Kullanıcı:Erdall/Burhanizm
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Burkhanism or Ak Jang is a new religious movement that flourished among the indigenous people of Russia's Gorno Altai region (okrug) between 1904 and the 1930s. Czarist Russia was suspicious of the movement's potential to stir up native unrest and perhaps involve outside powers. The Soviet authorities ultimately suppressed it for fear of its potential to unify Siberian Turkic speakers under a common nationalism.
Originally millenarian, charismatic and anti-shamanic, the Burkhanist movement gradually lost most of these qualities--becoming increasingly routine, institutionalized (around a hierarchy of oral epic singers), and accommodating itself to the pre-existing Altaian folk religion. It exists today in several revival forms.
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[değiştir] Origins of the name
One of the Burkhanist deities is Ak-Burkhan, or "White Burkhan." Although "Burkhan" means "Buddha" in several Turkic and Mongolic languages, Burkhanism was not Buddhist, and Ak-Burkhan was not a Buddha. One of a number of deities worshipped by Burkhanism (see list below), Ak-Burkhan nevertheless provided the name of the religion in Russian, and thence into other languages.
Burkhanism is the usual English-language scholarly name.
The Altaian name for the religion is Ak Jang ("White Faith"). "White" refers to its emphasis on the upper world (in the three-world cosmology of the Turks and Mongols). Alternately, the name may also allude to Ak Jang's rejection of animal sacrifices in favor of offerings of horse-milk or horse-milk alcohol. "Jang" means a set of laws or customs--i.e. a "way of doing things"--and is used of religions as well as political systems.
[değiştir] Early History
In April, 1904 Chet Chelpan (or, Chot Chelpanov) and his adopted daughter Chugul Sarok Chandyk reported visions of a rider dressed in white, and riding a white horse. This figure, whom they called Ak-Burkhan ("White Burkhan"), announced the imminent arrival of the mythical messianic hero Oirat Khan. Chet and Chugul gathered thousands of Altaians for prayer meetings, initially in the Tereng Valley. These were violently suppressed by mobs of Russians. Chet and Chugul were arrested, then released in 1906, after the faith was shown to be no threat to the czarist government.
Researcher Andrei A. Znamenski (see article below) compares the Burkanist movement to other indigenous revitalizing movements around the world, such as the Native American Ghost Dance or the Melanesian Cargo Cult. In this case, he says, the prime motivating factor was Altaians' fear of displacement by Russian colonists, Russification, and / or subjection to taxation and conscription on the same basis as Russian peasants.
Andrei Vinogradov (thesis linked below) sees Burkhanism as a typical nomadic Turko-Mongolian mobilization pattern--aiming to link families and clans (seok) into a steppe empire (which in this case never materialized). The Burkhanists' veneration of heroes from oral epics, he says, serves much the same cultural centralizing function as the veneration of other divine heroes such as Gesar, Manas, or Genghis Khan. As such it constitutes a major aspect of Turko-Mongolic religion, distinct from shamanism.
After the arrest of Chet and Chugul, Tyryi Akemchi arose to become the most prominent iarlikchi, and helped organize the movement. Having been exposed to Buddhism through his years as a translator in Mongolia, Tyryi added a number of Buddhist trappings to Burkhanist ritual, such as bells. Within a decade, most of the Altaian population had joined the new faith.
In 1918 Gregorii Choros-Gurkin and other Altaian leaders declared the formation of something called the "Karakorum Regional Committee" (Karakorumkaia Okruzhnaia Uprava), with the object of establishing an "Oirat Republic". This was intended to include not only Altai but also neighboring Turkic republics of Tuva and Khakassia. It was forcibly dissolved with arrival of Bolshevik power in 1921.
[değiştir] Deities
Burkhanism accepts the "three worlds" of Mongolic and Turkic tradition. (These are the upper, middle, and lower worlds--in other words heaven, earth, and the underworld.) However, it rejects worship of traditional deities associated with the underworld. In addition, it imports into cultic worship many figures from Altaian oral epic lore, which were not worshipped in the "shamanic" part of the Altaian religion.
