Wikipedia zawiki https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiebdaeuz MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.21 first-letter 媒体 特殊 讨论 用户 用户讨论 Wikipedia Wikipedia讨论 文件 文件讨论 MediaWiki MediaWiki讨论 模板 模板讨论 帮助 帮助讨论 分类 分类讨论 TimedText TimedText talk 模块 模块讨论 活动 活动讨论 0 10443 43131 43040 2026-09-25T00:34:08Z InternetArchiveBot 8820 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 43131 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Portrait of Liu Xiaobo by Wang Liming (2017, cropped).jpg|thumb|250px|Liuz Siujboh]] '''Liuz Siujboh''' (Sawgun:刘晓波, seng youq 1955 nienz 12 nyied 28 hauh)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pen.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/4454/prmID/172|title=Verdict Against Liu Xiaobo|publisher=[[International PEN]]|accessdate=11 January 2012|archive-date=8 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308173713/http://www.pen.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/4454/prmID/172|dead-url=yes}}</ref>, Cunghgoz vwnzyoz bihbingzgya, cozgya, gyausou caeuq yinzgienz hozdunggya, de ngawz Cunghgoz cwngci gaijgwz caueq Cunghgung duzcaiz roengzmuq. <ref name="EB">{{Cite book|title=Biography of Liu Xiaobo|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1656918/Liu-Xiaobo |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2010}}</ref> Seizneix de youq guh bouxfamh cwngci. Liuz Siujboh youq 2003 nienz daengj 2007 nienz dang Duzliz cunghvwnz bizvei cujsiz.<ref name=ned>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20120314233342/http://www.ned.org/for-reporters/ned-extends-its-warmest-congratulations-to-grantee-liu-xiaobo-on-receiving-the-nobel-p NED Extends Its Warmest Congratulations to Grantee Liu Xiaobo on Receiving the Nobel Peace Prize]," [[National Endowment for Democracy]]. 8 October 2010.</ref> Coengz cungh 1990 nienzdaih haihij, de lij dwg Minzcuj cunghgoz cabceiq cungjbien. 2008 nienz 12 nyied 8 hauh, Liuz Siujboh aen'vih canhgya ciemdingh 08 yencangh gwn laengz. 2009 nienz 6 nyied 23 hauh gwn gaemh, coihmingz dwg yoekfeiz diemhfuz guekgya cingqcienz.<ref>Benjamin Kang Lim, [http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSTRE55N0F020090624 China's top dissident arrested for subversion], Reuters, 24 June 2009.</ref><ref name="chnrev">"[https://web.archive.org/web/20090630015227/http://cn.chinareviewnews.com/doc/1010/0/3/6/101003632.html?coluid=0&kindid=0&docid=101003632 刘晓波因涉嫌煽动颠覆国家政权罪被依法逮捕]" (Liu Xiaobo Formally Arrested on 'Suspicion of Inciting Subversion of State Power' Charges), China Review News, 24 June 2009,</ref> dingh hingz 8 nienz.<ref name="judg" /> 2010 nienz de aen'vih feibauhlig gangcwngh ndaej Nobel hozbingz ciengj.<ref>{{cite web |author=Dwyer Arce|url=http://jurist.org/paperchase/2010/12/china-dissident-liu-xiaobo-awarded-nobel-peace-prize-in-absentia.php|title=China dissident Liu Xiaobo awarded Nobel Peace Prize in absentia|date=December 10, 2010|publisher=JURIST - Paper Chase}}</ref><ref name="nobel-announcement">{{Citation |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2010/announcement.html |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2010 - Prize Announcement|date=8 October 2010 |publisher=Nobel Prize}}</ref><ref name="rthk-nobel">{{Citation |url=http://www.rthk.org.hk/rthk/news/expressnews/20101008/news_20101008_55_703618.htm |title=劉曉波獲諾貝爾和平獎 (Liu Xiaobo won the Nobel Peace Prize) |date=8 October 2010 |work=[[RTHK]]}}</ref><ref>McKinnon, Mark. [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/asia-pacific/liu-xiaobo-could-win-the-nobel-peace-prize-and-hed-be-the-last-to-know/article1747791/ "Liu Xiaobo could win the Nobel Peace Prize, and he’d be the last to know"]. ''The Globe and Mail''. 7 October 2010. 'Ms. Liu said her husband had been told by his lawyer during a recent visit that he had been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, but he would be shocked if he won, she said. “I think he would definitely find it hard to believe. He never thought of being nominated, he never mentioned any awards. For so many years, he has been calling for people to back the [[Tiananmen Mothers]] (a support group formed by parents of students killed in the 1989 demonstrations)..”'</ref> ==Ciuhgonq== Liu was born in [[Changchun]], [[Jilin]], in 1955 to an intellectual family. In 1969, during the [[Down to the Countryside Movement]], Liu's father took him to [[Horqin Right Front Banner]], [[Inner Mongolia]]. After he finished middle school in 1974, he was sent to the countryside to work on a farm in Jilin. In 1977, Liu was admitted to the Department of Chinese Literature at [[Jilin University]], where he created a poetry group known as "The Innocent Hearts" (''Chi Zi Xin'') with six schoolmates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://baike.baidu.com.cn/view/1037156.html?fromTaglist |title=赤子心诗社 |publisher=Baidu |date=22 April 2009}}</ref> In 1982, he graduated with [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in literature before being admitted as a research student at the Department of Chinese Literature at [[Beijing Normal University]]. In 1984, he received an [[Master of Arts|M.A.]] in literature and became a teacher at the same department.<ref name=mingpao>{{cite news| author = 明報記者陳陽、方德豪| url = http://specials.mingpao.com/cfm/News.cfm?SpecialsID=171&News=8748f0b20c000f9f9c4673ba0d98238f06c5f1fb890e2d0393e24638b82e67| title = 劉曉波﹕六四損鄧歷史地位| work = Ming Pao| location = Hong Kong| language = Chinese| date = 22 October 2008| accessdate = 26 December 2009| archive-date = 15 October 2010| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101015212330/http://specials.mingpao.com/cfm/News.cfm?SpecialsID=171&News=8748f0b20c000f9f9c4673ba0d98238f06c5f1fb890e2d0393e24638b82e67| dead-url = yes}}{{Dead link|date=December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Asia Watch Committee|title=Repression in China since 4 June 1989: cumulative data|publisher=Human Rights Watch|year=1990|page=28|isbn=978-0-929692-74-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boxun.com/hero/liuxb/516_1.shtml |title=劉曉波簡歷 |publisher=Boxun.com |date= |accessdate=12 October 2010}}{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> That year, he married Tao Li, with whom he had a son named Liu Tao in 1985. In 1986, Liu started his doctoral study program and published his literary critiques at various magazines. He became well known as a "dark horse" for his radical opinions and sharp comments on the official doctrines and establishments to shock both of the literary and ideological circles, thus termed as "Liu Xiaobo Shock" or "Liu Xiaobo Phenomenon".<ref name=UDN>{{cite journal | author=貝嶺| url = http://mag.udn.com/mag/world/storypage.jsp?f_MAIN_ID=409&f_SUB_ID=4595&f_ART_ID=255134| title = 別無選擇—記1989年前後的劉曉波|work=United Daily News |location=Taiwan|language=Chinese |date =17 June 2010}}</ref> In 1987, his first book, ''Criticism of the Choice: Dialogues with Li Zehou'', was published and became a bestseller non-fiction.<ref name=UDN/> It comprehensively criticised the Chinese tradition of [[Confucianism]] and posed a frank challenge to [[Li Zehou]], a rising ideological star who had a strong influence on young intellectuals in China at the time.<ref name=UDN/> In June 1988, he received Ph.D. in literature. His doctoral thesis, ''Aesthetic and Human Freedom'', passed the examination unanimously and was published as his second book.<ref>{{cite journal|author=余世存|url=http://www.chinesepen.org/Article/hyxz/200806/Article_20080603033147.shtml|title=北京当代汉语研究所2008年公告|date=2 June 2008|access-date=6 May 2012|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718134903/http://www.chinesepen.org/Article/hyxz/200806/Article_20080603033147.shtml|dead-url=yes}}</ref> In the same year he became a lecturer at the same department. He soon became a visiting scholar at several universities, including [[Columbia University]], the [[University of Oslo]], and the [[University of Hawaii]]. He returned home as the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests]] broke out. This year saw also the publication of his third book, ''The Fog of Metaphysics'', a comprehensive review on Western philosophies. Soon, all of his works were banned.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} ==Cwngci gvanhdenj== In a 1988 interview with Hong Kong's ''Liberation Monthly'' (now known as ''Open Magazine''), Liu was asked what it would take for China to realize a true historical transformation. He replied: <blockquote>"[It would take] 300 years of [[colonialism]]. In 100 years of colonialism, Hong Kong has changed to what we see today. With China being so big, of course it would require 300 years as a colony for it to be able to transform into how Hong Kong is today. I have my doubts as to whether 300 years would be enough."<ref name=open2>Liu Xiaobo, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20101217230437/http://www.open.com.hk/1011p68.html 文壇「黑馬」劉曉波]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}" (Liu Xiaobo, the "Dark Horse" of Literature), ''Open Magazine'', 27 November 1988.</ref><ref name=open1>Liu Xiaobo, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20101014095017/http://www.open.com.hk/0701p26.html 我與《開放》結緣十九年]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}" (My 19 Years of Ties with "Open Magazine"), ''Open Magazine'', 19 December 2006.</ref></blockquote> Liu admitted in 2006 that the response was extemporaneous, although he did not intend to take it back, as it represented "an extreme expression of his longheld belief."<ref name=open1 /> The quote was nonetheless used against him. He has commented, "Even today [in 2006], radical patriotic '[[Fenqing|angry youth]]' still frequently use these words to paint me with '[[treason]]'."<ref name=open1 /> Known for his pro-West stance, Liu once stated in an interview: "Modernization means whole-sale westernization, choosing a human life is choosing Western way of life. Difference between Western and Chinese governing system is humane vs in-humane, there's no middle ground... Westernization is not a choice of a nation, but a choice for the human race" <ref>''Liberty Monthly'', December 1988.</ref> During the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests]], he was in the United States but decided to return to China to join the movement. He was later named as one of the "four [[junzi]]s of Tiananmen Square" for persuading students to leave the square and thus saving hundreds of lives.<ref>South China Morning Post. "[http://www.scmp.com/portal/site/SCMP/menuitem.2af62ecb329d3d7733492d9253a0a0a0/?vgnextoid=53f93ec656b8b210VgnVCM100000360a0a0aRCRD&ss=China&s=News SCMP]." ''Personal traits give 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner global appeal.'' Retrieved on 9 October 2010.{{Dead link|date=December 2010}}</ref> In his 1996 article titled "Lessons from the Cold War", Liu argues that "The free world led by the US fought almost all regimes that trampled on human rights … The major wars that the US became involved in are all ethically defensible." He has defended U.S. policies in the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]], which he thinks is the fault of the "provocateur" Palestinians.<ref name=guardian20101215/> Liu also published a 2004 article in support of Bush's war on Iraq, titled "Victory to the Anglo-American Freedom Alliance", in which he praised the U.S.-led post-[[Cold War]] conflicts as "best examples of how war should be conducted in a modern civilization." He predicted "a free, democratic and peaceful Iraq will emerge."<ref name=epoch>Liu Xiaobo, "[http://www.epochtimes.com/gb/4/4/13/n508623.htm 刘晓波：美英自由联盟必胜]" (Liu Xiaobo: Victory to the Anglo-American Freedom Alliance), ''Epoch Times'', 13 April 2004.</ref> During the 2004 US presidential election, Liu again praised Bush for his war effort against Iraq and condemned Democratic Party candidate [[John Kerry]] for not sufficiently supporting the wars in which the U.S. was then involved. He commented on [[Islamism]] that, "a cul­ture and (reli­gious) sys­tem that pro­duced this kind of threat ([[Islamic fundamentalism]]), must be extremely intol­er­ant and blood-thirsty." On [[Israel]], he said "with­out America’s pro­tec­tion, the long per­se­cuted Jews who faced exter­mi­na­tion dur­ing [[World War II]], prob­a­bly would again be drowned by the Islamic world's hatred."<ref name=pen>Liu Xiaobo, "[http://www.boxun.com/hero/liuxb/217_1.shtml 伊战与美国大选]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}" (The Iraq War and the US Presidential Election), Independent Chinese PEN Center, 13 October 2004.</ref><ref name=guardian20101215>Sautman, Barry; Yan, Hairong (15 December 2010). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/dec/15/nobel-winner-liu-xiaobo-chinese-dissident "Do supporters of Nobel winner Liu Xiaobo really know what he stands for?"]. ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 3 November 2011.