prediction''). Kweni, makina ghekha ghakukuzga umanyi kachoko pera cifukwa ghakukhumba ulongozgi wa ŵanthu na luso lwa kughanaghana; ndipo ghangapangiska kuti magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghasankhikwe panji nyengo zinyake ghangacita makora yayi kuluska ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breznau |first1=Nate |year=2022 |title=Integrating Computer Prediction Methods in Social Science: A Comment on Hofman et al. (2021) |journal=Social Science Computer Review |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=844–853 |doi=10.1177/08944393211049776 |doi-access=free |s2cid=248334446 |url=https://osf.io/adxb3/download |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429040922/https://osf.io/adxb3/download |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hofman |first1=Jake M. |last2=Watts |first2=Duncan J. |author2-link=Duncan J. Watts |last3=Athey |first3=Susan |author3-link=Susan Athey |last4=Garip |first4=Filiz |last5=Griffiths |first5=Thomas L. |author5-link=Tom Griffiths (cognitive scientist) |last6=Kleinberg |first6=Jon |author6-link=Jon Kleinberg |last7=Margetts |first7=Helen |author7-link=Helen Margetts |last8=Mullainathan |first8=Sendhil |author8-link=Sendhil Mullainathan |last9=Salganik |first9=Matthew J. |author9-link=Matthew J. Salganik |last10=Vazire |first10=Simine |author10-link=Simine Vazire |last11=Vespignani |first11=Alessandro |author11-link=Alessandro Vespignani |date=July 2021 |title=Integrating explanation and prediction in computational social science |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |volume=595 |issue=7866 |pages=181–188 |bibcode=2021Natur.595..181H |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03659-0 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=34194044 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925074416/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |access-date=25 September 2021 |s2cid=235697917}}</ref> === Kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi === Kasandiro ka vigaŵa vinandi (''interdisciplinary science'') kakukhwaska kuphatikiza vigaŵa viŵiri panji vinandi kuŵa chimoza,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nissani |first=M. |year=1995 |title=Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working Definition of Interdisciplinarity |journal=The Journal of Educational Thought |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=121–128 |doi=10.55016/ojs/jet.v29i2.52385 |doi-access=free|jstor=23767672}}</ref> nga ni ''bioinformatics'' (kuphatikiza ''biology'' na ''computer science'')<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalcodeoflif0000mood |title=Digital Code of Life: How Bioinformatics is Revolutionizing Science, Medicine, and Business |last=Moody |first=G. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-32788-2 |url-access=registration |page=vii |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> na ''cognitive sciences''. Maghanoghano agha ghaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya Ŵagiriki ŵakale, ndipo ghakamba kukondweka kaso mu zana la myaka la 20.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ausburg |first=Tanya |title=Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing |year=2006 |edition=2nd |location=New York}}</ref> == Kafukufuku == Kafukufuku wa kasandiro wangalembeka kuti ni wa muzu panji wa kugwiriskira ntchito. Kafukufuku wa muzu (''basic research'') ni kusaka umanyi, ndipo kafukufuku wa kugwiriskira ntchito (''applied research'') ni kusaka nthowa zakuthana masuzgo gha zuŵa na zuŵa pakugwiriskira ntchito umanyi uwu. Kupulikiska kunandi kukufuma mu kafukufuku wa muzu, nangauli nyengo zinyake kafukufuku wa kugwiriskira ntchito wakulingalira masuzgo ghenipo. Ici cikupangiska kuti paŵe tekinoloji zapya izo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga yayi pakwamba.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119113522/http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |title=To Live at All Is Miracle Enough |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |publisher=RichardDawkins.net |date=10 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> === Nthowa ya kasandiro === [[File:The Scientific Method.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Chithunzi cha nthowa ya kasandiro icho chikulongosoreka nga ni mzere wakulutilira|alt=Masitepu 6 gha nthowa ya kasandiro mu chizunguzunguzu]] Kafukufuku wa kasandiro ukugwiriskira ntchito nthowa ya kasandiro, iyo yikusaka kulongosora mwakwenenesko vyakucitika mu kawiro mu nthowa iyo yingabwerezgeka.<ref name="di Francia1976">{{cite book |last=di Francia |first=Giuliano Toraldo |chapter=The method of physics |title=The Investigation of the Physical World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1976 |pages=1–52 |isbn=978-0-521-29925-1 |quote=The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!}}</ref> Kanandi ŵasandi ŵakutora kuti ghanyake gha maghanoghano ghakwamba ni ghanenesko, agho ghakukhumbikwa kuti nthowa ya kasandiro yiŵe yakukhazikika: kuli caro chenichenicho icho ŵakuwona wose ŵakughanaghana makora ŵakugabana; caro ichi chenichenicho chikulongozgeka na dango za kawiro; dango izi zikasangika kwizira mu kuwona na kuyezgayezga mu nthowa yakukhazikika.<ref name="Heilbron2003" /> Masamu ghakukhumbikwa comene mu kupanga ''hypotheses'', ukaghanaghani, na dango, cifukwa ghakugwiriskika comene mu kupanga ''quantitative models'', kuwona, na kutora vyakupimika.<ref name=Popper2002 />{{rp|pp=3–26}} ''Statistics'' yikugwiriskika kuphatikiza na kusanda manambala, ico cikovwira ŵasandi kupima kuti vyakuyezgeka vikwenere kugomezgeka.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Diggle |first1=Peter J. |author-link=Peter Diggle |title=Statistics and Scientific Method: An Introduction for Students and Researchers |last2=Chetwynd |first2=Amanda G. |author2-link=Amanda Chetwynd |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954318-2 |pages=1–2}}</ref> Mu nthowa ya kasandiro, ''thought experiment'' panji ''hypothesis'' yakulongosora yikuŵikika nga ni chikaghanaghaniro pakugwiriskira ntchito ''parsimony principles'', ndipo yikukhumbikwa kusaka ''consilience''—kuyanirana na vyanenesko vinyake vyasikizgika vyakukhwaskana na chakuwonekapo panji fumbo la kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Edward |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |publisher=Vintage |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref> Chikaghanaghaniro ichi chakwamba chikugwiriskika kupanga vyakuvikira (''predictions'') vyakuti vingapusikizgika, ivyo kanandi ŵakulemba kwambere kuyezgayezga. Kupusikizga chakuvikira ni ukaboni wa kukhwima.<ref name="di Francia1976" />{{Rp|pages=4–5}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Fara |first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Fara |year=2009 |chapter=Decisions |title=Science: A Four Thousand Year History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-922689-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408 408] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/306}}</ref> Kuyezgayezga ni kwakukhumbikwa comene mu kasandiro kuti kuwovwire kupanga ubwezi wa chifukwa na chakucitika (''causal relationships'') kuti ŵaleke kugwa mu ''correlation fallacy'', kweni mu tusandiro tunyake nga ni ''astronomy'' panji ''geology'', chakuwonekapo chakuvikilika chingaŵa chawemi comene.