Uch Kurbustan--"Uch" means "three," while "Kurbustan" comes from the Soghdian "Khormazta" (and thence from the Avestan "Ahura Mazda"). Thus, a triune God. Though imported from oral epics, Uch Kurbustan is a generalized spirit rather than a hero of stories with a personality. He may be analogous with the Turko-Mongolian High God Tengri ("Heaven").
Rather than an import from Buddhism, Christianity, or Turkic Islam, this particular trinity is likely to have been inspired by other triune gods and heroes from Turkic culture (sometimes in the form of a god with three sons). Uch Kurbustan is connected with the following three messianic heroes, also from Altaian oral epic lore:
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- Oirat or Galden-Oirat--mythological ancestor of the Western Mongols. A conflation / dim historical memory of a number of real-life Western Mongolian leaders from around the seventeenth century.
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- Amyrsana--a legendary Oirat chieftain who fled Chinese territory for Russian after the 1756 Ching destruction of Jungaria.
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- Shunu ("Wolf")--the Altaian version of Ashina, the totemic lupine ancestor recognized by various Turkic peoples.
The gods of the upper world, or aru tos ("pure ancestors"), are considered fragments or eminations of Uch Kurbustan. Burkhanism calls these Burkhans. Among them are:
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- Ak-Burkhan ("White Burkhan)--depicted as an old man with white hair, a white coat, and white headgear, who rides a white horse. Possibly analogous to the Mongolian "white old man," Tsagan Ebugen. A symbol of good fortune.
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- Jajyk--a formless spirit-mediator, assists with human-divine communication. Vinogradov compares with the Holy Spirit. Altaians distinguished between an Ak-Jajyk ("White Jajyk") who carried messages to the gods of the upper world, and a Sary-Jajyk ("Yellow Jajyk") who did the same for gods of the middle world, and is identified with the hearth.
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- Umai--the goddess of childbirth and children. Other Turkic lore--but not the Altaian--makes her the consort of the High God Tengri, and thus a primordial mother figure.
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- Ot-ene, the "Mother of Fire"--worshipped before every sacrifice, but especially during one of the three major Burkhanist festivals
Gods of the "middle world"--i.e. the familiar spheres of nature and human affairs--include numerous local spirits, such as spirits associated with mountains (taika-eezi) or springs (arzhans), or "masters of the game". They may also be associated with particular clans (seok). More generalized ones include:
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- Altai-eezi, the "Master of Altai"--a sort of genius loci, suitably adapted for an Altaian national consciousness.
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- Ul'gan--a spiritual ancestor of several Altaian clans. Originally a proper name, now generalized. Some sources describe Ul'gan as the creator of the universe in Burkhanist theology; this is probably a misunderstanding.
Historically, Burkhanism rejected the traditional gods of the underworld, notably Erlik (Yerlik), its chief. This rejection is closely related to Burkhanism's rejection of Altaian shamanism, and corresponding elevation of oral epic singers (iarlikchi). (By "shaman" is here meant manjaktu kams, i.e. the "costume-wearing" specialists who communicate with the underworld gods.) Both rejections are likely to have been inspired by oral epic lore, which regularly features shamans as villains.
[değiştir] Practices
- Burning juniper (archyn) for blessing, purification, or healing
- Home or hilltop altars (kure or murgul), with candles and milk-offerings
- Erecting of cairns (oboo)
- Recitation / composition / patronage of oral epics
- Divination and weather-control
- Display of white and yellow ribbons or streamers (from trees or strings, or dangling from the back of one's headgear)
- Prayer while standing, with hands raised; or with prostrations
- Celebration of festivals:
- Shuten or Murgul--a semiannual (spring and fall) festival dedicated to Uch Kurbustan
- Chok or Jajyk Choktor--a fall festival dedicated to jajyks
- Ot Takyr--dedicated to Ot-Ene
Some sources speak of a list of "Twenty Commandments" for Burkhanism. The evidence for this is sparse. Alcohol and tobacco were proscribed in the early years.