</ref> ==Yinzcienz hozdung== On 27 April 1989, Liu returned to Beijing and immediately and actively supported the popular movement. When the army looked set violently eject from Tiananmen Square the students who persistently occupied the Square to challenge the government and army enforcing the martial law, he initiated a four-man three-day [[hunger strike]] on 2 June. Later referred to as the "Tiananmen Four Gentlemen Hunger Strike", the action was to earn the trust from the students. He requested that the government and the students abandon the ideology of class struggle and to adopt a new kind of political culture for dialogue and compromise. Although it was too late to prevent the massacre from occurring beyond the Square starting from the night of 3 June, he and his colleagues successfully negotiated with the student leaders and the army commander to let all the several thousand students withdraw peacefully from the Square, thus avoiding a possible bloodshed in a much larger scale. On 6 June, Liu was arrested and detained in [[Qincheng Prison]] for his alleged role in the movement, and three months later was expelled from the Beijing Normal University. The government's media issued numerous publications which labelled him a "mad dog" and "black hand" because he had allegedly incited and manipulated the student movement to overthrow the government and socialists. His publications were banned, including his fourth book in press, ''Going Naked Toward God''. In Taiwan however, his first and third books were republished with some additions as ''Criticism of the Choice: Dialogues with Leading Thinker LI Zehou'' (1989), and the two-volume ''Mysteries of Thought and Dreams of Mankind'' (1990). In January 1991, 19 months since his arrest, Liu Xiaobo was convicted on the offence of "counter-revolutionary propaganda and incitement"<ref name="judg" /> but exempted from criminal punishment for his "major meritorious action" for having avoided the possibly bloody confrontation at Tiananmen Square. After his release, he was divorced and eventually his ex-wife and son immigrated to the US. He resumed his writing, mostly on human rights and political issues though he has not been allowed to publish in Mainland China. In 1992, he published in Taiwan his first book after his imprisonment, ''The Monologues of a Doomsday’s Survivor'', a controversial memoir with his confessions and political criticism on the popular movement in 1989. In January 1993, Liu was invited to visit Australia and the US for the interviews in the documentary film ''Gate of Heavenly Peace''. Although many of his friends suggested that he take refuge abroad, Liu returned China in May 1993 and continued his freelance writing. On 18 May 1995, the police took Liu into custody for launching a petition campaign on the eve of the sixth anniversary of June 4 massacre, calling on the government to reassess the event and to initiate political reform. He was held under residential surveillance in the suburbs of Beijing for 9 months. He was released in February 1996 but arrested again on 8 October for an October Tenth Declaration, co-authored by him and another prominent dissident Wang Xizhe, mainly on Taiwan issue that advocated the peaceful unification to oppose Chinese Communist Party's forceful treats toward the island. He was ordered to serve three years of [[re-education through labor]]<ref name="judg" /><ref>Liu Xiaobo, "[http://www.epochtimes.com/b5/7/12/12/n1939917p.htm 劉曉波：勞教 早該被廢除的惡法]" (Reeducation-through-labor: An evil law which should be quickly repealed), Observe China, 6 December 2007.</ref> on "disturbing public order” for that statement.<ref>Wang Ming, "[https://archive.is/20120904001627/http://www.hrichina.org/public/contents/1881 A Citizen's Declaration on Freedom of Speech]," ''China Rights Forum'' (spring 1997).</ref> In the same year, he married Liu Xia. After his release on 7 October 1999, Liu Xiaobo resumed his freelance writing. However, it is reported<ref name="appledaily">警車守門外多年被軟禁, 9 October 2010, ''Apple Daily'' (Hong Kong).</ref> that the government built a sentry station next to his home and his phone calls and internet connections were tapped. In 2000, he published in Taiwan ''A Nation That Lies to Conscience'', a 400-paged political criticism. Also published, in Hong Kong, was ''Selection of Poems'', a 450-paged collection of the poems as correspondences between him and his wife during his imprisonment; it was co-authored by Liu and his wife. The last of three books which he published during the year was in Mainland China, titled ''The Beauty Offers Me Drug: Literary Dialogues between Wang Shuo and Lao Xia'', a 250-paged collection of literary critiques co-authored by a popular young writer and by himself under his unknown penname of "Lao Xiao". In the same year, Liu participated in founding the Independent Chinese PEN Centre and was elected to its board of directors as well as its president in November 2003, re-elected two years later. In 2007, he did not seek for the re-election of the president but hold his position of the board member until detained by the police in December 2008. In 2004, when he started to write a Human Rights Report of China at home, his computer, letters and documents were confiscated by the government. He once said, "at Liu Xia's [Liu's wife] birthday, her best friend brought two bottles of wine to [my home] but was blocked by the police from coming in. I ordered a [birthday] cake and the police also rejected the man who delivered the cake to us. I quarreled with them and the police said, "it is for the sake of your security. It has happened many bomb attacks in these days."<ref name="appledaily" /> Those measures were loosened until 2007, prior to the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games.<ref name="appledaily" /> In January 2005, following the death of former Chinese Premier [[Zhao Ziyang]], who showed sympathy to protesters of the student demonstration in 1989, Liu was immediately put under house arrest for two weeks before realizing the death of Zhao.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101013024616/http://www.chinesepen.org/Article/hyxz/200801/Article_20080118070643.shtml 赵紫阳亡灵:不准悼念和禁忌松动], Translation: Revenant of Zhao Ziyang, Author: Liu Xiaobo, Independent Chinese Pen Center</ref> In the same year, he published two more books in the US, ''Future of Free China Exists in Civil Society'', and ''Single-Blade Poisonous Sword: Criticism of Chinese Nationalism''. His writing is considered subversive by the Chinese Communist Party, and his name is censored.<ref>Baculinao, Eric and Gu, Bo (8 October 2010)[https://web.archive.org/web/20110930093338/http://worldblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2010/10/08/5258370-in-china-citizens-find-ways-to-learn-of-nobel-prize In China, citizens find ways to learn of Nobel prize], NBC News.</ref> He has called for multi-party elections, free markets, advocated values of freedom, supported separation of powers and urged the governments to be [[Truth and reconciliation commission|accountable for its wrongdoings]].<ref name=Link2008>{{cite news|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22210|title=Charter 08 Translated from Chinese by Perry Link The following text of ''Charter 08'', signed by hundreds of Chinese intellectuals and translated and introduced by Perry Link, Professor of Chinese Literature at the University of California, Riverside|last=Link|first=Perry|publisher=The New York Review of Books|accessdate=10 December 2008}}</ref> When not in prison, he has been the subject of government monitoring and put under house arrest during ''sensitive times''.<ref name="appledaily" /> Liu's human rights work has received international recognition. In 2004, [[Reporters Without Borders]] awarded him the Fondation de France Prize as a defender of [[press freedom]].<ref>Reporters Without Borders, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120319004654/http://en.rsf.org/china-reporters-without-borders-21-12-2004,12138.html Fondation de France Prize: Liu Xiaobo Receives Prize for Defence of Press Freedom]," 21 December 2004.</ref> {|class="wikitable" |+'''Prison terms for Liu Xiaobo'''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101011095545/http://inews.mingpao.com/htm/INews/20101008/ca51802a.htm 和平獎得主劉曉波小傳], Hong Kong [[Mingpao]].</ref> |- !Prison term || Reason ||Result |- |June 1989&nbsp;– January 1991 || Charged with spreading messages to instigate counterrevolutionary behavior. || Imprisoned in one of China's best-known maximum security prisons, [[Qincheng Prison]], and discharged when he signed a "letter of repentance." |- |May 1995&nbsp;– January 1996 || Being involved in democracy and human rights movement and voicing publicly the need to redress government's wrongdoings in the student protest of 1989 || Released after being jailed for six months. |- |October 1996&nbsp;– October 1999 || Charged with disturbing the social order || Jailed in a labor education camp for three years. In 1996, he married [[Liu Xia (intellectual)|Liu Xia]]. |- |December 2009&nbsp;– 2020 || Charged with spreading a message to subvert the country and authority ||Sentenced for 11 years and deprived of all political rights for two years. Currently imprisoned in [[Jinzhou]] Prison in [[Liaoning Province]].<ref name="ramzy">{{cite news|last=Ramzy|first=Austin|title=Chinese Dissident Liu Xiaobo Wins Nobel Peace Prize|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2024405,00.html|accessdate=9 October 2010|newspaper=Time|date=8 October 2010}}</ref> |} ==08 yencangh== ===Conception and diffusion of the Charter=== {{main|Charter 08}} [[File:Political Charter 08 Parade A02.jpg|thumb|right|Political protest in Hong Kong against the detention of Liu Xiaobo]] Liu Xiaobo actively participated in the writing of and, along with more than three hundred Chinese citizens, signed ''Charter 08''. The Charter is a [[manifesto]] released on 10 December 2008 to coincide with the 60th anniversary of the adoption of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]. It was written in the style of the Czechoslovak ''[[Charter 77]]'', calling for more freedom of expression, human rights, more democratic elections, for privatizing state enterprises and land and for [[economic liberalism]].<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22210|title=Charter 08 Translated from Chinese by Perry Link The following text of Charter 08, signed by hundreds of Chinese intellectuals and translated and introduced by Perry Link, Professor of Chinese Literature at the University of California, Riverside|last=Link|first=Perry|publisher=The New York Review of Books|accessdate=10 December 2008}}</ref> As of September 2010, the Charter has collected over 10,000 signatures.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/21/opinion/21iht-edhavel.html?_r=1 A Nobel Prize for a Chinese Dissident], The New York Times, September 20, 2010</ref><ref>"[http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/china/2009/05/200905042259.shtml 零八宪章签署者已过8600名，第十四批签名人正式名单]" (Signatures to Charter 08 exceeds 8600, 14th list of signers attached), [[Boxun]], 4 May 2009.</ref> ===Arrest=== Two days before the official release of the Charter, late in the evening of 8 December 2008, Liu was taken into custody by the police,<ref>"[http://news.boxun.com/news/gb/china/2008/12/200812090855.shtml 著名学者张祖桦、刘晓波'失踪,']" Boxun, 9 December 2008.</ref> as was [[Zhang Zuhua]], another scholar and ''Charter 08'' signatory. According to Zhang, the two were detained on suspicion of gathering signatures to the Charter.<ref name=reuters1>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20221012000843/https://www.reuters.com/?edition-redirect=in China Detains Dissidents ahead of Human Rights Day]," Reuters, 9 December 2008; "[https://web.archive.org/web/20081210001039/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/12/09/asia/AS-China-Human-Rights.php Report: Chinese Police Detain Political Critic]," Associated Press, 9 December 2008.</ref> While Liu was detained in [[solitary confinement]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6948012.ece|title=Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo begins second year of detention without charge|last=Macartney|first=Jane|date=8 December 2009|work=The Times|location=London|access-date=6 May 2012|archive-date=14 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814061156/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6948012.ece|dead-url=yes}}</ref> he was forbidden to meet with his lawyer or family, though he was allowed to eat lunch with his wife, Liu Xia, and two policemen on New Year's Day 2009.<ref name=reuters2>"[http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSTRE50K0XG20090121 Writers Call for China Dissident's Release]," Reuters, 9 December 2008.</ref> On 23 June 2009, the Beijing [[procuratorate (China)|procuratorate]] approved Liu's arrest on charges of "suspicion of inciting subversion of state power," a crime under Article 105 of [[Law of the People's Republic of China|China's Criminal Law]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100813074703/http://vip.chinalawinfo.com/newlaw2002/SLC/SLC.asp?db=chl&gid=17010 中华人民共和国刑法] (Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China)</ref> In a [[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua]] news release announcing Liu's arrest, the Beijing [[Public Security Bureau]] alleged that Liu had incited the subversion of state power and the overturn of the socialist system through methods such as spreading rumors and slander, citing almost verbatim Article 105; the Beijing PSB also noted that Liu had "fully confessed."<ref name="chnrev" /> ===Trial=== On 1 December 2009, Beijing police transferred Liu's case to the procuratorate for investigation and processing;<ref name="canyu">Canghai [沧海], "[http://canyu.org/n11318c6.asp 刘晓波案闪电移送法院 律师两次前往未能会见]" [Liu Xiaobo's Case Quickly Escalated to the Court; Lawyers Twice Try to Meet with Liu to No Avail], Canyu [参与], 11 December 2009.{{Dead link|date=December 2010}}</ref> on 10 December, the procuratorate formally indicted Liu on charges of "[[inciting subversion of state power]]" under and sent his lawyers, Shang Baojun and Ding Xikui, the indictment document.<ref name="canyu" /> He was tried at Beijing No. 1 Intermediate Court on 23 December 2009. His wife was not permitted to observe the hearing, although his brother-in-law was present.