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aldrich |first=John |journal=Statistical Science |volume=10 |year=1995 |pages=364–376 |title=Correlations Genuine and Spurious in Pearson and Yule |jstor=2246135 |doi=10.1214/ss/1177009870 |issue=4 |bibcode=1995StaSc..1009870A |doi-access=free}}</ref> Usange ''hypothesis'' yikulephera, ŵakuyisintha panji kuyiwusa. Usange yikuyimilira pa kuyezgayezga, yingatolekwa mu ndondomeko ya ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro (''scientific theory''), ''model'' yakughanaghanika makora, yakuyana yekha, panji ndondomeko yakulongosora makhaliro gha vyakucitika vinyake vya kawiro. Ukaghanaghani (''theory'') kanandi ukulongosora makhaliro gha vyakuwoneka vyanandi kuluska ''hypothesis''; kanandi, ''hypotheses'' zinandi zingaphatikizgika na ukaghanaghani umoza. Ntheura, ukaghanaghani ni ''hypothesis'' yikulongosora ''hypotheses'' zinyake zinandi. Mu nthowa iyi, ukaghanaghani ukupangika kuyana na mazgu gha kasandiro ghakuyana na gha ''hypotheses''. Ŵasandi ŵangapanga ''model'', chikaghanaghaniro cha kulongosora panji kulongora chakuwoneka mu nthowa ya ''logical'', ya ''physical'', panji ya masamu, na kupanga ''hypotheses'' zapya izo zingayezgeka pakuyezgayezga.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nola |first1=Robert |last2=Irzik |first2=Gürol |year=2005 |title=Philosophy, science, education and culture |volume=28 |series=Science & technology education library |isbn=978-1-4020-3769-6 |publisher=Springer |pages=207–230}}</ref> Apo ŵakuyezgayezga kuti ŵayeze ''hypotheses'', ŵasandi ŵangakondwa na chakuyezgeka chimoza kuluska chinyake.<ref>{{cite web |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |year=1999 |url=http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |title="Heads I win, tails you lose": A Foray Into the Psychology of Philosophy |publisher=University of Melbourne |access-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409054240/http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pease |first=Craig |date=6 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619154617/http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm |archive-date=19 June 2010 |title=Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science |website=Science for Business, Law and Journalism |publisher=Vermont Law School |url=http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm}}</ref> Kuwuskapo ukondelero uwu kungacitika kwizira mu kuwonekera (''transparency''), kupanga makora kuyezgayezga, na kupimiskika makora kwa vyakuyezgeka na vyakumalizira na ŵasandi ŵanyake (''peer review'').<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Shatz |year=2004 |title=Peer Review: A Critical Inquiry |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1434-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Sheldon |last=Krimsky |year=2003 |title=Science in the Private Interest: Has the Lure of Profits Corrupted the Virtue of Biomedical Research |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1479-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceinprivate0000krim}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti vyakuyezgeka vyatenderezgeka panji vyalembeka, ni chikozgero chawemi kuti ŵafukufuku ŵakujiyimirira ŵapime kuti kafukufuku wacitikira wuli, ndipo ŵalondezge na kucita ma ''experiments'' ghakuyana kuti ŵamanye kuti vyakuyezgeka vingagomezgeka wuli.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ruth Ellen |last1=Bulger |year=2002 |last2=Heitman |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Reiser |first3=Stanley Joel |title=The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-521-00886-0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Para nthowa ya kasandiro yagwiriskika yose, yikuzomerezga kuthana masuzgo mwaluso comene uku yikucepeska ukondelero wa munthu yekha na ukondelero wa kukhozgera ivyo wali kale kugomezga (''confirmation bias'').<ref>{{cite web |last=Backer |first=Patricia Ryaby |date=29 October 2004 |url=http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm |title=What is the scientific method? |publisher=San Jose State University |access-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408082917/http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm |archive-date=8 April 2008}}</ref> ''Intersubjective verifiability'', luso lakufika pa kuzomerezgana na kubwerezga vyakuyezgeka, ni lakukhumbikwa comene pakupanga umanyi wose wa kasandiro.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziman |first=John |title=Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1978c |isbn=978-0-521-22087-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42 42–76] |chapter=Common observation |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42}}</ref> === Vyakulembeka === [[File:Nature cover, November 4, 1869.jpg|thumb|Chikuto cha buku lakwamba la ''Nature'', 4 November 1869|alt=Mutu wa "NATURE" wakukometa, na malemba gha kasandiro pasi]] Kafukufuku wa kasandiro ukutenderezgeka mu vyakulembeka vyakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=John Ziman |last=Ziman |first=J. M. |journal=Science |title=The proliferation of scientific literature: a natural process |year=1980 |volume=208 |issue=4442 |pages=369–371 |doi=10.1126/science.7367863 |pmid=7367863 |bibcode=1980Sci...208..369Z}}</ref> Ma ''journal'' gha kasandiro (''scientific journals'') ghakumanyisha na kulemba vyakuyezgeka vya kafukufuku uwo ukucitika mu mayunivesite na malo ghanyake ghakufufuzira, ndipo ghakugwira ntchito nga ni vyakusunga vya mbiri ya kasandiro. Ma ''journal'' ghakwamba gha kasandiro, ''Journal des sçavans'' na pamanyuma ''Philosophical Transactions'', ghakamba kutenderezgeka mu 1665. Kufuma nyengo iyo, ciŵerengero cose ca ma ''periodical'' ghakugwira ntchito cikukura nyengo zose. Mu 1981, cilingo cimoza ca ciŵerengero ca ma ''journal'' gha kasandiro na gha tekinoloji ghakutenderezgeka cikaŵa 11,500.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Krishna |last1=Subramanyam |last2=Subramanyam |first2=Bhadriraju |year=1981 |title=Scientific and Technical Information Resources |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8247-8297-9}}</ref> Ma ''journal'' ghanandi gha kasandiro ghakukwata chigaŵa chimoza cha kasandiro ndipo ghakutenderezga kafukufuku wa mu chigaŵa ichi; kafukufuku uyu kanandi ukulembeka mu nkhani ya kasandiro (''scientific article''). Kasandiro kathandazgika comene mu caro cha sono mwakuti kukukhumbikwa kumanyisha ŵanthu ŵanandi ivyo ŵasandi ŵafikapo, nkhani, na ivyo ŵakukhumba.<ref name="Bush1945">{{cite web |last=Bush |first=Vannevar |date=July 1945 |title=Science the Endless Frontier |url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221306/https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=4 November 2016 |publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref> == Filosofi == [[File:Epicycle and deferent.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|Kwa Kuhn, kusazgapo kwa ''epicycles'' mu ''Ptolemaic astronomy'' kukaŵa "kasandiro kakawaleza" (''normal science'') mukati mwa ''paradigm'', apo ''Copernican Revolution'' yikaŵa kusintha kwa ''paradigm''.|alt=Chithunzi cha ''epicycles'', apo pulaneti likuzunguliza mu mzunguliro mukuru]] Pali masukulu ghakupambanapambana gha maghanoghano mu filosofi ya kasandiro (''philosophy of science''). Maghanoghano ghakukondwa comene ni ''empiricism'', agho ghakuti umanyi ukupangika kwizira mu nthowa yakukhwaska kuwona; ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro ukugaŵa ivyo ŵakuwona.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=39–56}} ''Empiricism'' kanandi yikukhwaska ''inductivism'', maghanoghano ghakulongosora umo ukaghanaghani wakuru ungapangikira kufuma ku ukaboni wacoko uwo ulipo. Mitundu yinandi ya ''empiricism'' yilipo, ndipo iyo yikumanyikwa comene ni ''Bayesianism'' na ''hypothetico-deductive method''.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=219–232}} ''Empiricism'' yikaŵa yakukangana na ''rationalism'', maghanoghano agho pakwamba ghakaŵa ghakukhwaskana na Descartes, agho ghakuti umanyi ukupangika na mano gha munthu, m'malo mwa kuwona.