Samurai
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Samurai (tiếng Nhật:侍) là tên gọi các thị vệ có vũ trang của các lãnh chúa quan quyền Nhật từ thế kỷ 10 đến giữa thế kỷ 19. Từ samurai có gốc từ chữ 'saburau' (さ守らう) - nghiã là người coi sóc, bảo vệ, phục vụ - nhưng mang tính chất quyền quý.
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[sửa] Lịch sử
[sửa] Nguyên thủy
Các nhà sử học tin rằng hình ảnh samurai nguyên bản bắt nguồn từ các kỵ binh, bộ binh và lính bắn cung ở Nhật vào thế kỷ VI. [1] Sau những thất bại quân sự trước liên minh Đại Đường và Tân La, Nhật Bản phải thực thi hàng loạt các cuộc cải cách có tính chất và quy mô rộng rãi. Một trong các cuộc cải cách quan trọng là cuộc cải cách Taika (大化の改革) của Nhật hoàng Tenji vào năm 646. Cuộc cải cách này đã đưa văn hóa tập tục của người Trung Quốc vào tầng lớp quý tộc Nhật và áp dụng chế độ chính quyền của Trung Quốc vào bộ máy quan liêu của Nhật. [1]. Một điều khoản trong bộ luật Yōrō [2] và sau đó là bộ luật Taihō vào năm 702 yêu cầu dân chúng phải đều đặn đi tường trình nhằm phục vụ cho việc điều tra dân số. Đây là điềm báo trước sẽ diễn ra một cuộc cưỡng bách tòng quân trên khắp đất nước. Thiên hoàng Mommu (文武) đã ban hành một điều luật mà theo đó, cứ 3-4 đàn ông trưởng thành thì có 1 người bị sung vào quân đội quốc gia. Quân đội yêu cầu mỗi người lính tự chế tạo hay mua lấy vũ khí cho riêng họ, nhưng bù lại họ sẽ được miễn thuế và trách nhiệm công dân. [1]
Đầu thời Heian (平安時代) (cuối thế kỷ VIII và đầu thế kỷ IX), với tham vọng bành trướng lãnh thổ về phía Bắc Honshū để củng cố quyền lực, Thiên hoàng Kammu (桓武天皇) đã cho quân đến đàn áp phiến quân Emishi nhưng đội quân của ông thất thủ do thiếu kỷ luật và ý chí chiến đấu. Vì vậy, Thiên hoàng Kammu bắt đầu dựa dẫm vào các thế lực địa phương và chiêu dụ họ, phong cho chức Seiitaishogun (征夷大将軍) (chính dị đại tướng quân) hay gọi tắt là shogun (tướng quân). Với đội quân tinh thông về cưỡi ngựa và bắn cung (kyudo,弓道), các thế lực này trở thành công cụ đắc lực để đàn áp quân nổi loạn cho Thiên hoàng. Dù các võ sĩ này ít nhiều đều được học hành nhưng lúc bấy giờ (thế kỷ VII đến thế kỷ IX) trong mắt triều đình Thiên hoàng họ chỉ là những võ phu thô lỗ thất học không hơn không kém.
Cứ như vậy, cuối cùng, Thiên hoàng Kammu đã giải tán quân đội triều đình, từ đó thế lực của Thiên hoàng từng bước một suy sụp. Trong khi Thiên hoàng vẫn còn cai trị, các thị tộc ở Kyoto (京都) đã nắm trong tay một số chức vụ quan trọng như bộ trưởng, còn những người thân của họ dùng tiền mua lấy các chức quan trong tòa án. Để vơ vét của cải làm giàu và trả nợ cho mình, các quan tòa này thường xuyên đánh thuế nặng nề, khiến cho nhiều nhà nông mất hết ruộng đất. Trước sự đe dọa của nạn trộm cướp ngày càng tăng, các thị tộc bắt đầu tuyển mộ những người tha hương trên vùng đồng bằng Kanto, huấn luyện họ kỹ càng về võ thuật và đào tạo họ trở thành đội ngũ lính canh rất thiện chiến. Một số người có nhiệm vụ hộ tống các quan thu thuế, và chỉ sự hiện diện của họ thôi cũng đủ cho vị quan thu thuế này an toàn trước bọn trộm cướp. Họ được gọi là những "samurai", hay những đầy tớ có vũ trang, nhưng lực lượng đầy tớ này nhanh chóng trở thành một thế lực vũ trang độc quyền. Thông qua những hợp đồng bảo vệ và các cuộc hôn nhân vì mục đích chính trị, họ dần dần giành được thế lực trong giới chính trị, và cuối cùng còn qua mặt cả giai cấp quý tộc truyền thống.