<ref name="canyu" /><ref>Human Rights Watch, "[http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/12/21/china-liu-xiaobo-s-trial-travesty-justice China: Liu Xiaobo's Trial a Travesty of Justice]," 21 December 2009.</ref><ref>Michael Anti, "[http://twitter.com/mranti/statuses/6953649249 Liu Xiaobo's brother-in-law says the trial ends without result. Waiting for lawyer coming out]," 23 December 2009.</ref> Diplomats from more than a dozen states – including the U.S., Britain, Canada, Sweden, Australia and New Zealand – were denied access to the court to watch the trial and stood outside the court for its duration.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8429625.stm Chinese angered by 'interference' in dissident trial] ''BBC''.</ref> Amongst these included Gregory May, political officer at the U.S. Embassy, and Nicholas Weeks, first secretary of the Swedish Embassy.<ref>Cara Anna, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20091228011028/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jhUm7us8viZgI3LPIS4ekels25DAD9CON8F00 Diplomats Kept Away from China Dissident's Trial]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}," The Associated Press, 23 December 2009.</ref> {{cquote|I have no enemies, and no hatred. None of the police who have monitored, arrested and interrogated me, the prosecutors who prosecuted me, or the judges who sentence me, are my enemies. While I’m unable to accept your surveillance, arrest, prosecution or sentencing, I respect your professions and personalities, including Zhang Rongge and Pan Xueqing who act for the prosecution at present. I was aware of your respect and sincerity in your interrogation of me on December&nbsp;3.<p> For hatred is corrosive of a person’s wisdom and conscience; the mentality of enmity can poison a nation’s spirit, instigate brutal life and death struggles, destroy a society’s tolerance and humanity, and block a nation’s progress to freedom and democracy. I hope therefore to be able to transcend my personal vicissitudes in understanding the development of the state and changes in society, to counter the hostility of the regime with the best of intentions, and defuse hate with love....<p>I do not feel guilty for following my constitutional right to freedom of expression, for fulfilling my social responsibility as a Chinese citizen. Even if accused of it, I would have no complaints.|20px|20px|Liu Xiaobo, 23 December 2009<ref>McKey, Robert 8 October 2010). [http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/10/08/jailed-chinese-dissidents-final-statement/ Jailed Chinese Dissident's 'Final Statement'], ''New York Times''.</ref>}} This statement, titled "[[I have no enemies]]", was later read in the [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]] ceremony, which Liu was unable to attend due to imprisonment.<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2010/xiaobo-lecture_en.html Liu Xiaobo - Appell]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> On 25 December 2009, Liu was sentenced to eleven years' imprisonment and two years' deprivation of political rights by the Beijing No. 2 Intermediate Court on charges of "inciting subversion of state power." According to Liu's family and counsel, he plans to appeal the judgment.<ref name="judg">Beijing No. 1 Intermediate Court, Criminal Verdict no. (2009) yi zhong xing chu zi 3901, unofficial English translation in Human Rights in China, "[https://archive.is/20121204190146/http://www.hrichina.org/public/contents/172713 International Community Speaks Out on Liu Xiaobo Verdict]," 30 December 2009.</ref> In the verdict, ''Charter 08'' was named as part of the evidence supporting his conviction.<ref name="judg" /> [[John Pomfret (journalist)|John Pomfret]] of ''The Washington Post'' said Christmas Day was chosen to dump the news because the Chinese government believed Westerners were less likely to take notice on a holiday.<ref name=pomfret>Pomfret, John (8 October 2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110211204520/http://www.aarp.org/politics-society/newsmakers/news-10-2010/china_s_liu_xiaobo_wins_nobel_peace_prize.html China's Liu Xiaobo wins Nobel Peace Prize]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}, ''Washington Post''; pub:AARP.</ref> {{cquote|China's political reform [...] should be gradual, peaceful, orderly and controllable and should be interactive, from above to below and from below to above. This way causes the least cost and leads to the most effective result. I know the basic principles of political change, that orderly and controllable social change is better than one which is chaotic and out of control. The order of a bad government is better than the chaos of anarchy. So I oppose systems of government that are dictatorships or monopolies. This is not 'inciting subversion of state power'. Opposition is not equivalent to subversion.|20px|20px|Liu Xiaobo, 9 February 2010<ref name=scmp20100209/>}}In an article published in the ''South China Morning Post'', Liu argued that his verdict violated China's constitution, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations. He argued that charges against him of 'spreading rumours, slandering and in other ways inciting the subversion of the government and overturning the socialist system' were contrived, as he did not fabricate or create false information, nor did he besmirch the good name and character of others by merely expressing a point of view, a value judgment.<ref name=scmp20100209>Liu Xiaobo (9 February 2010) Guilty of 'crime of speaking', ''South China Morning Post''.</ref> ===International response=== [[File:Solidarity with Liu Xiaobo.jpg|thumb|150px|Polish mural in [[Warsaw]], reading "[[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] with Liu Xiaobo"]] Liu's detention was condemned worldwide by organisations and other countries. On 11 December 2008, the [[U.S. Department of State]] called for Liu's release,<ref name=dos>{{cite news|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2008/dec/113124.htm|title=Harassment of Chinese Signatories to Charter 08 Press Statement Sean McCormack (spokesman)|last=Sean McCormack|first=Sean McCormack|date=11 December 2008|publisher=U.S. Department of State|accessdate=10 December 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081214174715/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2008/dec/113124.htm|archivedate=14 December 2008|dead-url=no}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> which was followed on 22 December 2008 by a similar request from a consortium of scholars, writers, lawyers and human rights advocates.<ref name=consortium>"[http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/12/22/letter-consortium-release-liu-xiaobo-chinas-president-hu-jintao Letter from the Consortium for the Release of Liu Xiaobo to China's President Hu Jintao]," [[Human Rights Watch]]. 22 December 2008.</ref> Additionally, on 21 January 2009, 300 international writers, including [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Margaret Atwood]], [[Ha Jin]] and [[Jung Chang]], called for Liu's release in a statement put out through [[International PEN|PEN]].<ref name=reuters2 /> In March 2009, the [[One World Film Festival]] awarded Liu Xiaobo the Homo Homini Award, organized by the [[People In Need (Czech Republic)|People in Need foundation]], for promoting freedom of speech, democratic principles and human rights.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://aktualne.centrum.cz/czechnews/clanek.phtml?id=631742|title=One World Homo Homini award goes to Chinese dissident|date=12 March 2009|publisher=Aktualne.cz|accessdate=3 December 2009}}</ref> In December 2009, the European Union and United States issued formal appeals calling for the unconditional release of Liu Xiaobo.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE5BD4T220091214 |title=U.S., EU urge China to release prominent dissident |work=[[Reuters]] |date=14 December 2009 | first=Marcin | last=Grajewski}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8430409.stm | title=Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo jailed for subversion | date=25 December 2009 | publisher=[[BBC World News]] | accessdate=25 December 2009}}</ref> China, responding to the international calls prior to the verdict, stated that other nations should "respect China's judicial sovereignty and to not do things that will interfere in China's internal affairs."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xwfw/s2510/t648102.htm|title= Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Jiang Yu's Regular Press Conference on 24 December 2009|date=25 December 2009|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the People's Republic of China}}</ref> Responding to the verdict, United Nations Human Rights Commissioner [[Navanethem Pillay]] expressed concern at the deterioration of political rights in China.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=33348&Cr=China&Cr1=|title=Imprisonment of Chinese dissident deeply concerns UN human rights chief|date=25 December 2009|publisher=United Nations News Service}}</ref> German Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] strongly criticized the verdict, stating "despite the great progress in other areas in the expression of views, I regret that the Chinese government still massively restricts press freedom."<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,5055977,00.html |title=Rights groups, West blast China over sentence for leading dissident |date=25 December 2009 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |editor-first=Andreas |editor-last=Illmer }}</ref> Canada and Switzerland also condemned the verdict.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iCqREmgQ_6P4REsdQY-srHP_PrJA|title=Canada 'deplores' sentencing of Chinese dissident|date=26 December 2009|publisher=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229160608/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iCqREmgQ_6P4REsdQY-srHP_PrJA|archivedate=29 December 2009|access-date=6 May 2012|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/news/international/index/Switzerland_joins_protests_against_China.html?cid=7973728|title=Switzerland joins protests against China|date=26 December 2009|publisher=[[Swissinfo]]|access-date=6 May 2012|archive-date=18 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118190814/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/news/international/index/Switzerland_joins_protests_against_China.html?cid=7973728|dead-url=yes}}</ref> The [[Republic of China]] President [[Ma Ying-jeou]] called on Beijing to "tolerate dissent".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.etaiwannews.com/etn/news_content.php?id=1141993&lang=eng_news&cate_img=logo_taiwan&cate_rss=TAIWAN_eng|title=Ma asks Beijing to tolerate dissidents|last=[[Central News Agency (Republic of China)|Central News Agency]]|date=27 December 2009|publisher=[[Taiwan News]]|access-date=6 May 2012|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174504/http://www.etaiwannews.com/etn/news_content.php?id=1141993&lang=eng_news&cate_img=logo_taiwan&cate_rss=TAIWAN_eng|dead-url=yes}}</ref> On 6 January 2010, former Czech president Václav Havel joined with other communist-era dissidents at the Chinese Embassy in Prague to present a petition calling for Liu's release.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/c590cdd0-016a-11df-8c54-00144feabdc0.html |title=The Chinese dissident’s ‘unknown visitors’ |author=Anderlini, Jamil |work=Financial Times|date= 15 January 2010}}</ref> On 22 January 2010, [[European Association for Chinese Studies]] sent an open letter to [[Hu Jintao]] on behalf of over 800 scholars from 36 countries calling for Liu's release.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.eu-china.net/web/cms/upload/pdf/nachrichten/2010_01_22_OpenLetter_eng.pdf|title=OPEN LETTER TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA|date=22 January 2010|publisher=[[European Association for Chinese Studies]]|access-date=6 May 2012|archive-date=21 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721171927/http://www.eu-china.net/web/cms/upload/pdf/nachrichten/2010_01_22_OpenLetter_eng.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> On 18 January 2010, Liu was nominated for the [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize]] by [[Václav Havel]], the [[14th Dalai Lama]], [[André Glucksmann]], [[Vartan Gregorian]], [[Mike Moore (New Zealand politician)|Mike Moore]], [[Karel Schwarzenberg]], [[Desmond Tutu]] and [[Grigory Yavlinsky]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/havel38/English|title=A Chinese Champion of Peace and Freedom|date=18 January 2010|publisher=[[Project Syndicate]]}}</ref> China's Foreign Ministry spokesperson Ma Zhaoxu stated that awarding the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu would be "totally wrong".<ref name=phayul>{{cite news|url=http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=26569&article=China+opposes+Nobel+for+jailed+dissident%2C+lawmakers+back+Liu+Xiabo|title=China opposes Nobel for jailed dissident, lawmakers back Liu Xiabo|date=6 February 2010|publisher=phayul.com|access-date=6 May 2012|archive-date=5 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805015008/http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=26569&article=China+opposes+Nobel+for+jailed+dissident%2C+lawmakers+back+Liu+Xiabo|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Geir Lundestad, a secretary of the Nobel Committee, stated the award would not be influenced by Beijing's opposition.