Đế quốc Nhật Bản
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Đế Quốc Nhật Bản (tiếng Nhật: 大日本帝國; Hán-Việt: Đại Nhật Bản Đế Quốc) là thể chế của Nhật Bản từ 9 tháng 11 1867 đến 2 tháng 9 1945, khoảng thời gian bao gồm các thời kỳ lịch sử Meiji (Minh Trị) (明治時代), Taisho (Đại Chính) (大正時代) và Showa (Chiêu Hòa) (昭和時代 ). Những hoàng đế Nhật của giai đoạn này gồm có Mutsuhito, Yoshihito và Hirohito.
Những biến cố quan trọng của thời kỳ này :
- 9 tháng 11 1867 : Tái thiết lập ngôi vị của Hoàng Đế (大政奉還).
- 14 tháng 7 1871 : Hủy bỏ giai cấp lãnh chúa địa phương (廃藩置県).
- Nhật Bản phát triển nhanh chóng về mặt kỹ nghệ và quân sự, trở thành một cường quốc.
- Thế chiến thứ hai: đế quốc Nhật Bản tham chiến theo ký kết liên hiệp với khối Trục, xâm chiếm nhiều nước, lãnh thổ khắp châu Á và Thái Bình Dương. Ngày 2 tháng 9 1945, sau hai quả bom nguyên tử tại Hiroshima và Nagasaki, Nhật Bản đầu hàng khối Đồng Minh và chấm dứt thể chế đế quốc.
[sửa] Bối cảnh và Danh Hiệu
Theo hiến pháp, Đế Quốc Nhật khởi đầu từ 29 tháng 11 1890 - sau cuộc cải cách chính trị phục hưng đem quyền lực cai trị cả nước Nhật về tay hòang đế Minh Trị và giải thể hệ thống lãnh chúa Tokugawa. Tuy vậy, chính sách đế quốc bắt đầu trước đó, từ năm 1871, khi Nhật chú trọng việc bảo vệ lãnh thổ và đồng thời phát huy quân sự dòm ngó các nước láng giềng. Thời đại đế quốc kéo dài qua ba triều đại : Minh Trị (1867 - 1912), Đại Chính (1912 - 1926) và 21 năm đầu (1926 - 1947) của Chiêu Hòa (Hoàng đế Hirohito trị vì cho đến 1989).
Đế Quốc Nhật, Phát xít Ý và Đức Quốc Xã nằm trong khối Trục trong cuộc chiến thế giới thứ hai, cả ba đều có chủ trướng làm bá chủ toàn cầu. Trước cuộc chiến này, hải quân Nhật thuộc hạng mạnh nhất nhì thế giới, đủ sức đánh bại Nga và Trung Hoa. Sau năm 1940, khi kỹ nghệ phát triển vượt bực và quân lực tăng cường tối đa, Nhật bắt đầu đặt kế hoạch xâm lăng láng giềng - Trung Hoa, Đại Hàn và Đông Nam Á.
[sửa] Lịch sử
Cội nguồn của Đại Nhật Bản Đế Quốc có từ cuộc phục hồi quyền lực của hoàng đế vào thời Minh trị. Đây là một cuộc thay đổi chính trị rất lớn trong lịch sự Nhật. Trước đó, lãnh chúa Togukawa nắm mọi quyền hạn trong tay cai trị các đảo của Nhật bản, bế môn tỏa cảng, chú tâm trùng tu xây dựng văn hóa, nghệ thuật. Lúc bấy giờ, các thế lực đế quốc tây phương như Hoa Kỳ, Anh Quốc, Đức và Hà Lan đang nổ lực lấn chiếm các nước châu Á. Do sức ép của thay đổi bên ngoài, chính quyền Nhật Bản phải chịu ký hiệp ước "bất công" với Hoa Kỳ tại Kanagawa. Dân chúng Nhật lấy làm bất mãn khi thấy Nhật chịu yếu thế.
Fukuzawa Yukichi, một nhà tư tưởng Nhật, đưa ra kế hoạch cải tiến Nhật Bản bằng cách thay đổi hoàn toàn hệ thống chính trị, bỏ những tư tưởng Á châu hủ lậu, dồn sức canh tân kỹ nghệ để theo kịp tây phương, và đồng thời mở rộng tầm ảnh hưởng Nhật đối với các nước láng giềng. Fukuzawa Yukichi thúc đẩy Nhật Bản vào đường lối chính trị thực tiễn, xa rời những tư tưởng có tính chất tình cảm hay lý tưởng không thực. Ông kêu gọi dân Nhật thoát khỏi vòng suy nghĩ Á châu, học hỏi theo tây phương, biện minh rằng xã hội muốn theo kịp văn minh phải thay đổi theo thời gian và hoàn cảnh. Ông viết: "Văn minh lây giống như bệnh sởi. Nó còn hay hơn bệnh sởi vì nó đem lại nguồn lợi". Ông đòi hỏi dân Nhật phải ráng "nếm mùi văn minh" - đó là văn minh tây phương - và chấp nhận thay đổi. Fukuzawa Yukichi phát huy tinh thần tự tin, tự tạo sức mạnh thể chất và giáo dục của từng cá nhân. Trong vòng 30 năm, nước Nhật thay đổi nhanh chóng và trở thành một trong các đại cường quốc trên thế giới.