Một số thị tộc ban đầu chỉ là những nông dân. Họ đã cầm vũ khí vùng lên để bảo vệ chính mình và chống lại các quan do chính quyền phong kiến cử đến cai quản nơi họ sống và thực hiện chế độ thu thuế nặng nề. Những thị tộc này đã liên minh để có thể bảo vệ nhau trước các thị tộc khác có thế lực hơn. Giữa thời Heian, họ răm rắp tổ chức và vũ trang giống như quân đội Nhật Bản và ban hành luật lệ riêng cho họ, gọi là Bushido.
Sau thế kỷ 11, người ta kính trọng các samurai là người có học thức, giáo dục và "văn võ song toàn" (Bun Bu Ryo Do) hay "Bút và kiếm là một". Tên gọi ban đầu của các chiến binh, "Uruwashii", là một chữ kanji bao gồm ý nghĩa "văn chương" ("bun" 文) và "nghệ thuật quân sự" ("bu" 武), được nhắc đến trong Heike Monogatari (cuối thế kỷ 12). Heike Monogatari kể về cái chết của Taira no Tadanori, vị kiếm khách và nhà thơ kiệt xuất trong truyền thuyết như thế này: "Dù là bạn hay kẻ thù, ai cũng phải nhỏ lệ nơi tay áo tiếc thương cho ông mà thốt lên rằng, 'Tiếc thay ! Tadanori là một vị tướng vĩ đại, tinh thông cả kiếm thuật và văn thơ, có thể nói là văn võ song toàn'."
Theo William Scott Wilson trong quyển Lý tưởng của Samurai: "Mỗi người lính trong tác phẩm Heike Monogatari đều là chân dung tiêu biểu của các chiến binh có học thức của thế hệ sau nay, và hình tượng lý tưởng của họ không phải là quá xa để vươn tới. Vì vậy, đây là cái đích mà các chiến binh cấp cao trong xã hội luôn đeo đuổi và được xem là hình ảnh đặc trưng của tầng lớp quân nhân Nhật Bản. Với Heike Monogatari, hình ảnh người chiến binh Nhật Bản trong văn học đã được phát triển đến mức hoàn thiện.
Sau này Wilson đã sưu tầm được các tài liệu của nhiều chiến binh, trong đó nhắc đến Heike Monogatari như là một tấm gương cho đời sau noi theo.
[sửa] Mạc phủ Kamakura và khởi đầu của giới samurai
Ban đầu các chiến binh này chỉ là tay sai của các lãnh chúa và các dòng họ quý tộc Originally these warriors were merely mercenaries in the employ of the emperor and noble clans (kuge, 公家), but slowly they gathered enough power to usurp the aristocracy and establish the first samurai-dominated government.
As regional clans gathered manpower and resources and struck alliances with each other, they formed a hierarchy centered around a toryo, or chief. This chief was typically a distant relative of the emperor, and a lesser member of one of three noble families (the Fujiwara, Minamoto, or the Taira). Though originally sent to provincial areas for a fixed four year term as a magistrate, the toryo declined to return to the capital when their terms ended, and their sons inherited their positions and continued to lead the clans in putting down rebellions throughout Japan during the middle and later Heian period.
Because of their rising military and economic power, the clans ultimately became a new force in the politics of the court. Their involvement in the Hōgen Rebellion in the late Heian period consolidated their power, and finally pitted the rival Minamoto and the Taira clans against each other, in the Heiji Rebellion of 1160. Emerging victorious, Taira no Kiyomori became an imperial advisor, the first warrior to attain such a position, and eventually seized control of the central government, establishing the first samurai-dominated government and relegating the emperor to figurehead status. However, the Taira clan was still very conservative in comparison with its eventual successor, the Minamoto, and instead of expanding or strengthening its military might, the Taira clan had its women marry emperors and attempted to exercise control through the emperor.
The Taira and the Minamoto clashed again in 1180, beginning the Genpei War which ended in 1185. The victorious Minamoto no Yoritomo established the superiority of the samurai over the aristocracy. In 1190 he visited Kyoto and in 1192 became Seii Taishogun, establishing the Kamakura Shogunate or Kamakura Bakufu. Instead of ruling from Kyoto, he set up the Shogunate in Kamakura, near his base of power. "Bakufu" means tent government, taken from the encampments the soldiers would live in, in accordance with the Bakufu's status as a military government.
Over time, powerful samurai clans became warrior nobility (buke), who were only nominally under the court aristocracy. When the samurai began to adopt aristocratic pastimes like calligraphy, poetry and music, some court aristocrats in turn began to adopt samurai customs. In spite of various machinations and brief periods of rule by various emperors, real power was now in the hands of the shogun and the samurai.
[sửa] Mạc phủ Ashikaga và thời phong kiến
Various samurai clans struggled for power over the Kamakura and Ashikaga Shogunates.
Zen Buddhism spread among samurai in the 13th century and helped to shape their standards of conduct, particularly overcoming fear of death and killing, but among the general populace Pure Land Buddhism was favored.