<ref name=pGS2003 >{{cite book |last=Godfrey-Smith |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryrealityint00godf |title=Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-30062-7 }}</ref>{{rp|pp=19–38}} ''Critical rationalism'' ni nthowa yakukangana ya zana la myaka la 20 pa kasandiro, iyo yikalongosoreka pakwamba na msambiri wa ku Austria na Britain, Karl Popper. Popper wakakana umo ''empiricism'' yikulongosolera ubwezi pakati pa ukaghanaghani na kuwona. Wakati ukaghanaghani ukupangika na kuwona yayi, kweni kuti kuwona kukupangika mwakuyana na ukaghanaghani, ndipo nthowa yimoza pera iyo ukaghanaghani A ungakhwaskikira na kuwona ni para ukaghanaghani A wasuskana na kuwona, kweni ukaghanaghani B wapona pa ivyo vikuwoneka.<ref name=pGS2003/>{{rp|pp=57–74}} Popper wakalongosora kuti ''falsifiability'' iŵikike m'malo mwa ''verifiability'' nga ni chimanyikwiro cha ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro, na ''falsification'' m'malo mwa ''induction'' nga ni nthowa ya ukaboni.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=102–121}} Popper wakasazgirapo kuti pali nadi nthowa yimoza pera ya caro cose, iyo yikukhwaskana na kasandiro yayi: nthowa ya kukanira, kuyezga na kuphonya (''trial and error''),<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=102–121}} iyo yikukhwaska vyose ivyo vikufuma mu mano gha munthu, kusazgapo kasandiro, masamu, filosofi, na luso.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl |title=Objective Knowledge |year=1972}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake, ''instrumentalism'', yikudidimizga phindu la ukaghanaghani nga ni vipangizo vyakulongosolera na kuvikira vyakuwoneka. Yikuwona ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro nga ni mabokosi ghafipa, ndipo ivyo vikunjilirapo pera (mikhaliro yakwamba) na ivyo vikufumamo (vyakuvikira) ndivyo vikukhumbikwa. Vyakumalizira, vinthu vya ukaghanaghani, na ukhazikiko wa maghanoghano vikuyowoyeka kuti vikwenera kulekeka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Newton-Smith |first=W. H. |url=https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt |title=The Rationality of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7100-0913-5 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt/page/30 30] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Pafupi na ''instrumentalism'' pali ''constructive empiricism'', iyo yikuti chimanyikwiro chikuru cha kupambana kwa ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro ni usange ivyo ukuyowoya pa vinthu vyakuwoneka ni vyanenesko.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Votsis |first=I. |year=2004 |title=The Epistemological Status of Scientific Theories: An Investigation of the Structural Realist Account |publisher=University of London, London School of Economics |degree=PhD |page=39}}</ref> Thomas Kuhn wakayowoya kuti nthowa ya kuwona na kupima yikucitika mu ''paradigm'', "chithunzi" cha caro icho chikuyana na ivyo vikuwoneka kufuma mu chikopa chake. Wakalongosora ''normal science'' nga ni nthowa ya kuwona na "kuthana masuzgo gha ''puzzle''" iyo yikucitika mu ''paradigm'', apo ''revolutionary science'' yikucitika para ''paradigm'' yimoza yikupambana yinyake mu ''paradigm shift''.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Bird |first=Alexander |year=2013 |editor1-last=Zalta |editor1-first=Edward N. |title=Thomas Kuhn |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715191833/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |archive-date=15 July 2020 |access-date=26 October 2015 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> ''Paradigm'' iliyose yili na mafumbo, vilato, na ng'anamuro ghake. Kusankha pakati pa ma ''paradigm'' kukukhwaska kuŵika "vithunzi" viŵiri panji vinandi pa caro na kusankha kuti ni cithunzi wuli icho chikuyana comene. ''Paradigm shift'' yikucitika para vinthu vinandi vya kuwona vyambura kuyana vikusangika mu ''paradigm'' yakale, ndipo ''paradigm'' yapya yikuvilongosora. Ntheura, kusankha ''paradigm'' yapya kukuthemba pa kuwona, nangauli kuwona uku kukucitika mu ukhaliro wa ''paradigm'' yakale. Kwa Kuhn, kuzomera panji kukana ''paradigm'' ni nthowa ya ŵanthu nga umo vikuŵira na nthowa ya maghanoghano. Kweni, maghanoghano gha Kuhn ghali ''relativism'' yayi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuhn |first=Thomas S. |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-226-45804-5 |edition=2nd |page=206 |access-date=30 May 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019102817/https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake iyo kanandi yikuyowoyeka mu kukangana kwa kuwona kwa kasandiro (''scientific scepticism'') kuwukira magulu ghakukangana nga ni "''creation science''" ni ''methodological naturalism''. Ŵanaturalisti ŵakuti kupambana kukwenera kupangika pakati pa cakawiro na cakuzuwa, ndipo kasandiro kakwenera kuŵa na vyakulongosora vya kawiro pera.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=149–162}} ''Methodological naturalism'' yikuti kasandiro kakukhumba kuyimilira makora pa kusanda kwa ukaboni na kukhozgeka kwakujiyimirira.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brugger |first=E. Christian |year=2004 |title=Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition |journal=The Review of Metaphysics |volume=58 |issue=2}}</ref> Fumbo limoza la filosofi ya kasandiro ni umo ukaboni na ukaghanaghani wa kasandiro ungalongozgera ku visankho. Nga umo ''is-ought problem'' yikulongosolera, vyanenesko vyekha vingasankha yayi ivyo vikwenera kuŵa. Ici cikukhwaska maghanoghano gha ''value-ladenness'': umo visankho ivyo vikupangika pa ivyo kasandiro kasanga vikuthemba pa mtengo wa vinthu.<ref>{{Citation |last=Ward |first=Zina B. |chapter=What Does it Mean to say That Science is Value-Laden? |date=2026-03-10 |title=The Routledge Handbook of Values and Science |pages=74–83 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781003469100/chapters/10.4324/9781003469100-8 |access-date=2026-03-23 |edition= |place=New York |publisher=Routledge |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781003469100-8 |isbn=978-1-003-46910-0}}</ref> == Gulu la ŵasandi == Gulu la ŵasandi (''scientific community'') ni mtolo wa ŵasandi awo ŵakukolerana ndipo ŵakucita kafukufuku wa kasandiro. Gulu ili lili na magulu ghachokoghachoko agho ghakugwira ntchito mu vigaŵa vya kasandiro. Kwizira mu ''peer review'', kukambirana na kukangana mu ma ''journal'' na mu ma ''conference'', ŵasandi ŵakusunga ukwenere wa nthowa za kafukufuku na kuŵa ŵambura kupendelera para ŵakulongosora vyakuyezgeka.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kornfeld |first1=W. |last2=Hewitt |first2=C. E. |year=1981 |title=The Scientific Community Metaphor |url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=24–33 |doi=10.1109/TSMC.1981.4308575 |bibcode=1981ITSMC..11...24K |hdl-access=free |hdl=1721.1/5693 |s2cid=1322857 |access-date=26 May 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408100757/http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Ŵasandi === [[File:Marie Curie c. 1920s.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Marie Curie wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kupokera Mphoto ziŵiri za Nobel: ''Physics'' mu 1903 na kemistri mu 1911.<ref name="Estreicher1938" />|alt=Chithunzi cha mwanakazi wa vyaka vyapakati]] Ŵasandi (''scientists'') ni ŵanthu awo ŵakucita kafukufuku wa kasandiro kuti ŵakuzge umanyi mu chigaŵa icho ŵakukhumba.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |title=Eusocial climbers |publisher=E. O. Wilson Foundation |access-date=3 September 2018 |quote=But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says. |archive-date=27 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427085753/https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |title=Our definition of a scientist |publisher=Science Council |access-date=7 September 2018 |quote=A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge. |archive-date=23 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823135636/https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵangalongora kukhumba comene kumanya caro chenichenicho na khumbo lakugwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa kasandiro ku phindu la umoyo wa ŵanthu, fuko, kawiro, panji ma fakitale; vyakukhumba vinyake ni kumanyikwa na ŵasandi ŵanyawo na ulemu.