Chugul came to be venerated as the main recipient of the original message. This was much less true of Chet, although both were addressed with honorific titles.
[değiştir] Famous Burkhanists
Grigorii Choros-Gurkin, a Soviet landscape artist and leader of the Karakorum Executive Committee.
[değiştir] Burkhanism today
Russian painter Nicholas Roerich and his wife Helena Roerich passed through Altai in 1926. Nicholas painted Oirat--Messenger of the White Burkhan based on his understanding of the movement.
(Note that the painting's title apparently gets the theology backward--it was rather White Burkhan who was the messenger for Oirat.) Followers of Agni Yoga, an esoteric movement founded by the Roerichs, have encouraged a recent revival of interest in Burkhanism among non-Altaians. At the same time they have insisted on a link with Tibetan Buddhism and a veneration of Mount Belukha, elements not found in traditional Burkhanism.
A number of Burkhanist revival organizations emerged during the 1990's, mostly as attempts to formulate or preserve an Altaian ethno-nationalist identity. To that end many of them have been persuaded to reconsider earlier Burkhanism's vexed relationship with shamanism and / or Buddhism. A list of movements follows, with the name of a founder or leading supporter in parenthesis. For more information see Agniezka Halemba's article (linked below).
- Ak Jang (Altaichy Sanashkin)
- Ak Sanaa (Dzhana Alekseeva)
- Teneri (Nina Antonova and Danil Mamyev)
- Ak Suus (Nikolai Shodoev)
- Ak Jang (Sergei Kysnev)
- Agaru Jan (no single leader)
[değiştir] English-language sources
- Andrei Znamenski, "Power of Myth"
- David Johnson, "What Was and Is Burkhanism?"
- Andrei Vinogradov, "Ak Jang in the Context of Altai Religious Tradition"
- Agniezka Halemba, "Contemporary Religious Life in the Republic of Altai"
- Nikolai Shadoev, "Altai Biliks about the sky and Burkhans"
(Below:) Burkhanist prayer-flag, affixed to arrow
[değiştir] Prof. Dr. Sadettin GÖMEÇ
Kök Tengri dininin Türklere mahsus bir inanç olduðu Tanrý kelimesinden de anlaþýlmaktadýr. Bu kelime bütün Türk dillerinde olduðu gibi, Türkçeden birçok Asyalý kavmin diline de geçmiþtir. Eski Türkçedeki Tengri kelimesi bugünkü çeþitli Türk lehçelerinde, her lehçenin fonetik özelliklerine göre Tengri, tengere, tangrý, tangara, türe þekillerinde söylenir. Türkçenin asli kelimesi olan Tanrý’ya yazýlý kayýt olarak, en eski m.ö. 3. yüzyýlda rastlanmaktadýr. Hiç þüphesiz bundan öncede mevcut idi. Zamanýmýzdan 2500 yýl evvel, basta eski Yunanlýlarda olmak üzere ölümlü ve ölümsüz birçok tanrýnýn olduðunu görenler, Türklerde tek bir ilahin ve yaratýcý yerine geçen Tanrý kelimesinin varlýðýna inanmamýþlar ve bunu kabul edememiþlerdir. Çinlilerin Türklerden aldýðý kesin olan bu kelime eski kayýtlarda (m.ö. 5. yüzyýl) T’ien seklinde, Tanrý manasýna kullanýlmýþtýr. Yani Türkler Tanrý’yý dinlerinin en yüksek varlýðý olarak kullanmýþlardýr. Altaylý kamlar Tanrý’ya dua ederken "yüksekte bulunan büyük atamýz tengere, yaratýklarý yaratan tengere, yýldýzlarla dünyayý süsleyen tengere" diye hitap ederler. Eski Türkçede "gök" (sema) ve "en büyük yaratýcý" mefhumlarý tek bir kelimeyle ifade edilmiþtir. Ýslam dinini kabul eden Türkler ise gök kelimesini sema, tengri kelimesini de "Allah" mefhumuna tahsis ettiler. Eski Türkçede hava anlamýna gelen "kalýg", Ýslam’dan sonra "gök-sema" manasýna kullanýlmak istenmiþse de, tutunamayarak, sonralarý büsbütün unutulmuþtur. Tanrý kelimesi yerine Oðuzlarýn kullandýðý "çalap" terimi de yasama imkaný bulamadý. Günümüzde yasamaya çalýþan eski Türk dininin zaman ýslah edilmeye çalýþýldýðýný görmekteyiz. Son teþebbüs 20. yüzyýlýn basýnda Altay Daðlarýnda görüldü. Bu harekete dünya literatüründe Burhanizm denmektedir. Altay Türkleri ise Ak-Yang (Ak din) demiþlerdir. Bu hareket yalnýz bozulmuþ Þamanizm’e karþý deðil, Rus emperyalizmine karþý da bir baskaldýrý idi.