<ref name=phayul/> On 25 September 2010, ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that a petition in support of the Nobel nomination was being circulated in China.<ref name="nyt20100926">[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/26/world/asia/26prize.html "Petition Urges Nobel for Jailed Chinese Writer"] article by Andrew Jacobs in ''[[The New York Times]]'' 25 September 2010. Retrieved 25 September 2010.</ref> On 14 September 2010, the Mayor of Reykjavík, [[Jón Gnarr]], met on an unrelated matter with CPC Politburo member [[Liu Qi (politician)|Liu Qi]] and demanded China set the dissident Liu Xiaobo free. Also that September Václav Havel, Dana Němcová and Václav Malý, leaders of Czechoslovakia's [[Velvet Revolution]], published an open letter in the ''[[International Herald Tribune]]'' calling for the award to be given to Liu, while a petition began to circulate soon afterwards.<ref name="nyt20100926"/><ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/21/opinion/21iht-edhavel.html "A Nobel Prize for a Chinese Dissident"]. ''The New York Times''. 20 September 2010.</ref> On 6 October 2010, the non-governmental organization [[Freedom Now]], which serves as an international counsel to Liu Xiaobo as retained by his family, publicly released a letter from 30 members of the U.S. Congress to President [[Barack Obama]], urging him to directly raise both Liu's case and that of fellow imprisoned dissident [[Gao Zhisheng]] to Chinese President Hu Jintao at the G-20 Summit in November 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archive copy |url=http://www.freedom-now.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/Liu-Gao-Letter-from-30-Members-of-Congress.pdf |access-date=6 May 2012 |archive-date=15 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615130327/http://www.freedom-now.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/Liu-Gao-Letter-from-30-Members-of-Congress.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> The Republic of China President [[Ma Ying-jiu]] congratulated Liu on winning the Nobel Prize and requested Chinese authorities to improve their impression to the world about human rights, but not calling for his release from prison.<ref name="ap20101006">[http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iybngeph4O0E8E2GS283Y3y0ABNgD9INTS600?docId=D9INTS600 "Taiwan's Ma congratulates Nobel laureate Liu"]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}. ''The Associated Press''. 9 October 2010.</ref> In 2011, the [[WorldWideReading]] is dedicated to Liu Xiaobo; on March 20, there were readings in more than 60 towns and cities on all continents and broadcast via radio stations. The appeal "[[Freedom for Liu Xiaobo]]" has so far been supported by more than 700 writers from around the world, amongst them the Nobel Prize laureates John M. Coetzee, Nadine Gordimer, Herta Müller and Elfriede Jelinek, as well as Breyten Breytenbach, Eliot Weinberger, Salman Rushdie, Vikram Seth, Mario Vargas Llosa, Wolf Biermann and Dave Eggers. The international literature festival called for a worldwide reading on 20 March 2011 for Liu Xiaobo. More than 700 authors from all continents signed the appeal and over 150 institutions took part in the event. <ref>[http://www.literaturfestival.com/news/aufruf-zu-einer-weltweiten-lesung-fuer-die-freilassung-von-liu-xiaobo-am-20.-maerz-2012-en International Literature Festival]</ref> ==Nobel hozbingz ciengj== {{main|2010 Nobel Peace Prize}} On 8 October 2010, the Nobel Committee awarded Liu the Nobel Peace Prize "for his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2010/ |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2010 |publisher=Nobelprize.org |date= |accessdate=8 October 2010}}</ref> saying that Liu had long been front-runner as the recipient of the prize.<ref name="Prize">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11499098|title=Nobel Peace Prize awarded to China dissident Liu Xiaobo|date=8 October 2010|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=8 October 2010}}</ref> China reacted negatively to the award, [[censorship in the People's Republic of China|immediately censoring]] news about the announcement of the award in China, though later that day became available.{{Clarify|What became available?|date=November 2011}} Foreign news broadcasters including [[CNN]] and the [[BBC]] were immediately blocked,<ref>{{cite news|title=China censors Nobel award|url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/breakingnews/200417/china-censors-nobel-award|newspaper=[[Bangkok Post]]|date=8 October 2010}}</ref> while [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China|heavy censorship]] was applied to personal communications.<ref>Eric Baculinao and Bo Gu, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110930093338/http://worldblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2010/10/08/5258370-in-china-citizens-find-ways-to-learn-of-nobel-prize "In China, citizens find ways to learn of Nobel prize"], NBC News, 8 October 2010.</ref><ref>Victor Mair, [http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=2699 "Liu Xiaobo"], Language Log, 10 October 2010.</ref> The Chinese Foreign Ministry denounced the award to Liu Xiaobo, saying that it "runs completely counter to the principle of the award and is also a desecration of the Peace Prize."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/china-angry-nobel-peace-prize-dissident/story?id=11830948|title=China Angered By Selection of Dissident Liu Xiaobo for Nobel Peace Prize|publisher=ABC News|date=8 October 2010|accessdate=8 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Vehaskari|first=Aira Katariina|title=Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo wins Nobel Peace Prize|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5h-cczpx_Ln7Qt5OTGwpm8kMlyKOg?docId=CNG.e4bfcb376f8ac09d47b6d71b8feac4c4.5e1|accessdate=8 October 2010|date=8 October 2010|agency=AFP|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525032916/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5h-cczpx_Ln7Qt5OTGwpm8kMlyKOg?docId=CNG.e4bfcb376f8ac09d47b6d71b8feac4c4.5e1|archivedate=25 May 2012|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/gxh/tyb/fyrbt/t759532.htm |title=外交部发言人马朝旭答记者问 |date=8 October 2010 |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China]] |accessdate=8 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Awarding Liu Xiaobo Nobel peace prize may harm China-Norway relations, says FM spokesman|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-10/08/c_13547668.htm|date=8 October 2010|agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|access-date=6 May 2012|archive-date=15 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115020350/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-10/08/c_13547668.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> The [[List of diplomatic missions of Norway|Norwegian ambassador to the People's Republic of China]] was summoned by the Foreign Ministry on 8 October 2010 and was presented with an official complaint about the granting of the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inews.mingpao.com/htm/INews/20101008/ca52210a.htm|title=中國召喚挪威大使抗議諾獎|last=路透社|work=Ming Pao|language=Chinese|accessdate=8 October 2010|location=Hong Kong|archive-date=22 July 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120722064427/http://inews.mingpao.com/htm/INews/20101008/ca52210a.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> The Chinese government has called Liu Xiaobo a criminal and stated that he does not deserve the prize. Chinese dissident [[Wei Jingsheng]] criticized Liu by calling him "the accomplice of the Communist regime."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.chinaaffairs.org/gb/detail.asp?id=109630|title=What Today's Nobel Peace Prize Offers?|author=Wei Jingsheng|date=15 October 2010|work=chinaaffairs.org|accessdate=21 December 2010|archive-date=20 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120231429/http://www.chinaaffairs.org/gb/detail.asp?id=109630|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Following the announcement of the Nobel Peace Prize, celebrations in China were either stopped or curtailed,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/10/world/asia/10china.html?_r=1&partner=rss&emc=rss|title=China, Angered by Peace Prize, Blocks Celebration|last=ANDREW JACOBS|date=9 October 2010|work=The New York Times |accessdate=9 October 2010}}</ref> and prominent intellectuals and other dissidents were detained, harassed or put under surveillance;<ref name=twitter>Bei Feng (11 October 2010). [http://cmp.hku.hk/2010/10/11/7990/ "Viewing the Liu Xiaobo response through Twitter"], China Media Project of the University of Hong Kong.</ref> Liu's wife, [[Liu Xia (intellectual)|Liu Xia]], was placed under house arrest,<ref name='CNN 2010-10-11 wife'>{{cite news | title = Chinese Nobel prize winner's wife detained | date = 11 October 2010 | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/10/10/china.nobel.wife/index.html | publisher = CNN | accessdate = 11 October 2010 | archive-date = 21 November 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101121001434/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/10/10/china.nobel.wife/index.html | dead-url = yes }}</ref> and was forbidden to talk to reporters even though no official charges were brought.<ref name='2010-10-10 Slashdot'>{{cite news | title = Chinese Nobel Winner's Wife Detained | date = 10 October 2010 | url = http://yro.slashdot.org/story/10/10/10/1648237/Chinese-Nobel-Winners-Wife-Detained | work=Slashdot | accessdate = 11 October 2010}}</ref> Sixty-five countries with missions in Norway were all invited to the Nobel Prize ceremony, but fifteen declined, in some cases due to heavy lobbying by China. Besides China, these countries were Russia, Kazakhstan, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, Vietnam, Venezuela, Egypt, Sudan, Cuba and Morocco.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://nobelpeaceprize.org/en_GB/embassies-2010/|title=Embassies represented at the Nobel Peace Prize Ceremony on December 10 |date=7 December 2010|work=The Norwegian Nobel Institute|accessdate=14 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/europe/2010/12/201012717240690770.html|title=Chinese Nobel boycott gains support |date=7 December 2010|work=Al Jazeera |accessdate=11 December 2010}}{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> China also imposed travel restrictions on known dissidents ahead of the ceremony. A Chinese group announced that its answer to the Nobel Peace Prize, the [[Confucius Peace Prize]], would be awarded to former Taiwan Vice-President [[Lien Chan]] for the bridge of peace he has been building between Taiwan and Mainland China.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6B712620101208=China to award own peace prize ahead of Nobel award |date=8 December 2010|work=Reuters |accessdate=11 December 2010}}{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> Lien Chan himself denied any knowledge of the $15,000 prize.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/ShowNews/WebNews_Detail.aspx?Type=aALL&ID=201012080013|title=China to award own peace prize ahead of Nobel award|date=8 December 2010|work=Focus Taiwan|accessdate=11 December 2010|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302125052/https://focustaiwan.tw/ShowNews/WebNews_Detail.aspx?Type=aALL&ID=201012080013|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20101208/od_afp/nobelpeacechinarightsaward_20101208085426|title=Chinese group to award rival 'peace prize' |date=8 December 2010|work=Focus Taiwan |accessdate=11 December 2010}}{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref> ==Major publications== * {{cite book|title=Criticism of the Choice: Dialogues with LI Zehou<ref>Original title:《选择的批判——与李泽厚对话》, published by 上海人民出版社</ref>|publisher=Shanghai People’s Publishing House|year=1987}} * {{cite book|title=Criticism of the Choice: Dialogues with Leading Thinker LI Zehou<ref>Original title:《选择的批判—与思想领袖李泽厚对话》, published by 台湾风云时代出版公司</ref>|publisher=Shanghai People’s Publishing House|year=1989}} * {{cite book|title=Aesthetics and Human Freedom<ref>Original title: 《审美与人的自由》, published by 北京師范大學出版社</ref>|publisher=Beijing Normal University Press|year=1988}} * {{cite book|title=Going Naked Toward God<ref>Original title: 《赤身裸体，走向上帝》, 时代文艺出版社</ref>|publisher=Time Literature and Art Publishing House|year=1989}} * {{cite book|title=The Fog of Metaphysics<ref>Original title:《形而上学的迷雾》, by 上海人民出版社</ref>|publisher=Shanghai People’s Publishing House|year=1989}} * {{cite book|title=Mysteries of Thought and Dreams of Mankind, 2 volumes<ref>Original title:《思想之谜与人类之梦》（二卷）, by 台湾风云时代出版公司</ref>|publisher=Strom & Stress Publishing Company|year=1989，1990}} * {{cite book|title=Contemporary Politics and Intellectuals of China<ref>Original title:《中国当代政治与中国知识份子》, published by 台北唐山出版社</ref>|publisher=Tangshan Publishing Company, Taiwan|year=1990}} * {{cite book|title=Criticism on Contemporary Chinese Intellectuals (Japanese Translation)<ref>Original title:現代中国知識人批判, published by 日本德间书店</ref>|publisher=Tokuma Bookstore, Tokyo|year=1992}} * {{cite book|title=The Monologues of a Doomsday’s Survivor<ref>Original title:《末日幸存者的独白》, published by [[台湾中国时报出版社]]</ref>|publisher=China Times Publishing Company, Taiwan|year=1993}} * {{cite book|title=Selected Poems of Liu Xiabo and Liu Xia<ref>《刘晓波刘霞诗选》, published by 香港夏菲尔国际出版公司</ref>|publisher=Xiafei’er International Press, Hong Kong|year=2000}} * {{cite book|title=A Belle Gave me Knockout Drug<ref>Original title:《美人赠我蒙汗药》, by 