<ref name=leeEtal2007/> Mu nyengo za sono, ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakusambira mu vigaŵa vyapadera vya kasandiro mu malo gha masambiro, kanandi ŵakupokera ma ''degree'' gha pachanya.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cyranoski |first1=David |last2=Gilbert |first2=Natasha |last3=Ledford |first3=Heidi |last4=Nayar |first4=Anjali |author4-link=Anjali Nayar |last5=Yahia |first5=Mohammed |year=2011 |title=Education: The PhD factory |journal=Nature |volume=472 |issue=7343 |pages=276–279 |doi=10.1038/472276a |pmid=21512548 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..276C |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵakulondezga ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana nga ni masambiro, mafakitale, boma, na mabungwe ghambura kusanga phindu.<ref name=kwok2017>{{cite journal |last1=Kwok |first1=Roberta |title=Flexible working: Science in the gig economy |journal=Nature |volume=550 |pages=419–421 |doi=10.1038/nj7677-549a |year=2017 |issue=7677 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=woolston2024 >{{cite journal |year=2024 |title=How researchers in remote regions handle the isolation |journal=Nature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01523-5 |last1=Woolston |first1=Chris |volume=629 |issue=8014 |pages=1193–1195 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-01523-5 |pmid=38789626 |bibcode=2024Natur.629.1193W |archive-date=13 June 2024 |access-date=27 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613002615/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01523-5 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=leeEtal2007>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Adrian |last2=Dennis |first2=Carina |last3=Campbell |first3=Phillip |year=2007 |title=Nature's guide for mentors |journal=Nature |volume=447 |issue=7677 |pages=791–797 |doi=10.1038/447791a |doi-access=free |pmid=17568738 |bibcode=2007Natur.447..791L }}</ref> Kasandiro kali na mbiri yakuŵa ka ŵanalume comene, kweni pali ŵakuwonekera. Ŵanakazi ŵasuzgika comene mu kasandiro kufuma kale. Mwachiyelezgero, kanandi ŵanakazi ŵakajumphikanga pa mwaŵi wa ntchito ndipo ŵakakanizgika ulemu wa ntchito yawo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Leigh Ann |title=Women's History as Scientists |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003}}</ref> Ivyo ŵanakazi ŵasanga mu kasandiro vikulongosoreka nga ni kukana ntchito yawo yakale ya kuŵa ŵantchito mu nyumba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spanier |first=Bonnie |title=Im/partial Science: Gender Identity in Molecular Biology |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-253-20968-9 |chapter=From Molecules to Brains, Normal Science Supports Sexist Beliefs about Difference}}</ref> Sonosono apa kusankhana ŵanalume kwawonekeka mu vigaŵa vinyake vya gulu la ŵasandi.<ref name="l841">{{cite journal | last=Desposato | first=Scott W. | title=Where You Go, What You Do, Who You Are: Predictors of Political Science Job-Market Outcomes, 2023–2024 | journal=PS: Political Science & Politics | volume=59 | issue=4 | date=2026 | issn=1049-0965 | doi=10.1017/S1049096526102182 | pages=667–683 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1049096526102182/type/journal_article | access-date=2026-09-15}}</ref><ref name="m735">{{cite journal | last1=Gërxhani | first1=Klarita | last2=Kulic | first2=Nevena | last3=Rusconi | first3=Alessandra | last4=Solga | first4=Heike | title=Gender bias in evaluating assistant professorship applicants? Evidence from harmonized survey experiments in Germany and Italy | journal=Social Science Research | volume=126 | date=2025 | doi=10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103113 | doi-access=free | article-number=103113 | pmid=39909620 | hdl=1871.1/50358537-4ba1-49ee-aab3-29cef8e950ce | hdl-access=free }}</ref> === Mabungwe gha ŵasambiri === [[File:200 y Anniversary of Berlin Academy 1900.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵasandi pa chikumbusko cha vyaka 200 vya ''Prussian Academy of Sciences'', 1900]] Mabungwe gha ŵasambiri (''learned societies'') gha kumanyisha na kukuzga maghanoghano na kuyezgayezga kwa kasandiro ghaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya ''Renaissance''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parrott |first=Jim |date=9 August 2007 |url=http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |title=Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599 |publisher=Scholarly Societies Project |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106185404/http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanandi ŵali mu bungwe la ŵasambiri ilo likukuzga chigaŵa chawo cha kasandiro, ntchito, panji gulu la vigaŵa vyakukhwaskana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |title=The Environmental Studies Association of Canada – What is a Learned Society? |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529163615/http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref> Umembala ungaŵa wakujulika kwa wose, kukhumbikwira ma ''credential'' gha kasandiro, panji kupelekeka kwizira mu kusankhika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |title=Learned societies & academies |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603140851/http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |archive-date=3 June 2014}}</ref> Mabungwe ghanandi gha kasandiro ghambura kusanga phindu,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2019 |title=Learned Societies, the key to realising an open access future? |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |access-date=22 January 2023 |website=Impact of Social Sciences |publisher=London School of Economics |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205140831/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ndipo ghanandi ni mabungwe gha ŵantchito. Ntchito zawo kanandi zikukhwaska kucita ma ''conference'' ghakuyendera nyengo kuti ŵalongosore na kukambirana vyakuyezgeka vyapya vya kafukufuku, na kutenderezga panji kuwovwira ma ''academic journal'' mu chigaŵa chawo. Mabungwe ghanyake ghakugwira nga ni mathupi gha ŵantchito, ghakulongolera ntchito za ŵembala ŵawo ku phindu la ŵanthu wose, panji phindu la ŵembala wose. Kuŵa kwa kasandiro nga ni ntchito yakukhazikika, uko kukayamba mu zana la myaka la 19, kukawovwirika na kupangika kwa ma ''academy'' gha fuko gha kasandiro, nga ni ''Accademia dei Lincei'' ya ku Italy mu 1603,<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |url=http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |title=Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei |language=it |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228005402/http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |archive-date=28 February 2010}}</ref> ''Royal Society'' ya ku Britain mu 1660,<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2004 |title=Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building |url=http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |access-date=7 December 2009 |publisher=The Royal Society |archive-date=9 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409010143/https://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |url-status=live}}</ref> ''French Academy of Sciences'' mu 1666,<ref>{{cite web |first=G. G. |last=Meynell |url=http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |title=The French Academy of Sciences, 1666–91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666–83) and Louvois (1683–91) |access-date=13 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118174108/http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> ''National Academy of Sciences'' ya ku America mu 1863,<ref>{{cite web |title=Founding of the National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |access-date=12 March 2012 |publisher=.nationalacademies.org |archive-date=3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203154802/http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Kaiser Wilhelm Society'' ya ku Germany mu 1911,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (1911) |url=https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |access-date=30 May 2022 |publisher=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302052520/https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |url-status=live}}</ref> na ''Chinese Academy of Sciences'' mu 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=Chinese Academy of Sciences |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331215338/https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> Mabungwe gha caro cose gha kasandiro, nga ni ''International Science Council'', ghakujipeleka ku kugwirizgana pakati pa vyaru kuti kasandiro kakule.