In 1274, the Yuan Dynasty (Mongol Empire) sent a force of some 40,000 men and 900 ships to invade Japan in northern Kyūshū. Japan mustered a mere 10,000 Samurai to meet this threat. The invading army was harassed by major thunderstorms throughout the invasion, which aided the defenders by inflicting heavy casualties. The Yuan army was eventually recalled and the invasion called off. This invasion was noteworthy because the Mongol invaders used small, exploding bombs, which was likely the first appearance of bombs and gun powder in Japan.
The Japanese defenders recognized the possibility of a renewed invasion, and began construction of a great, stone barrier around Hakata Bay in 1276. Completed in 1277, this wall stretched for 20 kilometers around the border of the bay. This would later serve as a strong defensive point against the Mongols. The Mongols attempted to settle matters in a diplomatic way from 1275 to 1279. Each envoy that was sent to Japan was executed, and this time set the stage for one of the most famous engagements in Japanese history.
In 1281, a Yuan army of 140,000 men with 4,400 ships was mustered for a renewed invasion of Japan. Northern Kyūshū was defended by a Japanese army of 40,000 men. The Mongol army was still on its ships preparing for the landing operation when a typhoon hit north Kyūshū island. The casualties and damage inflicted by the typhoon, followed by the Japanese defense of the Hakata Bay barrier, resulted in the Mongols again recalling their armies.
The thunderstorms of 1274 and the typhoon of 1281 helped the Samurai defenders of Japan repel the Mongol invaders despite being vastly outnumbered. These winds became known as kami-no-kaze, which literally translates as "wind of the gods." This is often given a simplified translation as "divine wind." The kami-no-kaze lent credence to the Japanese belief that their lands were indeed divine and under supernatural protection.
In the 14th century, a blacksmith called Masamune developed a two-layer structure of soft and hard steel for use in swords. This structure gave much improved cutting power and endurance, and the production technique led to Japanese swords (katana) being recognized as some of the most potent hand weapons of pre-industrial East Asia. Many swords made using this technique were exported across the East China Sea, a few making their way as far as India.
Issues of inheritance caused family infighting as primogeniture became common, in contrast to the division of succession designated by law before the 14th century. To avoid infighting, invasion of neighboring samurai's territories was common and bickering among samurai was a constant problem for the Kamakura and Ashikaga Shogunates.
The Sengoku jidai ("warring-states period") was marked by the loosening of samurai culture with people born into other social strata sometimes making names for themselves as warriors and thus becoming de facto samurai. In this turbulent period, bushido ethics became important factors in controlling and maintaining public order.
Japanese war tactics and technologies improved rapidly in the 15th and 16th century. Use of large numbers of infantry called ashigaru ("light-foot", due to their light armour), formed of humble warriors or ordinary people with Nagayari (a long lance) or (Naginata), was introduced and combined with cavalry in maneuvers. The number of people mobilized in warfare ranged from thousands to hundreds of thousands.
The arquebus, a matchlock gun, was introduced by Portuguese via a Chinese pirate ship in 1543 and the Japanese succeeded in naturalizing it within a decade. Groups of mercenaries with mass produced arquebuses played a critical role.
By the end of feudal period, several hundred thousand firearms existed in Japan and massive armies numbering over 100,000 clashed in battles. The largest and most powerful army in Europe, the Spanish, had only several thousand firearms and could only assemble 30,000 troops. Ninja also played critical roles in intelligence activity.
In 1592, and again in 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi decided to invade China (唐入り) and sent to Korea an army of 160,000 samurai (Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, 朝鮮征伐), taking great advantage of its mastery of the arquebus and Korea's poorly organized army. The most famous samurai in this war are Kato Kiyomasa and Shimazu Yoshihiro.
The social mobility of human resources was flexible, as the ancient regime collapsed and emerging samurai needed to maintain large military and administrative organizations in their areas of influence. Most of the samurai families that survived to the 19th century originated in this era declaring themselves to be the blood of one of the four ancient noble clans, Minamoto, Taira, Fujiwara and Tachibana. In most cases, however, it is hard to prove who their ancestors were.
See also: Nanban trade period
[sửa] Oda, Toyotomi và Tokugawa
Oda Nobunaga was the well-known lord of the Nagoya area (once called Owari Province) and an exceptional example of samurai of the Sengoku Period. He came within a few years of, and laid down the path for his successors to achieve, the reunification of Japan under a new Bakufu (Shogunate).
Oda Nobunaga made innovations in the fields of organizations and war tactics, heavily used arquebuses, developed commerce and industry and treasured innovations. Consecutive victories enabled him to realize the termination of the Ashikaga Bakufu and the disarmament of the military powers of the Buddhist monks, which had inflamed futile struggles among the populace for centuries. Attacking from a "sanctuary" of Buddhist temples, they were constant headaches to any warlords and even the emperor who tried to control their actions. He died in 1582 when one of his Generals, Akechi Mitsuhide, turned upon him with his army.