长江文艺出版社</ref>|author=Under pen name Lao Xia and co-authored with Wang Shuo|publisher=Changjiang Literary Press|year=2000}} * {{cite book|title=A Nation That Lies to Conscience<ref>Original title: 《向良心说谎的民族》, published by 台湾捷幼出版社</ref>|publisher=Jie-jou Publishing Company, Taiwan|year=2002}} * {{cite book|title=Civil Awakening—The Dawn of a Free China<ref>Original title:《未来的自由中国在民间》, published by 劳改基金会</ref>|publisher=Laogai Research Foundation|year=2005}} * {{cite book|title=A Single Blade and Toxic Sword: Critique on Comtempory Chinese Nationalism<ref>Original title:《单刃毒剑——中国当代民族主义批判》, published by 美国博大出版社</ref>|publisher=Broad Press Inc, Sunnyvale|year=2006}} * {{cite book|title=Falling of A Great Power: Memorandum to China<ref>Original title:《大国沈沦—写给中国的备忘录》, published by 台北允晨文化出版社</ref>|publisher=Yunchen Culture|year=2009|month=10}} * {{cite book|title=From TianAnMen Incident to Charter 08 (in Japanese ): Memorandum to China<ref>Original title:《天安門事件から「08憲章」》, published by 日本藤原书店</ref>|publisher=Fujiwara Bookstore, Tokyo|year=2009|month=12}} ==Ciengj== * [[Human Rights Watch|Hellman-Hammett Grant]] (1990, 1996) * [[China Foundation on Democracy Education]] for Outstanding Democratic Activist(2003) * [[Reporters Without Borders|Fondation de France Prize]] for defender of press freedom (2004) * [[Hong Kong Human Rights Press Awards]] (2004, 2005, 2006) :*Excellent Award (2004) for an article ''Corrupted News is not News'', published on [[Open Magazine]] , January 2004 issue :*Grand Prize (2005) for an article ''Paradise of the Powerful, Hell of the Vulnerable'' on [[Open Magazine]], September 2004 issue :*Excellent Award (2006) for ''The Causes and Ending of [[Dongzhou protests|Shanwei Bloodshed]]'' on [[Open Magazine]], January 2006 * [[Asia-Pacific Human Rights Foundation]] (Australia) Courage of Conscience Award (2007) * [[People In Need (Czech Republic)|People In Need]] (Czech) [[Homo Homini]] Award (2009)<ref>[http://aktualne.centrum.cz/czechnews/clanek.phtml?id=631742 One World Homo Homini award goes to Chinese dissident]，2009年3月12日.</ref> * [[PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award]] (2009)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,4214763,00.html|title=Liu Xiaobo |publisher=Dw-world.de|date=29 April 2009|accessdate=29 April 2009}}</ref> * [[Independent Federation of Chinese Students and Scholars]] (USA) Free Spirit Award (2009) * German PEN [[Hermann Kesten Medal]] (2010)<ref>[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,6089512,00.html Liu Xiaobo] De-World, 7 October 2010.</ref> * [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (2010)<ref name="nobel-announcement"/><ref name="rthk-nobel"/><ref>[http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/liu-xiaobos-nobel-peace-prize-win-puts-spotlight-china-rights-violations-2010-10-08 LIU XIAOBO'S NOBEL PEACE PRIZE WIN PUTS SPOTLIGHT ON CHINA RIGHTS VIOLATIONS] Amnesty International [2010-10-08]</ref> * Honorary member of German, American, Portuguese, Czech and Sydney PEN Centers, and Honorary President of Independent Chinese PEN Centre. ==See also== {{Portalbox|People's Republic of China|Biography|Poetry}} * [[Human rights in the People's Republic of China]] * [[List of Chinese dissidents]] * [[Weiquan movement]] ==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==External links== {{Commons category}} {{Wikisource|Charter 08}} '''Liu's verdict and articles cited as evidence of Liu's guilt in the verdict''' * [https://www.bro.web.id/2021/11/anime-wik-wik-terbaik-2021.html Anime Wik Wik Terbaik 2021] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120127203701/http://www.hrichina.org/crf/article/3197 "The Communist Party of China’s Dictatorial Patriotism"] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120127224214/http://www.hrichina.org/crf/article/3199 "Can It Be that the Chinese People Deserve Only Party-Led Democracy?"] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120127213705/http://www.hrichina.org/crf/article/3200 "Changing the Regime by Changing Society"] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120127235425/http://www.hrichina.org/crf/article/3202 The Negative Effects of the Rise of Dictatorship on World Democratization"] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120127211142/http://www.hrichina.org/crf/article/3201 "Further Questions about Child Slavery in China's Kilns"] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120127192616/http://www.hrichina.org/crf/article/3203 ''Charter 08''] '''Other items written by Liu Xiaobo''' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120127084928/http://www.hrichina.org/crf/article/3215 Letter from Liu Xiaobo to Liao Yiwu] (2000) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100715064321/http://www.hrichina.org/public/PDFs/CRF.3.2003/Liu_Xiaobo.pdf "The Rise of Civil Society in China"] (2003) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100714225414/http://www.hrichina.org/public/PDFs/CRF.1.2005/1.2005AtopAVolcano.pdf "Atop a Volcano"] (2004) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090729194745/http://www.hrichina.org/public/PDFs/CRF.4.2005/CRF-2005-4_June4.pdf "Remembering June 4th for China's Future"] (2005) * [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22704 The Poet in an Unknown Prison] letter by Liu from''[[The New York Review of Books]]'' (2009) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120204235217/http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674061477 ''No Enemies, No Hatred: Selected Essays and Poems''] (2011) '''Interviews with Liu Xiaobo''' * [http://www.tsquare.tv/film/charac.01.html#LXB English language articles and interviews] * [http://www.tsquare.tv/film/xiaobo.php#2 Film Excerpts of Liu Xiaobo] from ''[[The Gate of Heavenly Peace]]'' * {{YouTube|2QJGuPOMPvE|Interview with Liu Xiaobo (English and Chinese) by PEN American Center}} '''Other items related to Liu Xiaobo''' * {{YouTube|2_pcpak05F8|30 September 2009 floor debate in U.S. Congress on the Liu Xiaobo resolution}} *[http://www.democracynow.org/2010/10/8/jailed_chinese_dissident_liu_xiaobo_awarded Jailed Chinese Dissident Liu Xiaobo Awarded Nobel Peace Prize] - video report by ''[[Democracy Now!]]'' * [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/01/books/review/liu-xiaobos-plea-for-the-human-spirit.html "Liu Xiaobo’s Plea for the Human Spirit"] essay by Jonathan Mirsky in the Sunday Book Review in ''[[The New York Times]]'' December 30, 2011 {{s-start}} {{s-ach}} {{s-bef|before=[[Aubahmaj]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Peace Prize Laureate]]|years=2010}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ellen Johnson Sirleaf]]<br>[[Leymah Gbowee]]<br>[[Tawakel Karman]]}} {{s-end}} {{2010 Nobel Prize winners}} {{Nobel Peace}} {{Footer Homo Homini Award laureates‎}} {{1989 Tiananmen protests}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2010}} <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --> {{Persondata |NAME= Xiaobo, Liu |ALTERNATIVE NAMES= |SHORT DESCRIPTION= Chinese intellectual and [[human right]]s activist |DATE OF BIRTH= 1955-12-28 |PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Changchun]], [[Jilin]], China |DATE OF DEATH= |PLACE OF DEATH= }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Liu, Xiaobo}} [[Category:1955 births]] [[Category:Amnesty International prisoners of conscience]] [[Category:Charter 08 signatories]] [[Category:Chinese democracy activists]] [[Category:Chinese anti-communists]] [[Category:Chinese dissidents]] [[Category:Chinese human rights activists]] [[Category:Chinese prisoners and detainees]] [[Category:People's Republic of China poets]] [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Nobel Peace Prize laureates]] [[Category:International PEN]] [[Category:People from Changchun]] [[Category:Prisoners and detainees of the People's Republic of China]] [[Category:Jilin University alumni]] [[Category:Beijing Normal University alumni]] [[Category:Ethnic Chinese Nobel laureates]] ql3r4aewh3170sn7iutxx70aol7p08w 0 10479 43132 41974 2026-09-25T00:44:14Z InternetArchiveBot 8820 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 43132 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sihsah ginzdauj'''（Sawgun:西沙群岛l Sawyiednamz:Quần đảo Hoàng Sa），lajbiengz itbuen heuhguh Paracel ginzgauj,<ref>“Paracel”一詞在[[葡萄牙語]]中意思是“石塘”，來源於其中文舊稱“[[萬里石塘]]”。</ref> youq [[Nanz Cunghgozhaij]]. Youz Yungjloz gizdauj caeuq Yenhdwz ginzgauj hab baenz, mae banghaij miz 518 goengleix raez. Seizneix doengh dauj sojmiz cungj youz Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz hoengqceiq, gvi Haijnanz sengj Vwnzcangh si. == Lizsij == *西沙群岛自宋代即划入中国版图。宋[[景端]]二年，元将刘深攻[[宋端宗]]帝于浅湾，宋帝守将张世杰失利，退走井澳，刘深袭击井澳，帝退守海中七洲洋<ref>《郑和下西洋研究文选》 461页 ISBN 7-5207-6377-5</ref>。 *[[1292年]]元将[[史弼]]率领大军过七洲洋、[[万里石塘]]攻[[爪哇]]<ref>《[[元史]]· 史弼传》</ref>。 * 西沙群岛上有一处唐宋时期遗址、多处明清遗址、十四座明清古庙、大量清朝和民国时期石碑，表明中国人自唐以來就开始在西沙群岛生活，是当时西南中沙群岛的主人。 * 明朝永乐年间的随郑和下西洋的[[费信]]在[[大西洋记]]中写道：“俗云上怕七洲，下怕昆仑，针迷舵失，人船莫存”。《[[郑和航海图]]》中称为[[石星石塘]]。《[[顺风相送]]》中记载：“舟过此〔七洲洋〕极险，稍贪东便是[[万里石塘]]”。 * [[1932年]]，西沙群岛被法国管辖，[[第二次世界大战]]后由[[中華民國]]政府接管。 * [[1946年]]，中华民国海军陆战队驻防永兴岛。 * [[1950年]]4～5月，[[中国人民解放军]]攻占[[海南岛]]时，永兴岛的驻军被中華民國政府遗忘了，直到三个月后永兴岛的駐軍向中国人民解放军投降（中共稱爲起义回归）。从此永兴岛一直由中华人民共和国海军驻防。 * [[1974年]]，[[中华人民共和国]]和[[南越]]之间爆发[[西沙海战]]。[[中国人民解放军]]取得胜利，[[中华人民共和国]]取得对西沙群岛的实际控制权。 <gallery> File:Vietnam-1754.jpg|越南-1754（Cochinchine Tunquin）中即“De Paracelles” File:Thiên Nam tứ chí lộ đồ thư.jpg|添南四肢字母显示中即[[黄沙群岛|黄沙]]群岛 File:Lequydon BaiCatVang.jpg|撫邊雜錄(抚边杂录)中即黄沙群岛 File:HoangSa.jpg|大南一統全圖中即（Hoàng Sa-黄沙）（Vạn lý Trường Sa-萬里長沙） File:MAO KUN MAP-19.jpg|郑和航海图中的石塘即西沙群岛{{fact}} </gallery> == 名稱由來 == *[[永乐群岛]]、[[宣德群岛]]为永久纪念[[永乐]]、[[宣德]]年间郑和下西洋时在南海诸岛的活动。 * 其中[[永兴岛]]是中華民國海军的永兴号驱逐舰接收驻西沙群岛日本军队而获名。 == 地理位置 == [[Image:Xisha.png|thumb|400px|right|西沙群岛]] * 位于海南岛东南面180多海里。 * 西面是永乐群岛：珊瑚、甘泉、金银、琛航、晋卿以及广金等。 * 东面是宣德群岛：[[赵述岛]]、[[北岛]]、[[中岛]]、[[南岛]]、[[石岛]]、[[东岛]]和[[永兴岛]]7个主要岛屿等组成。 * 以及相对独立的[[中建岛]]、高尖石、盘石屿、玉琢礁、[[浪花礁]]和[[北礁]]等。 == 地質地形 == 西沙首府永兴岛面积约2.1[[平方公里]]，西沙群岛有22个岛屿、7个沙洲，还有10多个暗礁暗滩。陆地总面积约10平方公里，这些岛屿和沙洲如下： {|class="wikitable" !岛屿名称!!渔民俗称!!陆地面积（平方公里） |- |[[金银岛 (西沙群岛)|金银岛]]|| 尾岛、尾峙|| 0.36 |- |[[甘泉岛]]|| 圆岛、圆峙|| 0.30 |- |珊瑚岛|| 老粗岛、老粗峙|| 0.31 |- |[[全富岛]]|| 全富峙、全富、曲手|| 0.02 |- |[[鸭公岛]]|| 鸭公峙|| 0.01 |- |[[银屿]]|| 龙坑|| 0.01 |- |银屿仔|| 银峙仔|| 2000(平方米) |- |咸舍峙|| 咸舍、咸且岛|| 3000(平方米) |- |石屿|| 石屿|| 2000(平方米) |- |[[晋卿岛]]|| 四江门、四江岛、世江峙|| 0.21 |- |[[琛航岛]]|| 三脚、大三脚岛、三脚岛|| 0.28 |- |[[广金岛]]|| 三脚峙、小三脚岛|| 0.06 |- |[[盘石屿]]|| 白树仔、白峙仔、白礁|| 0.40 |- |[[中建岛]]|| 半路、半路峙、螺岛|| 1.20 |- |[[永兴岛]]|| 猫注、吧注、猫岛|| 2.10 |- |[[石岛]]|| 小巴岛|| 0.08 |- |[[南岛 (西沙群岛)|南岛]]|| 三峙|| 0.17 |- |[[中岛]]|| 二岛|| 0.13 |- |[[北岛 (西沙群岛)|北岛]]|| 长峙、长岛|| 0.04 |- |[[赵述岛]]|| 树岛、暗岛、船暗岛|| 0.22 |- |[[东岛]]|| 猫兴岛、巴兴、吧兴岛|| 1.60 |- |[[高尖石]]|| 尖石、双帆|| 0.04 |- |[[筐仔沙洲]]|| 筐仔峙|| 0.01 |- |东新沙洲|| ||4000(平方米) |- |西新水洲|| ||2000(平方米) |- |[[南水洲]]|| ||0.06 |- |[[中沙洲]]|| ||0.05 |- |[[北沙洲]]|| ||0.02 |- |[[西沙洲]]|| ||0.04 |} == 生態資源 == === 植物 === 植物高大茂密，形成典型的熱帶海岸林。 === 動物 === 邻近海域有丰富渔产。 === 資源 === 邻近海域可能有石油及天然气等资源。 == 島上狀況 == === 水源 === * 永興島將建設太陽能海水淡化系統，解決該島長期存在的淡水缺乏難題。 === 電力 === * [[2006年]]，建設包括1100瓦太陽能發電和1200瓦風電組成的小型風光互補發電系統以及太陽能熱水系統;[[2008年]]，購置了兩台太陽能電瓶車。 * [[2009年]]，中國海南省財政投資建設「西沙永興島風光混合發電系統」，根據規劃設計，一期工程將由250千瓦風力發電、100千瓦太陽能發電組成風和光互補混合發電系統，二、三期工程全部建成後，系統總裝機規模將達3000千瓦。此次先期建成並投入運行的100千瓦太陽能發電裝置，由600塊太陽電池組成的陣列以及蓄電池、逆變器、控制器等組成，而混合發電系統中的250千瓦的風力發電裝置也將於近期建成。 === 建築 === * 永興岛上基本设施一应俱全，包括邮电局、医院、银行、军营、派出所、民房、招待所等。 * 永兴岛上设有[[中华人民共和国]]主权碑，宣示中国政府对于此岛拥有主权。 * 西沙建有军民两用机场（于1991年建成），拥有一条1,200公呎的飞机跑道，可起降波音737飞机。 * 岛上建有三条主要道路，道路的中心在“北京路”。这里建有中国工商银行、医院、粮食站、中国最南端的邮政局、百货商店、水产公司，人行道旁是整齐的椰树，树下有碧绿的草坪，环境相当整洁。 * 永兴岛上设有一条约800公呎长的石堤连接东北部的石岛。 === 人口 === * 永兴岛上有中华人民共和国[[解放军]]驻军，归属海军南海部队。 === 運輸 === * 海運：設有碼頭。 * 空運：有一條2,400[[公尺]]飛機跑道的机场。岛上机场多数用作航空物资补给之用，实际民航机降落和使用不多。 * 島上交通：永興島上建有三條主要道路。 === 驻军 === * 西沙群岛永兴岛上设有中国海军军营，海军归属中华人民共和国解放军海军南海舰队。海军战士长驻岛上。 == 觀光景點 == 中国政府於[[1997年]]开放西沙群岛旅游。 == 對外通訊 == * 中华人民共和国西沙群岛 ** 郵政編碼：572000。 ** 電話區號：0898。 * 岛上设有[[卫星电话]]和安装了上网设备。 * [[永兴岛]]、[[珊瑚岛]]、[[琛航岛]]、[[中建岛]]、[[金银岛]]和[[东岛]]6個移動通訊基站，由[[中國移動]]通訊架設。<ref>{{Cite web |title=中国移动信号覆盖西沙三岛 - 中国移动\电信运营商\新闻 — C114(中国通信网) |url=http://www.c114.net/news/118/a275420.html |access-date=2012-05-10 |archive-date=2015-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518081128/http://www.c114.net/news/118/a275420.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=中国移动GSM网络西沙群岛覆盖工程纪实 |url=http://www.cnii.com.cn/20030218/ca143095.htm |access-date=2012-05-10 |archive-date=2012-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423154717/http://www.cnii.com.cn/20030218/ca143095.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> 另外，由于西沙群岛远离中國大陆，在西沙群岛上居住的军人和岛民如果需要看报纸的话，往往需要靠补给舰随补给运送报纸过来。但是补给需时，最新的报纸最少要一个多星期左右送达，新闻通常变成为旧闻。军民们如要知悉中国大陆内的情况，使用短波收音机听电台、上網是最適合的方式。 == 参看 == * [[西沙之战]] * [[南沙群岛]] * [[赤瓜礁海戰]] == 与西沙群岛有关的影视作品 == * [[南海风云]] 1974年中国[[八一电影制片厂]]摄制，内容讲述[[中国海军]]奋勇抗敌，展开海战，赶走侵略者的故事。该电影主题曲[[西沙群岛，我们可爱的家乡]]在电影播放后广泛流传，传唱至今，作为[[爱国主义]]歌曲之一，西沙群岛这个地名从此为中国人们所熟悉。 == 參考資料 == <references /> == 外部链接 == {{commonscat|Paracel Islands}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20151105121957/http://xnzsha.hainan.gov.cn/ 海南省西、南、中沙群岛办事处] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130101064241/http://www.hainan.gov.cn/data/lyxx_jd/2006/04/136/ 海南省人民政府：西沙群岛] * [http://finance.sina.com.cn/g/20040421/0844729822.shtml 中国对西沙群岛拥有主权的历史依据] * [http://www.superarmy.com/special/cnsea/war/2006/2534213_566562707.jpg 西沙群岛上的中国古迹] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080119003320/http://news.xinhuanet.com/video/2007-06/20/content_6265366.htm 西沙海底文物打捞过程全揭密] * [http://travelvietnam.officeisp.net/Shared%20Documents/Countries%20-%20Vietnam/VietnamForeignMinistry81.pdf Vietnamese claims in Paracel Islands] * [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/spratly.htm Spratly Islands] * [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/spratly-claims.htm Territorial claims in the Spratly and Paracel Islands] [[Category:ginzdauj]] nowvjinteogg8dbbznnwp07axjlpefi 0 10500 43130 42564 2026-09-25T00:12:33Z InternetArchiveBot 8820 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 43130 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dauhgyau'''('''道教'''), Cunghgoz cienzdungj coenggyau, youq ciuhgonq couh miz. Doengh bouxdauh baiqfug haujlai bouxsien, gyoengqde maqmuengh ndaej dauh baenz sien、bang seiq gouq vunz. Dauhgyau mboujdan youq Cunghgoz cienzdungj vwnzvaq youqgaenj raixcaix, caemh doiq cienz lajmbwn miz itdingh yingjyangj. <ref name="道教文化">[http://www.daoist.org/culture/culture.htm 道教文化/Taoist]{{zh-hk}}</ref>。