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2018 |title=Two main Science Councils merge to address complex global challenges |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |access-date=21 October 2018 |publisher=UNESCO |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712044005/https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |url-status=live}}</ref> === Mphoto === Mphoto za kasandiro kanandi zikupelekeka ku ŵanthu panji mabungwe agho ghawovwira comene pa chigaŵa chinyake. Kanandi zikupelekeka na mabungwe ghakumanyikwa; ntheura, kupokera mphoto kukuwonekwa nga ni ulemu ukuru comene ku msandi. Kufuma kwambere kwa ''Renaissance'', ŵasandi kanandi ŵakapokera ma ''medal'', ndalama, na mazina gha ulemu. Mphoto ya Nobel (''Nobel Prize''), iyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti njakuzirwa comene, yikupelekeka chaka chiliconse ku awo ŵafika pa kukula kwa kasandiro mu munkhwala, ''physics'', na kemistri.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=7 October 2014 |title=How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth? |newspaper=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet |url-status=live |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619044702/https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet/ |archive-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> == Kasandiro na ŵanthu == === Ndalama na ndondomeko === [[File:NASA-Budget-Federal.svg|thumb|class=skin-invert-image|upright=1.4|Ndalama za NASA nga ni cigaŵa ca ndalama za boma la United States, zikufika pa 4.4% mu 1966, ndipo zikuchepa pang'ono-pang'ono kufuma apo|alt=wonani mazgu gha chithunzi]] Kuwovwira kasandiro na ndalama kanandi kukucitika mu nthowa yakukangana, apo mapulani gha kafukufuku ghakuyezgeka ndipo agho ghali na ukaboni wawemi pera ghakupokera ndalama. Nthowa izi, izo zikulongozgeka na boma, ma kampani, panji ma ''foundation'', zikugaŵa ndalama zichoko. Ndalama zose za kafukufuku mu vyaru vinandi vyakukula zili pakati pa 1.5% na 3% ya ''GDP''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |title=Main Science and Technology Indicators&nbsp;– 2008-1 |publisher=[[OECD]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215172528/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010}}</ref> Mu ''OECD'', pafupifupi magaŵa ghaŵiri pa ghatatu gha kafukufuku na kukuzga mu vigaŵa vya kasandiro na tekinoloji ghakucitika na ma fakitale, ndipo 20% na 10%, mwakuyana, ghakucitika na yunivesite na boma. Cigaŵa ca ndalama za boma mu vigaŵa vinyake ni chikuru, ndipo boma lili na ulongozgi wa kafukufuku wa tusandiro twa ŵanthu na vya cikolo (''humanities''). Mu vyaru vyambura kukula, boma likupereka ndalama zinandi za kafukufuku wawo wa muzu wa kasandiro.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |title=OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015: Innovation for growth and society |publisher=OECD |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-64-23978-4 |page=156 |doi=10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2015-en |via=oecd-ilibrary.org |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525063455/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |url-status=live}}</ref> Maboma ghanandi ghali na mabungwe ghakuwovwira kafukufuku wa kasandiro, nga ni ''National Science Foundation'' ku United States,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kevles |first=Daniel |year=1977 |title=The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942–1945 |journal=Isis |volume=68 |issue=241 |pages=4–26 |doi=10.1086/351711 |pmid=320157 |s2cid=32956693}}</ref> ''National Scientific and Technical Research Council'' ku Argentina,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Argentina, National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) |url=https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=International Science Council |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516220311/https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation'' ku Australia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Innis |first=Michelle |date=17 May 2016 |title=Australia to Lay Off Leading Scientist on Sea Levels |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507080237/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |archive-date=7 May 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> ''National Centre for Scientific Research'' ku France,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Le CNRS recherche 10.000 passionnés du blob |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=[[Le Figaro]] |language=fr |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427225305/https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |url-status=live}}</ref> ''Max Planck Society'' ku Germany,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bredow |first=Rafaela von |date=18 December 2021 |title=How a Prestigious Scientific Organization Came Under Suspicion of Treating Women Unequally |work=Der Spiegel |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |access-date=31 May 2022 |issn=2195-1349 |archive-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529004707/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |url-status=live}}</ref> na ''National Research Council'' ku Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 May 2022 |title=En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia |url=https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=EL MUNDO |language=es |archive-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513185034/https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu kafukufuku na kukuzga wa ma kampani, ma kampani ghose kweka agho ghakulingalira comene kafukufuku ghakulingalira comene nthowa zakusanga phindu la pafupi kuluska kafukufuku uwo ukulongozgeka na kukhumba kumanya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Anthony C. |last2=Bourne |first2=Philip E. |date=27 September 2012 |title=Ten Simple Rules To Commercialize Scientific Research |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |volume=8 |issue=9 |article-number=e1002712 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002712 |issn=1553-734X |pmc=3459878 |pmid=23028299 |bibcode=2012PLSCB...8E2712F |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ndondomeko za kasandiro (''science policy'') zikukwata ndondomeko izo zikukhwima kucitika kwa ntchito ya kasandiro, kusazgapo ndalama za kafukufuku, kanandi kuti zifikire vilato vinyake vya fuko nga ni kupanga vinthu vyapya vya tekinoloji kuti ziwovwire kupanga vinthu vya malonda, kupanga vilwero, umoyo, na kusunga kawiro. Nyengo zinyake ndondomeko za kasandiro zikung'anamura kugwiriskira ntchito umanyi wa kasandiro na kuyanirana mu kupanga ndondomeko za ŵanthu wose. Pakuti ndondomeko za ŵanthu wose zikulingalira umoyo wawemi wa ŵanthu ŵa fuko, cilato ca ndondomeko za kasandiro ni kuwona umo kasandiro na tekinoloji zingawovwirira ŵanthu mwawemi comene.