Burhanizmin kesin baþlangýç tarihi belli deðildir. Ancak bu inancýn Rus hükümeti tarafýndan ortaya çýkarýlmasý 1904 yýlýnýn baslarýna rastlar. Bu itikadýn temeli bozulmuþ, yani içerisine Budizm, Manihaizm ve sonra bazý semavi dinlerin karýþtýðý Türk dini ile Rus egemenliðine düþmanlýktýr. Burhanizmin belki ilk þeyhi diyebileceðimiz kiþi Altaylý bir Türk olan Çet-Çelpen’dir. Karýsý ile beraber, 14 yasýnda bir kýz evlatlýðý olan bu Türk Üst-kan kasabasýndan 20 km uzaklýkta bulunan bir ormanlýk bölgede yasýyor ve burada ibadet ediyordu. Yanýna gelenlere bu Ak-yang’ýn ilkelerini öðretiyor ve nasihatlerde bulunuyordu. Çet-Çelpen’in öðretisine göre, Ruslarla beraber yemek yemek, onlarla dost olmak yasaktý. Hatta Rus parasý bile kullanýlmamalýydý. 20. yüzyýlýn kamlarý Kök Tengri Dininin içine birçok akla ve mantýða sýðmayan hurafeler soktuklarý için onlar þeytan isleriyle uðraþýyorlardý. Onlarýn davullarýný, cübbelerini ve asalarýný ateþte yakarak gerçekleri görmeye zorlamak lazýmdý. Tanrýya hoþ kokulu otlarýn dumaný, süt, þarap ve kýmýz gibi saçýlar da kurban sayýlabilirdi. Eðer bu din etrafýnda birleþirlerse, Rus zulmünden de kurtulmak mümkün olacaktý.
Çet-Çelpen bütün vaazlarýný çok güzel bir hitabeti olan kýzý vasýtasýyla yapýyordu. Bu kýzý dinlemek için binlerce kiþinin toplandýðý oluyordu. Zamanla Çet-Çelpen’in on binlerce taraftarý oldu. Bu Rus hakimiyetinin Altaylarda tehlikeye girmesi demekti. 1904 temmuzunda binlerce Altay Türkü tören için Çet-Çelpen’in çadýrý etrafýnda toplanmýþlar, genç kýzýn ateþli nutkunu ve ilahilerini dinlerlerken, ibadetle meþgul bu silahsýz insanlar Rus askerleri tarafýndan baskýna uðradýlar. Çet-Çelpen, karisi, kýzý ve ileri gelen yirmi kadar müridi tutuklandý. Rus hükümeti Altaylý Burhanistlerin mallarýný ve mülklerini yaðmaladý. Çet-Çelpen ve arkadaþlarý aðýr ceza mahkemesinde yargýlandýlar. O zaman Rus Devlet Dumasý’nda bulunan bazý liberal görüþlü kiþiler ve avukatlar onlarýn savunmalarýný üstlendiler. Böylece ölüm cezasýndan kurtuldular. Ýki yýl sonra Çet-Çelpen Biysk hapishanesinde öldü. Burhanizm hareketi böylece sona ermiþ oldu.
Prof. Dr. Sadettin GÖMEÇ