[sửa] Chính trị
[sửa] Hiến pháp
Hiến pháp đế quốc Nhật được ban hành năm 1889, chính thức trao nhiều quyền hạn chính trị vào tay thiên hoàng. Tuy nhiên cho đến 1936, từ Đại Nhật Bản Đế Quốc mới được chính thức sử dụng. Những từ khác để chỉ Nhật Bản lúc bấy giờ gồm có: 日本: Nhật Bản, 大日本: "Đại Nhật Bản", 日本國: "Nhật Bản Quốc", 日本帝國: "Nhật Bản Đế Quốc".
Trong bản thảo hiến pháp 1946, một năm sau khi đầu hàng, Nhật Bản thiết lập hệ thống chính trị và tên hiệu của nước trở thành: 日本国 :"Nhật Bản Quốc"
[sửa] Kinh tế
Trước Thế chiến thứ hai, Nhật Bản mở rộng vòng đai đế quốc, cai quản Đài Loan, Đại Hàn, Mãn Châu và vùng Bắc Trung Hoa. Nhật xem vòng đai này là một yếu tố quan trọng để bảo vệ quyền lợi và an ninh, đề phòng các thế lực bên ngoài chận khóa đường biển bóp nghẹt kinh tế của mình. Nhận thức được tài nguyên của mình hạn chế, Nhật ra sức vơ vét tài nguyên từ các thuộc địa để tăng cường quân lực và làm hậu thuẫn cho việc tiếp tục mở rộng lãnh thổ đế quốc.
Sau 1868, kinh tế Nhật Bản tiến triển qua hai giai đoạn. Giai đoạn đầu chú trọng phát triển nông nghiệp để cung cấp cho cải tiến kỹ nghệ. Trong cuộc chiến Nga-Nhật bắt đầu năm 1904, Nhật có 68% dân có việc làm và 38% tổng số sản xuất (GDP) vẫn từ nông nghiệp. Đến giai đoạn thứ nhì trong thập niên 1920 lượng sản xuất kỹ nghệ và mỏ khoáng lên đến 23% GDP so 21% của với sản xuất nông nghiệp. Kỹ thuật giao thông và liên lạc cũng phát triển nhanh để kịp mức tiến cũa kỹ nghệ.
[sửa] Quân sự

Vào thời điểm này, các gia tộc kỹ nghệ đại tư bản như Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo, Yasuda bắt đầu phát triển và nhận thức được sự cần thiết của nguyên liệu và tài nguyên mà Nhật không có sẵn. Quan niệm về xâm lăng nước láng giềng dần dần lớn mạnh với nhiều mục đích: tạo vòng đai quân sự bảo vệ an ninh lãnh thổ Nhật Bản, lấy tài nguyên phát triển kỹ nghệ và tạo thị trường tiêu thụ hàng Nhật.
Trong khi đó, các thế lực tây phương như Hoa Kỳ, Anh Quốc, Pháp cũng đang cố gắng bành trướng ảnh hưởng kinh tế vào châu Á - nhất là Trung Hoa. Nhận thấy nguy cơ thua kém các thế lực "mọi da trắng" ngay trên địa bàn của mình, Nhật Bản ra sức củng cố phát huy kỹ nghệ - đặc biệt là vũ khí quân sự và trong vòng vài năm tạo dựng được một lực lượng quân sự hùng mạnh.
Araki Sadao là một lãnh tụ khuynh hữu đảng quân phiệt Nhật, từng lãnh đạo Hội Hoạt Động Từ Thiện Đế Quốc (Kodaha) đối lập với Nhóm Kiểm Soát (Toseiha) của tướng Kazushige Ugaki. Ông gắn liền cổ học Nhật (võ sĩ đạo bushido) với chủ thuyết phát xít đang thịnh hành tại châu Âu, đưa đến phong trào hoạt động dưới dạng phát xít Nhật (Quốc Xã Showa).