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marburger |first=John Harmen III |title=Science policy up close |date=10 February 2015 |others=Crease, Robert P. |isbn=978-0-674-41709-0 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Ndondomeko za ŵanthu wose zingakhwaska mwakuwonekera ndalama za vipangizo na vyakuzenga vya maghanoghano vya kafukufuku wa ma fakitale mwakupereka vyakuvwira vya msonkho ku mabungwe agho ghakuwovwira kafukufuku.<ref name="Bush1945" /> === Chisambizo na kumanya === [[File:Dinosaur exhibit - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01881.JPG|thumb|upright=1.13|Chakulongora cha ''dinosaur'' mu ''Houston Museum of Natural Science'']] Chisambizo cha kasandiro cha ŵanthu wose chili mu ''curriculum'' ya vikolo, ndipo chikuwovwirika na vyakusambizga vya pa intaneti (nga ni YouTube na Khan Academy), malo gha vyakale (museums), na magazini na ma ''blog'' gha kasandiro. Mabungwe ghakuru gha ŵasandi nga ni ''American Association for the Advancement of Science'' (AAAS) ghakuwona tusandiro nga ni chigaŵa cha ''liberal arts'' ya kusambira, pamoza na filosofi na mbiri.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauch |first1=Hugh G. |title=Scientific Method in Brief |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-66672-6 |pages=7–10}}</ref> Kumanya kasandiro (''scientific literacy'') kukukhwaska comene kumanya nthowa ya kasandiro, ma ''unit'' na nthowa za kupima, ''empiricism'', kumanya kwa muzu kwa ''statistics'' (''correlations'', kuwona kwa ''qualitative'' na ''quantitative'', ''aggregate statistics''), na kumanya kwa muzu kwa vigaŵa vikuru vya kasandiro nga ni ''physics'', kemistri, ''biology'', ''ecology'', ''geology'', na kompyuta. Apo msambiri wakukura pa magawo gha pachanya gha chisambizo, ''curriculum'' yikuŵa yakuzamirika. Vyakusambira vyakale vyakukhwimika mu ''curriculum'' ni tusandiro twa kawiro na twa dango, nangauli kusintha kwa sono kukukhwaska tusandiro twa ŵanthu na twa kugwiriskira ntchito.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Benneworth |first1=Paul |last2=Jongbloed |first2=Ben W. |date=31 July 2009 |title=Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation |journal=Higher Education |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 |issn=0018-1560 |doi-access=free |url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024214150/https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Ma ''mass media'' ghali na masuzgo agho ghangaleka kulongora makora vyakukangana vya kasandiro mu ukaboni wawo mu gulu lose la ŵasandi. Kusankha kuti ni kuzito wuli wakupereka ku mbali zakupambana pa kukangana kwa kasandiro kungakhumba umanyi wanandi pa nkhani yeniyo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dickson |first=David |date=11 October 2004 |title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=Science and Development Network}}</ref> Ŵalemba nkhani ŵachoko ŵali na umanyi wanenesko wa kasandiro, ndipo ŵalemba nkhani awo ŵakumanya makora vya nkhani zinyake za kasandiro ŵangaŵa ŵambura kumanya nkhani zinyake izo ŵakukhumbikwa kulemba mwaluŵiro.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=Nov–Dec 2004 |title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |url-status=live |magazine=Columbia Journalism Review |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |archive-date=17 January 2010 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIlwaine |first1=S. |last2=Nguyen |first2=D. A. |year=2005 |title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science? |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Studies in Journalism |volume=14 |pages=41–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref> Magazini gha kasandiro nga ni ''New Scientist'', ''Science & Vie'', na ''Scientific American'' ghakwenerana na ŵawerengi ŵanandi comene ndipo ghakupereka ucidule wambula mazgu gha ukatswiri gha vigaŵa vya kafukufuku vyakukondweka, kusazgapo vyakusangika na kukula mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Webb |author-first=Sarah |title=Popular science: Get the word out |journal=Nature |volume=504 |issue=7478 |pages=177–179 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24312943 |doi=10.1038/nj7478-177a |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mtundu wa ''science fiction'', comene ''speculative fiction'', ungatumizga maghanoghano na nthowa za kasandiro ku ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilde |first=Fran |author-link=Fran Wilde (author) |date=21 January 2016 |title=How Do You Like Your Science Fiction? Ten Authors Weigh In On 'Hard' vs. 'Soft' SF |url=https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404025029/https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |archive-date=4 April 2019 |access-date=4 April 2019 |website=Tor.com}}</ref> Ntchito za sono gha kukuzga ubwezi pakati pa kasandiro na vigaŵa vyambura kuŵa kasandiro, nga ni mabuku panji ndakatulo, ghakukhwaska ''Creative Writing Science'' iyo yikapangika kwizira mu ''Royal Literary Fund''.<ref>{{cite web |first=Mario |last=Petrucci |url=http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |title=Creative Writing&nbsp;– Science |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106015539/http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |archive-date=6 January 2009}}</ref> === Maghanoghano ghakususka kasandiro === Nangauli nthowa ya kasandiro yikuzomerezgeka comene mu gulu la ŵasandi, magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghakukana vyakusankha vinyake vya kasandiro panji ghakukayikiska kasandiro. Nga ni, maghanoghano ghakuti COVID-19 yili kuopsa kukuru yayi ku umoyo ku US (ghakuŵa na 39% ya ŵaAmerica mu August 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tyson |first1=Alec |last2=Funk |first2=Cary |last3=Kennedy |first3=Brian |last4=Johnson |first4=Courtney |date=15 September 2021 |title=Majority in U.S. Says Public Health Benefits of COVID-19 Restrictions Worth the Costs, Even as Large Shares Also See Downsides |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center Science & Society |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809114234/https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |url-status=live}}</ref> panji cikhulupiro cakuti kusintha kwa nyengo (''climate change'') kuli kuopsa kukuru yayi ku US (cikuŵaso na 40% ya ŵaAmerica, pakumaliza kwa 2019 na kwamba kwa 2020).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Brian |title=U.S. concern about climate change is rising, but mainly among Democrats |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803101033/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasambiri ŵa ''psychology'' ŵalongora vifukwa vinandi vikupangiska kukana vyakuyezgeka vya kasandiro:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Philipp-Muller |first1=Aviva |last2=Lee |first2=Spike W. S. |last3=Petty |first3=Richard E. |date=26 July 2022 |title=Why are people antiscience, and what can we do about it? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=119 |issue=30 |article-number=e2120755119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120755119 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9335320 |pmid=35858405 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920755P}}</ref> * Ŵalongozgi ŵa kasandiro nyengo zinyake ŵakuwonekwa nga ni ŵambura umanyi, ŵambura kugomezgeka, panji ŵakupendelera. * Magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ghasuzgika ghali na maghanoghano ghakususka kasandiro, mu mbali cifukwa magulu agha kaŵiri ghakagwiriskika mu kuyezgayezga kwambura ukwenere.