Importantly, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (see below) and Tokugawa Ieyasu, who founded the Tokugawa Shogunate, were loyal followers of Nobunaga. Hideyoshi was brought up from a nameless peasant to be one of Nobunaga's top generals and Ieyasu had shared his childhood with Nobunaga. Hideyoshi defeated Mitsuhide within a month and was regarded as the rightful successor of Nobunaga by avenging the treachery of Mitsuhide.
These two were gifted with Nobunaga's previous achievements on which build a unified Japan and there was a saying: "The reunification is a rice cake; Oda made it. Hashiba shaped it. At last, only Ieyasu tastes it." (Hashiba is the family name that Toyotomi Hideyoshi used while he was a follower of Nobunaga.)
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became a grand minister in 1586, himself the son of a poor peasant family, created a law that the samurai caste became codified as permanent and heritable, and that non-samurai were forbidden to carry weapons, thereby ending the social mobility of Japan up until that point, which lasted until the dissolution of the Edo Shogunate by the Meiji revolutionaries.
It is important to note that the distinction between samurai and non-samurai was so obscure that during the 16th century, most male adults in any social class (even small farmers) belonged to at least one military organization of their own and served in wars before and during Hideyoshi's rule. It can be said that an "all against all" situation continued for a century.
The authorized samurai families after the 17th century were those that chose to follow Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Ieyasu. Large battles occurred during the change between regimes, and a number of defeated samurai were destroyed, went ronin or were absorbed into the general populace.
[sửa] Mạc phủ Tokugawa
During the Tokugawa era, samurai increasingly became courtiers, bureaucrats, and administrators rather than warriors. With no warfare since the early 17th century, samurai gradually lost their military function during the Tokugawa era (also called the Edo period).
By the end of the Tokugawa era, samurai were aristocratic bureaucrats for the daimyo, with their daisho, the paired long and short swords of the samurai (cf. 'katana' and wakizashi) becoming more of a symbolic emblem of power rather than a weapon used in daily life. They still had the legal right to cut down any commoner who did not show proper respect, but to what extent this right was used is unknown. When the central government forced daimyos to cut the size of their armies, unemployed ronin became a social problem.
Theoretical obligations between a samurai and his lord (usually a daimyo) increased from the Genpei era to the Edo era. They were strongly emphasized by the teachings of Confucius and Mencius (ca 550 B.C.) which were required reading for the educated samurai class. During the Edo period, after the general end of hostilities, the code of Bushido was formalized. It is important to note that bushido was an ideal, but that it remained uniform from the 13th century to the 19th century - the ideals of Bushido transcended social class, time and geographic location of the warrior class.
Bushido was formalized by many samurai in this time of peace in much the same fashion as chivalry was formalized after knights as a warrior class became obsolete in Europe. The conduct of samurai became a favorable model of a citizen in Edo, with formalities being emphasized. With time on their hands, samurai spent more time in pursuit of other interests such as becoming scholars.
Bushido still survives in present-day Japanese society, as do many other aspects of the samurai's way of life.
[sửa] Thời kỳ phục hưng Minh Trị
By this time, the Way of Death and Desperateness had been eclipsed by a rude awakening in 1853, when Commodore Matthew Perry's massive steamships from the US Navy first imposed broader commerce on the once-dominant national policy of isolationism. Prior to that only a few harbor towns, under strict control from the Shogunate, were able to participate in Western trade, and even then, it was based largely on the idea of playing the Franciscans and Dominicans off against one another (in exchange for the crucial arquebus technology, which in turn was a major contributor to the downfall of the classical samurai).
The last showing of the original samurai was in 1867 when samurai from Chōshū and Satsuma provinces defeated the Shogunate forces in favor of the rule of the emperor. The two provinces were the lands of the daimyo that submitted to Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara (1600).
Other sources claim that the last samurai conflict was in 1877, during the Satsuma Rebellion in the Battle of Shiroyama. This conflict had its genesis in the previous uprising to defeat the Tokugawa Shogunate, leading to the Meiji Restoration. The newly formed government instituted radical changes, aimed at reducing the power of the feudal domains, including Satsuma, and the dissolution of samurai status. This lead to the ultimately premature uprising, lead by Saigō Takamori.
Emperor Meiji abolished the samurai's right to be the only armed force in favor of a more modern, western-style, conscripted army. Samurai became Shizoku (士族) who retained some of their salaries, but the right to wear a katana in public was eventually abolished along with the right to cut down commoners who paid them disrespect. The samurai finally came to an end after hundreds of years of enjoyment of their status, their powers, and their ability to shape the government of Japan. However, the rule of the state by the military class was not yet over.