Từ 1932, Nhật Bản lọt vào thế buộc phải đi đến chiến tranh theo hướng dẫn của Araki. Chủ nghĩa độc tài, quân phiệt và bành trướng được chấp nhận như lời giải duy nhất cho tình huống bấy giờ của Nhật Bản và ít có ai lên tiếng phản đối. Trong cuộc họp báo ngày 23 tháng 9 1932, Araki đưa ra khái niệm Kodoha (Đạo Đế Quốc), gắn liền Thiên Hoàng, người Nhật, đất Nhật và tinh thần Nhật vào một khối không thể tách rời. Từ đó nẩy ra một loại "giáo đạo" mới tôn sùng thiên hoàng trong lòng người Nhật.
Nước Nhật trở thành một công cụ phục vụ cho quân đội và Thiên Hoàng Nhật. Gươm Nhật (Katana) được đem ra làm phù hiệu cho lý tưởng đế quốc, súng Nambu được dùng để biểu hiện tinh thần cận chiến của quân đội Nhật.
Một mơ ước của giới quân phiệt cực hữu là làm sống lại hệ thống Mạc phủ khi xưa, nhưng dưới dạng quân trị hiện đại - nghĩa là Thiên Hoàng chỉ là long trọng viên và quyền hạng chỉ huy cả nước nằm trong tay lãnh tụ quân sự với danh nghĩa phụ chính - tương tự như chức Duce của Benito Mussolini ở Ý và quyền Führer Hitler ở Đức. Tuy nhiên một số nhà quân sự Nhật thời này ra sức ngăn cản lối suy nhĩ này, quyết giành quyền lực hoàn toàn vào tay thiên hoàng.
[sửa] Trước Thế Chiến I
[sửa] Chiến tranh Trung-Nhật lần thứ nhất
Prior to its engagement in the First World War, the Empire of Japan fought in two significant wars after its establishment following the Meiji Revolution. The first was the First Sino-Japanese War, fought between 1894 and 1895. The war revolved around the issue of control and influence over the Kingdom of Korea under the rule of the Joseon Dynasty. A peasant rebellion led to a request by the Korean government for China to send troops in to stabilize the region. The Empire of Japan responded by sending their own force to Korea and installing a puppet government in Seoul. China objected and war ensued. In a brief affair with Japanese ground troops routing Chinese forces on the Liaodong Peninsula, and the near destruction of the Chinese navy in the Battle of the Yalu River. China was forced to sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which ceded parts of Manchuria and the island of Formosa to Japan (see Taiwan under Japanese rule). It also established Japanese supremacy over China for the next fifty years.
[sửa] Chiến tranh Nga-Nhật
The Russo-Japanese War was a conflict for control of Korea and parts of Manchuria by the Russian Empire and Empire of Japan that took place from 1904 to 1905. The war is significant as the first modern war where an Asian country defeated a European power and greatly raised Japan's measure in the world of global politics. The war is marked by the Japanese rebuff of Russian interests in Korea, Manchuria, and China. Notably, the Liaodong Peninsula, controlled by the city of Port Arthur. Originally, in the Treaty of Shimonseki, Port Author had been given over to Japan.
This part of the treaty was over ruled by Western powers, which in turn gave the port to the Russian Empire, furthering Russian interests in the region. These interests came into conflict with Japanese interests. The war began with a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern fleet stationed at Port Arthur, which was followed by the Battle of Port Arthur. Those elements that attempted escape were defeated by the Japanese navy under Admiral Togo Heihachiro at the Battle of the Yellow Sea. A year later, the Russian Baltic fleet arrived only to be annihilated in the Battle of Tsushima. While the ground war did not fair as poorly for the Russians, the Japanese army was significantly more aggressive than their Russian counter-parts and gained a political advantage that accumulated with the Treaty of Portsmouth negotiated in the United States by the American president Theodore Roosevelt. As a result, Russia lost half of Sakhalin Island, as well as many mineral rights to Manchuria.
[sửa] Thế chiến I
Japan entered World War I in 1914, seizing the opportunity of Germany's distraction with the European War and wanting to expand its sphere of influence in China. Japan declared war on Germany in August 23, 1914 and quickly occupied German-leased territories in China's Shandong Province and the Mariana, Caroline, and Marshall Islands in the Pacific (then called German New Guinea). The Battle of Tsingtao, a swift invasion in the German colony of Jiaozhou (Kiautschou) proved successful and the colonial troops surrendered on November 7 1914.