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Test of Three Theories of Anti-Science Attitudes |year=2008 |doi=10.1080/00380237.2008.10571338 |last1=Gauchat |first1=Gordon William |journal=Sociological Focus |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=337–357 |s2cid=144645723}}</ref> * Mauthenga gha ŵasandi ghangakangana na vikhulupiro panji milandu yakuŵika makora. Maghanoghano ghakususka kasandiro kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ghakupangika na mantha gha kukanikwa mu magulu gha ŵanthu. Mwachiyelezgero, kusintha kwa nyengo kukuwonekwa nga ni kuopsa na 22% pera ya ŵaAmerica ŵa mbali ya kumalyero ya ndale, kweni na 85% ya ŵa mbali ya kumazere.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Poushter |first1=Jacob |last2=Fagan |first2=Moira |last3=Gubbala |first3=Sneha |date=31 August 2022 |title=Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |access-date=5 September 2022 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831225832/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ntheura, usange munthu wa kumazere wakuwona kuti kusintha kwa nyengo kuli kuopsa yayi, munthu uyu wangasuzgika na kunyozgeka na kukanikwa mu gulu ilo. Cenicenico, ŵanthu ŵangakana cinenesko ico kasandiro kasikizga kuluska kuluza panji kuvuska cikhazikiko cawo mu gulu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McRaney |first=David |title=How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion, and Persuasion |publisher=Portfolio/Penguin |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-593-19029-6 |location=New York}}</ref> === Ndale === [[File:2021 Survey on existence of global warming and responsibility for climate change - bar chart.svg|alt=Zakuyezgeka za mafumbo ghaŵiri ("Kodi kutentha kwa caro kukucitika?" na "Kodi ma kampani gha mafuta/gasi ghali na mulandu?"), zikulongora kupambana kukuru pakati pa ŵa Democrat na ŵa Republican ŵa America|thumb|Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa kutentha kwa caro ku United States kuyana na chipani cha ndale<ref>{{cite news |last1=McGreal |first1=Chris |date=26 October 2021 |title=Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026122356/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |archive-date=26 October 2021 |quote=Source: Guardian/Vice/CCN/YouGov poll. Note: ±4% margin of error.}}</ref>|upright=1.4]] Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa kasandiro kanandi ghakusankhika na maghanoghano na vyakukhumba vya ndale. Boma, ŵamalonda, na magulu ghakuwovwira ghaziŵika kugwiriskira ntchito kukakamizga kwa dango na ndalama kuti ghasinthe ŵafukufuku ŵa kasandiro. Vifukwa vinandi vingaŵa nga ni mbali za kuŵika kasandiro mu ndale, nga ni kukana ŵasambiri (''anti-intellectualism''), kuopa kuti vikhulupiro vya cisopo vingapusikizgika, na mantha gha phindu la ma kampani.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeanne |year=2017 |title=The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=34–39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |archive-date=16 August 2018 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> Kuŵika kasandiro mu ndale kanandi kukucitika apo mauthenga gha kasandiro ghakulongosoleka mu nthowa iyo yikugomezga kuti ukaboni wa kasandiro wali na kusasimikizgika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bolsen |first1=Toby |last2=Druckman |first2=James N. |author2-link=James N. Druckman |year=2015 |title=Counteracting the Politicization of Science |journal=Journal of Communication |issue=65 |page=746}}</ref> Nthowa nga ni kusintha nkhani, kukana kuvisikira vyanenesko, na kugwiriskira ntchito kukayika pa kuyanirana kwa ŵasandi zagwiriskika kuti ziwonjezge kutchera khutu ku maghanoghano agho ukaboni wa kasandiro wagakana.<ref name="Freudenberg2008">{{cite journal |last1=Freudenberg |first1=William F. |last2=Gramling |first2=Robert |last3=Davidson |first3=Debra J. |year=2008 |title=Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt |url=http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=2–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126214329/http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2020 |access-date=12 April 2020 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Vyakucitika ivyo vikukhwaska kuŵika kasandiro mu ndale vikukhwaska kukangana pa kutentha kwa caro, vyakuopsa vya umoyo vya mankhwala gha kupha tuvinyama, na vyakuopsa vya umoyo vya fodya.<ref name="Freudenberg2008" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Linden |first1=Sander |last2=Leiserowitz |first2=Anthony |last3=Rosenthal |first3=Seth |last4=Maibach |first4=Edward |year=2017 |title=Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/270860/1/global%20challenges.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Global Challenges |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=1 |doi=10.1002/gch2.201600008 |doi-access=free |pmc=6607159 |pmid=31565263 |bibcode=2017GloCh...100008V |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404185312/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/270860/global%20challenges.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=4 April 2020 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> === Masuzgo === ''Replication crisis'' ni suzgo likuru ilo likuphatika mbali zinyake za kasandiro, apo vyakuyezgeka vya cigaŵa ca kafukufuku vyalongora kuti vyambura kubwerezgeka.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1038/515009a |title=Metascience could rescue the 'replication crisis' |journal=Nature |volume=515 |issue=7525 |page=9 |year=2014 |last1=Schooler |first1=J. W. |pmid=25373639 |bibcode=2014Natur.515....9S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Suzgo ili lili na mizu ya kale; lizgu ili likapangika kwamba kwa 2010 nga ni mbali ya kumanya suzgo ili kukura.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1177/1745691612465253 |title=Editors' Introduction to the Special Section on Replicability in Psychological Science: A Crisis of Confidence? |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=528–530 |year=2012 |last1=Pashler |first1=Harold |last2=Wagenmakers |first2=Eric Jan |pmid=26168108 |s2cid=26361121 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kafukufuku wa kubwerezga wa 2026 wakasanga kuti kubwerezgeka kwa vyakuyezgeka kuli kwacoko mu tusandiro twa ŵanthu na twa makhaliro (business, ''economics'', chisambizo, ''political science'', ''psychology'' na ''sociology'').<ref name="c901">{{cite journal | last1=Tyner | first1=Andrew H. | last2=Abatayo | first2=Anna Lou | last3=Daley | first3=Mason | last4=Field | first4=Samuel | last5=Fox | first5=Nicholas | title=Investigating the replicability of the social and behavioural sciences | journal=Nature | volume=652 | issue=8108 | date=2026-04-01 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/s41586-025-10078-y | pages=143–150 |display-authors=1 | pmid=41922700 | bibcode=2026Natur.652..143T | url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/1fa174e4-3f91-489f-aa67-c0cccf90c5ba }}</ref> ''Replication crisis'' yikuŵa chigaŵa chikuru cha kafukufuku mu ''metascience'', iyo yikulingalira kukuzga ukwenere na ukoma wa kafukufuku wa kasandiro na kucepeska kutaya ndalama na ntchito.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ioannidis |first1=John P. A. |last2=Fanelli |first2=Daniele |last3=Dunne |first3=Debbie Drake |last4=Goodman |first4=Steven N. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Meta-research: Evaluation and Improvement of Research Methods and Practices |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=–1002264 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002264 |pmid=26431313 |pmc=4592065 |issn=1545-7885 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kubwerezgeka kwacoko kwa kasandiro kungacepeska kuzomerezgeka kwake.