[sửa] Sau thời Minh Trị
In defining how a modern Japan should be, members of the Meiji government decided to follow the footsteps of United Kingdom and Germany, basing the country on the concept of "noblesse oblige" and samurai would not be a political force much like that of Prussia.
With the Meiji reforms in the late 19th century, the samurai class was abolished, and a western-style national army was established. The Imperial Japanese Armies were conscripted, but many samurai volunteered to be soldiers and many advanced to be trained as officers. Much of the Imperial Army officer class was of samurai origin and they were highly motivated, disciplined and exceptionally trained.
Many early exchange students were samurai, not directly because they were samurai, but because many samurai were literate and well-educated scholars. Some of these exchange students started private schools for higher educations, while many samurai took pens instead of guns and became reporters and writers, setting up newspaper companies. Other samurai entered governmental services as they were literate and well educated.
[sửa] Western samurai
The English sailor and adventurer William Adams (1564-1620) seems to have been the first foreigner to receive the dignity of samurai. The Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu presented him with two swords representing the authority of a samurai, and decreed that William Adams the pilot was dead and that Miura Anjin (三浦按針), a samurai, was born. Adams also received the title of hatamoto (bannerman), a high-prestige position as a direct retainer in the Shogun's court. He was provided with generous revenues: "For the services that I have done and do daily, being employed in the Emperor's service, the emperor has given me a living" (Letters). He was granted a fief in Hemi (Jp: 逸見) within the boundaries of present-day Yokosuka City, "with eighty or ninety husbandmen, that be my slaves or servants" (Letters). His estate was valued at 250 koku (measure of the income of the land in rice equal to about five bushels). He finally wrote "God hath provided for me after my great misery" (Letters) by which he meant the disaster ridden voyage that had initially brought him to Japan.
Also, during the Boshin War (1868-1869), French soldiers joined the forces of the Shogun against the Southern Daimyos favorable to the restoration of the Meiji emperor. It is recorded that the French Navy officer Eugène Collache fought in samurai attire with his Japanese brother-in-arms.
[sửa] Văn hoá
As de facto aristocrats for centuries, samurai developed their own cultures that influenced Japanese culture as a whole.
[sửa] Giáo dục
A samurai was expected to read and write, as well as to know some mathematics. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a great samurai yet originally a peasant, could only read and write in hiragana and this was a significant drawback for him. Samurai were expected, though not required, to have interests in other arts such as dancing, Go, literature, poetry, and tea. Ōta Dōkan who first ruled Edo wrote how he was shamed to realize that even a commoner had more knowledge of poetry than he, and this made him abdicate.
[sửa] Shudō
Shudō (衆道), the tradition of love bonds between a seasoned and a novice samurai was held to be "the flower of the samurai spirit" and formed the real basis of the samurai esthetic. It was analogous to the educational Greek pederasty and an honored and important practice in samurai society. It was one of the main ways in which the ethos and the skills of the samurai tradition were passed down from one generation to another.
Another name for the bonds was bidō (美道: the beautiful way). The devotion that two samurai would have for each other would be almost as great as that which they had for their daimyo. Indeed, according to contemporary accounts, the choice between his lover and his master could become a philosophical problem for samurai. Hagakure and other samurai manuals gave specific instructions in the way that this tradition was to be carried out and respected. After the Meiji Restoration and the introduction of a more westernised lifestyle, as bushidō died out the masculine esthetic was replaced by the European feminine one, bringing with it the end of shudo. (Watanabe and Iwata, 1989)
[sửa] Names
A samurai was usually named by combining one kanji from his father or grandfather and one new kanji. Samurai normally used only a small part of their total name.
For example, the full name of Oda Nobunaga would be called "Oda Kazusanosuke Saburo Nobunaga" (織田上総介三郎信長), in which "Oda" is a clan or family name, "Kazusanosuke" is a title of vice-governor of Kazusa province, "Saburo" is a name before genpuku, a coming of age ceremony, and "Nobunaga" is an adult name. Samurai got to pick their own last names.
[sửa] Marriage
The marriage of samurai was done by having a marriage arranged by someone with the same or higher rank than those being married. While for those samurai in the upper ranks this was a necessity (as most had few opportunities to meet a female), this was a formality for lower ranked samurai. Most samurai married women from a samurai family, but for a lower ranked samurai marriages with commoners were permitted. In these marriages a dowry was brought by the woman and was used to start their new lives.
A samurai could have a mistress but her background was strictly checked by higher ranked samurai. In many cases, this was treated like a marriage. "Kidnapping" a mistress, although common in fiction, would have been shameful, if not a crime. When she was a commoner, a messenger would be sent with betrothal money or a note for exemption of tax to ask for her parent's acceptance and many parents gladly accepted. If a samurai's wife gave birth to a son he could be a samurai.