With Japan's Western allies, notably the United Kingdom, heavily involved in the war in Europe, it sought further to consolidate its position in China by presenting the Twenty-One Demands to China in January 1915. Besides expanding its control over the German holdings, Manchuria, and Inner Mongolia, Japan also sought joint ownership of a major mining and metallurgical complex in central China, prohibitions on China's ceding or leasing any coastal areas to a third power, and miscellaneous other political, economic, and military controls, which, if achieved, would have reduced China to a Japanese protectorate. In the face of slow negotiations with the Chinese government, widespread anti-Japanese sentiments in China, and international condemnation, Japan withdrew the final group of demands, and treaties were signed in May 1915.
[sửa] Thế chiến II
Imperial Japan allied with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy militarily and had similar goals in their respective world regions with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy's expansion in Europe and Imperial Japan's expansion in Asia. This alliance was created to increase their military powers and cooperation in relation to other nations and was known as the Axis alliance.
After the unequal treaties were cancelled and as Imperial Japan got increasingly powerful militarily and started contesting territories of other nations such as China, Russia the Allies, especially United States and Great Britain, restricted their trade with Imperial Japan. The Axis alliance is also cited as Nazi Germany's desire to put pressure on Britain and United States and goes as a warning to US to remain neutral country in World War II or otherwise get involved in war from two opposite fronts - west and east. It is also cited as weapon exchange between the two nations through Africa and South Asia.
On September 4, 1941, the Japanese Cabinet met to consider the war plans prepared by Imperial General Headquarters, and decided that:
Our Empire, for the purpose of self-defence and self-preservation, will complete preparations for war ... [and is] ... resolved to go to war with the United States, Great Britain and the Netherlands if necessary. Our Empire will concurrently take all possible diplomatic measures vis-a-vis the United States and Great Britain, and thereby endeavor to obtain our objectives ... In the event that there is no prospect of our demands being met by the first ten days of October through the diplomatic negotiations mentioned above, we will immediately decide to commence hostilities against the United States, Britain and the Netherlands.
[sửa] Thành viên của khối Trục

Japan joined Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini as Axis Powers to "establish and maintain new order of things" and defend each other in case if one of the countries got attacked, which was the result of the Tripartite Pact and an alliance.
On December 31, 1940, Matsuoka Yosuke told a group of Jewish businessmen that he was "the man responsible for the alliance with Hitler, but nowhere have I promised that we would carry out his anti-Semitic policies in Japan. This is not simply my personal opinion, it is the opinion of Japan, and I have no compunction about announcing it to the world."
[sửa] Các cuộc xâm lăng
[sửa] Trung Quốc
Japan set its sights on China, Korea and other countries in Southeast Asia as a result of a critical lack of resources. Japan needed these resources to continue its rapid industrialization and development. After conquering some of the territories of these nations, it started contesting Russia's far-eastern territory and eventually began to invade eastern Mongolia.
Japan turned to a government form that was very similar to Fascism as a result of the Great Depression. Although this unique style of government was very similar to Fascism, there were many significant differences between the two and has therefore been termed Japanese nationalism.
Unlike the regimes of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, Japan had two economic goals in developing an empire. First, Japan's tightly controlled domestic military industry jump-started the nation's economy in the midst of the depression. Japan was forced to import raw materials such as iron, oil, and coal to maintain strong growth in the industrial sector due to the lack of natural resources on Japan's home islands. Most of these raw materials came from the United States. As a result of this military-industrial development scheme and the industrial growth of Japan, mercantilist theories prevailed. The Japanese felt that resource-rich colonies were needed to compete with European powers. Korea (1910) and Formosa (Taiwan 1895) had earlier been annexed primarily as agricultural colonies. In addition to Korea and Formosa, Japan primarily targeted Manchuria's iron and coal, Indochina's rubber, and China's agricultural resources.
Japan invaded China in 1937, creating what was essentially a three-way war between Japan, Mao Zedong's communists, and Chiang Kai-shek's nationalists. In that same year, the Nationalist capital of Nanking fell to Japanese troops. The event, known as the Nanking Massacre, happened in the winter of 1937 and it is estimated that nearly 300,000 people, almost entirely comprised of civilians, were killed.
[sửa] Mãn châu
With little resistance, Japan invaded and conquered Manchuria in 1931. Japan claimed that this invasion was a liberation of the Manchus from the Chinese, just as it had claimed that the annexation of Korea was an act of protection. Japan then established a puppet regime called Manchukuo, and established the former Emperor of China, Puyi, as the official head of state. Jehol, a Chinese territory bordering Manchuria, was also taken in 1933.
[sửa] Malaysia
The Battle of Malaya was a conflict between a Commonwealth army, comprised of British, Indian, Australian and Malays from the Federated Malay States forces, and the Japanese Imperial Army from December 8 1941 until January 31 1942 during the Second World War.