<ref name="f898">{{cite journal | last1=Peels | first1=Rik | last2=Bouter | first2=Lex | title=Replication and trustworthiness | journal=Accountability in Research | volume=30 | issue=2 | date=2023 | issn=0898-9621 | doi=10.1080/08989621.2021.1963708 | pages=77–87 | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08989621.2021.1963708 | access-date=2026-08-20}}</ref> Mazgu ghakuti ''scientific misconduct'' ghakukwata nyengo apo ŵafukufuku ŵali kulongora mwakusankha vyakuyezgeka vyawo vyatenderezgeka mwakubudika panji kupereka ulemu wa cakupanga kwa munthu wakubudika mwakusankha.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Coping with fraud |journal=The COPE Report 1999 |pages=11–18 |url=http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151119/http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |quote=It is 10 years, to the month, since Stephen Lock&nbsp;... Reproduced with kind permission of the Editor, The Lancet. |archive-date=28 September 2007 |url-status=usurped |access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> Chigaŵa cha kusanda panji kughanaghana icho chikuyeghesa kuŵa kasandiro kuti chisange ulemu uwo chingasange chambura ici, nyengo zinyake chikucemeka ''pseudoscience'', ''fringe science'', panji ''junk science''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science |title=Science and Pseudoscience |at=Section 2: The "science" of pseudoscience |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first1=Sven Ove |last1=Hansson |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |date=3 September 2008 |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029205141/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shermer |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Shermer |year=1997 |title=Why people believe weird things: pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965594875 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Co. |isbn=978-0-7167-3090-3 |page=17}}</ref> Msandi wa ''physics'' Richard Feynman wakapanga lizgu "''cargo cult science''" ku vyakucitika apo ŵafukufuku ŵakukhulupira, ndipo pakuwona kwa cokha ŵakuwoneka nga ŵakucita kasandiro, kweni ŵambula uneneski wakuleka kuti vyakuyezgeka vyawo vipimike makora.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |title=Cargo Cult Science |last=Feynman |first=Richard |year=1974 |website=Center for Theoretical Neuroscience |publisher=Columbia University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050304032544/http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |archive-date=4 March 2005 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> Mitundu yakupambanapambana ya malonda gha kutumizga, kufuma pa kudikizga kufikira pa vigeŵa, ingaŵa mu magulu agha. Kasandiro kali kulongosoleka nga ni "cipangizo cikuru comene" ca kupambanisha vyakulongosora vyanenesko na vyambura kuŵa vyanenesko.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novella |first=Steven |title=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake |title-link=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book) |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4736-9641-9 |page=162 |author-link=Steven Novella}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake, kafukufuku ungaŵa wa maghanoghano ghawemi kweni wakusuzga, wakale, wambura kukwana, panji wakulongosora kasandiro mwacoko comene. Ufulu wa cisambizo ungacepeskeka na kuletsa kasandiro kuyendera maboma, mabungwe, ŵasandi ŵanyake, panji kujizizika.<ref name="h812">{{cite journal | last1=Clark | first1=Cory J. | last2=Jussim | first2=Lee | last3=Frey | first3=Komi | last4=Stevens | first4=Sean T. | last5=al-Gharbi | first5=Musa | last6=Aquino | first6=Karl | last7=Bailey | first7=J. Michael | last8=Barbaro | first8=Nicole | last9=Baumeister | first9=Roy F. | last10=Bleske-Rechek | first10=April | last11=Buss | first11=David | last12=Ceci | first12=Stephen | last13=Del Giudice | first13=Marco | last14=Ditto | first14=Peter H. | last15=Forgas | first15=Joseph P. | last16=Geary | first16=David C. | last17=Geher | first17=Glenn | last18=Haider | first18=Sarah | last19=Honeycutt | first19=Nathan | last20=Joshi | first20=Hrishikesh | last21=Krylov | first21=Anna I. | last22=Loftus | first22=Elizabeth | last23=Loury | first23=Glenn | last24=Lu | first24=Louise | last25=Macy | first25=Michael | last26=Martin | first26=Chris C. | last27=McWhorter | first27=John | last28=Miller | first28=Geoffrey | last29=Paresky | first29=Pamela | last30=Pinker | first30=Steven | last31=Reilly | first31=Wilfred | last32=Salmon | first32=Catherine | last33=Stewart-Williams | first33=Steve | last34=Tetlock | first34=Philip E. | last35=Williams | first35=Wendy M. | last36=Wilson | first36=Anne E. | last37=Winegard | first37=Bo M. | last38=Yancey | first38=George | last39=von Hippel | first39=William | title=Prosocial motives underlie scientific censorship by scientists: A perspective and research agenda | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=120 | issue=48 | date=2023 | issn=0027-8424 | doi=10.1073/pnas.2301642120 | article-number=e2301642120 | doi-access=free | pmid=37983511 | pmc=10691350 | bibcode=2023PNAS..12001642C }}</ref> Ŵasandi ŵanyake ŵasangika kuti ŵakukhizga kuletsa kasandiro na kuleka kuvulaza.<ref name="h812"/> Kungaŵaso ukondelero wa ndale panji ukondelero wa maghanoghano mu kasandiro. Ŵasandi mu vyaru vinyake ŵasangika kuti ŵali na ukondelero mu kusankha vipani vya ndale kuluska ŵanthu wose.<ref name="y499">{{cite journal | last1=Duarte | first1=José L. | last2=Crawford | first2=Jarret T. | last3=Stern | first3=Charlotta | last4=Haidt | first4=Jonathan | last5=Jussim | first5=Lee | last6=Tetlock | first6=Philip E. | title=Political diversity will improve social psychological science | journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume=38 | date=2015 | issn=0140-525X | doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000430 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0140525X14000430/type/journal_article | access-date=2026-02-12 | article-number=e130 | pmid=25036715 }}</ref> Ukondelero wa ndale wa chigaŵa cha kasandiro ungasintha ndipo ungalongosoleka na kukhwimana kwa chigaŵa na kawiro kake na ukondelero wa kujisankhira.<ref name="d253">{{cite journal | last=Manzi | first=James | title=The ideological orientation of academic social science research 1960–2024 | journal=Theory and Society | volume=55 | issue=2 | date=2026 | issn=0304-2421 | doi=10.1007/s11186-026-09690-2 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11186-026-09690-2 | access-date=2026-07-01 | article-number=25 }}</ref> Kulimbikira kwa kasandiro uko kukuphatikizgika na kuwovwira ndale kungacepeska kuzomerezgeka kwa kasandiro.<ref name="h639">{{cite journal | last1=Kallergi | first1=Amalia | last2=Landeweerd | first2=Laurens | title=Science, Activism, and Climate Action: Navigating Credibility, Responsibility, and Engagement | journal=[[Journal of Academic Ethics]] | volume=23 | issue=4 | date=2025 | issn=1570-1727 | doi=10.1007/s10805-025-09626-y | pages=1759–1779 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10805-025-09626-y | access-date=2026-06-24}}</ref> == Wonaninso == * ''List of scientific occupations'' * ''List of years in science'' == Zindikiro == {{notelist}} == Vyakusazgirapo == {{Reflist}} == Maulalo gha kunja == * Lizgu ''science'' mu Wiktionary [[Category:Kasandiro| ]] elvvqwagrgap77n0od3h5epxxio157x 1 49518 123293 121736 2026-10-17T06:52:51Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Anthonymunthali44 moved page [[Talk:Usanthuro]] to [[Talk:Kasandiro]] 121736 wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk header}} frwy0ondkbaajki04xjgq9mnxpg47li 0 49962 123292 2026-10-17T06:52:51Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Anthonymunthali44 moved page [[Usanthuro]] to [[Kasandiro]] 123292 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Kasandiro]] lgy6mhjjyhvxc4xthjshp6g8xlrk820 1 49963 123294 2026-10-17T06:52:51Z Anthonymunthali44 5642 Anthonymunthali44 moved page [[Talk:Usanthuro]] to [[Talk:Kasandiro]] 123294 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Talk:Kasandiro]] kv0w477qqxr99jcurm8zuckupzcwgmf