A samurai could divorce his wife for a variety of reasons with approval from a superior, but divorce was, while not entirely nonexistent, a rare event. A reason for divorce would be if she could not produce a son, but then adoption could be arranged as an alternative to divorce. A samurai could divorce for personal reasons, even if he simply did not like his wife, but this was generally avoided as it would embarrass the samurai who had arranged the marriage. A woman could also arrange a divorce, although it would generally take the form of the samurai divorcing her. After a divorce samurai had to return the betrothal money, which often prevented divorces. Some rich merchants had their daughters marry samurai to erase a samurai's debt and advance their positions.
A samurai's wife would be dishonored and allowed to commit jigai (a female's seppuku) if she were cast off.
[sửa] Triết học
The philosophies of Buddhism and Zen, and to a lesser extent Confucianism, influenced the samurai culture as well as Shinto. Zen meditation became an important teaching due to it offering a process to calm one's mind. The Buddhist concept of reincarnation and rebirth led samurai to abandon torture and needless killing, while some samurai even gave up violence altogether and became Buddhist monks after realizing how fruitless their killings were. Some were killed as they came to terms with these realizations in the battlefield. The most defining role that Confucianism played in samurai philosophy was to stress the importance of the lord-retainer relationship; this is, the loyalty that a samurai was required to show his lord.
Bushido was a term attached to a samurai "code of conduct" enforced during Edo period by the Tokugawa Shogunate, so that they could control the samurai more easily. Its deceptive simplicity led to countless arguments over its interpretation. Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai by Yamamoto Tsunetomo is a manual of instruction into the way of the samurai. Even as it was published, it received a number of reviews that criticized its strict and impersonal interpretations. If the lord is wrong, for example if he ordered a massacre of civilians, should he observe loyalty to massacre as ordered or should he observe rectitude to let the civilians escape unharmed? If a man had sick parents but committed an unforgivable mistake, should he protect his honour by committing seppuku or should he show courage by living with dishonor and care for his parents?
The incident of 47 Ronin caused debates about the righteousness of the samurai's actions and how bushido should be applied. They had defied the shogun by taking matters into their own hands but it was an act of loyalty and rectitude as well. Finally, their acts were agreed to be rectitude but not loyalty to the shogun. This made them criminals with conscience and eligible for seppuku.
[sửa] Phụ nữ của vũ sĩ
Maintaining the household, or ie, was the main duty of samurai women. This was especially crucial during early feudal Japan, when warrior husbands were often traveling abroad or engaged in clan battles. The wife, or okusan (meaning: one who remains in the home), was left to manage all household affairs, care for the children, and perhaps even defend the home forcibly. For this reason, many women of the samurai class were trained in wielding a polearm called a naginata, which they could use to protect their household, family, and honor if the need arose.
Traits valued in women of the samurai class were humility, obedience, self-control, strength, and loyalty. Ideally, a samurai wife would be skilled at managing property, keeping records, dealing with financial matters, educating the children (and perhaps servants, too), and caring for elderly parents or in-laws that may be living under her roof. Confucian law, which helped define personal relationships and the code of ethics of the warrior class required that a woman show subservience to her husband, filial piety to her parents, and care to the children. Too much love and affection was also said to indulge and spoil the youngsters. Thus, a woman was also to exercise discipline.
Though women of wealthier samurai families enjoyed perks of their elevated position in society, such as avoiding the physical labor that those of lower classes often engaged in, they were still viewed as far beneath men. Women were prohibited from engaging in any political affairs and usually not the heads of their household.
As the Tokugawa period progressed more value became placed on education, and the education of females beginning at a young age became important to families and society as a whole. Marriage criteria began to weigh intelligence and education as desirable attributes in a wife, right along with physical attractiveness. Though many of the texts written for women during the Tokugawa period only pertained to how a woman could become a successful wife and household manager, there were those that undertook the challenge of learning to read Chinese, and also tackled philosophical and literary classics. Nearly all female samurai were literate by the end of the Tokugawa period.
[sửa] Vũ khí
The samurai used various weapons, but the katana is the weapon that is synonymous with samurai. Bushido taught that a samurai's soul is their katana and sometimes a samurai is pictured as entirely dependent on the katana for fighting. They believe that the katana was so precious that they often gave them names and considered them as part of the living. This contrasted with the swords and crossbows of Europe at the same time which were, principally, tools for combat. However the use of swords did not become common in battle until the Kamakura period (1185-1333), where the tachi and uchigatana (the predecessor to the katana) became prevalent. The katana itself did not become the primary weapon until the Edo period.
After a male child of the bushi was born, he would receive his first sword in a ceremony called mamori-gatana at. The sword, however, was merely a charm sword covered with brocade to which was attached a purse or wallet, worn by children under five. Upon reaching the age of thirteen, in a ceremony called Genbuku (元服), a male child was given his first real swords and armour, an adult name, and became a samurai. A katana and a wakizashi together are called a daisho (lit. "big and small").