[sửa] Singapore
The Battle of Singapore was a battle fought in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II when Imperial Japan invaded the Allied stronghold of Singapore. The fighting in Singapore lasted from February 7, 1942 – February 15, 1942 and resulted in the fall of Singapore to the Japanese and the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history. About 80,000 Indian, Australian and British troops became prisoners of war, joining 50,000 taken in the Japanese invasion of Malaya.
[sửa] Myanmar
[sửa] Đông Ấn (thuộc Hà Lan)
[sửa] Mông Cổ
The incident began on 11 May 1939, when a Mongolian cavalry unit of some 70-90 men entered the disputed area in search of grazing for their horses, and encountered Manchukuoan cavalry who drove them out of the disputed territory. Two days later the Mongolian force returned and the Manchukoans were unable to evict them.
At this point the Japanese Kwantung Army became involved -- a reconnaissance unit under Lt. Col. Yaozo Azuma was sent to engage the Mongolians on 14 May, but they retreated west of the river with few losses. Joseph Stalin ordered STAVKA, the Red Army's high command, to develop a plan for a counterstrike against the Japanese. To lead the attack, Georgy Zhukov, a young officer of promise, was chosen.
[sửa] Philippines
Japan launched air raids on US military positions in Philippines following the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7th, 1941, and Japanese troops went ashore in the Philippines on December 10th, initiating the Battle of the Philippines. This battle, in turn, encompassed two other battles, the Battle of Bataan and the Battle of Corregidor. By January of 1942 General Douglas MacArthur and President Manuel Quezon were forced to flee in the face of Japanese advances. This marked among one of the worst defeats in American military history and left over 70,000 American and Filipino prisoners of war in the custody of the Japanese. Ten thousand of these prisoners later died on the Bataan Death March, known as Batān Shi no Kōshin in Japanese.
Imperial Japanese military rule lasted over two years. It was marked the resistance of several guerrilla armies and the incredible sufferings of the Philippine population.
The guerrilla forces were joined by General MacArthur and troops October 19th, 1944, and the Philippines campaign of 1944-45 was largely successful. Fighting ended with the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender, signed on September 2nd, 1945.
[sửa] Úc
The two Japanese air raids on Darwin, on February 19, 1942 were by far the biggest ever attack by a foreign power against the Australian mainland. They were also a significant action in the Pacific campaign of World War II and represented a major psychological blow to the Australian population, several weeks after hostilities with Japan had begun. The raids were the first of about 100 air raids against Australia during 1942-43.
This event is often called the "Pearl Harbor of Australia." Although it was a relatively less significant target, a greater number of bombs were dropped on Darwin than were used in the attack on Pearl Harbor. As was the case at Pearl Harbor, the Australian town was unprepared, and although it came under attack from the air another 63 times in 1942 and 1943, the raids on February 19 were massive and devastating by comparison.
[sửa] Pearl Harbor
The Imperial Japanese Navy made its surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941. The Pacific Fleet of the United States Navy and its defending Army Air Forces and Marine air forces sustained significant losses. The primary objective of the attack was to incapacitate the United States long enough for Japan to establish its long-planned Southeast Asian empire and defensible buffer zones. The U.S. public saw the attack as a treacherous act and rallied against the Empire of Japan, causing the United States to enter World War II on the side of the Allied powers.
[sửa] Tội ác chiến tranh
[sửa] Sook Ching
When the Japanese occupied Singapore, the Japanese military authorities became concerned about the local Chinese population. The Japanese Imperial Army had become aware that the ethnic Chinese had strong loyalties to either the United Kingdom or China, with wealthy Chinese financing Chiang Kai-Shek's effort in the Second Sino-Japanese War, after Japan had invaded China on July 1937, with other charity drives. The military authorities, led by General Tomoyuki Yamashita, decided on a policy of "eliminating" the anti-Japanese elements.
Soon after the fall of Singapore, Lieutenant Colonel Masayuki Oishi, commander of No. 2 Field Kempeitai, took over the offices of the Supreme Court building. Singapore was broken up into sectors, each placed under the control of a Kempeitai officer. The Japanese set up designated "screening centers" all over the colony. The blueprint was to gather and screen all Chinese males between 18 to 50 years old, and eliminate those thought to be anti-Japanese. The ones who passed the "screening" would receive a piece of paper with "Examined" written on it, or have a square ink mark on their arms and shirts. Those who did not pass the "screening" would be stamped with triangular marks. There were trucks near these screening centers to send those anti-Japanese elements to their deaths. The Japanese Army chose remote sites such as Changi, Punggol, Blakang Mati and Bedok to perform the executions, with the victims thrown overboard off boats or be machine-gunned to death off the harbour.