道家雖然從戰國時代即為[[諸子百家]]之一，但直到漢朝之後才有教團產生，其個別派係為奉[[老子]]為[[道德天尊]]，把原為[[道德]][[哲學家]][[神化]]了。至[[南北朝]]时道教宗教形式逐渐完善<ref name="中國道教簡史">唐大潮，《中國道教簡史》，宗教文化出版社，2001年，ISBN 7-80123-229-1</ref>。 道教以“[[道]]”为最高信仰，认为“道”是化生[[宇宙]]万物的本原<ref>[http://www.thinkerstar.com/tianwen/no_3/p11.html 天問-道是什麼]{{zh-tw}}</ref>。在[[中华]]传统文化中，道教（包括道家、術士等）被认为是与[[儒学]]和[[佛教]]一起的一种占据着主导地位的[[理论]]学说和尋求有關实践練成[[神仙]]的方法<ref>洪修平,[http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BJ001/bj089712.htm 論漢地佛教的方術靈神化、儒學化與老莊玄學化]{{zh-tw}}</ref>。 现在學術界所说的道教，是指在中国古代宗教信仰的基础上，承袭了[[方仙道]]、[[黄老道]]等一些宗教观念和修持方法，逐步形成的以“道”作为最高信仰<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100828062458/http://www.nanoforce.biz/daojiao.htm 道教教理和教義]{{zh-tw}}</ref>。主要是奉[[太上老君]]为教主，並以老子的《[[道德经]]》等为主要经典，追求修炼成为[[神仙]]的一种中國的宗教，道教成仙或成神的主要方法大致可以歸納為五種，服食仙藥，外丹等，煉[[氣]]與[[導引]]，[[內丹]]修煉，並藉由道教科儀與本身法術修為等儀式來功德成仙，常見後來的神仙多為內丹修煉和功德成神者與道術的修練者<ref>[http://irisjuchen.spaces.live.com/?_c11_BlogPart_BlogPart=blogview&_c=BlogPart&partqs=cat%3D%25e4%25b8%25b9%25e9%2581%2593%25e4%25bf%25ae%25e7%2585%2589%25e5%258a%259f%25e6%25b3%2595 金丹妙诀·济阳子]{{zh-cn}}</ref>。 == 起源與稱呼 == [[File:GoldFlwr3.gif|thumb|200px|修道士畫像]] 道教是[[中國]]土生土長的宗教，並經過長期的歷史發展而形成的。但是道教与道家是不同的,因为道家是学问,道教是宗教.道教的科仪与祭祀最早可追朔於原始時期的崇拜自然與鬼神，從最早的人神溝通的[[占卜]]等多種方式，原始宗教逐漸演變成[[商周]]時期的祭祀上天和[[祖先]]。到[[春秋戰國]]時期，古代宗教經歷了顯著的理性化演變，與社會文化知識的分化。[[諸子百家]]尤以道、儒、墨為「顯學」且當時的陰陽家、神仙家興起，在歷史有所的影響。至[[東漢]],社會因為戰亂與漢朝崩潰導致對宗教產生急迫的需求，於是原本儒學逐漸宗教化，此時也於傳入[[佛教]]。在這種社會背景下，道教的主要创始人物张道陵綜合傳統的鬼神崇拜、神仙思想、陰陽術數,巫术并於與漢代所崇尚[[黃老道家]]的思潮逐漸融合；道教教派也於此時形成<ref name="起源和形成">{{cite web | language = zh-tw | publisher = 大紀元 | title = 道教的起源和形成 | url = http://www.epochtimes.com/b5/1/10/3/c6431.htm | author = 姜生 | date = | accessdate = 2011-1-1 | archive-date = 2011-05-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110506070911/http://www.epochtimes.com/b5/1/10/3/c6431.htm | dead-url = yes }}</ref>。 由於受歐美文化影響，現在中文中的“道教”一詞，認爲起源於西元142年東漢[[張道陵]]所創立的「[[五斗米道]]」<ref name="教育部">{{cite web | language = zh-tw | publisher = 教育部數位學習資源入口 | title = 宗教的類別與台灣民間信仰 | url = http://content.edu.tw/local/changhwa/dachu/taiwan/s/s3/s32.html | author = | date = | accessdate = 2011-1-1 | archive-date = 2010-10-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101007095003/http://content.edu.tw/local/changhwa/dachu/taiwan/s/s3/s32.html | dead-url = yes }}</ref>。（注：這種歷史觀，不能被道教内部人士接受，道教内部一般認爲道教起源于傳説中的[[黃帝]]。）。然而事實上早在[[東漢]]之前道教已有許多宗派，以史籍所載所曰，有關[[張陵]]、[[張魯]]的事蹪，來論述道教不創自三張父子{{notetag|《後漢書．劉焉傳》及《三國志．魏書張魯傳》，均有載述張氏事蹪，二者文字相近。}}，而《[[後漢書]]》有文於下：[[張魯]]字公旗。初祖父陵，順帝時客於[[蜀]]，學道鶴鳴山中，造作符書以惑百姓。受其道者輒出米五斗，故謂之米賊。陵傳子衡，衡傳於魯，魯遂自號師君。其來學者，被名為[[鬼卒]]，後號[[祭酒]]。祭酒各領部眾，眾多者名曰理頭。皆校以誠信，不聽欺妄。有病，但令首過而已。諸祭酒各起義舍於路，同之亭傳，縣置米肉以給行旅。食者量腹取足，過多則鬼能病之。犯法者先加三原，然後行刑，不置長吏，以祭酒為理，民夷信向。朝廷不能討，遂就拜魯鎮夷中郎將，領漢寧太守，通其貢獻<ref>《[[後漢書]]》卷七十五〈[[劉焉]]傳</ref>。 又《[[三國志]][[張魯]]傳》[[劉宋]]．[[裴松之]]注引《典略》<ref name="漢魏道教"/>：熹平中（靈帝年號，西元一七二～一七七年），妖賊大起，三輔有駱曜<ref name="漢魏道教"/>。光和中（西元一八～一八三年），東方有張角，漢中有張脩。駱曜教民緬匿法，角為[[太平道 (宗教)|太平道]]，脩為[[五斗米道]]<ref name="漢魏道教">{{cite web | language = zh-tw | publisher = 道教學術資訊網站 | title = 漢魏兩晉的道教 | url = http://www.ctcwri.idv.tw/INDEXA3/A303/A30308/A3030808.htm | author = | date = | accessdate = | archive-date = 2021-02-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210215162826/http://www.ctcwri.idv.tw/INDEXA3/A303/A30308/A3030808.htm | dead-url = yes }}</ref>。太平道者，師持九節杖，為符祝（咒）<ref name="漢魏道教"/>。教病人叩頭思過，因以符水飲之，得病或日淺而愈者，則云此人信道；其或不愈，則為不信道。脩法略與角同，加施靜室，使病者處其中思過<ref name="漢魏道教"/>；又使人為姦令、祭酒。祭酒主以[[老子]]五文，使都習，號為姦令，為鬼吏，主為病者請禱。請禱之法，書病人姓名，說服罪之意，作三通，其一上之天，著山上；其一埋之地；其一沉之水；謂之三官手書。使病者家出米五斗以為常，故號曰五斗米師。實無益於治病，但為淫妄，然小人昏愚，競共事之<ref name="漢魏道教"/>。後角被誅，脩亦亡。及魯在漢中，因其民信行脩業，遂增飾之。教使作義舍，以米肉置其中以止行人。又教使自隱，有小過者，當治道百步，則罪除。又依《月令》，春夏禁殺，又禁酒。流移寄在其地者，不敢不奉<ref name="登福">{{cite web | language = zh-tw | publisher = 道教全球資訊網 | title = 道教產生研究 | url = http://www.twtaoism.net/php/menushow.php?style_id=435 | author = 蕭登福 | date = | accessdate = 2010-12-31 | archive-date = 2020-12-17 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201217022459/http://www.twtaoism.net/php/menushow.php?style_id=435 | dead-url = yes }}</ref>。在《典略》這段文獻的記載中，[[裴松之]]以為[[張脩]]是[[張衡]]之誤。姑且不論人名是否有誤；但可以很清楚看出當時的教派相當多；[[五斗米道]]與[[太平道 (宗教)|太平道]]一樣，都僅能算是道教的一個派別支流；在當時的道教，不僅僅是張陵張魯一家而已<ref name="登福"/>。而且或說張陵撰，或說張魯撰，常以「偽伎」一語<ref>由敦煌寫卷 s 6825號《老子想爾注》此注</ref>，來攻襲其他教派，可以看出當時不僅道教的派別多，還常互相攻擊<ref name="登福"/>。又張道陵所傳之經，稱為正一經；而《雲笈七籤．卷六第四》：「《正一》者，真一為宗，大上所說<ref name="登福"/>。《正一經》，天師自云：『我受於太上老君，教以正一新出道法。謂之新者，物厭故舊，盛新，新出，名異實同，學正除邪，仍用舊文，承先經教，無所改造。亦教人學仙，皆用上古之法。』[[王長慮]]後改易師法，故撰傳錄文，名曰《正一新出儀》。」由張陵的標榜「新出」，可知當時舊經舊法固多。而通常宗教都是發展到某個階段後，才會定向分裂，成為多種不同的教派；由此可印證道教不創自[[張道陵]]。因而若以道教歸屬於張道陵所創不合乎於史實<ref name="登福"/>。因此，其他道教分支为了以示区别，也就不再以“道教”自称。 道教的称呼在形成初期有所不同，[[先秦]]时期的[[诸子百家]]中许多人都曾经以“道”来称呼自己的理论和方法。[[儒家]]、[[墨家]]、[[道家]]、[[阴阳家]]甚至[[佛教]]都曾经由于各种原因自称或被认为是“道教”。儒家最早使用“道教”一词，将[[堯]]、[[舜]]等先王之「道」和[[孔子]]的言「教」称为“道教”。佛教刚刚传入中国时，把“[[菩提]]”翻译成“道”(此部分之出處尚有待確定)，因此也被称为“道教"<ref>{{Cite web |title=道教 |url=http://www.nanoforce.biz/daojiao.htm |access-date=2012-05-15 |archive-date=2010-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828062458/http://www.nanoforce.biz/daojiao.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref>。 ===道教无始亦无终的说法=== 道教的起源 -无始亦无终 '''道教 :“道的教化”''' 《道德经》：道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。无，名天地之始，有，名万物之母。故常“无”，欲以观其妙；常“有”，欲以观其徼。此两者，同出而异名，同谓之玄。玄之又玄，众妙之门 《[[说文解字]]》 :“教”上所施,下所效也。 “道”上古已存在，祂不为万物而生, 万物却因它而丰盛，“道”给万物得以孕育，众生又从其所得，是以尊为其所教，是为 “道教” ，从虚无到宇宙、万物、诸般物种的诞生，都受“道”所得 道的教化时刻都运转，却又如虚无一般，看不见、模不着，单以文字无法言明，需以 “体验” 而得启悟，人以自身不同潜能条件、意识印象，因缘得以悟道，感应从“道教”所得，故产生了无数人士，[[黄帝]]、[[孔子]]、[[庄子]]、科学家等等都在这程度下，体验 “道教”，得以“受道”，着下阴阳、五行、仁爱、仙学、科学......等等无数的学说，人终其一生仍然努力朝“得道(成功)”方向走 现今，人以科学探测宇宙事物，亦是“道教”，就如一个科学家的故事 ：- 看见苹果跌下来，而悟到地心吸力 从其规律，而悟得其法，古今皆是如此 而中国的道教神仙学说正是位处“道教”的高层，哲学可以描述现象，科学可以发现而解释现象，而仙学系统则可以超脱现象 人从荒蛮中“受道”而进化，开发到一定的潜能可以明白世间事物，太上老君就道成老子肉身施教，以哲学形式启悟人类“道”的概念，和圣人之道， 以期众生可以得到个好的环境，去悟道，随着人朝“道”方向走，所知所学越趋复杂，亦开始有了道派，将各圈子学说有系统地组合起来 就如人生命开始后，从基本的技能而到学习事物，进而成长，产生自己的圈子，各圈子又再组成组织或家庭 道教道派就如这一般那么自然的因缘“道教”而形成 现代学术界将“道教”界定为东汉道派始出现，分开道家和道教，是狭义和片面的解释。 “道教”： '''以“道”为祖'''，包含道家和道派，和世间事物 '''以神仙学说 为宗'''：《楼观本起传》：“是以古仙哲后，景行高真，仰道德为生化之源，宗神仙为立教之本；寻众妙之轨躅，慕重玄之指归” '''以三皇五帝开始'''：《云笈七签》卷三《道教本始部》：“上古无教，教自三皇五帝以来有矣。教者，告也，有言有理有义，有授有传...” '''“道”从无始而开始，“教”亦无所终结， 故“道教” ，无始亦无终''' == 历史 == {{main|道教歷史}} === 概述 === 道教虽奉[[老子]]为祖师，但其主张与老子、[[庄子]]的思想并不完全一致，而更多得益于汉初盛行的以老子之名言修道养寿的[[黄老道]]。道教的另一渊源是始于[[战国]]、盛于秦汉的[[方仙道]]。[[方仙道]]分行气（含[[导引]]）、[[服饵]]、[[房中术|房中]]三派。行气派尊[[彭祖]]、[[王乔]]、[[赤松子]]为始祖；服饵派以[[羡门]]、[[安期生]]为代表；房中派以[[容成]]、[[务成子]]为代表。此外，亦可遥追殷商的鬼神崇拜。 道教的內容，[[南朝]]梁[[刘勰]]《灭惑论》说是上标老子，次述神仙，下袭[[张陵]]。宋[[马端临]]《[[文献通考]]》卷二二五说：道家之术，杂而多端。早期道教的经籍中，最早用道教一词的是[[张鲁]]撰《[[老子想尔注]]》：“真道藏，邪文出，世间常伪使称道教，皆为大伪不可用。”接著便是晋代[[葛洪]]《[[抱朴子]]·内篇·明本篇》说：“惟道家之教，使人精神专一，动合无形。” 值得注意道教在其逐渐形成过程中，与当时正进入中国的[[佛教]]的互动（佛教对道教的影响以及道家对佛教中国化的影响）。道教早期没有佛教的木鱼与圆磬 钟等法器,后来在隋唐时引入道教乐器中.佛教也没有疏文,抽签后来从道教引入.道教早期只有杀鬼,禁鬼的法术没有有炼度鬼的法术,是受到佛教超度的法事才在魏晋南北朝一直到明清才有各种炼度鬼魂的科仪,基本两教都有互相模仿.但是道教一直模仿儒佛二教的经典教义和法事. === 发展历程 === 道教的发展一般分为汉魏两晋的起源时期、唐宋的兴盛、元明期间[[全真教]]的出现和清以后衰落四个时期<ref name="中國道教簡史"/>。 道教的形成是一个缓慢的发展过程。作为道教最终形成的两个标志性事件，一是《[[太平经]]》的流传，一是[[张道陵]]的[[五斗米道]]（天师道）。[[汉顺帝]]时（[[126年]]—[[144年]]），-{[[于吉]]}-（一說-{干吉}-）、[[宫崇]]所传的《[[太平清领书]]》（即所谓《太平经》，據信傳自[[汉成帝]]時齊人[[甘忠可]]編著的《包元太平經》）得到广泛传播<ref name="中國道教簡史"/>。到[[汉灵帝]]时，[[張角]]奉《太平清领书》传教，号为[[太平道 (宗教)|太平道]]，自称大贤良师，信徒遍布天下九州，已是颇有影响。后来，[[黄巾起义]]失败，太平道日趋衰微。同样是在东汉顺帝时，[[张道陵]]学道于蜀郡[[鹄鸣山]]，招徒传教，-{信}-道者出米五斗，故称五斗米道（也有研究稱，乃因其崇信北斗南斗等五斗星，加之與蜀地彌教結合，故稱五斗彌教，後訛為五斗米教）。其孙[[张鲁]]保据[[汉中]]多年，后又与最高统治当局合作，使得五斗米道的影响从西南一隅播于海内，遂发展为道教正宗[[天师道]]<ref name="中國道教簡史"/>。 两[[晋]][[南北朝]]时期，随着[[炼丹术]]的盛行和相关理论的深化，道教获得了很大发展。同时道教也吸取了当时风行的[[玄学]]，丰富了自己的理论。[[东晋]][[建武]]元年，[[葛洪]]对战国以来的[[神仙家]]理论进行了系统地论述，著作了《[[抱朴子]]》，是道教理论的第一次系统化，丰富了道教的思想内容。[[南北朝]]时，[[寇谦之]]在[[北魏太武帝]]支持下建立了“北天师道”，[[陆修静]]建立了“南天师道”<ref name="中國道教簡史"/>。 到了[[唐]][[宋]]，[[唐高祖]][[李渊]]认老子李耳为祖先，[[宋真宗]]、[[宋徽宗]]也极其崇-{信}-道教，宋徽宗更自號「教主道君皇帝」，道教因而备受尊崇，成为国教。此时出现了[[茅山派]]、[[阁皂派]]等派别，[[天师道]]也重新兴起。自汉晋以来一直隐而不显的道教丹鼎一派，由于[[漢鍾離]]、[[吕洞宾]]等人的大力倡导，[[内丹]]之学始露于世。在理论方面，[[吕洞宾]]、[[陈抟]]、[[张伯端]]等人阐述的内丹学说极为盛行<ref name="中國道教簡史"/>。 此階段不僅中國內部道教有所發展，更藉由遷徙與文化交流發揚至[[亞洲]]其他各處。比方[[东晋]]末，五斗米道在中国南方发动起义失败后，[[卢循]]率部逃至[[越南]]([[交州]])。越南人[[李脱]]帮助卢循进攻交州府城，失败后自尽。这是道教传入越南最早的记载<ref name="中國道教簡史"/>。 在宋朝的道教，信州[[龍虎山]]天師世系之受封，始自[[宋真宗]][[大中祥符]]九年（1016年）賜張正隨為貞靜先生。又據《宋史．仁宗本記》記載：天聖八年（1030年）五月甲寅，賜信州龍虎山張乾曜號澄素先生。到宋徽宗時，雖寵信道士林靈素，但對天師世系亦只給予一般封贈{{notetag|據《宋史．徽宗本記》記載：重和元年（1118年）以張虛白為通元沖妙先生}}。 宋末元初的道教，在北方出现了[[王重陽]]创导的[[全真道]]。后来，王重阳的弟子[[丘处机]]为蒙古[[成吉思汗]]讲道，颇受信赖，被[[元朝]]统治者授予主管天下道教的权力。而同时，为应对全真道的迅速崛起，原[[龙虎山]][[天师道]]、[[茅山]][[上清派]]、[[阁皂山]][[灵宝派]]合并为[[正一道]]，尊[[张天师]]为正一教主，从而正式形成了道教北有全真派、南有正一派两大派别的格局。到元世祖未得位時，常遣所信王先生渡江為間，不得達，留宿淮西者久之。欲歸，懼誅：念北人好鬼，可以計脫也。{{notetag|從農家錄得張氏妖書一冊以獻。因謬言：臣過江至龍虎山，見嗣漢天師張，有神術，能前知，為多人尊敬信頌，共稱天師。語臣曰：殿下入正宸極而宋亡，宋亡而天下可一也。因以書授臣為信。世祖喜，心識之。後平宋，以為信，召宗演自龍虎山至京。問之曰：卿畏曩與王先生言，今驗矣；卿何道知之乎？宗演貽愕，曾不知所出，不能對。世祖曰：往吾所遣王先生，廣顙巨目長，言與卿見於龍虎山，卿忘之耶？宗演乃詭辭對曰：是年，臣先臣嗣教，臣不知，今傳緒乃在臣。世祖曰：是而父耶？宣而之不知也。}} [[明朝]]时，[[永乐帝]][[朱棣]]自诩为[[真武大帝]]的化身，而对祭祀真武的[[张三丰]]及其[[武当派]]大力扶持。此时，道教依然在中国的各种宗教中占据着主导的地位<ref name="中國道教簡史"/>。 清代开始，满清统治者信奉[[萨满教]]和[[藏传佛教]]，并压制主要为[[汉族]]人信仰的道教。道教走向了衰落<ref name="中國道教簡史"/>。 === 近现代的道教 === 明代道教继元明之际(具体时间有争议)[[张三丰]]之后,又出现了新的发展,出现了“东派”大师[[陆西星]]，“西派”大师[[李涵虛]]。清朝由于很多汉族士人拥有反清思想，都皈依了全真教龙门派，于是全真教出现了“龙门”中兴的现象。[[中华人民共和国]]成立以后，随着中国政府新的宗教政策的执行，以前的一些道教的清规戒律由于和现行法律-{zh-hans:抵触; zh-hant:牴觸}-而作废。[[1957年]]，中國大陸成立了[[中国道教协会]]，管理中国道教内部的事务。到[[文化大革命]]时期，道教同中国其他的宗教一样经受了一场浩劫。直到文化大革命结束以后，道教才开始恢复正常的宗教活动。目前[[中國大陸]]的全真派和正一派道士約有5萬餘人，正式開放的道教宮觀有5千多處。道教组织有[[中国道教协会]]、省一级地方道教协会、地区（市）一级地方道教协会。注意：由于道教派别众多，不是都有出家制度，所以道教的确切信仰人数是难以计数的。 [[台灣道教]]基本上隨著早期的漢人移民而來到台灣<ref name="中華民國道教會">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110429010947/http://www.chinesetaoism.org/index2-3.html 台灣道教概況]{{zh-tw}}</ref>，[[台灣日治時期|日治時代]]末期，很多民眾信奉道教以表明自己的民族立場，因此道教備受打壓，道教宮觀屢遭損毀，必須兼供佛像或民間神祇才能得以保全，這種混雜現象延續至今，且導致台灣道佛不分的情況。[[1949年]]，[[正一道]]的63代天師[[張恩溥]]輾轉到達台灣，1969年過世後，遷台江西省[[國大代表]]推張恩溥堂姪[[張源先]]為六十四代天師，現居台灣嗣漢天師府。現據[[中華民國内政部]]統計道教乃為台灣第一大宗教<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.moi.gov.tw/news_history_detail.aspx?type_code=01&sn=2810 九十八年第三十週內政統計通報(97年底宗教寺廟、教會(堂)概況)]{{zh-tw}}</ref>。 == 出家制度 == 全真教北派有出家制度，始于南宋時期全真教創始人王重陽，並延續到現代。正一派以及全真南派沒有出家制度。 == 教理和教义 == 道教天师道从创宗之初，漢代張道陵以老子的《[[道德经]]》为根本经典，将其中“[[道]]”和“[[德]]”作为基本的信仰<ref name="道教文化"/>。道教认为“道”是宇宙万物的本原和主宰，无所不在，无所不包，万物都是从“道”演化而来的。而“德”则是“道”的体现。[[三清]]尊神則是“道”最初的人格化顯現，也代表了宇宙創生的三個重要過程（道生一，一生二，二生三，三生萬物——道德经），三清化生出天地宇宙和自然諸神，這些稱為先天尊神（[[天尊]]），乃道所演化，先天既與道體合一，而道法無遠弗屆充斥無邊宇宙，故道教徒祝頌語常曰“無量天尊”，人類通過某些方式可以達到與道合一的境界，這些人稱為後天[[神仙]]，最高修為者也可以達到天尊<ref name="道教文化"/>。 此外道教的至尊天神在歷史上的不同宗派[[道经]]中还有其他说法，一是以玉清[[元始天尊]]为最高天神，二是以上清[[靈寶天尊]]为最高天神，三是以太清[[道德天尊]]为最高天神，最後，演变成[[三位一体]]的“一炁化[[三清]]”的神學理論。 另外道教的教主爭議，有人自稱道教教主是張道陵昧之史實<ref name="登福"/>，就道教而言教主還是太上老君，而玉清[[元始天尊]]为道，二是以上清[[靈寶天尊]]为經，三是以太清[[道德天尊]]为師，反觀道教經典中，玉清與上清並未[[入世]]，太清並而入世傳道，就論而言道教教主是太上老君又稱道德天尊，政治家稱為老子。 在修身方面，道教讲究“人天合一”、“人天相应”、“无为而治、不言之教”，讲究“虚心实腹”、“归根复命”，“深根固柢”、“长生久视”、“知足不辱，知止不殆，可以长久”、“乘天地之正，而御六气之辩，以游无穷。”等等。 道教重生恶死，追求[[长生不老]]，认为人的[[生命]]可以自己做主，而不用听命于[[天]]。认为人只要善于修道养生，就可以长生不老，得道成仙。因此也就产生了许多修炼方法：[[炼丹]]、[[服食]]、[[吐纳]]、[[胎息]]、[[按摩]]、[[导引]]、[[房中术|房中]]、[[辟穀]]、存想、服符和诵经<ref name="教育部"/>。 明朝道士[[张三丰]]认为道的功用是“修身利人”，[[儒家]]“行道济时”，[[佛家]]“悟道觉世”，道家“藏道度人”。道家修炼仙道。张三丰以修人道为炼[[仙]]道的基础，强调只要素行阴德，仁慈悲悯，忠孝信诚，全于人道，离仙道也就自然不远了。“人能修正身心，则真精真神聚其中，大才大德出其中。” 道教[[神學]]可以說是道家思想神秘化後的[[宗教]]學說，未必完全切合，其间异同，颇值玩味。然道教既祖称老、莊，尊崇《[[道德經]]》（老子）、《[[南華經]]》（莊子）等眾多道家經典，毕竟吸收继承了道家思想的大量内容。此外，它也受到了《[[易]]》以及[[阴阳家]]、[[儒家]]、[[中医]]养生家、[[佛教]]以及上古[[方仙道]]的影响。 == 道教文化 == 道教对中国古代的[[政治]]、[[经济]]、[[哲学]]、[[文学]]、[[艺术]]、[[音乐]]、[[绘画]]、[[建筑]]、[[医学]]、[[药学|药物学]]、[[养生学]]、[[气功]]、[[化学]]、[[武術|武术]]、[[天文学]]、[[地理学|地理]]都产生了不同程度的影响。此外，它对于[[华人]]的思维方式、[[伦理学|伦理]]、[[道德]]、[[風俗|民俗]]、[[民族关系]]、[[民族心理]]、[[民族性格]]等各方面也有很深的影响。 === 道教與道家 === [[File:Yin yang.svg|thumb|150px|太极图]] 「[[道家]]」與「道教」二詞，常被不加區別地使用。從歷史來看，這兩個詞指稱過很多不同的內容，也曾混為一談；現在也仍然有人主張將二者等同起來。然而，如果將道家理解為由老子、莊子開創，並在[[魏晉]]被重新發明的哲學思想流派，將道教理解為於兩漢逐漸形成，後又有若干發展分化的宗教，那麼，雖然道教在理論上汲取了道家思想的大量要素，甚至奉老子為教主，但是二者還是不能混為一談，也不能說道教理論就是道家思想。道教作為一種宗教，有其神仙崇拜與信仰，有教徒與組織，有一系列的宗教儀式與活動，其主要派別的傳承是大致清楚的。道家作為一個哲學思想流派，其思想演變與代表人物應是它被解說時最重要的內容；魏晉之後道家思想的傳承演變，現在看來還是模糊而難以說清的，但它對歷代學者文人的影響卻仍是依稀可辨的；從這個角度也可以說，狹義的「道家」指的就是[[先秦]]時代以老子、莊子為主要代表人物的哲學思想流派。 也有學者認為，道家思想與宗教或有莫大聯繫。如[[聞一多]]在《道教的精神》一文中曾指出：「我常疑心這哲學或玄學的道家思想必有一個前身，而這個前身很可能是某種富有神秘思想的原始宗教，或更具體點講，一個巫教。這種宗教在基本性質上恐怕與後來的道教無大差別，雖則形式上盡可截然不同。這個不知名的古代宗教，我們可暫稱為古道教<ref>《聞一多全集》，第143頁</ref>。」 道教神學與道家思想的異同，如：道教某些人所謂長生不老，追求成仙、神通之类，而[[老子]]並未言及。道教内部的思想本身就很复杂。也不是所有都追求长生不老，追求成仙、神通之类。 === 代表学者 === *先秦 老子，列子，庄子，文子等 *汉代 [[魏伯阳]] *晋代 [[葛洪]]等 *唐代 [[成玄英]]，[[司馬承禎]] *五代 [[陈抟]],[[譚紫霄]] *宋代 [[张伯端]] *元明 [[张三丰]] *清代 [[王常月]] *近代 [[陈撄宁]]，[[易心莹]],[[陳國符]] *現代 [[王明]],[[胡孚琛]]，[[卿希泰]],[[戈国龙]] === 道教諸仙 === {{main|神仙}} [[File:British Museum - Daoist deity.jpg|thumb|[[大英博物館]]藏道教人物像]] 道教是一個[[多神教]]，最高的神是由道衍化的[[三清]]（「一炁化三清」）尊神，即[[元始天尊]]、[[太上道君|靈寶天尊]]和[[太上老君|道德天尊]]，其中[[太上老君|道德天尊]]即是[[太上老君]]<ref name="道教全球資訊網"/>。 另外道教先人認為天地人中定數代表[[天庭]]及[[玉皇大帝]]與[[地獄]]和海中世界的概念，作為天庭的附屬，也發展出了[[閻羅]][[地府]]和[[龍王]]水晶宮的一系列神仙官員，再加上地方神仙系列如四值功曹、[[山神]]、[[城隍]]、[[土地神]]、[[灶君]]等<ref name="道教全球資訊網"/>。古代-制定[[中国|中國]]古代神話中的[[西王母]]、[[玄女|九天玄女]]等。中國道教信奉的神仙譜系極為繁雜。 《太平經》中“神仙”分為六等，張君房《雲笈七箋》道書中“神仙”分為十個等級，以道書來說，道教的神仙譜系中，最高為“[[三清]]”、“[[四御]]”，最低為“[[城隍]]”、“[[土地神|土地]]”。這是經過長期演化才逐漸定型的<ref name="道教全球資訊網"/>。如[[媽祖]]、[[關帝]]、[[雙忠]]等。都因為民間信仰而納入道教的神仙。