The wakizashi itself was a samurai's "honour blade" and purportedly never left the samurai's side. He would sleep with it under his pillow and it would be taken with him when he entered a house and had to leave his main weapons outside.
The Tanto was a small dagger sometimes worn with or instead ofthe Wakizashi in a daisho. The tanto or the wakizashi was used to commit seppuku, a ritualized suicide.
The samurai stressed skill with the yumi (longbow), reflected in the art of kyudo(lit. the way of the bow). The bow would remain a critical component of the Japanese military even with the introduction of firearms during the Sengoku Jidai period. The yumi, an asymmetric composite bow made from bamboo, wood, rattan and leather, was not as powerful as the Eurasian reflex composite bow, having an effective range of 50 metres or less (100 metres if accuracy was not an issue). It was usually used on foot behind a tedate (手盾), a large and mobile bamboo wall, but shorter versions (hankyu) could also be used from horseback. The practice of shooting from horseback became a Shinto ceremony of Yabusame (流鏑馬).
In the 15th century, the yari (spear) also became a popular weapon, displacing along with the naginata from the battlefield as personal bravery became less of a factor and battles became more organized around massed, inexpensive foot troops ashigaru. A charge, mounted or dismounted, was more effective when using a spear than a katana and it offered better than even odds against a samurai using a katana. In the Battle of Shizugatake where Shibata Katsuie was defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, then known as Hashiba Hideyoshi, the Seven Spearmen of Shizugatake (賤ヶ岳七本槍) played a crucial role in the victory.
The latter half of the 16th Century saw the introduction of the teppo or arquebus in Japan through Portuguese trade, enabling warlords to raise effective armies from masses of peasants. The new weapons were highly controversial. Their ease of use and deadly effectiveness was perceived by many as a dishonorable affront to Bushido tradition. Oda Nobunaga made deadly use of the teppo at the Battle of Nagashino in 1575, leading to the end of the Takeda clan. After their initial introduction by the Portuguese and the Dutch, the teppo, were produced on a large scale by Japanese gunsmiths. By the end of the 16th Century, there were more firearms in Japan than in any European nation, with largely superior craftsmanship. Teppo, employed en masse largely by ashigaru peasant foot troops were in many ways the antithesis of samurai valor. With the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate and an end to civil war, production of the guns declined sharply with prohibitions to ownership. By the Tokugawa Shogunate most spear-based weapons had been phased out partly because they were suboptimal for the close-quarter combat common in the Edo period, this combined with the aforementioned restrictions on fire-arms resulted in the Daisho being the only weapons typically carried by samurai. In the 1570s cannon became a common part of the samurai's armory. they often were mounted in castles or on ships being used more as anti-personnel weapons though in the siege of Nagashino castle (1575) a cannon was used to good effect against a enemy siege-tower. The first popular cannon in Japan were swivel-breech loaders nick-named kunikuzushi or destroyer of provences. Kunikuzushi weighed 264lbs and used 40lb chambers, they fired a small shot of 10oz. The Arima clan of Kyushu used guns like this at the battle of Okinawate against the Ryozoji clan. By the time of the Osaka campaign (1614-1615) cannon technology had improved in Japan. At Osaka Ii Naotaka managed to fire an 18lb shot into the castle's keep!
Some other weapons used by samurai were jo, bo, grenade, Chinese trebuchets (more as an anti-personnel weapon than a siege engine) and cannon (infrequently and at great expense).
[sửa] Etymology of samurai and related words

The term Samurai originally meant "those who serve in close attendance to nobility", and was written in the Chinese character (or kanji) that had the same meaning. In Japanese, it was originally pronounced in the pre-Heian period as saburapi and later as saburai, then samurai in the Edo period. In Japanese literature, there is an early reference to samurai in the Kokinshu (古今集, early 10th century):
- Attendant to your nobility
- Ask for your master's umbrella
- The dews 'neath the trees of Miyagino
- Are thicker than rain
- (poem 1091)
The word bushi (武士, lit. "warrior or armsman") first appears in an early history of Japan called Shoku Nihongi (続日本記, 797 A.D.). In a portion of the book covering the year 723 A.D., Shoku Nihongi states: "Literary men and Warriors are they whom the nation values". The term bushi is of Chinese origin and adds to the indigenous Japanese words for warrior: Tsuwamono and Mononofu. The terms bushi and samurai became synonymous near the end of the 12th century, according to William Scott Wilson in his book Ideals of the Samurai--Writings of Japanese Warriors. Wilson's book thoroughly explores the origins of the word warrior in Japanese history as well as the Kanji (Chinese symbols) used to represent the word. Wilson states that Bushi actually translates as "a man who has the ability to keep the peace, either by literary or military means, but predominantly by the latter".