[sửa] Thảm sát Nam Kinh
The Nanking Massacre, commonly known as "The Rape of Nanking", refers to the most infamous of the war crimes committed by the Japanese military during World War II—acts carried out by Japanese troops in and around Nanjing (then known in English as Nanking), China, after it fell to the Imperial Japanese Army on December 13, 1937. The duration of the massacre is not clearly defined, although the period of carnage lasted well into the next six weeks, until early February 1938.
The extent of the atrocities is hotly debated, with numbers ranging from the claim of the Japanese army at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East that the death toll was military in nature and that "no such atrocities ever occurred", to the Chinese claim of a non-combatant death toll of 300,000. The West has generally tended to adopt the Chinese point-of-view, with many Western sources now quoting 300,000 dead. This is partly due to the commercial success of Iris Chang's "The Rape of Nanking", which set the stage for the debate of the issue in the West; and the existence of extensive photographic records of the mutilated bodies of women and children.
[sửa] Đơn vị 731
Unit 731 was a covert medical experiment unit of the Imperial Japanese Army, researching biological warfare through human experiments during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) and World War II. Disguised as a water purification unit, it was based in the Pingfang district of the northeast Chinese city of Harbin, part of the puppet state of Manchukuo. Unit 731 was officially known as the Kempeitai Political Department and Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory.
As many as ten thousand people, both civilian and military, of Chinese, Korean, Mongolian, and Soviet origin were subjects of experimentation by Unit 731. Some Allied prisoners of war also died at the hands of Unit 731. In addition, Unit 731's bio-weapons research resulted in tens of thousands of deaths in China – possibly as many as 200,000 casualties by some estimates.
Unit 731 was one of many units used by the Japanese to research biological warfare; other units include Unit 516 (Qiqihar), Unit 543 (Hailar), Unit 773 (Songo unit), Unit 100 (Changchun), Unit 1644 (Nanjing), Unit 1855 (Beijing), Unit 8604 (Guangzhou), Unit 200 (Manchuria) and Unit 9420 (Singapore).
Many of the scientists involved in Unit 731 went on to prominent careers in politics, academia and business. Some were arrested by Soviet forces and tried at the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials; others, who surrendered to the Americans, were granted amnesty in exchange for the data collected.
Because of their brutality, Unit 731's actions are considered war crimes.
[sửa] Đường đi đến chiến bại
[sửa] Những chiến bại quan trọng
Japanese military strategists were keenly aware of the unfavorable discrepancy between the industrial potential of the Japanese Empire and that of the United States. Because of this they reasoned that Japanese success hinged on their ability to extend the strategic advantage gained at Pearl Harbor with additional strategic victories. Only decisive destruction of the United States' Pacific Fleet and conquest of its remote outposts would insure that the Japanese Empire was not overwhelmed by America's industrial might. In May of 1942, failure to decisively defeat the Allies at the Battle of Coral Sea in spite of Japanese numerical superiority equated to a strategic defeat for Imperial Japan. This setback was followed in June of 1942 by the catastrophic loss of a four carrier task force at the Battle of Midway. Midway was a decisive defeat for the Imperial Japanese Navy, and proved the turning point for the war. Further defeats by the Allies at Guadalcanal in September of 1942, and New Guinea in 1943 put the Empire of Japan on defensive for the remainder of the war. By 1944 the Allies had seized or neutralized many of Japan's strategic bases through amphibious landings and bombardment. This, coupled with the losses inflicted by allied submarines on Japanese shipping routes began to strangle Japan's economy and undermine its ability to supply its army. By early 1945 the US Marines had wrested control of the Ogasawa Islands in several hard-fought battles such as the Battle of Iwo Jima, marking the beginning of the fall of the islands of Japan.
[sửa] Thần phong
During 1943-44, Allied forces, backed by the industrial might and rich resources of the United States, were advancing steadily towards Japan. Commander Asaiki Tamai asked a group of 23 talented student pilots, whom he had personally trained, to volunteer for the special attack force. All of the pilots raised both of their hands, thereby volunteering to join the operation. Later, Tamai asked Lieutenant Yukio Seki to command the special attack force. Seki is said to have closed his eyes, lowered his head and thought for ten seconds, before asking Tamai: "please let me do that." Seki thereby became the 24th kamikaze or suicide pilot to be chosen.