道教早期雖然不供俸神像，但為了傳播方便而開始塑造神像供俸，在大型道教[[宫观|宮觀]]中，必有“天尊殿”（或曰“[[三清殿|三清閣]]”）以及“四禦殿”，至於其他神仙，則根據道觀之歷史、地理特點而不盡相同，並合祀“[[三清]]”神像<ref name="道教全球資訊網">{{cite web | language = | publisher = 道教全球資訊網 | title = 道教的神仙系譜 | url = http://www.twtaoism.net/php/menushow.php?style_id=444 | author = | date = | accessdate = | archive-date = 2009-02-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090219102716/http://twtaoism.net/php/menushow.php?style_id=444 | dead-url = yes }}</ref>。此外，道教先人認為人身也是一個小天地，因此人身上的各種器官，例如毛髮、五官等等也都有神靈駐守，而且還有相應的修持方法。 現今許多人引述在封神榜裡神尊.属于小說野史.與道教記載有很大差別。 === 戒律 === [[道教戒律]]是一些约束[[道士]]思想言行的准则。道教的戒律依照不同的教派，有着不同的内容。一般说来，[[全真道|全真派]]的戒律严于[[符箓派]]。戒律的内容主要有不得杀生，不得喝酒吃肉，不得偷盗，不得邪淫等。戒律是教徒必须遵守的，而且必须有一个受戒仪式一名道士才能算作教徒。根据规则的严紧程度，戒律可以分成上品戒，中品戒，下品戒。根据戒條的多少有“三戒”、“五戒”、“八戒”、“十戒”、“老君二十七戒”等<ref name="世界宗教网"/>。 # “五戒”为“不杀生”、“不偷盗”、“不邪淫”、“不妄语”、“不饮酒”。 # “八戒”为“不杀生”、“不偷盗”、“不邪淫”、“不妄语”、“不饮酒”、“不得眠坐高广华丽之床”、“不得涂脂抹粉”、“不得观听歌舞” 除戒律外，还有[[道教清规]]，就是道士犯戒以后的处罚手段。具体条例派别不同则规定也不同。 道教的戒律，在吸取了佛教的一些内容和[[儒家]][[三纲五常]]等要求的基础上，形成了一套自己特有的内容。道教的清规戒律也是随时事的变化而变化的，当与政权的法律相冲突时，会进行适当的调整。 === 道术 === [[File:道教符.jpg|thumb|150px|道教中的平安符]] <!-- [[File:Laojunfu.gif|thumb|《[[抱朴子]]》中所载的老君入山符，认为使用它可以避开鬼怪野兽。]] --> 道教的宗教活动十分庞杂，主要分两大类<ref name="世界宗教网">{{Cite web |title=道教- 世界宗教网 |url=http://zongjiao.moonlightchest.com/taoism.asp |access-date=2012-05-15 |archive-date=2010-11-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124034539/http://zongjiao.moonlightchest.com/taoism.asp |dead-url=yes }}</ref>，道士的自身修行（称为道术）和道教仪式，内容包括道教经法、忏法、[[斋]]、[[醮]]、[[符咒]]、禁咒、隐遁、乘蹻、驱邪、伏魔、降妖、消灾、祈禳、[[房中术]]、[[神仙]]术、[[辟穀|辟谷]]、[[風水]]堪輿、[[占卜]]等。 道士的自身修行成为道术，包括[[内丹术|内丹]]，[[外丹术|外丹]]，[[服食]]，[[房中术|房中]]等内容。外丹是指烧炼丹砂[[铅]]、[[汞]]等[[矿物]]以及药物，制作能够使人长生不老的丹丸。现代所謂的科学认为这些丹药大多有毒，古人也有很多服食不當致死的例子，後來胡虜入侵殖民，很多道士戰死，秘方被失傳。造成外丹服食和配制的方法較難掌握分寸，具有一定的危險性，後世多数轉向較為保險的內丹修煉(内丹修炼在此之前也存在)。近代陈缨宁曾经在上海从事过外丹实验，从而断定古丹书所载不虚 。外丹也被认为是现代[[化学]]的先驱<ref name="世界宗教网"/>。 内丹则是指通过行[[气]]，[[导引]]，呼吸[[吐纳]]，在身体里炼丹以达到长生不老的目的。外丹和内丹的用语相同，但是所指代的含义完全不同，比如把人体比喻为烧炼丹丸的炉鼎，不過理論上還是具有相通性。古時炼丹术的传授大多师徒相承，口口相授，外人很难了解。将人体的三丹田称为“三元”是道教[[内丹术]]的说法<ref>《[[参同契]]》称“含精养神，通德三元”。</ref>。“混沌分后，有天地水[[三元]]之气，生成人伦，长养万物。人亦法之，号为[[三焦]]、三[[丹田]]，以养身形，以生[[神]][[气]]<ref>[[宋代]][[张君房]]编撰的《[[云笈七箓]]》卷五十六《元气论》称</ref>。”亦有认为“三元”指元精、元气、元神。 此外，道教还有许多道术。例如内观、守静、存思、[[辟穀|辟谷]]等多种。这些被某些人归为[[气功]]，不过这种做法并不正确，因为現在說的“气功”其实只有几十年的历史，而道教修炼自黄帝算起（《史记》中有黄帝“且战且修仙”的记载）则至少有五千年的历史。另外，蒙元滿清殖民前的道教徒都习[[武術]]。[[中医学|中醫]]理論亦大多源自道教。 道教的仪式统称为“斋醮科仪”，斋是清洁的意思，醮是指祈祷，又称为[[道场]]。道教祭祀[[神仙]]，由于认为神仙清高洁静，因此祭祀前需要沐浴更衣，不[[行房]]、不飲[[酒]]、不食[[肉]]，进行斋戒。进行祭祀活动称为“醮”，道教仪式在发展过程中吸取了许多佛教的内容(佛教仪式在发展过程中亦吸取了许多道教的内容)。道教认为通过这些仪式可以去灾求福。[[占卜]]也是道术的一部分，包括[[卜卦]]、[[抽签]]、测字等。此外，道教很有特色的是使用[[符籙|符]]、[[符籙|箓]]。符是用墨筆、[[朱砂]]画在黄纸上的一些符号，道教认为可以用来治病，而箓则被认为可以驱使天神。另外，道教也认为口念禁咒，可以治病驱使鬼神，赶走野兽。这些主要都是道教道士所為修得的法术。 === 主要典籍 === 道教奉[[老子]]的《[[道德经]]》、[[庄子]]的《[[南华经]]》为重要的两部经典。另外，有部分学者认为道教模仿[[佛教]]的[[大藏经]]创制了[[道藏]]{{notetag|梁武帝萧衍在天监十四年（515年）由沙门僧绍撰《众经目录》4卷，至518年，共1433部，3741卷。这被广泛认为佛教经典编纂为大藏经的首次记录<ref>据《隋书·经籍志》和《历代三宝记》载</ref>。但同时，公元[[471年]]南北朝时期[[陆修静]]编的道教《[[三洞经书目录]]》大大早于最早的佛教《[[大藏经]]》的编辑。}}，收集历代道家著作，不仅包括[[哲学]]和道家理论，而且包括[[炼丹]]、养生、治病、气功等方面的著作。記載道教符錄、齋醮、科儀、修煉方法的經典主要有《正统道藏》、《道藏辑要》、《万历续道藏》等，這些典籍有對中國古代的[[政治]]、[[經濟]]、[[文化]]與[[科技]]等產生影響。現僅存明代《正统道藏》流傳，其它版本已失傳，現存歷代道教經典多收錄於此。道教的经书数量非常庞大，各派的主要经典也各不相同<ref name="世界宗教网"/>。 《[[周易参同契]]》是最早的丹经，称为丹经之祖，此外《[[抱朴子]]》也是道教丹鼎派的基本经典。《[[太平经]]》和《[[老子想尔注]]》也是道教早期的主要经典。《[[黄庭经]]》和《[[大洞真经|上清大洞真经]]》则是上清经箓派的主要经典，[[茅山派]]也非常重之。《[[度人经]]》和《[[三皇文]]》则是[[灵宝派]]和三皇派的主要经典。《[[黄帝阴符经|阴符经]]》和《[[常清静经]]》也是道教两部非常重要的经书，是道士必须诵习的经书。此外，《[[玉皇经]]》和《[[心印经|心印妙经]]》也是道教徒的日常功课之一<ref name="心印妙經">{{cite web | language = | publisher = 台灣仙道學術資訊網 | title = 《心印妙經》與養生之道 | url = http://taiwan.shien-dao.com.tw/mktalkdetail.php?ID=35 | author = 張竹銘 | date = 2006-03-05 | accessdate = | archive-date = 2006-06-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060615062756/http://taiwan.shien-dao.com.tw/mktalkdetail.php?ID=35 | dead-url = yes }}</ref>。[[北宋]]后出现了《[[悟真篇]]》、《[[金丹四百字]]》等经典。 道教南宗正一派虽然以[[符箓]]、斋醮、科仪为主，但[[北宋]]以后也主张三教一理，修炼[[内丹]]。 道教北宗全真派更主张三教合一，炼气全神，明心见性，兼融释儒，以《道德经》、《[[孝经]]》和《般若心经》三家经典为主，提倡“孝谨纯一"。 道教太一宗主要也以[[符箓]]、斋醮、科仪、該宗以《道德经》為主要傳宗經典、另談及丹道但其歷代宗師皆長壽，傳宗至今傳至47代，其47代宗師[[黃元吉]]，寫出許多知名道教修道與丹道经典。 === 道教音樂 === 明代道士[[冷谦]]是著名琴家，对音乐做出巨大贡献。 清代道士张孔山开创的琴派“川派”，对琴艺做出了巨大贡献，代表名曲《大流水》（亦称《七十二滚拂流水》、《流水》）。从某种 意义上也可以说是道教音乐。 近代道士华彦钧（俗称“瞎子阿炳”）对中国二胡艺术做出巨大贡献。 道教音樂是道教文化的重要組成部分之一道樂不僅與道教歷史同樣久遠而且秘而不傳，其旋律為古雅風格，為宗教與藝術的互相結合<ref name="道教音樂 "/>。道樂常見於廟宇日常早晚課誦經唱贊，各種齋醮法事、[[中元]]普渡、大型法會等宗教活動，或者信徒在各種喪葬、祭拜及日常禮神儀式上播放以求慰藉，也為道士、法師必備[[科儀]]經樂，亦常於廟宇、素食店、茶藝館、宗教藝品店日常播放，修道士平時也常用於靜坐冥想、修練氣功丹道、提昇心靈境界<ref name="道教音樂">{{cite web | language = zh-tw | publisher = 大人物公司 | title =道教音樂 | url =http://www.greatman.com.tw/tao.htm | author =曹本冶 | date = | accessdate = }}</ref>。 自50年代開始，即有業餘[[音樂家]]在收集、整理、研究道教音樂，各學術刊物的專論及學術專著開始陸續出現「道教音樂」；後來有專業音樂家將「道教音樂」搬上了舞台，並至東亞國家巡迴演出。道教音樂的藝術表演活動於是慢慢被社會認同接受，而部分道教宮觀有從事這種演示活動的組織–「道樂團」。1988年8月22日，北京白雲觀正式成立了「白雲觀道教音樂團」，並首次在[[北京音樂廳]]舉行了集合性演出。之後大陸各地道教協會等亦相繼成立了道樂團，其中蘇州玄妙觀、北京白雲觀等宮觀的道樂團還多次應邀到英國、比利時、新加坡等國作專場道教音樂演出<ref>[http://maushan.blogspot.com/ 加拿大]</ref>。 1996年，由香港蓬瀛仙館主辦的[[香港道樂團]]正式成立，香港道樂團也是歷屆道教音樂匯演的組織策劃者之一。「首屆道教音樂匯演」於2001年11月在香港演出，由[[香港蓬瀛仙館]]、香港道樂團與香港中文大學宗教系、香港中文大學音樂系聯合主辦<ref name="道教音樂匯演 "/>。道教音樂匯演主要是唱誦平時在[[宮觀]]裏誦經說法的經韵，配合走五方、行八卦、轉太極等身伐動作；亦有地方特色的道曲；其中武當山道教武術音樂團表演的「武當仙樂神功」是創意性的節目，該節目將武當山道教音樂與武當山拳、劍及功夫結合于一體，道樂中穿插武功，武功伴隨著道樂，以道樂再搭配[[中國功夫]]方式動靜結合；也有演奏道長阿炳的著名作品《二泉映月》，匯演還有表演分別具有[[江南]]、[[中国东北地区|东北]]及[[香港]]地方特色的道曲，令觀眾們可感受到道教音樂的可體驗不同風格且豐富之道曲；匯演中特色節目還由東道主成都青羊宮道樂團表演，該團的表演特點是在樂隊中使用了[[編鐘]]、[[古琴]]等古樂器，使用古老的樂器傳達歷史悠久的道教音樂<ref name="道教音樂匯演"/>。 第二屆道教音樂匯演在2002年6月在台北演出<ref name="道教音樂匯演"/>。第三屆道教音樂匯演於2003年3月18日在北京民族文化宮大劇院舉行，由中國道教協會、香港蓬瀛仙館聯合主辦<ref name="道教音樂 "/>。第四屆道教音樂匯演於2004年3月7日在新加坡[[嘉龍劇院]]舉行<ref name="道教音樂匯演 "/>。第五屆道教音樂匯演2005年5月於在廣州星海音樂廳舉行，該匯演創下參演團體和表演人數歷屆最多的紀錄<ref name="道教音樂匯演"/>。第六屆道教音樂匯演於2006年8月26日在成都藝術中心嬌子音樂廳舉行<ref name="道教音樂 "/>。 大陸[[中國道教協會]]和臺灣[[中華道教總會]]為了弘揚道教文化，展示道教音樂，在經過協商和籌備，於2005年7月底8月在臺灣舉行海峽兩岸道教[[音樂會]]，以「蓬萊仙韵頌太平」作為主題<ref name="道教音樂匯演 ">{{cite web | language =zh-hk | publisher = 蓬瀛仙館道教文化中心 | title =道教音樂匯演簡述 | url =http://www.daoinfo.org/?q=node/489 | author = 劉紅 | date = | accessdate = }}</ref>。 == 教派 == [[File:Taopriest.jpg|thumb|150px|道士]] 道教内部门派众多，因分派标准不同而名称各异。据学理分有[[积善派]]、经典派（[[妙真道]]）、[[符录派]]、丹鼎派（[[金丹派]]）、占验派五类。 历史上还有正一宗（[[祖師]][[张道陵]]）、[[全真]]南宗（祖師[[張伯端]]）、全真北宗（祖師[[王重阳]]）、真大宗（祖師[[张清志]]）、太一宗（祖師[[莫洞一]])五大宗之分法，與天师道、全真道、灵宝道、清微道四大派的分法。还有道德、先天、灵宝、正一、清微、净明、玉堂、天心八派的说法。 近现代道教就纯宗教方面分之，主要分为五个派别——积善、经典、丹鼎、符箓、占验。而最有影响的则是符箓派和丹鼎派，前者主张以符咒等方术治病驱鬼，后者主张炼金丹求仙，分[[外丹术|外丹]]与[[内丹术|内丹]]二脉。 道教的正式分派，一般认为是开始于[[宋]]、[[元]]。[[道教歷史]]上较有影响的有7个大派<ref name="世界宗教网"/>： # [[正一道]]：下面又分有[[灵宝派]]、[[天师道]]、[[閣皂宗]]、[[閭山派]]、[[六壬]]等。其[[道士]]可以在家修行，不戒荤腥，可婚娶生子。其[[宫观|道观]]一般被称作为“子孙庙”。 # [[全真道]]：源於[[鍾離權]]、[[呂洞賓]]的[[內丹]]思想，又有[[南宗]]和[[北宗]]之分。支派很多，如[[龙门派]]、[[遇仙派]]、[[净明道|净明派]]、[[南无派]]、[[隨山派]]、[[崳山派]]、[[華山派]]、[[清靜派]]等。 # [[大道教|真大道教]]：[[胡金]]时创立，[[胡元]]以后逐渐衰微。 # [[太一道]]：[[胡金]]时由[[卫州]]〔即今[[河南]][[淇縣]]〕人[[萧抱珍]]创立，元末以后逐渐衰微。其教主要崇奉“太一神”。 # [[净明道]]：[[南宋]]时创建，[[明朝]]以后该教逐渐归入正一道。 # [[上清派]]及其支派「[[茅山宗]]」：在[[隋朝]]到初、盛[[唐朝|唐]]、[[宋朝|宋]]時成為當時道教的主要派別，傳道範圍也從南方延伸到了北方。以“[[元始天尊]]”為最高神，供奉三茅真君。 # [[武当派]]：[[明朝|明代]][[张三丰]]于湖北均县[[武当山]]创立。供奉[[真武大帝]]为主神。 明朝以后，道教主要分为「正一道」和「全真道」與「太一道」三大派别，其他宗派全部归纳到这三个宗派之下。现在[[北京市|北京]]的[[白云观]]藏有《诸真宗派总簿》，所列道派系谱共有八十七派，实际上有些只是系谱的续字，不是独立一派。另外據教內所傳典籍，應為36天教及72地教，总共应108教派。 道教在中國現今宗派為[[全真宗]]為主流。而正一宗在中國大陸只是支脈，其發源地為江西龍虎山。以[[太上老君]]（即[[道德天尊]]）为教主，也就是老子。在[[台灣]]，以太上老君所代表道教宗派為道教'''太一宗'''，門派奉太上老君為祖師。而正一宗奉祀祖師為張道陵天師，以上為台灣兩大道教宗派。 == 道教宫观與活动 == [[File:ZhinanTemple.jpg|thumb|250px|在台北市的[[指南宮]]]] 道教的活动主要在[[宫观]]内进行<ref name="宮觀">[http://zh.daoinfo.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%AE%E8%A7%80&variant=zh-tw 道教天地-宮觀]</ref>。 道教的宗教建築泛稱為宮觀，是比較晚的事，至早也早不過唐。考其形成和演變的歷史，可以看到它們是適應道教組織產生和發展的需要，而產生和發展的。現在一般都認為，早期道教的宗教建築主要是靖（靜、靜室）和治，另有些道室名廬，治中亦可稱為館。所謂靖或靜，係奉道之家所設立的靜室，意在與家中其他之處隔離。「奉道之家，靖室是致誠之所。其外別絕，不連他屋。其中清虛，不雜餘物。開閉門戶，不妄觸突。灑握精肅，常若神居。唯置香爐、香燈、章案、書刀四物而已。」[1]可見，它最初出現就是為區分聖與凡，道士與一般居民，奉道與俗事的界限而立<ref name="宮觀"/>。 總之，宮觀是道教理念的體現，是道教特質的象徵。具有很強的標誌性，使人一望便可知它是道教特有的宗教場所，與其它宗教比如佛教、基督教有別<ref name="宮觀"/>。 可以分为两种：[[廟宇]]指供[[民間信仰]]的信眾[[祭祀]]、[[供奉]]和求庇佑的地方；[[道觀]]则指道教徒們修鍊、傳道和舉行各種[[宗教儀式]]以及生活的場所，多位於名山大川附近以及大城市裡。 == 道教節慶 == [[三元节]]是道教的大庆日子。[[三元節]]，就是「[[三官大帝]]」的[[誕辰]]，并以天官生日為上元节，为天官赐福之日，要舉行祈福法事；地官生日為中元节，为地官赦罪之日，要普渡孤魂；水官生日為下元节，为水官解厄之日，請神明為運勢不好的人消災解難。[[唐代]]三元节由皇帝下敕天下诸州禁屠三日。以[[夏历]][[正月十五]]为[[上元节]]，[[七月十五]]为[[中元节]]，[[十月十五]]为[[下元节]]。 [[台湾]]以春节为道教节。[[新加坡]]等地以夏历[[二月十五]](道祖诞生日)为道教节。 == 道教在世界的影响 == === 在漢字文化圈的影響 === ==== 大中華地區 ==== 道教对[[中华文化|中国文化]]的方方面面都产生了不同程度的影响。 道教中一些宗派都师徒相传一些[[武術|武术]]和[[气功]]，例如武术中很出名的[[武当派]]，据说就是[[武当山]]上的许多道士传承的武术。道教的武术也和许多武术不同，讲究圆柔、后发制人，充分体现了道教的教理。其中像[[太极拳]]这样的简单武术套路，已经逐渐成为人们的日常健身活动。[[道教气功]]也是中国气功中的一大流派，全真道的修炼方法很多就是气功，对气功的探索和发展，其贡献很大。 道教的养生术还继承和发展了中国传统医学《[[黄帝内经]]》中经络学等方面内容。此外，许多道教徒研习医术，对于[[中医学]]发展颇有贡献，如[[葛洪]]、[[陶弘景]]、[[孙思邈]]等人，于中医药皆有所建树。 道教的[[炼丹|炼丹术]]对[[火药]]的发明有着重要的影响。 历史上很多重要的文化人物都是道教徒。晋代书圣[[王羲之]]一家笃信正一道。[[唐朝|唐代]]的大诗人[[李白]]也是位虔诚的道教徒，曾经游历各地，求仙访道，甚至炼过丹、受过[[道箓]]。这段经历给他的个性、诗歌创作乃至一生的际遇都产生了很重要的影响。李白受召入[[长安]]，受到[[唐玄宗]]等许多的道士和信仰道教朋友的推荐。寻仙过程中，他游遍[[五岳]]，给他带来大量的素材。他的诗歌中也常常出现“仙人”、“羽化”等意念。[[唐太宗]]在老子的家鄉建了「[[太上老君]]廟」；[[唐高宗]]則尊老子為「太上玄元皇帝」，認為老子是李唐宗世的祖先。唐朝君主有自稱是老子的後代子孫，還遵奉老子為始祖，並且立祠祭祀，又對老子追封帝號，同時明定朝廷官員都要修習《[[道德經]]》，並且列《道德經》為當時[[科舉]]考試的範圍<ref name="唐朝的道教"/>。 中国四大古典文学名著之一的《[[西游记]]》虽然讲述的是唐僧等四人去西天取经的故事，但全书中使用了大量道教专有的概念如心猿、意马、姹女、元神等，还构筑了一个以[[玉皇大帝]]为核心的道教神祇、神官系统。书中也出现了很多道教人物，有些竟然多被荒唐的寫成反面角色。 而完全以道教为核心的最著名小说则要数《[[封神演义]]》了。书中讲述的商周战争，裏面提到與道教並立的兩個宗教[[闡教 (封神演義)|闡教]]和[[截教]]的誤斗。书中出现的各路仙神和法寶等，属于闡教截教道教系统。 “[[天皇]]”在中國道教中，是表示[[北極星]]的神祇。在唐朝时期，[[唐高宗]]曾使用[[天皇大帝]]称号，与天后[[武则天]]并称二圣。高宗下旨令各地廣建修道觀，並且把自己的女兒送進道觀當女[[道士]]。也就是說[[道教]]在[[唐太宗]]與[[唐高宗]]的強力推行，可說是已成為唐朝的國教<ref name="唐朝的道教">{{cite web | language = zh-tw | publisher = 歷史文化學習網 | title = 唐朝的道教 | url = http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=443&s_level=&subjectid=708 | author = | date = | accessdate = 2010-09-13 | archive-date = 2011-11-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111123202930/http://culture.edu.tw/history/smenu_photomenu.php?smenuid=443&s_level=&subjectid=708 | dead-url = yes }}</ref>。 道教在台灣的影響： [[台灣]]道教基本上隨著早期的[[漢人]]移民而來到台灣 <ref name="中華民國道教會" />，從[[台灣清治時期|清領時期]]就一直享有高度宗教自由的民間社會，經過[[台灣日治時期|日治時期]]統治仍蓬勃發展。日治前期，日本政府施行「舊慣溫存」政策，即尊重台灣舊慣，不干涉傳統宗教。日治後期，由於採皇民化政策，企圖改變台灣人民思想，日治時代的台灣，道廟非常之多，且有民間教團在守護與維護人民安全<ref>據《台灣通史》記載</ref>，但道廟中的民團會抵制日本政府，所以採皇民化政策大力強制道教改採佛教信仰，此舉導致台灣現今佛道不分，但是道教仍呈熱烈的蓬勃發展風貌遍佈全台。戰後，[[台灣省戒嚴令|戒嚴]]的年代，[[國民政府]]禁止集會遊行，因此民間只能以「慶祝國慶」、「慶祝總統、副總統就職X週年」等名目向政府機關申請，才得以順利舉辦[[廟會]]。以道教法師來說台灣早期山線都是[[紅頭]]海線才是道士，台灣清代已有福建道教[[閭山派]]，與南部靈寶派與正一派等，民國60年代成立道教會與道教太一宗掘起，台灣道教產生變化，不過百姓雖不知道教體系，百姓的心中一直都是主要[[道士]]、[[法師]]及[[造醮]]等觀念與習俗更是深植民心。這裡面，雖然[[科儀]]與中國其他地方不盡相同，道教的傳承一直在台灣發展著。 道教現為台灣第一大宗教<ref name=autogenerated1 />。中華民國內政部於2000年1月28日宣佈訂[[農曆]]1月1日為[[道教節]]，屬國定假日，是台灣諸多宗教中以宗教為名稱節並訂於法律中之之唯一宗教，也是現代道教史上的大事 <ref name="中華民國道教會"/>。 道教在新加坡的影響： 早在1796年前，在[[新加坡]]建立道教庙宇顺天宫。1990年，新加坡道教总会成立。又邀请中国道教协会副会长[[黄信阳]]道长等[[全真派]]道士多次前往新加坡开办道士培训班、主持法事。同时还同中国大陆的[[正一派]]道观以及港台的道教团体开展广泛的联系与合作。自1996年开始，于每年[[农历]]二月十五日举行的[[道教节]]。1996年开始，道教徒即积极参与由新加坡共和国九大宗教所组成的[[新加坡宗教联谊理事会]]的祈福和祷告会及其他活动。二十一世纪初，修建起富丽堂皇的[[三清宫]]，主殿供奉道祖[[三清]]及[[真武大帝]]、正一天师，左殿供奉全真道[[吕洞宾]]、[[王重阳]]、[[丘处机]]三位祖师，右殿供奉[[孔圣人]]，体现全真道“三教合一”的宗旨。[[新加坡道教学院]]，和三清道教图书馆，在2008年在底在三清宫正式成立。道教学院为新加坡培养年轻的、有宗教情操、有文化涵养、能够执行道教科仪的道教工作人员。 ==== 日本 ==== [[日本]]是中國隔海相望的鄰國，其古代文明起步較晚，但由於受到以中國為代表的大陸文化的影響，發展速度很快。在古代中日交往和文化交流中，道教亦曾起過重要作用。 中國道教是否傳入日本，日本學術界亦有兩種相反的意見。一種是認為日本古代政府拒絕道教的傳人，淡海三船的《唐大和尚東征傳》及《古事類苑》和《群書類聚》中都有明記{{notetag|「不知一些『影響論』者是孤陋寡聞呢，還是故意無視？」<ref>見福井文雅：《道教研究在日本》，《文史知識))1996年5期</ref>。}}。另一種意見認為，「道教作為宗教，其教典、道士、道觀等成體系的組織形態，並沒有傳來日本，關於這一點，目前確實無史料可證。但是道教作為思想給日本以影響，可以說已是難以否定的事實」<ref>千田稔：《中國道教在日本》，《文史知識》1997年第2期</ref>。道教在日本的傳播，根本沒有帶有建立[[道觀]]和[[道士]]佈教等形式的教團道教傳到日本來。但是，早在公元前2世紀前後，道家思想藉由[[漢字]]從[[漢字文化圈]]的朝鮮半島傳播到了日本。 到公元5世紀前後的[[應神天皇]]、[[仁德]]年間，又有大量[[渡來人]]來自以半島為中心的那些地區和中國的長江三角洲地區，他們帶來大陸文化<ref>參見駒澤大學教授中村璋八於1983年為《道教》第三卷《道教的傳播》撰寫了《日本的道教》一文</ref>。在[[奈良]]、平安朝時代，日本用類似民間習俗的『托盤』，從來自[[朝鮮半島]]或中國大陸的歸化人以及隨[[遣隋使]]、[[遣唐使]]去中國的留學生和留學僧帶回來的道德經典中，接受了漢字成語或知識，部分地接受了唐宋時期盛行的道教信仰，形成了一種道教形態，而江戶時代的道教形態與此不同，到了[[江戶時代]]，日本接受的是[[禪宗]]僧侶們帶來的、[[明代]]盛行的『[[善書]]』等民眾道教。這些『善書』類是從日本人群眾性的國民道德意識之『托盤』較多的地方開始接受的，其中也有[[幕府]]和[[大名]]的支持。由於[[印刷術]]的發達，這些『善書』不斷出版發行，一般民眾也容易看到。因此，對日本一般社會的影響也與以往不同<ref>《日本文化通史》王勇 著</ref>。 而早在大約在七世紀，道教神仙長生思想和方術即已傳往日本。日本留學生曾在中國學習道教方技，並把道教經典帶回日本。從平安時代起，道教[[守庚申]]的信仰在日本頗為流行<ref>[http://zh.daoinfo.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E7%9A%84%E9%81%93%E6%95%99 道通天地-日本的道教]{{zh-tw}}</ref>。卑弥呼信仰的[[鬼道]]{{notetag|女王卑彌呼「事鬼道，能惑眾」，是個「少有見者」的[[宗教]]偶像；「有男弟佐治國」<ref>《[新编日本通史]》<nowiki>http://wenku.baidu.com/view/e200f342336c1eb91a375d76.html</nowiki></ref>，日常政務委任男性執掌。}}与日本[[神道]]一部分来源是道教。而《古事記》、《日本書紀》亦有記載的古代道教思想，日本最早史書中主要闡述這兩種所提到的「常世」、「觀」和「天皇」幾個術語。「常世」的解釋是「神仙的秘區」，產生於日本，為神仙鄉的意思。[[飛鳥時代]]的[[天武天皇]]因喜歡道教而使用天皇作為君主的尊號。日本的[[修验道]]入山修行前念的真言（臨兵斗者皆陳列在前）与[[抱朴子]]中内篇第四登涉篇的（臨兵斗者皆陳列前行）几乎一样<ref name="明倫">{{cite web | language = zh-tw | publisher = 明倫海會全球資訊網 | title = 無量壽經優婆提捨願生偈注卷下 | url = http://haihui.ntcu.edu.tw/14/b/0116.html | author = | date = 2006.04.30 | accessdate = }}</ref>。 [[琉球人]]的文化受中国和日本本土的影响较大。从宗教上看，[[琉球]]人中既有信奉佛教和[[琉球神道]]的，也有不少道教的信徒<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111123210034/http://www.imphone.tw/japan-j/8.htm 日本民族]{{zh-cn}}</ref>。不少道教神祇如[[媽祖]]、[[關公]]等在琉球都有不少信眾，並被琉球神道吸收。 ==== 朝鮮 ==== [[朝鮮道教]]於7世紀在朝鮮半島出現。在[[624年]]（唐朝[[武德]]七年）高句麗[[榮留王]]曾請奏唐高祖希望傳授道教教義。唐高祖[[李淵]]於[[武德]]七年，遺前刑部尚書[[沈叔安]]往冊建武為[[上柱國]]遼東郡王高麗王，仍將[[天尊]]像及道士往彼，為之講老子，其王及道俗等觀聽者數千人{{notetag|《三國遺事》卷三載：「麗季武德貞觀間，國人爭奉[[五斗米教]]。唐高祖聞之，遣道士，送天尊像，講《道德經》，王與國人聽之。即第二十代榮留王即位七年，武德七年甲申也」<ref>《舊唐書·高句麗傳》</ref>。}}。翌年，高句麗[[榮留王]]又遣人人唐學佛老之法<ref>《三國史記》卷二十《高麗本紀》第八</ref>。 但是此時期道教在朝鮮半島尚未形成教團{{notetag|此為日本著名的道教學者窪德忠教授的說法}}，王室為中心的人們主要把它視為保護國家的宗教，在民間老百姓把道教視同民間信仰結合起來，被融进民间信仰或其他宗教{{notetag|如[[天道教]] }}中而逐渐沒落無所知，且人們並不認為民間信仰的道教是一種外來宗教<ref>《道教史》第302—303頁</ref>。道教從中國傳入朝鮮以前，朝鮮就存在[[神仙]]思想、山嶽信仰、靈星信仰、地方習俗性民間信仰、咒術、天文、占星術、讖緯預言術等，認為這些宗教文化形態與中國的道教具有同一性或類似性{{notetag|此為當代韓國學者說法}}；朝鮮不存在像中國道教那樣的完整的道教形態；不可把朝鮮文化中道教文化要素當作一種外來文化看待，強調要從主體性的立場上研究朝鮮文化中的道教性質。但不管如何，已有史料可證明道教在古代朝鮮的傳播及其影響<ref name="朝鮮">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110706142637/http://www.taoist.org.cn/webfront/webfront_viewContents.cgi?id=1327 道教在朝鮮]{{zh-cn}}</ref>。 [[90年代]]以後，[[韓國]]開始出現了道教教團組織{{notetag|例如韓國位於蔚山市的道教全真仙壇壽星宮，位於漢城的韓國仙道協會}}，並與[[中國道教協會]]建立了聯繫<ref name="朝鮮"/>。 ==== 越南 ==== 最早期道教傳入越南最早是在[[東晉]]末年，[[五斗米道]][[孫恩]]在江南發動起義失敗後，其妹夫[[盧循]]率部逃至[[交州]]。而越南人李脫幫助盧循進攻交州府城，失敗後赴水自盡。吳朝以後，越南在五百年中，又先後建立過丁朝、前黎、李朝、陳朝、胡朝和後陳等朝代。在此期間，中國和越南的政治、經濟和文化的交往十分密切，此時道教隨著移民而傳入<ref name="越南的道教">[http://zh.daoinfo.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97%E7%9A%84%E9%81%93%E6%95%99 道通天地-越南的道教]{{zh-hk}}</ref>。 丁朝先皇太平二年（中國北宋開寶四年，971年）曾經給佛道二教的領袖頒授官階品級，「道士鄧玄光授崇真威儀」<ref name="大越史記全書">《大越史記全書》的《本紀》</ref>。傳稱丁先皇在一次起兵時，還到今寧平省的「天尊洞」道觀，禮拜神明。後平定天下，遂改「天尊洞」為「安國祠」。[[黎桓|黎朝大行皇帝]]在[[興統]]四年（中國北宋淳化三年，992年），曾經「宣華山道士陳先生詣闕」<ref name="大越史記全書"/>。陳先生當指[[陳摶]]。但是根據中國的史書，陳摶似乎並未到過越南。越南史書的記載至少說明，陳摶盛名遍傳天下，黎朝大行皇帝欲召而不得。李朝崇信三教，李太祖在位時，就興建道教宮觀太清宮，詔度道士。太祖之子李太宗登基時，道士陳慧龍還為其造「天命」，得寵信，獲賜御衣。李神宗天彰寶嗣三年（中國南宋紹興五年，1135年），神宗曾經赴五嶽觀，「慶成金銀三尊像」，據稱這是越南史書上有關越南道觀造三清神像的首次記載<ref name="越南的道教"/>。 越南廣泛流傳對[[玄天上帝|真武帝君]]的信仰。真武帝君，即玄天上帝{{notetag|於中國的宋代時期開始在越南流行。}}。玄天上帝，受到宋、元、明等歷代王朝的封誥。越南的北部和中部有許多奉祀真武大帝的宮觀和神祠。[[河內]]市區北部的西湖風景區就有真武觀。真武觀，又稱鎮武觀，也稱龜聖祠<ref name="越南的道教"/>。 16世紀以後，越南的南方逐漸北開發。[[後黎]]阮氏政權充分利用了許多為逃避滿清統治而到達的前明朝官員以及民眾，獎勵開墾養殖。以後，不斷有來自[[福建]]、[[廣東]]、[[廣西]]等地的華僑移居越南南方。在[[胡志明市]]等西南部的華人聚居區與華人聚居的主要城市，一些華人的會館和道教宮觀仍然在繼續活動。由廣東廣州來的華人修建的穗城會館，創建於道光八年（1828年）以前。會館有正殿供奉天後聖母、龍母娘娘、金花娘娘，偏殿供奉關帝等。由於穗城會館供奉的主要是女神，所以被越南民眾稱為「女廟」<ref name="越南的道教"/>。 由廣東[[潮州]]來的華人修建的義安會館，創建於1902年（光緒二十八年）以前。會館有正殿供奉[[關聖帝君]]，同時奉祀[[土地公|福德老爺]]、[[文昌帝君]]、財帛星君以及[[天后聖母]]等。由於義安會館供奉的主要是男神，所以被越南民眾稱為「男廟」<ref name="越南的道教"/>。 道教亦影響當地原生宗教－[[母道教]]與[[高台教]]<ref name="越南的道教"/>。 === 在西方的影響 === 早在16世纪，老子的《道德经》就被西方人译成西方文字，17世纪以后，借助西方的商船往返，顺着西方[[传教士]]的足迹，《道德经》逐步由中国传入[[欧洲]]，西方人把《道德经》翻译成了[[拉丁文]]、[[法文]]、[[德語|德文]]、[[英文]]等文字，老子思想逐渐传遍欧洲大陆。据说[[德国]]哲学家[[莱布尼兹]]最初正是根据[[伏羲]]、黄老的[[阴阳]]学说提出了[[二进制]]思想，并给太极阴阳八卦起了一个西洋名字“辩证法”，当然，这种说法并没有得到有效证实。几百年来，《道德经》的西文译本总数近500种，涉及17种欧洲文字，在译成外国文字的世界文化名著发行量上，《圣经》排第一，《道德经》排第二<ref name="西方流行">{{cite web | language = zh-cn | publisher = 《环球时报》第22版 | title = 西方流行《道德经》 | url = http://demo.phdcr.com/~ysqin/My_Webs/gzwz/xflxddj.htm | author = 江怡 | date = 2004.1.16 | accessdate = 2010-1-1 | archive-date = 2005-02-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050214015259/http://demo.phdcr.com/~ysqin/My_Webs/gzwz/xflxddj.htm | dead-url = yes }}</ref>。 ===在印度的影響=== 根據泰米爾文密教經典，南印度密教的十八位“成就者”（修行完成了的人）之中有兩位來自中國，其泰米爾名字為博迦爾（Bogar）與普里巴尼（Pulipani），他們于西元3世紀到印度伽耶等地傳播道教的醫學與化學思想，在印度的化學史與密教史上有重要地位.（此段內容根據胡孚琛《道學通論》的黃心川序） == 道教与其他宗教的不同 == [[File:ReligionSymbol.svg|180px|right]] 道教的理想世界不同于佛教的[[涅槃]]，也不同于[[亞伯拉罕諸教]]{{notetag|指世界主要的三個一神教─[[基督教]]、[[伊斯蘭教]]和[[猶太教]]}}的[[天國]]<ref name="西方宗教不同">謝世維[http://www.eastasia.ntu.edu.tw/chinese/data/200912/7-1-87-128.pdf 從近代西方宗教理論的觀點看六朝道教經典的幾種建構模式]{{zh-tw}}</ref>。道教的理想世界有两种，一种是世俗的，一种是宗教的。道教的理想世界是希望世界成为一个公平、和平的世界，没有灾祸、没有战争。而宗教的理想世界则是“[[仙境]]”<ref>出自《[[太平经]]》</ref>，道教追求得道成仙，这样就能超脱生死，在仙境中过仙人的生活。不同于其它宗教的是，道教并不认为人死后才能到达仙境，而是认为人的形体通过一些形式的锻炼可以长生不死，成仙以后也可以一样生活在普通人的世界里，作“活神仙”，也可以到仙境中去生活。但是由于达到成仙的境界非常不容易，因此后来才出现了“[[屍解]]”等方式<ref>[http://wt38.com/to05/to05-02/to05-02-36.htm 屍解] {{zh}}</ref>。部分風景秀麗的地方由於適合修煉而被譽為'''人間仙境'''，例如所谓的“[[洞天福地]]”就是其中一些代表性的地方。 许多宗教都认为人的寿命是不能改变的，然而道教不这样认为，有一句话“我命在我不在天”<ref>出自道教的《[[西升经]]》</ref>，另外，道教作为一个[[多神教]]{{notetag|但講求“道通为一”}}，相信万物有灵，甚至人体的各种器官都有神灵。[[亞伯拉罕諸教]]教义认为人生充满了不幸或者罪孽，认为死后[[灵魂]]才有可能得救。然而道教却认为生活在世界上是一件美好的事情，死亡才是痛苦的，因而道教追求的是“长生久视”<ref>出自《道德经》</ref>、长生不死。也因此有许多养生的方法，例如[[气功]]等在道教得到了发扬。 道教對人生大體上總是保持積極的、正面的態度。這是道教與其他宗教的最大不同之處。基督教認為人生來就帶有[[原罪]]，人生下來就要贖罪，佛教認為人生是苦，道教則是通過修煉達到不死，長生不老脫離對死亡的恐懼。而道教和佛教和的最主要的區別就是對待生和死的態度。道教傳遞信眾，人應該要怎麼走在現在人生之路上；通過修煉達到不死，長生不老。佛教追求的目標是「[[涅槃]]」，才能脫離生死輪迴。佛教認為，人生是苦，生是苦，死是苦，而且這種苦是沒有盡頭的一個循環往復、不到頭的生死輪迴中。只有追求實現涅槃，才能脫離生死輪迴。佛教著重在「覺悟」{{notetag|佛者，覺也。說到底，就是對人生是苦的覺悟。}}，並探究過去之所生與未來之所往的[[輪迴]]，這是佛教與道教不同之處<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111123210540/http://home.fjdh.com/space-15960-do-blog-id-88833.html 佛教與道教，基督教的不同]{{zh-tw}}</ref>。 === 道教与佛教的关系 === 道教和[[佛教]]作为中国的主要宗教，两者在相互競爭中又互相吸收，使其更适用中国本土文化的需要。佛教傳入中國后，大大吸收了儒教道教的思想，仪轨，祭祀等，使之变为适合中国的宗教，现今中国的大乘佛教的小部分科仪，可以说就是道教的一种翻版。而且道教的许多经文是參考佛教经文编写，许多仪式也參考了佛教如早晚课，施食等．對佛教的學習，最明顯的是全真教的出家制度与全真三堂大戒。如道教的萨祖焰口是明清时期的道士模仿元代喇嘛翻译的瑜伽焰口编写,也可以说道教的焰口是佛教的翻版,不然民间就不会说道无焰口,佛无拜斗. ;[[老子化胡]]传说 [[汉桓帝]][[延熹]]九年（166年）[[襄楷]]所上奏章中有“或言老子出玉门关入夷狄为[[浮屠]]”的说法。[[汉朝|汉代]]《[[太平经]]》提到“老子往西越八十年”。《[[三國志|三国志]]·魏书》提到“浮屠所载，与中国老子经相出入，盖以[[老子]]西出关，过[[西域]]，至[[天竺]]教胡，及[[浮屠]]弟子合二十有九。”歷史上最為知名是堅信老子化胡並大力推廣之代表教派以唐朝國師為首之[[樓觀道]]。不过历史的证据证明老子与喬達摩·悉達多是同时代的人，而且历史记载老子是由函谷关西入秦国在秦地终老，玉门关是汉代才有的． === 與一貫道的異同 === [[一貫道]]雖然名稱有包含了「道」並以宣扬[[儒教|儒]]、[[佛教|釋]]、道、[[基督教|耶]]、[[伊斯蘭教|回]]五教合一的教義結合。中心思想以「理天法」取代道教的「氣天法」，且不再煉丹，完全趨向儒教化<ref>[http://blog.udn.com/s3527699tw/4171793 道教佛教一貫道之不同]{{zh-tw}}</ref>。一貫道的中心主神是[[明明上帝]]，宣教場地稱為「佛堂」，因此本質上與正統道教有很大不同<ref>{{Cite web |title=天罡佛堂 |url=http://www.baibai.com.tw/view-temple.asp?com_ser=7857 |access-date=2012-05-15 |archive-date=2021-05-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520212057/http://www.baibai.com.tw/view-temple.asp?com_ser=7857 |dead-url=yes }}</ref>。 == 世界化 == 近年来，道教在世界很多地区得到了发展。如1995年12月，英国道教协会正式在伦敦成立。这是欧洲最早成立的道教组织。1999年以来，中国著名道士田诚阳，赴[[西班牙]]讲学传道，教授当地信众。2001年5月联合当地弟子创立道教协会，同年的[[冬至]], [[欧洲]]第一座道观清静宫落成，得到西班牙政府正式确认，在西班牙取得与[[天主教]]平等的合法地位。 这是道教传入欧洲大陆的一个里程碑 。 当前欧洲地区的道教信徒在不断增加中。 在美国，[[亚利桑那州]]有一座中孚道观，[[纽约]]有天後宫，[[旧金山]]市有紫根阁， [[夏威夷]]有太玄道观。2007年，美国道教访问团一行在中美文化促进会会长曾永祥先生的带领下，对道教圣地[[武当山]]进行了参观、访问。美国道教协会拟筹捐2000万美金，在美国[[洛基山脉]]按1：1的比例修建武当山紫霄宫道观。 本山寿星宫是[[韩国]]唯一的供奉道教神的庙。座落于韩国[[蔚山]]市蔚州区温阳面外光里429号, 成立于1991年10月,供奉道教神寿星-南极长生大帝。住持李福顺，生于1946年。七岁起，她经常梦中见到一位手持拐杖的白发老人，百思不得其解。三十岁后便到韩国各地寻找，但没有任何发现。后来辗转到了[[台湾]]，在台北博物馆的大厅找到了梦中的白发老人。才知白发老人是道教"福、禄、寿"三星中的寿星。经台湾中华道教会张柽先生介绍、拜台北全真仙坛张络传法师为师，赐道号金鸾，正式步入道门，迎请寿星回韩国，成立了寿星宫。 == 注釋 == <div class="references-2column"> {{notefoot}} </div> == 參考资料 == {{Reflist|2}} === 參考書目 === # 李纪兵，《富国律——三十年内国家成王称富之规律法律》，天马图书有限公司出版，2004年，ISBN 962-450-844-5 # 李纪兵，《道德经李家注解》 # 唐大潮，《中国道教简史》，宗教文化出版社，2001年，ISBN 7-80123-229-1 # 丁培仁，《道教典籍百问》，《宗教文化丛书》，今日中国出版社，1996年，ISBN 7-5072-0409-X # 李养正，《道教基本知识》，中国道教协会编印（非正式出版物），1985年 # [[南怀瑾]]，《道家、密宗与东方神秘学》，中国世界语出版社，1994年，ISBN 7-5052-0203-0 # [[太上老君八十一化（精裝本）]]，中華道教太一宗宗師府-1985年出版 # [[胡孚琛]],[[道學通論（修订版）]]，社會科學文獻出版社，2009年 == 外部連結 == {{Commonscat|Taoism|道教}} ;以下為道教推廣入口網站 * {{zh-cn}}[http://www.51zhouyu.cn/ 咒语大全网] * {{zh-tw}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20210520212141/http://www.taomen.net/ 中華道教網] * {{zh-tw}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20110206065907/http://www.chinesetaoism.org/ 中華民國道教會官網] * {{zh-tw}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20040921014259/http://www.taoism.com.tw/ 道教網路資訊報導] * {{zh-hk}}[http://www.daoist.org/ 道教文化] * {{zh-hk}}[https://archive.is/20130101133708/http://www.byscrj.cn/jmm/ 白云深处人家（中華傳統道家道教文化資料下載）] * {{zh-hk}}[http://zh.daoinfo.org/w/index.php?title=%E9%A6%96%E9%A0%81&variant=zh-tw 道教文化資料庫] * {{zh-hk}}[http://www.dbdot.com/ 抱一哲學會] * {{zh-hk}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20120524044759/http://forum.dbdot.com/ 道學討論區] * {{zh-cn}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20100802050613/http://www.twtaoism.net/Discuz/ 道教全球論壇] * {{zh-cn}}[http://www.taoist.org.cn/ 中國道教協會] * {{zh-cn}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20201128053221/http://chinataoism.org/ 中國道教] * {{zh-hk}}[http://maushan.blogspot.com/ 多倫多昊天茅山張家真心教] * {{zh-cn}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20201218104724/http://www.twtaoism.net/ 道教全球資訊網] * {{zh-cn}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20100617120018/http://www.xudewang.com/ 道藏全文阅读] * {{zh-cn}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20100126084746/http://bbs.jgdss.com/ 朝天观道教文化论坛] * {{zh-cn}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20121001093646/http://info.taoholycity.com/ 道教圣城] * {{en}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20090917231850/http://www.taoist.com/ Taoist Arts Home] == 參見 == {{Portal}} * [[张天师]] * [[太一宗]] * [[道教人物列表]] * [[道教全国重点宫观]] * [[洞天福地]] * [[中国宗教]] * [[朝鲜道教]] * [[越南道教]] * [[台灣道教]] * [[天道教]] * [[高台教]] * [[帛家道]] * [[洞仙傳]] {{-}} {{中华人民共和国宗教}} {{宗教哲学}} {{宗教}} [[Category:道教| ]] [[Category:中國思想]] fwvg04hpof6uqpvurodfp54mev2p2tw 0 10511 43133 41759 2026-09-25T00:45:57Z InternetArchiveBot 8820 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 43133 wikitext text/x-wiki [[文件:Tomislav Nikolić official portrait.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tomislav Nikolić]] '''Tomislav Nikolić''', Saiwjveizya cwngcigya, Saiwjveizya gizgindangj cujsiz, youq 2007 nienz 5 nyied dang yivei yicangj. 2012 nienz 6 nyied baenz Saiwjveizya cungjdungj. === 当选总统 === 2012 nienz cungjdungj daezgauh cizcengz. 5 nyied 20 hauh Nikolić dangsienj.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2012-05/21/c_111999868.htm|title=尼科利奇当选塞尔维亚新总统|date=[[2012年]][[5月20日]]|author=新华网|accessdate=2012-05-21|archive-date=2014-02-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221220123/http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2012-05/21/c_111999868.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Canhgauj == {{Reflist}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080723191333/http://srs.org.yu/svimsrcem Presidential Campaign Website 2008] * [http://www.b92.net/info/vesti/index.php?yyyy=2007&mm=05&dd=08&nav_category=418&nav_id=245466 Biography at B92] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120215102942/http://www.zamislisrbiju.org/idc_govori_07.htm Speeches and statements of the Serbian politicians from 1987 - 2007] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2Z3G0D3x4E&feature=related/ Statement on Zoran Djindjic, 23 February 2003, YouTube Video] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mG_ycqKtps&feature=related/ Statement on Boris Tadic, YouTube Video] * [http://www.pressonline.rs/page/stories/sr.html?view=story&id=47954 Press Daily] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eNZEclITgpw/ Statement on Greater Serbia, YouTube Video] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PKP4sUz22H4&feature=related/ Statement on Russian Troops in Serbia, YouTube Video] * [http://www.b92.net/info/vesti/index.php?yyyy=2011&mm=04&dd=17&nav_category=11&nav_id=506658] acrsthptqewru42pswbfj2vqwgi62ic 0 10881 43129 43023 2026-09-25T00:09:11Z InternetArchiveBot 8820 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.6 43129 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cwngz Caigiek'''（[[Vah Cauzsenh]]：성재기，[[Vahgun]]：成在基，1967 nienz 9 nyied 11 hauh - 2013 nienz 7 nyied 26 hauh ）, dwg boux [[Cwzyoz|Cietyozgya]] [[Swyouzcujyi]] ndeu<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130921061606/http://weekly.donga.com/docs/magazine/weekly/2012/03/19/201203190500024/201203190500024_1.html 여성부 디도스 공격 10대 알고 보니 남성연대 前 회원] 주간동아 (Hanzgoz)</ref><ref>[http://english.donga.com/srv/service.php3?biid=2013072913348 ''Suicide performance and journalist ethics] News Dongah'' (English)</ref>。De doekfag youq [[Hanzgoz]]，[[2013 nienz|bi 2013]] gaggaj<ref>[http://media.people.com.cn/n/2013/0729/c40606-22358167.html 韩国电视台直播男子投江自杀 新闻报道伦理引争议] 人民网2013年07月29日</ref>. == Vwnzyen Doiqciuq == {{Reflist|2}} === Saw Doiqciuq === * 김용석，《딴지일보 2012년 11월호》，딴지그룹, 2012年, ISBN 4808989299141 == Lienzciep Baihrog == * (Hanzgoz) [http://www.newdaily.co.kr/news/article.html?no=125144 '이기적 여성들'에 일침…성재기, 대체 누굴까?] * (Hanzgoz) [http://www.mt.co.kr/view/mtview.php?type=1&no=2012010411583772695&outlink=1 그는 왜 여성부 폐지에 '목숨'을 걸었나?] Moneytuday 2012.01.04 * (Hanzgoz) [https://web.archive.org/web/20130921061606/http://weekly.donga.com/docs/magazine/weekly/2012/03/19/201203190500024/201203190500024_1.html 여성부 디도스 공격 10대 알고 보니 남성연대 前 회원] 주간동아 * (Hanzgoz) [http://www.segye.com/Articles/News/Society/Article.asp?aid=20111229001471&ctg1=01&ctg2=&subctg1=01&subctg2=&cid=0101080100000 '성매매 안하면 현금준다?' 캠페인 논란] * (English) [http://english.donga.com/srv/service.php3?biid=2013072913348 ''Suicide performance and journalist ethics] News Dongah'' * (English) [http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/news/2013/07/27/0200000000AEN20130727001300320.html Police continue search for missing men's rights activist] yonhapnews 2013.07.27 * (English) [http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20130729000881 Body of Sung Jae-gi found in Han River] Koreaherald 2013.07.29 * (English) [http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2013/11/08/seoul-bridge-of-life-still-attracts-suicide-attempts/ Seoul ‘Bridge of Life’ Attracts More Suicide Attempts] korearealtime 2013.11.08 * (English) [http://stream.aljazeera.com/story/201307292238-0022943 South Korean channel films suicide] * (Frence) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140407082603/http://actualites.ca.msn.com/in-memoriam-2013-juin-juillet?page=50 In memoriam 2013:Sung Jae-ki] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130923002018/http://chinese.chosun.com/big5/site/data/html_dir/2013/07/30/20130730000014.html 男子呼籲捐助“假戲真做”跳江身亡] 朝鮮日報 2013.07.29 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203559/http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/world/2013-07/28/c_116713278.htm 韓國KBS電視臺記者直播一男子自殺全程引爭議] * [http://news.singtao.ca/toronto/2013-07-28/world1374995570d4617082.html 韓男子投江自盡 電視台全程拍攝] * [http://news.xinhuanet.com/info/2013-07/29/c_132582113.htm 韩国电视台直播男子投江] 新华新闻2013年07月29日 * [http://media.people.com.cn/n/2013/0729/c40606-22358167.html 韩国电视台直播男子投江自杀 新闻报道伦理引争议] 人民网2013年07月29日 * [http://china.cnr.cn/yaowen/201307/t20130728_513166563.shtml 韩国KBS电视台记者直播一男子自杀全过程引发争议]中央人民广播电2013-07-29 * [http://www.555114.com/236435 韩国KBS电视台记者直播一男子自杀全程引争议] 壹壹肆 2013-8-9 * [http://www.555114.com/236952 男子投江自尽 电视台全程拍摄引发伦理争议(图)] 壹壹肆 2013-8-9 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160316145034/http://www.555114.com/235878/ 韩国电视台全程拍摄男子投江自尽(图)] 壹壹肆 2013-8-9 [[分类:Hanzgoz]] bpgcxm6w81ewiip7x8ulda2eehddizw 0 11116 43128 43127 2026-09-24T13:11:00Z ~2026-51281-27 12831 43128 wikitext text/x-wiki [[文件:Medical examination in Brazil.jpg|thumb|Canghyw]] '''Canghyw''' dwg meh [[ciznieb]] ndeu. [[Category:Ciznieb]] 0t3jed7jrp66nrhe66d33xhiefmirva