It was not until the early modern period, namely the Azuchi-Momoyama period and early Edo period of the late 16th and early 17th centuries that the word saburai was replaced with samurai. However, the meaning had changed long before that.

During the era of the rule of the samurai, the term yumitori (弓取, "bowman") was also used as an honorary title of an accomplished warrior even though swordsmanship had become more important. (Japanese archery (kyujutsu) is still strongly associated with the war god Hachiman.)
A samurai with no attachment to a clan or daimyo (大名) was called a ronin (浪人). In Japanese, the word ronin means "wave man", a person destined to wander aimlessly forever, like the waves in the sea. The word came to mean a samurai who was no longer in the service of a lord because his lord had died, because the samurai had been banished or simply because the samurai chose to become a ronin.
The pay of Samurai was measured in koku of rice (180 liters; enough to feed a man for one year). Samurai in the service of the han are called hanshi.
The following terms are related to samurai or the samurai tradition:
- Uruwashii
a cultured warrior symbolized by the kanji for "bun" (literary study) and "bu" (military study or arts) - Buke (武家)
A martial house or a member of such a house - Mononofu (もののふ)
An ancient term meaning a warrior. - Musha (武者)
A shortened form of Bugeisha (武芸者), lit. martial art man. - Shi (士)
A word roughly meaning "gentleman," it is sometimes used for samurai, in particular in words such as bushi (武士, meaning warrior or samurai). - Tsuwamono (兵)
An old term for a soldier popularized by Matsuo Basho in his famous haiku. Literally meaning a strong person.
[sửa] Huyền thoại và sự thật
Most samurai (during the Edo period) were bound by a strict code of honor called Bushido (武士道 Bushidō?), and were expected to set an example for those below them. A notable part of the Bushido code is seppuku (切腹 seppuku?), which allowed a disgraced samurai to regain his honor by passing into death, where samurai were still beholden to the rules of Bushido. However, the Bushido code was written in peace-time and it may not truly reflect the samurai's character as a warrior. Whilst there are many romanticised characterisations of samurai behaviour, studies of Kobudo and traditional Budo indicate that the samurai were as practical on the battlefield as any other warrior.
Despite the Bushido, in practice, samurai could be disloyal and treacherous (e.g., Akechi Mitsuhide), cowardly, brave, or overly loyal (e.g., Kusunoki Masashige). Samurai were usually loyal to their immediate superiors, who in turn allied themselves with higher lords. These loyalties to the higher lords often shifted; for example, the high lords allied under Toyotomi Hideyoshi (豊臣秀吉) were served by loyal samurai, but the feudal lords under them could shift their support to Tokugawa, taking their samurai with them. There were, however, also notable instances where samurai would be disloyal to their lord or daimyo, when loyalty to the emperor was seen to have supremacy.[3]
A legendary ability was the Duel of Wills, a psychological technique to test an enemy's mental strength without having to engage in actual fighting. Both combatants (who must be, as samurai, of equal status) lock eyes and remain staring at each other in silence and without moving a muscle, until one of the opponents yields (though there are stories of - rare - instances in which both opponents relent simultaneously).
[sửa] Samurai lừng danh
- Yukimura Sanada
- Date Masamune
- Akechi Mitsuhide
- Miyamoto Musashi
- Uesugi Kenshin
- Takeda Shingen
- Minamoto Yoshiie
[sửa] Xem thêm
Tiêu bản:Wikisourcepar
- Knight
- Iki
- Kendo
- Kiri sute gomen
- Le Samouraï
- Onna bugei-sha
- List of samurai
- Minamoto clan
- Shinsengumi
- Miyamoto Musashi
- Seiwa Genji
- Taira clan
- Takeda Shingen
- Tanka o kiru
- Blade of the Immortal
[sửa] Chú thích
- ▲ 1,0 1,1 1,2 William Wayne Farris, Heavenly Warriors - The Evolution of Japan's Military, 500-1300, Harvard University Press, 1995.
- ▲ A History of Japan, Vol. 3, George Samson, Tuttle Publishing, 2000.
- ▲ Mark Ravina, The Last Samurai - The Life and Battles of Saigō Takamori, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
[sửa] Phim về Samurai
- The Hidden Fortress
- The Seven Samurai
- Sanjuro
- Ran
- Twilight Samurai
- Yojimbo
- The Last Samurai
- Samurai Trilogy
- When the Last Sword Is Drawn
- Kagemusha
- Sword of Doom
- Aragami
- Samurai Fiction
- Yojimbo
[sửa] Liên kết ngoài
- SengokuDaimyo.com The website of Samurai Author and Historian
- Anthony J. Bryant
- Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai online
- The Samurai Archives Japanese History page
- The God of Samurai