[sửa] Bom nguyên tử tại Hiroshima và Nagasaki
After securing airfields in Saipan and Guam in the summer of 1944, the United States undertook an aggressive campaign of carpet bombing Japanese cities in an effort to pulverize Japan's industry and shatter its morale. While these campaigns led to the deaths of hundreds of thousand of civilians they did not succeed in persuading the Japanese to surrender. In the Summer of 1945, The United States dropped two nuclear weapons on Japan at the end of the World War II. The atomic bombing was the first and last used against another nation in a time of war. These bombs killed around 100,000–200,000 people in a matter of minutes, and many more people died as a result of nuclear radiation in the following weeks, months, and years.
[sửa] Bại trận, Đầu hàng và thay đổi chính sách

Seven days after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Empire of Japan signed unconditional surrender and ended the war with the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration. Hirohito said:
Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is, indeed, incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives. Should We continue to fight, not only would it result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization. Such being the case, how are We to save the millions of Our subjects, or to atone Ourselves before the hallowed spirits of Our Imperial Ancestors? This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers.
He also said at the end of his sovereign reign that
The ties between Us and Our people have always stood upon mutual trust and affection and do not depend upon mere legends and myths. They are not predicated on the false conception that the Emperor is divine, and that the Japanese people are superior to other races and fated to rule the world.
Former Prime Minister Hideki Tojo also said after the defeat before being executed for war crimes:
It is natural that I should bear entire responsibility for the war in general, and, needless to say, I am prepared to do so. Consequently, now that the war has been lost, it is presumably necessary that I be judged so that the circumstances of the time can be clarified and the future peace of the world be assured. Therefore, with respect to my trial, it is my intention to speak frankly, according to my recollection, even though when the vanquished stands before the victor, who has over him the power of life and death, he may be apt to toady and flatter. I mean to pay considerable attention to this in my actions, and say to the end that what is true is true and what is false is false. To shade one's words in flattery to the point of untruthfulness would falsify the trial and do incalculable harm to the nation, and great care must be taken to avoid this.
[sửa] Những lãnh tụ chính trị nổi bật
In the administration of Japan dominated by the Army political movement during World War II,the civil central government was under the management of military men, right-wing civilian partidaires, amongst members of nobility and Imperial Family.
In first place was the Emperor, supreme Commander in Chief of Armed Imperial Forces, head of state and central government, and representative of the "Imperial Sun Lineage", State Shinto and worship national cult image, and chief of the Imperial Household.
The next political power center was represent by the Army party, like any political movement, had an inner structure. The highest placed were the secretary general and supreme party leader and their leading group or "directorate" (political cabinet) conformed by the most important founders and party associates. official doctrines came also from the middle and lower party members. Influence and contact with real power and central government institutions (and overseas also) was a constant concern.
Important institutional links were with the Government: national young association and the "political section" of the army military police. Amongst the secret societies, were close, and a source of loyal partidaires. The residents committee s groups, the national government trade union and local farmers association were all allied. The state religious and educational systems were also targets. Direct links with Imperial Armed forces political sections supported the formation of similar right-wing movements in all the occupied lands of the early Pacific War.
The Army political clique represented the principal right-wing political movement in the Empire of Japan from some point in the 1930s, emerging from a welter of similar groups and secret societies. In 1941, as a political party, it achieved the goal of real power. Its members led all political and military national efforts during the Pacific War.
[sửa] Quân đội Đế Quốc Nhật Bản
Military of Imperial Japan was the Imperial Japanese Military divided into two main branches under Imperial General Headquarters responsible for the overall conduct of operations including prominent military leaders and commanders:
- Prominent generals and leaders:
- Imperial Japanese Navy - Navy of Japan
- Admiral Count Sukeyuki Ito (1843-1914)
- Admiral Viscount Yoshika Inoue (1845-1929)
- Admiral Marquis Heihachiro Togo (1847-1934)
- Admiral Prince Takahito Arisugawa (1862-1913)
- Admiral Baron Goro Ijuin (1852-1921)
- Admiral Prince Yorihito Higashi-Fushimi (1867-1922)
- Admiral Baron Hayao Shimamura (1858-1923)
- Admiral Baron Tomozaburo Kato (1861-1923)
- Admiral Prince Hiroyasu Fushimi (1876-1946)
- Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (1884-1943) Battle of Midway, Attack on Pearl Harbor
- Admiral Osami Nagano (1880-1947)
- Admiral Mineichi Koga (1885-1944)
- Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo - Battle of Midway, Attack on Pearl Harbor
- Imperial Japanese Army - Army of Japan
- Iwane Matsui - Second Sino-Japanese War
- Tadamichi Kuribayashi - Battle of Iwo Jima
- Kuniaki Koiso - Prime Minister of Japan
- Hideki Tojo - Prime Minister of Japan
- Mitsuru Ushijima - Battle of Okinawa
- Imperial Japanese Navy - Navy of Japan
[sửa] Biến cố lịch sử
- 1926: Emperor Taisho dies (December 25).
- 1927: Tanaka Giichi becomes prime minister (April 20).
- 1928: Hirohito is formally installed as emperor (November 10).
- 1929: Hamaguchi Osachi becomes prime minister (July 2).
- 1930: Hamaguchi is wounded in an assassination attempt (November 14).
- 1931: Hamaguchi dies and Wakatsuki Reijiro becomes prime minister (April 14). Japan occupies Manchuria after the Mukden Incident (September 18). Inukai Tsuyoshi becomes prime minister (December 13) and increases funding for the military in China.
- 1932: After an attack on Japanese monks in Shanghai (January 18), Japanese forces shell the city (January 29). Manchukuo is established with Henry Pu Yi as emperor (February 29). Inukai is assassinated during a coup attempt and Saito Makoto becomes prime minister (May 15). Japan is censured by the League of Nations (December 7).
- 1933: Japan leaves the League of Nations (March 27).
- 1934: Okada Keisuke becomes prime minister (July 8). Japan withdraws from the Washington Naval Treaty (December 29).
- 1936: Coup attempt (February 26 Incident). Hirota Koki becomes prime minister (March 9). Japan signs its first pact with Germany (November 25) and occupies Tsingtao (December 3). Mengchiang established in Inner Mongolia.
- 1937: Hayashi Senjuro becomes prime minister (February 2). Prince Konoe Fumimaro becomes prime minister (June 4). Battle of Lugou Bridge (July 7). Japan captures Beijing (July 31). Japanese troops occupy Nanjing (December 13), beginning the Nanjing massacre.
- 1938: Battle of Taierzhuang (March 24). Canton falls to Japanese forces (October 21).
- 1939: Hiranuma Kiichiro becomes prime minister (January 5). Abe Nobuyuki becomes prime minister (August 30).
- 1940: Yonai Mitsumasa becomes prime minister (January 16). Konoe becomes prime minister for a second term (July 22). Hundred Regiments Offensive (August–September). Japan occupies Indochina in the wake of the fall of Paris, and signs the Tripartite Pact (September 27).
- 1941: General Tojo Hideki becomes prime minister (October 18). Japanese naval forces attack Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (December 7), prompting the United States to declare war on Japan (December 8). Japan conquers Hong Kong (December 25).
- 1942: Singapore surrenders to Japan (February 15). Japan bombs Australia (February 19). Doolittle Raid on Tokyo (April 18). Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4–8). U.S. and Filipino forces in the Battle of the Philippines (1942) surrender (May 8). Japan defeated at the Battle of Midway (June 6). Allied victory in the Battle of Milne Bay (September 5).
- 1943: Allied victory in Battle of Guadalcanal (February 9). Japan defeated at Battle of Tarawa (November 23).
- 1944: Tojo resigns and Koiso Kuniaki becomes prime minister (July 22).
- 1945: U.S. bombers begin firebombing of major Japanese cities. Japan defeated at Battle of Iwo Jima (March 26). Admiral Suzuki Kantaro becomes prime minister (April 7). Japan defeated at Battle of Okinawa (June 21). U.S. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9). Japan surrenders (August 14): Allied occupation begins.
[sửa] Nhật Hoàng
Tên húy sau khi chết1 | Tên hiệu2 | Tên gọi khi còn nhỏ3 | Trị vì | Thời đại4 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minh Trị Thiên Hoàng (明治天皇) |
Mutsuhito (睦仁) |
Sachi-no-miya (祐宮) |
1867-1912 (1890-1912)5 |
Minh Trị | |
Đại Chính Thiên Hoàng (大正天皇) |
Yoshihito (嘉仁) |
Haru-no-miya (明宮) |
1912-1926 | Đại Chính | |
Chiêu Hòa Thiên Hoàng (昭和天皇) |
Hirohito (裕仁) |
Michi-no-miya (迪宮) |
1926-1989 (1926-1947)6 |
Chiêu Hòa | |
1 Tên đặt theo thời đại trị vì. | |||||
2 Hoàng Đế Nhật Bản không có họ hay tên triều đại | |||||
3 Minh Trị Hoàng đế chỉ được gọi là Sachi-no-miya từ bé cho đến khi thừa kế Hoàng Đế Komei lên ngôi với tên hiệu Mutsuhito . | |||||
4 Sau Minh Trị Hoàng Đế, các triều đại khác không có tên riêng. | |||||
5 Theo hiến pháp. | |||||
6 Theo hiến pháp. Chiêu Hòa Hòang Đế tiếp tục cho đến 1989 vì không thoái vị sau thế chiến II. |